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"\n\nThe '''''Annales'' School''' () is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. It is named after its scholarly journal ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale'', which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs. The school has been highly influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social rather than political or diplomatic themes, and for being generally hostile to the class analysis of Marxist historiography.\n\nThe school deals primarily with late medieval and early modern Europe (before the French Revolution), with little interest in later topics. It has dominated French social history and influenced historiography in Europe and Latin America. Prominent leaders include co-founders Lucien Febvre (1878–1956), Henri Hauser (1866-1946) and Marc Bloch (1886–1944). The second generation was led by Fernand Braudel (1902–1985) and included Georges Duby (1919–1996), Pierre Goubert (1915–2012), Robert Mandrou (1921–1984), Pierre Chaunu (1923–2009), Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014), and Ernest Labrousse (1895–1988). Institutionally it is based on the ''Annales'' journal, the SEVPEN publishing house, the (FMSH), and especially the 6th Section of the École pratique des hautes études, all based in Paris. A third generation was led by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1929– ) and includes Jacques Revel, and Philippe Ariès (1914–1984), who joined the group in 1978. The third generation stressed history from the point of view of mentalities, or ''mentalités''. The fourth generation of Annales historians, led by Roger Chartier (1945– ), clearly distanced itself from the mentalities approach, replaced by the cultural and linguistic turn, which emphasize analysis of the social history of cultural practices.\n \nThe main scholarly outlet has been the journal ''Annales d'Histoire Economique et Sociale'' (\"Annals of economic and social history\"), founded in 1929 by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, which broke radically with traditional historiography by insisting on the importance of taking all levels of society into consideration and emphasized the collective nature of mentalities. Its contributors viewed events as less fundamental than the mental frameworks that shaped decisions and practices.\n\nBraudel was editor of ''Annales'' from 1956 to 1968, followed by the medievalist Jacques Le Goff. However, Braudel's informal successor as head of the school was Le Roy Ladurie. Noting the political upheavals in Europe and especially in France in 1968, Eric Hobsbawm argues that \"in France the virtual hegemony of Braudelian history and the ''Annales'' came to an end after 1968, and the international influence of the journal dropped steeply.\" Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence indeed spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history. However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political and demographic research. An attempt to require an ''Annales''-written textbook for French schools was rejected by the government. By 1980 postmodern sensibilities undercut confidence in overarching metanarratives. As Jacques Revel notes, the success of the Annales School, especially its use of social structures as explanatory forces, contained the seeds of its own downfall, for there is \"no longer any implicit consensus on which to base the unity of the social, identified with the real.\" The Annales School kept its infrastructure, but lost its ''mentalités''.\n",
"\nThe journal began in Strasbourg as ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale''; it moved to Paris and kept the same name from 1929 to 1939. It was successively renamed ''Annales d'histoire sociale'' (1939–1942, 1945), ''Mélanges d'histoire sociale'' (1942–1944), ''Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations'' (1946–1994), and ''Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales'' (1994– ).\n\nIn 1962 Braudel and Gaston Berger used Ford Foundation money and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. In 1970 the 6th Section and the ''Annales'' relocated to the FMSH building. FMSH set up elaborate international networks to spread the ''Annales'' gospel across Europe and the world. In 2013 it began publication of an English language edition, with all the articles translated.\n\nThe scope of topics covered by the journal is vast and experimental—there is a search for total history and new approaches. The emphasis is on social history, and very long-term trends, often using quantification and paying special attention to geography and to the intellectual world view of common people, or \"mentality\" (''mentalité''). Little attention is paid to political, diplomatic, or military history, or to biographies of famous men. Instead the ''Annales'' focused attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis.\n",
"The ''Annales'' was founded and edited by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929, while they were teaching at the University of Strasbourg and later in Paris. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive ''Annales'' approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the ''Année Sociologique'' (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''la longue durée'') over events and political transformations. Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalités,'' or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.\n\nCo-founder Marc Bloch (1886–1944) was a quintessential modernist who studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, and in Germany, serving as a professor at the University of Strasbourg until he was called to the Sorbonne in Paris in 1936 as professor of economic history. Bloch's interests were highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) and the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). His own ideas, especially those expressed in his masterworks, ''French Rural History'' (''Les caractères originaux de l'histoire rurale française,'' 1931) and ''Feudal Society'', were incorporated by the second-generation Annalistes, led by Fernand Braudel.\n",
"Georges Duby, a leader of the school, wrote that the history he taught:\n:relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.\nThe Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a ''histoire totale'', or ''histoire tout court'', a complete study of a historic problem.\n",
"Bloch was shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France in World War II for his active membership of the French Resistance, and Febvre carried on the ''Annales'' approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he mentored Braudel, who would become one of the best-known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a \"second\" era of ''Annales'' historiography and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. \nBraudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: ''l'histoire quasi immobile'' (the quasi motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures (''la longue durée''), and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures.\n\nWhile authors such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Marc Ferro and Jacques Le Goff continue to carry the ''Annales'' banner, today the ''Annales'' approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history, political history and economic history.\n",
"Bloch's ''Les Rois Thaumaturges'' (1924) looked at the long-standing folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by his thaumaturgic touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practiced the ritual. Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch—he acted instead like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was highly influential in introducing comparative studies (in this case France and England), as well as long durations (\"longue durée\") studies spanning several centuries, even up to a thousand years, downplaying short-term events. Bloch's revolutionary charting of mentalities, or ''mentalités'', resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of ''mentalité'' history with Fernand Braudel's structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions. A flood of ''mentalité'' studies based on these approaches appeared during the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, however, ''mentalité'' history had become interdisciplinary to the point of fragmentation, but still lacked a solid theoretical basis. While not explicitly rejecting ''mentalité'' history, younger historians increasingly turned to other approaches.\n",
"Fernand Braudel became the leader of the second generation after 1945. He obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the 6th Section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which was devoted to the study of history and the social sciences. It became an independent degree-granting institution in 1975 under the name École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). Braudel's followers admired his use of the longue durée approach to stress slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The ''Annales'' historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the longue durée. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. In turn the Marxists called them conservatives.\n\nBraudel's first book, ''La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II'' (1949) (''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'') was his most influential. This vast panoramic view used ideas from other social sciences, employed effectively the technique of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events and individuals. It stressed geography but not ''mentalité''. It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. The book dramatically raised the worldwide profile of the Annales School.\n",
"Before ''Annales,'' French history supposedly happened in Paris. Febvre broke decisively with this paradigm in 1912, with his sweeping doctoral thesis on ''Philippe II et la Franche-Comté.'' The geography and social structure of this region overwhelmed and shaped the king's policies set in Paris.\n\nThe ''Annales'' historians did not try to replicate Braudel's vast geographical scope in ''La Méditerranée.'' Instead they focused on regions in France over long stretches of time. The most important was the study of the ''Peasants of Languedoc'' by Braudel's star pupil and successor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. The regionalist tradition flourished especially in the 1960s and 1970s in the work of Pierre Goubert in 1960 on Beauvais and René Baehrel on Basse-Provence. ''Annales'' historians in the 1970s and 1980s turned to urban regions, including Pierre Deyon (Amiens), Maurice Garden (Lyon), Jean-Pierre Bardet (Rouen), Georges Freche (Toulouse), and Jean-Claude Perrot (Caen). By the 1970s the shift was underway from the earlier economic history to cultural history and the history of mentalities.\n",
"The ''Annales'' school systematically reached out to create an impact on other countries. Its success varied widely. The ''Annales'' approach was especially well received in Italy and Poland. Franciszek Bujak (1875–1953) and Jan Rutkowski (1886–1949), the founders of modern economic history in Poland and of the journal ''Roczniki Dziejów Spolecznych i Gospodarczych'' (1931– ), were attracted to the innovations of the Annales school. Rutkowski was in contact with Bloch and others, and published in the ''Annales.'' After the Communists took control in the 1940s Polish scholars were safer working on the Middle Ages and the early modern era rather than contemporary history. After the \"Polish October\" of 1956 the Sixth Section in Paris welcomed Polish historians and exchanges between the circle of the ''Annales'' and Polish scholars continued until the early 1980s. The reciprocal influence between the French school and Polish historiography was particularly evident in studies on the Middle Ages and the early modern era studied by Braudel.\n\nIn South America the ''Annales'' approach became popular. From the 1950s Federico Brito Figueroa was the founder of a new Venezuelan historiography based largely on the ideas of the Annales School. Brito Figueroa carried his conception of the field to all levels of university study, emphasizing a systematic and scientific approach to history and placing it squarely in the social sciences. Spanish historiography was influenced by the \"Annales School\" starting in 1950 with Jaime Vincens Vives (1910–1960). In Mexico, exiled Republican intellectuals extended the Annales approach, particularly from the Center for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México, the leading graduate studies institution of Latin America.\n\nBritish historians, apart from a few Marxists, were generally hostile. Academic historians decidedly sided with Geoffrey Elton's ''The Practice of History'' against Edward Hallett Carr's ''What Is History?''. One of the few British historians who was sympathetic towards the work of the ''Annales'' school was Hugh Trevor-Roper. American, German, Indian, Russian and Japanese scholars generally ignored the school. The Americans developed their own form of \"new social history\" from entirely different roots. Both the American and the ''Annales'' historians picked up important family reconstitution techniques from French demographer Louis Henry.\n\nThe Wageningen school centered on Bernard Slicher van Bath was viewed internationally as a Dutch counterpart of the Annales school, although Slicher van Bath himself vehemently rejected the idea of a quantitative \"school\" of historiography.\n\nHas been cited as a key influence in the development of World Systems Theory by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.\n",
"The current leader is Roger Chartier, who is Directeur d'Études at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Professeur in the Collège de France, and Annenberg Visiting Professor of History at the University of Pennsylvania. He frequently lectures and teaches in the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. His work in Early Modern European History focuses on the history of education, the history of the book and the history of reading. Recently, he has been concerned with the relationship between written culture as a whole and literature (particularly theatrical plays) for France, England and Spain. His work in this specific field (based on the criss-crossing between literary criticism, bibliography, and sociocultural history) is connected to broader historiographical and methodological interests which deal with the relation between history and other disciplines: philosophy, sociology, anthropology.\n\nChartier's typical undergraduate course focuses upon the making, remaking, dissemination, and reading of texts in early modern Europe and America. Under the heading of \"practices,\" his class considers how readers read and marked up their books, forms of note-taking, and the interrelation between reading and writing from copying and translating to composing new texts. Under the heading of \"materials,\" his class examines the relations between different kinds of writing surfaces (including stone, wax, parchment, paper, walls, textiles, the body, and the heart), writing implements (including styluses, pens, pencils, needles, and brushes), and material forms (including scrolls, erasable tables, codices, broadsides and printed forms and books). Under the heading of \"places,\" his class explores where texts were made, read, and listened to, including monasteries, schools and universities, offices of the state, the shops of merchants and booksellers, printing houses, theaters, libraries, studies, and closets. The texts for his course include the ''Bible'', translations of Ovid, ''Hamlet'', ''Don Quixote'', Montaigne's essays, Pepys's diary, Richardson's ''Pamela'', and Franklin's autobiography.\n",
"*École des hautes études en sciences sociales\n*Historiography\n*Rural history\n*Nouvelle histoire\n*Social history\n",
"\n",
"===About the School===\n* Aurell i Cardona, Jaume. \"Autobiographical Texts as Historiographical Sources: Rereading Fernand Braudel and Annie Kriegel,\" ''Biography,'' Volume 29, Number 3, Summer 2006, pp. 425–445 in Project Muse\n* Bintliff, John L. (ed.), ''The Annales School and archaeology'', Leicester : Leicester University Press (1991), \n* Burguière, André. ''L'École des Annales: Une histoire intellectuelle.'' Paris: Odile Jacob. 2006. Pp. 366. (English edition) ''Annales School: An Intellectual History.'' Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. 2009. Pp. 309\n* Burke, Peter. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–89,'' (1990), the major study in English excerpt and text search\n* Carrard, Philippe. \"Figuring France: The Numbers and Tropes of Fernand Braudel,\" ''Diacritics'', Vol. 18, No. 3 (Autumn, 1988), pp. 2–19 in JSTOR\n* Carrard, Philippe. ''Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier,'' (1992)\n* Clark, Stuart, ed. ''The Annales School: Critical Assessments'' (4 vol, 1999)\n* Crifò, Giuliano. \"Scuola delle Annales e storia del diritto: la situazione italiana\", ''Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, antiquité'', vol. No. 93, (1981), pp. 483-494 in Persée\n* Dewald, Jonathan. ''Lost Worlds: The Emergence of French Social History, 1815–1970'' (2006) 250pp excerpt and text search\n* Dosse, Francois. ''New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales,'' (1994, first French edition, 1987) excerpt and text search\n* Fink, Carole. ''Marc Bloch: A Life in History,'' (1989) excerpt and text search\n* Forster, Robert. \"Achievements of the Annales School,\" ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 38, No. 1, (Mar., 1978), pp. 58–76 in JSTOR\n* Friedman, Susan W. ''Marc Bloch, Sociology and Geography: Encountering Changing Disciplines'' (1996) excerpt and text search\n* Harris, Olivia. \"Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity,\" ''History Workshop Journal,'' Issue 57, Spring 2004, pp. 161–174 in Project Muse\n* Herubel, Jean-Pierre V. M. \"Historiography's Horizon and Imperative: Febvrian Annales Legacy and Library History as Cultural History,\" ''Libraries & Culture,'' 39#3 (2004), pp. 293–312 in Project Muse\n* Hexter, J. H. \"Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien,\" ''Journal of Modern History,'' 1972, vol. 44, pp. 480–539 in JSTOR\n* Hufton, Olwen. \"Fernand Braudel\", ''Past and Present,'' No. 112. (Aug., 1986), pp. 208–213. in JSTOR\n* Hunt, Lynn. \"French History in the Last Twenty Years: the Rise and Fall of the Annales Paradigm.\" ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 1986 21(2): 209–224. Fulltext: in Jstor\n* Huppert, George. \"Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch: The Creation of the Annales.\" ''The French Review'' 55#4 (1982), pp. 510–513 in JSTOR\n* Iggers, G.G. ''Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'' (1997), ch.5\n* Leroux, Robert, ''Histoire et sociologie en France: de l'histoire-science à la sociologie durkheimienne'', Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1998.\n* Long, Pamela O. \"The Annales and the History of Technology,\" ''Technology and Culture,'' 46#1 (2005), pp. 177–186 in Project Muse\n* Megill, Allan. \"Coherence and Incoherence in Historical Studies: From the Annales School to the New Cultural History,\" ''New Literary History,'' 35#2 (2004), pp. 207–231 in Project Muse\n* Rubin, Miri. ''The Work of Jacques Le Goff and the Challenges of Medieval History'' (1997) 272 pages excerpts and text search\n* Moon, David. \"Fernand Braudel and the Annales School\" online edition\n* Poirrier, Philippe. ''Aborder l'histoire'', Paris, Seuil, 2000.\n* Roberts, Michael. \"The Annales school and historical writing.\" in Peter Lambert and Phillipp Schofield, eds. ''Making History: An Introduction to the History and Practices of a Discipline.'' (2004), pp 78–92 online edition\n* Schilling, Derek. \"Everyday Life and the Challenge to History in Postwar France: Braudel, Lefebvre, Certeau,\" ''Diacritics,'' Volume 33, Number 1, Spring 2003, pp. 23–40 in Project Muse\n* Steiner, Frederick. \"Material Life: Human Ecology and the Annales School\", Landscape Architecture Volume 76, Number 1, pp. 69–75.\n* Stirling, Katherine. \"Rereading Marc Bloch: the Life and Works of a Visionary Modernist.\" ''History Compass'' 2007 5#2: 525–538. in History Compass\n* Stoianovich, Traian. ''French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm,'' (1976)\n* Trevor-Roper, H. R. \"Fernand Braudel, the Annales, and the Mediterranean,\" ''The Journal of Modern History,'' 44#4 (1972), pp. 468–479 in JSTOR\n\n===Major books and essays from the school===\n* Ariès, Philippe et al. eds, ''A History of Private Life'' (5 vols. 1987–94)\n* Bloch, Marc. ''Les Rois Thaumaturges'' (1924), translated as ''The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England'' (1990)\n* Bloch, Marc. ''Feudal Society: Vol 1: The Growth and Ties of Dependence'' (1989); ''Feudal Society: Vol 2: Social Classes and Political Organisation''(1989) excerpt and text search\n* Bloch, Marc. ''French Rural History an Essay on Its Basic Characteristics'' (1972)\n* Braudel, Fernand. ''La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II'' (1949) (translated as ''The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II'' excerpt and text search vol. 1)\n* Braudel, Fernand. ''Civilisation Matérielle, Economie et Capitalisme XVe–XVIIIe Siècle'' (3 vol. 1979) (translated as ''Capitalism and Material Life''; excerpt and text search vol. 1; excerpt and text search vol 3)\n* Burguière, André, and Jacques Revel. ''Histoire de la France'' (1989), textbook\n* Chartier, Roger. ''Inscription and Erasure: Literature and Written Culture from the Eleventh to the Eighteenth Century'' (2007) excerpt and text search\n* Earle, P., ed. ''Essays in European Economic History, 1500–1800,'' (1974), translated articles from ''Annales''\n* Ferro, Marc, ed. ''Social Historians in Contemporary France: Essays from \"Annales\",'' (1972)\n* Goubert, Pierre. ''The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century'' (1986) excerpt and text search\n* Goubert, Pierre. ''The Ancien Régime, 1600–1750'' (1974)\n* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village, 1294–1324'' (1978) excerpt and text search\n* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Peasants of Languedoc'' (1966; English translation 1974) search\n* Hunt, Lynn, and Jacques Revel (eds). ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past''. The New Press. 1994. (A collection of 64 essays with many pieces from the Annales).\n\n===Historiography from the school===\n* Bloch, Marc. ''Méthodologie Historique'' (1988); originally conceived in 1906 but not published until 1988; revised in 1996\n* Bloch, Marc. ''Apologie pour l'histoire ou Métier d'historien'' (1949), translated as ''The Historian's Craft'' (1953) excerpt of 1992 introduction by Peter Burke (historian), and text search\n* Braudel, Fernand. ''Ecrits sur l'histoire'' (1969), reprinted essays; translated as ''On History,'' (1980) excerpt and text search\n**includes Braudel, Fernand. \"Histoire et Science Sociale: La Longue Durée\" (1958) ''Annales E.S.C.,'' 13:4 October–December 1958, 725–753\n* Braudel, Fernand. \"Personal Testimony.\" ''Journal of Modern History'' 1972 44(4): 448–467. in JSTOR\n* Burke, Peter, ed. ''A New Kind of History From the Writings of Lucien Febvre,'' (1973)\n* Duby, Georges. ''History Continues,'' (1991, translated 1994)\n* Febvre, Lucien. ''A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre'' ed. by Peter Burke (1973) translated articles from ''Annales''\n* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Mind and Method of the Historian'' (1981)\n* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Territory of the Historian'' (1979)\n* Le Goff, Jacques and Paul Archambault. \"An Interview with Jacques Le Goff.\" ''Historical Reflections'' 1995 21(1): 155–185. \n* Le Goff, Jacques, ''History and Memory' (1996) excerpt and text search\n* Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past,'' (1995). 654pp\n* Revel, Jacques, ed. ''Political Uses of the Past: The Recent Mediterranean Experiences'' (2002) excerpt and text search\n* Vovelle, M. ''Ideologies and Mentalities'' (1990)\n",
"* Free access to all issues of the ''Annales'' from 1929 to 2002.\n* Recent issues of '' Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales'' (2003-present).\n* Professor David Moon, \"Fernand Braudel and the Annales School\" (lecture 2005)\n* Biography of Fernand Braudel.\n* Detailed bibliographies of major historians.\n* ''Histoire et mesure'' (1986-200 ), articles on quantitative history. Full text of articles.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"The journal",
"Origins",
"Precepts",
"Postwar",
"''Mentalités''",
"Braudel",
"Regionalism",
"Impact outside France",
"Current",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Annales School |
[
"\n\n\n\nIn modern physics, '''antimatter''' is defined as a material composed of the antiparticle (or \"partners\") to the corresponding particles of ordinary matter.\n\nA particle and its anti-particle have -in theory- the same mass as one another, but opposite electric charge, and other differences in quantum numbers. For example, a proton has positive charge while an antiproton has negative charge. A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner is known to lead to their ''mutual annihilation'', giving rise to various proportions of intense photons (gamma rays), neutrinos, and sometimes less-massive particle–antiparticle pairs.\n\nAnnihilation usually results in a release of energy that becomes available for heat or work. The amount of the released energy is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accord with the mass–energy equivalence equation, .\n\nAntimatter particles bind with one another to form antimatter, just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a positron (the antiparticle of the electron) and an antiproton (the antiparticle of the proton) can form an antihydrogen atom. Physical principles indicate that complex antimatter atomic nuclei are possible, as well as anti-atoms corresponding to the known chemical elements.\n\nThere is considerable speculation as to why the observable universe is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to an equal mixture of matter and antimatter. This asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called baryogenesis.\n\nAntimatter in the form of anti-atoms is one of the most difficult materials to produce. Individual antimatter particles, however, are commonly produced by particle accelerators and in some types of radioactive decay. The nuclei of antihelium have been artificially produced with difficulty. These are the most complex anti-nuclei so far observed.\n\n",
"Formally, antimatter particles can be defined by their negative baryon number or lepton number, while \"normal\" (non-antimatter) matter particles have a positive baryon or lepton number. These two classes of particles are the antiparticle partners of one another.\n",
"The idea of negative matter appears in past theories of matter that have now been abandoned. Using the once popular vortex theory of gravity, the possibility of matter with negative gravity was discussed by William Hicks in the 1880s. Between the 1880s and the 1890s, Karl Pearson proposed the existence of \"squirts\" and sinks of the flow of aether. The squirts represented normal matter and the sinks represented negative matter. Pearson's theory required a fourth dimension for the aether to flow from and into.\n\nThe term antimatter was first used by Arthur Schuster in two rather whimsical letters to ''Nature'' in 1898, in which he coined the term. He hypothesized antiatoms, as well as whole antimatter solar systems, and discussed the possibility of matter and antimatter annihilating each other. Schuster's ideas were not a serious theoretical proposal, merely speculation, and like the previous ideas, differed from the modern concept of antimatter in that it possessed negative gravity.\n\nThe modern theory of antimatter began in 1928, with a paper by Paul Dirac. Dirac realised that his relativistic version of the Schrödinger wave equation for electrons predicted the possibility of antielectrons. These were discovered by Carl D. Anderson in 1932 and named positrons (a portmanteau of \"positive electron\"). Although Dirac did not himself use the term antimatter, its use follows on naturally enough from antielectrons, antiprotons, etc. A complete periodic table of antimatter was envisaged by Charles Janet in 1929.\n\nThe Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation states that antimatter and antiparticles are regular particles traveling backward in time.\n",
"One way to denote an antiparticle is by adding a bar over the particle's symbol. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as and , respectively. The same rule applies if one were to address a particle by its constituent components. A proton is made up of quarks, so an antiproton must therefore be formed from antiquarks. Another convention is to distinguish particles by their electric charge. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as and respectively. However, to prevent confusion, the two conventions are never mixed.\n",
"There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric charge and spin), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). It also implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an \"antistar\") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the ALPHA experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of antihydrogen. The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter.\n",
"\n\nAlmost all matter observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. If antimatter-dominated regions of space existed, the gamma rays produced in annihilation reactions along the boundary between matter and antimatter regions would be detectable.\n\nAntiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy cosmic rays impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the Solar System) produce minute quantities of antiparticles in the resulting particle jets, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. They may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the Milky Way and other galaxies, where very energetic celestial events occur (principally the interaction of relativistic jets with the interstellar medium). The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the two gamma rays produced every time positrons annihilate with nearby matter. The frequency and wavelength of the gamma rays indicate that each carries 511 keV of energy (i.e., the rest mass of an electron multiplied by ''c''2).\n\nObservations by the European Space Agency's INTEGRAL satellite may explain the origin of a giant antimatter cloud surrounding the galactic center. The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of X-ray binaries (binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars), mostly on one side of the galactic center. While the mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of electron–positron pairs, as ordinary matter gains kinetic energy while falling into a stellar remnant.\n\nAntimatter may exist in relatively large amounts in far-away galaxies due to cosmic inflation in the primordial time of the universe. Antimatter galaxies, if they exist, are expected to have the same chemistry and absorption and emission spectra as normal-matter galaxies, and their astronomical objects would be observationally identical, making them difficult to distinguish. NASA is trying to determine if such galaxies exist by looking for X-ray and gamma-ray signatures of annihilation events in colliding superclusters.\n",
"\n\nPositrons are produced naturally in β+ decays of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes (for example, potassium-40) and in interactions of gamma quanta (emitted by radioactive nuclei) with matter. Antineutrinos are another kind of antiparticle created by natural radioactivity (β− decay). Many different kinds of antiparticles are also produced by (and contained in) cosmic rays. In January 2011, research by the American Astronomical Society discovered antimatter (positrons) originating above thunderstorm clouds; positrons are produced in gamma-ray flashes created by electrons accelerated by strong electric fields in the clouds. Antiprotons have also been found to exist in the Van Allen Belts around the Earth by the PAMELA module.\n\nAntiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold). It is hypothesized that during the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, is called baryon asymmetry. The exact mechanism which produced this asymmetry during baryogenesis remains an unsolved problem. One of the necessary conditions for this asymmetry is the violation of CP symmetry, which has been experimentally observed in the weak interaction.\n\nRecent observations indicate black holes and neutron stars produce vast amounts of positron-electron plasma via the jets.\n\n===Observation in cosmic rays===\n\n\nSatellite experiments have found evidence of positrons and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. This antimatter cannot all have been created in the Big Bang, but is instead attributed to have been produced by cyclic processes at high energies. For instance, electron-positron pairs may be formed in pulsars, as a magnetized neutron star rotation cycle shears electron-positron pairs from the star surface. Therein the antimatter forms a wind which crashes upon the ejecta of the progenitor supernovae. This weathering takes place as \"the cold, magnetized relativistic wind launched by the star hits the non-relativistically expanding ejecta, a shock wave system forms in the impact: the outer one propagates in the ejecta, while a reverse shock propagates back towards the star.\" The former ejection of matter in the outer shock wave and the latter production of antimatter in the reverse shock wave are steps in a space weather cycle.\n\nPreliminary results from the presently operating Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (''AMS-02'') on board the International Space Station show that positrons in the cosmic rays arrive with no directionality, and with energies that range from 10 GeV to 250 GeV. In September, 2014, new results with almost twice as much data were presented in a talk at CERN and published in Physical Review Letters. A new measurement of positron fraction up to 500 GeV was reported, showing that positron fraction peaks at a maximum of about 16% of total electron+positron events, around an energy of 275 ± 32 GeV. At higher energies, up to 500 GeV, the ratio of positrons to electrons begins to fall again. The absolute flux of positrons also begins to fall before 500 GeV, but peaks at energies far higher than electron energies, which peak about 10 GeV. These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive dark matter particles.\n\nCosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only one-sixth of the energy.\n\nThere is no evidence of complex antimatter atomic nuclei, such as antihelium nuclei (i.e., anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. These are actively being searched for, because the detection of natural antihelium implies the existence of large antimatter structures such as an antistar. A prototype of the ''AMS-02'' designated ''AMS-01'', was flown into space aboard the on STS-91 in June 1998. By not detecting any antihelium at all, the ''AMS-01'' established an upper limit of 1.1×10−6 for the antihelium to helium flux ratio.\n",
"\n===Positrons===\n\n\nPositrons were reported in November 2008 to have been generated by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in larger numbers than by any previous synthetic process. A laser drove electrons through a gold target's nuclei, which caused the incoming electrons to emit energy quanta that decayed into both matter and antimatter. Positrons were detected at a higher rate and in greater density than ever previously detected in a laboratory. Previous experiments made smaller quantities of positrons using lasers and paper-thin targets; however, new simulations showed that short, ultra-intense lasers and millimeter-thick gold are a far more effective source.\n\n===Antiprotons, antineutrons, and antinuclei===\n\n\nThe existence of the antiproton was experimentally confirmed in 1955 by University of California, Berkeley physicists Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain, for which they were awarded the 1959 Nobel Prize in Physics. An antiproton consists of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark (). The properties of the antiproton that have been measured all match the corresponding properties of the proton, with the exception of the antiproton having opposite electric charge and magnetic moment from the proton. Shortly afterwards, in 1956, the antineutron was discovered in proton–proton collisions at the Bevatron (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) by Bruce Cork and colleagues.\n\nIn addition to antibaryons, anti-nuclei consisting of multiple bound antiprotons and antineutrons have been created. These are typically produced at energies far too high to form antimatter atoms (with bound positrons in place of electrons). In 1965, a group of researchers led by Antonino Zichichi reported production of nuclei of antideuterium at the Proton Synchrotron at CERN. At roughly the same time, observations of antideuterium nuclei were reported by a group of American physicists at the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory.\n\n===Antihydrogen atoms===\n\n\n\nIn 1995, CERN announced that it had successfully brought into existence nine hot antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the PS210 experiment. The experiment was performed using the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), and was led by Walter Oelert and Mario Macri. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210 and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s, namely, ATHENA and ATRAP.\n\nIn 1999, CERN activated the Antiproton Decelerator, a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from to — still too \"hot\" to produce study-effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late 2002 the ATHENA project announced that they had created the world's first \"cold\" antihydrogen. The ATRAP project released similar results very shortly thereafter. The antiprotons used in these experiments were cooled by decelerating them with the Antiproton Decelerator, passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a Penning–Malmberg trap. The overall cooling process is workable, but highly inefficient; approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator and roughly 25,000 make it to the Penning–Malmberg trap, which is about or 0.1% of the original amount.\n\nThe antiprotons are still hot when initially trapped. To cool them further, they are mixed into an electron plasma. The electrons in this plasma cool via cyclotron radiation, and then sympathetically cool the antiprotons via Coulomb collisions. Eventually, the electrons are removed by the application of short-duration electric fields, leaving the antiprotons with energies less than . While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positrons is captured from radioactive sodium in a Surko-style positron accumulator. This cloud is then recaptured in a second trap near the antiprotons. Manipulations of the trap electrodes then tip the antiprotons into the positron plasma, where some combine with antiprotons to form antihydrogen. This neutral antihydrogen is unaffected by the electric and magnetic fields used to trap the charged positrons and antiprotons, and within a few microseconds the antihydrogen hits the trap walls, where it annihilates. Some hundreds of millions of antihydrogen atoms have been made in this fashion.\n\nIn 2005, ATHENA disbanded and some of the former members (along with others) formed the ALPHA Collaboration, which is also based at CERN. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic (\"cold\") antihydrogen, better suited to study.\n\nIn 2016 a new antiproton decelerator and cooler called ELENA (E Low ENergy Antiproton decelerator) was built. It takes the antiprotons from the antiproton decelerator and cools them to 90 keV which is \"cold\" enough to study. More than a hundred antiprotons can be captured per second, a huge improvement, but it would still take several thousand years to make a nanogram of antimatter.\n\nMost of the sought-after high-precision tests of the properties of antihydrogen could only be performed if the antihydrogen were trapped, that is, held in place for a relatively long time. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, the spins of their component particles produce a magnetic moment. These magnetic moments can interact with an inhomogeneous magnetic field; some of the antihydrogen atoms can be attracted to a magnetic minimum. Such a minimum can be created by a combination of mirror and multipole fields.\nAntihydrogen can be trapped in such a magnetic minimum (minimum-B) trap; in November 2010, the ALPHA collaboration announced that they had so trapped 38 antihydrogen atoms for about a sixth of a second. This was the first time that neutral antimatter had been trapped.\n\nOn 26 April 2011, ALPHA announced that they had trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms, some for as long as 1,000 seconds (about 17 minutes). This was longer than neutral antimatter had ever been trapped before.\nALPHA has used these trapped atoms to initiate research into the spectral properties of the antihydrogen.\n\nThe biggest limiting factor in the large-scale production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that, when fully operational, their facilities are capable of producing ten million antiprotons per minute. Assuming a 100% conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen, it would take 100 billion years to produce 1 gram or 1 mole of antihydrogen (approximately atoms of anti-hydrogen).\n\n===Antihelium===\nAntihelium-3 nuclei () were first observed in the 1970s in proton–nucleus collision experiments at the Institute for High Energy Physics by Y. Prockoshkin's group (Protvino near Moscow, USSR)\nand later created in nucleus–nucleus collision experiments. Nucleus–nucleus collisions produce antinuclei through the coalescense of antiprotons and antineutrons created in these reactions. In 2011, the STAR detector reported the observation of artificially created antihelium-4 nuclei (anti-alpha particles) () from such collisions.\n\n===Preservation===\n\n\nAntimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and an equal amount of the container. Antimatter in the form of charged particles can be contained by a combination of electric and magnetic fields, in a device called a Penning trap. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which atomic traps are used. In particular, such a trap may use the dipole moment (electric or magnetic) of the trapped particles. At high vacuum, the matter or antimatter particles can be trapped and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation using a magneto-optical trap or magnetic trap. Small particles can also be suspended with optical tweezers, using a highly focused laser beam.\n\nIn 2011, CERN scientists were able to preserve antihydrogen for approximately 17 minutes.\n\n===Cost===\nScientists claim that antimatter is the costliest material to make. In 2006, Gerald Smith estimated $250 million could produce 10 milligrams of positrons (equivalent to $25 billion per gram); in 1999, NASA gave a figure of $62.5 trillion per gram of antihydrogen. This is because production is difficult (only very few antiprotons are produced in reactions in particle accelerators), and because there is higher demand for other uses of particle accelerators. According to CERN, it has cost a few hundred million Swiss francs to produce about 1 billionth of a gram (the amount used so far for particle/antiparticle collisions). In comparison, to produce the first atomic weapon, the cost of the Manhattan Project was estimated at $23 billion with inflation during 2007.\n\nSeveral studies funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the Van Allen belt of the Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants, like Jupiter, hopefully at a lower cost per gram.\n",
"\n===Medical===\nMatter–antimatter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). In positive beta decay, a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and a neutrino is also emitted). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a cyclotron and are widely generated for medical use. Antiprotons have also been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion (proton) therapy.\n\n===Fuel===\nIsolated and stored anti-matter could be used as a fuel for interplanetary or interstellar travel as part of an antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion or other antimatter rocketry, such as the redshift rocket. Since the energy density of antimatter is higher than that of conventional fuels, an antimatter-fueled spacecraft would have a higher thrust-to-weight ratio than a conventional spacecraft.\n\nIf matter–antimatter collisions resulted only in photon emission, the entire rest mass of the particles would be converted to kinetic energy. The energy per unit mass () is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energies, and about 3 orders of magnitude greater than the nuclear potential energy that can be liberated, today, using nuclear fission (about per fission reaction or ), and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than the best possible results expected from fusion (about for the proton–proton chain). The reaction of of antimatter with of matter would produce (180 petajoules) of energy (by the mass–energy equivalence formula, ), or the rough equivalent of 43 megatons of TNT – slightly less than the yield of the 27,000 kg Tsar Bomba, the largest thermonuclear weapon ever detonated.\n\nNot all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic propulsion technology because of the nature of the annihilation products. While electron–positron reactions result in gamma ray photons, these are difficult to direct and use for thrust. In reactions between protons and antiprotons, their energy is converted largely into relativistic neutral and charged pions. The neutral pions decay almost immediately (with a lifetime of 85 attoseconds) into high-energy photons, but the charged pions decay more slowly (with a lifetime of 26 nanoseconds) and can be deflected magnetically to produce thrust.\n\nCharged pions ultimately decay into a combination of neutrinos (carrying about 22% of the energy of the charged pions) and unstable charged muons (carrying about 78% of the charged pion energy), with the muons then decaying into a combination of electrons, positrons and neutrinos (cf. muon decay; the neutrinos from this decay carry about 2/3 of the energy of the muons, meaning that from the original charged pions, the total fraction of their energy converted to neutrinos by one route or another would be about ).\n\n\n===Weapons===\n\n\nAntimatter has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it will ever be feasible. However, the U.S. Air Force funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the Cold War, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself.\n",
"* Antimatter comet\n* Ambiplasma\n* Gravitational interaction of antimatter\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* Freeview Video 'Antimatter' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU\n* CERN Webcasts (RealPlayer required)\n* What is Antimatter? (from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter–Matter Studies)\n* FAQ from CERN with information about antimatter aimed at the general reader, posted in response to antimatter's fictional portrayal in Angels & Demons\n* Antimatter at Angels and Demons, CERN\n* What is direct CP-violation?''\n* Animated illustration of antihydrogen production at CERN from the Exploratorium.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Formal definition ",
"History of the concept",
"Notation",
"Properties",
"Origin and asymmetry",
"Natural production",
"Artificial production",
"Uses",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Antimatter |
[
"\n'''Casa Batlló''' () is a renowned building located in the center of Barcelona and is one of Antoni Gaudí’s masterpieces. A remodel of a previously built house, it was redesigned in 1904 by Gaudí and has been refurbished several times after that. Gaudí's assistants Domènec Sugrañes i Gras, Josep Canaleta and Joan Rubió also contributed to the renovation project. The local name for the building is ''Casa dels ossos'' (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality.\n\nLike everything Gaudí designed, it is only identifiable as Modernisme or Art Nouveau in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, has unusual tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. There are few straight lines, and much of the façade is decorated with a colorful mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles (trencadís). The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the lance of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia, Gaudí's home), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.\n",
"\n===Initial construction (1877)===\nAntoni Gaudí in 1910\nThe building that is now Casa Batlló was built in 1877, commissioned by Lluís Sala Sánchez. It was a classical building without remarkable characteristics within the eclecticism traditional by the end of the 19th century. The building had a basement, a ground floor, four other floors and a garden in the back.\n\n===Batlló family===\nThe Batlló family\nThe house was bought by Josep Batlló in 1900. The design of the house made the home undesirable to buyers but the Batlló family decided to buy the place due to its centralized location. It is located in the middle of Passeig de Gracia, which in the early 20th century was known as a very prestigious and fashionable area. It was an area where the prestigious family could draw attention to themselves.\n\nIn 1906 Josep Batlló still owned the home. The Batlló family was very well known in Barcelona for its contribution to the textile industry in the city. Mr. Josep Batlló I Casanovas was a textile industrialist who owned a few factories in the city. Mr. Batlló married Amalia Godo Belaunzaran, from the family that founded the newspaper La Vanguardia. Josep wanted an architect that would design a house that was like no other and stood out as being audacious and creative. Both Josep and his wife were open to anything and they decided not to limit Gaudí. Josep did not want his house to resemble any of the houses of the rest of the Batlló family, such as Casa Pía, built by the Josep Vilaseca. He chose the architect who had designed Park Güell because he wanted him to come up with a risky plan. The family lived on the Noble Floor of Casa Batlló until the middle of the 1950s.\n\n===Renovation (1904-1906)===\nThe atrium; Gaudí convinced Batlló to let him expand the central well of the building to let in light, instead of rebuilding.\nIn 1904 Josep Batlló hired Gaudí to design his home; at first his plans were to tear down the building and construct a completely new house. Gaudí convinced Josep that a renovation was sufficient and was also able to submit the planning application the same year. The building was completed and refurbished in 1906. He completely changed the main apartment which became the residence for the Batlló family. He expanded the central well in order to supply light to the whole building and also added new floors. In the same year the Barcelona City Council selected the house as a candidate for that year’s best building award. The award was given to another architect that year despite Gaudí’s design.\n\n===Refurbishments===\nJosep Batlló died in 1934 and the house was kept in order by the wife until her death in 1940 . After the death of the two parents, the house was kept and managed by the children until 1954. In 1954 an insurance company named Seguros Iberia acquired Casa Batlló and set up offices there. In 1970, the first refurbishment occurred mainly in several of the interior rooms of the house. In 1983, the exterior balconies were restored to their original colour and a year later the exterior façade was illuminated in the ceremony of La Mercè.\n\n===Multiple uses===\nIn 1993, the current owners of Casa Batlló bought the home and continued refurbishments throughout the whole building. Two years later, in 1995, Casa Batlló began to hire out its facilities for different events. More than 2,500 square meters of rooms within the building were rented out for many different functions. Due to the building's location and the beauty of the facilities being rented, the rooms of Casa Batlló were in very high demand and hosted many important events for the city.\n",
"Casa Batlló fireplace seat\n\n===Overview===\nThe local name for the building is ''Casa dels ossos'' (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality. The building looks very remarkable — like everything Gaudí designed, only identifiable as Modernisme or Art Nouveau in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work.\n\nIt seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the façade is decorated with a mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles (trencadís) that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the lance of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia, Gaudí's home), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.\n\n===Loft===\nThe loft, originally a service area, has sixty catenary arches\n\nThe loft is considered to be one of the most unusual spaces. It was formerly a service area for the tenants of the different apartments in the building which contained laundry rooms and storage areas. It is known for its simplicity of shapes and its Mediterranean influence through the use of white on the walls. It contains a series of sixty catenary arches that creates a space which represents the ribcage of an animal. Some people believe that the “ribcage” design of the arches is a ribcage for the dragon’s spine that is represented in the roof.\n\n===Noble floor and museum===\nInterior of the Noble Floor, which currently houses a museum open to the public\nThe noble floor is larger than seven-hundred square meters. It is the main floor of the building. The noble floor is accessed through a private entrance hall that utilizes skylights resembling tortoise shells and vaulted walls in curving shapes. On the noble floor, there is a spacious landing with direct views to the blue tiling of the building well. On the Passeig de Gracia side is Mr. Batlló’s study, a dining room, and a secluded spot for courting couples, decorated with a mushroom-shaped fireplace. The elaborate and animal-like décor continues throughout the whole noble floor.\n\nIn 2002, the house opened its doors to the public, and people were allowed to visit the noble floor. The building was opened to the public as part of the celebration of the International Year of Gaudí. Casa Batlló met with very much unanticipated success, and visitors became eager to see the rest of the house. Two years later, in celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the beginning of work on Casa Batlló the fifth floor was restored, and the house extended its visit to the loft and the well. In 2005, Casa Batlló became a Unesco World Heritage Site.\n\n===Roof===\nFour chimney stacks on the roof, with the dragon's spine roof arch behind\nThe roof terrace is one of the most popular features of the entire house due to its famous dragon back design. Gaudí represents an animal’s spine by using tiles of different colors on one side. The roof is decorated with four chimney stacks, that are designed to prevent backdraughts.\n\n===Exterior facade===\nThe facade has three distinct sections.\nThe facade has three distinct sections which are harmoniously integrated. The lower ground floor with the main floor and two first-floor galleries are contained in a structure of Montjuïc sandstone with undulating lines. The central part, which reaches the last floor, is a multicolored section with protruding balconies. The top of the building is a crown, like a huge gable, which is at the same level as the roof and helps to conceal the room where there used to be water tanks. This room is currently empty. The top displays a trim with ceramic pieces that has attracted multiple interpretations.\n\n;Roof tiles\nRoof architecture and ceramic tiles, with tower and bulb in the background\nThe roof's arched profile recalls the spine of a dragon with ceramic tiles for scales, and a small triangular window towards the right of the structure simulates the eye. Legend has it that it was once possible to see the Sagrada Familia through this window, which was being built simultaneously. The view of the Sagrada Familia is now blocked from this vantage point by newer buildings. The tiles were given a metallic sheen to simulate the varying scales of the monster, with the color grading from green on the right side, where the head begins, to deep blue and violet in the center, to red and pink on the left side of the building.\n\n;Tower and bulb\nOne of the highlights of the facade is a tower topped with a cross of four arms oriented to the cardinal directions. It is a bulbous, root-like structure that evokes plant life. There is a second bulb-shaped structure similarly reminiscent of a thalamus flower, which is represented by a cross with arms that are actually buds announcing the next flowering. The tower is decorated with monograms of Jesus (JHS), Maria (M with the ducal crown) and Joseph (JHP), made of ceramic pieces that stand out golden on the green background that covers the facade. These symbols show the deep religiosity of Gaudi, who was inspired by the contemporaneous construction of his basilica to choose the theme of the holy family.\n\nThe bulb was broken when it was delivered, perhaps during transportation. Although the manufacturer committed to re-do the broken parts, Gaudí liked the aesthetic of the broken masonry and asked that the pieces be stuck to the main structure with lime mortar and held in with a brass ring.\n\n;Central section\nThe central part of the facade evokes the surface of a lake with water lilies.\nThe central part of the facade evokes the surface of a lake with water lilies, reminiscent of Monet's Nymphéas, with gentle ripples and reflections caused by the glass and ceramic mosaic. It is a great undulating surface covered with plaster fragments of colored glass discs combined with 330 rounds of polychrome pottery. The discs were designed by Gaudí and Jujol between tests during their stay in Majorca, while working on the restoration of the Cathedral of Palma.\n\n;Balcony\nFinally, above the central part of the facade is a smaller balcony, also iron, with a different exterior aesthetic, closer to a local type of lily. Two iron arms were installed here to support a pulley to raise and lower furniture.\n\n;Main floor\nThe facade of the main floor, made entirely in sandstone, and is supported by two columns. The design is complemented by joinery windows set with multicolored stained glass. In front of the large windows, as if they were pillars that support the complex stone structure, there are six fine columns that seem to simulate the bones of a limb, with an apparent central articulation; in fact, this is a floral decoration. The rounded shapes of the gaps and the lip-like edges carved into the stone surrounding them create a semblance of a fully open mouth, for which the Casa Batlló has been nicknamed the \"house of yawns.\" The structure repeats on the first floor and in the design of two windows at the ends forming galleries, but on the large central window there are two balconies as described above.\n",
"\nFile:CasaBatlló NobleFloor saloon stainedglass.jpg|Stained glass noblefloor of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatlló NobleFloor saloon side.jpg|Noblefloor of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo rooftop chimneys dragon.jpg|Chimneys of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo rooftop chimneys.jpg|Rooftop of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo inner courtyard bottom.jpg|Inner lightwell of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo inner courtyard.jpg|Blue lightwell of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo attic arcs.jpg|Catenary arcs of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo back dragon roof.jpg|Dragon roof of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo dragon stairs.jpg|Dragon stairs of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo NobleFloor saloon.jpg|Saloon noblefloor of Casa Batlló\nFile:Gaudi-Batllo-0279ret.jpg|Facade of Casa Batlló\nFile:CasaBatllo 0054.JPG|Facade of Casa Batlló\nImage: Close up Casa Batlo.JPG| Facade close-up\nImage:CasaBatllo 0096.JPG|Interior of the Noble Floor\nImage:Casa batllo chimney.jpg|Close-up of a chimney\nImage: staircase casa batllo.jpg|Unique design of the staircase and ceiling\nImage:Casa Batlló Fireplace.jpg|Casa Batlló fireplace\nImage:Casa Batlló Light Well.jpg|Casa Batlló central light well\nCasa Batlló - Barcelona.jpg | Casa Battlo - Night View\nFile:Casa Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (atrium), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg|Atrium of Casa Batlló\nFile:Casa Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (interior, ceiling close up), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg|Ceiling close-up\nFile:Casa Batlló (Antoni Gaudi) (interior, stained-glass window close up), 43, Passeig de Gràcia, Eixample, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg|Stained-glass window close-up\nFile:Casa Batlló chair.JPG|Chair in oak, designed 1906\nFile:Gaudi-prie-dieu.jpg|Prie dieu, or prayer desk, designed 1906\n\n\n\n\n",
"* List of Modernisme buildings in Barcelona\n* Confidant from the Batlló House\n",
"\n\n",
"\n;Official website\n* Casa Batlló\n* Casa Batlló Store\n* Official Virtual Tour\n\n;Unofficial websites\n* Casa Batlló on GreatBuildings.com\n* Casa Batlló pictures\n* Casa Batlló description\n* Casa Batllo at Gaudidesigner.com\n* Casa Batllo at Tot Passejant '''(Spanish)'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Design",
"Gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Casa Batlló |
[
"\n\nThe '''Park Güell''' ( ) is a public park system composed of gardens and architectonic elements located on Carmel Hill, in Barcelona, Catalonia (Spain). Carmel Hill belongs to the mountain range of Collserola – the Parc del Carmel is located on the northern face. Park Güell is located in La Salut, a neighborhood in the Gràcia district of Barcelona. With urbanization in mind, Eusebi Güell assigned the design of the park to Antoni Gaudí, a renowned architect and the face of Catalan modernism. The park was built between 1900 and 1914 and was officially opened as a public park in 1926. In 1984, UNESCO declared the park a World Heritage Site under \"Works of Antoni Gaudí\".\n",
"\nPark Güell is the reflection of Gaudí's artistic plenitude, which belongs to his naturalist phase (first decade of the 20th century). During this period, the architect perfected his personal style through inspiration from organic shapes. He put into practice a series of new structural solutions rooted in the analysis of geometry. To that, the Catalan artist adds creative liberty and an imaginative, ornamental creation. Starting from a sort of baroquism, his works acquire a structural richness of forms and volumes, free of the rational rigidity or any sort of classic premises. In the design of Park Güell, Gaudí unleashed all his architectonic genius and put to practice much of his innovative structural solutions that would become the symbol of his organic style and that would culminate in the creation of the Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family (Catalan: Sagrada Familia).\n\nGüell and Gaudí conceived this park, situated within a natural park. They imagined an organized grouping of high-quality homes, decked out with all the latest technological advancements to ensure maximum comfort, finished off with an artistic touch. They also envisioned a community strongly influenced by symbolism, since, in the common elements of the park, they were trying to synthesize many of the political and religious ideals shared by patron and architect: therefore there are noticeable concepts originating from political Catalanism – especially in the entrance stairway where the Catalan countries are represented – and from Catholicism – the Monumento al Calvario, originally designed to be a chapel. The mythological elements are so important: apparently Güell and Gaudí's conception of the park was also inspired by the Temple of Apollo of Delphi.\n\nOn the other hand, many experts have tried to link the park to various symbols because of the complex iconography that Gaudí applied to the urban project. Such references go from political vindication to religious exaltation, passing through mythology, history and philosophy. Specifically, many studies claim to see references to Freemasonry, despite the deep religious beliefs of both Gaudí and Count Güell. These references have not been proven in the historiography of the modern architect. The multiplicity of symbols found in the Park Güell is, as previously mentioned, associated to political and religious signs, with a touch of mystery according to the preferences of that time for enigmas and puzzles.\n",
"The park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site, the idea of Count Eusebi Güell, after whom the park was named. It was inspired by the English garden city movement; hence the original English name ''Park'' (in Catalan the name is \"Parc Güell\"). The site was a rocky hill with little vegetation and few trees, called ''Muntanya Pelada'' (Bare Mountain). It already included a large country house called Larrard House or Muntaner de Dalt House, and was next to a neighborhood of upper class houses called ''La Salut'' (The Health). The intention was to exploit the fresh air (well away from smoky factories) and beautiful views from the site, with sixty triangular lots being provided for luxury houses. Count Eusebi Güell added to the prestige of the development by moving in 1906 to live in Larrard House. Ultimately, only two houses were built, neither designed by Gaudí. One was intended to be a show house, but on being completed in 1904 was put up for sale, and as no buyers came forward, Gaudí, at Güell's suggestion, bought it with his savings and moved in with his family and his father in 1906. This house, where Gaudí lived from 1906 to 1926, was built by Francesc Berenguer in 1904. It contains original works by Gaudí and several of his collaborators. It is now the Gaudi House Museum (Casa Museu Gaudí) since 1963. In 1969 it was declared a historical artistic monument of national interest.\n",
"The Gaudi House Museum\nGaudí's multicolored mosaic salamander, popularly known as \"el drac\" (the dragon), at the main entrance, as restored after the vandalism of February 2007\nGaudí's mosaic work on the main terrace\n\nIt has since been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground railway (although the stations are at a distance from the Park and at a much lower level below the hill), by city buses, or by commercial tourist buses. Since October 2013 there is an entrance fee to visit the Monumental Zone (main entrance, terrace, and the parts containing mosaics), but the entrance to the Park remains free. Gaudí's house, \"la Torre Rosa,\" – containing furniture that he designed – can be only visited for another entrance fee. There is a reduced rate for those wishing to see both Gaudí's house and the Sagrada Família Church.\n\nPark Güell is designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park. The buildings flanking the entrance, though very original and remarkable with fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles, fit in well with the use of the park as pleasure gardens and seem relatively inconspicuous in the landscape when one considers the flamboyance of other buildings designed by Gaudí. One of these buildings houses a permanent exhibition of the Barcelona City History Museum MUHBA focused on the building itself, the park and the city.\n\nThe focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a sea serpent. The curves of the serpent bench form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. Gaudí incorporated many motifs of Catalan nationalism, and elements from religious mysticism and ancient poetry, into the Park. Much of the design of the benches was the work not of Gaudí but of his often overlooked collaborator Josep Maria Jujol.\n\nRoadways around the park to service the intended houses were designed by Gaudí as structures jutting out from the steep hillside or running on viaducts, with separate footpaths in arcades formed under these structures. This minimized the intrusion of the roads, and Gaudí designed them using local stone in a way that integrates them closely into the landscape. His structures echo natural forms, with columns like tree trunks supporting branching vaulting under the roadway, and the curves of vaulting and alignment of sloping columns designed in a similar way to his Church of Colònia Güell so that the inverted catenary arch shapes form perfect compression structures.\n\nThe large cross at the park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona and the bay. It is possible to view the main city in panorama, with the Sagrada Família and the Montjuïc area visible at a distance.\n\nThe park supports a wide variety of wildlife, notably several of the non-native species of parrot found in the Barcelona area. Other birds can be seen from the park, with records including short-toed eagle. The park also supports a population of hummingbird hawk moths.\n",
"\nFile:View from Park Güell Terrace.jpg| View from the main terrace of the park.\nFile:Goelenterance06390139.JPG|Entrance to the Park.\nFile:Goeldoric06390141.JPG|Doric columns support the roof of the lower court which forms the central terrace, with serpentine seating round its edge.\nFile:Goelbench06390140.JPG|The unique shape of the serpentine bench enables the people sitting on it to converse privately, although the square is large. The bench is tiled and in order to dry up quickly after it rains, and to stop people from sitting in the wet part of the bench, small bumps were installed by Gaudí.\n\nFile:Goelbirdnests06390137.JPG|Bird nests built by Gaudí in the terrace walls. The walls imitate the trees planted on them.\nFile:GuellTerraceSeperate.jpg|An uninterrupted view of the terrace walls.\nFile:Goelwalways06390156.JPG|Roadway in the Park - resembles the pine trees of the park. In order to fit in, the road and walkway structures between the terraces were built with stones quarried within the park. Bird nests have been installed in the walkways.\nFile:Parc Güell viaduct.jpg|Viaduct\nFile:Parc Guell 10.jpg|Colonnaded footpath under the roadway viaduct, with external columns sloping to take the diagonal thrust from the vault supporting the road.\nFile:Colonnadeparkguell.jpg|Colonnaded pathway where the road projects out from the hillside, with the vaulting forming a retaining wall which curves over to support the road, and transmits the load onto sloping columns.\n\nFile:Park_Guell_Tile.jpg| Another of Gaudí's Tiled Mosaics on the ceiling.\n\nFile:Barcelona 29-04-2006 11-29-38.JPG|One of Gaudí's unique tiles in Parc Güell\nFile:Ceiling mosaic, Park Güell, Barcelona.jpg|Ceiling Mosaic in the Hypostyle Room, Park Güell, Barcelona\nFile:Park Güell - Pabellón de entrada.jpg|Pavilion at the entrance\nFile:Escalinata de entrada del Park Güell.jpg|Third fountain at the entrance with the dragon\nFile:Casa Martí Trias i Domènech.jpg|Casa Martí Trias i Domènech\nFile:Panoramic view of the entrance to the Park Güell. Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg|Panoramic view of the entrance to the Park Güell. Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain\nFile:A musician playing among columns of Sala Hipóstila, Park Güell ( UNESCO World Heritage Site), hill of El Carmel, Gràcia (district), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.jpg|A musician playing among columns of Sala Hipóstila, Park Güell ( UNESCO World Heritage Site), hill of El Carmel, Gràcia (district), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* Park Guell website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Origins as a housing development",
" Municipal garden ",
"Gallery of images",
"References",
"External links"
] | Park Güell |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''Casa Milà''' (, ), popularly known as ''La Pedrera'' or \"open quarry\", a reference to its unconventional rough-hewn appearance, is a modernist building in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was the last private residence designed by architect Antoni Gaudí and was built between 1906 and 1910.\n\nThe building was commissioned in 1906 by businessman and his wife . At the time, it was controversial because of its undulating stone facade, twisting wrought iron balconies and windows designed by Josep Maria Jujol. Several structural innovations include a self-supporting stone front, columns and floors free of load-bearing walls, an underground garage and sculptural elements on the roof.\n\nIn 1984, it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is currently the headquarters of the which manages exhibitions and other activities at Casa Milà.\n",
"\n===Building owners===\n\nThe Casa Milà was built for Roser Segimon and her husband Pere Milà. Segimon was the wealthy widow of Josep Guardiola, an ''Indiano,'' as Spaniards returning from the American colonies with a fortune were known. Her second husband Milà was a developer known for his flamboyant lifestyle.\n\n===Construction process===\nLa Casa Milà being built\nIn June 1905, Milà bought a house on the corner of Passeig de Gràcia and ; Gaudí was hired in September to design a new home, and on February 2, 1906, the project was approved by the city council. It was decided to demolish the existing building rather than rebuilding it, as had been done in the case of the Casa Batlló. The building was completed in December 1910, and in October 1911 the Milàs moved in. On October 31, 1912, the other floors of the building were ready to be rented out.\n\n====Catholic symbols====\nA fragment from first drafts of the architectural plans from 1906, showing the sculptures mounted on the upper facade.\nGaudí, a Catholic and a devotee of the Virgin Mary, planned for the Casa Milà to be a spiritual symbol. Overt religious elements include an excerpt from the Rosary on the cornice and planned statues of Mary, specifically Our Lady of the Rosary, and two archangels, St. Michael and St. Gabriel.\n\nHowever, the Casa Milà was not built entirely to Gaudí's specifications. The local government ordered the demolition of elements that exceeded the height standard for the city, and fined the Milàs for many infractions of building codes. After Semana Trágica, an outbreak of anticlericalism in the city, Milà prudently decided to forgo the religious statues. Gaudí contemplated abandoning the project but a priest persuaded him to continue.\n\n=== Change of ownership ===\nInterior of Casa Milà in 1910\nIn 1940, Milà died. Segimon sold the property in 1946 for 18 million pesetas to Josep Ballvé i Pellisé, known for his department stores on , in partnership with the family of Pío Rubert Laporta. The Compañía Inmobiliaria Provenza, SA (CIPSA) was founded to administer the building. Roser Segimon continued to live on the main floor until her death in 1964.\n\nCasa Milà in 1914\nThe new owners divided the first floor facing into five apartments instead of the original two. In 1953, they commissioned to convert 13 rubbish-filled attic laundry rooms to street-facing apartments, leaving a communal hallway on the side facing the courtyards. Some of these two or three room apartments had a loft and were designed and furnished in a typical early 1950s style using brick, ceramic and wood. Items of furniture, such as the , were reminiscent of Eero Saarinen's work.\n\nThe insurance company Northern took over the main floor in 1966. By then, Casa Milà had housed a bingo hall, an academy and the offices of Cementos Molins and Inoxcrom among others. Maintenance costs were high and the owners had allowed the building to become dilapidated, causing stones to loosen in 1971. Josep Anton Comas made some emergency repairs, especially to the paintings in the courtyards, while respecting the original design.\n\n=== Restoration ===\nAfter being re-painted a dreary brown, the building's colors were restored in the 1980s\nGaudí's work was designated a historic and artistic monument on July 24, 1969. Casa Milà was in poor condition in the early 1980s. It had been painted a dreary brown and many of its interior color schemes had been abandoned or allowed to deteriorate, but it has been restored since and many of the original colors revived.\n\nIn 1984 the building became part of a World Heritage Site encompassing some of Gaudí's works. The Barcelonan city council tried to rent the main floor as an office for the 1992 Olympic bid. Finally, the day before Christmas 1986, Caixa Catalunya bought La Pedrera for 900 million pesetas. On February 19, 1987, urgently needed work began on the restoration and cleaning of the façade. The work was done by the architects Joseph Emilio Hernández-Cross and Rafael Vila. The renovated main floor opened in 1990 as part of the Cultural Olympiad of Barcelona. The floor became an exhibition room with an example of modernism in the Eixample.\n",
"The building is 1,323 m2 per floor on a plot of 1,620 m2. Gaudí made the first sketches in his workshop in the Sagrada Família. He designed the house as a constant curve, both outside and inside, incorporating ruled geometry and naturalistic elements.\n\nFront of the building\nThe courtyard\nCasa Milà consists of two buildings, which are structured around two courtyards that provide light to the nine storeys: basement, ground floor, mezzanine, main (or noble) floor, four upper floors, and an attic. The basement was intended to be the garage, the main floor the residence of the Milàs (a flat of all 1,323 m2), and the rest distributed over 20 apartments. The resulting layout is shaped like an asymmetrical \"8\" because of the different shapes and sizes of the courtyards. The attic housed the laundry and drying areas, forming an insulating space for the building and simultaneously determining the levels of the roof.\n\nOne of the most notable elements of the building is the roof, crowned with skylights, staircase exits, fans, and chimneys. All of these elements, constructed out of brick covered with lime, broken marble, or glass have a specific architectural function but are also real sculptures integrated into the building.\n\nThe apartments feature plastered ceilings with dynamic reliefs, handcrafted wooden doors, windows, and furniture, as well as hydraulic tiles and various ornamental elements.\n\nThe stairways were intended as service entries, with the main access to the apartments by elevator except for the noble floor, where Gaudí added a prominent interior staircase. Gaudí wanted the people who lived in the flats to all know each other. Therefore, there were only elevators on every other floor, so people on different floors would meet one another.\n\n=== Structure ===\nCasaMila-Balcony, showing the self-supporting stone facade, also supported by curved iron beams\nCasa Milà is characterized by its self-supporting stone facade, meaning that it is free of load-bearing walls. The facade connects to the internal structure of each floor by means of curved iron beams surrounding the perimeter of each floor. This construction system allows, on one hand, large openings in the facade which give light to the homes, and on the other, free structuring of the different levels, so that internal walls can be added and demolished without affecting the stability of the building. This allows the owners to change their minds at will and to modify, without problems, the interior layout of the homes.\n\n=== Constructive and decorative items ===\n==== Facade ====\nThe facade is composed of large blocks of limestone from the Garraf Massif on the first floor and from the Villefranche quarry for the higher levels. The blocks were cut to follow the plot of the projection of the model, then raised to their location and adjusted to align in a continuous curve to the pieces around them.\n\nViewed from the outside the building has three parts: the main body of the six-storey blocks with winding stone floors, two floors set a block back with a different curve, similar to waves, a smoother texture and whiter color, and with small holes that look like embrasures, and finally the body of the roof.\n\nGaudí's original facade had some of its lower-level ironwork removed. In 1928, the tailor Mosella opened the first store in La Pedrera, and he eliminated the bars. This did not concern anyone, because in the middle of twentieth century, wrought ironwork had little importance. The ironwork was lost until a few years later, when Americans donated one of them to the MoMa, where it is on display.\n\nWith restoration initiatives launched in 1987, the facade was rejoined to some pieces of stone that had fallen. In order to respect the fidelity of the original, material was obtained from the Villefranche quarry, even though by then it was no longer operating.\n\n==== Hall and courtyards ====\nThe building uses a completely original solution to solve the issue of a lobby being too closed and dark. Its open and airy courtyards provide a place of transit and are directly visible to those accessing the building. There are two patios on the side of the Passeig de Gracia and of the street Provence.\n\n;Patios\nThe patio\nPatios, structurally, are key as supporting loads of interior facades. The floor of the courtyard is supported by pillars of cast iron. In the courtyard, there are traditional elliptical beams and girders but Gaudí applied an ingenious solution of using two concentric cylindrical beams with stretched radial beams, like the spokes of a bicycle. They form a point outside of the beam to two points above and below, making the function of the central girder a keystone and working in tension and compression simultaneously. This supported structure is twelve feet in diameter and is considered \"the soul of the building\" with a clear resemblance to Gothic crypts. The centerpiece was built in a shipyard by Josep Maria Carandell who copied a steering wheel, interpreting Gaudí's intent as to represent the helm of the ship of life.\n\n;Interior, gates\nPaintings cover the walls, with access protected by a giant iron gate\nAccess is protected by a massive iron gate with a design attributed to Jujol. It was originally used by both people and cars, as access to the garage is in the basement, now an auditorium.\n\nThe two halls are fully polychrome with oil paintings on the plaster surfaces, with eclectic references to mythology and flowers.\n\nDuring construction there was a problem including a basement as a garage for cars, the new invention that was thrilling the bourgeois at the time. The future neighbor Felix Anthony Meadows, owner of Industrial Linera, requested a change because his Rolls Royce could not access it. Gaudí agreed to remove a pillar on the ramp that led into the garage so that Felix, who was establishing sales and factory in Walls of Valles, could go to both places with his car from La Pedrera. \n\nFor the floors of Casa Milà, Gaudí used a model of floor forms of square timbers with two colors, and the hydraulic pavement hexagonal pieces of blue and sea motifs that had originally been designed for the Batllo house. The wax was designed in gray by John Bertrand under the supervision of Gaudí who \"touched up with their own fingers,\" in the words of the manufacturer Josep Bay.\n\n==== Loft ====\nThe attic\nLike in Casa Batlló, Gaudí shows the application of the catenary arch as a support structure for the roof, a form which he had already used shortly after graduating in the wood frameworks of Mataró's cooperative known as \"L'Obrera Mataronense.\" In this case, Gaudí used the Catalan technique of timbrel, imported from Italy in the fourteenth century.\n\nThe attic, where the laundry rooms were located, was a clear room under a Catalan vault roof supported by 270 parabolic vaults of different heights and spaced by about 80 cm. The roof resembles both the ribs of a huge animal and a palm, giving the roof-deck a very unconventional shape similar to a landscape of hills and valleys. The shape and location of the courtyards makes the arches higher when the space is narrowed and lower when the space expands.\n\nThe builder Bayó explained its construction: \"First the face of a wide wall was filled with mortar and plastered. Then Canaleta indicated the opening of each arch and Bayó put a nail at each starting point of the arch at the top of the wall. From these nails was dangled a chain so that the lowest point coincided with the deflection of the arch. Then the profile displayed on the wall by the chain was drawn and on this profile the carpenter marked and placed the corresponding centering, and the timbrel vault was started with three rows of plane bricks. Gaudí wanted to add a longitudinal axis of bricks connecting all vaults at their keystones\".\n\n==== Roof and chimneys ====\n''Casa Milà'' roof architecture, chimneys known as ''espanta bruixes'' (witch scarers)\nThe work of Gaudí on the rooftop of La Pedrera brought his experience at Palau Güell together with solutions that were clearly more innovative – this time creating shapes and volumes with more body, more prominence, and less polychromasia. \n\nOn the rooftop there are six skylights/staircase exits (four of which were covered with broken pottery and some that ended in a double cross typical of Gaudí), twenty-eight chimneys in several groupings, two half-hidden vents whose function is to renew the air in the building, and four domes that discharged to the facade. The staircases also house the water tanks; some of which are snail-shaped.\n\nThe stepped roof of La Pedrera, called \"the garden of warriors\" by the poet Pere Gimferrer because the chimneys appear to be protecting the skylights, has undergone a radical restoration, removing chimneys added in interventions after Gaudí, television antennas, and other elements that degraded the space. The restoration brought back the splendor to the chimneys and the skylights that were covered with fragments of marble and broken Valencia tiles. One of the chimneys was topped with glass pieces – it was said that Gaudí did that the day after the inauguration of the building, taking advantage of the empty bottles from the party. It was restored with the bases of champagne bottles from the early twentieth century. The repair work has enabled the restoration of the original impact of the overhangs made of stone from Ulldecona with fragments of tiles. This whole set is more colorful than the facade, although here the creamy tones are dominant.\n\n==== Furniture ====\nThe building's inside decor (pictured in 2005) has been changed several times, both paint and furniture\nFurniture in 2008\nGaudí, as he had done in Casa Batlló, designed furniture specifically for the main floor. This was part of the concept artwork itself integral to modernism in which the architect assumed responsibility for global issues such as the structure and the facade, as well as every detail of the decor, designing furniture and accessories such as lamps, planters, floors or ceilings.\n\nThis was another point of friction with Segimon, who complained that there was no straight wall to place her Steinway piano. Gaudí's response was blunt: \"So play the violin.\" The result of these disagreements has been the loss of the decorative legacy of Gaudí, as most of the furniture was removed due to climate change and the changes she made to the main floor when Gaudí died. Some remain in private collections, including a curtain made of oak 4 m. long by 1.96 m. high in the Museum of Catalan Modernism; and a chair and desktop of Milà.\n\nGaudí carved oak doors similar to what he had done for the Casa y Bardes, but these were only included on two floors as when Segimon discovered the price, she decided there would be no more at that quality.\n",
"Scale model at the Catalunya en Miniatura park\n''Casa Milà'' is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Works of Antoni Gaudí\". It was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar biomorphic appearance:\n* the 1921 Einstein Tower in Potsdam, designed by Erich Mendelsohn\n* Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in Manhattan, New York, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright\n* Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France, designed by Le Corbusier\n* the Hundertwasserhaus and other works by Austrian architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser\n* Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, by Frank Gehry\n\nFree exhibitions often are held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge for entrance to the apartment on the fourth floor and the roof. The other floors are not open to visitors.\n\n=== Constructive similarities ===\nGaudí's La Pedrera was inspired by a mountain, but there is no agreement as to which mountain was the reference model. Joan Bergós thought it was the rocks of Fray Guerau in Prades mountains. Joan Matamala thought that the model could have been St. Miquel del Fai, while the sculptor Vicente Vilarubias believed it was inspired by the cliffs Torrent Pareis in Menorca. Other options include the mountains of Uçhisar in Cappadocia, suggested by Juan Goytisolo, or Mola Gallifa, suggested by Louis Permanyer, based on the fact that Gaudí visited the area in 1885, fleeing an outbreak of cholera in Barcelona.\n\nSome people say that the interior layout of La Pedrera comes from studies that Gaudí made of medieval fortresses. This image is reinforced by the seeming appearance of the rooftop chimneys as \"sentinels\" with great helmets. The structure of the iron door in the lobby does not follow any symmetry, straight or repetitive pattern. Rather, it evokes bubbles of soap that are formed between the hands or the structures of a plant cell.\n",
"Casa Milà at night\nThe building's unconventional style made it the subject of much criticism. It was given the nickname \"La Pedrera\", meaning \"the quarry\". Casa Milà appeared in many satirical magazines. Joan Junceda presented it as a traditional \"Easter cake\" by means of cartoons in ''Patufet''. Joaquim Garcia made a joke about the difficulty of setting the damask wrought iron balconies in his magazine. Homeowners in Passeig de Gracia became angry with Milà and ceased to greet him, arguing that the weird building by Gaudí would lower the price of land in the area.\n\n===Administrative problems===\nCasa Milà also caused some administrative problems. In December 1907 the City Hall stopped work on the building because of a pillar which occupied part of the sidewalk, not respecting the alignment of facades. Again on August 17, 1908, more problems occurred when the building surpassed the predicted height and borders of its construction site by . The Council called for a fine of 100,000 pesetas (approximately 25% of the cost of work) or for the demolition of the attic and roof. The dispute was resolved a year and a half later, December 28, 1909, when the Commission certified that it was a monumental building and thus not required to have a 'strict compliance' with the bylaws.\n\n\n\n===Design competitions===\nThe owner entered La Pedrera in the annual sponsored by the Barcelona City Council (''Ayuntament''). Other entries in the competition included two works by Sagnier (Calle Mallorca 264, and one on Corsica and Av. Diagonal), the by architect , and the , designed by . Although the most dramatic and clear favorite was Casa Milà, the jury opined that even though the facades were complete, \"there's still a lot left to do before it's fully completed, finalized and in a perfect state of appreciation.\" The winner in 1910 was Samanillo Perez, for his building which now houses the headquarters of the Circulo Ecuestre.\n\n===Design disagreements===\nGaudí's relations with Segimon deteriorated during the construction and decoration of the house. There were many disagreements between them, one example was the monumental bronze virgin del Rosario, which Gaudí wanted as the statute on the front of the building in homage to the name of the owner, that the artist Carles Mani i Roig was to sculpt. The statue was not made although the words \"Ave gratia'' M'' full Dominus tecum\" were written at the top of the facade. Continuing disagreements led Gaudí to take Milà to court over his fees. The lawsuit was won by Gaudí in 1916, and he gave the 105,000 pesetas he won in the case to charity, stating that \"the principles mattered more than money.\" Milà was having to pay the mortgage.\n\nAfter Gaudí's death in 1926, Segimon got rid of most of the furniture that Gaudí had designed and covered over parts of Gaudí's designs with new decorations in the style of Louis XVI. La Pedrera was acquired in 1986 by and when restoration was done four years later, some of the original decorations re-emerged.\n\nWhen the Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Milàs were on vacation. Part of the building was collectivized by the Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia; the Milàs fled the area with some artwork.\n",
"* A scene in ''The Passenger'' (Italian: ''Professione: reporter''), a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni and starring Jack Nicholson and Maria Schneider, was filmed on the roof of the building.\n* A scene filmed on the roof in Vicky Cristina Barcelona, directed by Woody Allen.\n* Mentioned in the book by Eoin Colfer: Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony\n* Mentioned in the book by Trudi Alexy 'The Mezuzah in the Madonna's Foot'\n* Several scenes in the movie, ''Gaudi Afternoon''\n* A scale model exhibited at the Catalunya en Miniatura park.\n* Featured in the music video for Deep Forest's 'Sweet Lullaby'\n",
"\nFile:Milà plano sótano.jpg|Design in 1906\nFile:Barcelona Part Deux - 65 (3466899772).jpg|Ironwork on the main gate\nImage:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|Catenary arches under the terrace of ''Casa Milà''\nFile:casa mila atrium.jpg|''Casa Milà'' atrium at dusk, after restoration\nImage:Casa Mila Rooftop.jpg|''Casa Milà'' rooftop in Spring\nFile:Catenary arch - Roof of Casa Milà - Barcelona 2014 (2).jpg|Arch on the roof\nImage:Casa Milà 01.jpg|Ventilation towers\nFile:Casa Milà (Barcelona) - 9.jpg|Glass towers on the roof\nImage:La Pedrera Staircase (5837381385).jpg|Staircase\nImage:Barcelona Part Deux - 63 (3466899120).jpg|Paintings on the ceiling\nImage:CaMilá25062006(005).JPG|Detail of an original balcony\nFile:Casa_Milà_(Antoni_Gaudi)_(atrium),_92,_Passeig_de_Gràcia._Eixample,_Barcelona,_Catalonia,_Spain-2.jpg|Atrium\nFile:Casa_Milà_(Antoni_Gaudi)_(atrium),_92,_Passeig_de_Gràcia._Eixample,_Barcelona,_Catalonia,_Spain.jpg|Atrium\nFile:Casa_Milà_(Antoni_Gaudi)_(atrium,_reflections),_92,_Passeig_de_Gràcia._Eixample,_Barcelona,_Catalonia,_Spain.jpg|Atrium reflections\nFile:Casa_Milà_(Antoni_Gaudi)_(exterior_details),_92,_Passeig_de_Gràcia._Eixample,_Barcelona,_Catalonia,_Spain.jpg|Exterior details\n\n",
"* Casa Batlló\n* List of buildings\n* List of Modernisme buildings in Barcelona\n* List of museums\n",
"\n* Rainer Zervst. Gaudí, 1852–1926, Antoni Gaudí i Cornet – A Life Devoted to Architecture. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen Verlag GmbH & Co. KG., 1988. p176.\n",
"\n* La Pedrera Official Website\n* Immersive photographies of Casa Milà\n* Virtual tour\n* Link pictures\n* La Casa Milà, furniture and decorative arts\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Design ",
" Architecture ",
" Criticism and controversy ",
" In media and literature ",
" Gallery ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Casa Milà |
[
"\nIllustration of electric charge of particles (left) and antiparticles (right). From top to bottom; electron/positron, proton/antiproton, neutron/antineutron.\n\nIn particle physics, corresponding to most kinds of particles there is an associated '''antiparticle''' with the same mass and opposite charge (including electric charge). For example, the antiparticle of the electron is the positron (antielectron), which has positive charge and is produced naturally in certain types of radioactive decay. The opposite is also true: the antiparticle of the positron is the electron.\n\nSome particles, such as the photon, are their own antiparticle. Otherwise, for each pair of antiparticle partners, one is designated as normal matter (the kind we are made of), and the other (usually given the prefix \"anti-\") as in ''antimatter''.\n\nParticle–antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, total charge is conserved. For example, the positrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays, a process exploited in positron emission tomography.\n\nThe laws of nature are very nearly symmetrical with respect to particles and antiparticles. For example, an antiproton and a positron can form an antihydrogen atom, which is believed to have the same properties as a hydrogen atom. This leads to the question of why the formation of matter after the Big Bang resulted in a universe consisting almost entirely of matter, rather than being a half-and-half mixture of matter and antimatter. The discovery of Charge Parity violation helped to shed light on this problem by showing that this symmetry, originally thought to be perfect, was only approximate.\n\nAntiparticles are produced naturally in beta decay, and in the interaction of cosmic rays in the Earth's atmosphere.\nBecause charge is conserved, it is not possible to create an antiparticle without either destroying a particle of the same charge (as in decay, when a proton (positive charge) is destroyed, a neutron created and a positron (positive charge, antiparticle) is also created and emitted) or by creating a particle of the opposite charge. The latter is seen in many processes in which both a particle and its antiparticle are created simultaneously, as in particle accelerators. This is the inverse of the particle–antiparticle annihilation process.\n\nAlthough particles and their antiparticles have opposite charges, electrically neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles. The neutron, for example, is made out of quarks, the antineutron from antiquarks, and they are distinguishable from one another because neutrons and antineutrons annihilate each other upon contact. However, other neutral particles are their own antiparticles, such as photons, Z0 bosons, mesons, and hypothetical gravitons and some hypothetical WIMPs.\n",
"\n=== Experiment ===\n\nIn 1932, soon after the prediction of positrons by Paul Dirac, Carl D. Anderson found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a cloud chamber— a particle detector in which moving electrons (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas. The electric charge-to-mass ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the radius of curling of its cloud-chamber track in a magnetic field. Positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were at first mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction. Positron paths in a cloud-chamber trace the same helical path as an electron but rotate in the opposite direction with respect to the magnetic field direction due to their having the same magnitude of charge-to-mass ratio but with opposite charge and, therefore, opposite signed charge-to-mass ratios.\n\nThe antiproton and antineutron were found by Emilio Segrè and Owen Chamberlain in 1955 at the University of California, Berkeley. Since then, the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments. In recent years, complete atoms of antimatter have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.\n\n=== Dirac hole theory ===\n\nSolutions of the Dirac equation contained negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amounts of energy because there were infinitely many negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a \"sea\" of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower-energy states so that, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative-energy particles could be lifted out of this Dirac sea to become a positive-energy particle. But, when lifted out, it would leave behind a ''hole'' in the sea that would act exactly like a positive-energy electron with a reversed charge. These he interpreted as \"negative-energy electrons\" and attempted to identify them with protons in his 1930 paper ''A Theory of Electrons and Protons'' However, these \"negative-energy electrons\" turned out to be positrons, and not protons.\n\nThis picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe—a problem of which Dirac was aware. Dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge. Another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton. Dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea, until Hermann Weyl proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges. Dirac also predicted a reaction + → + , where an electron and a proton annihilate to give two photons. Robert Oppenheimer and Igor Tamm proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast. A year later, in 1931, Dirac modified his theory and postulated the positron, a new particle of the same mass as the electron. The discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory.\n\nHowever, the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains. Also, as we now know, bosons also have antiparticles, but since bosons do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle (only fermions do), hole theory does not work for them. A unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in quantum field theory, which solves both these problems.\n",
"\nAn example of a virtual pion pair that influences the propagation of a kaon, causing a neutral kaon to ''mix'' with the antikaon. This is an example of renormalization in quantum field theory— the field theory being necessary because of the change in particle number.\n\nIf a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can annihilate each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as + → + (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) are an example. The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, + → , cannot occur in free space because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. However, in the Coulomb field of a nucleus the translational invariance is broken and single-photon annihilation may occur. The reverse reaction (in free space, without an atomic nucleus) is also impossible for this reason. In quantum field theory, this process is allowed only as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the uncertainty principle. This opens the way for virtual pair production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may ''fluctuate'' into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the vacuum state and renormalization of a quantum field theory. It also opens the way for neutral particle mixing through processes such as the one pictured here, which is a complicated example of mass renormalization.\n",
"\nQuantum states of a particle and an antiparticle can be interchanged by applying the charge conjugation (C), parity (P), and time reversal (T) operators. If denotes the quantum state of a particle (n) with momentum p, spin J whose component in the z-direction is σ, then one has\n::\nwhere nc denotes the charge conjugate state, that is, the antiparticle. This behaviour under CPT symmetry is the same as the statement that the particle and its antiparticle lie in the same irreducible representation of the Poincaré group. Properties of antiparticles can be related to those of particles through this. If T is a good symmetry of the dynamics, then\n::\n::\n::\nwhere the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side. In other words, particle and antiparticle must have\n*the same mass m\n*the same spin state J\n*opposite electric charges q and -q.\n",
":''This section draws upon the ideas, language and notation of canonical quantization of a quantum field theory.''\n\nOne may try to quantize an electron field without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing\n\n::\n\nwhere we use the symbol ''k'' to denote the quantum numbers ''p'' and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, ''E(k)'', and ''ak'' denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with fermions, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the Hamiltonian\n\n::\n\nthen one sees immediately that the expectation value of ''H'' need not be positive. This is because ''E(k)'' can have any sign whatsoever, and the combination of creation and annihilation operators has expectation value 1 or 0.\n\nSo one has to introduce the charge conjugate ''antiparticle'' field, with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations\n\n::\n\nwhere ''k'' has the same ''p'', and opposite σ and sign of the energy. Then one can rewrite the field in the form\n\n::\n\nwhere the first sum is over positive energy states and the second over those of negative energy. The energy becomes\n\n::\n\nwhere ''E0'' is an infinite negative constant. The vacuum state is defined as the state with no particle or antiparticle, ''i.e.'', and . Then the energy of the vacuum is exactly ''E0''. Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, '''H''' is positive definite. Analysis of the properties of ''ak'' and ''bk'' shows that one is the annihilation operator for particles and the other for antiparticles. This is the case of a fermion.\n\nThis approach is due to Vladimir Fock, Wendell Furry and Robert Oppenheimer. If one quantizes a real scalar field, then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator; therefore, real scalar fields describe neutral bosons. Since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators, which are related by conjugation, such fields describe charged bosons.\n\n=== Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation ===\n\nBy considering the propagation of the negative energy modes of the electron field backward in time, Ernst Stueckelberg reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass '''m''' and spin '''J''' but opposite charges '''q'''. This allowed him to rewrite perturbation theory precisely in the form of diagrams. Richard Feynman later gave an independent systematic derivation of these diagrams from a particle formalism, and they are now called Feynman diagrams. Each line of a diagram represents a particle propagating either backward or forward in time. This technique is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in quantum field theory today.\n\nSince this picture was first developed by Stueckelberg, and acquired its modern form in Feynman's work, it is called the '''Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation''' of antiparticles to honor both scientists.\n\nAs a consequence of this interpretation, Villata argued that the assumption of antimatter as CPT-transformed matter would imply that the gravitational interaction between matter and antimatter is repulsive.\n",
"\n* Gravitational interaction of antimatter\n* Parity, charge conjugation and time reversal symmetry.\n* CP violations and the baryon asymmetry of the universe.\n* Quantum field theory and the list of particles\n* Baryogenesis\n* One-electron universe\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Particle–antiparticle annihilation ",
" Properties ",
" Quantum field theory ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References "
] | Antiparticle |
[
"\n\n'''Kim Renard Nazel''' (born June 17, 1965), better known by the stage name '''Arabian Prince''', is an American rapper, singer-songwriter, record producer and DJ.\n",
"Arabian Prince started working with Bobby Jimmy & the Critters in 1984. He also produced the hit single and album for J.J. Fad, \"Supersonic\".\n\nIn 1986, he was a founding member of N.W.A but when fellow member Ice Cube came back from the Phoenix Institute of Technology in 1988, Arabian Prince soon after left over royalty and contract disagreements—Eazy-E, Ice Cube and MC Ren were the main performers, DJ Yella was the turntablist and Dr. Dre was the main producer.\n\nAfter leaving N.W.A, Arabian Prince began a solo career. His first album, ''Brother Arab'', was released in 1989; ''Where's My Bytches'' followed in 1993.\n\nIn the mid-2000s, he started releasing music again, with his Professor X project on the Dutch label Clone Records. In 2007 he performed as a DJ on the 2K Sports Holiday Bounce Tour with artists from the Stones Throw label. In 2008, Stones Throw released a compilation of his electro-rap material from the 1980s. One of his songs was included on the 2007 video game, ''College Hoops 2K8''.\n",
"\n===Solo===\n*''Brother Arab'' (1989) Orpheus Records\n*''Where's My Bytches'' (1993) Da Bozak Records\n\n===Compilations===\n*''Situation Hot'' (1990) Macola Records\n*''Innovative Life: The Anthology, 1984-1989'' (2008) Stones Throw Records\n\n===With N.W.A===\n*''Panic Zone'' (Single) (1987)\n*''N.W.A. and the Posse'' (1987)\n*''Straight Outta Compton'' (1988)\n",
"\n",
"* Interview with Arabian Prince & Biography on westcoastpioneers\n* August 2008 Interview with L.A. Record\n* Arabian Prince RBMA lecture\n* Arabian Prince: What Happened After ''N.W.A. and the Posse''? at ''Phoenix New Times''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Discography",
"References",
"External links"
] | Arabian Prince |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nThis day marks the approximate midpoint of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and of winter in the Southern Hemisphere (starting the season at the June solstice).\n",
"*322 BC – Battle of Crannon between Athens and Macedonia.\n* 461 – Roman Emperor Majorian is beheaded near the river Iria in north-west Italy following his arrest and deposition by the ''magister militum'' Ricimer.\n* 626 – The Avar and Slav armies leave the siege of Constantinople.\n* 768 - Stephen III begins his reign as Catholic Pope.\n* 936 – Coronation of King Otto I of Germany.\n*1420 – Construction of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore begins in Florence.\n*1427 – The Visconti of Milan's fleet is destroyed by the Venetians on the Po River.\n*1461 – The Ming dynasty Chinese military general Cao Qin stages a coup against the Tianshun Emperor.\n* 1479 - Battle of Guinegate,French troops of King Louis XI is defeated by the Burgundians led by Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg. \n*1679 – The brigantine ''Le Griffon'', commissioned by René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, is towed to the south-eastern end of the Niagara River, to become the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes of North America.\n*1714 – The Battle of Gangut: The first important victory of the Russian Navy.\n*1782 – George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic Purple Heart.\n*1789 – The United States Department of War is established.\n*1791 – American troops destroy the Miami town of Kenapacomaqua near the site of present-day Logansport, Indiana in the Northwest Indian War.\n*1794 – U.S. President George Washington invokes the Militia Acts of 1792 to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania.\n*1819 – Simón Bolívar triumphs over Spain in the Battle of Boyacá.\n*1858 – The first Australian rules football match is played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. \n*1879 – The opening of the Poor Man's Palace in Manchester, England.\n*1890 – Anna Månsdotter becomes the last woman in Sweden to be executed, for the 1889 Yngsjö murder.\n*1909 – Alice Huyler Ramsey and three friends become the first women to complete a transcontinental auto trip, taking 59 days to travel from New York, New York to San Francisco, California.\n*1927 – The Peace Bridge opens between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York.\n*1930 – The last confirmed lynching of blacks in the Northern United States occurs in Marion, Indiana; two men, Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith, are killed.\n*1933 – The Simele massacre: The Iraqi government slaughters over 3,000 Assyrians in the village of Simele. \n*1938 – The building of Mauthausen concentration camp begins.\n*1940 – World War II: Alsace-Lorraine is annexed by the Third Reich.\n*1942 – World War II: The Battle of Guadalcanal begins as the United States Marines initiate the first American offensive of the war with landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands.\n*1944 – IBM dedicates the first program-controlled calculator, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the Harvard Mark I).\n*1946 – The government of the Soviet Union presented a note to its Turkish counterparts which refuted the latter's sovereignty over the Turkish Straits, thus beginning the Turkish Straits crisis.\n*1947 – Thor Heyerdahl's balsa wood raft the Kon-Tiki, smashes into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands after a 101-day, journey across the Pacific Ocean in an attempt to prove that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from South America.\n* 1947 – The Bombay Municipal Corporation formally takes over the Bombay Electric Supply and Transport (BEST).\n*1955 – Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering, the precursor to Sony, sells its first transistor radios in Japan.\n*1959 – The Lincoln Memorial design on the U.S. penny goes into circulation. It replaces the \"sheaves of wheat\" design, and was minted until 2008.\n* 1959 – Explorer program: ''Explorer 6'' launches from the Atlantic Missile Range in Cape Canaveral, Florida.\n*1960 – Ivory Coast becomes independent from France.\n*1962 – Canadian-born American pharmacologist Frances Oldham Kelsey awarded the U.S. President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service for her refusal to authorize thalidomide.\n*1964 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson broad war powers to deal with North Vietnamese attacks on American forces.\n*1970 – California judge Harold Haley is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during an effort to free George Jackson from police custody.\n*1974 – Philippe Petit performs a high wire act between the twin towers of the World Trade Center in the air.\n*1976 – Viking program: ''Viking 2'' enters orbit around Mars.\n*1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter declares a federal emergency at Love Canal due to toxic waste that had been disposed of negligently.\n*1981 – ''The Washington Star'' ceases all operations after 128 years of publication.\n*1985 – Takao Doi, Mamoru Mohri and Chiaki Mukai are chosen to be Japan's first astronauts.\n*1987 – Lynne Cox becomes first person to swim from the United States to the Soviet Union, crossing the Bering Strait from Little Diomede Island in Alaska to Big Diomede in the Soviet Union\n*1989 – U.S. Congressman Mickey Leland (D-TX) and 15 others die in a plane crash in Ethiopia.\n*1990 – First American soldiers arrive in Saudi Arabia as part of the Gulf War.\n*1998 – Bombings at United States embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya kill approximately 212 people.\n*1999 – The Chechnya-based Islamic International Brigade invades neighboring Dagestan.\n*2008 – The start of the Russo-Georgian War over the territory of South Ossetia.\n",
"* 317 – Constantius II, Roman emperor (d. 361)\n*1282 – Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (d. 1316)\n*1533 – Alonso de Ercilla, Spanish soldier and poet (d. 1595)\n*1560 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian aristocrat and serial killer (d. 1614)\n*1571 – Thomas Lupo, English viol player and composer (d. 1627)\n*1574 – Robert Dudley, English explorer and cartographer (d. 1649)\n*1598 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish poet and linguist (d. 1672)\n*1613 – William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Dutch stadtholder (d. 1664)\n*1726 – James Bowdoin, American banker and politician, 2nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1790)\n*1742 – Nathanael Greene, American general (d. 1786)\n*1751 – Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange (d. 1820)\n*1779 – Louis de Freycinet, French navigator and explorer (d. 1842)\n* 1779 – Carl Ritter, German geographer and academic (d. 1859)\n*1844 – Auguste Michel-Lévy, French geologist and author (d. 1911)\n*1860 – Alan Leo, English astrologer and author (d. 1917)\n*1862 – Victoria of Baden (d. 1931)\n*1867 – Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and illustrator (d. 1956)\n*1868 – Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, Russian-German economist and statistician (d. 1931)\n*1876 – Mata Hari, Dutch dancer and spy (d. 1917)\n*1879 – Johannes Kotze, South African cricketer (d. 1931)\n*1884 – Billie Burke, American actress and singer (d. 1970)\n* 1884 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter and illustrator (d. 1940) \n*1887 – Anna Elisabet Weirauch, German author and playwright (d. 1970)\n*1890 – Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, American author and activist (d. 1964)\n*1901 – Ann Harding, American actress and singer (d. 1981)\n*1903 – Louis Leakey, Kenyan-English palaeontologist and archaeologist (d. 1972)\n*1904 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)\n*1907 – Albert Kotin, Belarusian-American soldier and painter (d. 1980)\n*1910 – Freddie Slack, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1965)\n*1911 – István Bibó, Hungarian lawyer and politician (d. 1979)\n* 1911 – Nicholas Ray, American director and screenwriter (d. 1979)\n*1913 – George Van Eps, American guitarist (d. 1998)\n*1916 – Kermit Love, American actor, puppeteer, and costume designer (d. 2008)\n*1918 – C. Buddingh', Dutch poet and translator (d. 1985)\n* 1918 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist and author (d. 2007)\n*1921 – Manitas de Plata, French guitarist (d. 2014)\n* 1921 – Karel Husa, Czech-American composer and conductor (d. 2016)\n*1924 – Kenneth Kendall, Indian-English journalist and actor (d. 2012)\n*1925 – Felice Bryant, American songwriter (d. 2003)\n*1926 – Stan Freberg, American puppeteer, voice actor, and singer (d. 2015)\n*1927 – Rocky Bridges, American baseball player and coach (d. 2015)\n* 1927 – Edwin Edwards, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 50th Governor of Louisiana\n* 1927 – Art Houtteman, American baseball player and journalist (d. 2003)\n*1928 – Betsy Byars, American author and academic\n* 1928 – Owen Luder, English architect, designed Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square\n* 1928 – James Randi, Canadian-American magician and author\n*1929 – Don Larsen, American baseball player\n*1930 – Togrul Narimanbekov, Azerbaijani-French painter and academic (d. 2013)\n* 1930 – Veljo Tormis, Estonian composer and educator\n*1931 – Jack Good, British television producer\n* 1931 – Charles E. Rice, American scholar and author (d. 2015)\n*1932 – Abebe Bikila, Ethiopian runner (d. 1973)\n* 1932 – Edward Hardwicke, English actor (d. 2011)\n* 1932 – Rien Poortvliet, Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 1995)\n* 1932 – Maurice Rabb, Jr., American ophthalmologist and academic (d. 2005)\n*1933 – Eddie Firmani, South African footballer and manager\n* 1933 – Elinor Ostrom, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012)\n* 1933 – Jerry Pournelle, American journalist and author\n*1934 – Sándor Simó, Hungarian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)\n*1935 – Rahsaan Roland Kirk, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1977)\n*1937 – Zoltán Berczik, Hungarian table tennis player and coach (d. 2011)\n* 1937 – Don Wilson, English cricketer and coach (d. 2012)\n*1940 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, French-Belgian lawyer and politician, 63rd Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014)\n*1941 – Matthew Evans, Baron Evans of Temple Guiting, English publisher and politician\n*1942 – Garrison Keillor, American humorist, novelist, short story writer, and radio host\n* 1942 – Carlos Monzon, Argentinian boxer and actor (d. 1995)\n* 1942 – Richard Sykes, English biochemist and academic\n* 1942 – B. J. Thomas, American singer \n*1943 – Mohammed Badie, Egyptian religious leader\n* 1943 – Lana Cantrell, Australian singer-songwriter and lawyer\n* 1943 – Alain Corneau, French director and screenwriter (d. 2010)\n*1944 – John Glover, American actor \n* 1944 – Robert Mueller, American soldier and lawyer, 6th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation\n*1945 – Kenny Ireland, Scottish actor and director (d. 2014)\n* 1945 – Alan Page, American football player and jurist\n*1947 – Franciscus Henri, Dutch-Australian singer-songwriter\n* 1947 – Sofia Rotaru, Ukrainian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress\n*1948 – Marty Appel, American businessman and author\n* 1948 – Greg Chappell, Australian cricketer and coach\n*1949 – Walid Jumblatt, Lebanese journalist and politician\n* 1949 – Matthew Parris, South African-English journalist and politician\n*1950 – Rodney Crowell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1950 – Alan Keyes, American politician and diplomat, 16th Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs\n* 1950 – S. Thandayuthapani, Sri Lankan educator and politician\n*1952 – Caroline Aaron, American actress and producer\n* 1952 – Eamonn Darcy, Irish golfer\n* 1952 – Kees Kist, Dutch footballer\n* 1952 – Alexei Sayle, English comedian, actor, and author\n*1953 – Anne Fadiman, American journalist and author\n*1954 – Jonathan Pollard, Israeli spy\n* 1954 – Alan Reid, Scottish politician\n*1955 – Wayne Knight, American actor, comedian and voice actor\n* 1955 – Greg Nickels, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Seattle\n* 1955 – Vladimir Sorokin, Russian author and playwright\n*1957 – Daire Brehan, Irish journalist, lawyer, and actress (d. 2012)\n* 1957 – Alexander Dityatin, Russian gymnast and colonel\n*1958 – Russell Baze, Canadian-American jockey\n* 1958 – Bruce Dickinson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1958 – Alberto Salazar, Cuban-American runner and coach\n*1959 – Koenraad Elst, Belgian orientalist and author\n* 1959 – Ali Shah, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach\n*1960 – David Duchovny, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1961 – Brian Conley, English actor and singer\n* 1961 – Yelena Davydova, Russian gymnast\n* 1961 – Walter Swinburn, English jockey and trainer\n*1962 – Alison Brown, American banjo player, songwriter, and producer \n*1963 – Paul Dunn, Australian rugby league player\n* 1963 – Nick Gillespie, American journalist and author\n* 1963 – Marcus Roberts, American pianist and educator\n*1964 – John Birmingham, English-Australian journalist and author\n* 1964 – Ian Dench, English guitarist and songwriter (EMF)\n* 1964 – Peter Niven, Scottish jockey\n*1965 – Raul Malo, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1965 – Elizabeth Manley, Canadian figure skater\n*1966 – David Cairns, Scottish laicised priest and politician, Minister of State for Scotland (d. 2011)\n* 1966 – Kristin Hersh, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1966 – Jimmy Wales, American businessman, co-founder of Wikipedia\n*1967 – Jason Grimsley, American baseball player\n*1968 – Francesca Gregorini, Italian-American director and screenwriter\n* 1968 – Trevor Hendy, Australian surfer and coach\n* 1968 – Sophie Lee, Australian actress and author\n*1969 – Paul Lambert, Scottish footballer and manager\n*1970 – Eric Namesnik, American swimmer (d. 2006)\n*1971 – Dominic Cork, England cricketer and sportscaster\n* 1971 – Rachel York, American actress and singer\n*1972 – Gerry Peñalosa, Filipino boxer and promoter\n*1973 – Mikhail Gorsheniov, Russian singer-songwriter (d. 2013)\n* 1973 – Danny Graves, Vietnamese-American baseball player\n* 1973 – Kevin Muscat, English-Australian footballer, coach, and manager\n*1974 – Chico Benymon, American actor\n* 1974 – Michael Shannon, American actor\n*1975 – Koray Candemir, Turkish singer-songwriter\n* 1975 – Gerard Denton, Australian cricketer\n* 1975 – Megan Gale, Australian model and actress\n* 1975 – Ray Hill, American football player (d. 2015)\n* 1975 – Rebecca Kleefisch, American journalist and politician, 44th Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin\n* 1975 – Édgar Rentería, Colombian baseball player\n* 1975 – Charlize Theron, South African-American actress and producer\n*1976 – Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos, Greek footballer and manager\n* 1976 – Shane Lechler, American football player\n*1977 – Charlotte Ronson, English fashion designer\n* 1977 – Samantha Ronson, English singer-songwriter and DJ\n*1978 – Alexandre Aja, French director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1978 – Jamey Jasta, American singer-songwriter \n* 1978 – Mark McCammon, English-Barbadian footballer\n*1979 – Eric Johnson, American actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1979 – Miguel Llera, Spanish footballer\n* 1979 – Birgit Zotz, Austrian anthropologist and author\n*1980 – Carsten Busch, German footballer\n* 1980 – Aurélie Claudel, French model and actress\n* 1980 – Tácio Caetano Cruz Queiroz, Brazilian footballer\n* 1980 – Seiichiro Maki, Japanese footballer\n*1981 – David Testo, American soccer player\n* 1981 – Randy Wayne, American actor and producer\n*1982 – Ángeles Balbiani, Argentine actress and singer\n* 1982 – Abbie Cornish, Australian actress\n* 1982 – Juan Martín Hernández, Argentine rugby player\n* 1982 – Marquise Hill, American football player (d. 2007)\n* 1982 – Vassilis Spanoulis, Greek basketball player\n* 1982 – Martin Vučić, Macedonian singer and drummer\n*1983 – Christian Chávez, Mexican singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1983 – Murat Dalkılıç, Turkish singer-songwriter\n* 1983 – Andriy Hrivko, Ukrainian cyclist\n* 1983 – Mark Pettini, English cricketer and journalist\n*1984 – Stratos Perperoglou, Greek basketball player\n* 1984 – Tooba Siddiqui, Pakistani model and actress\n* 1984 – Yun Hyon-seok, South Korean poet and author (d. 2003) \n*1986 – Paul Biedermann, German swimmer\n* 1986 – Valter Birsa, Slovenian footballer\n* 1986 – Altaír Jarabo, Mexican model and actress\n* 1986 – Juan de la Rosa, Mexican boxer\n*1987 – Sidney Crosby, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1987 – Mustapha Dumbuya, Sierra Leonean footballer\n* 1987 – Ryan Lavarnway, American baseball player\n* 1987 – Rouven Sattelmaier, German footballer\n*1988 – Jonathan Bernier, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1988 – Mohamed Coulibaly, Senegalese footballer\n* 1988 – Anisa Mohammed, West Indian cricketer\n* 1988 – Melody Oliveria, American blogger\n* 1988 – Erik Pieters, Dutch footballer\n* 1988 – Beanie Wells, American football player\n*1989 – DeMar DeRozan, American basketball player\n*1990 – Helen Flanagan, English actress\n* 1990 – Josh Franceschi, English singer-songwriter\n*1991 – Luis Salom, Spanish motorcycle racer (d. 2016)\n* 1991 – Mitchell te Vrede, Dutch footballer\n* 1991 – Mike Trout, American baseball player\n*1992 – Ariel Camacho, Mexican singer-songwriter (d. 2015)\n* 1992 – Adam Yates, English cyclist\n* 1992 – Simon Yates, English cyclist\n*1993 – Martti Nõmme, Estonian ski jumper\n* 1993 – Zaur Sizo, Russian footballer\n* 1993 – Karol Zalewski, Polish sprinter\n\n",
"* 461 – Majorian, Roman emperor (b. 420)\n* 707 – Li Chongjun, crown prince of the Tang Dynasty\n*1106 – Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1050)\n*1234 – Hugh Foliot, bishop of Hereford (b.c. 1155)\n*1272 – Richard Middleton, Lord Chancellor of England\n*1296 – Heinrich II von Rotteneck, prince-bishop of Regensburg\n*1385 – Joan of Kent, mother of King Richard II of England (b. 1328)\n*1485 – Alexander Stewart, Duke of Albany (b. 1454)\n*1547 – Saint Cajetan, Italian priest and saint (b. 1480)\n*1613 – Thomas Fleming, English judge and politician, Lord Chief Justice of England (b. 1544)\n*1616 – Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian architect, designed Teatro Olimpico (b. 1548)\n*1632 – Robert de Vere, 19th Earl of Oxford, English soldier (b. 1575)\n*1635 – Friedrich Spee, German poet and academic (b. 1591)\n*1639 – Martin van den Hove, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1605)\n*1661 – Jin Shengtan, Chinese journalist and critic (b. 1608)\n*1787 – Francis Blackburne, English Anglican churchman and activist (b. 1705)\n*1817 – Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, French economist and politician (b. 1739)\n*1834 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French weaver and inventor, invented the Jacquard loom (b. 1752)\n*1848 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Swedish chemist and academic (b. 1779)\n*1855 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 19th President of Mexico (b. 1802)\n*1864 – Li Xiucheng, Chinese field marshal (b. 1823)\n*1893 – Alfredo Catalani, Italian composer and academic (b. 1854)\n*1899 – Jacob Maris, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1837)\n*1900 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German lawyer and politician (b. 1826)\n*1912 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss limnologist and academic (b. 1841)\n*1917 – Edwin Harris Dunning, South African-English commander and pilot (b. 1891)\n*1938 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor and director (b. 1863)\n*1941 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1861)\n*1948 – Charles Bryant, English-American actor and director (b. 1879)\n*1953 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (b. 1860)\n*1957 – Oliver Hardy, American actor, singer, and director (b. 1892)\n*1958 – Elizabeth Foreman Lewis, American author and educator (b. 1892)\n*1960 – Luis Ángel Firpo, Argentine boxer (b. 1894)\n*1968 – Giovanni Bracco, Italian race car driver (b. 1908)\n*1969 – Jean Bastien, French professional footballer (b. 1915)\n* 1969 – Joseph Kosma, Hungarian-French composer (b. 1905)\n*1970 – Harold Haley, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904)\n* 1970 – Jonathan P. Jackson, American bodyguard (b. 1953)\n*1972 – Joi Lansing, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1929)\n*1973 – Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer (b. 1895)\n*1974 – Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet and author (b. 1925)\n* 1974 – Sylvio Mantha, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1902)\n*1981 – Gunnar Uusi, Estonian chess player (b. 1931)\n*1985 – Grayson Hall, American actress (b. 1922)\n*1987 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (b. 1900)\n*1989 – Mickey Leland, American lawyer and politician (b. 1944)\n*1994 – Larry Martyn, English actor (b. 1934)\n*1995 – Brigid Brophy, English author and critic (b. 1929)\n*2001 – Algirdas Lauritėnas, Lithuanian basketball player (b. 1932)\n*2003 – K. D. Arulpragasam, Sri Lankan zoologist and academic (b. 1931)\n* 2003 – Mickey McDermott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1929)\n*2004 – Red Adair, American firefighter (b. 1915)\n* 2004 – Colin Bibby, English ornithologist and academic (b. 1948)\n*2005 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American journalist and author (b. 1938)\n*2006 – Mary Anderson Bain, American lawyer and politician (b. 1911)\n*2007 – Ernesto Alonso, Mexican actor, director, and producer (b. 1917)\n* 2007 – Angus Tait, New Zealand businessman, founded Tait Communications (b. 1919)\n*2008 – Bernie Brillstein, American talent agent and producer (b. 1931)\n* 2008 – Andrea Pininfarina, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1957)\n*2009 – Louis E. Saavedra, American educator and politician, 48th Mayor of Albuquerque (b. 1933)\n* 2009 – Mike Seeger, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933)\n*2010 – John Nelder, English mathematician and statistician (b. 1924)\n*2011 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier, academic, and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (b. 1922)\n* 2011 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-English captain and spy (b. 1912)\n*2012 – Murtuz Alasgarov, Azerbaijani academic and politician, Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan (b. 1928)\n* 2012 – Judith Crist, American critic and academic (b. 1922)\n* 2012 – Vladimir Kobzev, Russian footballer and coach (b. 1959)\n* 2012 – Anna Piaggi, Italian journalist and author (b. 1931)\n* 2012 – Mayer Zald, American sociologist and academic (b. 1931)\n* 2012 – Dušan Zbavitel, Czech indologist and author (b. 1925)\n*2013 – Samuel G. Armistead, American linguist, historian, and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – Almir Kayumov, Russian footballer (b. 1964)\n* 2013 – Anthony Pawson, English-Canadian biologist, chemist, and academic (b. 1952)\n* 2013 – Margaret Pellegrini, American actress and dancer (b. 1923)\n* 2013 – Meeli Truu, Estonian architect (d. 1946) \n* 2013 – Alexander Yagubkin, Russian boxer (b. 1961)\n*2014 – Víctor Fayad, Argentine lawyer and politician (b. 1955)\n* 2014 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (b. 1926)\n* 2014 – Henry Stone, American record producer (b. 1921)\n*2015 – Manuel Contreras, Chilean general (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian pharmacologist and physician (b. 1914)\n* 2015 – Louise Suggs, American golfer, co-founded LPGA (b. 1923)\n*2016 – Bryan Clauson, American racing driver (b. 1989)\n\n",
"* Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community)\n* Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia)\n* Christian feast day:\n** Albert of Trapani\n** Cajetan of Thienna\n** Carpophorus and companions\n** Dometius of Persia\n** Donatus of Arezzo\n** Donatus of Besançon\n** Donatus of Muenstereifel\n** John Mason Neale and Catherine Winkworth (Episcopal Church (USA))\n** Nantovinus\n** Pope Sixtus II\n** August 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis)\n* Republic Day (Ivory Coast)\n* Youth Day (Kiribati)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n*\n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 7 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*1457 BC – Likely date of the Battle of Megiddo between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of Kadesh, the first battle to have been recorded in what is accepted as relatively reliable detail.\n*AD 73 – Masada, a Jewish fortress, falls to the Romans after several months of siege, ending the Great Jewish Revolt.\n*1346 – Dušan the Mighty is proclaimed Emperor, with the Serbian Empire occupying much of the Balkans.\n*1520 – The Revolt of the Comuneros begins in Spain against the rule of Charles V.\n*1582 – Spanish conquistador Hernando de Lerma founds the settlement of Salta, Argentina.\n*1746 – The Battle of Culloden is fought between the French-supported Jacobites and the British Hanoverian forces commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, in Scotland. After the battle many highland traditions were banned and the Highlands of Scotland were cleared of inhabitants.\n*1780 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany is founded.\n*1799 – Napoleonic Wars: The Battle of Mount Tabor: Napoleon drives Ottoman Turks across the River Jordan near Acre.\n*1818 – The United States Senate ratifies the Rush–Bagot Treaty, establishing the border with Canada.\n*1847 – The accidental shooting of a Māori by an English sailor results in the opening of the Wanganui Campaign of the New Zealand land wars.\n*1853 – The first passenger rail opens in India, from Bori Bunder, Bombay to Thane.\n*1858 – The Wernerian Natural History Society, a former Scottish learned society, is wound up.\n*1862 – American Civil War: Battle at Lee's Mills in Virginia.\n* 1862 – American Civil War: The District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, a bill ending slavery in the District of Columbia, becomes law.\n*1863 – American Civil War: During the Siege of Vicksburg, gunboats commanded by Acting Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter run downriver past Confederate artillery batteries at Vicksburg.\n*1881 – In Dodge City, Kansas, Bat Masterson fights his last gun battle.\n*1908 – Natural Bridges National Monument is established in Utah.\n*1910 – The oldest existing indoor ice hockey arena still used for the sport in the 21st century, Boston Arena, opens for the first time. \n*1912 – Harriet Quimby becomes the first woman to fly an airplane across the English Channel.\n*1917 – Vladimir Lenin returns to Petrograd, Russia from exile in Switzerland.\n*1919 – Mohandas Gandhi organizes a day of \"prayer and fasting\" in response to the killing of Indian protesters in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by the British colonial troops three days earlier.\n* 1919 – Polish–Soviet War: The Polish army launches the Vilna offensive to capture Vilnius in modern Lithuania.\n*1922 – The Treaty of Rapallo, pursuant to which Germany and the Soviet Union re-establish diplomatic relations, is signed.\n*1925 – During the Communist St Nedelya Church assault in Sofia, Bulgaria, 150 are killed and 500 are wounded.\n*1941 – World War II: The Italian-German ''Tarigo'' convoy is attacked and destroyed by British ships.\n* 1941 – World War II: The Nazi-affiliated Ustaše is put in charge of the Independent State of Croatia by the Axis powers after Operation 25 is effected.\n*1943 – Albert Hofmann accidentally discovers the hallucinogenic effects of the research drug LSD. He intentionally takes the drug three days later on April 19.\n*1944 – World War II: Allied forces start bombing Belgrade, killing about 1,100 people. This bombing fell on the Orthodox Christian Easter.\n*1945 – World War II: The Red Army begins the final assault on German forces around Berlin, with nearly one million troops fighting in the Battle of the Seelow Heights.\n* 1945 – The United States Army liberates Nazi ''Sonderlager'' (high security) prisoner-of-war camp Oflag IV-C (better known as Colditz).\n* 1945 – More than 7,000 die when the German refugee ship ''Goya'' is sunk by a Soviet submarine.\n*1947 – Texas City disaster: An explosion on board a freighter in port causes the city of Texas City, Texas, to catch fire, killing almost 600.\n* 1947 – Bernard Baruch first applies the term \"Cold War\" to describe the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union.\n*1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba is going to adopt Communism.\n*1963 – Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. pens his Letter from Birmingham Jail while incarcerated in Birmingham, Alabama for protesting against segregation.\n*1972 – Apollo program: The launch of Apollo 16 from Cape Canaveral, Florida.\n*1990 – \"Doctor Death\", Jack Kevorkian, participates in his first assisted suicide.\n*1992 – The ''Katina P'' runs aground off of Maputo, Mozambique and 60,000 tons of crude oil spill into the ocean.\n*2001 – India and Bangladesh begin a five-day border conflict, but are unable to resolve the disputes about their border.\n*2003 – The Treaty of Accession is signed in Athens admitting ten new member states to the European Union.\n*2007 – Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho guns down 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide.\n*2012 – The trial for Anders Behring Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, begins in Oslo, Norway.\n* 2012 – The Pulitzer Prize winners were announced, it was the first time since 1977 that no book won the Fiction Prize.\n*2013 – A 7.8-magnitude earthquake strikes Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran, killing at least 35 people and injuring 117 others.\n* 2013 – The 2013 Baga massacre is started when Boko Haram militants engage government soldiers in Baga.\n*2014 – The South Korean ferry MV ''Sewol'' capsizes and sinks near Jindo Island, killing 304 passengers and crew and leading to widespread criticism of the South Korean government, media, and shipping authorities.\n",
"*1319 – John II of France (d. 1364)\n*1435 – Jan II the Mad, Duke of Żagań (1439–1449 and 1461–1468 and again in 1472) (d. 1504)\n*1488 – Jungjong of Joseon (d. 1544)\n*1495 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1557)\n*1516 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (d. 1550)\n*1569 – John Davies, English poet and lawyer (d. 1626)\n*1635 – Frans van Mieris the Elder, Dutch painter (d. 1681)\n*1646 – Jules Hardouin-Mansart, French architect, designed the Château de Dampierre and Grand Trianon (d. 1708)\n*1660 – Hans Sloane, Irish-English physician and academic (d. 1753)\n*1661 – Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and politician, First Lord of the Treasury (d. 1715)\n*1682 – John Hadley, English mathematician, invented the octant (d. 1744)\n*1697 – Johann Gottlieb Görner, German organist and composer (d. 1778)\n*1728 – Joseph Black, French-Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1799)\n*1730 – Henry Clinton, English general and politician (d. 1795)\n*1755 – Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun, French painter (d. 1842)\n*1786 – John Franklin, English admiral and politician, 4th Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemen's Land (d. 1847)\n*1800 – George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan, English field marshal and politician (d. 1888)\n*1808 – Caleb Blood Smith, American journalist, lawyer, and politician, 6th United States Secretary of the Interior (d. 1864)\n*1821 – Ford Madox Brown, French-English soldier and painter (d. 1893)\n*1823 – Gotthold Eisenstein, German mathematician and academic (d. 1852)\n*1826 – Sir James Corry, 1st Baronet, British politician (d. 1891)\n*1827 – Octave Crémazie, Canadian poet and bookseller (d. 1879)\n*1839 – Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì, Italian politician, 12th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1908)\n*1834 – Charles Lennox Richardson, English-Chinese merchant (d. 1862)\n*1844 – Anatole France, French journalist, novelist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)\n*1847 – Hans Auer, Swiss-Austrian architect, designed the Federal Palace of Switzerland (d. 1906)\n*1848 – Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Indian author and activist (d. 1919)\n*1851 – Ponnambalam Ramanathan, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 3rd Solicitor General of Sri Lanka (d. 1930)\n*1865 – Harry Chauvel, Australian general (d. 1945)\n*1866 – José de Diego, Puerto Rican journalist, lawyer, and politician (d. 1918)\n*1867 – Wilbur Wright, American inventor (d. 1912)\n*1871 – John Millington Synge, Irish author, poet, and playwright (d. 1909)\n*1874 – Jōtarō Watanabe, Japanese general (d. 1936)\n*1878 – R. E. Foster, English cricketer and footballer (d. 1914)\n*1882 – Seth Bingham, American organist and composer (d. 1972)\n*1884 – Ronald Barnes, 3rd Baron Gorell, English cricketer, journalist, and politician (d. 1963)\n*1885 – Leó Weiner, Hungarian composer and educator (d. 1960)\n*1886 – Michalis Dorizas, Greek-American football player and javelin thrower (d. 1957)\n* 1886 – Ernst Thälmann, German politician (d. 1944)\n*1888 – Billy Minter, English footballer and manager (d. 1940)\n*1889 – Charlie Chaplin, English actor, director, producer, screenwriter, and composer (d. 1977)\n*1890 – Fred Root, English cricketer and umpire (d. 1954)\n* 1890 – Gertrude Chandler Warner, American author and educator (d. 1979)\n*1891 – Dorothy P. Lathrop, American author and illustrator (d. 1980)\n*1892 – Howard Mumford Jones, American author, critic, and academic (d. 1980)\n*1893 – Germaine Guèvremont, Canadian journalist and author (d. 1968)\n* 1893 – John Norton, American hurdler (d. 1979)\n*1895 – Ove Arup, English-Danish engineer and businessman, founded Arup (d. 1988)\n*1896 – Robert Henry Best, American journalist (d. 1952)\n* 1896 – Tristan Tzara, Romanian-French poet and critic (d. 1963)\n*1899 – Osman Achmatowicz, Polish chemist and academic (d. 1988)\n*1903 – Paul Waner, American baseball player and manager (d. 1965)\n*1904 – Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian-American vaudevillian, actress, and singer (d. 1983)\n*1905 – Frits Philips, Dutch businessman (d. 2005)\n*1907 – Joseph-Armand Bombardier, Canadian inventor and businessman, founded Bombardier Inc. (d. 1964)\n* 1907 – August Eigruber, Austrian-German politician (d. 1947)\n*1908 – Ellis Marsalis, Sr., American businessman and activist (d. 2004)\n* 1908 – Ray Ventura, French jazz bandleader (d. 1979)\n*1910 – Berton Roueché, American journalist and author (d. 1994)\n*1911 – Guy Burgess, English-Russian spy (d. 1963)\n*1913 – Les Tremayne, English actor (d. 2003)\n*1914 – John Hodiak, American actor (d. 1955) \n* 1915 – Robert Speck, Canadian politician, 1st Mayor of Mississauga (d. 1972)\n*1916 – Behçet Necatigil, Turkish author, poet, and translator (d. 1979)\n*1917 – Victoria Eugenia Fernández de Córdoba, 18th Duchess of Medinaceli (d. 2013)\n* 1917 – Barry Nelson, American actor (d. 2007)\n*1918 – Dick Gibson, English race car driver (d. 2010)\n* 1918 – Hsuan Hua, Chinese-American monk and author (d. 1995)\n* 1918 – Juozas Kazickas, Lithuanian-American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2014)\n* 1918 – Spike Milligan, Irish actor, comedian, and writer (d. 2002)\n*1919 – Merce Cunningham, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2009)\n* 1919 – Nilla Pizzi, Italian singer (d. 2011)\n* 1919 – Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexican architect, designed the Tijuana Cultural Center and National Museum of Anthropology (d. 2013)\n* 1919 – Thomas Willmore, English geometer and academic (d. 2005)\n*1920 – Ananda Dassanayake, Sri Lankan politician (d. 2012)\n* 1920 – Prince George Valdemar of Denmark (d. 1986)\n*1921 – Arlin M. Adams, American lawyer and judge (d. 2015)\n* 1921 – Wolfgang Leonhard, German historian and author (d. 2014)\n* 1921 – Peter Ustinov, English actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2004)\n*1922 – Kingsley Amis, English novelist, poet, critic (d. 1995)\n* 1922 – John Christopher, English author (d. 2012)\n* 1922 – Lawrence N. Guarino, American colonel (d. 2014)\n* 1922 – Leo Tindemans, Belgian politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014)\n*1923 – Warren Barker, American composer (d. 2006)\n* 1923 – Arch A. Moore, Jr., American sergeant, lawyer, and politician, 28th Governor of West Virginia (d. 2015)\n*1924 – John Harvey-Jones, English academic and businessman (d. 2008)\n* 1924 – Henry Mancini, American composer and conductor (d. 1994)\n* 1924 – Rudy Pompilli, American saxophonist (d. 1976)\n* 1924 – Madanjeet Singh, Indian diplomat, author, and philanthropist (d. 2013)\n*1926 – Pierre Fabre, French pharmacist, founded Laboratoires Pierre Fabre (d. 2013)\n*1927 – Edie Adams, American actress and singer (d. 2008)\n* 1927 – Pope Benedict XVI\n* 1927 – Rolf Schult, German actor (d. 2013)\n*1928 – Dick Lane, American football player and soldier (d. 2002)\n*1929 – Roy Hamilton, American singer (d. 1969)\n* 1929 – Ralph Slatyer, Australian biologist and ecologist (d. 2012)\n* 1929 – Ed Townsend, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2003)\n*1930 – Doug Beasy, Australian footballer and educator (d. 2013)\n* 1930 – Herbie Mann, American flute player and composer (d. 2003)\n*1932 – Maury Meyers, American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)\n*1933 – Marcos Alonso Imaz, Spanish footballer (d. 2012)\n* 1933 – Joan Bakewell, English journalist and author\n* 1933 – Perry Botkin Jr., American composer, arranger and musician\n* 1933 – Vera Krepkina, Russian long jumper\n* 1933 – Ike Pappas, American journalist and actor (d. 2008)\n*1934 – Vince Hill, English singer-songwriter\n* 1934 – Robert Stigwood, Australian producer and manager (d. 2016)\n* 1934 – Barrie Unsworth, Australian politician, 36th Premier of New South Wales\n* 1934 – Vicar, Chilean cartoonist (d. 2012)\n*1935 – Marcel Carrière, Canadian director and screenwriter\n* 1935 – Sarah Kirsch, German poet and author (d. 2013) \n* 1935 – Lennart Risberg, Swedish boxer (d. 2013)\n* 1935 – Dominique Venner, French journalist and historian (d. 2013)\n* 1935 – Bobby Vinton, American singer\n*1936 – Vadim Kuzmin, Russian physicist and academic (d. 2015)\n* 1937 – Gert Potgieter, South African hurdler and coach\n*1938 – Rich Rollins, American baseball player\n* 1938 – Gordon Wilson, Scottish lawyer and politician\n*1939 – John Amabile, American football player and coach (d. 2012)\n* 1939 – Dusty Springfield, English singer and record producer (d. 1999)\n*1940 – Benoît Bouchard, Canadian academic and politician, 18th Canadian Minister of Transport\n* 1940 – David Holford, Barbadian cricketer\n* 1940 – Queen Margrethe II of Denmark\n* 1940 – Joan Snyder, American painter\n* 1940 – Thomas Stonor, 7th Baron Camoys, English banker and politician, Lord Chamberlain of the United Kingdom\n*1941 – Allan Segal, American director and producer (d. 2012)\n*1942 – Jim Lonborg, American baseball pitcher\n* 1942 – Frank Williams, English businessman, founded the Williams F1 Racing Team\n*1943 – Lonesome Dave Peverett, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2000)\n* 1943 – Petro Tyschtschenko, Austrian-German businessman\n* 1943 – John Watkins, Australian cricketer\n*1945 – Tom Allen, American lawyer and politician\n*1946 – Margot Adler, American journalist and author (d. 2014)\n* 1946 – Ernst Bakker, Dutch politician (d. 2014)\n* 1946 – Johnnie Lewis, Liberian lawyer and politician, 18th Chief Justice of Liberia (d. 2015)\n* 1946 – R. Carlos Nakai, American flute player\n*1947 – Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, American basketball player and coach\n* 1947 – Gerry Rafferty, Scottish singer-songwriter (d. 2011)\n*1948 – Reg Alcock, Canadian businessman and politician, 17th Canadian President of the Treasury Board (d. 2011)\n*1950 – David Graf, American actor (d. 2001)\n* 1950 – Colleen Hewett, Australian singer and actress\n*1951 – Ioan Mihai Cochinescu, Romanian author and photographer\n* 1951 – David Nutt, English psychiatrist and academic\n*1952 – Bill Belichick, American football player and coach\n* 1952 – Michel Blanc, French actor and director\n* 1952 – Esther Roth-Shahamorov, Israeli sprinter and hurdler\n* 1952 – Billy West, American voice actor, singer-songwriter, and comedian\n*1953 – Peter Garrett, Australian singer-songwriter and politician\n* 1953 – Jay O. Sanders, American actor\n*1954 – Ellen Barkin, American actress \n* 1954 – John Bowe, Australian race car driver\n* 1954 – Mike Zuke, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1955 – Bruce Bochy, American baseball player and manager\n* 1955 – Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg\n*1956 – David M. Brown, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2003)\n* 1956 – T Lavitz, American keyboard player, composer, and producer (d. 2010)\n* 1956 – Lise-Marie Morerod, Swiss skier\n*1957 – Patricia De Martelaere, Belgian philosopher, author, and academic (d. 2009)\n*1958 – Tim Flach, English photographer and director\n* 1958 – Ulf Wakenius, Swedish guitarist \n*1959 – Alison Ramsay, English-Scottish field hockey player and lawyer\n*1960 – Wahab Akbar, Filipino politician (d. 2007)\n* 1960 – Rafael Benítez, Spanish footballer and manager\n* 1960 – Pierre Littbarski, German footballer and manager\n*1961 – Jarbom Gamlin, Indian lawyer and politician, 7th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (d. 2014)\n* 1961 – Linda Ruth Williams, British film studies academic\n*1962 – Anna Dello Russo, Italian journalist\n* 1962 – Douglas Elmendorf, American economist and politician\n* 1962 – Ian MacKaye, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n*1963 – Saleem Malik, Pakistani cricketer\n* 1963 – Jimmy Osmond, American singer (The Osmonds)\n*1964 – David Kohan, American screenwriter and producer\n* 1964 – Dave Pirner, American singer, songwriter and producer (Soul Asylum)\n* 1964 – Esbjörn Svensson, Swedish pianist (d. 2008)\n*1965 – Yves-François Blanchet, Canadian politician\n* 1965 – Jon Cryer, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1965 – Martin Lawrence, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1966 – Jarle Vespestad, Norwegian drummer \n* 1966 – Jeff Varner, American newscaster and reality television personality\n*1968 – Vickie Guerrero, American wrestler and manager\n* 1968 – Rüdiger Stenzel, German runner\n*1969 – Patrik Järbyn, Swedish skier\n* 1969 – Fernando Viña, American baseball player and sportscaster\n*1970 – Dero Goi, German singer-songwriter and drummer \n* 1970 – Walt Williams, American basketball player\n*1971 – Cameron Blades, Australian rugby player\n* 1971 – Selena, American singer-songwriter, actress, and fashion designer (d. 1995)\n* 1971 – Seigo Yamamoto, Japanese race car driver\n* 1971 – Natasha Zvereva, Belarusian tennis player\n*1972 – Conchita Martínez, Spanish-American tennis player\n* 1972 – Tracy K. Smith, American poet and educator\n*1973 – Akon, Senegalese-American singer, rapper and songwriter \n* 1973 – Charlotta Sörenstam, Swedish golfer\n* 1973 – Teddy Cobeña, Spanish-Ecuadorian expressionist and representational sculptor \n*1975 – Keon Clark, American basketball player\n*1976 – Lukas Haas, American actor and musician \n*1977 – Fredrik Ljungberg, Swedish footballer\n*1979 – Christijan Albers, Dutch race car driver\n* 1979 – Lars Börgeling, German pole vaulter\n* 1979 – Daniel Browne, New Zealand rugby player\n*1981 – Anestis Agritis, Greek footballer\n* 1981 – Maya Dunietz, Israeli singer-songwriter and pianist\n* 1981 – Matthieu Proulx, Canadian football player\n*1982 – Gina Carano, American mixed martial artist and actress\n* 1982 – Boris Diaw, French basketball player\n* 1982 – Jonathan Vilma, American football player\n*1983 – Marié Digby, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actress\n* 1983 – Cat Osterman, American softball player\n*1984 – Teddy Blass, American composer and producer\n* 1984 – Claire Foy, English actress\n* 1984 – Tucker Fredricks, American speed skater\n* 1984 – Paweł Kieszek, Polish footballer\n* 1984 – Kerron Stewart, Jamaican sprinter\n*1985 – Luol Deng, Sudanese-English basketball player\n* 1985 – Brendon Leonard, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1985 – Benjamín Rojas, Argentinian singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1985 – Taye Taiwo, Nigerian footballer\n*1986 – Paul di Resta, Scottish race car driver\n* 1986 – Shinji Okazaki, Japanese footballer\n* 1986 – Peter Regin, Danish ice hockey player\n* 1986 – Epke Zonderland, Dutch gymnast\n*1987 – Cenk Akyol, Turkish basketball player\n* 1987 – Aaron Lennon, English footballer\n*1988 – Kyle Okposo, American ice hockey player\n*1990 – Reggie Jackson, American basketball player\n* 1990 – Vangelis Mantzaris, Greek basketball player\n* 1990 – Tony McQuay, American sprinter\n* 1990 – Travis Shaw, American baseball player\n*1991 – Nolan Arenado, American baseball player\n* 1991 – Kim Kyung-jung, South Korean footballer\n*1993 – Mirai Nagasu, American figure skater\n* 1993 – Chance the Rapper, American rapper\n*1994 – Albert Almora, American baseball player\n* 1994 – Will Fuller, American football player\n\n",
"*AD 69 – Otho, Roman emperor (b. AD 32)\n* 665 – Fructuosus of Braga, French archbishop and saint\n*1090 – Sikelgaita, duchess of Apulia (b. c. 1040)\n*1113 – Sviatopolk II of Kiev (b. 1050)\n*1118 – Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, mother of Roger II of Sicily, queen of Baldwin I of Jerusalem\n*1198 – Frederick I, Duke of Austria (b. 1175)\n*1234 – Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (b. 1191)\n*1496 – Charles II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1489)\n*1587 – Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (b. 1497)\n*1640 – Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (b. 1579)\n*1645 – Tobias Hume, Scottish soldier, viol player, and composer (b. 1569)\n*1687 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English poet and politician, Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire (b. 1628)\n*1689 – Aphra Behn, English author and playwright (b. 1640)\n*1742 – Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Italian poet and translator (b. 1672)\n*1756 – Jacques Cassini, French astronomer (b. 1677)\n*1783 – Christian Mayer, Czech astronomer and educator (b. 1719)\n*1788 – Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French mathematician, cosmologist, and author (b. 1707)\n*1828 – Francisco Goya, Spanish-French painter and illustrator (b. 1746)\n*1846 – Domenico Dragonetti, Italian bassist and composer (b. 1763)\n*1850 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded the Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (b. 1761)\n*1859 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and philosopher, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1805)\n*1879 – Bernadette Soubirous, French nun and saint (b. 1844)\n*1888 – Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski, Polish physicist and chemist (b. 1845)\n*1899 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (b. 1875)\n*1904 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (b. 1888)\n* 1904 – Samuel Smiles, Scottish-English author (b. 1812)\n*1914 – George William Hill, American astronomer and mathematician (b. 1838)\n*1915 – Nelson W. Aldrich, American businessman and politician (b. 1841)\n*1925 – Stefan Nerezov, Bulgarian general (b. 1867)\n*1928 – Henry Birks, Canadian businessman, founded Henry Birks and Sons (b. 1840)\n* 1928 – Roman Steinberg, Estonian wrestler (b. 1900)\n*1930 – José Carlos Mariátegui, Peruvian journalist, philosopher, and activist (b. 1894)\n*1935 – Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1884)\n*1937 – Jay Johnson Morrow, American military engineer and politician, 3rd Governor of the Panama Canal Zone (b. 1870)\n*1938 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and manager (b. 1874)\n*1941 – Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp, English economist and civil servant (b. 1880)\n*1942 – Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1878)\n* 1942 – Denis St. George Daly, Irish polo player (b. 1862)\n*1946 – Arthur Chevrolet, Swiss-American race car driver and engineer (b. 1884)\n*1947 – Rudolf Höss, German SS officer (b. 1900)\n*1950 – Eduard Oja, Estonian composer, conductor, and critic (b. 1905)\n* 1950 – Anders Peter Nielsen, Danish target shooter (b. 1867)\n*1955 – David Kirkwood, Scottish engineer and politician (b. 1872)\n*1958 – Rosalind Franklin, English biophysicist and academic (b. 1920)\n*1960 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter and film director (b. 1884) \n*1961 – Carl Hovland, American psychologist and academic (b. 1912)\n*1965 – Francis Cecil Campbell Balfour, English soldier and colonial administrator (b. 1884)\n*1965 – Sydney Chaplin, Actor,comedian, brother to Charlie Chaplin (b. 1885)\n*1966 – Eric Lambert, Australian author (b. 1918)\n*1968 – Fay Bainter, American actress (b. 1893)\n* 1968 – Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1885)\n*1969 – Hem Vejakorn, Thai illustrator and painter (b. 1904)\n*1970 – Richard Neutra, Austrian-American architect, designed the Los Angeles County Hall of Records (b. 1892)\n* 1970 – Péter Veres, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (b. 1897)\n*1972 – Yasunari Kawabata, Japanese novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)\n* 1972 – Frank O'Connor, Australian public servant (b. 1894)\n*1973 – István Kertész, Hungarian conductor and educator (b. 1929)\n*1978 – Lucius D. Clay, American officer and military governor in occupied Germany (b. 1898)\n*1980 – Morris Stoloff, American composer (b. 1898)\n*1985 – Scott Brady, American actor (b. 1924)\n*1988 – Khalil al-Wazir, Palestinian commander, founded Fatah (b. 1935)\n* 1988 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist (b. 1954)\n*1989 – Jocko Conlan, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1899)\n* 1989 – Kaoru Ishikawa Japanese author and educator (b. 1915)\n* 1989 – Miles Lawrence, English cricketer (b. 1940)\n* 1989 – Hakkı Yeten, Turkish footballer and manager (b. 1910)\n*1991 – David Lean, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1908)\n*1992 – Neville Brand, American actor (b. 1920)\n* 1992 – Alexandru Nicolschi, Romanian spy and activist (b. 1915)\n* 1992 – Andy Russell, American singer and actor (b. 1919)\n*1994 – Paul-Émilien Dalpé, Canadian labor unionist (b. 1919)\n* 1994 – Ralph Ellison, American novelist and critic (b. 1913)\n*1996 – Lucille Bremer, American actress and dancer (b. 1917) \n* 1996 – Stavros Niarchos, Greek-Swiss businessman (b. 1909)\n*1997 – Esmeralda Arboleda Cadavid, Colombian politician (b. 1921)\n*1997 – Roland Topor, French actor, director, and painter (b. 1938)\n*1998 – Alberto Calderón, Argentinian-American mathematician and academic (b. 1920)\n* 1998 – Fred Davis, English snooker player (b. 1913)\n* 1998 – Marie-Louise Meilleur, Canadian super-centenarian (b. 1880)\n*1999 – Skip Spence, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1946)\n*2001 – Michael Ritchie, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1938)\n* 2001 – Alec Stock, English footballer and manager (b. 1917)\n*2002 – Billy Ayre, English footballer and manager (b. 1952)\n* 2002 – Ruth Fertel, American businesswoman, founded Ruth's Chris Steak House (b. 1927)\n* 2002 – Robert Urich, American actor (b. 1946)\n*2003 – Graham Jarvis, Canadian actor (b. 1930)\n* 2003 – Graham Stuart Thomas, English horticulturalist and author (b. 1909)\n*2005 – Kay Walsh, English actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1911)\n*2007 – Frank Bateson, New Zealand astronomer (b. 1909)\n* 2007 – Gaétan Duchesne, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1962)\n* 2007 – Maria Lenk, Brazilian swimmer (b. 1915)\n* 2007 – Chandrabose Suthaharan, Sri Lankan journalist\n*2008 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (b. 1917)\n*2010 – Rasim Delić, Bosnian general (b. 1949)\n* 2010 – Daryl Gates, American police officer, created the D.A.R.E. Program (b. 1926)\n*2011 – Gerry Alexander, Jamaican cricketer and veterinarian (b. 1928)\n* 2011 – Allan Blakeney, Canadian scholar and politician, 10th Premier of Saskatchewan (b. 1925)\n* 2011 – Sol Saks, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1910)\n*2012 – Sári Barabás, Hungarian soprano (b. 1914)\n* 2012 – Marian Biskup, Polish author and academic (b. 1922)\n* 2012 – Alan Hacker, English clarinet player and conductor (b. 1938)\n* 2012 – George Kunda, Zambian lawyer and politician, 11th Vice-President of Zambia (b. 1956)\n* 2012 – Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, Danish businessman (b. 1913)\n* 2012 – Carlo Petrini, Italian footballer and coach (b. 1948)\n*2013 – Charles Bruzon, Gibraltarian politician (b. 1938)\n* 2013 – Ali Kafi, Algerian colonel and politician (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – Siegfried Ludwig, Austrian politician, 18th Governor of Lower Austria (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Pentti Lund, Finnish-Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1925)\n* 2013 – George Beverly Shea, Canadian-American singer-songwriter (b. 1909)\n* 2013 – Pat Summerall, American football player and sportscaster (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexican architect, designed the Tijuana Cultural Center and National Museum of Anthropology (b. 1919)\n*2014 – Gyude Bryant, Liberian businessman and politician (b. 1949)\n* 2014 – Aulis Rytkönen, Finnish footballer and manager (b. 1929)\n* 2014 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (b. 1923)\n*2015 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1948)\n* 2015 – Attaphol Buspakom, Thai footballer and manager (b. 1962)\n* 2015 – Oles Buzina, Ukrainian journalist and author (b. 1969)\n* 2015 – Stanislav Gross, Czech lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic (b. 1969)\n*2016 – Charlie Hodge, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1933)\n\n",
"*Christian feast day:\n**Benedict Joseph Labre\n**Bernadette Soubirous\n**Drogo\n**Fructuosus of Braga\n**Isabella Gilmore (Church of England)\n**Martyrs of Zaragoza\n**Molly Brant (Konwatsijayenni) (Anglican Church of Canada, Episcopal Church) \n**Turibius of Astorga\n**April 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Birthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States)\n*Birthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark)\n*Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)\n*Foursquare Day (International observance) \n*Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)\n*National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)\n*Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)\n*World Voice Day\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | April 16 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\nIn mathematics, the '''associative property''' is a property of some binary operations. In propositional logic, '''associativity''' is a valid rule of replacement for expressions in logical proofs.\n\nWithin an expression containing two or more occurrences in a row of the same associative operator, the order in which the operations are performed does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. That is, rearranging the parentheses in such an expression will not change its value. Consider the following equations:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nEven though the parentheses were rearranged on each line, the values of the expressions were not altered. Since this holds true when performing addition and multiplication on any real numbers, it can be said that \"addition and multiplication of real numbers are associative operations\".\n\nAssociativity is not the same as commutativity, which addresses whether or not the order of two operands changes the result. For example, the order doesn't matter in the multiplication of real numbers, that is, , so we say that the multiplication of real numbers is a commutative operation.\n\nAssociative operations are abundant in mathematics; in fact, many algebraic structures (such as semigroups and categories) explicitly require their binary operations to be associative.\n\nHowever, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; some examples include subtraction, exponentiation, and the vector cross product. In contrast to the theoretical properties of real numbers, the addition of floating point numbers in computer science is not associative, and the choice of how to associate an expression can have a significant effect on rounding error.\n",
"this diagram commutes. That is, when the two paths from ''S''×''S''×''S'' to ''S'' compose to the same function from ''S''×''S''×''S'' to ''S''.\nFormally, a binary operation ∗ on a set ''S'' is called '''associative''' if it satisfies the '''associative law''':\n\n:(''x'' ∗ ''y'') ∗ ''z'' = ''x'' ∗ (''y'' ∗ ''z'') for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''S''.\n\nHere, ∗ is used to replace the symbol of the operation, which may be any symbol, and even the absence of symbol (juxtaposition) as for multiplication.\n\n:(''xy'')''z'' = ''x''(''yz'') = ''xyz'' for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''S''.\n\nThe associative law can also be expressed in functional notation thus: .\n",
"In the absence of the associative property, five factors ''a, b, c, d, e'' result in a Tamari lattice of order four, possibly different products.\nIf a binary operation is associative, repeated application of the operation produces the same result regardless how valid pairs of parenthesis are inserted in the expression. This is called the '''generalized associative law'''. For instance, a product of four elements may be written in five possible ways:\n\n# ((ab)c)d\n# (ab)(cd)\n# (a(bc))d\n# a((bc)d)\n# a(b(cd))\n\nIf the product operation is associative, the generalized associative law says that all these formulas will yield the same result, making the parenthesis unnecessary. Thus \"the\" product can be written unambiguously as\n\n:abcd.\n\nAs the number of elements increases, the number of possible ways to insert parentheses grows quickly, but they remain unnecessary for disambiguation.\n",
"In associative operations is .\nThe addition of real numbers is associative.\nSome examples of associative operations include the following.\n* The concatenation of the three strings \"hello\", \" \", \"world\" can be computed by concatenating the first two strings (giving \"hello \") and appending the third string (\"world\"), or by joining the second and third string (giving \" world\") and concatenating the first string (\"hello\") with the result. The two methods produce the same result; string concatenation is associative (but not commutative).\n* In arithmetic, addition and multiplication of real numbers are associative; i.e.,\n:: \n:Because of associativity, the grouping parentheses can be omitted without ambiguity.\n* Addition and multiplication of complex numbers and quaternions are associative. Addition of octonions is also associative, but multiplication of octonions is non-associative.\n* The greatest common divisor and least common multiple functions act associatively.\n:: \n* Taking the intersection or the union of sets:\n:: \n* If ''M'' is some set and ''S'' denotes the set of all functions from ''M'' to ''M'', then the operation of functional composition on ''S'' is associative:\n\n:: \n* Slightly more generally, given four sets ''M'', ''N'', ''P'' and ''Q'', with ''h'': ''M'' to ''N'', ''g'': ''N'' to ''P'', and ''f'': ''P'' to ''Q'', then\n\n:: \n\n: as before. In short, composition of maps is always associative.\n* Consider a set with three elements, A, B, and C. The following operation:\n\n:{| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align:center\"\n\n × !! A !! B !! C\n\n A\n A \n A \n A\n\n B\n A \n B \n C\n\n C\n A \n A \n A\n\n\n\n:is associative. Thus, for example, A(BC)=(AB)C = A. This operation is not commutative.\n* Because matrices represent linear transformation functions, with matrix multiplication representing functional composition, one can immediately conclude that matrix multiplication is associative. \n",
"\n=== Rule of replacement ===\nIn standard truth-functional propositional logic, ''association'', or ''associativity'' are two valid rules of replacement. The rules allow one to move parentheses in logical expressions in logical proofs. The rules are:\n:\nand\n:\nwhere \"\" is a metalogical symbol representing \"can be replaced in a proof with.\"\n\n=== Truth functional connectives ===\n''Associativity'' is a property of some logical connectives of truth-functional propositional logic. The following logical equivalences demonstrate that associativity is a property of particular connectives. The following are truth-functional tautologies.\n\n'''Associativity of disjunction''':\n:\n:\n'''Associativity of conjunction''':\n:\n:\n'''Associativity of equivalence''':\n:\n:\n",
"A binary operation on a set ''S'' that does not satisfy the associative law is called '''non-associative'''. Symbolically,\n\n:\n\nFor such an operation the order of evaluation ''does'' matter. For example:\n* Subtraction\n:\n* Division\n:\n* Exponentiation\n:\nAlso note that infinite sums are not generally associative, for example:\n:\nwhereas\n:\n\nThe study of non-associative structures arises from reasons somewhat different from the mainstream of classical algebra. One area within non-associative algebra that has grown very large is that of Lie algebras. There the associative law is replaced by the Jacobi identity. Lie algebras abstract the essential nature of infinitesimal transformations, and have become ubiquitous in mathematics.\n\nThere are other specific types of non-associative structures that have been studied in depth; these tend to come from some specific applications or areas such as combinatorial mathematics. Other examples are Quasigroup, Quasifield, Non-associative ring, Non-associative algebra and Commutative non-associative magmas.\n\n===Nonassociativity of floating point calculation===\n\nIn mathematics, addition and multiplication of real numbers is associative. By contrast, in computer science, the addition and multiplication of floating point numbers is ''not'' associative, as rounding errors are introduced when dissimilar-sized values are joined together.\n\nTo illustrate this, consider a floating point representation with a 4-bit mantissa:\n(1.0002×20 +\n1.0002×20) +\n1.0002×24 =\n1.0002×21 +\n1.0002×24 =\n1.002×24\n1.0002×20 +\n(1.0002×20 +\n1.0002×24) =\n1.0002×20 +\n1.002×24 =\n1.002×24\n\nEven though most computers compute with a 24 or 53 bits of mantissa, this is an important source of rounding error, and approaches such as the Kahan summation algorithm are ways to minimise the errors. It can be especially problematic in parallel computing.\n\n=== Notation for non-associative operations ===\n\n\nIn general, parentheses must be used to indicate the order of evaluation if a non-associative operation appears more than once in an expression. However, mathematicians agree on a particular order of evaluation for several common non-associative operations. This is simply a notational convention to avoid parentheses.\n\nA '''left-associative''' operation is a non-associative operation that is conventionally evaluated from left to right, i.e.,\n:\nwhile a '''right-associative''' operation is conventionally evaluated from right to left:\n:\nBoth left-associative and right-associative operations occur. Left-associative operations include the following:\n* Subtraction and division of real numbers:\n::\n::\n* Function application:\n::\n:This notation can be motivated by the currying isomorphism.\n\nRight-associative operations include the following:\n* Exponentiation of real numbers:\n::\n\n:One reason exponentiation is right-associative is that a repeated left-associative exponentiation operation would be less useful. Multiple appearances could (and would) be rewritten with multiplication:\n\n::\n\n:An additional argument for exponentiation being right-associative is that the superscript inherently behaves as a set of parentheses; e.g. in the expression the addition is performed before the exponentiation despite there being no explicit parentheses wrapped around it. Thus given an expression such as , it makes sense to require evaluating the full exponent of the base first.\n* Tetration via the up-arrow operator:\n\n::\n* Function definition\n::\n::\n\n:Using right-associative notation for these operations can be motivated by the Curry-Howard correspondence and by the currying isomorphism.\n\nNon-associative operations for which no conventional evaluation order is defined include the following.\n* Taking the Cross product of three vectors:\n::\n* Taking the pairwise average of real numbers:\n::\n* Taking the relative complement of sets is not the same as . (Compare material nonimplication in logic.)\n",
"\n* Light's associativity test\n* A semigroup is a set with a closed associative binary operation.\n* Commutativity and distributivity are two other frequently discussed properties of binary operations.\n* Power associativity, alternativity, flexibility and N-ary associativity are weak forms of associativity.\n* Moufang identities also provide a weak form of associativity.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Definition ",
"Generalized associative law",
"Examples",
" Propositional logic ",
" Non-associative operation",
"See also",
"References"
] | Associative property |
[
"\nThe '''Apache Software Foundation''' ('''ASF''') is an American non-profit corporation (classified as 501(c)(3) in the United States) to support Apache software projects, including the Apache HTTP Server. The ASF was formed from the Apache Group and incorporated in Delaware, U.S., in June 1999.\n\nThe Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized open source community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the Apache License and is free and open-source software (FOSS). The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus-based development process and an open and pragmatic software license. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a meritocracy, implying that membership of the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects. The ASF is considered a second generation open-source organization, in that commercial support is provided without the risk of platform lock-in.\n\nAmong the ASF's objectives are: to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects; to prevent the ''Apache'' brand name from being used by other organizations without permission.\n\nThe ASF also holds several ApacheCon conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects and related technology.\n",
"The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, development beginning in February 1993. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the NCSA HTTPd daemon. They came to be known as the Apache Group. On March 25, 1999, the Apache Software Foundation was formed. The first official meeting of the Apache Software Foundation was held on April 13, 1999, and by general consent that the initial membership list of the Apache Software Foundation, would be: Brian Behlendorf, Ken Coar, Miguel Gonzales, Mark Cox, Lars Eilebrecht, Ralf S. Engelschall, Roy T. Fielding, Dean Gaudet, Ben Hyde, Jim Jagielski, Alexei Kosut, Martin Kraemer, Ben Laurie, Doug MacEachern, Aram Mirzadeh, Sameer Parekh, Cliff Skolnick, Marc Slemko, William (Bill) Stoddard, Paul Sutton, Randy Terbush and Dirk-Willem van Gulik. After a series of additional meetings to elect board members and resolve other legal matters regarding incorporation, the effective incorporation date of the Apache Software Foundation was set to June 1, 1999.\n\nThe name 'Apache' was chosen from respect for the Native American Apache Nation, well known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance. It also makes a pun on \"a patchy web server\"—a server made from a series of patches—but this was not its origin. The group of developers who released this new software soon started to call themselves the \"Apache Group\".\n",
"\nApache divides its software development activities into separate semi-autonomous areas called \"top-level projects\" (formally known as a \"Project Management Committee\" in the bylaws), some of which have a number of sub-projects. Unlike some other organizations that host FOSS projects, before a project is hosted at Apache it has to be licensed to the ASF with a grant or contributor agreement. In this way, the ASF gains the necessary intellectual property rights for the development and distribution of all its projects.\n",
"The ASF board of directors has responsibility for overseeing the ASF's activities and acting as a central point of contact and communication for its projects. The board assigns corporate issues, assigning resources to projects, and manages corporate services, including funds and legal issues. It does not make technical decisions about individual projects; these are made by the individual Project Management Committees. The board is elected annually by members of the foundation and, after the March 2017 Annual Members Meeting, it consists of:\n\n* Rich Bowen\n* Shane Curcuru\n* Bertrand Delacretaz\n* Ted Dunning\n* Jim Jagielski (Vice Chairman)\n* Chris Mattmann\n* Brett Porter\n* Phil Steitz (Chairman)\n* Mark Thomas\n",
"In the 2010–11 fiscal year, the Foundation took in $539,410, almost entirely from grants and contributions with $12,349 from two ApacheCons. With no employees and 2,663 volunteers, it spent $270,846 on infrastructure, $92,364 on public relations, and $17,891 on two ApacheCons.\n",
"* Apache Attic\n* Apache Incubator\n",
"\n",
"*''Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything'' (2006); Don Tapscott, Anthony D. Williams.\n",
"\n*\n* ASF Projects Directory\n* ASF Committer Directory\n* General ASF Wiki\n* ApacheCon website\n* ApacheCon Wiki\n* Apache popular APIs in GitHub\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Projects",
"Board of directors",
"Financials",
"See also",
"Notes",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Apache Software Foundation |
[
"\n\nThe '''Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990''' () is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations.\n\nIn 1986, the National Council on Disability had recommended enactment of an Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and drafted the first version of the bill which was introduced in the House and Senate in 1988. The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H. W. Bush. It was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1, 2009.\n",
"\nAmericans with Disabilities Act of 1988, S. 2346, Page 1\nAmericans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Page 52\nAmericans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Page 1\n\nADA disabilities include both mental and physical medical conditions. A condition does not need to be severe or permanent to be a disability. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities: deafness, blindness, an intellectual disability (formerly termed mental retardation), partially or completely missing limbs or mobility impairments requiring the use of a wheelchair, autism, cancer, cerebral palsy, diabetes, epilepsy, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and schizophrenia. Other mental or physical health conditions also may be disabilities, depending on what the individual's symptoms would be in the absence of \"mitigating measures\" (medication, therapy, assistive devices, or other means of restoring function), during an \"active episode\" of the condition (if the condition is episodic).\n\nCertain specific conditions that are widely considered anti-social, or tend to result in illegal activity, such as kleptomania, pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, etc. are excluded under the definition of \"disability\" in order to prevent abuse of the statute's purpose. Additionally, other specific conditions, such as gender identity disorders, are also excluded under the definition of \"disability\".\n",
"\n===Title I—employment===\n\nSpeech cards used by President George H. W. Bush at the signing ceremony of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on July 26, 1990\n\nThe ADA states that a \"covered entity\" shall not discriminate against \"a qualified individual with a disability\". This applies to job application procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, job training, and other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment. \"Covered entities\" include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as employment agencies, labor organizations, and joint labor-management committees. There are strict limitations on when a covered entity can ask job applicants or employees disability-related questions or require them to undergo medical examination, and all medical information must be kept confidential.\n\nProhibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, and harassment based on a disability. Covered entities are also required to provide reasonable accommodations to job applicants and employees with disabilities. A reasonable accommodation is a change in the way things are typically done that the person needs because of a disability, and can include, among other things, special equipment that allows the person to perform the job, scheduling changes, and changes to the way work assignments are chosen or communicated. An employer is not required to provide an accommodation that would involve undue hardship (significant difficulty or expense), and the individual who receives the accommodation must still perform the essential functions of the job and meet the normal performance requirements. An employee or applicant who currently engages in the illegal use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use.\n\nThere are many ways to discriminate against people based on disabilities, including psychological ones. Anyone known to have a history of mental disorders can be considered disabled. Employers with more than 15 employees must take care to treat all employees fairly and with any accommodations needed. Even when an employee is doing a job exceptionally well, she or he is not necessarily no longer disabled; employers must continue to follow all policies for the disabled.\n\nPart of Title I was found unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court as it pertains to states in the case of ''Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett'' as violating the sovereign immunity rights of the several states as specified by the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court determined that state employees cannot sue their employer for violating ADA rules. State employees can, however, file complaints at the Department of Justice or the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, who can sue on their behalf.\n\n=== Title II—public entities (and public transportation)===\n\nAccess sign\n\nTitle II prohibits disability discrimination by all public entities at the local level, ''e.g.'', school district, municipal, city, or county, and at state level. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U.S. Department of Justice. These regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and programmatic access that might be obstructed by discriminatory policies or procedures of the entity.\n\nTitle II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U.S. Department of Transportation. It includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak), along with all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of paratransit services by public entities that provide fixed route services. ADA also sets minimum requirements for space layout in order to facilitate wheelchair securement on public transport.\n\nTitle II also applies to all state and local public housing, housing assistance, and housing referrals. The Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity is charged with enforcing this provision.\n\n===Title III—public accommodations (and commercial facilities)===\n\nThe ADA sets standards for construction of accessible public facilities. Shown is a sign indicating an accessible fishing platform at Drano Lake, Washington.\nUnder Title III, no individual may be discriminated against on the basis of disability with regards to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, or accommodations of any place of public accommodation by any person who owns, leases, or operates a place of public accommodation. Public accommodations include most places of lodging (such as inns and hotels), recreation, transportation, education, and dining, along with stores, care providers, and places of public displays.\n\nUnder Title III of the ADA, all new construction (construction, modification or alterations) after the effective date of the ADA (approximately July 1992) must be fully compliant with the Americans With Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) found in the Code of Federal Regulations at 28 C.F.R., Part 36, Appendix ''A''.\n\nTitle III also has application to existing facilities. One of the definitions of \"discrimination\" under Title III of the ADA is a \"failure to remove\" architectural barriers in existing facilities. See . This means that even facilities that have not been modified or altered in any way after the ADA was passed still have obligations. The standard is whether \"removing barriers\" (typically defined as bringing a condition into compliance with the ADAAG) is \"readily achievable\", defined as \"...easily accomplished without much difficulty or expense\".\n\nThe statutory definition of \"readily achievable\" calls for a balancing test between the cost of the proposed \"fix\" and the wherewithal of the business and/or owners of the business. Thus, what might be \"readily achievable\" for a sophisticated and financially capable corporation might not be readily achievable for a small or local business.\n\nThere are exceptions to this title; many private clubs and religious organizations may not be bound by Title III. With regard to historic properties (those properties that are listed or that are eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places, or properties designated as historic under state or local law), those facilities must still comply with the provisions of Title III of the ADA to the \"maximum extent feasible\" but if following the usual standards would \"threaten to destroy the historic significance of a feature of the building\" then alternative standards may be used.\n\nUnder 2010 revisions of Department of Justice regulations, newly constructed or altered swimming pools, wading pools, and spas must have an accessible means of entrance and exit to pools for disabled people. However, the requirement is conditioned on whether providing access through a fixed lift is \"readily achievable\". Other requirements exist, based on pool size, include providing a certain number of accessible means of entry and exit, which are outlined in Section 242 of the standards. However, businesses are free to consider the differences in application of the rules depending on whether the pool is new or altered, or whether the swimming pool was in existence before the effective date of the new rule. Full compliance may not be required for existing facilities; Section 242 and 1009 of the 2010 Standards outline such exceptions.\n\n==== Service animals ====\nThe ADA provides explicit coverage for service animals. Guidelines have been developed not only to protect persons with disabilities, but also to indemnify businesses from damages related to granting access to service animals on their premises. Businesses are allowed to ask if the animal is a service animal and ask what tasks it is trained to perform, but they are not allowed to ask the service animal to perform the task nor ask for a special ID of the animal. They can not ask what the person's disabilities are. A person with a disability can not be removed from the premises unless either of two things happen: the animal is out of control and its owner can not get it under control (e.g. a dog barking uncontrollably in a restaurant), or the animal is a direct threat to people's health and safety. Allergies and fear of animal would not be considered a threat to people's health and safety so it would not be a valid reason to deny access to people with service animals. Businesses that prepare or serve food must allow service animals and their owners on the premises even if state or local health laws otherwise prohibit animals on the premise. In this case, businesses that prepare or serve food are not required to provide care or food for service animals nor do they have to provide a designated area for the service animal to use the bathroom. Lastly, people that require service dogs can not be charged an extra fee for their service dog or be treated unfairly. For example, being isolated from people at a restaurant. People with disabilities can not be treated less than other customers. However, if a business normally charges for damages caused by the person to property, the customer with a disability will be charged for his/her service animal's damages to the property.\n\n===Title IV—telecommunications===\nTitle IV of the ADA amended the landmark Communications Act of 1934 primarily by adding section . This section requires that all telecommunications companies in the U.S. take steps to ensure functionally equivalent services for consumers with disabilities, notably those who are deaf or hard of hearing and those with speech impairments. When Title IV took effect in the early 1990s, it led to the installation of public teletypewriter (TTY) machines and other TDD (telecommunications devices for the deaf). Title IV also led to the creation, in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, of what were then called dual-party relay services and now are known as Telecommunications Relay Services (TRS), such as STS relay. Today, many TRS-mediated calls are made over the Internet by consumers who use broadband connections. Some are Video Relay Service (VRS) calls, while others are text calls. In either variation, communication assistants translate between the signed or typed words of a consumer and the spoken words of others. In 2006, according to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), VRS calls averaged two million minutes a month.\n\n===Title V—miscellaneous provisions===\n\n\nTitle V includes technical provisions. It discusses, for example, the fact that nothing in the ADA amends, overrides or cancels anything in Section 504. Additionally, Title V includes an anti-retaliation or coercion provision. The ''Technical Assistance Manual'' for the ADA explains it: \"III-3.6000 Retaliation or coercion. Individuals who exercise their rights under the ADA, or assist others in exercising their rights, are protected from retaliation. The prohibition against retaliation or coercion applies broadly to any individual or entity that seeks to prevent an individual from exercising his or her rights or to retaliate against him or her for having exercised those rights ... Any form of retaliation or coercion, including threats, intimidation, or interference, is prohibited if it is intended to interfere.\n",
"The ADA has roots in Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.\n\n===Drafting===\nDevelopment of George H.W. Bush Administration Disability Policy. White House Memo. April 21, 1989.\nThe idea of federal legislation enhancing and extending civil rights legislation to millions of Americans with disabilities gained bipartisan support in late 1988 and early 1989. In early 1989 both Congress and the newly-inaugurated Bush White House worked separately, then jointly, to write legislation capable of expanding civil rights without imposing undue harm or costs on those already in compliance with existing rules and laws.\n\n===Lobbying===\n\nOver the years, key activists and advocates played an important role in lobbying Members of the U.S. Congress to develop and pass the ADA, including Justin Whitlock Dart, Jr., Patrisha Wright and others.\n\nMs. Wright is known as \"the General\" for her work in coordinating the campaign to enact the ADA. She is widely considered the main force behind the campaign lobbying for the ADA.\n\n===Support and opposition===\n====Support====\nAbout the importance of making employment opportunities inclusive, Shirley Davis, director of global diversity and inclusion at the Society for Human Resource Management, said: \"People with disabilities represent a critical talent pool that is underserved and underutilized\".\n\n====Opposition from religious groups====\nThe debate over the Americans with Disabilities Act led some religious groups to take opposite positions. The Association of Christian Schools International, opposed the ADA in its original form. primarily because the ADA labeled religious institutions \"public accommodations\", and thus would have required churches to make costly structural changes to ensure access for all. The cost argument advanced by ACSI and others prevailed in keeping religious institutions from being labeled as \"public accommodations\".\n\nChurch groups such as the National Association of Evangelicals testified against the ADA's Title I employment provisions on grounds of religious liberty. The NAE believed the regulation of the internal employment of churches was \"... an improper intrusion of the federal government.\"\n\n====Opposition from business interests====\nMany members of the business community opposed the Americans with Disabilities Act. Testifying before Congress, Greyhound Bus Lines stated that the act had the potential to \"deprive millions of people of affordable intercity public transportation and thousands of rural communities of their only link to the outside world.\" The US Chamber of Commerce argued that the costs of the ADA would be \"enormous\" and have \"a disastrous impact on many small businesses struggling to survive.\" The National Federation of Independent Businesses, an organization that lobbies for small businesses, called the ADA \"a disaster for small business.\" Pro-business conservative commentators joined in opposition, writing that the Americans with Disabilities Act was \"an expensive headache to millions\" that would not necessarily improve the lives of people with disabilities.\n\n===\"Capitol Crawl\"===\n\nShortly before the act was passed, disability rights activists with physical disabilities coalesced in front of the Capitol Building, shed their crutches, wheelchairs, powerchairs and other assistive devices, and immediately proceeded to crawl and pull their bodies up all 100 of the Capitol's front steps, without warning. As the activists did so, many of them chanted \"ADA now\", and \"Vote, Now\". Some activists who remained at the bottom of the steps held signs and yelled words of encouragement at the \"Capitol Crawlers\". Jennifer Keelan, a second grader with cerebral palsy, was videotaped as she pulled herself up the steps, using mostly her hands and arms, saying \"I'll take all night if I have to.\" This direct action is reported to have \"inconvenienced\" several senators and to have pushed them to approve the act. While there are those who do not attribute much overall importance to this action, the \"Capitol Crawl\" of 1990 is seen by some present-day disability activists in the United States as a central act for encouraging the ADA into law.\n\n===Final passage===\nPresident Bush signs the Americans with Disabilities Act into law\n\nSenator Tom Harkin (D-IA) authored what became the final bill and was its chief sponsor in the Senate. Harkin delivered part of his introduction speech in sign language, saying it was so his deaf brother could understand.\n\nOn signing the measure, George H. W. Bush said: \n\n\n===ADA Amendments Act, 2008===\nThe ADA defines a covered disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a history of having such an impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was charged with interpreting the 1990 law with regard to discrimination in employment. The EEOC developed regulations limiting an individual’s impairment to one that \"severely or significantly restricts\" a major life activity. The ADAAA directed the EEOC to amend its regulations and replace \"severely or significantly\" with \"substantially limits\", a more lenient standard.\n\nOn September 25, 2008, President George W. Bush signed the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (ADAAA) into law. The amendment broadened the definition of \"disability\", thereby extending the ADA's protections to a greater number of people. The ADAAA also added to the ADA examples of \"major life activities\" including, but not limited to, \"caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, hearing, eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing, learning, reading, concentrating, thinking, communicating, and working\" as well as the operation of several specified ''major bodily functions''. The act overturned a 1999 US Supreme Court case that held that an employee was not disabled if the impairment could be corrected by mitigating measures; it specifically provides that such impairment must be determined without considering such ameliorative measures. It also overturned the court restriction that an impairment which substantially limits one major life activity must also limit others to be considered a disability.\nIn 2008, the United States House Committee on Education and Labor stated that the amendment \"makes it absolutely clear that the ADA is intended to provide broad coverage to protect anyone who faces discrimination on the basis of disability.\" Thus the ADAAA led to broader coverage of impaired employees.\n\n===25th anniversary, 2015===\n the ADA had improved access to public services, the built environment (e.g., crosswalks with curb cuts and accessible pedestrian signals), understanding of the abilities of people with disabilities, established a right to equal access to public services and has demonstrated the contributions which people with disabilities can make to the economy. Disparities have remained in employment, earned income, Internet access, transportation, housing, and educational attainment and the disabled remain at a disadvantage with respect to health and health care.\n",
"===Criticism===\n\n====Employment====\nThe ADA has been criticized on the grounds that it decreases the employment rate for people with disabilities and raises the cost of doing business for employers, in large part due to the additional legal risks, which employers avoid by quietly avoiding hiring people with disabilities. Some researchers believe that the law has been ineffectual. Between 1991 (after the enactment of the ADA) and 1995, the employment rate of men with disabilities dropped by 7.8% regardless of age, educational level, or type of disability, with the most affected being young, less-educated and mentally disabled men. Despite the many criticisms, a causal link between the ADA and declining disabled employment over much of the 1990s has not been definitively identified.\n\nIn 2001, for men of all working ages and women under 40, Current Population Survey data showed a sharp drop in the employment of disabled workers, leading at least two economists to attribute the cause to the Act. By contrast, a study in 2003 found that while the Act may have led to short term reactions by employers, in the long term, there were either positive or neutral consequences for wages and employment. In 2005 the rate of employment among disabled people increased to 45% of the population of disabled people.\n\n====\"Professional plaintiffs\" ====\nSince enforcement of the act began in July 1992, it has quickly become a major component of employment law. The ADA allows private plaintiffs to receive only injunctive relief (a court order requiring the public accommodation to remedy violations of the accessibility regulations) and attorneys' fees, and does not provide monetary rewards to private plaintiffs who sue non-compliant businesses. Unless a state law, such as the California Unruh Civil Rights Act, provides for monetary damages to private plaintiffs, persons with disabilities do not obtain direct financial benefits from suing businesses that violate the ADA.\n\nThe attorneys' fees provision of Title III does provide incentive for lawyers to specialize and engage in serial ADA litigation, but a disabled plaintiff does not obtain financial reward from attorneys' fees unless they act as their own attorney, or as mentioned above, a disabled plaintiff resides in a state that provides for minimum compensation and court fees in lawsuits. Moreover, there may be a benefit to these \"private attorneys general\" who identify and compel the correction of illegal conditions: they may increase the number of public accommodations accessible to persons with disabilities. \"Civil rights law depends heavily on private enforcement. Moreover, the inclusion of penalties and damages is the driving force that facilitates voluntary compliance with the ADA.\" Courts have noted: \"As a result, most ADA suits are brought by a small number of private plaintiffs who view themselves as champions of the disabled. For the ADA to yield its promise of equal access for the disabled, it may indeed be necessary and desirable for committed individuals to bring serial litigation advancing the time when public accommodations will be compliant with the ADA.\"\n\nHowever, in states that have enacted laws that allow private individuals to win monetary awards from non-compliant businesses (as of 2008, these include California, Florida, Hawaii, and Illinois), \"professional plaintiffs\" are typically found. At least one of these plaintiffs in California has been barred by courts from filing lawsuits unless he receives prior court permission. Through the end of fiscal year 1998, 86% of the 106,988 ADA charges filed with and resolved by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, were either dropped or investigated and dismissed by EEOC but not without imposing opportunity costs and legal fees on employers.\n",
"\nThere have been some notable cases regarding the ADA. For example, two major hotel room marketers (Expedia.com and Hotels.com) with their business presence on the Internet were sued because its customers with disabilities could not reserve hotel rooms, through their websites without substantial extra efforts that persons without disabilities were not required to perform. These represent a major potential expansion of the ADA in that this, and other similar suits (known as \"bricks vs. clicks\"), seeks to expand the ADA's authority to cyberspace, where entities may not have actual physical facilities that are required to comply.\n\n===''National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corporation''===\n''National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corporation'' was a case where a major retailer, Target Corp., was sued because their web designers failed to design its website to enable persons with low or no vision to use it.\n\n===''Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett''===\n\n''Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett'', 531 U.S. 356 (2001), was a United States Supreme Court case about Congress's enforcement powers under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. It decided that Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act was unconstitutional insofar as it allowed private citizens to sue states for money damages.\n\n===''Barden v. The City of Sacramento''===\n\n''Barden v. The City of Sacramento'', filed in March 1999, claimed that the City of Sacramento failed to comply with the ADA when, while making public street improvements, it did not bring its sidewalks into compliance with the ADA. Certain issues were resolved in Federal Court. One issue, whether sidewalks were covered by the ADA, was appealed to the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals, which ruled that sidewalks were a \"program\" under ADA and must be made accessible to persons with disabilities. The ruling was later appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which refused to hear the case, letting stand the ruling of the 9th Circuit Court.\n\n===''Bates v. UPS''===\n\n''Bates v. UPS'' (begun in 1999) was the first equal opportunity employment class action brought on behalf of Deaf and Hard of Hearing (d/Deaf/HoH) workers throughout the country concerning workplace discrimination. It established legal precedence for d/Deaf/HoH Employees and Customers to be fully covered under the ADA. Key findings included\n# UPS failed to address communication barriers and to ensure equal conditions and opportunities for deaf employees;\n# Deaf employees were routinely excluded from workplace information, denied opportunities for promotion, and exposed to unsafe conditions due to lack of accommodations by UPS;\n# UPS also lacked a system to alert these employees as to emergencies, such as fires or chemical spills, to ensure that they would safely evacuate their facility; and\n# UPS had no policy to ensure that deaf applicants and employees actually received effective communication in the workplace.\nThe outcome was that UPS agreed to pay a $5.8 million award and agreed to a comprehensive accommodations program that was implemented in their facilities throughout the country.\n\n===''Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.''===\n''Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.'' was a case that was decided by the United States Supreme Court in 2005. The defendant argued that as a vessel flying the flag of a foreign nation it was exempt from the requirements of the ADA. This argument was accepted by a federal court in Florida and, subsequently, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. However, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the ruling of the lower courts on the basis that Norwegian Cruise Lines was a business headquartered in the United States whose clients were predominantly Americans and, more importantly, operated out of port facilities throughout the United States.\n\n===''Olmstead v. L.C.''===\n\n\n''Olmstead v. L.C.'' was a case before the United States Supreme Court in 1999. The two plaintiffs L.C. and E.W. were institutionalized in Georgia for diagnosed mental retardation and schizophrenia. Clinical assessments by the state determined that the plaintiffs could be appropriately treated in a community setting rather than the state institution. The plaintiffs sued the state of Georgia and the institution for being inappropriately treated and housed in the institutional setting rather than being treated in one of the state's community based treatment facilities.\n\nThe Supreme Court decided under Title II of the ADA that mental illness is a form of disability and therefore covered under the ADA, and that unjustified institutional isolation of a person with a disability is a form of discrimination because it \"...perpetuates unwarranted assumptions that persons so isolated are incapable or unworthy of participating in community life.\" The court added, \"Confinement in an institution severely diminishes the everyday life activities of individuals, including family relations, social contacts, work options, economic independence, educational advancement, and cultural enrichment.\"\n\nTherefore, under Title II no person with a disability can be unjustly excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of services, programs or activities of any public entity.\n\n===''Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan''===\n\nThis was a case filed before The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan Southern Division on behalf of the Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America against University of Michigan – Michigan Stadium claiming that Michigan Stadium violated the Americans with Disabilities Act in its $226-million renovation by failing to add enough seats for disabled fans or accommodate the needs for disabled restrooms, concessions and parking. Additionally, the distribution of the accessible seating was at issue, with nearly all the seats being provided in the end-zone areas. The U.S. Department of Justice assisted in the suit filed by attorney Richard Bernstein of The Law Offices of Sam Bernstein in Farmington Hills, Michigan, which was settled in March 2008. The settlement required the stadium to add 329 wheelchair seats throughout the stadium by 2010, and an additional 135 accessible seats in clubhouses to go along with the existing 88 wheelchair seats. This case was significant because it set a precedent for the uniform distribution of accessible seating and gave the DOJ the opportunity to clarify previously unclear rules. The agreement now is a blueprint for all stadiums and other public facilities regarding accessibility.\n\n===''Paralyzed Veterans of America v. Ellerbe Becket Architects and Engineers''===\n\nOne of the first major ADA lawsuits, ''Paralyzed Veterans of America (or \"PVA\") v. Ellerbe Becket Architects and Engineers'' (1996) was focused on the wheelchair accessibility of a stadium project that was still in the design phase, MCI Center (now known as Verizon Center) in Washington, D.C. Previous to this case, which was filed only five years after the ADA was passed, the DOJ was unable or unwilling to provide clarification on the distribution requirements for accessible wheelchair locations in large assembly spaces. While Section 4.33.3 of ADAAG makes reference to lines of sight, no specific reference is made to seeing over standing patrons. The MCI Center, designed by Ellerbe Becket Architects & Engineers, was designed with too few wheelchair and companion seats, and the ones that were included did not provide sight lines that would enable the wheelchair user to view the playing area while the spectators in front of them were standing. This case and another related case established precedent on seat distribution and sight lines issues for ADA enforcement that continues to present day.\n\n===''Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams''===\n''Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams'', 534 U.S. 184 (2002) was a case in which the Supreme Court interpreted the meaning of the phrase \"substantially impairs\" as used in the Americans with Disabilities Act. It reversed a Sixth Court of Appeals decision to grant a partial summary judgment in favor of the respondent, Ella Williams that qualified her inability to perform manual job-related tasks as a disability. The Court held that the \"major life activity\" definition in evaluating the performance of manual tasks focuses the inquiry on whether Williams was unable to perform a range of tasks central to most people in carrying out the activities of daily living. The issue is not whether Williams was unable to perform her specific job tasks. Therefore, the determination of whether an impairment rises to the level of a disability is not limited to activities in the workplace solely, but rather to manual tasks in life in general. When the Supreme Court applied this standard, it found that the Court of Appeals had incorrectly determined the presence of a disability because it relied solely on her inability to perform specific manual work tasks, which was insufficient in proving the presence of a disability. The Court of Appeals should have taken into account the evidence presented that Williams retained the ability to do personal tasks and household chores, such activities being the nature of tasks most people do in their daily lives, and placed too much emphasis on her job disability. Since the evidence showed that Williams was performing normal daily tasks, it ruled that the Court of Appeals erred when it found that Williams was disabled. This ruling is now, however, no longer good law—it was invalidated by the ADAAA. In fact, Congress explicitly cited Toyota v. Williams in the text of the ADAAA itself as one of its driving influences for passing the ADAAA.\n\n=== US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett ===\nDecided by the US Supreme Court in 2002 this case held that even requests for accommodation that might seem reasonable on their face, e.g., a transfer to a different position, can be rendered unreasonable because it would require a violation of the company's seniority system. While the court held that in general a violation of a seniority system renders an otherwise reasonable accommodation unreasonable a plaintiff can present evidence that despite the seniority system the accommodation is reasonable in the specific case at hand, e.g., the plaintiff could offer evidence that the seniority system is so often disregarded that another exception wouldn't make a difference.\n\nImportantly, the court held that the defendant need not provide proof that this particular application of the seniority system should prevail and that once the defendant showed that the accommodation violated the seniority system it fell to Barnett to show it was nevertheless reasonable.\n\nIn this case Barnett was a US Airways employee who injured his back rendering him physically unable to perform his cargo handling job. Invoking seniority he transferred to a less demanding mailroom job but this position later became open to seniority based bidding and was bid on by more senior employees. Barnett requested the accommodation of being allowed to stay on in the less demanding mailroom job. US Airways denied his request and he lost his job.\n\nThe Supreme Court decision invalidated both the approach of the district court which found that the mere presence and importance of the seniority system was enough to warrant a summary judgement in favor of US Airways as well as the circuit court's approach that interpreted 'reasonable accommodation' as 'effective accommodation.'\n\n===''Access Now v. Southwest Airlines''===\n\n''Access Now v. Southwest Airlines'' was a case where the District Court decided that the website of Southwest Airlines was not in violation of the Americans with Disability Act because the ADA is concerned with things with a physical existence and thus cannot be applied to cyberspace. Judge Patricia A. Seitz found that the \"virtual ticket counter\" of the website was a virtual construct, and hence not a \"public place of accommodation.\" As such, \"To expand the ADA to cover 'virtual' spaces would be to create new rights without well-defined standards.\"\n\n===''Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.''===\n\n''Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.'' followed in Access Now's footsteps by holding that a mere online presence does not subject a website to the ADA guidelines. Thus Myspace and YouTube were not liable for a dyslexic man's inability to navigate the site regardless of how impressive the \"online theater\" is.\n\n===''Authors Guild v. HathiTrust''===\n''Authors Guild v. HathiTrust'' was a case in which the District Court decided that the HathiTrust digital library was a transformative, fair use of copyrighted works, making a large number of written text available to those with print disability.\n\n===''Zamora-Quezada v. HealthTexas Medical Group''===\nZamora-Quezada v. HealthTexas Medical Group (begun in 1998) was the first time this act was used against HMO's when a novel lawsuit was filed by Texas attorney Robert Provan against five HMO's for their practice of revoking the contracts of doctors treating disabled patients.\n",
"* \n* Bush, George H. W., ''Remarks of President George Bush at the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act''. Available on-line at Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.\n* Davis, Lennard J. ''Enabling Acts. The Hidden Story of How the Americans with Disabilities Act Gave the Largest US Minority Its Rights''. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2015.\n* \n* Fielder, J. F. ''Mental Disabilities and the Americans with Disabilities Act.'' Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2004.\n* Hamilton Krieger, Linda, ed., ''Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.\n* Johnson, Mary. (2000). ''Make Them Go Away: Clint Eastwood, Christopher Reeve & The Case Against Disability Rights.'' Louisville, KY: The Advocado Press.\n* Mayer, Arlene. (1992). ''The History of the Americans with Disabilities Act: A Movement Perspective.'' Available online at the Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund website\n* Schall, Carol M. (Jun 1998). The Americans with Disabilities Act—Are We Keeping Our Promise? An Analysis of the Effect of the ADA on the Employment of Persons with Disabilities. ''Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation'', v10 n3 pp. 191–203.\n* Schwochau, Susan & Blanck, Peter David. The Economics of the Americans with Disabilities Act, Part III: Does the ADA Disable the Disabled? ''Berkeley Journal of Employment & Labor Law'' Vol. 21:271\n* Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. ''Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality''. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003...\n* Weber, Mark C. ''Disability Harassment''. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2007.\n* O'Brien, Ruth, ed. ''Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act''. New York: Oxford, 2004. \n* Pletcher, David and Ashlee Russeau-Pletcher. History of the Civil Rights Movement for the Physically Disabled\n* Family Network on Disabilities-FNDUSA.ORG- Florida Parent Training and Information Center funded by DOED Offices of Special Education Programs (OSEP)\n",
"* ADA Compliance Kit\n* ADA Signs\n* American Disability rights movement\n* Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities\n* Developmental disability\n* Individual rights advocate\n* Interactive accommodation process\n* Job Accommodation Network – provides information about rights and responsibilities under the ADA and related legislation\n* List of anti-discrimination acts\n** Disability discrimination act\n** Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964\n* List of disability rights activists\n* Stigma management\n* Timeline of disability rights in the United States\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* Department of Labor ADA page\n* Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ADA page\n* Navigable text of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – 42 U.S. Code Chapter 126\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Disabilities included",
"Titles",
"History",
"Reaction",
"Case law",
"Resources",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 |
[
"\n\n\n'''Apple Computer 1''', also known later as the '''Apple I''', or '''Apple-1''', is a desktop computer released by the Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) in 1976. It was designed and hand-built by Steve Wozniak. Wozniak's friend Steve Jobs had the idea of selling the computer. The Apple I was Apple's first product, and to finance its creation, Jobs sold his only motorized means of transportation, a VW Microbus, for a few hundred dollars, and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator for $500; however, Wozniak said that Jobs planned to use his bicycle if necessary. It was demonstrated in July 1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California.\n\nProduction was discontinued on September 30, 1977, after the June 10, 1977, introduction of its successor, the Apple II, which ''Byte'' magazine referred to as part of the \"1977 Trinity\" of personal computing (along with the PET 2001 and the TRS-80).\n",
"Introductory advertisement for the Apple I Computer\nOn March 5, 1975, Steve Wozniak attended the first meeting of the Homebrew Computer Club in Gordon French's garage. He was so inspired that he immediately set to work on what would become the Apple I computer. After building it for himself and showing it at the Club, he and Steve Jobs gave out schematics (technical designs) for the computer to interested club members and even helped some of them build and test out copies. Then, Steve Jobs suggested that they design and sell a single etched and silkscreened circuit board—just the bare board, no electronic parts—that people could use to build the computers. Wozniak calculated that having the board design laid out would cost $1,000 and manufacturing would cost another $20 per board; he hoped to recoup his costs if 50 people bought the boards for $40 each. To fund this small venture, their first company, Jobs sold his van and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator. Very soon after, Steve Jobs arranged to sell \"something like 50\" completely built computers to the Byte Shop (a computer store in Mountain View, California) at $500 each. To fulfill the $25,000 order, they obtained $20,000 in parts at 30 days net and delivered the finished product in 10 days.\n\nThe Apple I went on sale in July 1976 at a price of , because Wozniak \"liked repeating digits\" and because of a one-third markup on the $500 wholesale price.\n\nThe first unit produced was used in a high school math class, and donated to Liza Loop's public access computer center. About 200 units were produced and all but 25 were sold during nine or ten months.\n\nThe Apple I's built-in computer terminal circuitry was distinctive. All one needed was a keyboard and a television set. Competing machines such as the Altair 8800 generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red LEDs, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to a computer terminal or a teletypewriter machine. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day. In April 1977, the price was dropped to $475. It continued to be sold through August 1977, despite the introduction of the Apple II in April 1977, which began shipping in June of that year. In October 1977, the Apple I was officially discontinued and removed from Apple's price list. As Wozniak was the only person who could answer most customer support questions about the computer, the company offered Apple I owners discounts and trade-ins for Apple IIs to persuade them to return their computers. These recovered boards were then destroyed by Apple, contributing to their rarity today.\n",
"The circuit board of a fully assembled Apple I\nOriginal 1976 Apple 1 Computer in a briefcase. From the Sydney Powerhouse Museum collection\nOriginal 1976 Apple 1 Computer PCB From the Sydney Powerhouse Museum collection\nAs of 2013, at least 63 Apple I computers have been confirmed to exist. Only six have been verified to be in working condition.\n\n* An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 USD at auction in 1999.\n* In 2008, the website \"Vintage Computing and Gaming\" reported that Apple I owner Rick Conte was looking to sell his unit and was \"expecting a price in excess of $15,000 U.S.\" The site later reported Conte had donated the unit to the Maine Personal Computer Museum in 2009.\n* A unit was sold in September 2009 for $17,480 on eBay.\n* A unit belonging to early Apple Computer engineers Dick and Cliff Huston was sold on March 23, 2010, for $42,766 on eBay.\n* In November 2010, an Apple I sold for £133,250 ($210,000) at Christie's auction house in London. The high price was likely due to the rare documents and packaging offered in the sale in addition to the computer, including the original packaging (with the return label showing Steve Jobs' parents' address, the original Apple Computer Inc 'headquarters' being their garage), a personally typed and signed letter from Jobs (answering technical questions about the computer), and the original invoice showing 'Steven' as the salesman. The computer was brought to Polytechnic University of Turin where it was fixed and used to run the BASIC programming language.\n* On June 15, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Sotheby's for a then-record $374,500, more than double the expected price. This unit is on display at the Nexon Computer Museum in Jeju City, South Korea.\n*Living Computers: Museum + Labs Apple I, working and available for visitors to use.In October 2012, a non-working Apple I from the estate of former Apple Computer employee Joe Copson was put up for auction by Christie's, but found no bidder who was willing to pay the starting price of US$80,000 (£50,000). Copson's board had previously been listed on eBay in December 2011, with a starting bid of $170,000 and failed to sell. Following the Christie's auction, the board was restored to working condition by computer historian Corey Cohen. Copson's Apple I was once again listed on eBay, where it sold for US$263,100.03 on April 23, 2015.\n* On November 24, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Auction Team Breker for €400,000 (US$515,000).\n*On May 25, 2013, a functioning 1976 model was sold for a then-record €516,000 (US$668,000) in Cologne. Auction Team Breker said \"an unnamed Asian client\" bought the Apple I. This particular unit has Wozniak's signature. An old business transaction letter from Jobs also was included, as well as the original owner's manual.\n*On June 24, 2013, an Apple I was listed by Christie's as part of a special on-line only auction lot called, \"First Bytes: Iconic Technology From the Twentieth Century.\" Bidding ran through July 9, 2013. The unit sold for $390,000.\n*In November 2013, a working unit speculated to have been part of the original lot of 50 boards delivered to the Byte Shop was listed by Auction Team Breker for €180,000 ($242,820), but failed to sell during the auction. Immediately following the close of bidding, a private collector purchased it for €246,000 ($330,000). This board was marked \"01-0046,\" matching the numbering placed on other units sold to the Byte Shop and included the original operation manuals, software cassettes, and shipping box autographed by Steve Wozniak. The board also bears Wozniak's signature.\n*In October 2014, a working, early Apple 1 was sold at auction for $905,000 to the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. The sale included the keyboard, monitor, cassette decks and a manual. The auction was run by Bonhams.\n*On December 13, 2014, a fully functioning, early Apple I was sold at auction for $365,000 by auction house Christie's. The sale included a keyboard, custom case, original manual and a check labeled \"Purchased July 1976 from Steve Jobs in his parents' garage in Los Altos\".\n*On May 30, 2015, a woman reportedly dropped off boxes of electronics for disposal at an electronics recycling center in the Silicon Valley of Northern California, and they would now like to contact her. Included in the items removed from her garage after the death of her husband was an original Apple I computer, which the recycling firm sold for $200,000 to a private collector. It is the company's practice to give back 50% of the proceeds to the original owner when an item is sold, so they want to find the mystery donor.\n*On September 21, 2015, an Apple I bearing the Byte Shop number 01-0059 was listed by Bonhams Auctions as part of their \"History of Science and Technology\" auction with a starting bid of US$300,000. The machine was described as, \"in near perfect condition.\" The owner, Tom Romkey, \"...only used the Apple-1 once or twice, and ...set it on a shelf, and did not touch it again.\" The machine did not sell. However, Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of GLAMGLOW, a beauty company which they sold to Estee Lauder Companies, bought this rare working Apple-1 after the auction through Bonhams Auction house. On the 40th Anniversary of Apple Computers 2016 the Dellimore's working Apple-1 went on loan and on display at world-famous V&A 'Artifact' Museum in London, England. https://www.artfund.org/what-to-see/exhibitions/2016/09/10/you-say-you-want-a-revolution-records-and-rebels-1966-70-exhibition\n* On August 26, 2016, (the 40th Anniversary year of Apple Computers), the rarest Apple-1 in existence, an Apple-I prototype made and hand-built by Steve Jobs himself (according to Apple-1 expert Corey Cohen) and dubbed the 'Holy Grail' of computers was sold for $815,000 to winning bidders Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of cosmetics firm Glamglow, in an auction by Charitybuzz. The for-profit internet company that raises funds for nonprofit organizations declared that ten percent of the proceeds will go to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, based in New York.\n* On April 15, 2017, an Apple I removed from Steve Jobs's office by Apple quality control engineer Don Hutmacher was placed on display at Living Computers: Museum + Labs. This Apple I was modified by Dan Kottke and Bill Fernandez. This previously unknown unit was purchased from Hutmacher's heirs for an undisclosed amount.\n",
"Both Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak have stated that Apple did not assign serial numbers to the Apple l. Several boards have been found with numbered stickers affixed to them, which appear to be inspection stickers from the PCB manufacturer/assembler. A batch of boards is known to have numbers hand-written in black permanent marker on the back; these usually appear as \"01-00##\" and anecdotal evidence suggests they are inventory control numbers added by the Byte Shop to the batch Apple sold them. These Byte Shop numbers have often erroneously been described as serial numbers by auction houses and in related press coverage.\n",
"* American Computer & Robotics Museum in Bozeman, Montana\n* Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California\n* Smithsonian Museum of American History in Washington DC\n* Living Computers: Museum + Labs in Seattle, WA\n",
"Several Apple I clones and replicas have been released in recent years. These are all created by hobbyists and marketed to the hobbyist/collector community. Availability is usually limited to small runs in response to demand.\n\n* Replica 1: Created by Vince Briel. A software-compatible clone, produced using modern components, released in 2003 at a price of around $200.\n* A-One: Created by Frank Achatz, also using modern components.\n* Obtronix Apple I reproduction: Created by Steve Gabaly, using original components or equivalents thereof. Sold through eBay.\n* Mimeo 1: Created by Mike Willegal. A hardware kit designed to replicate a real Apple I as accurately possible. Buyers are expected to assemble the kits themselves.\n* Newton 1: Created by Michael Ng and released in 2012. Similar to the Mimeo 1, but is said to be made using the same obsolete processing technique commonly used in the 1970s. Boards, kits and assembled boards are sold through eBay occasionally. There are both Newton NTI and non-NTI versions available.\n*Brain Board, a plug in firmware board for the Apple II that, with the optional \"Wozanium Pack\" program, can emulate a functional Apple-1.\n",
"*Apple 1js, a web-based Apple I emulator written in JavaScript.\n*MESS, a multi-system emulator able to emulate the Apple I.\n*OpenEmulator, an accurate emulator of the Apple I, the ACI (Apple Cassette Interface) and CFFA1 expansion card.\n*Pom1, an open source Apple I emulator for Microsoft Windows, Arch Linux and Android devices.\n*Apple 1 Emulator, an emulator for the SAM Coupé home computer.\n*CocoaPom, a Java-based emulator with a Cocoa front end for Macintosh.\n*Sim6502, an Apple I emulator for Macintosh.\n",
"\n* Computer museums\n* History of computing\n* History of computer science\n",
"\n;Notes\n\n*Price, Rob, So Far:the First Ten Years of a Vision, Apple Computer, Cupertino, CA, 1987, \n*Owad, Tom (2005). '' Apple I Replica Creation: Back to the Garage.'' Rockland, MA: Syngress Publishing. Copyright 2005. \n\n",
"\n* Bugbook Computer Museum blog. Apple 1 display.\n* Apple I Owners Club\n* Apple I Operational Manual\n* Apple I project on www.sbprojects.com\n* Apple 1 Computer Registry\n* Macintosh Prehistory: The Apple I\n* LCF Historical Collection – Apple 1 Video\n* John Calande III blog – Building the Apple I clone, including corrections on the early history of Apple Computer\n* Apple 1 Computer sold at auction for $671,000\n* Apple 1 Short Film\n* Apple-1 BASIC firmware card designed by John Calande. See working video here.\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Collectors' item",
"Serial numbers",
"U.S. Museums displaying an original Apple 1 Computer",
"Clones and replicas",
"Emulation",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Apple I |
[
"\n\n'''''Apatosaurus''''' (; meaning \"deceptive lizard\") is a genus of extinct sauropod dinosaurs that lived in North America during the Late Jurassic period. Othniel Charles Marsh described and named the first-known species, '''''A. ajax''''', in 1877, and a second species, '''''A. louisae''''', was discovered and named by William H. Holland in 1916. ''Apatosaurus'' lived about 152 to 151 million years ago (mya), during the early Tithonian age, and are now known from fossils in the Morrison Formation of modern-day Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Utah in the United States. ''Apatosaurus'' had an average length of , and an average mass of . A few specimens indicate a maximum length of 11–30% greater than average and a mass of .\n\nThe cervical vertebrae of ''Apatosaurus'' are less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of ''Diplodocus'', a diplodocid like ''Apatosaurus'', and the bones of the leg are much stockier despite being longer, implying that ''Apatosaurus'' was a more robust animal. The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. ''Apatosaurus'' had a single claw on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb. The ''Apatosaurus'' skull, long thought to be similar to ''Camarasaurus'', is much more similar to that of ''Diplodocus''. ''Apatosaurus'' was a generalized browser that likely held its head elevated. To lighten its vertebrae, ''Apatosaurus'' had air sacs that made the bones internally full of holes. Like that of other diplodocids, its tail may have been used as a whip to create loud noises.\n\nThe skull of ''Apatosaurus'' was confused with that of ''Camarasaurus'' and ''Brachiosaurus'' until 1909, when the holotype of ''A. louisae'' was found, and a complete skull just a few meters away from the front of the neck. Henry Fairfield Osborn disagreed with this association, and went on to mount a skeleton of ''Apatosaurus'' with a ''Camarasaurus'' skull cast. Until 1970, ''Apatosaurus'' skeletons were mounted with speculative skull casts, when McIntosh showed that more robust skulls assigned to ''Diplodocus'' were more likely from ''Apatosaurus''.\n\n''Apatosaurus'' is a genus in the family Diplodocidae. It is one of the more basal genera, with only ''Amphicoelias'' and possibly a new, unnamed genus more primitive. While the subfamily Apatosaurinae was named in 1929, the group was not used validly until an extensive 2015 study. Only ''Brontosaurus'' is also in the subfamily, with the other genera being considered synonyms or reclassified as diplodocines. ''Brontosaurus'' has long been considered a junior synonym of ''Apatosaurus''; its only species was reclassified as ''A.excelsus'' in 1903. A 2015 study concluded that ''Brontosaurus'' is a valid genus of sauropod distinct from ''Apatosaurus'', but not all paleontologists agree with this division. As it existed in North America during the late Jurassic, ''Apatosaurus'' would have lived alongside dinosaurs such as ''Allosaurus'', ''Camarasaurus'', ''Diplodocus'', and ''Stegosaurus''.\n",
"Comparison of ''A. ajax'' (orange) and ''A.louisae'' (red) with a human (blue) and ''Brontosaurus parvus'' (green)\n''Apatosaurus'' was a large, long-necked, quadrupedal animal with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs. Most size estimates are based on specimen CM3018, the type specimen of ''A.louisae''. In 1936 this was measured to be , by measuring the vertebral column. Current estimates are similar, finding that the individual was long and had a mass of . A 2015 study that estimated the mass of volumetric models of ''Dreadnoughtus'', ''Apatosaurus'', and ''Giraffatitan'' estimates CM3018 at , similar in mass to ''Dreadnoughtus''. Past estimates have put the creature's mass as high as . Some specimens of ''A.ajax'' (such as OMNH1670) represent individuals 1130% longer, suggesting masses twice that of CM3018 or , potentially rivalling the largest titanosaurs.\n''A. ajax'' skull, specimen CMC VP 7180\n\nThe skull is small in relation to the size of the animal. The jaws are lined with spatulate (chisel-like) teeth suited to an herbivorous diet. The snout of ''Apatosaurus'' and similar diplodocoids is squared, with only ''Nigersaurus'' having a squarer skull. The braincase of ''Apatosaurus'' is well preserved in specimen BYU17096, which also preserved much of the skeleton. A phylogenetic analysis found that the braincase had a morphology similar to those of other diplodocoids. Some skulls of ''Apatosaurus'' have been found still in articulation with their teeth. Those teeth that have the enamel surface exposed do not show any scratches on the surface; instead, they display a sugary texture and little wear.\nYPM 1860) in side and anterior view\nLike those of other sauropods, the neck vertebrae are deeply bifurcated; they carried neural spines with a large trough in the middle, resulting in a wide, deep neck. The vertebral formula for the holotype of ''A.louisae'' is 15cervicals, 10dorsals, 5sacrals, and 82caudals. The caudal vertebra number may vary, even within species. The cervical vertebrae of ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Brontosaurus'' are stouter and more robust than those of other diplodocids and were found to be most similar to ''Camarasaurus'' by Charles Whitney Gilmore. In addition, they support cervical ribs that extend farther towards the ground than in diplodocines, and have vertebrae and ribs that are narrower towards the top of the neck, making the neck nearly triangular in cross-section. In ''Apatosaurus louisae'', the atlas-axis complex of the first cervicals is nearly fused. The dorsal ribs are not fused or tightly attached to their vertebrae and are instead loosely articulated. ''Apatosaurus'' has ten dorsal ribs on either side of the body. The large neck was filled with an extensive system of weight-saving air sacs. ''Apatosaurus'', like its close relative ''Supersaurus'', has tall neural spines, which make up more than half the height of the individual bones of its vertebrae. The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid; it is comparatively slender because of the rapidly decreasing height of the vertebral spines with increasing distance from the hips. ''Apatosaurus'' also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids, giving it an unusually deep chest. As in other diplodocids, the tail transformed into a whip-like structure towards the end.\n\nArtistic interpretation of ''A. louisae''\nThe limb bones are also very robust. Within Apatosaurinae, the scapula of ''Apatosaurus louisae'' is intermediate in morphology between those of ''A.ajax'' and ''Brontosaurus excelsus''. The arm bones are stout, so the humerus of ''Apatosaurus'' resembles that of ''Camarasaurus'', as well as ''Brontosaurus''. However, the humeri of ''Brontosaurus'' and ''A.ajax'' are more similar to each other than they are to ''A.louisae''. In 1936 Charles Gilmore noted that previous reconstructions of ''Apatosaurus'' forelimbs erroneously proposed that the radius and ulna could cross; in life they would have remained parallel. ''Apatosaurus'' had a single large claw on each forelimb, a feature shared by all sauropods more derived than ''Shunosaurus''. The first three toes had claws on each hindlimb. The phalangeal formula is 2-1-1-1-1, meaning the innermost finger (phalanx) on the forelimb has two bones and the next has one. The single manual claw bone (ungual) is slightly curved and squarely truncated on the anterior end. The pelvic girdle includes the robust ilia, and the fused (co-ossified) pubes and ischia. The femora of ''Apatosaurus'' are very stout and represent some of the most robust femora of any member of Sauropoda. The tibia and fibula bones are different from the slender bones of ''Diplodocus'' but are nearly indistinguishable from those of ''Camarasaurus''. The fibula is longer and slenderer than the tibia. The foot of ''Apatosaurus'' has three claws on the innermost digits; the digit formula is 3-4-5-3-2. The first metatarsal is the stoutest, a feature shared among diplodocids.\n",
"''A. ajax'' sacrum, illustrated in 1879\nThe name ''Apatosaurus ajax'' was coined in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh, Professor of Paleontology at Yale University, based on a nearly complete skeleton (holotype, YPM1860) discovered in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Gunnison County, Colorado. The composite term ''Apatosaurus'' comes from the Greek words ''apatē'' ()/''apatēlos'' () meaning \"deception\"/\"deceptive\", and ''sauros'' () meaning \"lizard\"; thus, \"deceptive lizard\". Marsh gave it this name based on the chevron bones, which are dissimilar to those of other dinosaurs; instead, the chevron bones of ''Apatosaurus'' showed similarities with those of mosasaurs. During excavation and transportation, the bones of the holotype skeleton were mixed with those of another ''Apatosaurus'' individual originally described as ''Atlantosaurus immanis''; as a consequence, some elements cannot be ascribed to either specimen with confidence. Marsh distinguished the new genus ''Apatosaurus'' from ''Atlantosaurus'' on the basis of the number of sacral vertebrae, with ''Apatosaurus'' possessing three and ''Atlantosaurus'' four. Two years later, Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff, Wyoming. He gave this specimen a new name based on the conventions of his age and the relatively sparse fossil record available at that time. It was later recognised that the features he had used to distinguish genera and species were in fact more widespread among sauropods. He named the new species ''Brontosaurus excelsus''. All specimens currently considered ''Apatosaurus'' were from the Morrison Formation, the location of the excavations of Marsh and his rival Edward Drinker Cope.\n\nObsolete mount of an apatosaurine (possibly ''Apatosaurus'') specimen AMNH460 with sculpted skull, American Museum of Natural History\nAnother specimen, in the American Museum of Natural History under specimen number460, which is occasionally assigned to ''Apatosaurus'', is considered nearly complete; only the head, feet, and sections of the tail are missing, and it was the first sauropod skeleton mounted. The specimen was found north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming, in 1898 by Walter Granger, and took the entire summer to extract. To complete the mount, sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry and a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it shouldbut which had too few vertebraewere added. In addition, a sculpted model of what the museum thought the skull of this massive creature might look like was made. This was not a delicate skull like that of ''Diplodocus''which was later found to be more accuratebut was based on \"the biggest, thickest, strongest skull bones, lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries\". These skulls were likely those of ''Camarasaurus'', the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time. The mount construction was overseen by Adam Hermann, who failed to find ''Apatosaurus'' skulls. Hermann was forced to sculpt a stand-in skull by hand. Osborn said in a publication that the skull was \"largely conjectural and based on that of ''Morosaurus''\" (now ''Camarasaurus'').\nApatosaurine mount (FMNH P25112) in the Field Museum of Natural History\nIn 1903 Elmer Riggs published a study that described a well-preserved skeleton of a diplodocid from the Grand River Valley near Fruita, Colorado, Field Museum of Natural History specimen P25112. Riggs thought that the deposits were similar in age to those of the Como Bluff in Wyoming from which Marsh had described ''Brontosaurus''. Most of the skeleton was found, and after comparison with both ''Brontosaurus'' and ''Apatosaurus ajax'', Riggs realized that the holotype of ''A.ajax'' was immature, and thus the features distinguishing the genera were not valid. Since ''Apatosaurus'' was the earlier name, ''Brontosaurus'' should be considered a junior synonym of ''Apatosaurus''. Because of this, Riggs recombined ''Brontosaurus excelsus'' as ''Apatosaurus excelsus''. Based on comparisons with other species proposed to belong to ''Apatosaurus'', Riggs also determined that the Field Columbian Museum specimen was likely most similar to ''A.excelsus''.\n\nDespite Riggs' publication, Henry Fairfield Osborn, who was a strong opponent of Marsh and his taxa, labeled the ''Apatosaurus'' mount of the American Museum of Natural History ''Brontosaurus''. Because of this decision the name ''Brontosaurus'' was commonly used outside of scientific literature for what Riggs considered ''Apatosaurus'', and the museum's popularity meant that ''Brontosaurus'' became one of the best known dinosaurs, even though it was invalid throughout nearly all of the 20th and early 21st centuries.\nSide view of ''A. louisae'' CM3018 mounted with a cast of skull CM11162\nIt was not until 1909 that an ''Apatosaurus'' skull was found during the first expedition, led by Earl Douglass, to what would become known as the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument. The skull was found a short distance from a skeleton (specimen CM3018) identified as the new species ''Apatosaurus louisae'', named after Louise Carnegie, wife of Andrew Carnegie, who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West. The skull was designated CM11162; it was very similar to the skull of ''Diplodocus''. Another smaller skeleton of ''A.louisae'' was found nearby CM11162 and CM3018. The skull was accepted as belonging to the ''Apatosaurus'' specimen by Douglass and Carnegie Museum director William H. Holland, although other scientistsmost notably Osbornrejected this identification. Holland defended his view in 1914 in an address to the Paleontological Society of America, yet he left the Carnegie Museum mount headless. While some thought Holland was attempting to avoid conflict with Osborn, others suspected Holland was waiting until an articulated skull and neck were found to confirm the association of the skull and skeleton. After Holland's death in 1934, museum staff placed a cast of a ''Camarasaurus'' skull on the mount.\n\nWhile most other museums were using cast or sculpted ''Camarasaurus'' skulls on ''Apatosaurus'' mounts, the Yale Peabody Museum decided to sculpt a skull based on the lower jaw of a ''Camarasaurus'', with the cranium based on Marsh's 1891 illustration of the skull. The skull also included forward-pointing nasalssomething different to any dinosaurand fenestrae differing from both the drawing and other skulls.\nSkull of BYU 17096 (\"Einstein\") in front view\nNo ''Apatosaurus'' skull was mentioned in literature until the 1970s when John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed the skulls of ''Diplodocus'' and ''Apatosaurus''. They found that though he never published his opinion, Holland was almost certainly correct, that ''Apatosaurus'' had a ''Diplodocus''-like skull. According to them, many skulls long thought to pertain to ''Diplodocus'' might instead be those of ''Apatosaurus''. They reassigned multiple skulls to ''Apatosaurus'' based on associated and closely associated vertebrae. Even though they supported Holland, it was noted that ''Apatosaurus'' might have possessed a ''Camarasaurus''-like skull, based on a disarticulated ''Camarasaurus''-like tooth found at the precise site where an ''Apatosaurus'' specimen was found years before. On October20, 1979, after the publications by McIntosh and Berman, the first true skull of ''Apatosaurus'' was mounted on a skeleton in a museum, that of the Carnegie. In 1998 it was suggested that the Felch Quarry skull that Marsh had included in his 1896 skeletal restoration instead belonged to ''Brachiosaurus''. In 2011 the first specimen of ''Apatosaurus'' where a skull was found articulated with its cervical vertebrae was described. This specimen, CMCVP7180, was found to differ in both skull and neck features from ''A.louisae'', but shared many features of the cervical vertebrae with ''A.ajax''. Another well-preserved skull is Brigham Young University specimen 17096, a well-preserved skull and skeleton, with a preserved braincase. The specimen was found in Cactus Park Quarry in western Colorado.\nInfographic explaining the history of ''Brontosaurus'' and ''Apatosaurus'' according to Tschopp etal. 2015\nAlmost all modern paleontologists agreed with Riggs that the two dinosaurs should be classified together in a single genus. According to the rules of the ICZN (which governs the scientific names of animals), the name ''Apatosaurus'', having been published first, has priority as the official name; ''Brontosaurus'' was considered a junior synonym and was therefore long discarded from formal use. Despite this, at least one paleontologistRobert T. Bakkerargued in the 1990s that ''A.ajax'' and ''A.excelsus'' were in fact sufficiently distinct for the latter to merit a separate genus.\n\nIn 2015 Emanuel Tschopp, Octávio Mateus, and Roger Benson released a paper on diplodocoid systematics, and proposed that genera could be diagnosed by thirteen differing characters, and species separated based on six. The minimum number for generic separation was chosen based on the fact that ''A.ajax'' and ''A.louisae'' differ in twelve characters, and ''Diplodocus carnegiei'' and ''D.hallorum'' differ in eleven characters. Thus, thirteen characters were chosen to validate the separation of genera. The six differing features for specific separation were chosen by counting the number of differing features in separate specimens generally agreed to represent one species, with only one differing character in ''D.carnegiei'' and ''A.louisae'', but five differing features in ''B.excelsus''. Therefore, Tschopp etal. argued that ''Apatosaurus excelsus'', originally classified as ''Brontosaurus excelsus'', had enough morphological differences from other species of ''Apatosaurus'' that it warranted being reclassified as a separate genus again. The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaur individuals. Among the many notable differences are the widerand presumably strongerneck of ''Apatosaurus'' species compared to ''B.excelsus''. Other species previously assigned to ''Apatosaurus'', such as ''Elosaurus parvus'' and ''Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin'' were also reclassified as ''Brontosaurus''. Some features proposed to separate ''Brontosaurus'' from ''Apatosaurus'' include: posterior dorsal vertebrae with the centrum longer than wide; the scapula rear to the acromial edge and the distal blade being excavated; the acromial edge of the distal scapular blade bearing a rounded expansion; and the ratio of the proximodistal length to transverse breadth of the astragalus 0.55 or greater. Sauropod expert Michael Daniel D'Emic pointed out that the criteria chosen were to an extent arbitrary and that they would require abandoning the name ''Brontosaurus'' again if newer analyses obtained different results. Mammal palaeontologist Donald Prothero criticized the mass media reaction to this study as superficial and premature, concluding that he would keep \"Brontosaurus\" in quotes and not treat the name as a valid genus.\n\n===Valid species===\nAMNH as re-mounted in 1995\nMany species of ''Apatosaurus'' have been designated from scant material. Marsh named as many species as he could, which resulted in many being based upon fragmentary and indistinguishable remains. In 2005 Paul Upchurch and colleagues published a study that analyzed the species and specimen relationships of ''Apatosaurus''. They found that ''A.louisae'' was the most basal species, followed by FMNHP25112, and then a polytomy of ''A.ajax'', ''A.parvus'', and ''A.excelsus''. Their analysis was revised and expanded with many additional diplodocid specimens in 2015, which resolved the relationships of ''Apatosaurus'' slightly differently, and also supported separating ''Brontosaurus'' from ''Apatosaurus''.\n\n*'''''Apatosaurus ajax''''' was named by Marsh in 1877 after Ajax, a hero from Greek mythology. Marsh designated the incomplete, juvenile skeleton YPM1860 as its holotype. The species is less studied then ''Brontosaurus'' and ''A.louisae'', especially because of the incomplete nature of the holotype. In 2005 many specimens in addition to the holotype were found assignable to ''A.ajax'', YPM1840, NSMT-PV 20375, YPM1861, and AMNH460. The specimens date from the late Kimmeridgian to the early Tithonian ages. In 2015 only the ''A.ajax'' holotype YPM1860 assigned to the species, with AMNH460 found either to be within ''Brontosaurus'', or potentially its own taxon. However, YPM1861 and NSMT-PV 20375 only differed in a few characteristics, and cannot be distinguished specifically or generically from ''A.ajax''. YPM1861 is the holotype of ''\"Atlantosaurus\" immanis'', which means it might be a junior synonym of ''A.ajax''.\n*'''''Apatosaurus louisae''''' was named by Holland in 1916, being first known from a partial skeleton that was found in Utah. The holotype is CM3018, with referred specimens including CM3378, CM11162, and LACM52844. The former two consist of a vertebral column; the latter two consist of a skull and a nearly complete skeleton, respectively. ''Apatosaurus louisae'' specimens all come from the late Kimmeridgian of Dinosaur National Monument. In 2015 Tschopp etal. found the type specimen of ''Apatosaurus laticollis'' to nest closely with CM3018, meaning the former is likely a junior synonym of ''A.louisae''.\nSpecimen NSMT-PV 20375, which may be ''A.ajax'' or a new species\nThe cladogram below is the result of an analysis by Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015). The authors analyzed most diplodocid type specimens separately to deduce which specimen belonged to which species and genus.\n\n\n\n===Reassigned species===\nThe most complete specimen known to date, ''A.'' sp. BYU 17096 nicknamed \"Einstein\"\n* ''Apatosaurus grandis'' was named in 1877 by Marsh in the article that described ''A.ajax''. It was briefly described, figured, and diagnosed. Marsh later mentioned it was only provisionally assigned to ''Apatosaurus'' when he reassigned it to his new genus ''Morosaurus'' in 1878. Since ''Morosaurus'' has been considered a synonym of ''Camarasaurus'', ''C.grandis'' is the oldest-named species of the latter genus.\n* ''Apatosaurus excelsus'' was the original type species of ''Brontosaurus'', first named by Marsh in 1879. Elmer Riggs reclassified ''Brontosaurus'' as a synonym of ''Apatosaurus'' in 1903, transferring the species ''B.excelsus'' to ''A.excelsus''. In 2015 Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson argued that the species was distinct enough to be placed in its own genus, so they reclassified it back into ''Brontosaurus''.\n* ''Apatosaurus parvus'', first described from a juvenile specimen as ''Elosaurus'' in 1902 by Peterson and Gilmore, was reassigned to ''Apatosaurus'' in 1994, and then to ''Brontosaurus'' in 2015. Many other, more mature specimens were assigned to it following the 2015 study.\n* ''Apatosaurus minimus'' was originally described as a specimen of ''Brontosaurus'' sp. in 1904 by Osborn. In 1917 Henry Mook named it as its own species, ''A.minimus'', for a pair of ilia and their sacrum. In 2012 Mike P. Taylor and Matt J. Wedel published a short abstract describing the material of \"A.\"''minimus'', finding it hard to place among either Diplodocoidea or Macronaria. While it was placed with ''Saltasaurus'' in a phylogenetic analysis, it was thought to represent instead some form with convergent features from many groups. The study of Tschopp etal. did find that a camarasaurid position for the taxon was supported, but noted that the position of the taxon was found to be highly variable and there was no clearly more likely position.\n* ''Apatosaurus alenquerensis'' was named in 1957 by Albert-Félix de Lapparent and Georges Zbyweski. It was based on post cranial material from Portugal. In 1990 this material was reassigned to ''Camarasaurus'', but in 1998 it was given its own genus, ''Lourinhasaurus''. This was further supported by the findings of Tschopp etal. in 2015, where ''Lourinhasaurus'' was found to be sister to ''Camarasaurus'' and other camarasaurids.\n* ''Apatosaurus yahnahpin'' was named by James Filla and Patrick Redman in 1994. Bakker made ''A.yahnahpin'' the type species of a new genus, ''Eobrontosaurus'' in 1998, and Tschopp reclassified it as ''Brontosaurus yahnahpin'' in 2015.\n",
"Shoulder blade and coracoid of ''A. ajax''\n''Apatosaurus'' is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including ''Diplodocus'', ''Supersaurus'', and ''Barosaurus''. ''Apatosaurus'' is sometimes classified in the subfamily Apatosaurinae, which may also include ''Suuwassea'', ''Supersaurus'', and ''Brontosaurus''. Othniel Charles Marsh described ''Apatosaurus'' as allied to ''Atlantosaurus'' within the now-defunct group Atlantosauridae. In 1878 Marsh raised his family to the rank of suborder, including ''Apatosaurus'', ''Atlantosaurus'', ''Morosaurus'' (=''Camarasaurus'') and ''Diplodocus''. He classified this group within Sauropoda, a group he erected in the same study. In 1903 Elmer S. Riggs said the name Sauropoda would be a junior synonym of earlier names; he grouped ''Apatosaurus'' within Opisthocoelia. Sauropoda is still used as the group name. In 2011, John Whitlock published a study that placed ''Apatosaurus'' a more basal diplodocid, sometimes less basal than ''Supersaurus''.\n\nCladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015).\n\n",
"Tracks of a juvenile\nIt was believed throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries that sauropods like ''Apatosaurus'' were too massive to support their own weight on dry land. It was theorized that they lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in swamps. More recent findings do not support this; sauropods are now thought to have been fully terrestrial animals. A study of diplodocid snouts showed that the square snout, large proportion of pits, and fine, subparallel scratches of the teeth of ''Apatosaurus'' suggests it was a ground-height, nonselective browser. It may have eaten ferns, cycadeoids, seed ferns, horsetails, and algae. Stevens and Parish (2005) speculate that these sauropods fed from riverbanks on submerged water plants.\n\nA 2015 study of the necks of ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Brontosaurus'' found many differences between them and other diplodocids, and that these variations may have shown that the necks of ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Brontosaurus'' were used for intraspecific combat. Various uses for the single claw on the forelimb of sauropods have been proposed. One suggestion is that they were used for defense, but their shape and size make this unlikely. It was also possible they were for feeding, but the most probable use for the claw was grasping objects such as tree trunks when rearing.\n\nTrackways of sauropods like ''Apatosaurus'' show that they may have had a range of around per day, and that they could potentially have reached a top speed of per hour. The slow locomotion of sauropods may be due to their minimal muscling, or to recoil after strides. A trackway of a juvenile has led some to believe that they were capable of bipedalism, though this is disputed.\n\n===Neck posture===\n\nArtistic interpretation of an individual of ''A. louisae'' arching its neck down to drink\nDiplodocids like ''Apatosaurus'' are often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to browse on tall trees. Some studies state diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed, because the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have allowed the neck to bend far upwards, and that sauropods like ''Apatosaurus'' were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding.\n\nOther studies by Taylor find that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture; they argue the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from that of other animals. ''Apatosaurus'', like ''Diplodocus'', would have held its neck angled upwards with the head pointing downwards in a resting posture. Kent Stevens and Michael Parrish (1999 and 2005) state ''Apatosaurus'' had a great feeding range; its neck could bend into a U-shape laterally. The neck's range of movement would have also allowed the head to feed at the level of the feet.\n\nMatthew Cobley et al. (2013) dispute this, finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited movement of the neck. They state the feeding ranges for sauropods like ''Diplodocus'' were smaller than previously believed, and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation. As such, they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs. The conclusions of Cobley etal. are disputed by Taylor, who analyzed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Diplodocus''. He found that the neck of ''Apatosaurus'' was very flexible.\n\n===Physiology===\n\nTail vertebrae of specimen FMNH P25112, showing pneumatic fossae (holes)\n\nGiven the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like ''Apatosaurus'', physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed. Beginning with the assumption that, like crocodilians, ''Apatosaurus'' did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea, and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about for a specimen. Paladino calculates its tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) at with an avian respiratory system, if mammalian, and if reptilian.\n\nOn this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi, with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs, and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about compared with a mammalian requirement of , which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of ''Apatosaurus'' has been estimated at , allowing for a , four-chambered heart and a lung capacity. That would allow about for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in ''Apatosaurus'' and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds.\n\nJames Spotila et al. (1991) concludes that the large body size of sauropods would have made them unable to maintain high metabolic rates because they would not have been able to release enough heat. They assumed sauropods had a reptilian respiratory system. Wedel says that an avian system would have allowed it to dump more heat. Some scientists state that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain. Others suggest that the near-horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain because it would not have been elevated.\n\nJames Farlow (1987) calculates that an ''Apatosaurus''-sized dinosaur about would have possessed of fermentation contents. Assuming ''Apatosaurus'' had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting-metabolism, Frank Paladino etal. (1997) estimate the animal would have needed to consume only about of water per day.\n\n===Growth===\nJuvenile ''A.'' sp. mount, Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History\nA 1999 microscopic study of ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Brontosaurus'' bones concluded the animals grew rapidly when young and reached near-adult sizes in about 10years. In 2008, a study on the growth rates of sauropods was published by Thomas Lehman and Holly Woodward. They said that by using growth lines and length-to-mass ratios, ''Apatosaurus'' would have grown to 25t (25 long tons; 28 short tons) in 15years, with growth peaking at in a single year. An alternative method, using limb length and body mass, found ''Apatosaurus'' grew per year, and reached its full mass before it was about 70years old. These estimates have been called unreliable because the calculation methods are not sound; old growth lines would have been obliterated by bone remodelling. One of the first identified growth factors of ''Apatosaurus'' was the number of sacral vertebrae, which increased to five by the time of the creature's maturity. This was first noted in 1903 and again in 1936.\n\nLong-bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached. A study by Eva Griebeler etal. (2013) examined long-bone histological data and concluded the ''Apatosaurus'' sp.SMA0014 weighed , reached sexual maturity at 21years, and died aged 28. The same growth model indicated ''Apatosaurus'' sp.BYU 601–17328 weighed , reached sexual maturity at 19years, and died aged 31.\n\n====Juveniles====\nCompared with most sauropods, a relatively large amount of juvenile material is known from ''Apatosaurus''. Multiple specimens in the OMNH are from juveniles of an undetermined species of ''Apatosaurus''; this material includes partial shoulder and pelvic girdles, some vertebrae, and limb bones. OMNH juvenile material is from at least two different age groups and based on overlapping bones likely comes from more than three individuals. The specimens exhibit features that distinguish ''Apatosaurus'' from its relatives, and thus likely belong to the genus. Juvenile sauropods tend to have proportionally shorter necks and tails, and a more pronounced forelimb-hindlimb disparity than found in adult sauropods.\n\n===Tail===\nAn article published in 1997 reported research of the mechanics of ''Apatosaurus'' tails by Nathan Myhrvold and paleontologist Philip J. Currie. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like ''Apatosaurus'' was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested sauropods were capable of producing a whiplike cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon being fired.\n\nA pathology has been identified on the tail of ''Apatosaurus'', caused by a growth defect. Two caudal vertebrae are seamlessly fused along the entire articulating surface of the bone, including the arches of the neural spines. This defect might have been caused by the lack or inhibition of the substance that forms intervertebral disks or joints. It has been proposed that the whips could have been used in combat, but the tails of diplodocids were quite light and narrow compared to ''Shunosaurus'' and mamenchisaurids, and thus to injure another animal with the tail would severely injure the tail itself.\n",
"''Saurophaganax'' and ''A. ajax'', Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History\nThe Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, dates from between 156.3mya at its base, and 146.8mya at the top, placing it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as originating in a locally semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin, where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan; it was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania.\n\nIschium of an ''Apatosaurus'' showing bite marks from a large theropod\n''Apatosaurus'' was the second most common sauropod in the Morrison Formation ecosystem, after ''Camarasaurus''. ''Apatosaurus'' may have been more solitary than other Morrison Formation dinosaurs. ''Supersaurus'' has a greater total length and is the largest of all sauropods from the Morrison Formation. ''Apatosaurus'' fossils have only been found in the upper levels of the formation. Those of ''Apatosaurus ajax'' are known exclusively from the upper Brushy Basin Member, about 152–151 mya. ''A.louisae'' fossils are rare, known only from one site in the upper Brushy Basin Member; they date to the late Kimmeridgian stage, about 151mya. Additional ''Apatosaurus'' remains are known from similarly aged or slightly younger rocks, but they have not been identified as any particular species, and thus may instead belong to ''Brontosaurus''.\n\nThe Morrison Formation records a time when the local environment was dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison Formation include the theropods ''Allosaurus'', ''Ceratosaurus'', ''Ornitholestes'', ''Saurophaganax'', and ''Torvosaurus''; the sauropods ''Brontosaurus'', ''Brachiosaurus'', ''Camarasaurus'', and ''Diplodocus''; and the ornithischians ''Camptosaurus'', ''Dryosaurus'', and ''Stegosaurus''. ''Apatosaurus'' is commonly found at the same sites as ''Allosaurus'', ''Camarasaurus'', ''Diplodocus'', and ''Stegosaurus''. ''Allosaurus'' accounted for 70–75% of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are of the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinhã Formationmainly ''Allosaurus'', ''Ceratosaurus'', and ''Torvosaurus''or have a close counterpart''Brachiosaurus'' and ''Lusotitan'', ''Camptosaurus'' and ''Draconyx'', and ''Apatosaurus'' and ''Dinheirosaurus''. Other vertebrates that are known to have shared this paleo-environment include ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaur. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been evidenced in fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns with fern understory (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the ''Araucaria''-like conifer ''Brachyphyllum''.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* Batuman, Elif. Brontosaurus Rising (April 2015), ''The New Yorker''\n* Krystek, Lee. \"Whatever Happened to the Brontosaurus?\" UnMuseum (Museum of Unnatural Mystery), 2002.\n* Taylor, Mike. \"Why is 'Brontosaurus' now called ''Apatosaurus''?\" MikeTaylor.org.uk, June 28, 2004.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Discovery and species",
"Classification",
"Palaeobiology",
"Paleoecology",
"References",
"External links"
] | Apatosaurus |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''''Allosaurus''''' () is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived 155 to 150 million years ago during the late Jurassic period (Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian). The name \"''Allosaurus\"'' means \"different lizard\". It is derived from the Greek /''allos'' (\"different, other\") and /''sauros'' (\"lizard / generic reptile\"). The first fossil remains that could definitively be ascribed to this genus were described in 1877 by paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. These remains became known as ''Antrodemus''. As one of the first well-known theropod dinosaurs, it has long attracted attention outside of paleontological circles. Indeed, it has been a top feature in several films and documentaries about prehistoric life.\n\n''Allosaurus'' was a large bipedal predator. Its skull was large and equipped with dozens of sharp, serrated teeth. It averaged in length, though fragmentary remains suggest it could have reached over . Relative to the large and powerful hindlimbs, its three-fingered forelimbs were small, and the body was balanced by a long and heavily muscled tail. It is classified as an allosaurid, a type of carnosaurian theropod dinosaur. The genus has a complicated taxonomy, and includes an uncertain number of valid species, the best known of which is ''A. fragilis''. The bulk of ''Allosaurus'' remains have come from North America's Morrison Formation, with material also known from Portugal and possibly Tanzania. It was known for over half of the 20th century as ''Antrodemus'', but a study of the copious remains from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry brought the name \"''Allosaurus\"'' back to prominence and established it as one of the best-known dinosaurs.\n\nAs the most abundant large predator in the Morrison Formation, ''Allosaurus'' was at the top of the food chain, probably preying on contemporaneous large herbivorous dinosaurs, and perhaps even other predators. Potential prey included ornithopods, stegosaurids, and sauropods. Some paleontologists interpret ''Allosaurus'' as having had cooperative social behavior, and hunting in packs, while others believe individuals may have been aggressive toward each other, and that congregations of this genus are the result of lone individuals feeding on the same carcasses. It may have attacked large prey by ambush, using its upper jaw like a hatchet.\n",
"The size range of ''Allosaurus'' and possible synonym ''Epanterias'' (largest), compared with a human.\n''Allosaurus'' was a typical large theropod, having a massive skull on a short neck, a long tail and reduced forelimbs. ''Allosaurus fragilis'', the best-known species, had an average length of , with the largest definitive ''Allosaurus'' specimen (AMNH 680) estimated at long, and an estimated weight of . In his 1976 monograph on ''Allosaurus'', James H. Madsen mentioned a range of bone sizes which he interpreted to show a maximum length of . As with dinosaurs in general, weight estimates are debatable, and since 1980 have ranged between , , and for modal adult weight (not maximum). John Foster, a specialist on the Morrison Formation, suggests that is reasonable for large adults of ''A. fragilis'', but that is a closer estimate for individuals represented by the average-sized thigh bones he has measured. Using the subadult specimen nicknamed \"Big Al\", researchers using computer modelling arrived at a best estimate of for the individual, but by varying parameters they found a range from approximately to approximately .\n\nSeveral gigantic specimens have been attributed to ''Allosaurus'', but may in fact belong to other genera. The closely related genus ''Saurophaganax'' (OMNH 1708) reached perhaps in length, and its single species has sometimes been included in the genus ''Allosaurus'' as ''Allosaurus maximus'', though recent studies support it as a separate genus. Another potential specimen of ''Allosaurus'', once assigned to the genus ''Epanterias'' (AMNH 5767), may have measured in length. A more recent discovery is a partial skeleton from the Peterson Quarry in Morrison rocks of New Mexico; this large allosaurid may be another individual of ''Saurophaganax''.\n\n===Skull===\nSkull, at Telus World of Science, Vancouver\nThe skull and teeth of ''Allosaurus'' were modestly proportioned for a theropod of its size. Paleontologist Gregory S. Paul gives a length of for a skull belonging to an individual he estimates at long. Each premaxilla (the bones that formed the tip of the snout), held five teeth with D-shaped cross-sections, and each maxilla (the main tooth-bearing bones in the upper jaw) had between 14 and 17 teeth; the number of teeth does not exactly correspond to the size of the bone. Each dentary (the tooth-bearing bone of the lower jaw) had between 14 and 17 teeth, with an average count of 16. The teeth became shorter, narrower, and more curved toward the back of the skull. All of the teeth had saw-like edges. They were shed easily, and were replaced continually, making them common fossils.\n\nThe skull had a pair of horns above and in front of the eyes. These horns were composed of extensions of the lacrimal bones, and varied in shape and size. There were also lower paired ridges running along the top edges of the nasal bones that led into the horns. The horns were probably covered in a keratin sheath and may have had a variety of functions, including acting as sunshades for the eye, being used for display, and being used in combat against other members of the same species (although they were fragile). There was a ridge along the back of the skull roof for muscle attachment, as is also seen in tyrannosaurids.\n\nInside the lacrimal bones were depressions that may have held glands, such as salt glands. Within the maxillae were sinuses that were better developed than those of more basal theropods such as ''Ceratosaurus'' and ''Marshosaurus''; they may have been related to the sense of smell, perhaps holding something like Jacobson's organ. The roof of the braincase was thin, perhaps to improve thermoregulation for the brain. The skull and lower jaws had joints that permitted motion within these units. In the lower jaws, the bones of the front and back halves loosely articulated, permitting the jaws to bow outward and increasing the animal's gape. The braincase and frontals may also have had a joint.\n\n===Postcranial skeleton===\nLife restoration of ''A. fragilis''\n''Allosaurus'' had nine vertebrae in the neck, 14 in the back, and five in the sacrum supporting the hips. The number of tail vertebrae is unknown and varied with individual size; James Madsen estimated about 50, while Gregory S. Paul considered that to be too many and suggested 45 or less. There were hollow spaces in the neck and anterior back vertebrae. Such spaces, which are also found in modern theropods (that is, the birds), are interpreted as having held air sacs used in respiration. The rib cage was broad, giving it a barrel chest, especially in comparison to less derived theropods like ''Ceratosaurus''. ''Allosaurus'' had gastralia (belly ribs), but these are not common findings, and they may have ossified poorly. In one published case, the gastralia show evidence of injury during life. A furcula (wishbone) was also present, but has only been recognized since 1996; in some cases furculae were confused with gastralia. The ilium, the main hip bone, was massive, and the pubic bone had a prominent foot that may have been used for both muscle attachment and as a prop for resting the body on the ground. Madsen noted that in about half of the individuals from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, independent of size, the pubes had not fused to each other at their foot ends. He suggested that this was a sexual characteristic, with females lacking fused bones to make egg-laying easier. This proposal has not attracted further attention, however.\nHand and claws of ''A. fragilis''\nThe forelimbs of ''Allosaurus'' were short in comparison to the hindlimbs (only about 35% the length of the hindlimbs in adults) and had three fingers per hand, tipped with large, strongly curved and pointed claws. The arms were powerful, and the forearm was somewhat shorter than the upper arm (1:1.2 ulna/humerus ratio). The wrist had a version of the semilunate carpal also found in more derived theropods like maniraptorans. Of the three fingers, the innermost (or thumb) was the largest, and diverged from the others. The phalangeal formula is 2-3-4-0-0, meaning that the innermost finger (phalange) has two bones, the next has three, and the third finger has four. The legs were not as long or suited for speed as those of tyrannosaurids, and the claws of the toes were less developed and more hoof-like than those of earlier theropods. Each foot had three weight-bearing toes and an inner dewclaw, which Madsen suggested could have been used for grasping in juveniles. There was also what is interpreted as the splint-like remnant of a fifth (outermost) metatarsal, perhaps used as a lever between the Achilles tendon and foot.\n",
"''Allosaurus'' was an allosaurid, a member of a family of large theropods within the larger group Carnosauria. The family name Allosauridae was created for this genus in 1878 by Othniel Charles Marsh, but the term was largely unused until the 1970s in favor of Megalosauridae, another family of large theropods that eventually became a wastebasket taxon. This, along with the use of ''Antrodemus'' for ''Allosaurus'' during the same period, is a point that needs to be remembered when searching for information on ''Allosaurus'' in publications that predate James Madsen's 1976 monograph. Major publications using the name \"Megalosauridae\" instead of \"Allosauridae\" include Gilmore, 1920, von Huene, 1926, Romer, 1956 and 1966, Steel, 1970, and Walker, 1964.\nMounted skeleton of \"Big Al II\" (specimen SMA 0005)\nRestored skeleton of ''Saurophaganax'' or ''A. maximus''\nFollowing the publication of Madsen's influential monograph, Allosauridae became the preferred family assignment, but it too was not strongly defined. Semi-technical works used Allosauridae for a variety of large theropods, usually those that were larger and better-known than megalosaurids. Typical theropods that were thought to be related to ''Allosaurus'' included ''Indosaurus'', ''Piatnitzkysaurus'', ''Piveteausaurus'', ''Yangchuanosaurus'', ''Acrocanthosaurus'', ''Chilantaisaurus'', ''Compsosuchus'', ''Stokesosaurus'', and ''Szechuanosaurus''. Given modern knowledge of theropod diversity and the advent of cladistic study of evolutionary relationships, none of these theropods is now recognized as an allosaurid, although several, like ''Acrocanthosaurus'' and ''Yangchuanosaurus'', are members of closely related families.\n\nBelow is a cladogram by Benson ''et al.'' in 2010.\n\n\n\nAllosauridae is one of four families in Carnosauria; the other three are Neovenatoridae, Carcharodontosauridae and Sinraptoridae. Allosauridae has at times been proposed as ancestral to the Tyrannosauridae (which would make it paraphyletic), one recent example being Gregory S. Paul's ''Predatory Dinosaurs of the World'', but this has been rejected, with tyrannosaurids identified as members of a separate branch of theropods, the Coelurosauria. Allosauridae is the smallest of the carnosaur families, with only ''Saurophaganax'' and a currently unnamed French allosauroid accepted as possible valid genera besides ''Allosaurus'' in the most recent review. Another genus, ''Epanterias'', is a potential valid member, but it and ''Saurophaganax'' may turn out to be large examples of ''Allosaurus''. Recent reviews have kept the genus ''Saurophaganax'' and included ''Epanterias'' with ''Allosaurus''.\n",
"Restoration of the pelvis, fore and hindlimbs based on specimens O. C. Marsh had assigned to ''A. fragilis'' by 1884\n\n===Early discoveries and research===\nThe discovery and early study of ''Allosaurus'' is complicated by the multiplicity of names coined during the Bone Wars of the late 19th century. The first described fossil in this history was a bone obtained secondhand by Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden in 1869. It came from Middle Park, near Granby, Colorado, probably from Morrison Formation rocks. The locals had identified such bones as \"petrified horse hoofs\". Hayden sent his specimen to Joseph Leidy, who identified it as half of a tail vertebra, and tentatively assigned it to the European dinosaur genus ''Poekilopleuron'' as ''Poicilopleuron'' ''valens''. He later decided it deserved its own genus, ''Antrodemus''.\n\n''Allosaurus'' itself is based on YPM 1930, a small collection of fragmentary bones including parts of three vertebrae, a rib fragment, a tooth, a toe bone, and, most useful for later discussions, the shaft of the right humerus (upper arm). Othniel Charles Marsh gave these remains the formal name ''Allosaurus fragilis'' in 1877. ''Allosaurus'' comes from the Greek ''allos/αλλος'', meaning \"strange\" or \"different\" and ''sauros/σαυρος'', meaning \"lizard\" or \"reptile\". It was named 'different lizard' because its vertebrae were different from those of other dinosaurs known at the time of its discovery. The species epithet ''fragilis'' is Latin for \"fragile\", referring to lightening features in the vertebrae. The bones were collected from the Morrison Formation of Garden Park, north of Cañon City. Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope, who were in scientific competition, went on to coin several other genera based on similarly sparse material that would later figure in the taxonomy of ''Allosaurus''. These include Marsh's ''Creosaurus'' and ''Labrosaurus'', and Cope's ''Epanterias''.\n\nIn their haste, Cope and Marsh did not always follow up on their discoveries (or, more commonly, those made by their subordinates). For example, after the discovery by Benjamin Mudge of the type specimen of ''Allosaurus'' in Colorado, Marsh elected to concentrate work in Wyoming; when work resumed at Garden Park in 1883, M. P. Felch found an almost complete ''Allosaurus'' and several partial skeletons. In addition, one of Cope's collectors, H. F. Hubbell, found a specimen in the Como Bluff area of Wyoming in 1879, but apparently did not mention its completeness, and Cope never unpacked it. Upon unpacking in 1903 (several years after Cope had died), it was found to be one of the most complete theropod specimens then known, and in 1908 the skeleton, now cataloged as AMNH 5753, was put on public view. This is the well-known mount poised over a partial ''Apatosaurus'' skeleton as if scavenging it, illustrated as such by Charles R. Knight. Although notable as the first free-standing mount of a theropod dinosaur, and often illustrated and photographed, it has never been scientifically described.\n\nThe multiplicity of early names complicated later research, with the situation compounded by the terse descriptions provided by Marsh and Cope. Even at the time, authors such as Samuel Wendell Williston suggested that too many names had been coined. For example, Williston pointed out in 1901 that Marsh had never been able to adequately distinguish ''Allosaurus'' from ''Creosaurus''. The most influential early attempt to sort out the convoluted situation was produced by Charles W. Gilmore in 1920. He came to the conclusion that the tail vertebra named ''Antrodemus'' by Leidy was indistinguishable from those of ''Allosaurus'', and ''Antrodemus'' thus should be the preferred name because as the older name it had priority. ''Antrodemus'' became the accepted name for this familiar genus for over fifty years, until James Madsen published on the Cleveland-Lloyd specimens and concluded that ''Allosaurus'' should be used because ''Antrodemus'' was based on material with poor, if any, diagnostic features and locality information (for example, the geological formation that the single bone of ''Antrodemus'' came from is unknown). \"''Antrodemus''\" has been used informally for convenience when distinguishing between the skull Gilmore restored and the composite skull restored by Madsen.\n\n===Cleveland-Lloyd discoveries===\nSpecimen at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry museum, Utah\nAlthough sporadic work at what became known as the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Emery County, Utah had taken place as early as 1927, and the fossil site itself described by William L. Stokes in 1945, major operations did not begin there until 1960. Under a cooperative effort involving nearly 40 institutions, thousands of bones were recovered between 1960 and 1965. The quarry is notable for the predominance of ''Allosaurus'' remains, the condition of the specimens, and the lack of scientific resolution on how it came to be. The majority of bones belong to the large theropod ''Allosaurus fragilis'' (it is estimated that the remains of at least 46 ''A. fragilis'' have been found there, out of at minimum 73 dinosaurs), and the fossils found there are disarticulated and well-mixed. Nearly a dozen scientific papers have been written on the taphonomy of the site, suggesting numerous mutually exclusive explanations for how it may have formed. Suggestions have ranged from animals getting stuck in a bog, to becoming trapped in deep mud, to falling victim to drought-induced mortality around a waterhole, to getting trapped in a spring-fed pond or seep. Regardless of the actual cause, the great quantity of well-preserved ''Allosaurus'' remains has allowed this genus to be known in detail, making it among the best-known theropods. Skeletal remains from the quarry pertain to individuals of almost all ages and sizes, from less than to long, and the disarticulation is an advantage for describing bones usually found fused.\n\n===Recent work: 1980s–present===\nThe period since Madsen's monograph has been marked by a great expansion in studies dealing with topics concerning ''Allosaurus'' in life (paleobiological and paleoecological topics). Such studies have covered topics including skeletal variation, growth, skull construction, hunting methods, the brain, and the possibility of gregarious living and parental care. Reanalysis of old material (particularly of large 'allosaur' specimens), new discoveries in Portugal, and several very complete new specimens have also contributed to the growing knowledge base.\n\n====\"Big Al\" and \"Big Al Two\"====\n\"Big Al\" at Museum of the Rockies.\nIn 1991 \"Big Al\" (MOR 693), a 95% complete, partially articulated specimen of ''Allosaurus'' was discovered. It measured about 8 meters (about 26 ft) in length. MOR 693 was excavated near Shell, Wyoming, by a joint Museum of the Rockies and University of Wyoming Geological Museum team. This skeleton was discovered by a Swiss team, led by Kirby Siber. In 1996 the same team discovered a second ''Allosaurus'', \"Big Al Two\", which is the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date.\n\nThe completeness, preservation, and scientific importance of this skeleton gave \"Big Al\" its name; the individual itself was below the average size for ''Allosaurus fragilis'', and was a subadult estimated at only 87% grown. The specimen was described by Breithaupt in 1996. Nineteen of its bones were broken or showed signs of infection, which may have contributed to \"Big Al's\" death. Pathologic bones included five ribs, five vertebrae, and four bones of the feet; several damaged bones showed osteomyelitis, a bone infection. A particular problem for the living animal was infection and trauma to the right foot that probably affected movement and may have also predisposed the other foot to injury because of a change in gait. Al had an infection on the first phalanx on the third toe that was afflicted by an involucrum. The infection was long lived, perhaps up to 6 months. Big Al Two is also known to have multiple injuries.\n",
"\nSkull of \"A. jimmadseni\" (DINO 11541) from Dinosaur National Monument, when it was still partially encased in matrix\nThere are currently four valid and one undescribed species of ''Allosaurus'' (''A. amplus'', ''A. europaeus'', the type species ''A. fragilis'', the as-yet not formally described \"A. jimmadseni\", and ''A. lucasi'').\n''Antrodemus valens'' holotype tail vertebra (above) compared to same of ''Allosaurus'' (below)\n''A. fragilis'', \"A. jimmadseni\", ''A. amplus'', and ''A. lucasi'' are all known from remains discovered in the Kimmeridgian–Tithonian Upper Jurassic-age Morrison Formation of the United States, spread across the states of Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. ''A. fragilis'' is regarded as the most common, known from the remains of at least sixty individuals. For a while in the late 1980s and early 1990s it was common to recognize ''A. fragilis'' as the short-snouted species, with the long-snouted taxon being ''A. atrox''; however, subsequent analysis of specimens from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry, Como Bluff, and Dry Mesa Quarry showed that the differences seen in the Morrison Formation material could be attributed to individual variation. A study of skull elements from the Cleveland-Lloyd site found wide variation between individuals, calling into question previous species-level distinctions based on such features as the shape of the lacrimal horns, and the proposed differentiation of \"A. jimmadseni\" based on the shape of the jugal. ''A. europaeus'' was found in the Kimmeridgian-age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation, but may be the same as ''A. fragilis''.\n\n''Allosaurus tendagurensis'' was found in Kimmeridgian-age rocks of Tendaguru, in Mtwara, Tanzania. Subsequent studies classified it as a non-coelurosaurian tetanuran, either a megalosaurid or carcharodontosaur. Although obscure, it was a large theropod, possibly around long and in weight.\nHolotype material of ''Creosaurus atrox''\n''Allosaurus'' is regarded as senior synonym of the genera ''Creosaurus'', ''Epanterias'', and ''Labrosaurus''. Most of the species that are regarded as synonyms of ''A. fragilis'', or that were misassigned to the genus, are obscure and were based on scrappy remains. One exception is ''Labrosaurus ferox'', named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw, with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw, and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down. Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic, showing an injury to the living animal, and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction. It is now regarded as an example of ''A. fragilis.''\n\nOther remains formerly thought to pertain to ''Allosaurus'' were described from Australia, and Siberia, but these fossils have been reassessed as belonging to other dinosaurs.\n\nThe issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of ''Allosaurus fragilis'' (catalog number YPM 1930) being extremely fragmentary, consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae, limb bone fragments, rib fragments, and a tooth. Because of this, several scientists have interpreted the type specimen as potentially dubious, and thus the genus ''Allosaurus'' itself or at least the species ''A. fragilis'' would be a ''nomen dubium'' (\"dubious name\", based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify). To address this situation, Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter (2010) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name \"''A. fragilis\"'' officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 (as a neotype). This request is currently pending review.\n",
"\n===Life history===\nSkeletons at different growth stages on display, Natural History Museum of Utah\nThe wealth of ''Allosaurus'' fossils, from nearly all ages of individuals, allows scientists to study how the animal grew and how long its lifespan may have been. Remains may reach as far back in the lifespan as eggs—crushed eggs from Colorado have been suggested as those of ''Allosaurus''. Based on histological analysis of limb bones, bone deposition appears to stop at around 22 to 28 years, which is comparable to that of other large theropods like ''Tyrannosaurus''. From the same analysis, its maximum growth appears to have been at age 15, with an estimated growth rate of about 150 kilograms (330 lb) per year.\n\nMedullary bone tissue (endosteally derived, ephemeral, mineralization located inside the medulla of the long bones in gravid female birds) has been reported in at least one ''Allosaurus'' specimen, a shin bone from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry. Today, this bone tissue is only formed in female birds that are laying eggs, as it is used to supply calcium to shells. Its presence in the ''Allosaurus'' individual has been used to establish sex and show it had reached reproductive age. However, other studies have called into question some cases of medullary bone in dinosaurs, including this ''Allosaurus'' individual. Data from extant birds suggested that the medullary bone in this ''Allosaurus'' individual may have been the result of a bone pathology instead. However, with the confirmation of medullary tissue indicating gender in a specimen of ''Tyrannosaurus'', it may be possible to ascertain whether or not the ''Allosaurus'' in question was indeed female.\nRestoration of a juvenile \nThe discovery of a juvenile specimen with a nearly complete hindlimb shows that the legs were relatively longer in juveniles, and the lower segments of the leg (shin and foot) were relatively longer than the thigh. These differences suggest that younger ''Allosaurus'' were faster and had different hunting strategies than adults, perhaps chasing small prey as juveniles, then becoming ambush hunters of large prey upon adulthood. The thigh bone became thicker and wider during growth, and the cross-section less circular, as muscle attachments shifted, muscles became shorter, and the growth of the leg slowed. These changes imply that juvenile legs has less predictable stresses compared with adults, which would have moved with more regular forward progression. Conversely, the skull bones appear to have generally grown isometrically, increasing in size without changing in proportion.\n\n===Feeding===\n''Allosaurus'' and ''Stegosaurus'' skeletons, Denver Museum of Nature and Science\nPaleontologists accept ''Allosaurus'' as an active predator of large animals. There is dramatic evidence for allosaur attacks on ''Stegosaurus'', including an ''Allosaurus'' tail vertebra with a partially healed puncture wound that fits a ''Stegosaurus'' tail spike, and a ''Stegosaurus'' neck plate with a U-shaped wound that correlates well with an ''Allosaurus'' snout. Sauropods seem to be likely candidates as both live prey and as objects of scavenging, based on the presence of scrapings on sauropod bones fitting allosaur teeth well and the presence of shed allosaur teeth with sauropod bones. However, as Gregory Paul noted in 1988, ''Allosaurus'' was probably not a predator of fully grown sauropods, unless it hunted in packs, as it had a modestly sized skull and relatively small teeth, and was greatly outweighed by contemporaneous sauropods. Another possibility is that it preferred to hunt juveniles instead of fully grown adults. Research in the 1990s and first decade of the 21st century may have found other solutions to this question. Robert T. Bakker, comparing ''Allosaurus'' to Cenozoic sabre-toothed carnivorous mammals, found similar adaptations, such as a reduction of jaw muscles and increase in neck muscles, and the ability to open the jaws extremely wide. Although ''Allosaurus'' did not have sabre teeth, Bakker suggested another mode of attack that would have used such neck and jaw adaptations: the short teeth in effect became small serrations on a saw-like cutting edge running the length of the upper jaw, which would have been driven into prey. This type of jaw would permit slashing attacks against much larger prey, with the goal of weakening the victim.\nBakker (1998) and Rayfield ''et al.'' (2001).\nSimilar conclusions were drawn by another study using finite element analysis on an ''Allosaurus'' skull. According to their biomechanical analysis, the skull was very strong but had a relatively small bite force. By using jaw muscles only, it could produce a bite force of 805 to 2,148 N, less than the values for alligators (13,000 N), lions (4,167 N), and leopards (2,268 N), but the skull could withstand nearly 55,500 N of vertical force against the tooth row. The authors suggested that ''Allosaurus'' used its skull like a hatchet against prey, attacking open-mouthed, slashing flesh with its teeth, and tearing it away without splintering bones, unlike ''Tyrannosaurus'', which is thought to have been capable of damaging bones. They also suggested that the architecture of the skull could have permitted the use of different strategies against different prey; the skull was light enough to allow attacks on smaller and more agile ornithopods, but strong enough for high-impact ambush attacks against larger prey like stegosaurids and sauropods. Their interpretations were challenged by other researchers, who found no modern analogues to a hatchet attack and considered it more likely that the skull was strong to compensate for its open construction when absorbing the stresses from struggling prey. The original authors noted that ''Allosaurus'' itself has no modern equivalent, that the tooth row is well-suited to such an attack, and that articulations in the skull cited by their detractors as problematic actually helped protect the palate and lessen stress. Another possibility for handling large prey is that theropods like ''Allosaurus'' were \"flesh grazers\" which could take bites of flesh out of living sauropods that were sufficient to sustain the predator so it would not have needed to expend the effort to kill the prey outright. This strategy would also potentially have allowed the prey to recover and be fed upon in a similar way later. An additional suggestion notes that ornithopods were the most common available dinosaurian prey, and that allosaurs may have subdued them by using an attack similar to that of modern big cats: grasping the prey with their forelimbs, and then making multiple bites on the throat to crush the trachea. This is compatible with other evidence that the forelimbs were strong and capable of restraining prey. Studies done by Stephen Lautenschager ''et al.'' from the University of Bristol also indicate ''Allosaurus'' could open its jaws quite wide and sustain considerable muscle force. When compared with ''Tyrannosaurus'' and the therizinosaurid ''Erlikosaurus'' in the same study, it was found that ''Allosaurus'' had a wider gape than either; the animal was capable of opening its jaws to a 79 degree angle. The findings also indicate that large carnivorous dinosaurs, like modern carnivores, had wider jaw gapes than herbivores.\n\nA biomechanical study published in 2013 by Eric Snively and colleagues found that ''Allosaurus'' had an unusually low attachment point on the skull for the longissimus capitis superficialis neck muscle compared to other theropods such as ''Tyrannosaurus''. This would have allowed the animal to make rapid and forceful vertical movements with the skull. The authors found that vertical strikes as proposed by Bakker and Rayfield are consistent with the animal's capabilities. They also found that the animal probably processed carcasses by vertical movements in a similar manner to falcons, such as kestrels: the animal could have gripped prey with the skull and feet, then pulled back and up to remove flesh. This differs from the prey-handling envisioned for tyrannosaurids, which probably tore flesh with lateral shakes of the skull, similar to crocodilians. In addition, ''Allosaurus'' was able to \"move its head and neck around relatively rapidly and with considerable control\", at the cost of power.\n''A. fragilis'' skull cast in front view at the Museum für Naturkunde, Berlin\nOther aspects of feeding include the eyes, arms, and legs. The shape of the skull of ''Allosaurus'' limited potential binocular vision to 20° of width, slightly less than that of modern crocodilians. As with crocodilians, this may have been enough to judge prey distance and time attacks. The arms, compared with those of other theropods, were suited for both grasping prey at a distance or clutching it close, and the articulation of the claws suggests that they could have been used to hook things. Finally, the top speed of ''Allosaurus'' has been estimated at 30 to 55 kilometers per hour (19 to 34 miles per hour).\n\nA new paper on the cranio-dental morphology of ''Allosaurus'' and how it worked has deemed the hatchet jaw attack unlikely, reinterpreting the unusually wide gape as an adaptation to allow Allosaurus to deliver a muscle-driven bite to large prey, with the weaker jaw muscles being a trade-off to allow for the widened gape.\n\n===Social behavior===\nThe holotype dentary of ''Labrosaurus ferox'', which may have been injured by the bite of another ''A. fragilis''\nIt has been speculated since the 1970s that ''Allosaurus'' preyed on sauropods and other large dinosaurs by hunting in groups.\nSuch a depiction is common in semitechnical and popular dinosaur literature. Robert T. Bakker has extended social behavior to parental care, and has interpreted shed allosaur teeth and chewed bones of large prey animals as evidence that adult allosaurs brought food to lairs for their young to eat until they were grown, and prevented other carnivores from scavenging on the food. However, there is actually little evidence of gregarious behavior in theropods, and social interactions with members of the same species would have included antagonistic encounters, as shown by injuries to gastralia and bite wounds to skulls (the pathologic lower jaw named ''Labrosaurus ferox'' is one such possible example). Such head-biting may have been a way to establish dominance in a pack or to settle territorial disputes.\n\nAlthough ''Allosaurus'' may have hunted in packs, it has been argued that ''Allosaurus'' and other theropods had largely aggressive interactions instead of cooperative interactions with other members of their own species. The study in question noted that cooperative hunting of prey much larger than an individual predator, as is commonly inferred for theropod dinosaurs, is rare among vertebrates in general, and modern diapsid carnivores (including lizards, crocodiles, and birds) rarely cooperate to hunt in such a way. Instead, they are typically territorial and will kill and cannibalize intruders of the same species, and will also do the same to smaller individuals that attempt to eat before they do when aggregated at feeding sites. According to this interpretation, the accumulation of remains of multiple ''Allosaurus'' individuals at the same site, e.g. in the Cleveland–Lloyd Quarry, are not due to pack hunting, but to the fact that ''Allosaurus'' individuals were drawn together to feed on other disabled or dead allosaurs, and were sometimes killed in the process. This could explain the high proportion of juvenile and subadult allosaurs present, as juveniles and subadults are disproportionally killed at modern group feeding sites of animals like crocodiles and Komodo dragons. The same interpretation applies to Bakker's lair sites. There is some evidence for cannibalism in ''Allosaurus'', including ''Allosaurus'' shed teeth found among rib fragments, possible tooth marks on a shoulder blade, and cannibalized allosaur skeletons among the bones at Bakker's lair sites.\n\n===Brain and senses===\nThe brain of ''Allosaurus'', as interpreted from spiral CT scanning of an endocast, was more consistent with crocodilian brains than those of the other living archosaurs, birds. The structure of the vestibular apparatus indicates that the skull was held nearly horizontal, as opposed to strongly tipped up or down. The structure of the inner ear was like that of a crocodilian, and so ''Allosaurus'' probably could have heard lower frequencies best, and would have had trouble with subtle sounds. The olfactory bulbs were large and seem to have been well suited for detecting odors, although the area for evaluating smells was relatively small.\n\n===Paleopathology===\nMounted ''A. fragilis'' skeleton (USNM4734), which has several healed injuries\nIn 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by the behavior of the animal than other kinds of injury. Stress fractures and tendon avulsions occurring in the forelimb have special behavioral significance since while injuries to the feet could be caused by running or migration, resistant prey items are the most probable source of injuries to the hand. ''Allosaurus'' was one of only two theropods examined in the study to exhibit a tendon avulsion, and in both cases the avulsion occurred on the forelimb. When the researchers looked for stress fractures, they found that ''Allosaurus'' had a significantly greater number of stress fractures than ''Albertosaurus'', ''Ornithomimus'' or ''Archaeornithomimus''. Of the 47 hand bones the researchers studied, 3 were found to contain stress fractures. Of the feet, 281 bones were studied and 17 found to have stress fractures. The stress fractures in the foot bones \"were distributed to the proximal phalanges\" and occurred across all three weight-bearing toes in \"statistically indistinguishable\" numbers. Since the lower end of the third metatarsal would have contacted the ground first while an allosaur was running it would have borne the most stress. If the allosaurs' stress fractures were caused by damage accumulating while walking or running this bone should have experience more stress fractures than the others. The lack of such a bias in the examined ''Allosaurus'' fossils indicates an origin for the stress fractures from a source other than running. The authors conclude that these fractures occurred during interaction with prey, like an allosaur trying to hold struggling prey with its feet. The abundance of stress fractures and avulsion injuries in ''Allosaurus'' provide evidence for \"very active\" predation-based rather than scavenging diets.\n\nThe left scapula and fibula of an ''Allosaurus fragilis'' specimen catalogued as USNM 4734 are both pathological, both probably due to healed fractures. The specimen USNM 8367 preserved several pathological gastralia which preserve evidence of healed fractures near their middle. Some of the fractures were poorly healed and \"formed pseudoarthroses.\" A specimen with a fractured rib was recovered from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry. Another specimen had fractured ribs and fused vertebrae near the end of the tail. An apparent subadult male ''Allosaurus fragilis'' was reported to have extensive pathologies, with a total of fourteen separate injuries. The specimen MOR 693 had pathologies on five ribs, the sixth neck vertebra the third eighth and thirteenth back vertebrae, the second tail vertebra and its chevron, the gastralia right scapula, manual phalanx I left ilium metatarsals III and V, the first phalanx of the third toe and the third phalanx of the second. The ilium had \"a large hole... caused by a blow from above\".The near end of the first phalanx of the third toe was afflicted by an involucrum.\nSkeletal restoration of \"Big Al II\" showing bones with pathologies\nOther pathologies reported in ''Allosaurus'' include: Willow breaks in two ribs. Healed fractures in the humerus and radius. Distortion of joint surfaces in the foot possibly due to osteoarthritis or developmental issues. Osteopetrosis along the endosteal surface of a tibia. Distortions of the joint surfaces of the tail vertebrae possibly due to osetoarthritis or developmental issues. \"Extensive 'neoplastic' ankylosis of caudals,\" possibly due to physical trauma as well as the fusion of chevrons to centra. Coossification of vertebral centra near the end of the tail. Amputation of a chevron and foot bone, both possibly a result of bites. \"Extensive exostoses\" in the first phalanx of the third toe. Lesions similar to those caused by osteomyelitis in two scapulae. Bone spurs in a premaxilla, ungual, and two metacarpals. Exostosis in a pedal phalanx possibly attributable to an infectious disease. A metacarpal with a round depressed fracture.\n",
"Restoration of ''Barosaurus'' rearing to defend itself against a pair of ''Allosaurus''\n''Allosaurus'' was the most common large theropod in the vast tract of Western American fossil-bearing rock known as the Morrison Formation, accounting for 70 to 75% of theropod specimens, and as such was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons, and flat floodplains. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of conifers, tree ferns, and ferns (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the ''Araucaria''-like conifer ''Brachyphyllum''.\n\nThe Morrison Formation has been a rich fossil hunting ground. The flora of the period has been revealed by fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, ferns, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Animal fossils discovered include bivalves, snails, ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, several species of pterosaur, numerous dinosaur species, and early mammals such as docodonts, multituberculates, symmetrodonts, and triconodonts. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison include the theropods ''Ceratosaurus'', ''Ornitholestes'', ''Tanycolagreus'', and ''Torvosaurus'', the sauropods ''Haplocanthosaurus'', ''Camarasaurus'', ''Cathetosaurus'', ''Brachiosaurus'', ''Suuwassea'', ''Apatosaurus'', ''Brontosaurus'', ''Barosaurus'', ''Diplodocus'', ''Supersaurus'', and ''Amphicoelias'', and the ornithischians ''Camptosaurus'', ''Dryosaurus'', and ''Stegosaurus''. ''Allosaurus'' is commonly found at the same sites as ''Apatosaurus'', ''Camarasaurus'', ''Diplodocus'', and ''Stegosaurus''. The Late Jurassic formations of Portugal where ''Allosaurus'' is present are interpreted as having been similar to the Morrison but with a stronger marine influence. Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks (mainly ''Allosaurus'', ''Ceratosaurus'', ''Torvosaurus'', and ''Stegosaurus''), or have a close counterpart (''Brachiosaurus'' and ''Lusotitan'', ''Camptosaurus'' and ''Draconyx'').\nLocations in the Morrison Formation (yellow) where ''Allosaurus'' remains have been found\n''Allosaurus'' coexisted with fellow large theropods ''Ceratosaurus'' and ''Torvosaurus'' in both the United States and Portugal. The three appear to have had different ecological niches, based on anatomy and the location of fossils. Ceratosaurs and torvosaurs may have preferred to be active around waterways, and had lower, thinner bodies that would have given them an advantage in forest and underbrush terrains, whereas allosaurs were more compact, with longer legs, faster but less maneuverable, and seem to have preferred dry floodplains. ''Ceratosaurus'', better known than ''Torvosaurus'', differed noticeably from ''Allosaurus'' in functional anatomy by having a taller, narrower skull with large, broad teeth. ''Allosaurus'' was itself a potential food item to other carnivores, as illustrated by an ''Allosaurus'' pubic foot marked by the teeth of another theropod, probably ''Ceratosaurus'' or ''Torvosaurus''. The location of the bone in the body (along the bottom margin of the torso and partially shielded by the legs), and the fact that it was among the most massive in the skeleton, indicates that the ''Allosaurus'' was being scavenged.\n",
"Along with ''Tyrannosaurus'', ''Allosaurus'' has come to represent the quintessential large, carnivorous dinosaur in western popular culture. It is a common dinosaur in American museums, due in particular to the excavations at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry; by 1976, as a result of cooperative operations, 38 museums in eight countries on three continents had Cleveland-Lloyd allosaur material or casts. ''Allosaurus'' is the official state fossil of Utah.\n\n''Allosaurus'' has been depicted in popular culture since the early years of the 20th century. It is top predator in both Arthur Conan Doyle's 1912 novel, ''The Lost World'', and its 1925 film adaptation, the first full-length motion picture to feature dinosaurs. ''Allosaurus'' was used as the starring dinosaur of the 1956 film ''The Beast of Hollow Mountain'', and the 1969 film ''The Valley of Gwangi'', two genre combinations of living dinosaurs with Westerns. In ''The Valley of Gwangi'', Gwangi is billed as an ''Allosaurus'', although Ray Harryhausen based his model for the creature on Charles R. Knight's depiction of a ''Tyrannosaurus''. Harryhausen sometimes confuses the two, stating in a DVD interview \"They're both meat eaters, they're both tyrants... one was just a bit larger than the other.\" A male individual also appears in ''The Land Before Time VI: The Secret of Saurus Rock'' as the main antagonist, bent on making a meal out of the main characters. It also appears in a flashback in the 2007 TV series.\n\n''Allosaurus'' appeared in the second episode of the 1999 BBC television series ''Walking with Dinosaurs'' and the follow-up special ''The Ballad of Big Al'', which speculated on the life of the \"Big Al\" specimen, based on scientific evidence from the numerous injuries and pathologies in its skeleton. ''Allosaurus'' also made an appearance in the Discovery Channel series ''Dinosaur Revolution''. Its depiction in this series was based upon a specimen with a smashed lower jaw that was uncovered by paleontologist Thomas Holtz. ''Allosaurus'' appears in the 2011 BBC docu-mini-series ''Planet Dinosaur'' in the episode \"Fight for Life\".\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n* Specimens, discussion, and references pertaining to ''Allosaurus fragilis'' at The Theropod Database.\n* Utah State Fossil, ''Allosaurus'', from Pioneer: Utah's Online Library.\n* Restoration of MOR 693 (\"Big Al\") and muscle and organ restoration at Scott Hartman's Skeletal Drawing website.\n* List of the many possible ''Allosaurus'' species...\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Classification",
"Discovery and history",
"Species and taxonomy",
"Paleobiology",
"Paleoecology",
"In popular culture",
" See also ",
"References",
"External links"
] | Allosaurus |
[
"Atanasoff–Berry computer replica at Durham Center, Iowa State University\n\nThe '''Atanasoff–Berry computer''' ('''ABC''') was the first automatic electronic digital computer, an early electronic digital computing device that has remained somewhat obscure. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete.\n\nConceived in 1937, the machine was built by Iowa State College mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff with the help of graduate student Clifford Berry. It was designed only to solve systems of linear equations and was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediate result storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was not perfected, and when John Vincent Atanasoff left Iowa State College for World War II assignments, work on the machine was discontinued. The ABC pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, but its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. The computer was designated an IEEE Milestone in 1990.\n\nAtanasoff and Berry's computer work was not widely known until it was rediscovered in the 1960s, amidst conflicting claims about the first instance of an electronic computer. At that time ENIAC, that had been created by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert, was considered to be the first computer in the modern sense, but in 1973 a U.S. District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent and concluded that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the electronic digital computer from Atanasoff (see Patent dispute). When, in the mid-1970s, the secrecy surrounding the British World War II development of the Colossus computers that pre-dated ENIAC, was lifted and Colossus was described at a conference in Los Alamos, New Mexico in June 1976, John Mauchly and Konrad Zuse were reported to have been astonished.\n",
"\nDiagram of the ABC pointing out its various components\n\nAccording to Atanasoff's account, several key principles of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer were conceived in a sudden insight after a long nighttime drive to Rock Island, Illinois, during the winter of 1937–38. The ABC innovations included electronic computation, binary arithmetic, parallel processing, regenerative capacitor memory, and a separation of memory and computing functions. The mechanical and logic design was worked out by Atanasoff over the next year. A grant application to build a proof of concept prototype was submitted in March 1939 to the Agronomy department which was also interested in speeding up computation for economic and research analysis. $5,000 of further funding () to complete the machine came from the nonprofit Research Corporation of New York City.\n\nThe ABC was built by Atanasoff and Berry in the basement of the physics building at Iowa State College during 1939–42. The initial funds were released in September, and the 11-tube prototype was first demonstrated in October 1939. A December demonstration prompted a grant for construction of the full-scale machine. The ABC was built and tested over the next two years. A January 15, 1941 story in the ''Des Moines Register'' announced the ABC as \"an electrical computing machine\" with more than 300 vacuum tubes that would \"compute complicated algebraic equations\" (but gave no precise technical description of the computer). The system weighed more than . It contained approximately of wire, 280 dual-triode vacuum tubes, 31 thyratrons, and was about the size of a desk.\n\nIt was not a Turing complete computer, which distinguishes it from more general machines, like contemporary Konrad Zuse's Z3 (1941), or later machines like the 1946 ENIAC, the 1949 EDVAC, the University of Manchester designs, or Alan Turing's post-War design of ACE at NPL and elsewhere. Nor did it implement the stored program architecture that made practical fully general-purpose, reprogrammable computers.\n\nThe machine was, however, the first to implement three critical ideas that are still part of every modern computer:\n#Using binary digits to represent all numbers and data\n#Performing all calculations using electronics rather than wheels, ratchets, or mechanical switches\n#Organizing a system in which computation and memory are separated.\n\nThe memory of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer was a system called ''regenerative capacitor memory'', which consisted of a pair of drums, each containing 1600 capacitors that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 \"bands\" of 50 (30 active bands and two spares in case a capacitor failed), giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was represented as 50-bit binary fixed-point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic units could store and operate on 60 such numbers at a time (3000 bits).\n\nThe alternating current power line frequency of 60 Hz was the primary clock rate for the lowest-level operations.\n\nThe arithmetic logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of logic gates ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function. The control logic functions, which only needed to operate once per drum rotation and therefore did not require electronic speed, were electromechanical, implemented with relays.\n\nAlthough the Atanasoff–Berry Computer was an important step up from earlier calculating machines, it was not able to run entirely automatically through an entire problem. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much like the electro-mechanical calculators and unit record equipment of the time. Selection of the operation to be performed, reading, writing, converting to or from binary to decimal, or reducing a set of equations was made by front panel switches and in some cases jumpers.\n\nThere were two forms of input and output: primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. (The largest problem that could be solved without the use of the intermediate output and input was two simultaneous equations, a trivial problem.)\n\nIntermediate results were binary, written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50-bit numbers (one equation). Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these units, primarily attributed to lack of control of the sheets' material characteristics. In retrospect a solution could have been to add a parity bit to each number as written. This problem was not solved by the time Atanasoff left the university for war-related work.\n\nPrimary user input was decimal, via standard IBM 80-column punched cards and output was decimal, via a front panel display.\n",
"The ABC was designed for a specific purpose, the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to twenty-nine equations, a difficult problem for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked. The machine could be fed two linear equations with up to twenty-nine variables and a constant term and eliminate one of the variables. This process would be repeated manually for each of the equations, which would result in a system of equations with one fewer variable. Then the whole process would be repeated to eliminate another variable.\n\nGeorge W. Snedecor, the head of Iowa State's Statistics Department, was very likely the first user of an electronic digital computer to solve real world mathematics problems. He submitted many of these problems to Atanasoff.\n",
"On June 26, 1947, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to file for patent on a digital computing device (ENIAC), much to the surprise of Atanasoff. The ABC had been examined by John Mauchly in June 1941, and Isaac Auerbach, a former student of Mauchly's, alleged that it influenced his later work on ENIAC, although Mauchly denied this (Shurkin, pg. 280-299). The ENIAC patent did not issue until 1964, and by 1967 Honeywell sued Sperry Rand in an attempt to break the ENIAC patents, arguing the ABC constituted prior art. The United States District Court for the District of Minnesota released its judgement on October 19, 1973, finding in ''Honeywell v. Sperry Rand'' that the ENIAC patent was a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention.\n\nCampbell-Kelly and Aspray conclude:\n\n\nThe case was legally resolved on October 19, 1973 when U.S. District Judge Earl R. Larson held the ENIAC patent invalid, ruling that the ENIAC derived many basic ideas from the Atanasoff–Berry Computer. Judge Larson explicitly stated,\n\n\nHerman Goldstine, one of the original developers of ENIAC wrote:\n\n\n",
"The original ABC was eventually dismantled, when the University converted the basement to classrooms, and all of its pieces except for one memory drum were discarded.\n\nIn 1997, a team of researchers led by John Gustafson from Ames Laboratory (located on the Iowa State campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer at a cost of $350,000 (equivalent to $ million in ). The replica ABC is now on permanent display in the first floor lobby of the Durham Center for Computation and Communication at Iowa State University. As of May 2012, it is on loan to the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California for a major exhibition.\n",
"* History of computing hardware\n* List of vacuum tube computers\n* Mikhail Kravchuk\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"* The Birth of the ABC\n* Rebuilding the ABC\n* John Gustafson, Reconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer\n* The ENIAC patent trial\n* Honeywell v. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.\n*{ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer In Operation (YouTube)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Design and construction",
"Function",
"Patent dispute",
"Replica",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Atanasoff–Berry computer |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Andes''' or '''Andean Mountains''' () are the longest continental mountain range in the world. They form a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. This range is about long, about wide (widest between 18° south and 20° south latitude), and of an average height of about . The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.\n\nAlong their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, which are separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high plateaus – some of which host major cities such as Quito, Bogotá, Arequipa, Medellín, Sucre, Mérida and La Paz. The Altiplano plateau is the world's second-highest after the Tibetan plateau. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes.\n\nThe Andes are the world's highest mountain range outside of Asia. The highest mountain outside Asia, Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorean Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation. The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to .\n\nThe Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western \"backbone\" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica.\n\nCono de Arita\" in the Puna de Atacama, Salta (Argentina).\nAerial view of Aconcagua.\n",
"The etymology of the word ''Andes'' has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word ''anti'', which means \"east\" as in ''Antisuyu'' (Quechua for \"east region\"), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire.\n",
"Valle Carbajal in the Fuegian AndesThe Andes can be divided into three sections:\n# The Southern Andes (south of Llullaillaco) in Argentina and Chile;\n# The Central Andes in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia\n# The Northern Andes (north of the Nudo de Pasto) in Venezuela and Colombia, which consist of three parallel ranges, the western, central, and eastern (the cordillera occidental, central, and oriental).\n\nIn the northern part of the Andes, the isolated Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often considered to be part of the Andes. The term ''cordillera'' comes from the Spanish word \"cordel\", meaning \"rope\". The Andes range is about wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is about wide. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates.\n",
"\nThe Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of plate tectonics processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and a less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range.\n\nThe Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines. The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile and Argentina. The Andean segment north and south of the orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the orocline is related to crustal shortening. The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the \"Arica Elbow\". Further south lies the Maipo Orocline or Maipo Transition Zone located between 30° S and 38°S with a break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian orocline.\n\n===Orogeny===\n\nThe western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic, when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana.\n\nThe formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began to break up that resulted in developing several rifts. The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, where different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion.\n\nTectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. \n\nThe regions immediately east of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of earth being overridden by the Andes.\nThe Sierras de Córdoba, where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary. Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic.\n\n===Volcanism===\n\nRift valley near Quilotoa, Ecuador.\nAstronaut photograph with the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert.\n\nThe Andes range has many active volcanoes, which are distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes. Despite being a type location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.\n\n===Ore deposits and evaporates===\nThe Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of their eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons. In the forelands of the Atacama desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occurs making Chile and Peru the first and second largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí.\n",
"\nCentral Andes\nBolivian Andes\n\nThe climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow-covered peak Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to on Aconcagua at 32°S, at 40°S, at 50°S, and only in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.\n\nThe Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided in two climatic and glaciological zones; the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of Atacama Desert to the area of Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area.\n\nIn the high Andes of central Chile and Mendoza Province, rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation.\n\nThough precipitation increases with the height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7000 m towering highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, as e.g. the Plomo glacier and the Horcones glaciers do not even reach 10 km in length and have an only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20 000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes they flowed down to 2060 m and on the west side to c. 1220 m asl. The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6,961 m), Cerro Tupungato (6,550 m) and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km long, over 1020, i.e. 1250 m thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5150 altitude metres. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from currently 4600 m to 3200 m at glacial times.\n",
"Laguna de Sonso tropical dry forest in Northern Andes\nThe Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions due to its extension from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert. Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. As a direct opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.\n\nAbout 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot. The small tree ''Cinchona pubescens'', a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. The high-altitude ''Polylepis'' forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.\n",
"A male Andean cock-of-the-rock, a species found in humid Andean forests and the national bird of Peru.\nHerds of alpacas in the foothills near Ausangate mountain.\n\nThe Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 3,500 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for amphibians.\nThe diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).\n\nThe vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, cougar, foxes in the genus ''Pseudalopex'', and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of the genus ''Nothoprocta''), Andean goose, giant coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea, Andean flicker, diademed sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches.\n\nLake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog. A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above , but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests (\"cloud forests\") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow-tailed woolly monkey.\n\nBirds of humid Andean forests include mountain-toucans, quetzals and the Andean cock-of-the-rock, while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids commonly are seen – in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens, tapaculos and antpittas.\n\nA number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with ''Polylepis'', and consequently also threatened.\n",
"\n\nLa Paz, Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world \nThe Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today.\n\nDevastated by European diseases to which they had no immunity and civil wars, in 1532 the Incas were defeated by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu, which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.\n\nIn modern times, the largest Andean cities are Bogotá, Colombia, with a population of about eight million, Santiago de Chile, and Medellin, Colombia. La Paz, Bolivia's seat of government is considered the highest capital city in the world.\n\n===Transportation===\n\nSeveral major cities are either in the Andes or in the foothills, among which are Bogotá, Medellín and Cali, Colombia; Quito, Ecuador; Mérida, Venezuela; La Paz, Bolivia; Santiago, Chile, and Lima or Cusco, Peru. These and most other cities and large towns are connected with asphalt-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle.\n\nMérida.\n\nThe rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.\n\nHowever, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Argentina via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region.\n\nThere is one or more highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.\n\nFor decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile, the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Argentina out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been a completely landlocked country ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.\n\nBecause of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles are of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys, mules, and horses are also useful.\n\n===Agriculture===\nPhotograph of young Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans.\n\n\nThe ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine.\n\n===Irrigation===\nWomen in the Andes are good irrigators.\n\nIn unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat).\n\nIrrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (till 3800 m). In addition it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot.\n\n===Mining===\nThe Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined in large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were one of the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina derive their names from the silver of Potosí.\n\nCurrently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru places these countries as the first and third major producers of copper in the world. Peru also contains the largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th century Europe.\n\nThere is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important.\n\n\nFile:Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg|Chilean huasos, 19th century\nFile:Macchupicchu.jpg|The mountain Huayna Picchu overlooks the Inca estate (land) of Machu Picchu\n\n",
"\nThis list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below).\n\n===Argentina===\n\n* Aconcagua, \n* Cerro Bonete, \n* Galán, \n* Mercedario, \n* Pissis, \n\n\nFile:Bariloche- Argentina.jpg|Llao Llao Hotel with the Andes on the background, in the city of Bariloche, Argentina\nFile:Aconcagua (aerial).jpg|The Aconcagua, the highest mountain in the Americas and in the entire world outside of the Himalayas, Argentina\nFile:Fitz Roy Chalten Argentina Todor Bozhinov 2013.jpg|El Chaltén, Argentina\nFile:162 - Fitz Roy - Janvier 2010.jpg|Mount Fitz Roy\n\n\n===Border between Argentina and Chile===\n* Cerro Bayo, \n* Cerro Fitz Roy, or 3,405 m, Patagonia, also known as Cerro Chaltén\n* Cerro Escorial, \n* Cordón del Azufre, \n* Falso Azufre, \n* Incahuasi, \n* Lastarria, \n* Llullaillaco, \n* Maipo, \n* Marmolejo, \n* Ojos del Salado, \n* Olca, \n* Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas, \n* Socompa, \n* Nevado Tres Cruces, (south summit) (III Region)\n* Tronador, \n* Tupungato, \n* Nacimiento, \n\n===Bolivia===\n* Janq'u Uma, \n* Cabaraya, \n* Chacaltaya, \n* Wayna Potosí, \n* Illampu, \n* Illimani, \n* Laram Q'awa, \n* Macizo de Pacuni, \n* Nevado Anallajsi, \n* Nevado Sajama, \n* Patilla Pata, \n* Tata Sabaya, \n\n\nFile:Illampu-from-Ancohuma.JPG|Illampu, Bolivia\nFile:Illimani La Paz.jpg|Illimani, Bolivia\nFile:Nevado Sajama.jpg|Sajama, Bolivia\nFile:Huayna Potosí La Paz Bolivia.jpg|Wayna Potosí, Bolivia\n\n\n===Border between Bolivia and Chile===\n* Acotango, \n* Michincha, \n* Iru Phutunqu, \n* Licancabur, \n* Olca, \n* Parinacota, \n* Paruma, \n* Pomerape, \n\n\nFile:Laguna Verde Bolivia.jpg|Licancabur, Bolivia/Chile\nFile:Parinacota.jpg|Parinacota, Bolivia/Chile\n\n\n===Chile===\n\n* Monte San Valentin, \n* Cerro Paine Grande, \n* Cerro Macá, c.\n* Monte Darwin, c.\n* Volcan Hudson, c.\n* Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c.\n* Mount Tarn, c.\n* Polleras, c.\n* Acamarachi, c.\n\n\nFile:Santiago Skyline.jpg|Santiago de Chile on the western slopes of a snowcapped Andes\nFile:Massif Reflected.jpg|View of Cuernos del Paine in Torres del Paine National Park\n\n\n===Colombia===\n* Pico Cristóbal Colón, \n* Nevado del Huila, \n* Nevado del Ruiz, \n* Nevado del Tolima, \n* Pico Pan de Azucar, \n* Ritacuba Negra, \n* Nevado del Cumbal, \n* Cerro Negro de Mayasquer, \n* Ritacuba Blanco, \n* Nevado del Quindío, \n* Purace, \n* Santa Isabel, \n* Doña Juana, \n* Galeras, \n* Azufral. \n\n\nFile:Ritacuba-blanco.jpg|Ritacuba blanco the highest peak of Cordillera Oriental, Colombia.\nFile:Nevado del Ruiz by Edgar.png|Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia\n\n\n===Ecuador===\n* Antisana, \n* Cayambe, \n* Chimborazo, \n* Corazón, \n* Cotopaxi, \n* El Altar, \n* Illiniza, \n* Pichincha, \n* Quilotoa, \n* Reventador, \n* Sangay, \n* Tungurahua, \n* Titicaca, \n\n\nFile:Volcán Chimborazo, \"El Taita Chimborazo\".jpg|Chimborazo near Riobamba, Ecuador\nFile:Volcán Tungurahua.jpg|Tungurahua, Ecuador\nFile:EL CAYAMBE DESDE EL AVION.JPG|Cayambe, Ecuador\nFile:Volcán El Altar - Riobamba Ecuador.jpg|Volcán El Altar - Riobamba - Ecuador\nFile:Cotopaxi.jpg|Cotopaxi\nFile:Andes Mountains South America Photograph 017.JPG|Andes near Otavalo\nFile:Historic Center of Quito - World Heritage Site by UNESCO - Photo 186.JPG|Pichincha Volcano, an active stratovolcano in the Ecuadorian Andes photographed from the Historic Center of Quito\nFile:Andes Mountains South America Photograph 022.JPG|Imbabura Volcano, an inactive stratovolcano\n\n\n===Peru===\n* Alpamayo, \n* Artesonraju, \n* Carnicero, \n* Chumpe, \n* Coropuna, \n* El Misti, \n* El Toro, \n* Huandoy, \n* Huascarán, \n* Jirishanca, \n* Pumasillo, \n* Rasac, \n* Rondoy, \n* Sarapo, \n* Salcantay, \n* Seria Norte, \n* Siula Grande, \n* Huaytapallana, \n* Yerupaja, \n* Yerupaja Chico, \n\n\nFile:Alpamayo.jpg|Alpamayo, Peru\nFile:Chachani and Misti.jpg|Chachani and El Misti, Peru\nFile:Nevadohuandoy.jpg|Huandoy, Peru\nFile:Yerupaja Grande.jpg|Yerupaja\n\n\n===Venezuela===\n* Pico Bolívar, \n* Pico Humboldt, \n* Pico Bonpland, \n* Pico La Concha, \n* Pico Piedras Blancas, \n* Pico El Águila, \n* Pico El Toro \n* Pico El León \n* Pico Mucuñuque \n\n\nFile:PicoBolivar2.jpg|Pico Bolívar, Venezuela\nFile:Pico Humboldt 2.jpg|Pico Humboldt, Venezuela\nFile:Pico_El_Leon.jpg|Pico El León, Venezuela\nFile:Glacial_Pico_Humboldt_4.JPG|Snow in the Pico Humboldt, Venezuela\nFile:Pico Pan de Azúcar 1.jpg|Pico Pan de Azúcar, Venezuela\n\n",
"* ''Andean Geology'' – a scientific journal\n* Andesite line\n* Apu (god)\n* Cordillera Mountains in the Philippines\n* List of longest mountain chains on Earth\n* Mountain Passes of the Andes\n* Rocky Mountains\n",
"\n",
"* Oncken, O. et al. (2006). ''The Andes. Active Subduction Orogeny.'' Springer: Berlin. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8\n* Biggar, J. (2005). ''The Andes: A Guide For Climbers''. 3rd. edition. Andes: Kirkcudbrightshire. \n* de Roy, T. (2005). ''The Andes: As the Condor Flies.'' Firefly books: Richmond Hill. \n* Fjeldså, J. & N. Krabbe (1990). ''The Birds of the High Andes.'' Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen: Copenhagen. \n* Fjeldså, J. & M. Kessler (1996). ''Conserving the biological diversity of Polylepis woodlands of the highlands on Peru and Bolivia, a contribution to sustainable natural resource management in the Andes.'' NORDECO: Copenhagen. \n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n* University of Arizona: Andes geology\n* Blueplanetbiomes.org: Climate and animal life of the Andes\n* Discover-peru.org: Regions and Microclimates in the Andes\n* Peaklist.org: Complete list of mountains in South America with an elevation at/above \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Geography",
"Geology",
"Climate and hydrology",
"Flora",
"Fauna",
"Human activity",
"Peaks",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"External links"
] | Andes |
[
"\n'''Ancylopoda''' is a group of browsing, herbivorous, mammals in the Perissodactyla that show long, curved and cleft claws. Morphological evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the tapirs, rhinoceroses and horses (Euperissodactyla) after the Brontotheria, however earlier authorities such as Osborn sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently, to be related to Brontotheria.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" References "
] | Ancylopoda |
[
"\n\n\nAnchor in front of the Chamber of Commerce of port city Duisburg.\nAnchor of the ''Amoco Cadiz'' in Portsall, north-west Brittany, France\n\nAn '''anchor''' is a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin ''ancora'', which itself comes from the Greek ἄγκυρα (''ankura'').\n\nAnchors can either be temporary or permanent. Permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved; a specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more temporary anchors, which may be of different designs and weights.\n\nA sea anchor is a drogue, not in contact with the seabed, used to control a drifting vessel.\n",
"A stockless anchor being broken out\n\nAnchors achieve holding power either by \"hooking\" into the seabed, via sheer mass, or a combination of the two. Permanent moorings use large masses (commonly a block or slab of concrete) resting on the seabed. Semi-permanent mooring anchors (such as mushroom anchors) and large ship's anchors derive a significant portion of their holding power from their mass, while also hooking or embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal ''flukes'' which hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed.\n\nThe vessel is attached to the anchor by the ''rode'' (commonly called the ''anchor cable'' or ''anchor chain'' in larger vessels), which is made of chain, cable, rope, or a combination of these. The ratio of the length of rode to the water depth is known as the scope; generally, the rode should be between 5 and 10 times the depth of the seabed, giving a scope of 5:1 or 10:1; the larger the number, the shallower the angle is between the cable and the seafloor, and the less upwards force is acting on the anchor. A 10:1 scope gives the greatest holding power, but also allows for much more drifting due to the longer amount of cable paid out. Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of strain close to parallel with the seabed. This is particularly important for light, modern anchors designed to bury in the bottom, where scopes of 5– to 7-to-1 are common, whereas heavy anchors and moorings can use a scope of 3-to-1, or less.\n\nSince all anchors that embed themselves in the bottom require the strain to be along the seabed, anchors can be broken out of the bottom by shortening the rope until the vessel is directly above the anchor; at this point the anchor chain is \"up and down\", in naval parlance. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of the anchor also helps dislodge it. Anchors are sometimes fitted with a tripping line attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from rocks or coral.\n\nThe term ''aweigh'' describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and is not resting on the bottom. This is linked to the term ''to weigh anchor'', meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as ''aweigh'' when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be ''stowed''. ''Aweigh'' should not be confused with ''under way'', which describes a vessel which is not ''moored'' to a dock or ''anchored'', whether or not the vessel is moving through the water.\n",
"\nDiagram of various types of anchors, including Danforth, Hall, AC14, Spek, Kedge-Admiralty, Buyers, Union, Pool, Stockless, KLIP, ZY-6, D'Hone, Bruce, FOB, and Navy Stockless\nThe earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European Maori waka (canoes) used one or more hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, as anchors. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; a large enough rock would be nearly impossible to move to a new location.\n\nThe ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and wooden logs filled with lead. According to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, anchors were formed of stone, and Athenaeus states that they were also sometimes made of wood. Such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight and by their friction along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with teeth, or \"flukes\", to fasten themselves into the bottom.\n\n=== Admiralty Pattern ===\nAn Admiralty Pattern anchor; ideally, when this anchor rests on the seafloor, it is turned 90 degrees from the position shown here, so the sharp point of one fluke is dug into the bottom, the other is pointing straight up, and the arms are lying level on the seafloor\nThe Admiralty Pattern, \"A.P.\", or simply \"Admiralty\", and also known as \"Fisherman\", is the anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors. It consists of a central shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode. At the other end of the shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the other end, at ninety degrees to the arms. When the anchor lands on the bottom, it will generally fall over with the arms parallel to the seabed. As a strain comes onto the rode, the stock will dig into the bottom, canting the anchor until one of the flukes catches and digs into the bottom.\n\nThis basic design remained unchanged for centuries, with the most significant changes being to the overall proportions, and a move from stocks made of wood to iron stocks in the late 1830s and early 1840s. Since one fluke always protrudes up from the set anchor, there is a great tendency of the rode to foul the anchor as the vessel swings due to wind or current shifts. When this happens, the anchor may be pulled out of the bottom, and in some cases may need to be hauled up to be re-set. In the mid-19th century, numerous modifications were attempted to alleviate these problems, as well as improve holding power, including one-armed mooring anchors. The most successful of these ''patent anchors'', the Trotman Anchor, introduced a pivot where the arms join the shank, allowing the \"idle\" arm to fold against the shank.\n\nHandling and storage of these anchors requires special equipment and procedures. Once the anchor is hauled up to the hawsepipe, the ring end is hoisted up to the end of a timber projecting from the bow known as the cathead. The crown of the anchor is then hauled up with a heavy tackle until one fluke can be hooked over the rail. This is known as \"catting and fishing\" the anchor. Before dropping the anchor, the fishing process is reversed, and the anchor is dropped from the end of the cathead.\n\n===Stockless anchor===\nStockless anchor\nThe stockless anchor, patented in England in 1821, represented the first significant departure in anchor design in centuries. Though their holding-power-to-weight ratio is significantly lower than admiralty pattern anchors, their ease of handling and stowage aboard large ships led to almost universal adoption. In contrast to the elaborate stowage procedures for earlier anchors, stockless anchors are simply hauled up until they rest with the shank inside the hawsepipes, and the flukes against the hull (or inside a recess in the hull).\n\nWhile there are numerous variations, stockless anchors consist of a set of heavy flukes connected by a pivot or ball and socket joint to a shank. Cast into the crown of the anchor is a set of tripping palms, projections that drag on the bottom, forcing the main flukes to dig in.\n\nThe action of a stockless anchor being set\n",
"Until the mid-20th century, anchors for smaller vessels were either scaled-down versions of admiralty anchors, or simple grapnels. As new designs with greater holding-power-to-weight ratios, a great variety of anchor designs has emerged. Many of these designs are still under patent, and other types are best known by their original trademarked names.\n\n===Grapnel anchor===\nA traditional design, the grapnel is merely a shank with four or more tines. It has a benefit in that, no matter how it reaches the bottom, one or more tines will be aimed to set. In coral, or rock, it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard. Its weight also makes it relatively easy to move and carry, however its shape is generally not very compact and it may be awkward to stow unless a collapsing model is used.\n\nGrapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. On the other hand, it is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line from the crown, it is impossible to retrieve.\n\n=== Herreshoff anchor ===\nDesigned by famous yacht designer L. Francis Herreshoff, this is essentially the same pattern as an admiralty anchor, albeit with small diamond shaped flukes or palms. The novelty of the design lay in the means by which it could be broken down into three pieces for stowage. In use, it still presents all the issues of the admiralty pattern anchor.\n\n=== Northill anchor ===\nOriginally designed as a lightweight anchor for seaplanes, this design consists of two plough-like blades mounted to a shank, with a folding stock crossing through the crown of the anchor.\n\n=== CQR (secure) plough anchor ===\nCQR anchor\nSo named due to its resemblance to a traditional agricultural plough (or more specifically two ploughshares), many manufacturers produce a plough-style design, all based on or direct copies of the original CQR (\"Secure\"), a 1933 design patented in the UK (US patent in 1934) by mathematician Geoffrey Ingram Taylor. Ploughs are popular with cruising sailors and other private boaters. They are generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a hinged shank. Despite the widely held belief that this is to allow the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, the actual purpose is to prevent the weight of the shank from negatively impacting the fluke's orientation while setting. Other plough types have a rigid shank. Plough anchors are usually stowed in a roller at the bow.\n\nOwing to the use of lead or other dedicated tip-weight, the plough is heavier than average for the amount of resistance developed, and may take more careful technique and a longer period to set thoroughly. It cannot be stored in a hawsepipe.\n\n=== Delta anchor ===\nThe Delta was developed in the 1980s for commercialization by British marine manufacturer Simpson–Lawrence.\n\n===Danforth anchor ===\nA fluke-style anchor\nAmerican Richard Danforth invented the Danforth pattern in the 1940s for use aboard landing craft. It uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat triangular flukes are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type). Tripping palms at the crown act to tip the flukes into the seabed. The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop high resistance. Its lightweight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawsepipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor.\n\nA Danforth will not usually penetrate or hold in gravel or weeds. In boulders and coral it may hold by acting as a hook. If there is much current, or if the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor, it may \"kite\" or \"skate\" over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing.\n\nThe FOB HP anchor, designed by Guy Royer in Brittany in the 1970s, is a Danforth variant designed to give increased holding through its use of rounded flukes setting at a 30° angle.\n\nThe Fortress is an aluminum alloy Danforth variant which was designed by American Don Hallerberg. This anchor can be disassembled for storage and it features an adjustable 32° and 45° shank/fluke angle to improve holding capability in common sea bottoms such as hard sand and soft mud. This anchor performed well in a 1989 US Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) test. and in an August 2014 holding power test that was conducted in the soft mud bottoms of the Chesapeake Bay.\n\n===Bruce or claw anchor===\nBruce anchor\nThis claw-shaped anchor was designed by Peter Bruce from the Isle of Man in the 1970s. Bruce gained his early reputation from the production of large-scale commercial anchors for ships and fixed installations such as oil rigs. The Bruce and its copies, known generically as \"claws\", have become a popular option for small boaters. It was intended to address some of the problems of the only general-purpose option then available, the plough. Claw-types set quickly in most seabeds and although not an articulated design, they have the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force.\n\nClaw types have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms and grass. They offer a fairly low holding-power-to-weight ratio and generally have to be oversized to compete with newer types. On the other hand, they have a good reputation in boulder bottoms, perform relatively well with low rode scopes and set fairly reliably. They cannot be used with hawsepipes.\n\n=== Recent designs ===\nRocna anchor\nIn recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily designed to set very quickly, then generate high holding power, these anchors (mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of small to medium-sized vessels.\n* The German-designed bow anchor, '''Bügelanker''' (or '''Wasi'''), has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar which allows the correct setting attitude to be achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip.\n* The '''Bulwagga''' is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the usual two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine ''Practical Sailor''.\n* The '''Spade''' is a French design which has proved successful since 1996. It features a demountable shank (hollow in some instances) and the choice of galvanized steel, stainless steel, or aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor.\n* The New Zealand–designed '''Rocna''' has been produced since 2004. It too features a sharp toe like the Bügel for penetrating weed and grass, sets quickly, and has a large fluke area. Its roll-bar is also similar to that of the Bügel.\n* The British made '''Knox Anchor''' produced in Scotland was invented by Professor John Knox. It has a divided concave large area fluke arrangement and a shank in high tensile steel. A roll bar similar to the Rocna gives fast setting and a holding power of about 40 times anchor weight.\nKnox Anchor\n\n=== Other temporary anchors ===\n* '''Mud weight''': Consists of a blunt heavy weight, usually cast iron or cast lead, that will sink into the mud and resist lateral movement. Suitable only for very soft silt bottoms and in mild conditions. Sizes range between 5 and 20 kg for small craft. Various designs exist and many are home produced from lead or improvised with heavy objects. This is a very commonly used method on the Norfolk Broads in England.\n",
"These are used where the vessel is permanently or semi-permanently sited, for example in the case of lightvessels or channel marker buoys. The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe storm, but needs to be lifted only occasionally, at most – for example, only if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances, especially if the anchor need never be lifted at all, may be to use a pile driven into the seabed.\n\nPermanent anchors come in a wide range of types and have no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron staple in it to attach a chain to would serve the purpose, as would any dense object of appropriate weight (for instance, an engine block). Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws, which look and act very much like oversized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or by a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more conventional anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves, one or more anchors will be aligned to resist the force.\n\n===Mushroom anchor===\nlightship ''Portsmouth'' in Virginia.\nThe mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand. It was invented by Robert Stevenson, for use by an 82-ton converted fishing boat, ''Pharos'', which was used as a lightvessel between 1807 and 1810 near to Bell Rock whilst the lighthouse was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5-ton example.\n\nIt is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt. A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried.\n\nA mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material, thus greatly increasing its holding power. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight until it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight. They are available in sizes from about 10 lb up to several tons.\n\n===Deadweight anchor===\nThis is an anchor which relies solely on being a heavy weight. It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain. Its holding power is defined by its weight underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried. Consequently, deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then it continues to provide its original holding force. The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor.\n\n===Screw anchor===\nScrew anchors can be used to anchor permanent moorings, floating docks, fish farms, etc. These anchors must be screwed into the seabed with the use of a tool, so require access to the bottom, either at low tide or by use of a diver. Hence they can be difficult to install in deep water without special equipment.\n\nWeight for weight, screw anchors have a higher holding than other permanent designs, and so can be cheap and relatively easily installed, although may not be ideal in extremely soft mud.\n\n===High-holding-power anchors===\nThere is a need in the oil-and-gas industry to resist large anchoring forces when laying pipelines and for drilling vessels. These anchors are installed and removed using a support tug and pennant/pendant wire. Some examples are the Stevin range supplied by Vrijhof Ankers. Large plate anchors such as the Stevmanta are used for permanent moorings.\n",
"HMAS ''Canberra'' (1927) memorial, Canberra, Australia\nThe elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a '''''rode'''''), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water.\n\nVessels may carry a number of anchors: '''''bower anchors''''' (formerly known as ''sheet anchors'') are the main anchors used by a vessel and normally carried at the bow of the vessel. A '''''kedge anchor''''' is a light anchor used for warping an anchor, also known as ''kedging'', or more commonly on yachts for mooring quickly or in benign conditions. A '''''stream anchor''''', which is usually heavier than a ''kedge anchor'', can be used for kedging or warping in addition to temporary mooring and restraining stern movement in tidal conditions or in waters where vessel movement needs to be restricted, such as rivers and channels. A '''''Killick anchor''''' is a small, possibly improvised, anchor.\n\nCharts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them.\n\nThe depth of water is necessary for determining '''''scope''''', which is the ratio of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed. For example, if the water is deep, and the anchor roller is above the water, the scope is the ratio between the amount of cable let out and . For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water.\n\nA cable or rode is the rope, chain, or combination thereof used to connect the anchor to the vessel.\n\nChain rode is relatively heavy but resists abrasion from coral sharp rocks or shellfish beds which may abrade a pure rope warp. Fibre rope is more susceptible to abrasion on the seabed or obstructions, and is more likely to fail without warning.\n\nCombinations of a length of chain shackled to the anchor, with rope added to the other end of the chain are a common compromise on small craft.\n",
"The best rope for warps is nylon which is strong and flexible. Terylene (polyester) is stronger but has less flex. Both ropes sink, so they avoid fouling other craft in crowded anchorages and do not absorb much water. Neither breaks down quickly in sunlight. Polypropylene or polythene are not suited to warps as they float and are much weaker than nylon and only slightly stronger than natural fibres. They break down in sunlight. Natural fibres such as manila or hemp are still used in developing nations but absorb much water, are relatively weak and rot. They do give good grip and are often very cheap. All anchors should have chain at least equal to the boat's length. Some skippers prefer an all chain warp for added security in coral waters. Boats less than 8 m typically use 6 mm galvanized chain. 8–14 m craft use 9 mm chain and over 14 m use 12 mm chain. The chain should be shackled to the warp through a steel eye or spliced to the chain using a chain splice. The shackle pin should be securely wired. Either galvanized or stainless steel is suitable for eyes and shackles.\n\nIn moderate conditions the ratio of warp to water depth should be 4:1. In rough conditions it should be twice this with the extra length giving more stretch to resist the anchor breaking out. This means that small craft under 5 m should carry at least 50 m of 8 mm warp. 5–8 m craft 75–100 m of 10 mm warp. 8–14 m should carry 100–125 m of 12 mm warp and over 16 m the same length but 16 mm warp.\n",
"RV ''Polarstern''\nColored plastic inserts on a modern anchor chain show the operator how much chain has been paid out. This knowledge is very important in all anchoring methods\nThe basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. The ship will seek a location which is sufficiently protected; has suitable holding ground, enough depth at low tide and enough room for the boat to swing.\n\nThe location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight.\n\nOnce the desired scope is laid out, the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged too far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)\n\nThere are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room:\n\n=== Using an anchor weight, kellet or sentinel ===\nLowering a concentrated, heavy weight down the anchor line – rope or chain – directly in front of the bow to the seabed behaves like a heavy chain rode and lowers the angle of pull on the anchor. If the weight is suspended off the seabed it acts as a spring or shock absorber to dampen the sudden actions that are normally transmitted to the anchor and can cause it to dislodge and drag. In light conditions, a kellet will reduce the swing of the vessel considerably. In heavier conditions these effects disappear as the rode becomes straightened and the weight ineffective. Known as a \"anchor chum weight\" or \"angel\" in the UK.\n\n=== Forked moor ===\nUsing two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable.\nThis moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels will not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range.\n\n=== Bow and stern ===\n(Not to be mistaken with the ''Bahamian moor'', below.) In the ''bow and stern'' technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel.\n\n=== Bahamian moor ===\nSimilar to the above, a ''Bahamian moor'' is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that.\n\nThe vessel will now swing in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents, but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors, as they are not aligned for this load.\n\n=== Backing an anchor ===\nAlso known as ''tandem anchoring'', in this technique two anchors are deployed in line with each other, on the same rode. With the foremost anchor reducing the load on the aft-most, this technique can develop great holding power and may be appropriate in \"ultimate storm\" circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be suitable in some circumstances. There are complications, and the technique requires careful preparation and a level of skill and experience above that required for a single anchor.\n\n=== Kedging ===\nStatue of Peter the Great leaning on an anchor, in symbol of his shipbuilding activity (Voronezh, 1860).\n''Kedging'' or ''warping'' is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor.\n\nIn yachts, a kedge anchor is an anchor carried in addition to the main, or bower anchors, and usually stowed aft. Every yacht should carry at least two anchors – the main or ''bower'' anchor and a second lighter ''kedge'' anchor. It is used occasionally when it is necessary to limit the turning circle as the yacht swings when it is anchored, such as in a very narrow river or a deep pool in an otherwise shallow area.\n\nFor ships, a kedge may be dropped while a ship is underway, or carried out in a suitable direction by a tender or ship's boat to enable the ship to be winched off if aground or swung into a particular heading, or even to be held steady against a tidal or other stream.\n\nHistorically, it was of particular relevance to sailing warships which used them to outmaneuver opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower.\n\n==== Club hauling ====\nClub hauling is an archaic technique. When a vessel is in a narrow channel or on a lee shore so that there is no room to tack the vessel in a conventional manner, an anchor attached to the lee quarter may be dropped from the lee bow. This is deployed when the vessel is head to wind and has lost headway. As the vessel gathers sternway the strain on the cable pivots the vessel around what is now the weather quarter turning the vessel onto the other tack. The anchor is then normally cut away, as it cannot be recovered.\n\nA 1914 Russian poster depicting the Triple Entente. Britannia's association with the oceanic British Empire is indicated by her holding a large anchor.\n",
"An anchor frequently appears on the flags and coats of arms of institutions involved with the sea, both naval and commercial, as well as of port cities and seacoast regions and provinces in various countries. There also exists in heraldry the \"Anchored Cross\", or Mariner's Cross, a stylized cross in the shape of an anchor. The symbol can be used to signify 'fresh start' or 'hope'. The New Testament refers to the Christian's hope as \"an anchor of the soul\" ( Hebrews 6:19). In 1887, the Delta Gamma Fraternity adopted the anchor as its badge to signify hope. The Mariner's Cross is also referred to as St. Clement's Cross, in reference to the way this saint was martyred (being tied to an anchor and thrown from a boat into the Black Sea in 102). Anchored crosses are occasionally a feature of coats of arms in which context they are referred to by the heraldic terms ''anchry'' or ''ancre''.\n",
"*Anchor coinage\n*Anchorage (shipping)\n*Digital Anchor\n*Fouled anchor\n*History of the anchor\n*Sea anchor\n",
"\n",
"* Blackwell, Alex & Daria; ''Happy Hooking – the Art of Anchoring,'' 2008, 2011 White Seahorse; \n* Edwards, Fred; ''Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary,'' 1988 Highmark Publishing; \n* Hinz, Earl R.; ''The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed.,'' 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press; \n* Hiscock, Eric C.; ''Cruising Under Sail, second edition,'' 1965 Oxford University Press; \n* Pardey, Lin and Larry; ''The Capable Cruiser''; 1995 Pardey Books/Paradise Cay Publications; \n* Rousmaniere, John; ''The Annapolis Book of Seamanship,'' 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster; \n* Smith, Everrett; ''Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight,'' 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines\n",
"* William N. Brady (1864). ''The Kedge-anchor; Or, Young Sailors' Assistant''.\n**First published as ''The Naval Apprentice's Kedge Anchor''. New York, Taylor and Clement, 1841.--''The Kedge-anchor''; 3rd ed. New York, 1848.--6th ed. New York, 1852.--9th ed. New York, 1857.\n",
"\n\n* Anchor Tests: Soft Sand Over Hard Sand Practical-Sailor\n* The Big Anchor Project\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Overview",
" Evolution of the anchor ",
" Small boat anchors ",
" Permanent anchors ",
" Anchoring gear ",
"Anchor warps",
" Anchoring techniques ",
"In heraldry",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Anchor |
[
"\n\n\nGeneral view\nAnazarbus West Gate\n'''Anazarbus ''' (, medieval '''Ain Zarba'''; modern '''Anavarza'''; ) was an ancient Cilician city and (arch)bishopric, which remains a Latin Catholic titular see.\n",
"It was situated in Anatolia in modern Turkey, in the present Çukurova (or classical Aleian plain) about 15 km west of the main stream of the present Ceyhan River (or classical Pyramus river) and near its tributary the Sempas Su.\n\nA lofty isolated ridge formed its acropolis. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, the Suda's identification of it with Cyinda, famous as a treasure city in the wars of Eumenes of Cardia, cannot be accepted in the face of Strabo's express location of Cyinda in western Cilicia.\n",
"It was founded by Assyrians. Under the early Roman Empire the place was known as '''Caesarea''', and was the Metropolis (capital) of Late Roman province Cilicia Secunda. It was the home of the poet Oppian.\n \nRebuilt by the Byzantine emperor Justin I after an earthquake in the 6th century, it became '''Justinopolis''' (525); but the old native name persisted, and when Thoros I, king of Lesser Armenia, made it his capital early in the 12th century, it was known as '''Anazarva'''.\n",
"Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the Sis pass, and near the great road which debouched from the Cilician Gates, made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the Byzantine Empire and the early Muslim invaders. It had been rebuilt by Harun al-Rashid in 796, refortified at great expense by the Hamdanid Sayf al-Dawla (mid-10th century) and again destroyed in 962 by Nikephoros II Phokas.\n\nIn late 1097 or early 1098 it was captured by the armies of the First Crusade and was incorporated into Bohemond's Principality of Antioch. The Crusaders are probably responsible for the construction of an impressive donjon atop the center of the outcrop. Most of the remaining fortifications, including the curtain walls, massive horse-shaped towers, undercrofts, cisterns, and free-standing structures date from the Armenian periods of occupation, which began with the arrival of the Rubenid Baron T‛oros I, . The site briefly exchanged hands between the Greeks and Armenians, until it was formally part of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Within the fortress are two Armenian chapels and the magnificent (but severely damaged) three-aisle church built by T‛oros I to celebrate his conquests. The church was once surrounded by a continuous, well-executed dedicatory inscription in Armenian.\n\nThe Mamluk Empire of Egypt finally destroyed the city in 1374.\n\nThe present wall of the lower city is of late construction. It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which are a fine triumphal arch, the colonnades of two streets, a gymnasium, etc. A stadium and a theatre lie outside the walls to the south. The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock. There are no notable structures in the upper town. For picturesqueness the site is not equaled in Cilicia, and it is worthwhile to trace the three fine aqueducts to their sources. A necropolis on the escarpment to the south of the curtain wall can also be seen complete with signs of illegal modern excavations.\n\nA visit in December 2002 showed that the three aqueducts mentioned above have been nearly completely destroyed. Only small, isolated sections are left standing with the largest portion lying in a pile of rubble that stretches the length of where the aqueducts once stood. A powerful earthquake that struck the area in 1945 is thought to be responsible for the destruction.\n\nA modest Turkish farming village (Dilekkaya) lies to the southwest of the ancient city. A small outdoor museum with some of the artifacts collected in the area can be viewed for a small fee. Also nearby are some beautiful mosaics discovered in a farmers field. Inquire at the museum for a viewing.\n\nAnazarbus/Anavarsa was one of a chain of Armenian fortifications stretching through Cilicia. The castle of Sis (modern Kozan, Adana) lies to the north while Tumlu Castle and Yilankale are to the south, and the fortresses of Amouda and Sarvandikar are to the east.\n",
"Anazarbus was the capital and so also from 553 (the date of the Second Council of Constantinople) the metropolitan see of the Late Roman province of Cilicia Secunda.\n\nA 6th century ''Notitia Episcopatuum'' indicates that it had as suffragan sees Epiphania, Alexandria Minor, Irenopolis, Flavias, Castabala and Aegeae. Rhosus was also subject to Anazarbus, but after the 6th century was made exempt, and Mopsuestia was raised to the rank of autcephalous metropolitan see, though without suffragans.\n\nIt faded, but got two Catholic titular successor sees.\n\n=== Titular Latin see ===\nThe archdiocese was nominally restored in the 18th century, when was established a Latin Catholic Metropolitan titular archbishopric of Anazarbus.\n\nIt is vacant, having had the following incumbents, generally of the highest (Metropolitan) rank, ''with an episcopal (lowest rank) exception :\n* Titular Archbishop Giuseppe Maria Saporiti (1726.04.08 – 1743.12.02)\n* ''Titular Bishop Isidro Alfonso Cavanillas (1753.04.09 – 1755.05.12)\n* Titular Archbishop Gerolamo Formagliari (1760.07.21 – 1781)\n* Titular Archbishop Romain-Frédéric Gallard (1839.02.21 – 1839.09.28)\n* Titular Archbishop Antoine Pierre Andon Bedros Hassoun (1842.06.07 – 1846.08.02), as Coadjutor Archeparch of Istanbul of the Armenians (Turkey) (1842.06.07 – 1846.08.02), succeeded as Archeparch of Istanbul of the Armenians (Turkey) (1846.08.02 – 1866.09.14), later Patriarch of Cilicia of the Armenians (Lebanon) (1866.09.14 1867.07.12 – 1881.06), created Cardinal-Priest of Ss. Vitale, Valeria, Gervasio e Protasio (1880.12.16 – 1884.02.28)\n* Titular Archbishop Giorgio Labella, Friars Minor (O.F.M.) (1847.06.04 – 1860.10.27)\n* Titular Archbishop Charles Petre Eyre (1868.12.03 – 1878.03.15)\n* Titular Archbishop John Baptist Salpointe (1884.04.22 – 1885.08.18)\n* Titular Archbishop Michael Logue (1887.04.19 – 1887.12.03) (later Cardinal)*\n* Titular Archbishop François Laurencin (1888.06.01 – 1892.12.18)\n* Titular Archbishop Joaquín Larraín Gandarillas (1893.06.15 – 1897.09.26)\n* Titular Archbishop Raimondo Ingheo (1907.12.16 – 1911.07.08)\n* Titular Archbishop Cláudio José Gonçalves Ponce de Leon, Lazarists (C.M.) (1912.01.09 – 1924.05.26)\n* Titular Archbishop Raymund Netzhammer, Benedictine Order( O.S.B.) (1924.07.14 – 1945.09.18)\n* Titular Archbishop Michele Akras (1945.10.27 – 1947.02.05)\n* Titular Archbishop Heinrich Döring (ハインリヒ・デーリング), S.J. (1948.01.15 – 1951.12.17)\n* Titular Archbishop Joseph-Marie Le Gouaze (1955.06.24 – 1964.07.31)\n\n=== Titular Armenian see ===\nIn the 19th century, an Armenian Catholic titular bishopric of '''Anazarbus (of the Armenians) ('''Anazarbus degli Armeni'''in Curiate Italian)''' was established.\n\nIt was a suppressed in 1933, having had a single incumbent, of the intermediary (archiepiscopal) rank :\n* Titular Archbishop Avedis Arpiarian (1898.04.05 – 1911.08.27), previously Eparch of Kharput of the Armenians (1890.09.23 – 1898.04.05); later Eparch of Marasc of the Armenians (1911.08.27 – 1928.06.29), Auxiliary Eparch of the patriarchate Cilicia of the Armenians (Lebanon) (1928.06.29 – 1931.10.17), Armenian Catholic Patriarch of Cilicia (Lebanon) (1931.10.17 1933.03.13 – 1937.10.26)\n",
"* Pedanius Dioscorides (1st century) Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist\n* St. Domnina of Anazarbus\n* St. Theodula of Anazarbus\n\n\n",
"* Diocese of Alexandretta\n",
"\n* \n",
"* GCatholic Latin titular see\n* GCatholic Armenian Catholic former titular see\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Location ",
" History ",
" Remains ",
" Ecclesiastical history ",
" Notable locals ",
" See also ",
" References ",
"Sources and external links"
] | Anazarbus |
[
"\n\n\n'''Anadyr''' () is a river in the far northeast Siberia which flows into Anadyr Bay of the Bering Sea and drains much of the interior of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Its basin corresponds to the Anadyrsky District of Chukotka.\n",
"The Anadyr is long and has a basin of . It is frozen from October to late May and has a maximum flow in June with the snowmelt. It is navigable in small boats for about to near Markovo. West of Markovo it is in the Anadyr Highlands (moderate mountains and valleys with a few trees) and east of Markovo it moves into the Anadyr lowlands (very flat treeless tundra with lakes and bogs). The drop from Markovo to the sea is less than .\n\nIt rises at about 67°N latitude and 173°E longitude near the headwaters of the Maly Anyuy River, flows southwest receiving the waters of the Yablon and Eropol Rivers, turns east and passes Markvovo and the old site of Anadyrsk, turns north and east and receives the Mayn River from the south, thereby encircling the Lebediny Zakaznik, turns northeast to receive the Belaya River (Chukotka) from the north, turns southeast past the Ust-Tanyurer Zakaznik and receives the Tanyurer River from the north. At Lake Krasnoye, it turns east and flows into the Onemen Bay of the Anadyr Estuary. If the Onemen Bay is considered part of the river, it also receives the Velikaya River (Chukotka) from the south and the Kanchalan River from the north.\n\nIts basin is surrounded by (north) Amguyema River and Palyavaam River, (northwest) Bolshoy Anyuy River and the Oloy branch of the Omolon River and (southwest) Penzhina River.\n",
"In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev reached the mouth of the Anadyr after being shipwrecked on the coast. In 1649 he went upriver and built winter quarters at Anadyrsk. For the next 100 years the Anadyr was the main route from the Arctic to the Pacific and Kamchatka. In the 18th century, the Anadyr was described by the polar explorer Dmitry Laptev.\n",
"The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by tundra, with a rich variety of plant life. Much of the region has beautiful landscapes, dominated by often spectacular, rugged mountains. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. George Kennan, an American working on the Western Union Telegraph Expedition in the late 1860s, found that dog sled travel on the lower Anadyr was limited by lack of firewood.\n\nReindeer, upon which the local inhabitants subsisted, were once found in considerable numbers, but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in 1992. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild caribou have increased.\n\nThere are ten species of salmon inhabiting the Anadyr river basin. Every year, on the last Sunday in April, there is an ice fishing competition in the frozen estuarine waters of the Anadyr River's mouth. This festival is locally known as '''Korfest'''.\n\nThe area is a summering place for a number of migratory birds including brent geese, Eurasian wigeons, and the pintails of California.\n",
"* Operation Anadyr\n",
"\n\n",
"*\n*\n",
"* \"Tourist and environmental information\" Chukotka Autonomous Okrug website, in English\n* \"Russia Far East: Anadyr River\" Wild Salmon Center\n** Anadyr River Watershed\n* \"Snezhnoye: a village on the Anadyr' River\"\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Geography",
"History",
"Ecology",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Anadyr River |
[
"\n\n'''André-Marie Ampère''' (; ; 20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as \"electrodynamics\". He is also the inventor of numerous applications, such as the solenoid (a term coined by him) and the electrical telegraph. An autodidact, Ampère was a member of the ''Académie des sciences'' and professor at the ''École polytechnique'' and the ''Collège de France''.\n\nThe SI unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere, is named after him. His name is also one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.\n",
"Andre-Marie Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 to Jean-Jacques Ampère, a prosperous businessman, and Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey Ampère, during the height of the French Enlightenment. He spent his childhood and adolescence at the family property at Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or near Lyon. Jean-Jacques Ampère, a successful merchant, was an admirer of the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose theories of education (as outlined in his treatise Émile) were the basis of Ampère's education. Rousseau believed that young boys should avoid formal schooling and pursue instead an \"education direct from nature.\" Ampère's father actualized this ideal by allowing his son to educate himself within the walls of his well-stocked library. French Enlightenment masterpieces such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon's ''Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière'' (begun in 1749) and Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's ''Encyclopédie'' (volumes added between 1751 and 1772) thus became Ampère's schoolmasters. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, which enabled him to master the works of Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli.\n",
"In addition, Ampère used his access to the latest books to begin teaching himself advanced mathematics at age 12. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His mother was a devout woman, so Ampère was also initiated into the Catholic faith along with Enlightenment science. The French Revolution (1789–99) that began during his youth was also influential: Ampère's father was called into public service by the new revolutionary government, becoming a justice of the peace in a small town near Lyon. When the Jacobin faction seized control of the Revolutionary government in 1792, his father Jean-Jacques Ampère resisted the new political tides, and he was guillotined on 24 November 1793, as part of the Jacobin purges of the period.\n\nIn 1796 Ampère met Julie Carron, and in 1799 they were married. André-Marie Ampère took his first regular job in 1799 as a mathematics teacher, which gave him the financial security to marry Carron and father his first child, Jean-Jacques (named after his father), the next year. (Jean-Jacques Ampère eventually achieved his own fame as a scholar of languages). Ampère's maturation corresponded with the transition to the Napoleonic regime in France, and the young father and teacher found new opportunities for success within the technocratic structures favoured by the new French First Counsel. In 1802 Ampère was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the École Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse, leaving his ailing wife and infant son in Lyon. He used his time in Bourg to research mathematics, producing ''Considérations sur la théorie mathématique de jeu'' (1802; \"Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games\"), a treatise on mathematical probability that he sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1803.\n",
"''Essai sur la philosophie des sciences''\nAfter the death of his wife in July 1803, Ampère moved to Paris, where he began a tutoring post at the new École Polytechnique in 1804. Despite his lack of formal qualifications, Ampère was appointed a professor of mathematics at the school in 1809. As well as holding positions at this school until 1828, in 1819 and 1820 Ampère offered courses in philosophy and astronomy, respectively, at the University of Paris, and in 1824 he was elected to the prestigious chair in experimental physics at the Collège de France. In 1814 Ampère was invited to join the class of mathematicians in the new ''Institut Impérial'', the umbrella under which the reformed state Academy of Sciences would sit.\n\nAmpère engaged in a diverse array of scientific inquiries during the years leading up to his election to the academy—writing papers and engaging in topics from mathematics and philosophy to chemistry and astronomy. was customary among the leading scientific intellectuals of the day. Ampère claimed that \"at eighteen years he found three culminating points in his life, his First Communion, the reading of Antoine Leonard Thomas's \"Eulogy of Descartes\", and the Taking of the Bastille. On the day of his wife's death he wrote two verses from the Psalms, and the prayer, 'O Lord, God of Mercy, unite me in Heaven with those whom you have permitted me to love on earth.' In times of duress he would take refuge in the reading of the Bible and the Fathers of the Church.\"\n\nFor a time he took into his family the young student Frédéric Ozanam (1813–1853), one of the founders of the Conference of Charity, later known as the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. Through Ampère, Ozanam had contact with leaders of the neo-Catholic movement, such as François-René de Chateaubriand, Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire, and Charles Forbes René de Montalembert. Ozanam was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1998.\n",
"\nIn September 1820, Ampère's friend and eventual eulogist François Arago showed the members of the French Academy of Sciences the surprising discovery of Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted that a magnetic needle is deflected by an adjacent electric current. Ampère began developing a mathematical and physical theory to understand the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Furthering Ørsted's experimental work, Ampère showed that two parallel wires carrying electric currents attract or repel each other, depending on whether the currents flow in the same or opposite directions, respectively - this laid the foundation of electrodynamics. He also applied mathematics in generalizing physical laws from these experimental results. The most important of these was the principle that came to be called Ampère's law, which states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths and to the intensities of their currents. Ampère also applied this same principle to magnetism, showing the harmony between his law and French physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb's law of magnetic action. Ampère's devotion to, and skill with, experimental techniques anchored his science within the emerging fields of experimental physics.\n\nAmpère also provided a physical understanding of the electromagnetic relationship, theorizing the existence of an \"electrodynamic molecule\" (the forerunner of the idea of the electron) that served as the component element of both electricity and magnetism. Using this physical explanation of electromagnetic motion, Ampère developed a physical account of electromagnetic phenomena that was both empirically demonstrable and mathematically predictive. In 1827 Ampère published his magnum opus, ''Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques uniquement déduite de l’experience'' (Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience), the work that coined the name of his new science, ''electrodynamics'', and became known ever after as its founding treatise.\n\nIn 1827 Ampère was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and in 1828, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science.\n",
"* '''8.10.1825''': Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium.\n\n===Legacy===\nIn recognition of his contribution to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 International Exposition of Electricity, established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement, along with the coulomb, volt, ohm, and watt, which are named, respectively, after Ampère's contemporaries Charles-Augustin de Coulomb of France, Alessandro Volta of Italy, Georg Ohm of Germany, and James Watt of Scotland. Ampère's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.\n\nSeveral items are named after Ampère; many streets and squares, schools, a Lyon metro station, and an electric ferry in Norway.\n",
"* ''Considerations sur la théorie mathématique du jeu'', Perisse, Lyon Paris 1802, online lesen im Internet-Archiv\n* \n* \n* \n* \n** \n* \n** \n** \n* Partial translation of some of Ampère's writing is in:\n** Magie, W.M. (1963). ''A Source Book in Physics.'' Harvard: Cambridge MA. pp. 446–460.\n** .\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n* Ampère and the history of electricity – a French-language, edited by CNRS, site with Ampère's correspondence (full text and critical edition with links to manuscripts pictures, more than 1000 letters), an Ampère bibliography, experiments, and 3D simulations\n* Ampère Museum – a French-language site from the museum in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near Lyon, France\n* \n* \n* Catholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère\n* André-Marie Ampère: The Founder of Electromagnetism – Background information and related experiments\n* Electrical units history.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"French Revolution",
"Teaching career",
"Work in electromagnetism",
" Honours ",
"Writings",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | André-Marie Ampère |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Ammonia''' or '''azane''' is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. The simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products.\n\nAlthough common in nature and in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous in its concentrated form. It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.\n\nThe global industrial production of ammonia in 2014 was , a 16% increase over the 2006 global industrial production of . Industrial ammonia is sold either as ammonia liquor (usually 28% ammonia in water) or as pressurized or refrigerated anhydrous liquid ammonia transported in tank cars or cylinders.\n\nNH3 boils at at a pressure of one atmosphere, so the liquid must be stored under pressure or at low temperature. Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of NH3 in water. The concentration of such solutions is measured in units of the Baumé scale (density), with 26 degrees baumé (about 30% (by weight) ammonia at ) being the typical high-concentration commercial product.\n",
"Ammonia is found in trace quantities in nature, being produced from the nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, whereas ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonian guano. The kidneys secrete ammonia to neutralize excess acid. Ammonium salts are found distributed through fertile soil and in seawater.\n\nAmmonia is also found throughout the Solar System on Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, among other places: on smaller, icy worlds like Pluto, ammonia can act as a geologically important antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can potentially have a melting point of as low as 173 kelvins if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such worlds to retain internal oceans and active geology far longer than would be possible with water alone. Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ''ammoniacal''.\n",
"Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules; the liquid boils at , and freezes at to white crystals.\n\nAmmonia may be conveniently deodorized by reacting it with either sodium bicarbonate or acetic acid. Both of these reactions form an odourless ammonium salt.\n\n;Solid: The crystal symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P213 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125 nm.\n\n;Liquid: Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high ε of 22. Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vaporization (23.35 kJ/mol, ''cf.'' water 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol, phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in uninsulated vessels without additional refrigeration. See liquid ammonia as a solvent.\n\n;Solvent properties: Ammonia is miscible with water. In an aqueous solution, it can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a density of 0.880 g/cm3 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion, except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15–25% air.\n\n;Combustion: When mixed with oxygen, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride; if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is also formed.\n\n===Structure===\nThe ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives a total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally. Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair of electrons repel more strongly than bond pairs, therefore the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.7°. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a lone electron pair, which makes ammonia a base, a proton acceptor. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar. The molecule's polarity and, especially, its ability to form hydrogen bonds, makes ammonia highly miscible with water. Ammonia is moderately basic, a 1.0 M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6 and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral (pH = 7), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated. Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of NH4+. The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane.\n\nThe ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79 GHz, corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed.\n\n===Amphotericity===\nOne of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its basicity. Ammonia is considered to be a weak base. It combines with acids to form salts; thus with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac); with nitric acid, ammonium nitrate, etc. Perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride; moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction. As a demonstration experiment, opened bottles of concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid produce clouds of ammonium chloride, which seem to appear \"out of nothing\" as the salt forms where the two diffusing clouds of molecules meet, somewhere between the two bottles.\n:NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl\n\nThe salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion (NH4+).\n\nAlthough ammonia is well known as a weak base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH2− ion). For example, lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a solution of lithium amide:\n\n: 2Li + 2NH3 → 2LiNH2 + H2\n\n===Self-dissociation===\nLike water, ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates:\n:2 (aq) (aq) + (aq)\n\nAmmonia often functions as a weak base, so it has some buffering ability. Shifts in pH will cause more or fewer ammonium cations () and amide anions () to be present in solution. At standard pressure and temperature, K= = 10\n\n===Combustion===\nThe combustion of ammonia to nitrogen and water is exothermic:\n: 4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O (''g'') Δ''H''°r = −1267.20 kJ/mol (or −316.8 kJ/mol if expressed per mol of NH3)\n\nThe standard enthalpy change of combustion, Δ''H''°c, expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of the water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion: all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N2 and O2, which is the principle behind the catalytic converter. Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts, a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid:\n:4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4 NO + 6 H2O\n\nA subsequent reaction leads to NO2\n\n:2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2\n\nThe combustion of ammonia in air is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide), because the temperature of the flame is usually lower than the ignition temperature of the ammonia–air mixture. The flammable range of ammonia in air is 16–25%.\n\n===Formation of other compounds===\nIn organic chemistry, ammonia can act as a nucleophile in substitution reactions. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides, although the resulting -NH2 group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as byproducts. An excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. Methylamine is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with chloromethane, and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare racemic alanine in 70% yield. Ethanolamine is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine.\n\nAmides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with carboxylic acid derivatives. Acyl chlorides are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150–200 °C are required.\n\nThe hydrogen in ammonia is capable of replacement by metals, thus magnesium burns in the gas with the formation of magnesium nitride Mg3N2, and when the gas is passed over heated sodium or potassium, sodamide, NaNH2, and potassamide, KNH2, are formed. Where necessary in substitutive nomenclature, IUPAC recommendations prefer the name \"azane\" to ammonia: hence chloramine would be named \"chloroazane\" in substitutive nomenclature, not \"chloroammonia\".\n\nPentavalent ammonia is known as λ5-amine, or more commonly, ammonium hydride. This crystalline solid is only stable under high pressure, and decomposes back into trivalent ammonia and hydrogen gas at normal conditions. This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966.\n\n===Ammonia as a ligand===\n\nBall-and-stick model of the tetraamminediaquacopper(II) cation, Cu(NH3)4(H2O)22+\nAmmonia can act as a ligand in transition metal complexes. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the spectrochemical series, and shows intermediate hard-soft behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named '''ammine''' in the nomenclature of coordination compounds. Some notable ammine complexes include tetraamminediaquacopper(II) (Cu(NH3)4(H2O)22+), a dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to a solution of copper(II) salts. Tetraamminediaquacopper(II) hydroxide is known as Schweizer's reagent, and has the remarkable ability to dissolve cellulose. Diamminesilver(I) (Ag(NH3)2+) is the active species in Tollens' reagent. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: silver chloride (AgCl) is soluble in dilute (2M) ammonia solution, silver bromide (AgBr) is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution, whereas silver iodide (AgI) is insoluble in aqueous ammonia.\n\nAmmine complexes of chromium(III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of Alfred Werner's revolutionary theory on the structure of coordination compounds. Werner noted only two isomers (''fac''- and ''mer''-) of the complex CrCl3(NH3)3 could be formed, and concluded the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron. This proposal has since been confirmed by X-ray crystallography.\n\nAn ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more acidic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the Calomel reaction, where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble.\n:Hg2Cl2 + 2 NH3 → Hg + HgCl(NH2) + NH4+ + Cl−\n",
"\n\n===Ammonia in solution===\n\nAmmonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of Nessler's solution, which gives a distinct yellow colouration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium or potassium hydroxide, the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically; or the ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate, (NH4)2PtCl6.\n\n===Gaseous ammonia===\nSulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime, when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. Ammonia is an irritant and irritation increases with concentration; the Permissible Exposure Limit is 25 ppm, and lethal above 500 ppm. Higher concentrations are hardly detected by conventional detectors, the type of detector is chosen according to the sensitivity required (e.g. semiconductor, catalytic, electrochemical). Holographic sensors have been proposed for detecting concentrations up to 12.5% in volume.\n\n===Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N)===\nAmmoniacal nitrogen (NH3-N) is a measure commonly used for testing the quantity of ammonium ions, derived naturally from ammonia, and returned to ammonia via organic processes, in water or waste liquids. It is a measure used mainly for quantifying values in waste treatment and water purification systems, as well as a measure of the health of natural and man made water reserves. It is measured in units of mg/L (milligram per litre).\n",
"This high-pressure reactor was built in 1921 by BASF in Ludwigshafen and was re-erected on the premises of the University of Karlsruhe in Germany.\nThe ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that there were outcrops of salt in an area of Libya that was inhabited by a people called the \"Ammonians\" (now: the Siwa oasis in northwestern Egypt, where salt lakes still exist). The Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned the salt from this region. However, the ancient authors Dioscorides, Apicius, Arrian, Synesius, and Aëtius of Amida described this salt as forming clear crystals that could be used for cooking and that were essentially rock salt. ''Hammoniacus sal'' appears in the writings of Pliny, although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride).\n\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\n\nIn the form of sal ammoniac ''(نشادر, nushadir)'' ammonia was important to the Muslim alchemists as early as the 8th century, first mentioned by the Persian chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān, and to the European alchemists since the 13th century, being mentioned by Albertus Magnus. It was also used by dyers in the Middle Ages in the form of fermented urine to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the 15th century, Basilius Valentinus showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal ammoniac. At a later period, when sal ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hooves and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with hydrochloric acid, the name \"spirit of hartshorn\" was applied to ammonia.\n\nGaseous ammonia was first isolated by Joseph Black in 1756 by reacting ''sal ammoniac'' (Ammonium Chloride) with ''calcined magnesia'' (Magnesium Oxide). It was isolated again by Peter Woulfe in 1767, by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1770 and by Joseph Priestley in 1773 and was termed by him \"alkaline air\". Eleven years later in 1785, Claude Louis Berthollet ascertained its composition.\n\nThe Haber–Bosch process to produce ammonia from the nitrogen in the air was developed by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch in 1909 and patented in 1910. It was first used on an industrial scale in Germany during World War I, following the allied blockade that cut off the supply of nitrates from Chile. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain war efforts.\n\nPrior to the availability of natural gas, hydrogen as a precursor to ammonia production was produced via the electrolysis of water or using the chloralkali process.\n\nWith the advent of the steel industry in the 20th century, ammonia became a byproduct of the production of coking coal.\n",
"\n===Fertilizer===\nGlobally, approximately 88% (as of 2014) of ammonia is used as fertilizers either as its salts, solutions or anhydrously. When applied to soil, it helps provide increased yields of crops such as maize and wheat. 30% of agricultural nitrogen applied in the USA is in the form of anhydrous ammonia and worldwide 110 million tonnes are applied each year.\n\n===Precursor to nitrogenous compounds===\nAmmonia is directly or indirectly the precursor to most nitrogen-containing compounds. Virtually all synthetic nitrogen compounds are derived from ammonia. An important derivative is nitric acid. This key material is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at , ~9 atm. Nitric oxide is an intermediate in this conversion:\n: NH3 + 2 O2 → HNO3 + H2O\nNitric acid is used for the production of fertilizers, explosives, and many organonitrogen compounds.\n\nAmmonia is also used to make the following compounds:\n* Hydrazine, in the Olin Raschig process and the peroxide process\n* Hydrogen cyanide, in the BMA process and the Andrussow process\n* Hydroxylamine and ammonium carbonate, in the Raschig process\n* Phenol, in the Raschig–Hooker process\n* Urea, in the Bosch–Meiser urea process and in Wöhler synthesis\n* Amino acids, using Strecker amino-acid synthesis\n* Acrylonitrile, in the Sohio process\n\nAmmonia can also be used to make compounds in reactions which are not specifically named. Examples of such compounds include: ammonium perchlorate, ammonium nitrate, formamide, dinitrogen tetroxide, alprazolam, ethanolamine, ethyl carbamate, hexamethylenetetramine, and ammonium bicarbonate.\n\n===Cleaner===\nHousehold ammonia is a solution of NH3 in water (i.e., ammonium hydroxide) used as a general purpose cleaner for many surfaces. Because ammonia results in a relatively streak-free shine, one of its most common uses is to clean glass, porcelain and stainless steel. It is also frequently used for cleaning ovens and soaking items to loosen baked-on grime. Household ammonia ranges in concentration by weight from 5 to 10% ammonia.\n\n===Fermentation===\nSolutions of ammonia ranging from 16% to 25% are used in the fermentation industry as a source of nitrogen for microorganisms and to adjust pH during fermentation.\n\n===Antimicrobial agent for food products===\nAs early as in 1895, it was known that ammonia was \"strongly antiseptic ... it requires 1.4 grams per litre to preserve beef tea.\" In one study, anhydrous ammonia destroyed 99.999% of zoonotic bacteria in 3 types of animal feed, but not silage. Anhydrous ammonia is currently used commercially to reduce or eliminate microbial contamination of beef.\nLean finely textured beef in the beef industry is made from fatty beef trimmings (c. 50–70% fat) by removing the fat using heat and centrifugation, then treating it with ammonia to kill ''E. coli''. The process was deemed effective and safe by the US Department of Agriculture based on a study that found that the treatment reduces ''E. coli'' to undetectable levels. There have been safety concerns about the process as well as consumer complaints about the taste and smell of beef treated at optimal levels of ammonia. The level of ammonia in any final product has not come close to toxic levels to humans.\n\n===Minor and emerging uses===\n\n====Refrigeration – R717====\nBecause of ammonia's vaporization properties, it is a useful refrigerant. It was commonly used prior to the popularisation of chlorofluorocarbons (Freons). Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost. It suffers from the disadvantage of toxicity, which restricts its domestic and small-scale use. Along with its use in modern vapor-compression refrigeration it is used in a mixture along with hydrogen and water in absorption refrigerators. The Kalina cycle, which is of growing importance to geothermal power plants, depends on the wide boiling range of the ammonia–water mixture. Ammonia coolant is also used in the S1 radiator aboard the International Space Station in two loops which are used to regulate the internal temperature and enable temperature dependent experiments.\n\n====For remediation of gaseous emissions====\nAmmonia is used to scrub SO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, and the resulting product is converted to ammonium sulfate for use as fertilizer. Ammonia neutralizes the nitrogen oxides (NOx) pollutants emitted by diesel engines. This technology, called SCR (selective catalytic reduction), relies on a vanadia-based catalyst.\nAmmonia may be used to mitigate gaseous spills of phosgene.\n\n====As a fuel====\nStreetcar in New Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871.\nThe X-15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine \nThe raw energy density of liquid ammonia is 11.5 MJ/L, which is about a third that of diesel. Although it can be used as a fuel, for a number of reasons this has never been common or widespread.\n\nAmmonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed and occasionally used. The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and the St. Charles Avenue Streetcar line in New Orleans in the 1870s and 1880s, and during World War II ammonia was used to power buses in Belgium.\n\nAmmonia is sometimes proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines. Its high octane rating of 120 and low flame temperature allows the use of high compression ratios without a penalty of high NOx production. Since ammonia contains no carbon, its combustion cannot produce carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons or soot.\n\nHowever ammonia cannot be easily used in existing Otto cycle engines because of its very narrow flammability range and there are also other barriers to widespread automobile usage. In terms of raw ammonia supplies, plants would have to be built to increase production levels, requiring significant capital and energy sources. Although it is the second most produced chemical, the scale of ammonia production is a small fraction of world petroleum usage. It could be manufactured from renewable energy sources, as well as coal or nuclear power. The 60 MW Rjukan dam in Telemark, Norway produced ammonia for many years from 1913 producing fertilizer for much of Europe.\n\nDespite this, several tests have been done. In 1981, a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as fuel. In 2007, a University of Michigan pickup powered by ammonia drove from Detroit to San Francisco as part of a demonstration, requiring only one fill-up in Wyoming.\n\nCompared to hydrogen as a fuel, ammonia is much more energy efficient, and it would be a much lower cost to produce, store, and deliver hydrogen as ammonia than as compressed and/or cryogenic hydrogen. The conversion of ammonia to hydrogen via the sodium-amide process, either as a catalyst for combustion or as fuel for a proton exchange membrane fuel cell, is another possibility. Conversion to hydrogen would allow the storage of hydrogen at nearly 18 wt% compared to ~5% for gaseous hydrogen under pressure.\n\nRocket engines have also been fueled by ammonia. The Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine that powered the hypersonic research aircraft used liquid ammonia. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.\n\n====As a stimulant====\nmeth sign on tank of anhydrous ammonia, Otley, Iowa. Anhydrous ammonia is a common farm fertilizer that is also a critical ingredient in making methamphetamine. In 2005, Iowa state used grant money to give out thousands of locks to prevent criminals from getting into the tanks.\nAmmonia, as the vapor released by smelling salts, has found significant use as a respiratory stimulant. Ammonia is commonly used in the illegal manufacture of methamphetamine through a Birch reduction. The Birch method of making methamphetamine is dangerous because the alkali metal and liquid ammonia are both extremely reactive, and the temperature of liquid ammonia makes it susceptible to explosive boiling when reactants are added.\n\n====Textile====\nLiquid ammonia is used for treatment of cotton materials, giving properties like mercerisation, using alkalis. In particular, it is used for prewashing of wool.\n\n====Lifting gas====\nAt standard temperature and pressure, ammonia is less dense than atmosphere, and has approximately 60% of the lifting power of hydrogen or helium. Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill weather balloons as a lifting gas. Because of its relatively high boiling point (compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated and liquefied aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift and reduce ballast).\n\n====Woodworking====\n\nAmmonia has been used to darken quartersawn white oak in Arts & Crafts and Mission-style furniture. Ammonia fumes react with the natural tannins in the wood and cause it to change colours.\n",
"pipeline, running from the TogliattiAzot plant in Russia to Odessa in Ukraine.\nThe U. S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a 15-minute exposure limit for gaseous ammonia of 35 ppm by volume in the environmental air and an 8-hour exposure limit of 25 ppm by volume. NIOSH recently reduced the IDLH from 500 to 300 based on recent more conservative interpretations of original research in 1943. IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health) is the level to which a healthy worker can be exposed for 30 minutes without suffering irreversible health effects. Other organizations have varying exposure levels. U.S. Navy Standards U.S. Bureau of Ships 1962 maximum allowable concentrations (MACs):continuous exposure (60 days): 25 ppm / 1 hour: 400 ppm Ammonia vapour has a sharp, irritating, pungent odour that acts as a warning of potentially dangerous exposure. The average odour threshold is 5 ppm, well below any danger or damage. Exposure to very high concentrations of gaseous ammonia can result in lung damage and death. Although ammonia is regulated in the United States as a non-flammable gas, it still meets the definition of a material that is toxic by inhalation and requires a hazardous safety permit when transported in quantities greater than 13,248 L (3,500 gallons). Household products containing ammonia (i.e., Windex) should never be used in conjunction with products containing bleach, as the resulting chemical reaction produces highly toxic fumes.\n\nLiquid ammonia is dangerous because it is hygroscopic and because it can freeze flesh. See Gas carrier#Health effects of specific cargoes carried on gas carriers for more information.\n\n===Toxicity===\nThe toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to carbamoyl phosphate by the enzyme carbamoyl phosphate synthetase, and then enters the urea cycle to be either incorporated into amino acids or excreted in the urine . Fish and amphibians lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is classified as ''dangerous for the environment''.\n\nAmmonia is a constituent of tobacco smoke.\n\n==== Coking wastewater ====\nAmmonia is present in coking wastewater streams, as a liquid by-product of the production of coke from coal. In some cases, the ammonia is discharged to the marine environment where it acts as a pollutant. The Whyalla steelworks in South Australia is one example of a coke-producing facility which discharges ammonia into marine waters.\n\n==== Aquaculture ====\nAmmonia toxicity is believed to be a cause of otherwise unexplained losses in fish hatcheries. Excess ammonia may accumulate and cause alteration of metabolism or increases in the body pH of the exposed organism. Tolerance varies among fish species. At lower concentrations, around 0.05 mg/L, un-ionised ammonia is harmful to fish species and can result in poor growth and feed conversion rates, reduced fecundity and fertility and increase stress and susceptibility to bacterial infections and diseases. Exposed to excess ammonia, fish may suffer loss of equilibrium, hyper-excitability, increased respiratory activity and oxygen uptake and increased heart rate. At concentrations exceeding 2.0 mg/L, ammonia causes gill and tissue damage, extreme lethargy, convulsions, coma, and death. Experiments have shown that the lethal concentration for a variety of fish species ranges from 0.2 to 2.0 mg/l.\n\nDuring winter, when reduced feeds are administered to aquaculture stock, ammonia levels can be higher. Lower ambient temperatures reduce the rate of algal photosynthesis so less ammonia is removed by any algae present. Within an aquaculture environment, especially at large scale, there is no fast-acting remedy to elevated ammonia levels. Prevention rather than correction is recommended to reduce harm to farmed fish and in open water systems, the surrounding environment.\n\n===Storage information===\nSimilar to propane, anhydrous ammonia boils below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure. A storage vessel capable of is suitable to contain the liquid. Ammonium compounds should never be allowed to come in contact with bases (unless in an intended and contained reaction), as dangerous quantities of ammonia gas could be released.\n\n===Household use===\nSolutions of ammonia (5–10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. Caution should be used that the chemical is never mixed into any liquid containing bleach, as a poisonous gas may result. Mixing with chlorine-containing products or strong oxidants, such as household bleach, can lead to hazardous compounds such as chloramines.\n\n===Laboratory use of ammonia solutions===\nHydrochloric acid sample releasing HCl fumes, which are reacting with ammonia fumes to produce a white smoke of ammonium chloride.\nThe hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: \"dilute\" ammonia solutions are usually 5–10% by weight (25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907 g/cm3, and a solution that has a lower density will be more concentrated. The European Union classification of ammonia solutions is given in the table.\n\n\n\n\n Concentrationby weight (w/w)\n Molarity\n Concentrationmass/volume (w/v)\n Classification\n R-Phrases\n\n 5–10%\n 2.87–5.62 mol/L\n 48.9–95.7 g/L\n Irritant ('''Xi''')\n \n\n 10–25%\n 5.62–13.29 mol/L\n 95.7–226.3 g/L\n Corrosive ('''C''')\n \n\n >25%\n >13.29 mol/L\n >226.3 g/L\n Corrosive ('''C''')Dangerous forthe environment ('''N''')\n , \n\n\n:''S-Phrases: , , , , .''\n\nThe ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated (\"0.880\" — see #Properties) solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care; this is not usually a problem for 25% (\"0.900\") solutions.\n\nAmmonia solutions should not be mixed with halogens, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with silver, mercury or iodide salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in qualitative inorganic analysis, and should be lightly acidified but not concentrated (3), while the IDLH concentration is estimated at 300 ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 50 ppm, but desensitised individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100 ppm. Anhydrous ammonia corrodes copper- and zinc-containing alloys, and so brass fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics.\n\nAmmonia reacts violently with the halogens. Nitrogen triiodide, a primary high explosive, is formed when ammonia comes in contact with iodine. Ammonia causes the explosive polymerisation of ethylene oxide. It also forms explosive fulminating compounds with compounds of gold, silver, mercury, germanium or tellurium, and with stibine. Violent reactions have also been reported with acetaldehyde, hypochlorite solutions, potassium ferricyanide and peroxides.\n",
"\n\nProduction trend of ammonia between 1947 and 2007\nBecause of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly produced inorganic chemicals. Dozens of chemical plants worldwide produce ammonia. Consuming more than 1% of all man-made power, ammonia production is a significant component of the world energy budget. The USGS reports global ammonia production in 2014 was 176 million tonnes. China accounted for 32.6% of that (increasingly from coal as part of urea synthesis), followed by Russia at 8.1%, India at 7.6%, and the United States at 6.4%. About 88% of the ammonia produced was used for fertilizing agricultural crops.\n\nBefore the start of World War I, most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and animal waste products, including camel dung, where it was distilled by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen; in addition, it was produced by the distillation of coal, and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides such as quicklime, the salt most generally used being the chloride (sal ammoniac) thus:\n\n:2 NH4Cl + 2 CaO → CaCl2 + Ca(OH)2 + 2 NH3\n\nHydrogen for ammonia synthesis could also be produced economically by using the water gas reaction followed by the water gas shift reaction, produced by passing steam through red-hot coke, to give a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide gases, followed by removal of the carbon dioxide \"washing\" the gas mixture with water under pressure (); or by using other sources like coal or coke gasification.\n\nModern ammonia-producing plants depend on industrial hydrogen production to react with atmospheric nitrogen using a magnetite catalyst or over a promoted Fe catalyst under high pressure () and temperature (450 °C) to form anhydrous liquid ammonia. This step is known as the ammonia synthesis loop (also referred to as the Haber–Bosch process):\n\n:3 H2 + N2 → 2 NH3\n\nHydrogen required for ammonia synthesis could also be produced economically using other sources like coal or coke gasification or less economically from the electrolysis of water into oxygen + hydrogen and other alternatives that are presently impractical for large scale.\nAt one time, most of Europe's ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork, via the electrolysis route. Various renewable energy electricity sources are also potentially applicable.\n\nAs a sustainable alternative to the relatively inefficient electrolysis, hydrogen can be generated from organic wastes (such as biomass or food-industry waste), using catalytic reforming. This releases hydrogen from carbonaceous substances at only 10–20% of energy used by electrolysis and may lead to hydrogen being produced from municipal wastes at below zero cost (allowing for the tipping fees and efficient catalytic reforming, such as cold-plasma). Catalytic (thermal) reforming is possible in small, distributed (even mobile) plants, to take advantage of low-value, stranded biomass/biowaste or natural gas deposits. Conversion of such wastes into ammonia solves the problem of hydrogen storage, as hydrogen can be released economically from ammonia on-demand, without the need for high-pressure or cryogenic storage.\n\nIt is also easier to store ammonia on board vehicles than to store hydrogen, as ammonia is less flammable than petrol or LPG.\n\nFor small scale laboratory synthesis, one can heat urea and Ca(OH)2\n\n:(NH2)2CO + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + 2 NH3\n",
"\nLiquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied nonaqueous ionising solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH3 with those of water shows NH3 has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity; this is due at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in NH3 and because such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks, since each NH3 molecule has only one lone pair of electrons compared with two for each H2O molecule. The ionic self-dissociation constant of liquid NH3 at −50 °C is about 10−33 mol2·l−2.\n\n===Solubility of salts===\n\n\n\n Solubility (g of salt per 100 g liquid NH3)\n\n Ammonium acetate\n 253.2\n\n Ammonium nitrate\n 389.6\n\n Lithium nitrate\n 243.7\n\n Sodium nitrate\n 97.6\n\n Potassium nitrate\n 10.4\n\n Sodium fluoride\n 0.35\n\n Sodium chloride\n 157.0\n\n Sodium bromide\n 138.0\n\n Sodium iodide\n 161.9\n\n Sodium thiocyanate\n 205.5\n\n\nLiquid ammonia is an ionising solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds, including many nitrates, nitrites, cyanides, thiocyanates, metal cyclopentadienyl complexes and metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides. Most ammonium salts are soluble and act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide. A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia and has a vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at .\n\n===Solutions of metals===\n\nLiquid ammonia will dissolve the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, europium and ytterbium. At low concentrations (+ + e− ⇌ Li\n −2.24\n −3.04\n\n K+ + e− ⇌ K\n −1.98\n −2.93\n\n Na+ + e− ⇌ Na\n −1.85\n −2.71\n\n Zn2+ + 2e− ⇌ Zn\n −0.53\n −0.76\n\n NH4+ + e− ⇌ ½ H2 + NH3\n 0.00\n —\n\n Cu2+ + 2e− ⇌ Cu\n +0.43\n +0.34\n\n Ag+ + e− ⇌ Ag\n +0.83\n +0.80\n\n\nThe range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, ''E''° (N2 + 6NH4+ + 6e− ⇌ 8NH3), is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions; although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.\n",
"Main symptoms of hyperammonemia (ammonia reaching toxic concentrations).\n\nAmmonia is both a metabolic waste and a metabolic input throughout the biosphere. It is an important source of nitrogen for living systems. Although atmospheric nitrogen abounds (more than 75%), few living creatures are capable of using this atmospheric nitrogen in its diatomic form, N2 gas. Therefore, nitrogen fixation is required for the synthesis of amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. Some plants rely on ammonia and other nitrogenous wastes incorporated into the soil by decaying matter. Others, such as nitrogen-fixing legumes, benefit from symbiotic relationships with rhizobia that create ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen.\n\n===Biosynthesis===\nIn certain organisms, ammonia is produced from atmospheric nitrogen by enzymes called nitrogenases. The overall process is called nitrogen fixation. Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods that are competitive with the Haber process will be developed, intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe7MoS9 ensemble.\n\nAmmonia is also a metabolic product of amino acid deamination catalyzed by enzymes such as glutamate dehydrogenase 1. Ammonia excretion is common in aquatic animals. In humans, it is quickly converted to urea, which is much less toxic, particularly less basic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of urine. Most reptiles, birds, insects, and snails excrete uric acid solely as nitrogenous waste.\n\n===In physiology===\nAmmonia also plays a role in both normal and abnormal animal physiology. It is biosynthesised through normal amino acid metabolism and is toxic in high concentrations. The liver converts ammonia to urea through a series of reactions known as the urea cycle. Liver dysfunction, such as that seen in cirrhosis, may lead to elevated amounts of ammonia in the blood (hyperammonemia). Likewise, defects in the enzymes responsible for the urea cycle, such as ornithine transcarbamylase, lead to hyperammonemia. Hyperammonemia contributes to the confusion and coma of hepatic encephalopathy, as well as the neurologic disease common in people with urea cycle defects and organic acidurias.\n\nAmmonia is important for normal animal acid/base balance. After formation of ammonium from glutamine, α-ketoglutarate may be degraded to produce two molecules of bicarbonate, which are then available as buffers for dietary acids. Ammonium is excreted in the urine, resulting in net acid loss. Ammonia may itself diffuse across the renal tubules, combine with a hydrogen ion, and thus allow for further acid excretion.\n\n===Excretion===\n\nAmmonium ions are a toxic waste product of metabolism in animals. In fish and aquatic invertebrates, it is excreted directly into the water. In mammals, sharks, and amphibians, it is converted in the urea cycle to urea, because it is less toxic and can be stored more efficiently. In birds, reptiles, and terrestrial snails, metabolic ammonium is converted into uric acid, which is solid, and can therefore be excreted with minimal water loss.\n\n\n",
"\natmospheres of the outer gas planets such as Jupiter (0.026% ammonia) and Saturn (0.012% ammonia).\nAmmonia has been detected in the atmospheres of the gas giant planets, including Jupiter, along with other gases like methane, hydrogen, and helium. The interior of Saturn may include frozen crystals of ammonia. It is naturally found on Deimos and Phobos – the two moons of Mars.\n\n===Interstellar space===\nAmmonia was first detected in interstellar space in 1968, based on microwave emissions from the direction of the galactic core. This was the first polyatomic molecule to be so detected.\nThe sensitivity of the molecule to a broad range of excitations and the ease with which it can be observed in a number of regions has made ammonia one of the most important molecules for studies of molecular clouds. The relative intensity of the ammonia lines can be used to measure the temperature of the emitting medium.\n\nThe following isotopic species of ammonia have been detected:\n:NH3, 15NH3, NH2D, NHD2, and ND3\nThe detection of triply deuterated ammonia was considered a surprise as deuterium is relatively scarce. It is thought that the low-temperature conditions allow this molecule to survive and accumulate.\n\nSince its interstellar discovery, NH3 has proved to be an invaluable spectroscopic tool in the study of the interstellar medium. With a large number of transitions sensitive to a wide range of excitation conditions, NH3 has been widely astronomically detected – its detection has been reported in hundreds of journal articles. Listed below is a sample of journal articles that highlights the range of detectors that have been used to identify ammonia.\n\nThe study of interstellar ammonia has been important to a number of areas of research in the last few decades. Some of these are delineated below and primarily involve using ammonia as an interstellar thermometer.\n\n====Interstellar formation mechanisms====\nImage:Diamminesilver(I)-3D-balls.png|thumb|250px|Ball-and-stick model of the diamminesilver(I) cation, Ag(NH3)2+\nThe interstellar abundance for ammonia has been measured for a variety of environments. The NH3/H2 ratio has been estimated to range from 10−7 in small dark clouds up to 10−5 in the dense core of the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex. Although a total of 18 total production routes have been proposed, the principal formation mechanism for interstellar NH3 is the reaction:\n\n: NH4+ + e− → NH3 + H·\n\nThe rate constant, ''k'', of this reaction depends on the temperature of the environment, with a value of 5.2×10−6 at 10 K. The rate constant was calculated from the formula . For the primary formation reaction, and . Assuming an NH4+ abundance of 3×10−7 and an electron abundance of 10−7 typical of molecular clouds, the formation will proceed at a rate of in a molecular cloud of total density .\n\nAll other proposed formation reactions have rate constants of between 2 and 13 orders of magnitude smaller, making their contribution to the abundance of ammonia relatively insignificant. As an example of the minor contribution other formation reactions play, the reaction:\n\n: H2 + NH2 → NH3 + H\n\nhas a rate constant of 2.2×10−15. Assuming H2 densities of 105 and NH2/H2 ratio of 10−7, this reaction proceeds at a rate of 2.2×10−12, more than 3 orders of magnitude slower than the primary reaction above.\n\nSome of the other possible formation reactions are:\n: H− + NH4+ → NH3 + H2\n: PNH3+ + e− → P + NH3\n\n====Interstellar destruction mechanisms====\nThere are 113 total proposed reactions leading to the destruction of NH3. Of these, 39 were tabulated in extensive tables of the chemistry among C, N, and O compounds. A review of interstellar ammonia cites the following reactions as the principal dissociation mechanisms:\n\n\n\n\nwith rate constants of 4.39×10−9 and 2.2×10−9, respectively. The above equations (, ) run at a rate of 8.8×10−9 and 4.4×10−13, respectively. These calculations assumed the given rate constants and abundances of NH3/H2 = 10−5, H3+/H2 = 2×10−5, HCO+/H2 = 2×10−9, and total densities of ''n'' = 105, typical of cold, dense, molecular clouds. Clearly, between these two primary reactions, equation () is the dominant destruction reaction, with a rate ~10,000 times faster than equation (). This is due to the relatively high abundance of H3+.\n\n====Single antenna detections====\nRadio observations of NH3 from the Effelsberg 100-m Radio Telescope reveal that the ammonia line is separated into two components – a background ridge and an unresolved core. The background corresponds well with the locations previously detected CO. The 25 m Chilbolton telescope in England detected radio signatures of ammonia in H II regions, HNH2O masers, H-H objects, and other objects associated with star formation. A comparison of emission line widths indicates that turbulent or systematic velocities do not increase in the central cores of molecular clouds.\n\nMicrowave radiation from ammonia was observed in several galactic objects including W3(OH), Orion A, W43, W51, and five sources in the galactic centre. The high detection rate indicates that this is a common molecule in the interstellar medium and that high-density regions are common in the galaxy.\n\n====Interferometric studies====\nVLA observations of NH3 in seven regions with high-velocity gaseous outflows revealed condensations of less than 0.1 pc in L1551, S140, and Cepheus A. Three individual condensations were detected in Cepheus A, one of them with a highly elongated shape. They may play an important role in creating the bipolar outflow in the region.\n\nExtragalactic ammonia was imaged using the VLA in IC 342. The hot gas has temperatures above 70 K, which was inferred from ammonia line ratios and appears to be closely associated with the innermost portions of the nuclear bar seen in CO. NH3 was also monitored by VLA toward a sample of four galactic ultracompact HII regions: G9.62+0.19, G10.47+0.03, G29.96-0.02, and G31.41+0.31. Based upon temperature and density diagnostics, it is concluded that in general such clumps are likely to be the sites of massive star formation in an early evolutionary phase prior to the development of an ultracompact HII region.\n\n====Infrared detections====\nAbsorption at 2.97 micrometres due to solid ammonia was recorded from interstellar grains in the Becklin-Neugebauer Object and probably in NGC 2264-IR as well. This detection helped explain the physical shape of previously poorly understood and related ice absorption lines.\n\nA spectrum of the disk of Jupiter was obtained from the Kuiper Airborne Observatory, covering the 100 to 300 cm−1 spectral range. Analysis of the spectrum provides information on global mean properties of ammonia gas and an ammonia ice haze.\n\nA total of 149 dark cloud positions were surveyed for evidence of 'dense cores' by using the (J,K) = (1,1) rotating inversion line of NH3. In general, the cores are not spherically shaped, with aspect ratios ranging from 1.1 to 4.4. It is also found that cores with stars have broader lines than cores without stars.\n\nAmmonia has been detected in the Draco Nebula and in one or possibly two molecular clouds, which are associated with the high-latitude galactic infrared cirrus. The finding is significant because they may represent the birthplaces for the Population I metallicity B-type stars in the galactic halo that could have been borne in the galactic disk.\n\n====Observations of nearby dark clouds====\nBy balancing and stimulated emission with spontaneous emission, it is possible to construct a relation between excitation temperature and density. Moreover, since the transitional levels of ammonia can be approximated by a 2-level system at low temperatures, this calculation is fairly simple. This premise can be applied to dark clouds, regions suspected of having extremely low temperatures and possible sites for future star formation. Detections of ammonia in dark clouds show very narrow lines—indicative not only of low temperatures, but also of a low level of inner-cloud turbulence. Line ratio calculations provide a measurement of cloud temperature that is independent of previous CO observations. The ammonia observations were consistent with CO measurements of rotation temperatures of ~10 K. With this, densities can be determined, and have been calculated to range between 104 and 105 cm−3 in dark clouds. Mapping of NH3 gives typical clouds sizes of 0.1 pc and masses near 1 solar mass. These cold, dense cores are the sites of future star formation.\n\n====UC HII regions====\nUltra-compact HII regions are among the best tracers of high-mass star formation. The dense material surrounding UCHII regions is likely primarily molecular. Since a complete study of massive star formation necessarily involves the cloud from which the star formed, ammonia is an invaluable tool in understanding this surrounding molecular material. Since this molecular material can be spatially resolved, it is possible to constrain the heating/ionising sources, temperatures, masses, and sizes of the regions. Doppler-shifted velocity components allow for the separation of distinct regions of molecular gas that can trace outflows and hot cores originating from forming stars.\n\n====Extragalactic detection====\nAmmonia has been detected in external galaxies, and by simultaneously measuring several lines, it is possible to directly measure the gas temperature in these galaxies. Line ratios imply that gas temperatures are warm (~50 K), originating from dense clouds with sizes of tens of pc. This picture is consistent with the picture within our Milky Way galaxy—hot dense molecular cores form around newly forming stars embedded in larger clouds of molecular material on the scale of several hundred pc (giant molecular clouds; GMCs).\n",
"*Ammonia (data page)\n*Ammonia fountain\n*Ammonia production\n*Cost of electricity by source\n*Forming gas\n*Haber process\n*Hydrazine\n*Water purification\n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n",
"*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n* International Chemical Safety Card 0414 (anhydrous ammonia), ilo.org.\n* International Chemical Safety Card 0215 (aqueous solutions), ilo.org.\n*\n*\n* Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills) for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture.ammoniaspills.org\n* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Ammonia Page, cdc.gov\n* NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Ammonia, cdc.gov\n* Ammonia, video\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Natural occurrence",
"Properties",
"Detection and determination",
"History",
"Uses",
"Safety precautions",
"Synthesis and production",
"Liquid ammonia as a solvent",
"Ammonia's role in biological systems and human disease",
"In astronomy",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ammonia |
[
"\n\n\n'''Amethyst''' is a violet variety of quartz often used in jewelry. \n\nThe name comes from the Koine Greek ἀμέθυστος ''amethystos'' from ἀ- ''a-'', \"not\" and μεθύσκω ''methysko'' / μεθύω ''methyo'', \"intoxicate\", a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness. The ancient Greeks wore amethyst and carved drinking vessels from it in the belief that it would prevent intoxication. \n\nIt is one of several forms of quartz. Amethyst is a semiprecious stone and is the traditional birthstone for February.\n",
"Amethyst is a purple variety of quartz (SiO2) and owes its violet color to irradiation, iron impurities (in some cases in conjunction with transition element impurities), and the presence of trace elements, which result in complex crystal lattice substitutions. The hardness of the mineral is the same as quartz, thus it is suitable for use in jewelry.\n",
"Amethyst occurs in primary hues from a light pinkish violet to a deep purple. Amethyst may exhibit one or both secondary hues, red and blue. The best varieties of amethyst can be found in Siberia, Sri Lanka, Brazil and the far East. The ideal grade is called \"Deep Siberian\" and has a primary purple hue of around 75–80%, with 15–20% blue and (depending on the light source) red secondary hues. Green quartz is sometimes incorrectly called green amethyst, which is a misnomer and not an appropriate name for the material, the proper terminology being prasiolite. Other names for green quartz are vermarine or lime citrine.\nFaceted amethystEmerald cut amethyst\nOf very variable intensity, the color of amethyst is often laid out in stripes parallel to the final faces of the crystal. One aspect in the art of lapidary involves correctly cutting the stone to place the color in a way that makes the tone of the finished gem homogeneous. Often, the fact that sometimes only a thin surface layer of violet color is present in the stone or that the color is not homogeneous makes for a difficult cutting.\n\nThe color of amethyst has been demonstrated to result from substitution by irradiation of trivalent iron (Fe3+) for silicon in the structure, in the presence of trace elements of large ionic radius, and, to a certain extent, the amethyst color can naturally result from displacement of transition elements even if the iron concentration is low. Natural amethyst is dichroic in reddish violet and bluish violet, but when heated, turns yellow-orange, yellow-brown, or dark brownish and may resemble citrine, but loses its dichroism, unlike genuine citrine. When partially heated, amethyst can result in ametrine.\n\nAmethyst can fade in tone if overexposed to light sources and can be artificially darkened with adequate irradiation.\n",
"intaglio engraved gem of Caracalla in amethyst, once in the Treasury of Sainte-Chapelle.\nUninscribed amethyst scarab at the center of a string of amethyst ball beads. Middle Kingdom. From Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London\nAmethyst was used as a gemstone by the ancient Egyptians and was largely employed in antiquity for intaglio engraved gems.\n\nThe Greeks believed amethyst gems could prevent intoxication, while medieval European soldiers wore amethyst amulets as protection in battle in the belief that amethysts heal people and keep them cool-headed. Beads of amethyst were found in Anglo-Saxon graves in England. Anglican bishops wear an episcopal ring often set with an amethyst, an allusion to the description of the Apostles as \"not drunk\" at Pentecost in Acts 2:15.\n\nA large geode, or \"amethyst-grotto\", from near Santa Cruz in southern Brazil was presented at a 1902 exhibition in Düsseldorf, Germany.\n\nIn the 19th century, the color of amethyst was attributed to the presence of manganese. However, since it can be greatly altered and even discharged by heat, the color was believed by some authorities to be from an organic source. Ferric thiocyanate has been suggested, and sulfur was said to have been detected in the mineral.\n",
"Synthetic (laboratory-grown) amethyst is produced by a synthesis method called hydrothermal growth, which grows the crystals inside a high-pressure autoclave.\n\nSynthetic amethyst is made to imitate the best quality amethyst. Its chemical and physical properties are the same to that of natural amethyst and it can not be differentiated with absolute certainty without advanced gemmological testing (which is often cost-prohibitive). There is one test based on \"Brazil law twinning\" (a form of quartz twinning where right and left hand quartz structures are combined in a single crystal) which can be used to identify synthetic amethyst rather easily. It is possible to synthesize twinned amethyst, but this type is not available in large quantities in the market.\n\nSingle-crystal quartz is very desirable in the industry, particularly for keeping the regular vibrations necessary for quartz movements in watches and clocks, which is where a lot of synthetic quartz is used.\n\nTreated amethyst is produced by gamma ray, X-ray or electron beam irradiation of clear quartz (rock crystal) which has been first doped with ferric impurities. On exposure to heat, the irradiation effects can be partially cancelled and amethyst generally becomes yellow or even green, and much of the citrine, cairngorm, or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely \"burnt amethyst\".\n",
"\n===Ancient Greece===\nThe Greek word \"amethystos\" may be translated as \"not drunken\", from Greek ''a-'', \"not\" + ''methustos'', \"intoxicated\". Amethyst was considered to be a strong antidote against drunkenness, which is why wine goblets were often carved from it. In his poem \"L'Amethyste, ou les Amours de Bacchus et d'Amethyste\" (Amethyst or the loves of Bacchus and Amethyste), the French poet Remy Belleau (1528–1577) invented a myth in which Bacchus, the god of intoxication, of wine, and grapes was pursuing a maiden named Amethyste, who refused his affections. Amethyste prayed to the gods to remain chaste, a prayer which the chaste goddess Diana answered, transforming her into a white stone. Humbled by Amethyste's desire to remain chaste, Bacchus poured wine over the stone as an offering, dyeing the crystals purple.\n\nVariations of the story include that Dionysus had been insulted by a mortal and swore to slay the next mortal who crossed his path, creating fierce tigers to carry out his wrath. The mortal turned out to be a beautiful young woman, Amethystos, who was on her way to pay tribute to Artemis. Her life was spared by Artemis, who transformed the maiden into a statue of pure crystalline quartz to protect her from the brutal claws. Dionysus wept tears of wine in remorse for his action at the sight of the beautiful statue. The god's tears then stained the quartz purple.\n\nThis myth and its variations are not found in classical sources. However, the titan Rhea does present Dionysus with an amethyst stone to preserve the wine-drinker's sanity in historical text.\n\n===Other cultural associations===\nTibetans consider amethyst sacred to the Buddha and make prayer beads from it. Amethyst is considered the birthstone of February. In the Middle Ages, it was considered a symbol of royalty and used to decorate English regalia. In the Old World, amethyst was considered one of the Cardinal gems, in that it was one of the five gemstones considered precious above all others, until large deposits were found in Brazil.\n",
"Amethyst is produced in abundance from the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil where it occurs in large geodes within volcanic rocks. Many of the hollow agates of southwestern Brazil and Uruguay contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Artigas, Uruguay and neighboring Brazilian state Rio Grande do Sul are large world producers exceeding in quantity Minas Gerais, as well as Mato Grosso, Espirito Santo, Bahia, and Ceará states, all amethyst producers of importance in Brazil.\n\nIt is also found and mined in South Korea. The largest opencast amethyst vein in the world is in Maissau, Lower Austria. Much fine amethyst comes from Russia, especially from near Mursinka in the Ekaterinburg district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in south India yield amethyst. One of the largest global amethyst producers is Zambia in southern Africa with an annual production of about 1000 tons.\n\nAmethyst occurs at many localities in the United States. Among these may be mentioned: the Mazatzal Mountain region in Gila and Maricopa Counties, Arizona; Red Feather Lakes, near Ft Collins, Colorado; Amethyst Mountain, Texas; Yellowstone National Park; Delaware County, Pennsylvania; Haywood County, North Carolina; Deer Hill and Stow, Maine and in the Lake Superior region of Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan. Amethyst is relatively common in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Nova Scotia. The largest amethyst mine in North America is located in Thunder Bay, Ontario.\nAn amethyst geode that formed when large crystals grew in open spaces inside the rock. Amethyst is the official state gemstone of South Carolina. Several South Carolina amethysts are on display at the Smithsonian Museum of Natural History.\n",
"Up until the 18th century, amethyst was included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with diamond, sapphire, ruby, and emerald). However, since the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as Brazil, it has lost most of its value.\n\nCollectors look for depth of color, possibly with red flashes if cut conventionally. As amethyst is readily available in large structures the value of the gem is not primarily defined by carat weight; this is different to most gemstones where the carat weight exponentially increases the value of the stone. The biggest factor in the value of amethyst is the color displayed.\n\nThe highest grade amethyst (called \"Deep Russian\") is exceptionally rare and therefore, when one is found, its value is dependent on the demand of collectors. It is, however, still orders of magnitude lower than the highest grade sapphires or rubies (padparadscha sapphire or \"pigeon's blood\" ruby).\n",
"*Ametrine\n*Prasiolite\n*List of minerals\n*Specimen Ridge\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Structure",
"Hue and tone",
"History",
"Synthetic amethyst",
"Cultural history",
"Geographic distribution",
"Value",
"See also",
"References"
] | Amethyst |
[
"\n\n\n'''''Albertosaurus''''' (; meaning \"Alberta lizard\") is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaurs that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period, about 70 million years ago. The type species, ''A. sarcophagus'', was apparently restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus, with some recognizing ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' as a second species.\n\nAs a tyrannosaurid, ''Albertosaurus'' was a bipedal predator with tiny, two-fingered hands and a massive head that had dozens of large, sharp teeth. It may have been at the top of the food chain in its local ecosystem. While ''Albertosaurus'' was large for a theropod, it was much smaller than its larger and more famous relative ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', growing nine to ten meters long and weighing less than possibly 2 metric tons.\n\nSince the first discovery in 1884, fossils of more than 30 individuals have been recovered, providing scientists with a more detailed knowledge of ''Albertosaurus'' anatomy than is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 26 individuals at one site provides evidence of pack behaviour and allows studies of ontogeny and population biology, which are impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs.\n",
"''Albertosaurus'' with a human for scale\n''Albertosaurus'' was smaller than some other tyrannosaurids, such as ''Tarbosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus''. Typical ''Albertosaurus'' adults measured up to long, while rare individuals of great age could grow to be over long. Several independent mass estimates, obtained by different methods, suggest that an adult ''Albertosaurus'' weighed between 1.3 tonnes and 1.7 tonnes (1.9 tons).\n\n''Albertosaurus'' shared a similar body appearance with all other tyrannosaurids. Typically for a theropod, ''Albertosaurus'' was bipedal and balanced the heavy head and torso with a long tail. However, tyrannosaurid forelimbs were extremely small for their body size and retained only two digits. The hind limbs were long and ended in a four-toed foot on which the first digit, called the hallux, was short and did not reach the ground. The third digit was longer than the rest. ''Albertosaurus'' may have been able to reach walking speeds of 14−21 km/hour (8−13 mi/hour). At least for the younger individuals, a high running speed is plausible.\n\n===Skull and teeth===\nSkull cast at the Geological Museum in Copenhagen\nThe massive skull of ''Albertosaurus'', which was perched on a short, S-shaped neck, was about long in the largest adults. Wide openings in the skull (fenestrae) reduced the weight of the head while also providing space for muscle attachment and sensory organs. Its long jaws contained, both sides combined, 58 or more banana-shaped teeth; larger tyrannosaurids possessed fewer teeth, ''Gorgosaurus'' at least 62. Unlike most theropods, ''Albertosaurus'' and other tyrannosaurids were heterodont, with teeth of different forms depending on their position in the mouth. The premaxillary teeth at the tip of the upper jaw, four per side, were much smaller than the rest, more closely packed, and D-shaped in cross section. Like with ''Tyrannosaurus'', the maxillary (cheek) teeth of ''Albertosaurus'' were adapted in general form to resist lateral forces exerted by a struggling prey. The bite force of ''Albertosaurus'' was less formidable, however, with the maximum force, by the hind teeth, reaching 3,413 Newtons. Above the eyes were short bony crests that may have been brightly coloured in life and used in courtship to attract a mate.\nLife restoration\nWilliam Abler observed in 2001 that ''Albertosaurus'' tooth serrations resemble a crack in the tooth ending in a round void called an ampulla. Tyrannosaurid teeth were used as holdfasts for pulling flesh off a body, so when a tyrannosaur pulled back on a piece of meat, the tension could cause a purely crack-like serration to spread through the tooth. However, the presence of the ampulla distributed these forces over a larger surface area, and lessened the risk of damage to the tooth under strain. The presence of incisions ending in voids has parallels in human engineering. Guitar makers use incisions ending in voids to, as Abler describes, \"impart alternating regions of flexibility and rigidity\" to wood they work. The use of a drill to create an \"ampulla\" of sorts and prevent the propagation of cracks through material is also used to protect aircraft surfaces. Abler demonstrated that a plexiglass bar with incisions called \"kerfs\" and drilled holes was more than 25% stronger than one with only regularly placed incisions. Unlike tyrannosaurs, ancient predators like phytosaurs and ''Dimetrodon'' had no adaptations to prevent the crack-like serrations of their teeth from spreading when subjected to the forces of feeding.\n",
"\n===Naming===\nType specimen\n''Albertosaurus'' was named by Henry Fairfield Osborn in a one-page note at the end of his 1905 description of ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. The name honours Alberta, the Canadian province established the same year, in which the first remains were found. The generic name also incorporates the Greek term ''σαυρος''/''sauros'' (\"lizard\"), the most common suffix in dinosaur names. The type species is ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus''; the specific name is derived from Ancient Greek σαρκοφάγος (''sarkophagos'') meaning \"flesh-eating\" and having the same etymology as the funeral container with which it shares its name: a combination of the Greek words σαρξ/''sarx'' (\"flesh\") and φαγειν/''phagein'' (\"to eat\"). More than 30 specimens of all ages are known to science.\n\n===Early discoveries===\nThe type specimen is a partial skull, collected in the summer of 1884 from an outcrop of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation alongside the Red Deer River, in Alberta. This specimen, found on June 9, 1884, was recovered by an expedition of the Geological Survey of Canada, led by the famous geologist Joseph Burr Tyrrell. Due to a lack of specialised equipment the almost complete skull could only be partially secured. In 1889, Tyrrell's colleague Thomas Chesmer Weston found an incomplete smaller skull associated with some skeletal material at a location nearby. The two skulls were assigned to the preexisting species ''Laelaps incrassatus'' by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892, although the name ''Laelaps'' was preoccupied by a genus of mite and had been changed to ''Dryptosaurus'' in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh. Cope refused to recognize the new name created by his archrival Marsh. However, Lawrence Lambe used the name ''Dryptosaurus incrassatus'' instead of ''Laelaps incrassatus'' when he described the remains in detail in 1903 and 1904, a combination first coined by Oliver Perry Hay in 1902. Shortly later, Osborn pointed out that ''D. incrassatus'' was based on generic tyrannosaurid teeth, so the two Horseshoe Canyon skulls could not be confidently referred to that species. The Horseshoe Canyon skulls also differed markedly from the remains of ''D. aquilunguis'', type species of ''Dryptosaurus'', so Osborn created the new name ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' for them in 1905. He did not describe the remains in any great detail, citing Lambe's complete description the year before. Both specimens (the holotype CMN 5600 and the paratype CMN 5601) are stored in the Canadian Museum of Nature in Ottawa. By the early twenty-first century, some concerns had arisen that, due to the damaged state of the holotype, ''Albertosaurus'' might be a ''nomen dubium'', a \"dubious name\" that could only be used for the type specimen itself because other fossils could not reliably be assigned to it. However, in 2010, Thomas Carr established that the holotype, the paratype and comparable later finds all shared a single common unique trait or autapomorphy: the possession of an enlarged pneumatic opening in the back rim of the side of the palatine bone, proving that ''Albertosaurus'' was a valid taxon.\n\n===Dry Island bonebed===\nThe Red Deer River near Drumheller, Alberta. Almost three-quarters of all ''Albertosaurus'' remains have been discovered alongside the river, in outcrops like the ones on either side of this picture.\nOn 11 August 1910, American paleontologist Barnum Brown discovered the remains of a large group of ''Albertosaurus'' at another quarry alongside the Red Deer River. Because of the large number of bones and the limited time available, Brown's party did not collect every specimen, but made sure to collect remains from all of the individuals that they could identify in the bonebed. Among the bones deposited in the American Museum of Natural History collections in New York City are seven sets of right metatarsals, along with two isolated toe bones that did not match any of the metatarsals in size. This indicated the presence of at least nine individuals in the quarry. The Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology rediscovered the bonebed in 1997 and resumed fieldwork at the site, which is now located inside Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park. Further excavation from 1997 to 2005 turned up the remains of 13 more individuals of various ages, including a diminutive two-year-old and a very old individual estimated at over in length. None of these individuals are known from complete skeletons, and most are represented by remains in both museums. Excavations continued until 2008, when the minimum number of individuals present had been established at 12, on the basis of preserved elements that occur only once in a skeleton, and at 26 if mirrored elements were counted when differing in size due to ontogeny. A total of 1,128 ''Albertosaurus'' bones had been secured, the largest concentration of large theropod fossils known from the Cretaceous.\n\n===''Gorgosaurus libratus''===\nIn 1913, paleontologist Charles H. Sternberg recovered another tyrannosaurid skeleton from the slightly older Dinosaur Park Formation in Alberta. Lawrence Lambe named this dinosaur ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' in 1914. Other specimens were later found in Alberta and the US state of Montana. Finding, largely due to a lack of good ''Albertosaurus'' skull material, no significant differences to separate the two taxa, Dale Russell declared the name ''Gorgosaurus'' a junior synonym of ''Albertosaurus'', which had been named first, and ''G. libratus'' was renamed ''Albertosaurus libratus'' in 1970. A species distinction was maintained because of the age difference. This addition extended the temporal range of the genus ''Albertosaurus'' backwards by several million years and its geographic range southwards by hundreds of kilometres.\n\nIn 2003, Philip J. Currie, benefiting from much more extensive finds and a general increase in anatomical knowledge of theropods, compared several tyrannosaurid skulls and came to the conclusion that the two species are more distinct than previously thought. The decision to use one or two genera is rather arbitrary, as the two species are sister taxa, more closely related to each other than to any other species. Recognizing this, Currie nevertheless recommended that ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Gorgosaurus'' be retained as separate genera, as he concluded that they were no more similar than ''Daspletosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus'', which are almost always separated. In addition, several albertosaurine specimens have been recovered from Alaska and New Mexico, and Currie suggested that the ''Albertosaurus''-''Gorgosaurus'' situation may be clarified once these are described fully. Most authors have followed Currie's recommendation, but some have not.\n\n===Other discoveries===\nMaxilla at Museum of the Rockies\nIn 1911, Barnum Brown, during the second year of American Museum of Natural History operations in Alberta, uncovered a fragmentary partial ''Albertosaurus'' skull at the Red Deer River near Tolman Bridge, specimen AMNH 5222.\n\nWilliam Parks described a new species in 1928, ''Albertosaurus arctunguis'', based on a partial skeleton lacking the skull excavated by Gus Lindblad and Ralph Hornell near the Red Deer River in 1923, but this species has been considered identical to ''A. sarcophagus'' since 1970. Parks' specimen (ROM 807) is housed in the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto.\n\nBetween 1926 and 1972, no ''Albertosaurus'' fossils were found at all; but, since the seventies, there has been a steady increase in the known material. Apart from the Dry Island bonebed, six more skulls and skeletons have since been discovered in Alberta and are housed in various Canadian museums: specimens RTMP 81.010.001, found in 1978 by amateur paleontologist Maurice Stefanuk; RTMP 85.098.001, found by Stefanuk on 16 June 1985; RTMP 86.64.001 (December 1985); RTMP 86.205.001 (1986); RTMP 97.058.0001 (1996); and CMN 11315. However, due to vandalism and accidents, no undamaged and complete skulls could be secured among these finds. Fossils have also been reported from the American states of Montana, New Mexico, and Wyoming, but these probably do not represent ''A. sarcophagus'' and may not even belong to the genus ''Albertosaurus''.\n\n===Other species===\nApart from ''A. sarcophagus'', ''A. arctunguis'' and ''A. libratus'', several other species of ''Albertosaurus'' have been named. All of these are today seen as younger synonyms of other species or as ''nomina dubia'', and are not assigned to ''Albertosaurus''.\n\nIn 1930, Anatoly Nikolaevich Riabinin named ''Albertosaurus pericolosus'' based on a tooth from China, that probably belonged to ''Tarbosaurus''. In 1932, Friedrich von Huene renamed ''Dryptosaurus incrassatus'', not considered a ''nomen dubium'' by him, to ''Albertosaurus incrassatus''. Because he had identified ''Gorgosaurus'' with ''Albertosaurus'', in 1970, Russell also renamed ''Gorgosaurus sternbergi'' (Matthew & Brown 1922) into ''Albertosaurus sternbergi'' and ''Gorgosaurus lancensis'' (Gilmore 1946) into ''Albertosaurus lancensis''. The former species is today seen as a juvenile form of ''Gorgosaurus libratus'', the latter as either identical to ''Tyrannosaurus'' or representing a separate genus ''Nanotyrannus''. In 1988, Gregory S. Paul based ''Albertosaurus megagracilis'' on a small tyrannosaurid skeleton, specimen LACM 28345, from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. It was renamed ''Dinotyrannus'' in 1995, but is now thought to represent a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus rex''. Also in 1988, Paul renamed ''Alectrosaurus olseni'' (Gilmore 1933) into ''Albertosaurus olseni''; this has found no general acceptance. In 1989, ''Gorgosaurus novojilovi'' (Maleev 1955) was renamed by Bryn Mader and Robert Bradley as ''Albertosaurus novojilovi''; today this is seen as a synonym of ''Tarbosaurus''.\n\nOn two occasions, species based on valid ''Albertosaurus'' material were reassigned to a different genus: in 1922 William Diller Matthew renamed ''A. sarcophagus'' into ''Deinodon sarcophagus'' and in 1939 German paleontologist Oskar Kuhn renamed ''A. arctunguis'' into ''Deinodon arctunguis''.\n",
"''Albertosaurus'' is a member of the theropod family Tyrannosauridae, in the subfamily Albertosaurinae. Its closest relative is the slightly older ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' (sometimes called ''Albertosaurus libratus''; see below). These two species are the only described albertosaurines; other undescribed species may exist. Thomas Holtz found ''Appalachiosaurus'' to be an albertosaurine in 2004, but his more recent unpublished work locates it just outside Tyrannosauridae, in agreement with other authors.\nCast in the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center in Woodland Park, Colorado\nThe other major subfamily of tyrannosaurids is the Tyrannosaurinae, which includes ''Daspletosaurus'', ''Tarbosaurus'' and ''Tyrannosaurus''. Compared with these robust tyrannosaurines, albertosaurines had slender builds, with proportionately smaller skulls and longer bones of the lower leg (tibia) and feet (metatarsals and phalanges).\n\nBelow is the cladogram of the Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen ''et al.'' in 2013.\n\n\n",
"\n===Growth pattern===\nA graph showing the hypothesized growth curves (body mass versus age) of four tyrannosaurids, with ''Albertosaurus'' drawn in red\nMost age categories of ''Albertosaurus'' are represented in the fossil record. Using bone histology, the age of an individual animal at the time of death can often be determined, allowing growth rates to be estimated and compared with other species. The youngest known ''Albertosaurus'' is a two-year-old discovered in the Dry Island bonebed, which would have weighed about 50 kilograms (110 lb) and measured slightly more than in length. The specimen from the same quarry is the oldest and largest known, at 28 years of age. When specimens of intermediate age and size are plotted on a graph, an ''S''-shaped growth curve results, with the most rapid growth occurring in a four-year period ending around the sixteenth year of life, a pattern also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The growth rate during this phase was per year, based on an adult 1.3 tonnes. Other studies have suggested higher adult weights; this would affect the magnitude of the growth rate, but not the overall pattern. Tyrannosaurids similar in size to ''Albertosaurus'' had similar growth rates, although the much larger ''Tyrannosaurus rex'' grew at almost five times this rate ( per year) at its peak. The end of the rapid growth phase suggests the onset of sexual maturity in ''Albertosaurus'', although growth continued at a slower rate throughout the animals' lives. Sexual maturation while still actively growing appears to be a shared trait among small and large dinosaurs as well as in large mammals such as humans and elephants. This pattern of relatively early sexual maturation differs strikingly from the pattern in birds, which delay their sexual maturity until after they have finished growing.\n\nDuring growth, through thickening the tooth morphology changed so much that, had the association of young and adult skeletons on the Dry Island bonebed not proven they belonged to the same taxon, the teeth of juveniles would likely have been identified by statistical analysis as those of a different species.\n\n===Life history===\nMost known ''Albertosaurus'' individuals were aged 14 years or more at the time of death. Juvenile animals are rarely found as fossils for several reasons, mainly preservation bias, where the smaller bones of younger animals were less likely to be preserved by fossilization than the larger bones of adults, and collection bias, where smaller fossils are less likely to be noticed by collectors in the field. Young ''Albertosaurus'' are relatively large for juvenile animals, but their remains are still rare in the fossil record compared with adults. It has been suggested that this phenomenon is a consequence of life history, rather than bias, and that fossils of juvenile ''Albertosaurus'' are rare because they simply did not die as often as adults did.\n\nA hypothesis of ''Albertosaurus'' life history postulates that hatchlings died in large numbers, but have not been preserved in the fossil record due to their small size and fragile construction. After just two years, juveniles were larger than any other predator in the region aside from adult ''Albertosaurus'', and more fleet of foot than most of their prey animals. This resulted in a dramatic decrease in their mortality rate and a corresponding rarity of fossil remains. Mortality rates doubled at age twelve, perhaps the result of the physiological demands of the rapid growth phase, and then doubled again with the onset of sexual maturity between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. This elevated mortality rate continued throughout adulthood, perhaps due to the high physiological demands of procreation, including stress and injuries received during intraspecific competition for mates and resources, and eventually, the ever-increasing effects of senescence. The higher mortality rate in adults may explain their more common preservation. Very large animals were rare because few individuals survived long enough to attain such sizes. High infant mortality rates, followed by reduced mortality among juveniles and a sudden increase in mortality after sexual maturity, with very few animals reaching maximum size, is a pattern observed in many modern large mammals, including elephants, African buffalo, and rhinoceros. The same pattern is also seen in other tyrannosaurids. The comparison with modern animals and other tyrannosaurids lends support to this life history hypothesis, but bias in the fossil record may still play a large role, especially since more than two-thirds of all ''Albertosaurus'' specimens are known from one locality.\n\n===Pack behaviour===\nBronze sculptures of a pack, Royal Tyrrell Museum, designed by Brian Cooley in 2007\nThe Dry Island bonebed discovered by Barnum Brown and his crew contains the remains of 26 ''Albertosaurus'', the most individuals found in one locality of any large Cretaceous theropod, and the second-most of any large theropod dinosaur behind the ''Allosaurus'' assemblage at the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry in Utah. The group seems to be composed of one very old adult; eight adults between 17 and 23 years old; seven sub-adults undergoing their rapid growth phases at between 12 and 16 years old; and six juveniles between the ages of 2 and 11 years, who had not yet reached the growth phase.\n\nThe near-absence of herbivore remains and the similar state of preservation common to the many individuals at the ''Albertosaurus'' bonebed quarry led Currie to conclude that the locality was not a predator trap like the La Brea Tar Pits in California, and that all of the preserved animals died at the same time. Currie claims this as evidence of pack behaviour. Other scientists are skeptical, observing that the animals may have been driven together by drought, flood or for other reasons.\nModel in Royal Tyrrell Museum\nThere is plentiful evidence for gregarious behaviour among herbivorous dinosaurs, including ceratopsians and hadrosaurs. However, only rarely are so many dinosaurian predators found at the same site. Small theropods like ''Deinonychus'' and ''Coelophysis'' have been found in aggregations, as have larger predators like ''Allosaurus'' and ''Mapusaurus''. There is some evidence of gregarious behaviour in other tyrannosaurids as well. Fragmentary remains of smaller individuals were found alongside \"Sue\", the ''Tyrannosaurus'' mounted in the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, and a bonebed in the Two Medicine Formation of Montana contains at least three specimens of ''Daspletosaurus'', preserved alongside several hadrosaurs. These findings may corroborate the evidence for social behaviour in ''Albertosaurus'', although some or all of the above localities may represent temporary or unnatural aggregations. Others have speculated that instead of social groups, at least some of these finds represent Komodo dragon-like mobbing of carcasses, where aggressive competition leads to some of the predators being killed and cannibalized.\n\nCurrie also offers speculation on the pack-hunting habits of ''Albertosaurus''. The leg proportions of the smaller individuals were comparable to those of ornithomimids, which were probably among the fastest dinosaurs. Younger ''Albertosaurus'' were probably equally fleet-footed, or at least faster than their prey. Currie hypothesized that the younger members of the pack may have been responsible for driving their prey towards the adults, who were larger and more powerful, but also slower. Juveniles may also have had different lifestyles than adults, filling predator niches between the enormous adults and the smaller contemporaneous theropods, the largest of which were two orders of magnitude smaller than adult ''Albertosaurus'' in mass. A similar situation is observed in modern Komodo dragons, with hatchlings beginning life as small insectivores before growing to become the dominant predators on their islands. However, as the preservation of behaviour in the fossil record is exceedingly rare, these ideas cannot readily be tested. In 2010, Currie, though still favouring the hunting pack hypothesis, admitted that the concentration could have been brought about by other causes, such as a slowly rising water level during an extended flood.\n\n===Paleopathology===\nRestoration of ''Edmontosaurus'' fighting off ''Albertosaurus''\nIn 2009, researchers hypothesized that smooth-edged holes found in the fossil jaws of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs such as ''Albertosaurus'' were caused by a parasite similar to ''Trichomonas gallinae'', which infects birds. They suggested that tyrannosaurids transmitted the infection by biting each other, and that the infection impaired their ability to eat food.\n\nIn 2001, Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior. They found that only one of the 319 ''Albertosaurus'' foot bones checked for stress fractures actually had them and none of the four hand bones did. The scientists found that stress fractures were \"significantly\" less common in ''Albertosaurus'' than in the carnosaur ''Allosaurus''. ROM 807, the holotype of ''A. arctunguis'' (now referred to ''A. sarcophagus''), had a deep hole in the iliac blade, although the describer of the species did not recognize this as pathological. The specimen also contains some exostosis on the fourth left metatarsal. In 1970, two of the five ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' specimens with humeri were reported by Dale Russel as having pathological damage to them.\n\nIn 2010, the health of the Dry Island ''Albertosaurus'' assembly was reported upon. Most specimens showed no sign of disease. On three phalanges of the foot strange bony spurs, consisting of abnormal ossifications of the tendons, so-called enthesophytes, were present, their cause unknown. Two ribs and a belly-rib showed signs of breaking and healing. One adult specimen had a left lower jaw showing a puncture wound and both healed and unhealed bite marks. The low number of abnormalities compares favourably with the health condition of a ''Majungasaurus'' population of which it in 2007 was established that 19% of individuals showed bone pathologies.\n",
"The Horseshoe Canyon Formation is exposed in its type section at Horseshoe Canyon, Alberta\nAll identifiable fossils of ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus'' are known from the upper Horseshoe Canyon Formation in Alberta. These younger units of this geologic formation date to the early Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period, 70 to 68 Ma (million years ago). Immediately below this formation is the Bearpaw Shale, a marine formation representing a section of the Western Interior Seaway. The seaway was receding as the climate cooled and sea levels subsided towards the end of the Cretaceous, exposing land that had previously been underwater. It was not a smooth process, however, and the seaway would periodically rise to cover parts of the region throughout Horseshoe Canyon before finally receding altogether in the years after. Due to the changing sea levels, many different environments are represented in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, including offshore and near-shore marine habitats and coastal habitats like lagoons, estuaries and tidal flats. Numerous coal seams represent ancient peat swamps. Like most of the other vertebrate fossils from the formation, ''Albertosaurus'' remains are found in deposits laid down in the deltas and floodplains of large rivers during the later half of Horseshoe Canyon times.\n\nThe fauna of the Horseshoe Canyon Formation is well-known, as vertebrate fossils, including those of dinosaurs, are quite common. Sharks, rays, sturgeons, bowfins, gars and the gar-like ''Aspidorhynchus'' made up the fish fauna. Mammals included multituberculates and the marsupial ''Didelphodon''. The saltwater plesiosaur ''Leurospondylus'' has been found in marine sediments in the Horseshoe Canyon, while freshwater environments were populated by turtles, ''Champsosaurus'', and crocodilians like ''Leidyosuchus'' and ''Stangerochampsa''. Dinosaurs dominate the fauna, especially hadrosaurs, which make up half of all dinosaurs known, including the genera ''Edmontosaurus'', ''Saurolophus'' and ''Hypacrosaurus''. Ceratopsians and ornithomimids were also very common, together making up another third of the known fauna. Along with much rarer ankylosaurians and pachycephalosaurs, all of these animals would have been prey for a diverse array of carnivorous theropods, including troodontids, dromaeosaurids, and caenagnathids. Intermingled with the ''Albertosaurus'' remains of the Dry Island bonebed, the bones of the small theropod ''Albertonykus'' were found. Adult ''Albertosaurus'' were the apex predators in this environment, with intermediate niches possibly filled by juvenile albertosaurs.\n",
":\n* Timeline of tyrannosaur research\n",
"\n",
":\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Discovery and naming",
"Classification and systematics",
"Paleobiology",
"Paleoecology",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Albertosaurus |
[
"\n\nAn '''assembly''' (or '''assembler''') '''language''', often abbreviated '''asm''', is a low-level programming language for a computer, or other programmable device, in which there is a very strong (but often not one-to-one) correspondence between the language and the architecture's machine code instructions. Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture. In contrast, most high-level programming languages are generally portable across multiple architectures but require interpreting or compiling. Assembly language may also be called ''symbolic machine code''.\n\nAssembly language is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an ''assembler''. The conversion process is referred to as ''assembly'', or ''assembling'' the source code. ''Assembly time'' is the computational step where an assembler is run.\n\nAssembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or opcode, typically also each architectural register, flag, etc. Many operations require one or more operands in order to form a complete instruction and most assemblers can take expressions of numbers and named constants as well as registers and labels as operands, freeing the programmer from tedious repetitive calculations. Depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or addressing modes using offsets or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, to control the assembly process, and to aid debugging.\n",
"* A '''macro assembler''' includes a macroinstruction facility so that (parameterized) assembly language text can be represented by a name, and that name can be used to insert the expanded text into other code.\n* A '''cross assembler''' (see also cross compiler) is an assembler that is run on a computer or operating system (the ''host'' system) of a different type from the system on which the resulting code is to run (the ''target system''). Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, such as an embedded system. In such a case, the resulting object code must be transferred to the target system, either via read-only memory (ROM, EPROM, etc.) or a data link using an exact bit-by-bit copy of the object code or a text-based representation of that code, such as Motorola S-record or Intel HEX.\n* A '''high-level assembler''' is a program that provides language abstractions more often associated with high-level languages, such as advanced control structures (IF/THEN/ELSE, DO CASE, etc.) and high-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets.\n* A '''microassembler''' is a program that helps prepare a microprogram, called ''firmware'', to control the low level operation of a computer.\n* A '''meta-assembler''' is a term used in some circles for ''\"a program that accepts the syntactic and semantic description of an assembly language, and generates an assembler for that language.\"''\n",
"===Assembler===\nAn '''assembler''' program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and addressing modes into their numerical equivalents. This representation typically includes an ''operation code'' (\"opcode\") as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations and other entities. The use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include macro facilities for performing textual substitution – e.g., to generate common short sequences of instructions as inline, instead of ''called'' subroutines.\n\nSome assemblers may also be able to perform some simple types of instruction set-specific optimizations. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous x86 assemblers from various vendors. Most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements (long jumps replaced by short or relative jumps) in any number of passes, on request. Others may even do simple rearrangement or insertion of instructions, such as some assemblers for RISC architectures that can help optimize a sensible instruction scheduling to exploit the CPU pipeline as efficiently as possible.\n\nLike early programming languages such as Fortran, Algol, Cobol and Lisp, assemblers have been available since the 1950s and the first generations of text based computer interfaces. However, assemblers came first as they are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages. This is because each mnemonic along with the addressing modes and operands of an instruction translates rather directly into the numeric representations of that particular instruction, without much context or analysis. There have also been several classes of translators and semi automatic code generators with properties similar to both assembly and high level languages, with speedcode as perhaps one of the better known examples.\n\nThere may be several assemblers with different syntax for a particular CPU or instruction set architecture. For instance, an instruction to add memory data to a register in a x86-family processor might be add eax,ebx, in original ''Intel syntax'', whereas this would be written addl (%ebx),%eax in the ''AT&T syntax'' used by the GNU Assembler. Despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric machine code, see further below. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations (such as FASM-syntax, TASM-syntax, ideal mode etc., in the special case of x86 assembly programming).\n\n====Number of passes====\nThere are two types of assemblers based on how many passes through the source are needed (how many times the assembler reads the source) to produce the object file.\n* One-pass assemblers go through the source code once. Any symbol used before it is defined will require \"errata\" at the end of the object code (or, at least, no earlier than the point where the symbol is defined) telling the linker or the loader to \"go back\" and overwrite a placeholder which had been left where the as yet undefined symbol was used.\n* Multi-pass assemblers create a table with all symbols and their values in the first passes, then use the table in later passes to generate code.\nIn both cases, the assembler must be able to determine the size of each instruction on the initial passes in order to calculate the addresses of subsequent symbols. This means that if the size of an operation referring to an operand defined later depends on the type or distance of the operand, the assembler will make a pessimistic estimate when first encountering the operation, and if necessary pad it with one or more \"no-operation\" instructions in a later pass or the errata. In an assembler with peephole optimization, addresses may be recalculated between passes to allow replacing pessimistic code with code tailored to the exact distance from the target.\n\nThe original reason for the use of one-pass assemblers was speed of assembly – often a second pass would require rewinding and rereading the program source on tape or rereading a deck of cards or punched paper tape. Later computers with much larger memories (especially disc storage), had the space to perform all necessary processing without such re-reading. The advantage of the multi-pass assembler is that the absence of errata makes the linking process (or the program load if the assembler directly produces executable code) faster.\n\n'''Example:''' in the following code snippet a one-pass assembler would be able to determine the address of the backward reference BKWD when assembling statement S2, but would not be able to determine the address of the forward reference FWD when assembling the branch statement S1; indeed FWD may be undefined. A two-pass assembler would determine both addresses in pass 1, so they would be known when generating code in pass 2,\n B \n ...\n EQU *\n ...\n EQU *\n ...\n B \n\n====High-level assemblers====\nMore sophisticated high-level assemblers provide language abstractions such as:\n* High-level procedure/function declarations and invocations\n* Advanced control structures\n* High-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets\n* Sophisticated macro processing (although available on ordinary assemblers since the late 1950s for IBM 700 series and since the 1960s for IBM/360, amongst other machines)\n* Object-oriented programming features such as classes, objects, abstraction, polymorphism, and inheritance\nSee Language design below for more details.\n\n===Assembly language===\nA program written in assembly language consists of a series of (mnemonic) processor instructions and meta-statements (known variously as directives, pseudo-instructions and pseudo-ops), comments and data. Assembly language instructions usually consist of an opcode mnemonic followed by a list of data, arguments or parameters. These are translated by an assembler into machine language instructions that can be loaded into memory and executed.\n\nFor example, the instruction below tells an x86/IA-32 processor to move an immediate 8-bit value into a register. The binary code for this instruction is 10110 followed by a 3-bit identifier for which register to use. The identifier for the ''AL'' register is 000, so the following machine code loads the ''AL'' register with the data 01100001.\n 10110000 01100001\nThis binary computer code can be made more human-readable by expressing it in hexadecimal as follows.\n B0 61\nHere, B0 means 'Move a copy of the following value into ''AL''', and 61 is a hexadecimal representation of the value 01100001, which is 97 in decimal. Assembly language for the 8086 family provides the mnemonic MOV (an abbreviation of ''move'') for instructions such as this, so the machine code above can be written as follows in assembly language, complete with an explanatory comment if required, after the semicolon. This is much easier to read and to remember.\nMOV AL, 61h ; Load AL with 97 decimal (61 hex)\n\nIn some assembly languages the same mnemonic such as MOV may be used for a family of related instructions for loading, copying and moving data, whether these are immediate values, values in registers, or memory locations pointed to by values in registers. Other assemblers may use separate opcode mnemonics such as L for \"move memory to register\", ST for \"move register to memory\", LR for \"move register to register\", MVI for \"move immediate operand to memory\", etc.\n\nThe x86 opcode 10110000 (B0) copies an 8-bit value into the ''AL'' register, while 10110001 (B1) moves it into ''CL'' and 10110010 (B2) does so into ''DL''. Assembly language examples for these follow.\n\nMOV AL, 1h ; Load AL with immediate value 1\nMOV CL, 2h ; Load CL with immediate value 2\nMOV DL, 3h ; Load DL with immediate value 3\n\nThe syntax of MOV can also be more complex as the following examples show.\n\nMOV EAX, EBX\t ; Move the 4 bytes in memory at the address contained in EBX into EAX\nMOV ESI+EAX, CL ; Move the contents of CL into the byte at address ESI+EAX\n\nIn each case, the MOV mnemonic is translated directly into an opcode in the ranges 88-8E, A0-A3, B0-B8, C6 or C7 by an assembler, and the programmer does not have to know or remember which.\n\nTransforming assembly language into machine code is the job of an assembler, and the reverse can at least partially be achieved by a disassembler. Unlike high-level languages, there is a one-to-one correspondence between many simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases, an assembler may provide ''pseudoinstructions'' (essentially macros) which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a \"branch if greater or equal\" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's \"set if less than\" and \"branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)\". Most full-featured assemblers also provide a rich macro language (discussed below) which is used by vendors and programmers to generate more complex code and data sequences.\n\nEach computer architecture has its own machine language. Computers differ in the number and type of operations they support, in the different sizes and numbers of registers, and in the representations of data in storage. While most general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the ways they do so differ; the corresponding assembly languages reflect these differences.\n\nMultiple sets of mnemonics or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set, typically instantiated in different assembler programs. In these cases, the most popular one is usually that supplied by the manufacturer and used in its documentation.\n",
"\n===Basic elements===\nThere is a large degree of diversity in the way the authors of assemblers categorize statements and in the nomenclature that they use. In particular, some describe anything other than a machine mnemonic or extended mnemonic as a pseudo-operation (pseudo-op). A typical assembly language consists of 3 types of instruction statements that are used to define program operations:\n*Opcode mnemonics\n*Data definitions\n*Assembly directives\n\n====Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics====\nInstructions (statements) in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike those in high-level languages. Generally, a mnemonic is a symbolic name for a single executable machine language instruction (an opcode), and there is at least one opcode mnemonic defined for each machine language instruction. Each instruction typically consists of an ''operation'' or ''opcode'' plus zero or more ''operands''. Most instructions refer to a single value, or a pair of values. Operands can be immediate (value coded in the instruction itself), registers specified in the instruction or implied, or the addresses of data located elsewhere in storage. This is determined by the underlying processor architecture: the assembler merely reflects how this architecture works. ''Extended mnemonics'' are often used to specify a combination of an opcode with a specific operand, e.g., the System/360 assemblers use as an extended mnemonic for with a mask of 15 and (\"NO OPeration\" – do nothing for one step) for with a mask of 0.\n\n''Extended mnemonics'' are often used to support specialized uses of instructions, often for purposes not obvious from the instruction name. For example, many CPU's do not have an explicit NOP instruction, but do have instructions that can be used for the purpose. In 8086 CPUs the instruction is used for , with being a pseudo-opcode to encode the instruction . Some disassemblers recognize this and will decode the instruction as . Similarly, IBM assemblers for System/360 and System/370 use the extended mnemonics and for and with zero masks. For the SPARC architecture, these are known as ''synthetic instructions''.\n\nSome assemblers also support simple built-in macro-instructions that generate two or more machine instructions. For instance, with some Z80 assemblers the instruction is recognized to generate followed by . These are sometimes known as ''pseudo-opcodes''.\n\nMnemonics are arbitrary symbols; in 1985 the IEEE published Standard 694 for a uniform set of mnemonics to be used by all assemblers. The standard has since been withdrawn.\n\n====Data directives====\nThere are instructions used to define data elements to hold data and variables. They define the type of data, the length and the alignment of data. These instructions can also define whether the data is available to outside programs (programs assembled separately) or only to the program in which the data section is defined. Some assemblers classify these as pseudo-ops.\n\n====Assembly directives====\n\nAssembly directives, also called pseudo-opcodes, pseudo-operations or pseudo-ops, are commands given to an assembler \"directing it to perform operations other than assembling instructions.\". Directives affect how the assembler operates and \"may affect the object code, the symbol table, the listing file, and the values of internal assembler parameters.\" Sometimes the term ''pseudo-opcode'' is reserved for directives that generate object code, such as those that generate data.\n\nThe names of pseudo-ops often start with a dot to distinguish them from machine instructions. Pseudo-ops can make the assembly of the program dependent on parameters input by a programmer, so that one program can be assembled different ways, perhaps for different applications. Or, a pseudo-op can be used to manipulate presentation of a program to make it easier to read and maintain. Another common use of pseudo-ops is to reserve storage areas for run-time data and optionally initialize their contents to known values.\n\nSymbolic assemblers let programmers associate arbitrary names (''labels'' or ''symbols'') with memory locations and various constants. Usually, every constant and variable is given a name so instructions can reference those locations by name, thus promoting self-documenting code. In executable code, the name of each subroutine is associated with its entry point, so any calls to a subroutine can use its name. Inside subroutines, GOTO destinations are given labels. Some assemblers support ''local symbols'' which are lexically distinct from normal symbols (e.g., the use of \"10$\" as a GOTO destination).\n\nSome assemblers, such as NASM, provide flexible symbol management, letting programmers manage different namespaces, automatically calculate offsets within data structures, and assign labels that refer to literal values or the result of simple computations performed by the assembler. Labels can also be used to initialize constants and variables with relocatable addresses.\n\nAssembly languages, like most other computer languages, allow comments to be added to program source code that will be ignored during assembly. Judicious commenting is essential in assembly language programs, as the meaning and purpose of a sequence of binary machine instructions can be difficult to determine. The \"raw\" (uncommented) assembly language generated by compilers or disassemblers is quite difficult to read when changes must be made.\n\n===Macros===\nMany assemblers support ''predefined macros'', and others support ''programmer-defined'' (and repeatedly re-definable) macros involving sequences of text lines in which variables and constants are embedded. This sequence of text lines may include opcodes or directives. Once a macro has been defined its name may be used in place of a mnemonic. When the assembler processes such a statement, it replaces the statement with the text lines associated with that macro, then processes them as if they existed in the source code file (including, in some assemblers, expansion of any macros existing in the replacement text). Macros in this sense date to IBM autocoders of the 1950s.\n\nIn assembly language, the term \"macro\" represents a more comprehensive concept than it does in some other contexts, such as in the C programming language, where its #define directive typically is used to create short single line macros. Assembler macro instructions, like macros in PL/I and some other languages, can be lengthy \"programs\" by themselves, executed by interpretation by the assembler during assembly.\n\nSince macros can have 'short' names but expand to several or indeed many lines of code, they can be used to make assembly language programs appear to be far shorter, requiring fewer lines of source code, as with higher level languages. They can also be used to add higher levels of structure to assembly programs, optionally introduce embedded debugging code via parameters and other similar features.\n\nMacro assemblers often allow macros to take parameters. Some assemblers include quite sophisticated macro languages, incorporating such high-level language elements as optional parameters, symbolic variables, conditionals, string manipulation, and arithmetic operations, all usable during the execution of a given macro, and allowing macros to save context or exchange information. Thus a macro might generate numerous assembly language instructions or data definitions, based on the macro arguments. This could be used to generate record-style data structures or \"unrolled\" loops, for example, or could generate entire algorithms based on complex parameters. For instance, a \"sort\" macro could accept the specification of a complex sort key and generate code crafted for that specific key, not needing the run-time tests that would be required for a general procedure interpreting the specification. An organization using assembly language that has been heavily extended using such a macro suite can be considered to be working in a higher-level language, since such programmers are not working with a computer's lowest-level conceptual elements. Underlining this point, macros were used to implement an early virtual machine in SNOBOL4 (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual machine, which was then targeted to physical machines by transpiled to a native assembler via a macro assembler. This allowed a high degree of portability for the time.\n\nMacros were used to customize large scale software systems for specific customers in the mainframe era and were also used by customer personnel to satisfy their employers' needs by making specific versions of manufacturer operating systems. This was done, for example, by systems programmers working with IBM's Conversational Monitor System / Virtual Machine (VM/CMS) and with IBM's \"real time transaction processing\" add-ons, Customer Information Control System CICS, and ACP/TPF, the airline/financial system that began in the 1970s and still runs many large computer reservation systems (CRS) and credit card systems today.\n\nIt is also possible to use solely the macro processing abilities of an assembler to generate code written in completely different languages, for example, to generate a version of a program in COBOL using a pure macro assembler program containing lines of COBOL code inside assembly time operators instructing the assembler to generate arbitrary code. IBM OS/360 uses macros to perform system generation. The user specifies options by coding a series of assembler macros. Assembling these macros generates a job stream to build the system, including job control language and utility control statements.\n\nThis is because, as was realized in the 1960s, the concept of \"macro processing\" is independent of the concept of \"assembly\", the former being in modern terms more word processing, text processing, than generating object code. The concept of macro processing appeared, and appears, in the C programming language, which supports \"preprocessor instructions\" to set variables, and make conditional tests on their values. Note that unlike certain previous macro processors inside assemblers, the C preprocessor is not Turing-complete because it lacks the ability to either loop or \"go to\", the latter allowing programs to loop.\n\nDespite the power of macro processing, it fell into disuse in many high level languages (major exceptions being C/C++ and PL/I) while remaining a perennial for assemblers.\n\nMacro parameter substitution is strictly by name: at macro processing time, the value of a parameter is textually substituted for its name. The most famous class of bugs resulting was the use of a parameter that itself was an expression and not a simple name when the macro writer expected a name. In the macro:\n\n foo: macro a\n load a*b\n\nthe intention was that the caller would provide the name of a variable, and the \"global\" variable or constant b would be used to multiply \"a\". If foo is called with the parameter a-c, the macro expansion of load a-c*b occurs. To avoid any possible ambiguity, users of macro processors can parenthesize formal parameters inside macro definitions, or callers can parenthesize the input parameters.\n\n===Support for structured programming===\nSome assemblers have incorporated structured programming elements to encode execution flow. The earliest example of this approach was in the Concept-14 macro set, originally proposed by Dr. Harlan Mills (March 1970), and implemented by Marvin Kessler at IBM's Federal Systems Division, which extended the S/360 macro assembler with IF/ELSE/ENDIF and similar control flow blocks. This was a way to reduce or eliminate the use of GOTO operations in assembly code, one of the main factors causing spaghetti code in assembly language. This approach was widely accepted in the early '80s (the latter days of large-scale assembly language use).\n\nA curious design was A-natural, a \"stream-oriented\" assembler for 8080/Z80 processors from Whitesmiths Ltd. (developers of the Unix-like Idris operating system, and what was reported to be the first commercial C compiler). The language was classified as an assembler, because it worked with raw machine elements such as opcodes, registers, and memory references; but it incorporated an expression syntax to indicate execution order. Parentheses and other special symbols, along with block-oriented structured programming constructs, controlled the sequence of the generated instructions. A-natural was built as the object language of a C compiler, rather than for hand-coding, but its logical syntax won some fans.\n\nThere has been little apparent demand for more sophisticated assemblers since the decline of large-scale assembly language development. In spite of that, they are still being developed and applied in cases where resource constraints or peculiarities in the target system's architecture prevent the effective use of higher-level languages.\n\nAssemblers with a strong macro engine allow structured programming via macros, such as the switch macro provided with the Masm32 package (note this code is a complete program):\n\n\ninclude \\masm32\\include\\masm32rt.inc\t; use the Masm32 library\n\n.code\ndemomain:\n REPEAT 20\n\tswitch rv(nrandom, 9)\t; generate a number between 0 and 8\n\tmov ecx, 7\n\tcase 0\n\t\tprint \"case 0\"\n\tcase ecx\t\t\t\t; in contrast to most other programming languages,\n\t\tprint \"case 7\"\t\t; the Masm32 switch allows \"variable cases\"\n\tcase 1 .. 3\n\t\t.if eax==1\n\t\t\tprint \"case 1\"\n\t\t.elseif eax==2\n\t\t\tprint \"case 2\"\n\t\t.else\n\t\t\tprint \"cases 1 to 3: other\"\n\t\t.endif\n\tcase 4, 6, 8\n\t\tprint \"cases 4, 6 or 8\"\n\tdefault\n\t\tmov ebx, 19\t\t ; print 20 stars\n\t\t.Repeat\n\t\t\tprint \"*\"\n\t\t\tdec ebx\n\t\t.Until Sign?\t\t ; loop until the sign flag is set\n\tendsw\n\tprint chr$(13, 10)\n ENDM\n exit\nend demomain\n\n",
"\n===Historical perspective===\n\nAssembly languages, and the use of the word ''assembly'', date to the introduction of the stored-program computer. The first assembly language was developed in 1947 by Kathleen Booth for the ARC2 at Birkbeck, University of London following work with John von Neumann and Herman Goldstine at the Institute for Advanced Study. The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) had an assembler called ''initial orders'' featuring one-letter mnemonics in 1949. SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) was an assembly language for the IBM 650 computer written by Stan Poley in 1955.\n\nAssembly languages eliminate much of the error-prone, tedious, and time-consuming first-generation programming needed with the earliest computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses. They were once widely used for all sorts of programming. However, by the 1980s (1990s on microcomputers), their use had largely been supplanted by higher-level languages, in the search for improved programming productivity. Today assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-time systems.\n\nHistorically, numerous programs have been written entirely in assembly language. Operating systems were entirely written in assembly language until the introduction of the Burroughs MCP (1961), which was written in Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language (ESPOL), an Algol dialect. Many commercial applications were written in assembly language as well, including a large amount of the IBM mainframe software written by large corporations. COBOL, FORTRAN and some PL/I eventually displaced much of this work, although a number of large organizations retained assembly-language application infrastructures well into the 1990s.\n\nMost early microcomputers relied on hand-coded assembly language, including most operating systems and large applications. This was because these systems had severe resource constraints, imposed idiosyncratic memory and display architectures, and provided limited, buggy system services. Perhaps more important was the lack of first-class high-level language compilers suitable for microcomputer use. A psychological factor may have also played a role: the first generation of microcomputer programmers retained a hobbyist, \"wires and pliers\" attitude.\n\nIn a more commercial context, the biggest reasons for using assembly language were minimal bloat (size), minimal overhead, greater speed, and reliability.\n\nTypical examples of large assembly language programs from this time are IBM PC DOS operating systems, the Turbo Pascal compiler and early applications such as the spreadsheet program Lotus 1-2-3. According to some industry insiders, the assembly language was the best computer language to use to get the best performance out of the Sega Saturn, a console that was notoriously challenging to develop and program games for. The 1993 arcade game ''NBA Jam'' is another example.\n\nAssembly language has long been the primary development language for many popular home computers of the 1980s and 1990s (such as the MSX, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Commodore Amiga, and Atari ST). This was in large part because interpreted BASIC dialects on these systems offered insufficient execution speed, as well as insufficient facilities to take full advantage of the available hardware on these systems. Some systems even have an integrated development environment (IDE) with highly advanced debugging and macro facilities. Some compilers available for the Radio Shack TRS-80 and its successors had the capability to combine inline assembly source with high-level program statements. Upon compilation a built-in assembler produced inline machine code.\n\n===Current usage===\nThere have always been debates over the usefulness and performance of assembly language relative to high-level languages. Assembly language has specific niche uses where it is important; see below. , the TIOBE index of programming language popularity ranks assembly language at 14, ahead of Visual Basic, for example. Assembler can be used to optimize for speed or optimize for size. In the case of speed optimization, modern optimizing compilers are claimed to render high-level languages into code that can run as fast as hand-written assembly, despite the counter-examples that can be found. The complexity of modern processors and memory sub-systems makes effective optimization increasingly difficult for compilers, as well as assembly programmers. Moreover, increasing processor performance has meant that most CPUs sit idle most of the time, with delays caused by predictable bottlenecks such as cache misses, I/O operations and paging. This has made raw code execution speed a non-issue for many programmers.\n\nThere are some situations in which developers might choose to use assembly language:\n* A stand-alone executable of compact size is required that must execute without recourse to the run-time components or libraries associated with a high-level language; this is perhaps the most common situation. For example, firmware for telephones, automobile fuel and ignition systems, air-conditioning control systems, security systems, and sensors.\n* Code that must interact directly with the hardware, for example in device drivers and interrupt handlers.\n* In an embedded processor or DSP, high-repetition interrupts require the shortest number of cycles per interrupt, such as an interrupt that occurs 1000 or 10000 times a second.\n* Programs that need to use processor-specific instructions not implemented in a compiler. A common example is the bitwise rotation instruction at the core of many encryption algorithms, as well as querying the parity of a byte or the 4-bit carry of an addition.\n* Programs that create vectorized functions for programs in higher-level languages such as C. In the higher-level language this is sometimes aided by compiler intrinsic functions which map directly to SIMD mnemonics, but nevertheless result in a one-to-one assembly conversion specific for the given vector processor.\n* Programs requiring extreme optimization, for example an inner loop in a processor-intensive algorithm. Game programmers take advantage of the abilities of hardware features in systems, enabling games to run faster. Also large scientific simulations require highly optimized algorithms, e.g. linear algebra with BLAS or discrete cosine transformation (e.g. SIMD assembly version from x264)\n* Situations where no high-level language exists, on a new or specialized processor, for example.\n* Programs that need precise timing such as\n** real-time programs such as simulations, flight navigation systems, and medical equipment. For example, in a fly-by-wire system, telemetry must be interpreted and acted upon within strict time constraints. Such systems must eliminate sources of unpredictable delays, which may be created by (some) interpreted languages, automatic garbage collection, paging operations, or preemptive multitasking. However, some higher-level languages incorporate run-time components and operating system interfaces that can introduce such delays. Choosing assembly or lower-level languages for such systems gives programmers greater visibility and control over processing details.\n** cryptographic algorithms that must always take strictly the same time to execute, preventing timing attacks.\n* Modify and extend legacy code written for IBM mainframe computers.\n* Situations where complete control over the environment is required, in extremely high security situations where nothing can be taken for granted.\n* Computer viruses, bootloaders, certain device drivers, or other items very close to the hardware or low-level operating system.\n* Instruction set simulators for monitoring, tracing and debugging where additional overhead is kept to a minimum\n* Reverse-engineering and modifying program files such as\n**existing binaries that may or may not have originally been written in a high-level language, for example when trying to recreate programs for which source code is not available or has been lost, or cracking copy protection of proprietary software.\n** Video games (also termed ROM hacking), which is possible via several methods. The most widely employed method is altering program code at the assembly language level.\n* Self-modifying code, to which assembly language lends itself well.\n* Games and other software for graphing calculators.\n\nAssembly language is still taught in most computer science and electronic engineering programs. Although few programmers today regularly work with assembly language as a tool, the underlying concepts remain very important. Such fundamental topics as binary arithmetic, memory allocation, stack processing, character set encoding, interrupt processing, and compiler design would be hard to study in detail without a grasp of how a computer operates at the hardware level. Since a computer's behavior is fundamentally defined by its instruction set, the logical way to learn such concepts is to study an assembly language. Most modern computers have similar instruction sets. Therefore, studying a single assembly language is sufficient to learn: I) the basic concepts; II) to recognize situations where the use of assembly language might be appropriate; and III) to see how efficient executable code can be created from high-level languages. This is analogous to children needing to learn the basic arithmetic operations (e.g., long division), although calculators are widely used for all except the most trivial calculations.\n\n===Typical applications===\n\n*Assembly language is typically used in a system's boot code, the low-level code that initializes and tests the system hardware prior to booting the operating system and is often stored in ROM. (BIOS on IBM-compatible PC systems and CP/M is an example.)\n*Some compilers translate high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for debugging and optimization purposes.\n*Some compilers for relatively low-level languages, such as Pascal or C, allow the programmer to embed assembly language directly in the source code. Programs using such facilities can then construct abstractions using different assembly language on each hardware platform. The system's portable code can then use these processor-specific components through a uniform interface.\n*Assembly language is useful in reverse engineering. Many programs are distributed only in machine code form which is straightforward to translate into assembly language, but more difficult to translate into a higher-level language. Tools such as the Interactive Disassembler make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose. This technique is used by hackers to crack commercial software, and competitors to produce software with similar results from competing companies.\n*Assembly language is used to enhance speed of execution, especially in early Personal Computers with limited processing power and RAM.\n*Assemblers can be used to generate blocks of data, with no high-level language overhead, from formatted and commented source code, to be used by other code.\n",
"\n* Compiler\n* Comparison of assemblers\n* Disassembler\n* Data segment\n* Hexadecimal\n* Nibble\n* High Level Assembly\n* Instruction set\n* Spaghetti code\n* Little man computer – an educational computer model with a base-10 assembly language\n* Typed assembly language\n",
"\n",
"* Yurichev, Dennis, \"An Introduction To Reverse Engineering for Beginners\". Online book: http://yurichev.com/writings/RE_for_beginners-en.pdf\n* ''ASM Community Book'' \"An online book full of helpful ASM info, tutorials and code examples\" by the ASM Community, archived at the internet archive.\n* Jonathan Bartlett: '' Programming from the Ground Up''. Bartlett Publishing, 2004. Also available online as PDF\n* Robert Britton: ''MIPS Assembly Language Programming''. Prentice Hall, 2003. \n* Paul Carter: ''PC Assembly Language''. Free ebook, 2001. Website\n* Jeff Duntemann: ''Assembly Language Step-by-Step''. Wiley, 2000. \n* Randall Hyde: ''The Art of Assembly Language''. No Starch Press, 2003. Draft versions available online as PDF and HTML\n* Charles W. Kann: '' Introduction to MIPS Assembly Language Programming''. 2015.\n* Peter Norton, John Socha, ''Peter Norton's Assembly Language Book for the IBM PC'', Brady Books, NY: 1986.\n* Michael Singer, ''PDP-11. Assembler Language Programming and Machine Organization'', John Wiley & Sons, NY: 1980.\n* Dominic Sweetman: ''See MIPS Run''. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1999. \n* John Waldron: ''Introduction to RISC Assembly Language Programming''. Addison Wesley, 1998. \n",
"\n*\n* Unix Assembly Language Programming\n* Linux Assembly\n* PPR: Learning Assembly Language\n* NASM – The Netwide Assembler (a popular assembly language)\n* Assembly Language Programming Examples\n* Authoring Windows Applications In Assembly Language\n* Assembly Optimization Tips by Mark Larson \n* The Art of Assembly Language by Randall Hyde\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Terminology",
"Key concepts",
"Language design",
"Use of assembly language",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Assembly language |
[
"\nmajolica dish attributed to Nicola da Urbino\nIn the ancient Greek myths, '''''ambrosia''''' (, ) is sometimes the food or drink of the Greek gods, often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it. It was brought to the gods in Olympus by doves.\n\n''Ambrosia'' is sometimes depicted in ancient art as distributed by a nymph labeled with that name. In the myth of Lycurgus, an opponent to the wine god Dionysus, violence committed against Ambrosia turns her into a grapevine.\n",
"\nAmbrosia is very closely related to the gods' other form of sustenance, ''nectar''. The two terms may not have originally been distinguished; though in Homer's poems nectar is usually the drink and ambrosia the food of the gods; it was with ambrosia Hera \"cleansed all defilement from her lovely flesh\", and with ambrosia Athena prepared Penelope in her sleep, so that when she appeared for the final time before her suitors, the effects of years had been stripped away, and they were inflamed with passion at the sight of her. On the other hand, in Alcman, nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides, ambrosia is the drink. A character in Aristophanes' ''Knights'' says, \"I dreamed the goddess poured ambrosia over your head—out of a ladle.\" Both descriptions could be correct, as Ambrosia could be a liquid that is considered a meal (much as soup is).\n\nThe consumption of ambrosia was typically reserved for divine beings. Upon his assumption into immortality on Olympus, Heracles is given ambrosia by Athena, while the hero Tydeus is denied the same thing when the goddess discovers him eating human brains. In one version of the myth of Tantalus, part of Tantalus' crime is that after tasting ambrosia himself, he attempts to steal some away to give to other mortals. Those who consume ambrosia typically had not blood in their veins, but ichor.\n\nBoth nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the ''Odyssey'' Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, \"and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils.\" Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods' ambrosial sandals.\n\nAmong later writers, ''ambrosia'' has been so often used with generic meanings of \"delightful liquid\" that such late writers as Athenaeus, Paulus and Dioscurides employ it as a technical terms in contexts of cookery, medicine, and botany. Pliny used the term in connection with different plants, as did early herbalists.\n\nAdditionally, some modern ethnomycologists, such as Danny Staples, identify ambrosia with the hallucinogenic mushroom ''Amanita muscaria'': \"it was the food of the gods, their ambrosia, and nectar was the pressed sap of its juices\", Staples asserts.\n\nW. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing powers of honey, which is in fact anti-septic, and because fermented honey (mead) preceded wine as an entheogen in the Aegean world; on some Minoan seals, goddesses were represented with bee faces (compare Merope and Melissa).\n",
"The concept of an immortality drink is attested in at least two Indo-European areas: Greek and Sanskrit. The Greek ἀμβροσία (''ambrosia'') is semantically linked to the Sanskrit (''amṛta'') as both words denote a drink or food that gods use to achieve immortality. The two words appear to be derived from the same Indo-European form *''ṇ-mṛ-tós'', \"un-dying\" (''n-'': negative prefix from which the prefix ''a-'' in both Greek and Sanskrit are derived; ''mṛ'': zero grade of *''mer-'', \"to die\"; and ''-to-'': adjectival suffix). A semantically similar etymology exists for nectar, the beverage of the gods (Greek: νέκταρ ''néktar'') presumed to be a compound of the PIE roots ''*nek-'', \"death\", and ''-*tar'', \"overcoming\".\n",
"Thetis anoints Achilles with ambrosia, by Johann Balthasar Probst (1673–1748)\n*In one version of the story of the birth of Achilles, Thetis anoints the infant with ambrosia and passes the child through the fire to make him immortal but Peleus, appalled, stops her, leaving only his heel unimmortalised (''Argonautica'' 4.869-879).\n*In the ''Iliad'' xvi, Apollo washes the black blood from the corpse of Sarpedon and anoints it with ambrosia, readying it for its dreamlike return to Sarpedon's native Lycia. Similarly, Thetis anoints the corpse of Patroclus in order to preserve it. Additionally, both ambrosia and nectar are depicted as unguents (xiv. 170; xix. 38).\n*In the ''Odyssey'', Calypso is described as having \"spread a table with ambrosia and set it by Hermes, and mixed the rosy-red nectar.\" It is ambiguous whether he means the ambrosia itself is rosy-red, or if he is describing a rosy-red nectar Hermes drinks along with the ambrosia. Later, Circe mentions to Odysseus that a flock of doves are the bringers of ambrosia to Olympus.\n*In the ''Odyssey'' (ix.345–359), Polyphemus likens the wine given to him by Odysseus to ambrosia and nectar.\n*One of the impieties of Tantalus, according to Pindar, was that he offered to his guests the ambrosia of the Deathless Ones, a theft akin to that of Prometheus, Karl Kerenyi noted (in ''Heroes of the Greeks'').\n*In the Homeric hymn to Aphrodite, the goddess uses \"ambrosial bridal oil that she had ready perfumed.\"\n*In the story of ''Cupid and Psyche'' as told by Apuleius, Psyche is given ambrosia upon her completion of the quests set by Venus and her acceptance on Olympus. After she partakes, she and Cupid are wed as gods.\n*Some ancient Egyptian statues of Anubis read,\"...I am death...I eat ambrosia and drink blood...\" which hints that ambrosia is a food of some sort.\n*In the ''Aeneid'', Aeneas encounters his mother in an alternate, or illusory form. When she became her godly form \"Her hair's ambrosia breathed a holy fragrance.\" \n",
"\nmosaic from Herculaneum, 45–79 AD)\nLycurgus of Thrace, an antagonist of Dionysus, forbade the cult of Dionysus, whom he drove from Thrace, and was driven mad by the god. In his fit of insanity he killed his son, whom he mistook for a stock of mature ivy, and the nymph Ambrosia, who was transformed into the grapevine.\n",
"*Ichor, blood of the Greek gods, related to ambrosia.\n*Amrita, of Hindu mythology, a drink which confers immortality on the gods, and a cognate of ambrosia.\n*Soma, a ritual drink of importance among the early Indo-Iranians, and the subsequent Vedic and greater Persian cultures.\n*Iðunn's apples in Norse mythology.\n*Peaches of Immortality in Chinese mythology.\n*Elixir of life, a potion sought by alchemy to produce immortality.\n*Silphium\n*Manna, food given by God to the Israelites.\n",
";References\n\n\n;Sources\n*Clay, Jenny Strauss, \"Immortal and ageless forever\", ''The Classical Journal'' '''77'''.2 (December 1981:pp. 112–117).\n*Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994, p. 26 et seq. \n*Wright, F. A., \"The Food of the Gods\", ''The Classical Review'' '''31'''.1, (February 1917:4–6).\n* ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911: Ambrosia\n",
"* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Definition",
" Etymology ",
" Other examples in mythology ",
"Lycurgus of Thrace and Ambrosia",
"See also",
"References and sources",
"External links"
] | Ambrosia |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aurelius Ambrosius''' ( ; ), better known in English as '''Saint Ambrose''' (; 4 April 397), was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was the Roman governor of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, before being made bishop of Milan by popular acclamation in 374. Ambrose was a staunch opponent of Arianism, and has been accused of fostering persecutions of Arians, Jews, and pagans.\n\nTraditionally, Ambrose is credited with promoting \"antiphonal chant\", a style of chanting in which one side of the choir responds alternately to the other, as well as with composing ''Veni redemptor gentium'', an Advent hymn.\n\nAmbrose was one of the four original Doctors of the Church, and is the patron saint of Milan. He is notable for his influence on Augustine of Hippo.\n",
"\n=== Early life ===\nAmbrose was born into a Roman Christian family about 340 and was raised in Gallia Belgica (present-day Trier, Germany). His father is sometimes identified with Aurelius Ambrosius, a praetorian prefect of Gaul; but some scholars identify his father as an official named Uranius who received an imperial constitution dated 3 February 339 (addressed in a brief extract from one of the three emperors ruling in 339, Constantine II, Constantius II, or Constans, in the ''Codex Theodosianus'', book XI.5).\n\nHis mother was a woman of intellect and piety and she was a member of roman gens of ''Aurelii Symmachi'' and thus Ambrose was cousin of the orator Q. Aurelius Symmachus.\n\nAmbrose's siblings, Satyrus (who is the subject of Ambrose's ''De excessu fratris Satyri'') and Marcellina, are also venerated as saints. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of honey. His father considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. For this reason, bees and beehives often appear in the saint's symbology.\n\nAfter the early death of his father, Ambrose followed his father's career. He was educated in Rome, studying literature, law, and rhetoric. Praetorian Prefect Sextus Claudius Petronius Probus first gave him a place in the council and then in about 372 made him governor of Liguria and Emilia, with headquarters at Milan, which was then (beside Rome) the second capital in Italy.\n\nAmbrose was the Governor of Aemilia-Liguria in northern Italy until 374, when he became the Bishop of Milan. He was a very popular political figure, and since he was the Governor in the effective capital in the Roman West, he was a recognizable figure in the court of Valentinian I. Ambrose never married.\n\n=== Bishop of Milan ===\nIn the late 4th century there was a deep conflict in the diocese of Milan between the Nicene Church and Arians. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius, an Arian, died, and the Arians challenged the succession. Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place, to prevent an uproar, which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call, \"Ambrose, bishop!\", which was taken up by the whole assembly.\n\nAmbrose was known to be Nicene Christian in belief, but also acceptable to Arians due to the charity shown in theological matters in this regard. At first he energetically refused the office, for which he was in no way prepared: Ambrose was neither baptized nor formally trained in theology. Upon his appointment, Ambrose fled to a colleague's home seeking to hide. Upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals evidently worthy of holy positions, Ambrose's host gave him up. Within a week, he was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated bishop of Milan.\n\nAs bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, donating all of his land, making only provision for his sister Marcellina (who later became a nun), and committed the care of his family to his brother.This raised his popularity even further, giving him considerable political leverage over even the emperor. Ambrose also wrote a treatise by the name of \"The Goodness of Death\".\n\n=== Arianism ===\nStatue of Saint Ambrose with a scourge in Museo del Duomo, Milan. Unknown Lombard author, early 17 century.\n\nAccording to legend, Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped Arianism in Milan. He studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome. Using his excellent knowledge of Greek, which was then rare in the West, to his advantage, he studied the Old Testament and Greek authors like Philo, Origen, Athanasius, and Basil of Caesarea, with whom he was also exchanging letters. He applied this knowledge as preacher, concentrating especially on exegesis of the Old Testament, and his rhetorical abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who hitherto had thought poorly of Christian preachers.\n\nIn the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose sought to theologically refute their propositions, which were contrary to the Nicene creed and thus to the officially defined orthodoxy. The Arians appealed to many high level leaders and clergy in both the Western and Eastern empires. Although the western Emperor Gratian supported orthodoxy, the younger Valentinian II, who became his colleague in the Empire, adhered to the Arian creed. Ambrose did not sway the young prince's position. In the East, Emperor Theodosius I likewise professed the Nicene creed; but there were many adherents of Arianism throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy.\n\nIn this contested state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, bishops Palladius of Ratiaria and Secundianus of Singidunum, confident of numbers, prevailed upon Gratian to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation. However, Ambrose feared the consequences and prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops. Accordingly, a synod composed of thirty-two bishops was held at Aquileia in the year 381. Ambrose was elected president and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined. A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from their episcopal offices.\n\nNevertheless, the increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task for Ambrose. In 385 or 386 the emperor and his mother Justina, along with a considerable number of clergy and laity, especially military, professed Arianism. They demanded two churches in Milan, one in the city (the Basilica of the Apostles), the other in the suburbs (St Victor's), to the Arians. Ambrose refused and was required to answer for his conduct before the council. He went, his eloquence in defense of the Church reportedly overawing the ministers of Valentinian, so he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of the churches. The day following, when he was performing divine service in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give up at least the Portian basilica in the suburbs. As he still refused, certain deans or officers of the court were sent to take possession of the Portian basilica, by hanging up in it imperial escutcheons to prepare for the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the ensuing festival of Easter.\n\nIn spite of Imperial opposition, Bishop Ambrose declared:\n\n\n=== Imperial relations ===\n''Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral'' by Anthony van Dyck\nThe imperial court was displeased with the religious principles of Ambrose, however his aid was soon solicited by the Emperor. When Magnus Maximus usurped the supreme power in Gaul, and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy was successful.\n\nA second later embassy was unsuccessful. The enemy entered Italy and Milan was taken. Justina and her son fled but Ambrose remained at his post and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their relief.\n\nIn 385 Ambrose, backed by Milan's populace, refused Valentinian II's imperial request to hand over the Portian basilica for the use of Arian troops. In 386 Justina and Valentinian received the Arian bishop Auxentius the younger, and Ambrose was again ordered to hand over a church in Milan for Arian usage. Ambrose and his congregation barricaded themselves inside the church, and the imperial order was rescinded.\n\nTheodosius I, the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. Theodosius was excommunicated by Ambrose for the massacre of 7,000 people at Thessalonica in 390, after the murder of the Roman governor there by rioters. Ambrose told Theodosius to imitate David in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt — Ambrose readmitted the emperor to the Eucharist only after several months of penance. Ambrose also forced Theodosius to retreat from compensating a Jewish community in Mesopotamia when a synagogue was burnt down by militant Christians. These incidents show the strong position of a bishop in the Western part of the empire, even when facing a strong emperor — the controversy of John Chrysostom with a much weaker emperor a few years later in Constantinople led to a crushing defeat of the bishop.\n\nIn 392, after the death of Valentinian II and the acclamation of Eugenius, Ambrose supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius after Theodosius was eventually victorious.\n\nSaint Ambrose with scourge and book, a painting in the church of San Giuseppe alla Lungara, Rome\n\n=== Attitude towards Jews ===\nIn his treatise on Abraham, Ambrose warns against intermarriage with pagans, Jews, or heretics. In 388, Emperor Theodosius the Great was informed that a crowd of Christians, led by their bishop, had destroyed the synagogue at Callinicum on the Euphrates. He ordered the synagogue rebuilt at the expense of the bishop. Ambrose wrote to him, pointing out that he was thereby \"exposing the bishop to the danger of either acting against the truth or of death\"; in the letter \"the reasons given for the imperial rescript are met, especially by the plea that the Jews had burnt many churches\". In the course of the letter Ambrose speaks of the clemency that the emperor had shown with regard to the burning of other buildings and then adds: \"There is, then, no adequate cause for such a commotion, that the people should be so severely punished for the burning of a building, and much less since it is the burning of a synagogue, a home of unbelief, a house of impiety, a receptacle of folly, which God Himself has condemned. For thus we read, where the Lord our God speaks by the mouth of the prophet Jeremiah: 'And I will do to this house, which is called by My Name, wherein ye trust, and to the place which I gave to you and to your fathers, as I have done to Shiloh, and I will cast you forth from My sight, as I cast forth your brethren, the whole seed of Ephraim. And do not thou pray for that people, and do not thou ask mercy for them, and do not come near Me on their behalf, for I will not hear thee. Or seest thou not what they do in the cities of Judah?' God forbids intercession to be made for those.\" In his exposition of Psalm 1, Ambrose says: \"Virtues without faith are leaves, flourishing in appearance, but unproductive. How many pagans have mercy and sobriety but no fruit, because they do not attain their purpose! The leaves speedily fall at the wind's breath. Some Jews exhibit purity of life and much diligence and love of study, but bear no fruit and live like leaves.\"\n\n=== Attitude towards pagans ===\n\nAmbrose disliked Pagans, under Ambrose's major influence, emperors Gratian, Valentinian II and Theodosius I carried on a persecution of Paganism. Under Ambrose's influence, Theodosius issued the 391 \"Theodosian decrees,\" which with increasing intensity outlawed Pagan practises, and the Altar of Victory was removed by Gratian. Ambrose prevailed upon Gratian, Valentinian and Theodosius to reject requests to restore the Altar.\n\n===Later years and death===\nEmbossed silver urn with the body of Ambrose (with white vestments) in the crypt of Sant'Ambrose, with the skeletons of Gervase, and Protase.\nIn April 393 Arbogast, ''magister militum'' of the West and his puppet Emperor Eugenius marched into Italy to consolidate their position in regard to Theodosius I and his son, Honorius, whom Theodosius had appointed Augustus to govern the western portion of the empire. Arbogast and Eugenius courted Ambrose's support by very obliging letters; but before they arrived at Milan, he had retired to Bologna, where he assisted at the translation of the relics of Saints Vitalis and Agricola. From there he went to Florence, where he remained until Eugenius withdrew from Milan to meet Theodosius in the Battle of the Frigidus in early September 394.\n \nSoon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the Roman empire, Theodosius died at Milan in 395, and two years later (April 4, 397) Ambrose also died. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by Simplician. Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of Saint Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated — along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Saints Gervase and Protase.\n\n=== Character ===\nDrawing based on a statue of Saint Ambrose\nMany circumstances in the history of Ambrose are characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and the reverence paid to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted that he used several indirect means to obtain and support his authority with the people.\n\nHe was generous to the poor; it was his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains of two martyrs, Gervasius and Protasius. The saints, although they would have had to have been hundreds of years old, looked as if they had just died. The applause of the people was mingled with the derision of the court party.\n",
"Ambrose ranks with Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great, as one of the Latin Doctors of the Church. Theologians compare him with Hilary, who they claim fell short of Ambrose's administrative excellence but demonstrated greater theological ability. He succeeded as a theologian despite his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of Biblical and doctrinal subjects.\n\nAmbrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing doctrine of the Church and its sacerdotal ministry, while the prevalent asceticism of the day, continuing the Stoic and Ciceronian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian ethics. Thus we have the ''De officiis ministrorum'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'' and ''De paenitentia''.\n\nAmbrose displayed a kind of liturgical flexibility that kept in mind that liturgy was a tool to serve people in worshiping God, and ought not to become a rigid entity that is invariable from place to place. His advice to Augustine of Hippo on this point was to follow local liturgical custom. \"When I am at Rome, I fast on a Saturday; when I am at Milan, I do not. Follow the custom of the church where you are.\" Thus Ambrose refused to be drawn into a false conflict over which particular local church had the \"right\" liturgical form where there was no substantial problem. His advice has remained in the English language as the saying, \"When in Rome, do as the Romans do.\"\n\nOne interpretation of Ambrose's writings is that he was a Christian universalist. It has been noted that Ambrose's theology was significantly influenced by that of Origen and Didymus the Blind, two other early Christian universalists. One quotation cited in favor of this belief:\n\n\nOne could interpret this passage as being another example of the mainstream Christian belief in a general resurrection (both for those in heaven and for those in hell). Several other works by Ambrose clearly teach the mainstream view of salvation. For example:\n\n\n=== Giving to the poor ===\nAmbrose considered the poor not a distinct group of outsiders, but a part of the united, solidary people. Giving to the poor was not to be considered an act of generosity towards the fringes of society but a repayment of resources that God had originally bestowed on everyone equally and that the rich had usurped.\n\n===Mariology===\n''Saint Ambrose'', by Francisco de Zurbarán\nThe theological treatises of Ambrose of Milan would come to influence Popes Damasus, Siricius and Leo XIII. Central to Ambrose is the virginity of Mary and her role as Mother of God.\n\n* The virgin birth is worthy of God. Which human birth would have been more worthy of God, than the one, in which the Immaculate Son of God maintained the purity of his immaculate origin while becoming human?\n* We confess, that Christ the Lord was born from a virgin, and therefore we reject the natural order of things. Because not from a man she conceived but from the Holy Spirit.\n* Christ is not divided but one. If we adore him as the Son of God, we do not deny his birth from the virgin… But nobody shall extend this to Mary. Mary was the temple of God but not God in the temple. Therefore, only the one who was in the temple can be worshipped.\n* Yes, truly blessed for having surpassed the priest (Zechariah). While the priest denied, the Virgin rectified the error. No wonder that the Lord, wishing to rescue the world, began his work with Mary. Thus she, through whom salvation was being prepared for all people, would be the first to receive the promised fruit of salvation.\n\nAmbrose viewed celibacy as superior to marriage and saw Mary as the model of virginity.\n",
"\n''Divi Ambrosii Episcopi Mediolanensis Omnia Opera'' (1527)\nIn matters of exegesis he is, like Hilary, an Alexandrian. In dogma he follows Basil of Caesarea and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he treats. This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays upon human sin and divine grace, and in the place which he assigns to faith in the individual Christian life.\n* ''De fide ad Gratianum Augustum'' (On Faith, to Gratian Augustus)\n* ''De Officiis Ministrorum'' (On the Offices of Ministers, an ecclesiastical handbook modeled on Cicero's ''De Officiis''.)\n* ''De Spiritu Sancto'' (On the Holy Ghost)\n* ''De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento'' (On the Sacrament of the Incarnation of the Lord)\n* ''De mysteriis'' (On the Mysteries)\n* ''Expositio evangelii secundum Lucam'' (Commentary on the Gospel according to Luke)\n* Ethical works: ''De bono mortis'' (Death as a Good); ''De fuga saeculi'' (Flight From the World); ''De institutione virginis et sanctae Mariae virginitate perpetua ad Eusebium'' (On the Birth of the Virgin and the Perpetual Virginity of Mary); ''De Nabuthae'' (On Naboth); ''De paenitentia'' (On Repentance); ''De paradiso'' (On Paradise); ''De sacramentis'' (On the Sacraments); ''De viduis'' (On Widows); ''De virginibus'' (On Virgins); ''De virginitate'' (On Virginity); ''Exhortatio virginitatis'' (Exhortation to Virginity); ''De sacramento regenerationis sive de philosophia'' (On the Sacrament of Rebirth, or, On Philosophy fragments)\n* Homiletic commentaries on the Old Testament: the ''Hexaemeron'' (Six Days of Creation); ''De Helia et ieiunio'' (On Elijah and Fasting); ''De Iacob et vita beata'' (On Jacob and the Happy Life); ''De Abraham''; ''De Cain et Abel''; ''De Ioseph'' (Joseph); ''De Isaac vel anima'' (On Isaac, or The Soul); ''De Noe'' (Noah); ''De interpellatione Iob et David'' (On the Prayer of Job and David); ''De patriarchis'' (On the Patriarchs); ''De Tobia'' (Tobit); ''Explanatio psalmorum'' (Explanation of the Psalms); ''Explanatio symboli'' (Commentary on the Symbol).\n* ''De obitu Theodosii''; ''De obitu Valentiniani''; ''De excessu fratris Satyri'' (funeral orations)\n* 91 letters\n* A collection of hymns on the Creation of the Universe. \n* Fragments of sermons\n* ''Ambrosiaster'' or the \"pseudo-Ambrose\" is a brief commentary on Paul's ''Epistles'', which was long attributed to Ambrose.\n\n\nFile:Sergio de Castro, Verrière de la Création du Monde, 1956-59.jpg| Stained-glass window by Sergio de Castro based on the Ambrosian hymns about the Creation of the universe, Church of the Benedictines at Couvrechef - La Folie (Caen), 1956-59. \nFile:Sergio de Castro, 7e jour de la Création, Le Repos Divin, 1956-59.jpg| Detail of the Seventh Day of Creation: divine rest with the Ambrosian hymns. \n\n",
"''Saint Ambrose in His Study'', . Spanish, Palencia. Wood with traces of polychromy. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.\n\n\nAmbrose is traditionally credited but not actually known to have composed any of the repertory of Ambrosian chant also known simply as \"antiphonal chant\", a method of chanting where one side of the choir alternately responds to the other. (The later pope Saint Gregory I the Great is not known to have composed any Gregorian chant, the plainsong or \"Romish chant\".) However, Ambrosian chant was named in his honor due to his contributions to the music of the Church; he is credited with introducing hymnody from the Eastern Church into the West.\n\nCatching the impulse from Hilary of Arles and confirmed in it by the success of Arian psalmody, Ambrose composed several original hymns as well, four of which still survive, along with music which may not have changed too much from the original melodies. Each of these hymns has eight four-line stanzas and is written in strict iambic dimeter (that is 2 x 2 iambs). Marked by dignified simplicity, they served as a fruitful model for later times.\n* ''Deus Creator Omnium''\n* ''Aeterne rerum conditor''\n* ''Jam surgit hora tertia''\n* ''Jam Christus astra ascenderat''\n* ''Veni redemptor gentium'' (a Christmas hymn)\n\nIn his writings, Ambrose refers only to the performance of psalms, in which solo singing of psalm verses alternated with a congregational refrain called an ''antiphon''.\n\nSaint Ambrose was also traditionally credited with composing the hymn \"Te Deum\", which he is said to have composed when he baptised Saint Augustine of Hippo, his celebrated convert.\n",
"Ambrose was Bishop of Milan at the time of Augustine's conversion, and is mentioned in Augustine's ''Confessions''. It is commonly understood in the Christian Tradition that Ambrose baptized Augustine.\n\n=== Celibacy ===\nIn a passage of Augustine's ''Confessions'' in which Augustine wonders why he could not share his burden with Ambrose, he makes a comment which bears on the history of celibacy:\n\n\n=== Reading ===\nIn this same passage of Augustine's ''Confessions'' is a curious anecdote which bears on the history of reading:\n\n\nThis is a celebrated passage in modern scholarly discussion. The practice of reading to oneself without vocalizing the text was less common in antiquity than it has since become. In a culture that set a high value on oratory and public performances of all kinds, in which the production of books was very labor-intensive, the majority of the population was illiterate, and where those with the leisure to enjoy literary works also had slaves to read for them, written texts were more likely to be seen as scripts for recitation than as vehicles of silent reflection. However, there is also evidence that silent reading did occur in antiquity and that it was not generally regarded as unusual.\n",
"'''Latin'''\n* ''Hexameron, De paradiso, De Cain, De Noe, De Abraham, De Isaac, De bono mortis'' – ed. C. Schenkl 1896, Vol. 32/1 ( In Latin)\n* ''De Iacob, De Ioseph, De patriarchis, De fuga saeculi, De interpellatione Iob et David, De apologia prophetae David, De Helia, De Nabuthae, De Tobia'' – ed. C. Schenkl 1897, Vol. 32/2\n* ''Expositio evangelii secundum Lucam'' – ed. C. Schenkl 1902, Vol. 32/4\n* ''Expositio de psalmo CXVIII'' – ed. M. Petschenig 1913, Vol. 62; editio altera supplementis aucta – cur. M. Zelzer 1999\n* ''Explanatio super psalmos XII'' – ed. M. Petschenig 1919, Vol. 64; editio altera supplementis aucta – cur. M. Zelzer 1999\n* ''Explanatio symboli, De sacramentis, De mysteriis, De paenitentia, De excessu fratris Satyri, De obitu Valentiniani, De obitu Theodosii – ed. Otto Faller 1955, Vol. 73\n* ''De fide ad Gratianum Augustum'' – ed. Otto Faller 1962, Vol. 78\n* ''De spiritu sancto, De incarnationis dominicae sacramento'' – ed. Otto Faller 1964, Vol. 79\n* ''Epistulae et acta – ed.'' Otto Faller (Vol. 82/1: lib. 1-6, 1968); Otto Faller, M. Zelzer ( Vol. 82/2: lib. 7-9, 1982); M. Zelzer ( Vol. 82/3: lib. 10, epp. extra collectionem. gesta concilii Aquileiensis, 1990); Indices et addenda – comp. M. Zelzer, 1996, Vol. 82/4\n\n'''English translations'''\n*H. Wace and P. Schaff, eds, ''A Select Library of Nicene and Post–Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church'', 2nd ser., x Contains translations of ''De Officiis'' (under the title ''De Officiis Ministrorum''), ''De Spiritu Sancto'' (''On the Holy Spirit''), ''De excessu fratris Satyri'' (''On the Decease of His Brother Satyrus''), ''Exposition of the Christian Faith'', ''De mysteriis'' (''Concerning Mysteries''), ''De paenitentia'' (''Concerning Repentance''), ''De virginibus'' (''Concerning Virgins''), ''De viduis'' (''Concerning Widows''), and a selection of letters\n*''St. Ambrose \"On the mysteries\" and the treatise on the sacraments by an unknown author'', translated by T Thompson, (London: SPCK, 1919) translations of ''De sacramentis'' and ''De mysteriis''; rev edn published 1950\n*''S. Ambrosii ''De Nabuthae'': a commentary'', translated by Martin McGuire, (Washington, D.C. : The Catholic University of America, 1927) translation of ''On Naboth''\n*''S. Ambrosii ''De Helia et ieiunio'': a commentary'', with an introduction and translation, Sister Mary Joseph Aloysius Buck, (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America, 1929) translation of ''On Elijah and Fasting''\n*''S. Ambrosii ''De Tobia'': a commentary'', with an introduction and translation, Lois Miles Zucker, (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America, 1933) translation of ''On Tobit''\n*''Funeral orations'', translated by LP McCauley et al., Fathers of the Church vol 22, (New York: Fathers of the Church, Inc., 1953) by Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose,\n*''Letters'', translated by Mary Melchior Beyenka, Fathers of the Church, vol 26, (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America, 1954) Translation of letters 1-91\n*''Saint Ambrose on the sacraments'', edited by Henry Chadwick, Studies in Eucharistic faith and practice 5, (London: AR Mowbray, 1960)\n*''Hexameron, Paradise, and Cain and Abel'', translated by John J Savage, Fathers of the Church, vol 42, (New York: Fathers of the Church, 1961) contains translations of ''Hexameron, De paradise'', and ''De Cain et Abel''\n*''Saint Ambrose: theological and dogmatic works'', translated by Roy J. Deferrari, Fathers of the church vol 44, (Washington: Catholic University of American Press, 1963) Contains translations of ''The mysteries'', (''De mysteriis'') ''The holy spirit'', (''De Spiritu Sancto''), ''The sacrament of the incarnation of Our Lord'', (''De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento''), and ''The sacraments''\n*''Seven exegetical works'', translated by Michael McHugh, Fathers of the Church, vol 65, (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1972) Contains translations of ''Isaac, or the soul'', (''De Isaac vel anima''), ''Death as a good'', (''De bono mortis''), ''Jacob and the happy life'', (''De Iacob et vita beata''), ''Joseph'', (''De Ioseph''), ''The patriarchs'', (''De patriarchis''), ''Flight from the world'', (''De fuga saeculi''), ''The prayer of Job and David'', (''De interpellatione Iob et David'').\n*''Homilies of Saint Ambrose on Psalm 118'', translated by Íde Ní Riain, (Dublin: Halcyon Press, 1998) translation of part of ''Explanatio psalmorum''\n*''Ambrosian hymns'', translated by Charles Kraszewski, (Lehman, PA: Libella Veritatis, 1999)\n*''Commentary of Saint Ambrose on twelve psalms'', translated by Íde M. Ní Riain, (Dublin: Halcyon Press, 2000) translations of ''Explanatio psalmorum'' on Psalms 1, 35-40, 43, 45, 47-49 \n*''On Abraham'', translated by Theodosia Tomkinson, (Etna, CA: Center for Traditionalist Orthodox Studies, 2000) translation of ''De Abraham''\n*''De officiis'', edited with an introduction, translation, and commentary by Ivor J Davidson, 2 vols, (Oxford: OUP, 2001) contains both Latin and English text\n*''Commentary of Saint Ambrose on the Gospel according to Saint Luke'', translated by Íde M. Ní Riain, (Dublin: Halcyon, 2001) translation of ''Expositio evangelii secundum Lucam''\n*''Ambrose of Milan: political letters and speeches'', translated with an introduction and notes by JHWG Liebschuetz, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2005) contains Book Ten of Ambrose's Letters, including the oration on the death of Theodosius I; Letters outside the Collection (''Epistulae extra collectionem''); Letter 30 to Magnus Maximus; The oration on the death of Valentinian II (''De obitu Valentiniani'').\n\nSeveral of Ambrose's works have recently been published in the bilingual Latin-German Fontes Christiani series (currently edited by Brepols).\n\nSeveral religious brotherhoods which have sprung up in and around Milan at various times since the 14th century have been called Ambrosians. Their connection to Ambrose is tenuous\n",
"\n* Ambrosian hymnography\n* Ambrosian Liturgy and Rite\n* Saint Ambrose Basilica, Milan\n* St. Ambrose Cathedral, Linares\n* Saint Ambrose University, Davenport, Iowa\n* Ambrose University College, Calgary, Alberta\n\n",
"\n",
"* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* .\n*\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n",
"\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Works of Ambrose of Milan\n* Hymni Ambrosii (Latin)\n* EarlyChurch.org.uk Extensive bibliography\n* Ambrose's works: text, concordances and frequency list\n* Ambrose at ''The Online Library of Liberty''\n* Opera Omnia\n* ''Ambrose in Anglo-Saxon England, with Pseudo-Ambrose and Ambrosiaster'', Contributions to Sources of Anglo-Saxon Literary Culture, by Dabney Anderson Bankert, Jessica Wegmann, and Charles D. Wright.\n* \"Saint Ambrose\" at the Christian Iconography website\n* Forum about the \"ambrosian rite\" \n* \"Of St. Ambrose\" from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend\n* Augustine's account of the penitence of Theodosius\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"\n'''Ambracia''' (; , occasionally , ''Ampracia''), was a city of ancient Greece on the site of modern Arta. It was founded as a Corinthian colony in the 7th century BC and was situated about 7 miles from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend of the navigable river Arachthos (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain.\nAmbracia in antiquity\n",
"It was founded between 650 and 625 BC by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus, at which time its economy was based on farmlands, fishing, timber for shipbuilding, and the exportation of the produce of Epirus. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), and its consequent aversion to Corcyra (as Ambracia participated on the Corinthian side at the Battle of Sybota, which took place in 433 BC between the rebellious Corinthian colony of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and Corinth).\n\nAmbraciot politics featured many frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Peloponnesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426), which crippled its resources.\n\nIn the 4th century BC it continued its traditional policy, but in 338 was besieged by Philip II of Macedon. With the assistance of Corinth and Athens, it escaped complete domination at Philip's hands, but was nevertheless forced to accept a Macedonian garrison. In 294 BC, after forty-three years of semi-autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty, Ambracia was given by the son of Cassander to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who made it his capital, and adorned it with palace, temples and theatres. In the wars of Philip V of Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian League (220–205) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against Rome, it stood a stubborn siege, including the first known use of poison gas against the Romans' siege tunnels.\n\nAmbracia was captured and plundered by Marcus Fulvius Nobilior in 189 BC, after which it was declared by Rome a \"free city\", and gradually fell into insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis, into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia.\n",
"\n===Artists===\n*Epigonus of Ambracia, 6th BC musician\n*Nicocles, auletes\n*Hippasus, tragic actor\n*Epicrates of Ambracia, c. 4th BC comic poet\n\n===Athletes===\n*Sophron, Stadion Olympics 432 BC\n*Tlasimachus, Tethrippon and Synoris Olympics 296 BC\n*Andromachus, Stadion Olympics 60 BC\n\n===Various===\n*Silanus of Ambracia, 5th BC seer\n*Cleombrotus of Ambracia, student of Plato\n",
"*List of cities in ancient Epirus\n",
"\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Ambraciotes",
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] | Ambracia |
[
" \n\n\nPendants made of amber. The oval pendant is .\n\nAn ant inside Baltic amber\nA mosquito in amber\nThe Amber Room was reconstructed using new amber from Kaliningrad \nNational Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera\nAn amber violin bow frog, made by Keith Peck in 1996/97.\nUnpolished amber stonesWood resin, the source of amber\nExtracting Baltic amber from Holocene deposits, Gdansk, Poland\nUnique colors of Baltic amber. Polished stones.\nFishing for amber on the coast of Baltic Sea. Winter storms throw out amber nuggets. Close to Gdansk, Poland.\n'''Amber''' is fossilized tree resin, which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects. Amber is used in jewelry. It has also been used as a healing agent in folk medicine.\n\nThere are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes contains animal and plant material as inclusions. Amber occurring in coal seams is also called '''resinite''', and the term ambrite is applied to that found specifically within New Zealand coal seams.\n",
"The English word ''amber'' derives from Arabic (cognate with Middle Persian ''ambar'') via Middle Latin ''ambar'' and Middle French ''ambre''. The word was adopted in Middle English in the 14th century as referring to what is now known as ''ambergris'' (''ambre gris'' or \"grey amber\"), a solid waxy substance derived from the sperm whale. \nIn the Romance languages, the sense of the word had come to be extended to Baltic amber (fossil resin) from as early as the late 13th century. At first called white or yellow amber (''ambre jaune''), this meaning was adopted in English by the early 15th century. As the use of ambergris waned, this became the main sense of the word.\n\nThe two substances (\"yellow amber\" and \"grey amber\") conceivably became associated or confused because they both were found washed up on beaches. Ambergris is less dense than water and floats, whereas amber is too dense to float, though less dense than stone. \n \nThe classical names for amber, Latin ''electrum'' and Ancient Greek (''ēlektron''), are connected to a term ἠλέκτωρ (''ēlektōr'') meaning \"beaming Sun\". According to myth, when Phaëton son of Helios (the Sun) was killed, his mourning sisters became poplar trees, and their tears became ''elektron'', amber.\n\n==History== \nAmber is discussed by Theophrastus in the 4th century BC, and again by Pytheas (c. 330 BC) whose work \"On the Ocean\" is lost, but was referenced by Pliny the Elder, according to whose ''The Natural History'' (in what is also the earliest known mention of the name ''Germania''):\nPytheas says that the Gutones, a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an estuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one day's sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbors, the Teutones.\nEarlier Pliny says that a large island of three days' sail from the Scythian coast called Balcia by Xenophon of Lampsacus, author of a fanciful travel book in Greek, is called Basilia by Pytheas. It is generally understood to be the same as Abalus. Based on the amber, the island could have been Heligoland, Zealand, the shores of Bay of Gdansk, the Sambia Peninsula or the Curonian Lagoon, which were historically the richest sources of amber in northern Europe.\nIt is assumed that there were well-established trade routes for amber connecting the Baltic with the Mediterranean (known as the \"Amber Road\"). Pliny states explicitly that the Germans export amber to Pannonia, from where it was traded further abroad by the Veneti.\nThe ancient Italic peoples of southern Italy were working amber, the most important examples are on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Siritide to Matera.\nAmber used in antiquity as at Mycenae and in the prehistory of the Mediterranean comes from deposits of Sicily.\n\nPliny also cites the opinion of Nicias, according to whom amber:is a liquid produced by the rays of the sun; and that these rays, at the moment of the sun's setting, striking with the greatest force upon the surface of the soil, leave upon it an unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the Ocean, and thrown up upon the shores of Germany. Besides the fanciful explanations according to which amber is \"produced by the Sun\", Pliny cites opinions that are well aware of its origin in tree resin, citing the native Latin name of ''succinum'' (''sūcinum'', from ''sucus'' \"juice\"). He writes: Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the pine genus, like gum from the cherry, and resin from the ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened ... Our forefathers, too, were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of \"succinum\" and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when ignited, with the odour and appearance of torch-pine wood.He also states that amber is also found in Egypt and in India, and he even refers to the electrostatic properties of amber, by saying that \"in Syria the women make the whorls of their spindles of this substance, and give it the name of ''harpax'' from ἁρπάζω, \"to drag\" from the circumstance that it attracts leaves towards it, chaff, and the light fringe of tissues.\"\n\nPliny says that the German name of amber was ''glæsum'', \"for which reason the Romans, when Germanicus Cæsar commanded the fleet in those parts, gave to one of these islands the name of Glæsaria, which by the barbarians was known as Austeravia\". This is confirmed by the recorded Old High German ''glas'' and Old English ''glær'' for \"amber\" (c.f. ''glass'').\nIn Middle Low German, amber was known as ''berne-, barn-, börnstēn''. The Low German term became dominant also in High German by the 18th century, thus modern German ''Bernstein'' besides Dutch Dutch ''barnsteen''.\n\nThe Baltic Lithuanian term for amber is ''gintaras'' and Latvian ''dzintars''. They, and the Slavic ''jantar'' or Hungarian ''gyanta'' ('resin'), are thought to originate from Phoenician ''jainitar'' (\"sea-resin\").\n\nEarly in the nineteenth century, the first reports of amber from North America came from discoveries in New Jersey along Crosswicks Creek near Trenton, at Camden, and near Woodbury.\n",
"Amber is heterogeneous in composition, but consists of several resinous bodies more or less soluble in alcohol, ether and chloroform, associated with an insoluble bituminous substance. Amber is a macromolecule by free radical polymerization of several precursors in the labdane family, e.g. communic acid, cummunol, and biformene. These labdanes are diterpenes (C20H32) and trienes, equipping the organic skeleton with three alkene groups for polymerization. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization takes place as well as isomerization reactions, crosslinking and cyclization.\n\nHeated above , amber decomposes, yielding an '''oil of amber''', and leaves a black residue which is known as \"amber colophony\", or \"amber pitch\"; when dissolved in oil of turpentine or in linseed oil this forms \"amber varnish\" or \"amber lac\".\n\n===Formation===\nMolecular polymerization, resulting from high pressures and temperatures produced by overlying sediment, transforms the resin first into copal. Sustained heat and pressure drives off terpenes and results in the formation of amber.\n\nFor this to happen, the resin must be resistant to decay. Many trees produce resin, but in the majority of cases this deposit is broken down by physical and biological processes. Exposure to sunlight, rain, microorganisms (such as bacteria and fungi), and extreme temperatures tends to disintegrate resin. For resin to survive long enough to become amber, it must be resistant to such forces or be produced under conditions that exclude them.\n\n===Botanical origin===\nAmber from Bitterfeld\nFossil resins from Europe fall into two categories, the famous Baltic ambers and another that resembles the ''Agathis'' group. Fossil resins from the Americas and Africa are closely related to the modern genus ''Hymenaea'', while Baltic ambers are thought to be fossil resins from Sciadopityaceae family plants that used to live in north Europe.\n\n===Inclusions===\nBaltic amber with inclusions\nThe abnormal development of resin in living trees (''succinosis'') can result in the formation of amber. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped onto the ground, so the material may be useless except for varnish-making. Such impure amber is called ''firniss''.\n\nSuch inclusion of other substances can cause amber to have an unexpected color. Pyrites may give a bluish color. ''Bony amber'' owes its cloudy opacity to numerous tiny bubbles inside the resin. However, so-called ''black amber'' is really only a kind of jet.\n\nIn darkly clouded and even opaque amber, inclusions can be imaged using high-energy, high-contrast, high-resolution X-rays.\n",
"\n=== Distribution and mining ===\nAmber mine \"Primorskoje\" in Jantarny, Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia\n\nAmber is globally distributed, mainly in rocks of Cretaceous age or younger.\nHistorically, the Samland coast west of Königsberg in Prussia was the world's leading source of amber. The first mentions of amber deposits here date back to the 12th century. About 90% of the world's extractable amber is still located in that area, which became the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia in 1946.\n\nPieces of amber torn from the seafloor are cast up by the waves, and collected by hand, dredging, or diving. Elsewhere, amber is mined, both in open works and underground galleries. Then nodules of ''blue earth'' have to be removed and an opaque crust must be cleaned off, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. Erosion removes this crust from sea-worn amber.\n\nBlue amber from Dominican Republic\nCaribbean amber, especially Dominican blue amber, is mined through bell pitting, which is dangerous due to the risk of tunnel collapse.\n\n===Treatment===\nThe Vienna amber factories, which use pale amber to manufacture pipes and other smoking tools, turn it on a lathe and polish it with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil. The final luster is given by friction with flannel.\n\nWhen gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with linseed oil, heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous pores to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now used on a large scale in the formation of \"ambroid\" or \"pressed amber\".\n\nThe pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure, the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewelry and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colors in polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like copal and kauri gum, as well as by celluloid and even glass. Baltic amber is sometimes colored artificially, but also called \"true amber\".\n",
"Amber occurs in a range of different colors. As well as the usual yellow-orange-brown that is associated with the color \"amber\", amber itself can range from a whitish color through a pale lemon yellow, to brown and almost black. Other uncommon colors include red amber (sometimes known as \"cherry amber\"), green amber, and even blue amber, which is rare and highly sought after.\n\nYellow amber is a hard, translucent, yellow, orange, or brown fossil resin from evergreen trees. Known to the Iranians by the Pahlavi compound word kah-ruba (from kah \"straw\" plus rubay \"attract, snatch\", referring to its electrical properties), which entered Arabic as kahraba' or kahraba (which later became the Arabic word for electricity, كهرباء ''kahrabā''), it too was called amber in Europe (Old French and Middle English ambre). Found along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, yellow amber reached the Middle East and western Europe via trade. Its coastal acquisition may have been one reason yellow amber came to be designated by the same term as ambergris. Moreover, like ambergris, the resin could be burned as an incense. The resin's most popular use was, however, for ornamentation—easily cut and polished, it could be transformed into beautiful jewelry.\nMuch of the most highly prized amber is transparent, in contrast to the very common cloudy amber and opaque amber. Opaque amber contains numerous minute bubbles. This kind of amber is known as \"bony amber\".\n\nAlthough all Dominican amber is fluorescent, the rarest Dominican amber is blue amber. It turns blue in natural sunlight and any other partially or wholly ultraviolet light source. In long-wave UV light it has a very strong reflection, almost white. Only about is found per year, which makes it valuable and expensive.\n\nSometimes amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. It is thought that, in addition to exuding onto the surface of the tree, amber resin also originally flowed into hollow cavities or cracks within trees, thereby leading to the development of large lumps of amber of irregular form.\n",
"Amber can be classified into several forms. Most fundamentally, there are two types of plant resin with the potential for fossilization. Terpenoids, produced by conifers and angiosperms, consist of ring structures formed of isoprene (C5H8) units. Phenolic resins are today only produced by angiosperms, and tend to serve functional uses. The extinct medullosans produced a third type of resin, which is often found as amber within their veins. The composition of resins is highly variable; each species produces a unique blend of chemicals which can be identified by the use of pyrolysis–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The overall chemical and structural composition is used to divide ambers into five classes. There is also a separate classification of amber gemstones, according to the way of production.\n\n===Class I===\nThis class is by far the most abundant. It comprises labdatriene carboxylic acids such as communic or ozic acids. It is further split into three sub-classes. Classes Ia and Ib utilize regular labdanoid diterpenes (e.g. communic acid, communol, biformenes), while Ic uses ''enantio'' labdanoids (ozic acid, ozol, ''enantio'' biformenes).\n\n====Ia====\nIncludes ''Succinite'' (= 'normal' Baltic amber) and ''Glessite''. Have a communic acid base. They also include much succinic acid.\n\nBaltic amber yields on dry distillation succinic acid, the proportion varying from about 3% to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or ''bony'' varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. Baltic amber is distinguished by its yield of succinic acid, hence the name ''succinite''. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. It can be distinguished from other ambers via IR spectroscopy due to a specific carbonyl absorption peak. IR spectroscopy can detect the relative age of an amber sample. Succinic acid may not be an original component of amber, but rather a degradation product of abietic acid.\n\n====Ib====\nLike class Ia ambers, these are based on communic acid; however, they lack succinic acid.\n\n====Ic====\nThis class is mainly based on ''enantio''-labdatrienonic acids, such as ozic and zanzibaric acids. Its most familiar representative is Dominican amber.\n\nDominican amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by being mostly transparent and often containing a higher number of fossil inclusions. This has enabled the detailed reconstruction of the ecosystem of a long-vanished tropical forest. Resin from the extinct species ''Hymenaea protera'' is the source of Dominican amber and probably of most amber found in the tropics. It is not \"succinite\" but \"retinite\".\n\n===Class II===\nThese ambers are formed from resins with a sesquiterpenoid base, such as cadinene.\n\n===Class III===\nThese ambers are polystyrenes.\n\n===Class IV===\nClass IV is something of a wastebasket; its ambers are not polymerized, but mainly consist of cedrene-based sesquiterpenoids.\n\n===Class V===\nClass V resins are considered to be produced by a pine or pine relative. They comprise a mixture of diterpinoid resins and ''n''-alkyl compounds. Their type mineral is ''highgate copalite''.\n",
"Typical amber specimen with a number of indistinct inclusions\nThe oldest amber recovered dates to the Upper Carboniferous period (). Its chemical composition makes it difficult to match the amber to its producers – it is most similar to the resins produced by flowering plants; however, there are no flowering plant fossils until the Cretaceous, and they were not common until the Upper Cretaceous. Amber becomes abundant long after the Carboniferous, in the Early Cretaceous, , when it is found in association with insects. The oldest amber with arthropod inclusions comes from the Levant, from Lebanon and Jordan. This amber, roughly 125–135 million years old, is considered of high scientific value, providing evidence of some of the oldest sampled ecosystems.\n\nIn Lebanon, more than 450 outcrops of Lower Cretaceous amber were discovered by Dany Azar, a Lebanese paleontologist and entomologist. Among these outcrops, 20 have yielded biological inclusions comprising the oldest representatives of several recent families of terrestrial arthropods. Even older, Jurassic amber has been found recently in Lebanon as well. Many remarkable insects and spiders were recently discovered in the amber of Jordan including the oldest zorapterans, clerid beetles, umenocoleid roaches, and achiliid planthoppers.\n\nBaltic amber or succinite (historically documented as Prussian amber) is found as irregular nodules in marine glauconitic sand, known as ''blue earth'', occurring in the Lower Oligocene strata of Sambia in Prussia (in historical sources also referred to as ''Glaesaria''). After 1945, this territory around Königsberg was turned into Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia, where amber is now systematically mined.\n\nIt appears, however, to have been partly derived from older Eocene deposits and it occurs also as a derivative phase in later formations, such as glacial drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern Asia and the southern part of North America. Heinrich Göppert named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests ''Pinites succiniter'', but as the wood does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called ''Pinus succinifera''. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora.\n\n===Paleontological significance===\nAmber is a unique preservational mode, preserving otherwise unfossilizable parts of organisms; as such it is helpful in the reconstruction of ecosystems as well as organisms; the chemical composition of the resin, however, is of limited utility in reconstructing the phylogenetic affinity of the resin producer.\n\nAmber sometimes contains animals or plant matter that became caught in the resin as it was secreted. Insects, spiders and even their webs, annelids, frogs, crustaceans, bacteria and amoebae, marine microfossils, wood, flowers and fruit, hair, feathers and other small organisms have been recovered in Cretaceous ambers (deposited c. ). The oldest amber to bear fossils (mites) is from the Carnian (Triassic, ) of north-eastern Italy.\n",
"Solutrean of Altamira – MHNT \nAmber has been used since prehistory (Solutrean) in the manufacture of jewelry and ornaments, and also in folk medicine.\n\n===Jewelry===\nAmber has been used since the stone age, from 13,000 years ago. Amber ornaments have been found in Mycenaean tombs and elsewhere across Europe. To this day it is used in the manufacture of smoking and glassblowing mouthpieces. Amber's place in culture and tradition lends it a tourism value; Palanga Amber Museum is dedicated to the fossilized resin.\n\n\n===Historic medicinal uses===\nAmber has long been used in folk medicine for its purported healing properties. Amber and extracts were used from the time of Hippocrates in ancient Greece for a wide variety of treatments through the Middle Ages and up until the early twentieth century.\n\n===Scent of amber and amber perfumery===\nLithuanian amber jewelry\n\nIn ancient China, it was customary to burn amber during large festivities. If amber is heated under the right conditions, oil of amber is produced, and in past times this was combined carefully with nitric acid to create \"artificial musk\" – a resin with a peculiar musky odor. Although when burned, amber does give off a characteristic \"pinewood\" fragrance, modern products, such as perfume, do not normally use actual amber due to the fact that fossilized amber produces very little scent. In perfumery, scents referred to as “amber” are often created and patented\nto emulate the opulent golden warmth of the fossil.\n\nThe modern name for amber is thought to come from the Arabic word, ambar, meaning ambergris. Ambergris is the waxy aromatic substance created in the intestines of sperm whales and was used in making perfumes both in ancient times as well as modern.\n\nThe scent of amber was originally derived from emulating the scent of ambergris and/or labdanum but due to the endangered species status of the sperm whale the scent of amber is now largely derived from labdanum. The term “amber” is loosely used to describe a scent that is warm, musky, rich and honey-like, and also somewhat oriental and earthy. It can be synthetically created or derived from natural resins. When derived from natural resins it is most often created out of labdanum. Benzoin is usually part of the recipe. Vanilla and cloves are sometimes used to enhance the aroma.\n\n\"Amber\" perfumes may be created using combinations of labdanum, benzoin resin, copal (itself a type of tree resin used in incense manufacture), vanilla, Dammara resin and/or synthetic materials.\n",
"\n=== Imitation made in natural resins ===\n\nYoung resins, these are used as imitations: \n* Kauri resin from ''Agathis australis'' trees in New Zealand.\n* The copals (subfossil resins). The African and American (Colombia) copals from ''Leguminosae'' trees family (genus ''Hymenaea''). Amber of the Dominican or Mexican type (Class I of fossil resins). Copals from Manilia (Indonesia) and from New Zealand from trees of the genus ''Agathis'' (''Araucariaceae'' family)\n* Other fossil resins: burmite in Burma, rumenite in Romania, simetite in Sicilia.\n* Other natural resins — cellulose or chitin, etc.\n\n=== Imitations made of plastics ===\n\nPlastics, these are used as imitations: \n* Stained glass (inorganic material) and other ceramic materials\n* Celluloid\n* Cellulose nitrate (obtain first time in 1833) — a product of treatment of cellulose with nitration mixture. \n* Acetylcellulose (not in the use at present)\n* Galalith or \"artificial horn\" (condensation product of casein and formaldehyde), other trade names: Alladinite, Erinoid, Lactoid.\n* Casein — a conjugated protein forming from the casein precursor – caseinogen.\n* Resolane (phenolic resins or phenoplasts, not in the use at present)\n* Bakelite resine (resol, phenolic resins), product from Africa are known under the misleading name \"African amber\".\n* Carbamide resins — melamine, formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde resins.\n* Epoxy novolac (phenolic resins), unofficial name \"antique amber\", not in the use at present\n* Polyesters (Polish amber imitation) with styrene. Ex.: unsaturated polyester resins (polymals) are produced by Chemical Industrial Works \"Organika\" in Sarzyna, Poland; estomal are produced by Laminopol firm. Polybern or sticked amber is artificial resins the curled chips are obtained, whereas in the case of amber – small scraps. \"African amber\" (polyester, synacryl is then probably other name of the same resine) are produced by Reichhold firm; Styresol trade mark or alkid resin (used in Russia, Reichhold, Inc. patent, 1948.\n* Polyethylene\n* Epoxy resins\n* Polystyrene and polystyrene-like polymers (vinyl polymers).\n* The resins of acrylic type (vinyl polymers), especially polymethyl methacrylate PMMA (trade mark Plexiglass, metaplex).\n",
"\n* Amber Road\n* Amber Room\n* Ammolite\n* Copal\n* List of types of amber\n* Pearl\n* Precious coral\n\n",
"\n\n\n;Attribution\n*\n\n\n",
"* \n* \n* \n",
"\n* Farlang many full text historical references on Amber Theophrastus, George Frederick Kunz, and special on Baltic amber.\n* IPS Publications on amber inclusions International Paleoentomological Society: Scientific Articles on amber and its inclusions\n* Webmineral on Amber Physical properties and mineralogical information\n* Mindat Amber Image and locality information on amber\n* NY Times 40 million year old extinct bee in Dominican amber\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Composition and formation",
"Extraction and processing",
"Appearance",
"Classification",
"Geological record",
"Use",
" Imitation ",
"See also",
"References",
" Bibliography ",
"External links"
] | Amber |
[
"\nIllustration of '''Amalaric'''\n\n'''Amalaric''' (Gothic: Amalareiks), or in Spanish and Portuguese, ''Amalarico'', (502–531) was king of the Visigoths from 511 until his death in battle in 531. He was a son of king Alaric II and his first wife Theodegotha, daughter of Theoderic the Great King of the Ostrogoths.\n\nWhen Alaric II was killed fighting Clovis I, king of the Franks, in the Battle of Vouillé (507), his kingdom fell into disarray. \"More serious than the destruction of the Gothic army,\" writes Herwig Wolfram, \"than the loss of both Aquitanian provinces and the capital of Toulose, was the death of the king.\" Alaric had made no provision for a successor, and although he had two sons, one was of age but illegitimate and the other, Amalaric, the offspring of a legal marriage but still a child. Amalaric was carried for safety into Spain, which country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, Theodoric the Great, acting through his vice-gerent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. The older son, Gesalec, was chosen king but his reign was disastrous. King Theoderic of the Ostrogoths sent an army, led by his sword-bearer Theudis, against Gesalec, ostensibly on behalf of Amalaric; Gesalec fled to Africa. The Ostrogoths then drove back the Franks and their Burgundian allies, regaining possession of \"the south of Novempopulana, Rodez, probably even Albi, and even Toulose\". Following the 511 death of Clovis, Theoderic negotiated a peace with Clovis' successors, securing Visigothic control of the southernmost portion of Gaul for the rest of the existence of their kingdom.\n\nIn 522 the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theoderic's death, he assumed full royal power, although relinquishing Provence to his cousin Athalaric. His kingdom was faced with a threat from the north from the Franks; according to Peter Heather, this was his motivation for marrying Chrotilda, the daughter of Clovis. However, this was not successful, for according to Gregory of Tours, Amalaric pressured her to forsake her Roman Catholic faith and convert to Arian Christianity, at one point beating her until she bled; she sent to her brother Childebert I, king of Paris a towel stained with her own blood. It is worth noting Ian Wood's advice that although Gregory provides the fullest information for this period, where it touches Merovingian affairs, he often \"allowed his religious bias to determine his interpretation of the events.\" Peter Heather agrees with Wood's implication in this instance: \"I doubt that this is the full story, but the effects of Frankish intervention are clear enough.\"\n\nChildebert defeated the Visigothic army and took Narbonne. Amalaric fled south to Barcelona, where according to Isidore of Seville, he was assassinated by his own men. According to Peter Heather, Theoderic's former governor Theudis was implicated in Amalaric's murder, \"and was certainly its prime beneficiary.\" As for Chrotilda, in Gregory's words she died on the journey home \"by some ill chance\". Childebert had her body brought to Paris where she was buried alongside her father Clovis.\n\n\n",
"\n",
"*Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Chapter 39\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Notes",
"Further reading"
] | Amalaric |
[
"\n\nde) playing the alphorn at the Bardentreffen festival in Nuremberg 2009.\n\nThe '''alphorn''' or '''alpenhorn''' or '''alpine horn''' is a labrophone, consisting of a wooden natural horn of conical bore, having a wooden cup-shaped mouthpiece, used by mountain dwellers in the Swiss Alps, Austrian Alps, Bavarian Alps in Germany, French Alps, and elsewhere. Similar wooden horns were used for communication in most mountainous regions of Europe, from the Alps to the Carpathians.\n\nFor a long time, scholars believed that the alphorn had been derived from the Roman-Etruscan lituus, because of their resemblance in shape, and because of the word ''liti'', meaning Alphorn in the dialect of Obwalden. There is no documented evidence for this theory, however, and, the word ''liti'' was probably borrowed from 16th–18th century writings in Latin, where the word ''lituus'' could describe various wind instruments, such as the horn, the crumhorn, or the cornett. Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner used the words ''lituum alpinum'' for the first known detailed description of the alphorn in his ''De raris et admirandis herbis'' in 1555. The oldest known document using the German word ''Alphorn'' is a page from a 1527 account book from the former Cistercian abbey St. Urban near Pfaffnau mentioning the payment of two Batzen for an itinerant alphorn player from the Valais.\n\n17th–19th century collections of alpine myths and legends suggest that alphorn-like instruments had frequently been used as signal instruments in village communities since medieval times or earlier, sometimes substituting for the lack of church bells. Surviving artifacts, dating back to as far as ca. AD 1400, include wooden labrophones in their stretched form, like the alphorn, or coiled versions, such as the \"Büchel\" and the \"Allgäuisches Waldhorn\" or \"Ackerhorn\". The alphorn's exact origins remain indeterminate, and the ubiquity of horn-like signal instruments in valleys throughout Europe may indicate a long history of cross influences regarding their construction and usage.\n",
"A Swiss playing alphorn\n\nThe alphorn is carved from solid softwood, generally spruce but sometimes pine. In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn, but modern makers piece the wood together at the base. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete.\n\nAn alphorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the Victoria and Albert Museum, measures in length and has a straight tube. The Swiss alphorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius mentions an alphorn-like instrument under the name of Hölzern Trummet (wooden trumpet) in ''Syntagma Musicum'' (Wittenberg, 1615–1619; Pl. VIII).\n\nThe alphorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The notes of the natural harmonic series overlap, but do not exactly correspond, to notes found in the familiar chromatic scale in standard Western equal temperament. Most prominently within the alphorn's range, the 7th and 11th harmonics are particularly noticeable, because they fall between adjacent notes in the chromatic scale.\n600px\n\nAccomplished alphornists often command a range of nearly three octaves, consisting of the 2nd through the 16th notes of the harmonic series. The availability of the higher tones is due in part to the relatively small diameter of the bore of the mouthpiece and tubing in relation to the overall length of the horn.\n\nD'Dieß'ner alphorn players.\nThe well-known \"Ranz des Vaches\" ( score; audio) is a traditional Swiss melody often heard on the alphorn. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at cheese making time. Rossini introduced the \"Ranz des Vaches\" into his masterpiece ''William Tell,'' along with many other delightful melodies scattered throughout the opera in vocal and instrumental parts that are well-suited to the alphorn. Brahms wrote to Clara Schumann that the inspiration for the dramatic entry of the horn in the introduction to the last movement of his First Symphony was an alphorn melody he heard while vacationing in the Rigi area of Switzerland.\n",
"The military band of the French Chasseurs Alpins uses Alphorns.\nAmong music composed for the alphorn:\n\n*\"Concerto Grosso No. 1\" (2013) for four alphorns and orchestra by Georg Friedrich Haas\n*''Sinfonia Pastorella for Alphorn and String Orchestra'' (1755) by Leopold Mozart\n*''Concerto for alphorn and orchestra'' (1970) by Jean Daetwyler\n*''Concerto for alphorn No. 2'' (with flute, string orchestra & percussion) (1983) by Daetwyler\n*''Dialogue with Nature for alphorn, flute & orchestra'' by Daetwyler\n*''Concertino rustico'' (1977) by Ferenc Farkas\n*''Begegnung'' for 3 alphorns and concert band, by Kurt Gable.\n*''Säumerweg-Blues'' (audio played by Kurt Ott) among many compositions by Hans-Jürg Sommer, Alphorn Musik\n*''Messe für Alphorn und Chor'' by Franz Schüssele Alphorn-Center\n*''Wolf Music: Tapio for Alphorn and echoing Instruments'' (2003) by R. Murray Schafer\n*''Bob Downes & The Alphorn Brothers'' (2015) by Bob Downes Open Music (CD rec. 2004)\n*Very possibly described as a lituus in Bb: Cantata BWV 118 - O Jesu Christ, meins Lebens Licht (Johann Sebastian Bach)\n",
"The alphorn is prominently featured in television advertisements for Ricola cough drops, which are manufactured in Switzerland.\n",
"* Bucium, a type of alphorn used by mountain dwellers in Romania\n* Didgeridoo\n* Erke, a similar instrument of Argentine Northwest\n* Kuhreihen, a type of melody played on an alphorn\n* Tibetan horn\n* Trembita, a Ukrainian alpine horn made of wood\n",
"\n",
"* Bachmann-Geiser, Brigitte, ''Das Alphorn: Vom Lock- zum Rockinstrument''. Paul Haupt, Berne, 1999. \n* Franz Schüssele, ''Alphorn und Hirtenhorn in Europa'', book and CD with 63 sound samples available at Alphorn-Center, \n",
"\n* Midwest Alphorn Retreat First event held July 2009, Lagro, Indiana\n* Third Annual North American Alphorn Retreat\n* Alphorn in concert Concert and composition contest taking place annually in Oensingen, Canton Solothurn, Switzerland\n* International Alphorn Festival at Nendaz, Canton Valais, Switzerland\n* VSP orkestra & Arkady Shilkloper \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Construction and qualities",
"Music for alphorn",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alphorn |
[
"\n\nAn '''army''' (from Latin ''arma'' \"arms, weapons\" via Old French ''armée'', \"armed\" (feminine)) or '''ground force''' is a fighting force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or state. It may also include other branches of the military such as the air force via means of aviation corps. Within a national military force, the word army may also mean a field army. They differ from army reserves who are activated only during such times as war or natural disasters.\n\nIn several countries, the army is officially called the '''Land Army''' to differentiate it from an air force called the '''Air Army''', notably France. In such countries, the word \"army\" on its own retains its connotation of a land force in common usage. The current largest army in the world, by number of active troops, is the People's Liberation Army Ground Force of China with 1,600,000 active troops and 510,000 reserve personnel followed by the Indian Army with 1,129,000 active troops and 960,000 reserve personnel.\n\nBy convention, irregular military is understood in contrast to regular armies which grew slowly from personal bodyguards or elite militia. Regular in this case refers to standardized doctrines, uniforms, organizations, etc. Regular military can also refer to full-time status (standing army), versus reserve or part-time personnel. Other distinctions may separate statutory forces (established under laws such as the National Defence Act), from de facto \"non-statutory\" forces such as some guerrilla and revolutionary armies. Armies may also be expeditionary (designed for overseas or international deployment) or fencible (designed for – or restricted to – homeland defence).\n\n\n",
"\n===India===\nDuring the Iron Age in India, the Maurya and Nanda Empires had large armies. According to Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya (), the Mauryas wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants not including followers and attendants.\n\n===China===\nA bronze crossbow trigger mechanism and butt plate that were mass-produced in the Warring States period (475-221 BCE)\nChina has existed as a continuous culture for thousands of years; the states of China raised armies for at least 1000 years before the Spring and Autumn Annals, which date back to the time of Sparta. By the Warring States period, the crossbow had been perfected enough to become a military secret, with bronze bolts which could pierce any armor. Thus any political power of a state rested on the armies and their organization. China underwent political consolidation of the states of Han (韓), Wei (魏), Chu (楚), Yan (燕), Zhao (趙) and Qi (齊), until by 221 BCE, Qin Shi Huang (秦始皇帝), the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, attained absolute power. This first emperor of China could command the creation of a Terracotta Army to guard his tomb in the city of Xi'an (西安), as well as a realignment of the Great Wall of China to strengthen his empire against insurrection, invasion and incursion.\n\nSun Tzu's ''The Art of War'' remains one of China's Seven Military Classics, even though it is two thousand years old. Since no political figure could exist without an army, measures were taken to ensure only the most capable leaders could control the armies. Civil bureaucracies (士大夫) arose to control the productive power of the states, and their military power.\n\n===Sparta===\nThe Spartan Army was one of the earliest known professional armies. Boys were sent to a barracks at the age of seven to train for becoming a soldier. At the age of thirty they were released from the barracks and allowed to marry and have a family. After that, men devoted their lives to war until their retirement at the age of 60. Unlike other civilizations, whose armies had to disband during the planting and harvest seasons, the Spartan serfs or ''helots,'' did the manual labor.\n\nThis allowed the Spartans to field a full-time army with a campaign season that lasted all year. The Spartan Army was largely composed of hoplites, equipped with arms and armor nearly identical to each other. Each hoplite bore the Spartan emblem and a scarlet uniform. The main pieces of this armor were a round shield, a spear and a helmet.\n\n===Ancient Rome===\nA 2nd-century depiction of Roman soldiers on Trajan's column\n\nThe Roman Army had its origins in the citizen army of the Republic, which was staffed by citizens serving mandatory duty for Rome. Reforms turned the army into a professional organization which was still largely filled by citizens, but these citizens served continuously for 25 years before being discharged.\n\nThe Romans were also noted for making use of auxiliary troops, non-Romans who served with the legions and filled roles that the traditional Roman military could not fill effectively, such as light skirmish troops and heavy cavalry. After their service in the army they were made citizens of Rome and then their children were citizens also. They were also given land and money to settle in Rome. In the Late Roman Empire, these auxiliary troops, along with foreign mercenaries, became the core of the Roman Army; moreover, by the time of the Late Roman Empire tribes such as the Visigoths were paid to serve as mercenaries.\n\n===Medieval Europe===\nArmies of the Middle Ages consisted of noble knights, rendering service to their suzerain, and hired footsoldiers\nIn the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every aristocrat to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would be.\n\nThe knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation, and also by the prospect of profit and advancement. Those who performed well were likely to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy. The prospect of significant income from pillage, and ransoming prisoners was also important. For the mounted knight war could be a relatively low risk affair.\n\nAs central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought in the Hundred Years' War were, predominantly, composed of paid professionals.\n\nIn theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent.\n\nThus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.\n\nAs the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. This made them considerably less reliable than a standing army. Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on maneuver as on battles.\n\nIn 1439 the French legislature, known as the Estates General (French: ''états généraux''), passed laws that restricted military recruitment and training to the king alone. There was a new tax to be raised known as the ''taille'' that was to provide funding for a new Royal army. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the Royal army as ''compagnies d'ordonnance'' on a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors. The reforms of the 1440s, eventually led to the French victory at Castillon in 1453, and the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War. By 1450 the companies were divided into the field army, known as the ''grande ordonnance'' and the garrison force known as the ''petite ordonnance'' .\n\n===Early modern===\nSwiss mercenaries and German Landsknechts fighting for glory, fame and money at the Battle of Marignan (1515). The bulk of the Renaissance armies was composed of mercenaries.\n\nFirst nation states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire mercenaries to serve in their armies during wartime. Such mercenaries typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments.\n\nThe veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia.\n\nAs late as the 1650s, most troops were mercenaries. However, after the 17th century, most states invested in better disciplined and more politically reliable permanent troops. For a time mercenaries became important as trainers and administrators, but soon these tasks were also taken by the state. The massive size of these armies required a large supporting force of administrators.\n\nThe newly centralized states were forced to set up vast organized bureaucracies to manage these armies, which some historians argue is the basis of the modern bureaucratic state. The combination of increased taxes and increased centralisation of government functions caused a series of revolts across Europe such as the Fronde in France and the English Civil War.\n\nIn many countries, the resolution of this conflict was the rise of absolute monarchy. Only in England and the Netherlands did representative government evolve as an alternative. From the late 17th century, states learned how to finance wars through long term low interest loans from national banking institutions. The first state to master this process was the Dutch Republic. This transformation in the armies of Europe had great social impact. The defense of the state now rested on the commoners, not on the aristocrats.\n\nHowever, aristocrats continued to monopolise the officer corps of almost all early modern armies, including their high command. Moreover, popular revolts almost always failed unless they had the support and patronage of the noble or gentry classes. The new armies, because of their vast expense, were also dependent on taxation and the commercial classes who also began to demand a greater role in society. The great commercial powers of the Dutch and English matched much larger states in military might.\n\nAs any man could be quickly trained in the use of a musket, it became far easier to form massive armies. The inaccuracy of the weapons necessitated large groups of massed soldiers. This led to a rapid swelling of the size of armies. For the first time huge masses of the population could enter combat, rather than just the highly skilled professionals.\n\nFrench Guards and British guards politely discussing who should fire first at the Battle of Fontenoy (1745). An example of \"lace war\".\n\nIt has been argued that the drawing of men from across the nation into an organized corps helped breed national unity and patriotism, and during this period the modern notion of the nation state was born. However, this would only become apparent after the French Revolutionary Wars. At this time, the ''levée en masse'' and conscription would become the defining paradigm of modern warfare.\n\nBefore then, however, most national armies were in fact composed of many nationalities. In Spain armies were recruited from all the Spanish European territories including Spain, Italy, Wallonia (Walloon Guards) and Germany. The French recruited some soldiers from Germany, Switzerland as well as from Piedmont. Britain recruited Hessian and Hanovrian troops until the late 18th century. Irish Catholics made careers for themselves in the armies of many Catholic European states.\n\nPrior to the English Civil War in England, the monarch maintained a personal Bodyguard of Yeomen of the Guard and the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms, or \"gentlemen pensioners\", and a few locally raised companies to garrison important places such as Berwick on Tweed or Portsmouth (or Calais before it was recaptured by France in 1558).\n\nTroops for foreign expeditions were raised upon an ''ad hoc'' basis. Noblemen and professional regular soldiers were commissioned by the monarch to supply troops, raising their quotas by indenture from a variety of sources. On January 26, 1661 Charles II issued the Royal Warrant that created the genesis of what would become the British Army, although the Scottish and English Armies would remain two separate organizations until the unification of England and Scotland in 1707. The small force was represented by only a few regiments.\n\nAfter the American Revolutionary War the Continental Army was quickly disbanded as part of the Americans' distrust of standing armies, and irregular state militias became the sole ground army of the United States, with the exception of one battery of artillery guarding West Point's arsenal. Then First American Regiment was established in 1784. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was soon realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The first of these, the Legion of the United States, was established in 1791.\n\nUntil 1733 the common soldiers of Prussian Army consisted largely of peasantry recruited or impressed from Brandenburg-Prussia, leading many to flee to neighboring countries. To halt this trend, Frederick William I divided Prussia into regimental cantons. Every youth was required to serve as a soldier in these recruitment districts for three months each year; this met agrarian needs and added extra troops to bolster the regular ranks.\n\nbattle of the Nations (1813), marked the transition between aristocratic armies and national armies. Masses replace hired professionals and national hatred overrides dynastic conflicts. An early example of total wars.\n\nRussian tsars before Peter I of Russia maintained professional hereditary musketeer corps (streltsy in Russian) that were highly unreliable and undisciplined. In times of war the armed forces were augmented by peasants. Peter I introduced a modern regular army built on German model, but with a new aspect: officers not necessarily from nobility, as talented commoners were given promotions that eventually included a noble title at the attainment of an officer's rank. Conscription of peasants and townspeople was based on quota system, per settlement. Initially it was based on the number of households, later it was based on the population numbers. The term of service in the 18th century was for life. In 1793 it was reduced to 25 years. In 1834 it was reduced to 20 years plus 5 years in reserve and in 1855 to 12 years plus 3 years of reserve.\n\nThe first Ottoman standing army were Janissaries. They replaced forces that mostly comprised tribal warriors (''ghazis'') whose loyalty and morale could not always be trusted. The first Janissary units were formed from prisoners of war and slaves, probably as a result of the sultan taking his traditional one-fifth share of his army's booty in kind rather than cash.\n\nFrom the 1380s onwards, their ranks were filled under the ''devşirme'' system, where feudal dues were paid by service to the sultan. The \"recruits\" were mostly Christian youths, reminiscent of mamluks.\n\nChina organized the Manchu people into the Eight Banner system in the early 17th century. Defected Ming armies formed the Green Standard Army. These troops enlisted voluntarily and for long terms of service.\n\n===Late modern===\nIndian Army personnel during Operation Crusader in Egypt, 1941\nConscription allowed the French Republic to form the ''La Grande Armée'', what Napoleon Bonaparte called \"the nation in arms\", which successfully battled European professional armies.\n\nConscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies.\n\nCanada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II. Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s.\n\nIn developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.\n\nRussia, as well as many other nations, retains mainly a conscript army. There is also a very rare ''citizen army'' as used in Switzerland (see Military of Switzerland).\n",
"Western armies are usually subdivided as follows:\n*'''Corps''': A corps usually consists of two or more divisions and is commanded by a Lieutenant General.\n*'''Division''': Each division is commanded by a Major General, and usually holds three brigades including infantry, artillery, engineers and communications units in addition to logistics (supply and service) support to sustain independent action. Except for the divisions operating in the mountains, divisions have at least one armored unit, some have even more depending upon their functionality. The basic building block of all ground force combat formations is the infantry division.\n*'''Brigade''': A brigade is under the command of a Brigadier or Brigadier General and sometimes is commanded by a Colonel. It typically comprises three or more battalions of different units depending on its functionality. An independent brigade would be one that primarily consists of an artillery unit, an infantry unit, an armour unit and logistics to support its actions. Such a brigade is not part of any division and is under direct command of a corps.\n*'''Battalion''': Each battalion is commanded by a Colonel or sometimes by Lieutenant Colonel who commands roughly 500 to 750 soldiers. This number varies depending on the functionality of the regiment. A battalion comprises 3–5 companies (3 rifle companies, a fire support company and headquarters company) or its functional equivalent such as batteries (artillery) or squadrons (armour and cavalry), each under the command of a Major. The company can be divided into platoons, each of which can again be divided into sections or squads. (Terminology is nationality and even unit specific.)\n",
"A field army is composed of a headquarters, army troops, a variable number of corps, typically between three and four, and a variable number of divisions, also between three and four. A battle is influenced at the Field Army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point. Field armies are controlled by a General or Lieutenant General.\n\n===Formations===\n\nStandard map symbol for a numbered Army, the 'X's are not substituting the army's number\n\nA particular army can be named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general. For example, the First United States Army and the Army of Northern Virginia. In the British Army it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division).\n\nArmies (as well as army groups and theaters) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility.\n\nIn the Soviet Red Army and the Soviet Air Force, \"Armies\" could vary in size, but were subordinate to an Army Group-sized \"front\" in wartime. In peacetime, a Soviet army was usually subordinate to a military district. Viktor Suvorov's ''Inside the Soviet Army'' describes how Cold War era Soviet military districts were actually composed of a front headquarters and a military district headquarters co-located for administration and deception ('maskirovika') reasons.\n",
"* Armed forces\n* Army aviation\n* First world war\n* List of armies\n* List of armies by country\n* List of numbered armies\n* List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel\n* Mercenary\n* Military history\n* Military organization\n* Militia\n* Military\n* Paramilitary\n* Soldier\n* War\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Armies as armed services",
"Field army",
"See also",
"References"
] | Army |
[
"\nThe family '''Alligatoridae''' of crocodylians includes alligators and caimans.\n",
"The lineage including alligators proper (Alligatorinae) occurs in the fluvial deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die out until the Pliocene age. The true alligators are today represented by two species, ''A. mississippiensis'' in the southeastern United States, which can grow to 15 ft (4.6 m) and weigh 1000 lbs (453 kg) and the small ''A. sinensis'' in the Yangtze River, China, which grows to an average of 5 ft (1.5 m). Their name derives from the Spanish ''el lagarto'', which means \"the lizard\".\n",
"In Central and South America, the alligator family is represented by six species of the subfamily Caimaninae, which differ from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and having ventral armour composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Besides the three species in ''Caiman'', the smooth-fronted caimans in genus ''Paleosuchus'' and the black caiman in ''Melanosuchus'' are described. Caimans tend to be more agile and crocodile-like in their movements, and have longer, sharper teeth than alligators.\n\n''C. crocodilus'', the spectacled caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about . The largest is the near-threatened ''Melanosuchus niger'', the ''jacare-assu'' or large or black caiman of the Amazon River basin. Black caimans grow to , with the largest recorded size . The black caiman and American alligator are the only members of the alligator family that pose the same danger to humans as the larger species of the crocodile family.\n\nAlthough caimans have not been studied in depth, scientists have learned their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels, which increases chances of survival for their offspring.\n",
"\nAlligators differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips; and an intolerance to salinity, alligators strongly preferring fresh water, while crocodiles can tolerate salt water due to specialized glands for filtering out salt. In general, crocodiles tend to be more dangerous to humans than alligators. Another recently discovered trait is that of both caimans and American alligators partaking of foliage and fruit in addition to their normal diet of fish and meat.\n",
"An alligator nest at Everglades National Park, Florida, United States\n''A. olseni'' fore limb\n''Alligator prenasalis'' fossil\n* '''Superfamily Alligatoroidea'''\n** '''Family Alligatoridae'''\n*** '''Subfamily Alligatorinae'''\n**** Genus † ''Albertochampsa''\n**** Genus ''Alligator''\n***** † ''Alligator mcgrewi''\n***** † ''Alligator mefferdi''\n***** American alligator, ''Alligator mississippiensis\n***** † ''Alligator olseni''\n***** † ''Alligator prenasalis''\n***** Chinese alligator, ''Alligator sinensis ''\n**** Genus † ''Allognathosuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Arambourgia''\n**** Genus † ''Ceratosuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Chrysochampsa''\n**** Genus † ''Eoalligator''\n**** Genus † ''Hassiacosuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Hispanochampsa''\n**** Genus † ''Krabisuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Navajosuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Procaimanoidea''\n**** Genus † ''Wannaganosuchus''\n*** '''Subfamily Caimaninae'''\n**** Genus ''Caiman''\n***** Yacare caiman, ''Caiman yacare''\n***** Spectacled caiman, ''Caiman crocodilus ''\n****** Rio Apaporis caiman, ''C. c. apaporiensis ''\n****** Brown caiman, ''C. c. fuscus''\n***** Broad-snouted caiman, ''Caiman latirostris ''\n***** † ''Caiman lutescans''\n**** Genus ''Melanosuchus''\n***** † ''Melanosuchus fisheri''\n***** Black caiman, ''Melanosuchus niger''\n**** Genus † ''Eocaiman''\n**** Genus † ''Mourasuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Necrosuchus''\n**** Genus † ''Orthogenysuchus''\n**** Genus ''Paleosuchus''\n***** Cuvier's dwarf caiman, ''Paleosuchus palpebrosus''\n***** Smooth-fronted caiman, ''Paleosuchus trigonatus''\n**** Genus † ''Purussaurus''\n",
"\n",
"* \"Crocodilians: Natural History & Conservation\" ''crocodilian.com''\n* \"Family Alligatoridae Gray 1844 (alligator)\", ''fossilworks.org''.\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" True alligators ",
" Caimans ",
" Differences from crocodiles ",
" Taxonomy ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Alligatoridae |
[
"\n\n\n\nAlder trees by the Beaulieu River at Longwater Lawn, England\n\n'''Alder''' is the common name of a genus of flowering plants ('''''Alnus''''') belonging to the birch family Betulaceae. The genus comprises about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few species extending into Central America, as well as the northern and southern Andes.\n",
"The common name ''alder'' evolved from Old English ''alor'', which in turn is derived from Proto-Germanic root ''aliso''. The generic name ''Alnus'' is the equivalent Latin name. Both the Latin and the Germanic words derive from the Proto-Indo-European root ''el-'', meaning \"red\" or \"brown\", which is also a root for the English words ''elk'' and another tree: ''elm'', a tree distantly related to the alders.\n",
"\nWith a few exceptions, alders are deciduous, and the leaves are alternate, simple, and serrated. The flowers are catkins with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by bees to a small extent. These trees differ from the birches (''Betula'', the other genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many conifer cones.\n\nThe largest species are red alder (''A. rubra'') on the west coast of North America, and black alder (''A. glutinosa''), native to most of Europe and widely introduced elsewhere, both reaching over 30 m. By contrast, the widespread ''Alnus viridis'' (green alder) is rarely more than a 5-m-tall shrub.\n",
"\nAlders are commonly found near streams, rivers, and wetlands. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, the white alder (Alnus rhombifolia) unlike other northwest alders, has an affinity for warm, dry climates, where it grows along watercourses, such as along the lower Columbia River east of the Cascades and the Snake River, including Hells Canyon.\n\nAlder leaves and sometimes catkins are used as food by numerous butterflies and moths.\n\n''A. glutinosa'' and ''A. viridis'' are classed as environmental weeds in New Zealand. Alder leaves and especially the roots are important to the ecosystem because they enrich the soil with nitrogen and other nutrients.\n\n=== Nitrogen fixation ===\n\nAlder is particularly noted for its important symbiotic relationship with ''Frankia alni'', an actinomycete, filamentous, nitrogen-fixing bacterium. This bacterium is found in root nodules, which may be as large as a human fist, with many small lobes, and light brown in colour. The bacterium absorbs nitrogen from the air and makes it available to the tree. Alder, in turn, provides the bacterium with sugars, which it produces through photosynthesis. As a result of this mutually beneficial relationship, alder improves the fertility of the soil where it grows, and as a pioneer species, it helps provide additional nitrogen for the successional species which follow.\n\nsamara like those of all alders\nBecause of its abundance, red alder delivers large amounts of nitrogen to enrich forest soils. Red alder stands have been found to supply between 120 and 290 pounds of nitrogen per acre (130 to 320 kg per ha) annually to the soil. From Alaska to Oregon, Sitka alder characteristically pioneer fresh, gravelly sites at the foot of retreating glaciers. Studies show that Sitka alder, a more shrubby variety of alder, adds nitrogen to the soil at an average of 55 pounds per acre (60 per ha) per year, helping convert the sterile glacial terrain to soil capable of supporting a conifer forest. Alders are common among the first species to colonize disturbed areas from floods, windstorms, fires, landslides, etc. Alder groves themselves often serve as natural firebreaks since these broad-leaved trees are much less flammable than conifers. Their foliage and leaf litter does not carry a fire well, and their thin bark is sufficiently resistant to protect them from light surface fires. In addition, the light weight of alder seeds (650,000 per pound, or 1.5 million per kg) allows for easy dispersal by the wind. Although it outgrows coastal Douglas-fir for the first 25 years, it is very shade intolerant and seldom lives more than 100 years. Red alder is the Pacific Northwest's largest alder and the most plentiful and commercially important broad-leaved tree in the coastal Northwest. Groves of red alder 10 to 20 inches (25 to 50 cm) in diameter intermingle with young Douglas-fir forests west of the Cascades, attaining a maximum height of 100 to 110 feet (30 to 33 m) in about sixty years and then lose vigor as heart rot sets in. Alders largely help create conditions favorable for giant conifers that replace them.\n\n\nAn alder root nodule gall.JPG|alt=An alder root nodule|Whole root nodule\nA sectioned alder root nodule gall.JPG|alt=A sectioned alder root nodule|Sectioned root nodules\n\n\n=== Parasites ===\nAlder roots are parasitized by northern groundcone.\n",
"Alder coat of arms of Grossarl, Austria\n\nThe catkins of some alder species have a degree of edibility, and may be rich in protein. Reported to have a bitter and unpleasant taste, they are more useful for survival purposes. The wood of certain alder species is often used to smoke various food items such as coffee, salmon and other seafood.\n\nMost of the pilings that form the foundation of Venice were made from alder trees.\n\nAlder bark contains the anti-inflammatory salicin, which is metabolized into salicylic acid in the body. Some Native American cultures use red alder bark (''Alnus rubra'') to treat poison oak, insect bites, and skin irritations. Blackfeet Indians have traditionally used an infusion made from the bark of red alder to treat lymphatic disorders and tuberculosis. Recent clinical studies have verified that red alder contains betulin and lupeol, compounds shown to be effective against a variety of tumors.\n\nThe inner bark of the alder, as well as red osier dogwood, or chokecherry, is used by some Indigenous peoples of the Americas in smoking mixtures, known as ''kinnikinnick'', to improve the taste of the bearberry leaf.\n\nAlder is illustrated in the coat of arms for the Austrian town of Grossarl.\n\nElectric guitars, most notably those manufactured by the Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, have been built with alder bodies since the 1950s. Alder is appreciated for its claimed tight and even balanced tone, especially when compared to mahogany, and has been adopted by many electric guitar manufacturers.\n\nAs a hardwood, alder is used in making furniture, cabinets, and other woodworking products. For example, in the television series ''Northern Exposure'' season 3 episode \"Things Become Extinct\" (1992), Native American Ira Wingfeather makes duck flutes out of alder tree branches while Ed Chigliak films.\n\nAlder bark and wood (like oak and sweet chestnut) contain tannin and are traditionally used to tan leather.\n\nA red dye can also be extracted from the outer bark, and a yellow dye from the inner bark.\n",
"\nThe genus is divided into three subgenera:\n\n'''Subgenus ''Alnus''''': Trees with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but stay closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring, about 15–25 species, including:\n\n* ''Alnus acuminata'' Kunth — Andean alder, aliso. Mexico, Central and South America.\n* ''Alnus cordata'' (Loisel.) Duby — Italian alder. Italy, Albania, Corsica.\n* ''Alnus cremastogyne'' Burkill — China.\n* ''Alnus firma'' Siebold & Zucc. — Kyūshū Island in Japan\n* ''Alnus glutinosa'' (L.) Gaertn. — Black alder. Europe, Central Asia.\nSpeckled alder (''Alnus incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'')—leaves\n* ''Alnus incana'' (L.) Moench — Gray alder. Eurasia, North America\n* ''Alnus hirsuta'' (Spach) Rupr. — Manchurian alder. Japan, Korea, Manchuria, Siberia, Russian Far East\n* ''Alnus oblongifolia'' Torr. — Arizona alder. Arizona, New Mexico, Sonora, Chihuahua\n* ''Alnus rugosa'' (Du Roi) Spreng. — Speckled alder. Northeastern North America\n* ''Alnus tenuifolia'' Nutt. — Thinleaf or mountain alder. Northwestern North America\n* ''Alnus japonica'' (Thunb.) Steud. — Japanese alder, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, eastern China, Russian Far East\n* ''Alnus jorullensis'' Kunth — Mexican alder. Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras.\n* ''Alnus mandshurica'' (Callier) Hand.-Mazz. — Russian Far East, northeastern China, Korea\n* ''Alnus matsumurae'' Callier — Honshū Island in Japan\n* ''Alnus nepalensis'' D.Don — Nepalese alder. Himalayas, Tibet, Yunnan, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand.\n* ''Alnus orientalis'' Decne. — Oriental alder. Southern Turkey, northwest Syria, Cyprus, Lebanon, Palestine, Iran\n* ''Alnus pendula'' Matsum. — Japan, Korea\n* ''Alnus rhombifolia'' Nutt. — White alder. California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana\n* ''Alnus rubra'' Bong. — Red alder. Alaska, Yukon, British Columbia, California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Montana.\nLeaves of the tag alder\n* ''Alnus serrulata'' (Aiton) Willd. — Hazel alder, tag alder or smooth alder. Eastern North America\n* ''Alnus sieboldiana'' Matsum. — Japan, Ryukyu Islands\n* ''Alnus subcordata'' C.A.Mey. — Caucasian alder. Caucasus, Iran\n* ''Alnus trabeculosa'' Hand.-Mazz. — China, Japan\n\n'''Subgenus ''Clethropsis'''''. Trees or shrubs with stalked shoot buds, male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then, three species:\n* ''Alnus formosana'' (Burkill) Makino — Formosan alder. Taiwan\n* ''Alnus maritima'' (Marshall) Muhl. ex Nutt. — Seaside alder. United States (Georgia, Delaware, Maryland, Oklahoma).\n* ''Alnus nitida'' (Spach) Endl. — Himalayan alder. Western Himalaya, Pakistan, India, Nepal.\n\n'''Subgenus ''Alnobetula'''''. Shrubs with shoot buds not stalked, male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then, one to four species:\nGreen Alder (''Alnus viridis'')\n* ''Alnus alnobetula'' (Ehrh.) K.Koch\n* ''Alnus viridis'' (Chaix) DC. 1805) — Temperate and subarctic Europe, Asia, North America.\n\n; \n; Unknown subgenus\n* ''Alnus djavanshirii'' H.Zare: Iran\n* ''Alnus dolichocarpa'' H.Zare, Amini & Assadi: Iran\n* ''Alnus fauriei'' H.Lév. & Vaniot: Honshu Island in Japan\n* ''Alnus ferdinandi-coburgii'' C.K.Schneid.: southern China\n* ''Alnus glutipes'' (Jarm. ex Czerpek) Vorosch.: Yakutiya region of Siberia\n* ''Alnus hakkodensis'' Hayashi: Honshu Island in Japan\n* ''Alnus henryi'' C.K.Schneid.: Taiwan\n* †''Alnus heterodonta'' (Newberry) Meyer & Manchester 1987: Oligocene fossil Oregon\n* ''Alnus lanata'' Duthie ex Bean: Sichuan Province in China\n* ''Alnus mairei'' H.Lév.: Yunnan Province in China\n* ''Alnus maximowiczii'' Callier : Japan, Korea, Russian Far East\n* ''Alnus paniculata'' Nakai: Korea\n* ''Alnus serrulatoides'' Callier: Japan\n* ''Alnus vermicularis'' Nakai: Korea\n",
"*Alnus × spaethii''''Alnus × elliptica'' Req.—Italy. ''(A. cordata × A. glutinosa)''\n* ''Alnus × fallacina'' Callier—Ohio, New York State, Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine. ''(A. incana ''subsp''. rugosa × A. serrulata)''\n* ''Alnus × hanedae'' Suyinata—Japan. ''(A. firma × A. sieboldiana)''\n* ''Alnus × hosoii'' Mizush.—Japan. ''(A. maximowiczii × A. pendula)''\n* ''Alnus × mayrii'' Callier—Russian Far East, Japan. ''(A. hirsuta × A. japonica)''\n* ''Alnus × peculiaris'' Hiyama—Kyūshū Island in Japan. ''(A. firma × A. pendula)''\n* ''Alnus × pubescens'' Tausch.—Northern and central Europe. ''(A. glutinosa × A. incana)''\n* ''Alnus × suginoi'' Sugim.—Japan.\n* ''Alnus × spaethii'' Callier ''(A. japonica × A. subcordata)''\n",
"\n",
"* Chen, Zhiduan and Li, Jianhua (2004). \"Phylogenetics and Biogeography of ''Alnus'' (Betulaceae) Inferred from Sequences of Nuclear Ribosomal DNA ITS Region\". ''International Journal of Plant Sciences'' 165: 325–335.\n",
"\n\n* Flora Europaea: ''Alnus''\n* Flora of Bolivia: ''Alnus''\n* Flora of China: ''Alnus''\n* Flora of North America: ''Alnus''\n* Flora of Pakistan: ''Alnus''\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Etymology ",
" Description ",
" Ecology ",
" Uses ",
" Classification ",
" Hybrids ",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Alder |
[
"\n'''Amos Bronson Alcott''' (; November 29, 1799March 4, 1888) was an American teacher, writer, philosopher, and reformer. As an educator, Alcott pioneered new ways of interacting with young students, focusing on a conversational style, and avoided traditional punishment. He hoped to perfect the human spirit and, to that end, advocated a vegan diet before the term was coined. He was also an abolitionist and an advocate for women's rights.\n\nBorn in Connecticut in 1799, Alcott had only minimal formal schooling before attempting a career as a traveling salesman. Worried about how the itinerant life might have a negative impact on his soul, he turned to teaching. His innovative methods, however, were controversial, and he rarely stayed in one place very long. His most well-known teaching position was at the Temple School in Boston. His experience there was turned into two books: ''Records of a School'' and ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. Alcott became friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson and became a major figure in transcendentalism. His writings on behalf of that movement, however, are heavily criticized for being incoherent. Based on his ideas for human perfection, Alcott founded Fruitlands, a transcendentalist experiment in community living. The project was short-lived and failed after seven months. Alcott continued to struggle financially for most of his life. Nevertheless, he continued focusing on educational projects and opened a new school at the end of his life in 1879. He died in 1888.\n\nAlcott married Abby May in 1830 and they eventually had four surviving children, all daughters. Their second was Louisa May, who fictionalized her experience with the family in her novel ''Little Women'' in 1868.\n",
"\n===Early life===\nA native New Englander, Amos Bronson Alcott was born in Wolcott, Connecticut (only recently renamed from \"Farmingbury\") on November 29, 1799. His parents were Joseph Chatfield Alcott and Anna Bronson Alcott. The family home was in an area known as Spindle Hill, and his father, Joseph Alcox, traced his ancestry to colonial-era settlers in eastern Massachusetts. The family originally spelled their name \"Alcock\", later changed to \"Alcocke\" then \"Alcox\". Amos Bronson, the oldest of eight children, later changed the spelling to \"Alcott\" and dropped his first name.\nAt age six, young Bronson began his formal education in a one-room schoolhouse in the center of town but learned how to read at home with the help of his mother. The school taught only reading, writing, and spelling and he left this school at the age of 10. At age 13, his uncle, Reverend Tillotson Bronson, invited Alcott into his home in Cheshire, Connecticut to be educated and prepared for college. Bronson gave it up after only a month and was self-educated from then on. He was not particularly social and his only close friend was his neighbor and second cousin William Alcott, with whom he shared books and ideas. Bronson Alcott later reflected on his childhood at Spindle Hill: \"It kept me pure... I dwelt amidst the hills... God spoke to me while I walked the fields.\" Starting at age 15, he took a job working for clockmaker Seth Thomas in the nearby town of Plymouth.\n\nAt age 17, Alcott passed the exam for a teaching certificate but had trouble finding work as a teacher. Instead, he left home and became a traveling salesman in the American South, peddling books and merchandise. He hoped the job would earn him enough money to support his parents, \"to make their cares, and burdens less... and get them free from debt\", though he soon spent most of his earnings on a new suit. At first, he thought it an acceptable occupation but soon worried about his spiritual well-being. In March 1823, Alcott wrote to his brother: \"Peddling is a hard place to serve God, but a capital one to serve Mammon.\" Near the end of his life, he fictionalized this experience in his book, ''New Connecticut'', originally circulated only among friends before its publication in 1881.\n\n===Early career and marriage===\nAbby May Alcott in her later years\nBy the summer of 1823, Alcott returned to Connecticut in debt to his father, who bailed him out after his last two unsuccessful sales trips. He took a job as a schoolteacher in Cheshire with the help of his Uncle Tillotson. He quickly set about reforming the school. He added backs to the benches on which students sat, improved lighting and heating, de-emphasized rote learning, and provided individual slates to each student—paid for by himself. Alcott had been influenced by educational philosophy of the Swiss pedagogue Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and even renamed his school \"The Cheshire Pestalozzi School\". His style attracted the attention of Samuel Joseph May, who introduced Alcott to his sister Abby May. She called him, \"an intelligent, philosophic, modest man\" and found his views on education \"very attractive\". Locals in Cheshire were less supportive and became suspicious of his methods. Many students left and were enrolled in the local common school or a recently re-opened private school for boys. On November 6, 1827, Alcott started teaching in Bristol, Connecticut, still using the same methods he used in Cheshire, but opposition from the community surfaced quickly; he was unemployed by March 1828. He moved to Boston on April 24, 1828, and was immediately impressed, referring to the city as a place \"where the light of the sun of righteousness has risen\". He opened the Salem Street Infant School two months later on June 23. Abby May applied as his teaching assistant; instead, the couple were engaged, without consent of the family. They were married at King's Chapel on May 22, 1830; he was 30 years old and she was 29. Her brother conducted the ceremony and a modest reception followed at her father's house. After their marriage the Alcotts moved to 12 Franklin Street in Boston, a boarding house run by a Mrs. Newall. Around this time, Alcott also first expressed his public disdain for slavery. In November 1830, he and William Lloyd Garrison founded what he later called a \"preliminary Anti-Slavery Society\", though he differed from Garrison as a nonresistant. Alcott became a member of the Boston Vigilance Committee.\n\nAttendance at Alcott's school was falling. A wealthy Quaker named Reuben Haines proposed he and educator William Russell start a new school in Pennsylvania associated with the Germantown Academy. Alcott accepted and he and his newly pregnant wife set forth on December 14. The school was established in Germantown and the Alcotts were offered a rent-free home by Haines. Alcott and Russell were initially concerned that the area would not be conducive to their progressive approach to education and considered establishing the school in nearby Philadelphia instead. Unsuccessful, they went back to Germantown, though the rent-free home was no longer available and the Alcotts instead had to rent rooms in a boarding-house. It was there that their first child, a daughter they named Anna Bronson Alcott, was born on March 16, 1831, after 36 hours of labor. By the fall of that year, their benefactor Haines died suddenly and the Alcotts again suffered financial difficulty. \"We hardly earn the bread\", wrote Abby May to her brother, \"and the butter we have to think about.\"\n\nThe couple's only son was born on April 6, 1839, but lived only a few minutes. The mother recorded: \"Gave birth to a fine boy full grown perfectly formed but not living\". It was in Germantown that the couple's second daughter was born. Louisa May Alcott was born on her father's birthday, November 29, 1832, at a half-hour past midnight. Bronson described her as \"a very fine healthful child, much more so than Anna was at birth\". The Germantown school, however, was faltering; soon only eight pupils remained. Their benefactor Haines died before Louisa's birth. He had helped recruit students and even paid tuition for some of them. As Abby wrote, his death \"has prostrated all our hopes here\". On April 10, 1833, the family moved to Philadelphia, where Alcott ran a day school. As usual, Alcott's methods were controversial; a former student later referred to him as \"the most eccentric man who ever took on himself to train and form the youthful mind.\" Alcott began to believe Boston was the best place for his ideas to flourish. He contacted theologian William Ellery Channing for support. Channing approved of Alcott's methods and promised to help find students to enroll, including his daughter Mary. Channing also secured aid from Justice Lemuel Shaw and Boston mayor Josiah Quincy, Jr.\n\n===Experimental educator===\nOn September 22, 1834, Alcott opened a school of about 30 students, mostly from wealthy families. It was named the Temple School because classes were held at the Masonic Temple on Tremont Street in Boston. His assistant was Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, later replaced by Margaret Fuller. Mary Peabody Mann served as a French instructor for a time. The school was briefly famous, and then infamous, because of his original methods. Before 1830, writing (except in higher education) equated to rote drills in the rules of grammar, spelling, vocabulary, penmanship and transcription of adult texts. However, in that decade, progressive reformers such as Alcott, influenced by Pestalozzi as well as Friedrich Fröbel and Johann Friedrich Herbart, began to advocate writing about subjects from students' personal experiences. Reformers debated against beginning instruction with rules and were in favor of helping students learn to write by expressing the personal meaning of events within their own lives. Alcott's plan was to develop self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with an emphasis on conversation and questioning rather than lecturing and drill, which were prevalent in the U.S. classrooms of the time. Alongside writing and reading, he gave lessons in \"spiritual culture\", which included interpretation of the Gospels, and advocated ''object teaching'' in writing instruction. He even went so far as to decorate his schoolroom with visual elements he thought would inspire learning: paintings, books, comfortable furniture, and busts or portraits of Plato, Socrates, Jesus, and William Ellery Channing.\n\nDuring this time, the Alcotts had another child. Born on June 24, 1835, she was named Elizabeth Peabody Alcott in honor of the teaching assistant at the Temple School. By age three, however, her mother changed her name to Elizabeth ''Sewall'' Alcott, after her own mother.\n\n''Record of a School'', a chronicle of Alcott's Temple School, was published in 1835.\nIn July 1835, Peabody published her account as an assistant to the Temple School as ''Record of a School: Exemplifying the General Principles of Spiritual Culture''. While working on a second book, Alcott and Peabody had a falling out and ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels'' was prepared with help from Peabody's sister Sophia, published at the end of December 1836. Alcott's methods were not well received; many found his conversations on the Gospels close to blasphemous. For example, he asked students to question if Biblical miracles were literal and suggested that all people are part of God. In the ''Boston Daily Advertiser'', Nathan Hale criticized Alcott's \"flippant and off hand conversation\" about serious topics from the Virgin birth of Jesus to circumcision. Joseph T. Buckingham called Alcott \"either insane or half-witted\" and \"an ignorant and presuming charlatan\". The book did not sell well; a Boston lawyer bought 750 copies to use as waste paper.\n\nThe temple school was widely denounced in the press. Reverend James Freeman Clarke was one of Alcott's few supporters and defended him against the harsh response from Boston periodicals. Alcott was rejected by most public opinion and, by the summer of 1837, he had only 11 students left and no assistant after Margaret Fuller moved to Providence, Rhode Island. The controversy had caused many parents to remove their children and, as the school closed, Alcott became increasingly financially desperate. Remaining steadfast to his pedagogy, a forerunner of progressive and democratic schooling, he alienated parents in a later \"parlor school\" by admitting an African American child to the class, whom he then refused to expel in the face of protests.\n\n===Transcendentalism===\nBeginning in 1836, Alcott's membership in the Transcendental Club put him in such company as Ralph Waldo Emerson, Orestes Brownson and Theodore Parker. He became a member with the Club's second meeting and hosted their third. A biographer of Emerson described the group as \"the occasional meetings of a changing body of liberal thinkers, agreeing in nothing but their liberality\". Frederic Henry Hedge wrote of the group's nature: \"There was no club in the strict sense... only occasional meetings of like-minded men and women\". Alcott preferred the term \"Symposium\" for their group.\n\nIn late April 1840, Alcott moved to the town of Concord urged by Emerson. He rented a home for $50 a year within walking distance of Emerson's house; he named it Dove Cottage, though they also called it Concordia Cottage. A supporter of Alcott's philosophies, Emerson offered to help with his writing, which proved a difficult task. After several revisions, for example, he deemed the essay \"Psyche\" (Alcott's account of how he educated his daughters) unpublishable. Alcott also wrote a series patterned after the work of German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe which were eventually published in the Transcendentalists' journal, ''The Dial''. Emerson wrote to Margaret Fuller, then editor, that they might \"pass muster & even pass for just & great\". He was wrong. Alcott's so-called \"Orphic Sayings\" were widely mocked for being silly and unintelligible; Fuller herself disliked them, but did not want to hurt Alcott's feelings. In the first issue, for example, he wrote:\n\n\nOn July 26, 1840, Abby May gave birth again. Originally referred to as Baby for several months, she was eventually named Abby May after her mother. As a teenager, she changed the spelling of her name to \"Abbie\" before choosing to use only \"May\".\n\nWith financial support from Emerson, Alcott left Concord on May 8, 1842, to a visit to England, leaving his brother Junius with his family. He met two admirers, Charles Lane and Henry C. Wright. The two men were leaders of Alcott House, an experimental school based on Alcott's methods from the Temple School located about ten miles outside London. The school's founder, James Pierpont Greaves, had only recently died but Alcott was invited to stay there for a week. Alcott persuaded them to come to the United States with him; Lane and his son moved into the Alcott house and helped with family chores. Persuaded in part by Lane's abolitionist views, Alcott took a stand against the John Tyler administration's plan to annex Texas as a slave territory and refused to pay his poll tax. Abby May wrote in her journal on January 17, 1843, \"A day of some excitement, as Mr. Alcott refused to pay his town tax... After waiting some time to be committed to jail, he was told it was paid by a friend. Thus we were spared the affliction of his absence and the triumph of suffering for his principles.\" The annual poll tax was only $1.50. The incident inspired Henry David Thoreau, whose similar protest led to a night in jail and his essay \"Civil Disobedience\". Around this time, the Alcott family set up a sort of domestic post office to curb potential domestic tension. Abby May described her idea: \"I thought it would afford a daily opportunity for the children, indeed all of us, to interchange thought and sentiment\".\n\n===Fruitlands===\nAlcott and Charles Lane founded \"Fruitlands\" in 1843.\n\nLane and Alcott collaborated on a major expansion of their educational theories into a Utopian society. Alcott, however, was still in debt and could not purchase the land needed for their planned community. In a letter, Lane wrote, \"I do not see anyone to act the money part but myself.\" In May 1843, he purchased a farm in Harvard, Massachusetts. Up front, he paid $1,500 of the total $1,800 value of the property; the rest was meant to be paid by the Alcotts over a two-year period. They moved to the farm on June 1 and optimistically named it \"Fruitlands\" despite only ten old apple trees on the property. In July, Alcott announced their plans in ''The Dial'': \"We have made an arrangement with the proprieter of an estate of about a hundred acres, which liberates this tract from human ownership\".\n\nTheir goal was to regain access to Eden by finding the correct formula for perfect living, following specific rules governing agriculture, diet, and reproduction. In order to achieve this, they removed themselves from the economy as much as possible and lived independently; unlike a similar project named Brook Farm, the participants at Fruitlands avoided interaction with local communities. Calling themselves a \"consociate family\", they agreed to follow a strict vegetarian diet and to till the land without the use of animal labor. After some difficulty, they relented and allowed some cattle to be \"enslaved\". They also banned coffee, tea, alcoholic drinks, milk, and warm bathwater. They only ate \"aspiring vegetables\"—those which grew upward—and refused those that grew downward like potatoes. As Alcott had published earlier, \"Our wine is water,—flesh, bread;—drugs, fruits.\" For clothing, they prohibited leather because animals were killed for it, as well as cotton, silk, and wool, because they were products of slave labor. Alcott had high expectations but was often away when the community most needed him as he attempted to recruit more members.\n\nThe experimental community was never successful, partly because most of the land was not arable. Alcott lamented, \"None of us were prepared to actualize practically the ideal life of which we dreamed. So we fell apart\". Its founders were often away as well; in the middle of harvesting, they left for a lecture tour through Providence, Rhode Island, New York City, and New Haven, Connecticut. In its seven months, only 13 people joined, included the Alcotts and Lanes. Other than Abby May and her daughters, only one other woman joined, Ann Page. One rumor is that Page was asked to leave after eating a fish tail with a neighbor. Lane believed Alcott had misled him into thinking enough people would join the enterprise and developed a strong dislike for the nuclear family. He quit the project and moved to a nearby Shaker family with his son. After Lane's departure, Alcott fell into a depression and could not speak or eat for three days. Abby May thought Lane purposely sabotaged her family. She wrote to her brother, \"All Mr. Lane's efforts have been to disunite us. But Mr. Alcott's ... paternal instincts were too strong for him.\" When the final payment on the farm was owed, Sam May refused to cover his brother-in-law's debts, as he often did, possibly at Abby May's suggestion. The experiment failed, the Alcotts had to leave Fruitlands.\n\nThe members of the Alcott family were not happy with their Fruitlands experience. At one point, Abby May threatened that she and their daughters would move elsewhere, leaving Bronson behind. Louisa May Alcott, who was ten years old at the time, later wrote of the experience in ''Transcendental Wild Oats'' (1873): \"The band of brothers began by spading garden and field; but a few days of it lessened their ardor amazingly.\"\n\n===Return to Concord===\nThe Wayside, home in turn to the Alcott family, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Margaret Sidney\nIn January 1844, Alcott moved his family to Still River, a village within Harvard but, on March 1, 1845, the family returned to Concord to live in a home they named \"The Hillside\" (later renamed \"The Wayside\" by Nathaniel Hawthorne). Both Emerson and Sam May assisted in securing the home for the Alcotts. While living in the home, Louisa began writing in earnest and was given her own room. She later said her years at the home \"were the happiest years\" of her life; many of the incidents in her novel ''Little Women'' (1868) are based on this period. Alcott renovated the property, moving a barn and painting the home a rusty olive color, as well as tending to over six acres of land. On May 23, 1845, Abby May was granted a sum from her father's estate which was put into a trust fund, granting minor financial security. That summer, Bronson Alcott let Henry David Thoreau borrow his ax to prepare his home at Walden Pond.\n\nThe Alcotts hosted a steady stream of visitors at The Hillside, including fugitive slaves, which they hosted in secret as a station of the Underground Railroad. Alcott's opposition to slavery also fueled his opposition to the Mexican–American War which began in 1846. He considered the war a blatant attempt to extend slavery and asked if the country was made up of \"a people bent on conquest, on getting the golden treasures of Mexico into our hands, and of subjugating foreign peoples?\"\n\nIn 1848, Abby May insisted they leave Concord, which she called \"cold, heartless, brainless, soulless\". The Alcott family put The Hillside up for rent and moved to Boston. There, next door to Peabody's book store on West Street, Bronson Alcott hosted a series based on the \"Conversations\" model by Margaret Fuller called \"A Course on the Conversations on Man—his History, Resources, and Expectations\". Participants, both men and women, were charged three dollars to attend or five dollars for all seven lectures. In March 1853, Alcott was invited to teach fifteen students at Harvard Divinity School in an extracurricular, non-credit course.\n\nAlcott and his family moved back to Concord after 1857, where he and his family lived in the Orchard House until 1877. In 1860, Alcott was named superintendent of Concord Schools.\n\n===Civil War years and beyond===\nOrchard House in Concord, Massachusetts\nAlcott voted in a presidential election for the first time in 1860. In his journal for November 6, 1860, he wrote: \"At Town House, and cast my vote for Lincoln and the Republican candidates generally—the first vote I ever cast for a President and State officers.\" Alcott was an abolitionist and a friend of the more radical William Lloyd Garrison. He had attended a rally led by Wendell Phillips on behalf of 17-year-old Thomas Sims, a fugitive slave on trial in Boston. Alcott was one of several who attempted to storm the courthouse; when gunshots were heard, he was the only one who stood his ground, though the effort was unsuccessful. He had also stood his ground in a protest against the trial of Anthony Burns. A group had broken down the door of the Boston courthouse but guards beat them back. Alcott stood forward and asked the leader of the group, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, \"Why are we not within?\" He then walked calmly into the courthouse, was threatened with a gun, and turned back, \"but without hastening a step\", according to Higginson.\n\nIn 1862, Louisa moved to Washington, D.C. to volunteer as a nurse. On January 14, 1863, the Alcotts received a telegram that Louisa was sick; Bronson immediately went to bring her home, briefly meeting Abraham Lincoln while there. Louisa turned her experience into the book ''Hospital Sketches''. Her father wrote of it, \"I see nothing in the way of a good appreciation of Louisa's merits as a woman and a writer.\"\n\nHenry David Thoreau died on May 6, 1862, likely from an illness he caught from Alcott two years earlier. \nAt Emerson's request, Alcott helped arrange Thoreau's funeral, which was held at First Parish Sanctuary in Concord, despite Thoreau having disavowed membership in the church when he was in his early twenties. Emerson wrote a eulogy, and Alcott helped plan the preparations. Only two years later, neighbor Nathaniel Hawthorne died as well. Alcott served as a pallbearer along with Louis Agassiz, James Thomas Fields, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, and others. With Hawthorne's death, Alcott worried that few of the Concord notables remained. He recorded in his journal: \"Fair figures one by one are fading from sight.\" The next year, Lincoln was assassinated, which Alcott called \"appalling news\".\n\nIn 1868, Alcott met with publisher Thomas Niles, an admirer of ''Hospital Sketches''. Alcott asked Niles if he would publish a book of short stories by his daughter; instead, he suggested she write a book about girls. Louisa May was not interested initially but agreed to try. \"They want a book of 200 pages or more\", Alcott told his daughter. The result was ''Little Women'', published later that year. The book, which fictionalized the Alcott family during the girls' coming-of-age years, recast the father figure as a chaplain, away from home at the front in the Civil War.\n\nAlcott spoke, as opportunity arose, before the \"lyceums\" then common in various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of hearers as they invited him. These \"conversations\" as he called them, were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics, spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the ideas of the school of American Transcendentalists led by Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer. He often discussed Platonic philosophy, the illumination of the mind and soul by direct communion with Spirit; upon the spiritual and poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit to man of a serene mood and a simple way of life.\n\n===Final years===\nHillside Chapel, home to Alcott's Concord School of Philosophy\nAlcott's published books, all from late in his life, include ''Tablets'' (1868), ''Concord Days'' (1872), ''New Connecticut'' (1881), and ''Sonnets and Canzonets'' (1882). Louisa May attended to her father's needs in his final years. She purchased a house for her sister Anna which had been the last home of Henry David Thoreau, now known as the Thoreau-Alcott House. Louisa and her parents moved in with Anna as well.\n\nAfter the death of his wife Abby May on November 25, 1877, Alcott never returned to Orchard House, too heartbroken to live there. He and Louisa May collaborated on a memoir and went over her papers, letters, and journals. \"My heart bleeds with the memories of those days\", he wrote, \"and even long years, of cheerless anxiety and hopeless dependence.\" Louisa noted her father had become \"restless with his anchor gone\". They gave up on the memoir project and Louisa burned many of her mother's papers.\n\nOn January 19, 1879, Alcott and Franklin Benjamin Sanborn wrote a prospectus for a new school which they distributed to potentially interested people throughout the country. The result was the Concord School of Philosophy and Literature, which held its first session in 1879 in Alcott's study in the Orchard House. In 1880 the school moved to the Hillside Chapel, a building next to the house, where he held conversations and, over the course of successive summers, as he entered his eighties, invited others to give lectures on themes in philosophy, religion and letters. The school, considered one of the first formal adult education centers in America, was also attended by foreign scholars. It continued for nine years.\n\nIn April 1882, Alcott's friend and benefactor Ralph Waldo Emerson was sick and bedridden. After visiting him, Alcott wrote, \"Concord will be shorn of its human splendor when he withdraws behind the cloud.\" Emerson died the next day. Alcott himself moved out of Concord for his final years, settling at 10 Louisburg Square in Boston beginning in 1885.\n\nAs he was bedridden at the end of his life, Alcott's daughter Louisa May came to visit him at Louisburg on March 1, 1888. He said to her, \"I am going ''up. Come with me''.\" She responded, \"I wish I could.\" He died three days later on March 4; Louisa May died only two days after her father.\n",
"Alcott was fundamentally and philosophically opposed to corporal punishment as a means of disciplining his students. Instead, beginning at the Temple School, he would appoint a daily student superintendent. When that student observed an infraction, he or she reported it to the rest of the class and, as a whole, they deliberated on punishment. At times, Alcott offered his own hand for an offending student to strike, saying that any failing was the teacher's responsibility. The shame and guilt this method induced, he believed, was far superior to the fear instilled by corporal punishment; when he used physical \"correction\" he required that the students be unanimously in support of its application, even including the student to be punished.\n\nThe most detailed discussion of his theories on education is in an essay, \"Observations on the Principles and Methods of Infant Instruction\". Alcott believed that early education must draw out \"unpremeditated thoughts and feelings of the child\" and emphasized that infancy should primarily focus on enjoyment. He noted that learning was not about the acquisition of facts but the development of a reflective state of mind.\n\nAlcott's ideas as an educator were controversial. Writer Harriet Martineau, for example, wrote dubiously that, \"the master presupposes his little pupils possessed of all truth; and that his business is to bring it out into expression\". Even so, his ideas helped to found one of the first adult education centers in America, and provided the foundation for future generations of liberal education. Many of Alcott's educational principles are still used in classrooms today, including \"teach by encouragement\", art education, music education, acting exercises, learning through experience, risk-taking in the classroom, tolerance in schools, physical education/recess, and early childhood education. The teachings of William Ellery Channing a few years earlier had also laid the groundwork for the work of most of the Concord Transcendentalists.\n\nThe Concord School of Philosophy, which closed following Alcott's death in 1888, was reopened almost 90 years later in the 1970s. It has continued functioning with a Summer Conversational Series in its original building at Orchard House, now run by the Louisa May Alcott Memorial Association.\n\nWhile many of Alcott's ideas continue to be perceived as being on the liberal/radical edge, they are still common themes in society, including vegetarian/veganism, sustainable living, and temperance/self-control. Alcott described his sustenance as a \"Pythagorean diet\": meat, eggs, butter, cheese, and milk were excluded and drinking was confined to well water. Alcott believed that diet held the key to human perfection and connected physical well-being to mental improvement. He further viewed a perfection of nature to the spirit and, in a sense, predicted modern environmentalism by condemning pollution and encouraging humankind's role in sustaining ecology.\n",
"Alcott in his study at Orchard House\nAlcott's philosophical teachings have been criticized as inconsistent, hazy or abrupt. He formulated no system of philosophy, and shows the influence of Plato, German mysticism, and Immanuel Kant as filtered through the writings of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Margaret Fuller referred to Alcott as \"a philosopher of the balmy times of ancient Greece—a man whom the worldlings of Boston hold in as much horror as the worldlings of Athens held Socrates.\" In his later years, Alcott related a story from his boyhood: during a total solar eclipse, he threw rocks at the sky until he fell and dislocated his shoulder. He reflected that the event was a prophecy that he would be \"tilting at the sun and always catching the fall\".\n\nLike Emerson, Alcott was always optimistic, idealistic, and individualistic in thinking. Writer James Russell Lowell referred to Alcott in his poem \"Studies for Two Heads\" as \"an angel with clipped wings\". Even so, Emerson noted that Alcott's brilliant conversational ability did not translate into good writing. \"When he sits down to write,\" Emerson wrote, \"all his genius leaves him; he gives you the shells and throws away the kernel of his thought.\" His \"Orphic Sayings\", published in ''The Dial'', became famous for their hilarity as dense, pretentious, and meaningless. In New York, for example, ''The Knickerbocker'' published a parody titled \"Gastric Sayings\" in November 1840. A writer for the ''Boston Post'' referred to Alcott's \"Orphic Sayings\" as \"a train of fifteen railroad cars with one passenger\".\n\nModern critics often fault Alcott for not being able to financially support his family. Alcott himself worried about his own prospects as a young man, once writing to his mother that he was \"still at my old trade—hoping.\" Alcott held his principles above his well-being. Shortly before his marriage, for example, his future father-in-law Colonel Joseph May helped him find a job teaching at a school in Boston run by the Society of Free Enquirers, followers of Robert Owen, for a lucrative $1,000 to $1,200 annual salary. He refused it because he did not agree with their beliefs, writing, \"I shall have nothing to do with them.\"\n\nFrom the other perspective, Alcott's unique teaching ideas created an environment which produced two famous daughters in different fields, in a time when women were not commonly encouraged to have independent careers.\n",
"* ''Observations on the Principles and Methods of Infant Instruction'' (1830)\n* ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels'' (Volume I, 1836)\n* ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels'' (Volume II, 1837)\n* ''Concord Days'' (1872)\n* ''Table-talk'' (1877)\n* ''New Connecticut. an Autobiographical Poem'' (1887; first edition privately printed in 1882)\n* ''Sonnets and Canzonets'' (1882)\n* ''Ralph Waldo Emerson, Philosopher and Seer: An Estimate of His Character and Genius in Prose and Verse'' (1882)\n* ''The journals of Bronson Alcott''\n",
"\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n*\n* \n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n*\n",
"\n* \n* \n* Amos Bronson Alcott Network\n* Alcott biography on American Transcendentalism Web\n* Alcott at Perspectives in American Literature\n* Bronson Alcott: A glimpse at our vegetarian heritage, by Karen Iacobbo\n* Guide to Books from the library of Amos Bronson Alcott at Houghton Library, Harvard University\n* Guide to Amos Bronson Alcott papers at Houghton Library, Harvard University\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life and work",
"Beliefs",
"Criticism",
"Works",
"References",
"External links"
] | Amos Bronson Alcott |
[
"\n\n\n'''Arachnophobia''' is a specific phobia: the fear of spiders and other arachnids such as scorpions.\n",
"People with arachnophobia tend to feel uneasy in any area they believe could harbor spiders or that has visible signs of their presence, such as webs. If arachnophobics see a spider, they may not enter the general vicinity until they have overcome the panic attack that is often associated with their phobia. Some people scream, cry, have emotional outbursts, experience trouble breathing, sweat, have heart palpitations, or even faint when they come in contact with an area near spiders or their webs. In some extreme cases, even a picture or a realistic drawing of a spider can trigger intense fear.\n",
"\n===Evolutionary===\nAn evolutionary reason for the phobias remains unresolved. One view, especially held in evolutionary psychology, is that the presence of venomous spiders led to the evolution of a fear of spiders or made acquisition of a fear of spiders especially easy. Like all traits, there is variability in the intensity of fears of spiders, and those with more intense fears are classified as phobic. Spiders, for instance, being relatively small, do not fit the usual criterion for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a factor, but they can be venomous.\n\nBy ensuring that their surroundings were free from spiders, arachnophobes would have had a reduced risk of being bitten in ancestral environments, giving them a slight advantage over non-arachnophobes in terms of survival. However, having a disproportional fear of spiders in comparison to the other, potentially dangerous creatures that were present during ''Homo sapiens''' environment of evolutionary adaptiveness may have had drawbacks.\n\nArachnophobia may be an exaggerated form of an instinctive response that helped early humans to survive, or a cultural phenomenon that is most common in predominantly European societies.\n\nStudies have shown that crickets can develop a fear of spiders before birth. Research also suggests the widespread fear of spiders may be innate in humans.\n\n===Cultural===\nThough many arachnids are harmless, a person with arachnophobia may still panic or feel uneasy around one. Sometimes, even an object resembling a spider can trigger a panic attack in an arachnophobia individual. The above cartoon is a depiction of the nursery rhyme \"Little Miss Muffet,\" in which the title character is \"frightened away\" by a spider.\n\nThe alternative view is that the dangers, such as from spiders, are overrated and not sufficient to influence evolution. Instead, inheriting phobias would have restrictive and debilitating effects upon survival, rather than being an aid. For some communities such as in Papua New Guinea, Cambodia, Costa Rica and South America (except Chile, Colombia, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina and Bolivia), spiders are included in traditional foods. This suggests arachnophobia may be a cultural, rather than genetic trait.\n",
"The fear of spiders can be treated by any of the general techniques suggested for specific phobias.\n\nThe first line of treatment is systematic desensitization – also known as exposure therapy – which was first described by South African psychiatrist Joseph Wolpe. In addition, beta blockers, serotonin reuptake inhibitors and sedatives are used in the treatment of phobias.\n\nBefore engaging in systematic desensitization it is common to train the individual with arachnophobia in relaxation techniques, which will help keep the patient calm. Systematic desensitization can be done in vivo (with live spiders) or by getting the individual to imagine situations involving spiders, then modelling interaction with spiders for the person affected and eventually interacting with real spiders. This technique can be effective in just one session. The discovery of the implication of N-methyl-D-aspartate in fear and fear extinction has led to the use of D-cycloserine—originally developed as an antibiotic—to augment the results of therapy.\n\nRecent advances in technology have enabled the use of virtual or augmented reality spiders for use in therapy. These techniques have proven to be effective.\n",
"Arachnophobia affects 3.5 to 6.1 percent of the population.\n",
"* ''Arachnophobia'' (film)\n* Apiphobia (fear of bees)\n* Entomophobia (fear of insects)\n* Myrmecophobia (fear of ants)\n* Zoophobia (fear of animals)\n",
"\n",
"\n*\n* National Geographic: \"Fear of Snakes, Spiders Rooted in Evolution, Study Finds\"\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Signs and symptoms",
"Reasons",
"Treatments",
"Epidemiology",
"See also",
"References",
" External links "
] | Arachnophobia |
[
"\nNational Museum, Warsaw.\nBast; from the tomb of Tutankhamun (d. 1323 BC). Egyptian Museum, Cairo.\n\n'''Alabaster''' is a mineral or rock that is soft and often used for carving, as well as being processed for plaster powder. The term is used in different ways by archaeologists and the stone processing industry on the one hand, and geologists on the other. The first use is in a wider meaning, covering varieties of two different minerals: the fine-grained massive type of gypsum, as well as the fine-grained banded type of calcite. Geologists only define the gypsum variety as alabaster. Chemically, gypsum is a hydrous sulfate of calcium, while calcite is a carbonate of calcium.\n\nBoth types of alabaster have broadly similar properties. They are usually light-coloured, translucent and soft stones that have been used throughout human history mainly for carving decorative artifacts.\n\nThe calcite variety is also known as '''onyx-marble''', '''Egyptian alabaster''', or '''Oriental alabaster''' and is geologically described as either a compact banded travertine or \"a stalagmitic limestone marked with patterns of swirling bands of cream and brown\". \"Onyx-marble\" must be understood as a traditional, but geologically inaccurate term, since both onyx and marble have geological definitions distinct from even the widest one applicable for alabaster.\n\nIn general (but not always), ancient alabaster is calcite in the wider Middle East, including Egypt and Mesopotamia, while it is gypsum in medieval Europe. Modern alabaster is probably calcite, but may be either. Both are easy to work and slightly water-soluble. They have been used for making a variety of indoor artworks and carvings, as they will not survive long outdoors.\n\nThe two kinds are readily distinguished by differences in their hardness: gypsum alabaster is so soft it can be scratched with a fingernail (Mohs hardness 1.5 to 2), while calcite cannot be scratched in this way (Mohs hardness 3), although it does yield to a knife. Moreover, calcite alabaster, being a carbonate, effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid, while gypsum alabaster remains nearly unaffected when thus treated.\n",
"The origin of the word ''alabaster'' is in Middle English through Old French ''alabastre'', in turn derived from the Latin ''alabaster'', and that from Greek ''ἀλάβαστρος'' (''alabastros'') or ''ἀλάβαστος'' (''alabastos''). The Greek words were used to identify a vase made of alabaster.\n\nThis name may be derived further from the Ancient Egyptian word ''a-labaste'', which refers to vessels of the Egyptian goddess Bast. She was represented as a lioness and frequently depicted as such in figures placed atop these alabaster vessels. Other suggestions include derivation from the town of Alabastron in Egypt, described in sometimes contradictory manner by Roman-era authors Pliny (''On Stones'') and Ptolemy (''Geography'') and whose location is not yet known.\n",
"The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine uniform grain, but it often is associated with an oxide of iron, which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of gypsum alabaster are converted by calcination into plaster of Paris, and are sometimes known as \"plaster stone.\"\n\nThe softness of alabaster enables it to be carved readily into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it unsuitable for outdoor work. If alabaster with a smooth, polished surface is washed with dishwashing liquid, it will become rough, dull and whiter, losing most of its translucency and lustre. The finer kinds of alabaster are employed largely as an ornamental stone, especially for ecclesiastical decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls.\n",
"Alabaster workshop in Volterra\n\n===Working techniques===\nAlabaster is mined and then sold in blocks to alabaster workshops. There they are cut to the needed size (\"squaring\"), and then are processed in different techniques: turned on a lathe for round shapes, carved into three-dimensional sculptures, chiselled to produce low relief figures or decoration; and then given an elaborate finish that reveals its transparency, colour, and texture.\n\n===Marble imitation===\nIn order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and heated gradually—nearly to the boiling point—an operation requiring great care, because if the temperature is not regulated carefully, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely resembles true marble and is known as \"marmo di Castellina\".\n\n===Dyeing===\nAlabaster is a porous stone and can be \"dyed\" into any colour or shade, a technique used for centuries. For this the stone needs to be fully immersed in various pigmentary solutions and heated to a specific temperature. The technique can be used to disguise alabaster. In this way a very misleading imitation of coral that is called \"alabaster coral\" is produced.\n",
"A calcite alabaster perfume jar from the tomb of Tutankhamun, d. 1323 BC\nTypically only one type is sculpted in any particular cultural environment, but sometimes both have been worked to make similar pieces in the same place and time. This was the case with small flasks of the alabastron type made in Cyprus from the Bronze Age into the Classical period.\n\n===Window panels===\nMorella, Spain (built 13th-16th centuries)\nWhen cut in thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows. It was used for this purpose in Byzantine churches and later in medieval ones, especially in Italy. Large sheets of Aragonese gypsum alabaster are used extensively in the contemporary Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, which was dedicated in 2002 by the Los Angeles, California Archdiocese. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque. The ancients used the calcite type, while the modern Los Angeles cathedral is using gypsum alabaster.\n \n===Calcite alabaster===\nCalcite alabaster, harder than the gypsum variety, was the kind primarily used in ancient Egypt and the wider Middle East (but not Assyrian palace reliefs), and is also used in modern times. It is found as either a stalagmitic deposit from the floor and walls of limestone caverns, or as a kind of travertine, similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that the marble often shows on cross-section, from which its name is derived: onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply (and wrongly) as onyx.\n\n====Egypt and the Middle East====\nEgyptian alabaster has been worked extensively near Suez and Assiut.\n\nThis stone variety is the \"alabaster\" of the ancient Egyptians and Bible and is often termed ''Oriental alabaster'', since the early examples came from the Far East. The Greek name ''alabastrites'' is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron in Egypt, where the stone was quarried. The locality probably owed its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral name is obscure (though see above).\n\nThe \"Oriental\" alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume bottles or ointment vases called alabastra; the vessel name has been suggested as a possible source of the mineral name. In Egypt, craftsmen used alabaster for canopic jars and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. A sarcophagus discovered in the tomb of Seti I near Thebes is on display in Sir John Soane's Museum, London; it is carved in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron.\n\nAlgerian onyx-marble has been quarried largely in the province of Oran.\n\n====North America====\nIn Mexico, there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at La Pedrara, in the district of Tecali, near Puebla. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of Tehuacán and at several localities in the US including California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Virginia.\n\n===Gypsum alabaster===\nGypsum alabaster is the softer of the two varieties, the other being calcite alabaster. It was used primarily in medieval Europe, and is also used in modern times.\n\n====Ancient and Classical Near East====\nWounded lion, detail from the ''Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal'', 7th century BC, British Museum\n\"Mosul marble\" is a kind of gypsum alabaster found in the north of modern Iraq, which was used for the Assyrian palace reliefs of the 9th to 7th centuries BC; these are the largest type of alabaster sculptures to have been regularly made. The relief is very low and the carving detailed, but large rooms were lined with continuous compositions on slabs around 7 foot high. The ''Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal'' and military Lachish reliefs, both 7th century and in the British Museum, are some of the best known.\n\nGypsum alabaster was very widely used for small sculpture for indoor use in the ancient world, especially in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Fine detail could be obtained in a material with an attractive finish without iron or steel tools. Alabaster was used for vessels dedicated for use in the cult of the deity Bast in the culture of the ancient Egyptians, and thousands of gypsum alabaster artifacts dating to the late 4th millennium BC also have been found in Tell Brak (present day Nagar), in Syria.\n\nIn Mesopotamia, gypsum alabaster was the typical material for figures of deities and devotees from temples, as in a figure believed to represent the deity, Abu, dating to the first half of the 3rd millennium BC in New York.\n\n====Aragon, Spain====\nMuch of the world's alabaster extraction is performed in the centre of the Ebro Valley in Aragon, Spain, which has the world's largest known exploitable deposits. According to a brochure published by the Aragon government, alabaster has elsewhere either been depleted, or its extraction is so difficult that it has almost been abandoned or is carried out at a very high cost. There are two separate sites in Aragon, both are located in Tertiary basins. The most important site is the Fuentes-Azaila area, in the Tertiary Ebro Basin. The other is the Calatayud-Teruel Basin, which divides the Iberian Range in two main sectors (NW and SE).\n\nThe abundance of Aragonese alabaster was crucial for its use in architecture, sculpture and decoration. There is no record of likely use by pre-Roman cultures, so perhaps the first ones to use alabaster in Aragon were the Romans, who produced vessels from alabaster following the Greek and Egyptian models. It seems that since the reconstruction of the Roman Wall in Zaragoza in the 3rd century AD with alabaster, the use of this material became common in building for centuries. Muslim Saraqusta (today, Zaragoza) was also called \"Medina Albaida\", the White City, due to the appearance of its alabaster walls and palaces, which stood out among gardens, groves and orchards by the Ebro and Huerva Rivers.\n\nThe oldest remains in the Aljafería Palace, together with other interesting elements like capitals, reliefs and inscriptions, were made using alabaster, but it was during the artistic and economic blossoming of the Renaissance that Aragonese alabaster reached its Golden Age. In the 16th century sculptors in Aragon chose alabaster for their best works. They were adept at exploiting its lighting qualities and generally speaking the finished art pieces retained their natural color.\n\n====Volterra (Tuscany)====\nUplighter lamp, white and brown Italian alabaster, base diameter 13 cm (20th century)\nIn Europe, the centre of the alabaster trade today is Florence, Italy. Tuscan alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with marls of Miocene and Pliocene age. The mineral is worked largely by means of underground galleries, in the district of Volterra. Several varieties are recognized—veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from Castellina, is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved locally, into vases, lights, and various ornamental objects. These items are objects of extensive trade, especially in Florence, Pisa, and Livorno.\n\nIn the 3rd century BC the Etruscans used the alabaster of Tuscany from the area of modern-day Volterra to produce funeral urns, possibly taught by Greek artists. During the Middle Ages the craft of alabaster was almost completely forgotten. A revival started in the mid-16th century, and until the beginning of the 17th century alabaster work was strictly artistic and did not expand to form a large industry.\n\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries production of artistic, high-quality Renaissance-style artefacts stopped altogether, being replaced by less sophisticated, cheaper items better suited for large-scale production and commerce. The new industry prospered, but the reduced need of skilled craftsmen left only few still working. The 19th century brought a boom to the industry, largely due to the \"travelling artisans\" who went and offered their wares to the palaces of Europe, as well as to America and the East.\n\nIn the 19th century new processing technology was also introduced, allowing for the production of custom-made, unique pieces, as well as the combination of alabaster with other materials. Apart from the newly developed craft, artistic work became again possible, chiefly by Volterran sculptor Albino Funaioli. After a short slump, the industry was revived again by the sale of mass-produced mannerist Expressionist sculptures, and was further enhanced in the 1920s by a new branch creating ceiling and wall lamps in the Art Deco style and culminating in the participation at the 1925 International Exposition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts from Paris. Important names from the evolution of alabaster use after World War II are Volterran Umberto Borgna, the \"first alabaster designer\", and later on the architect and industrial designer Angelo Mangiarotti.\n\n====England and Wales====\nResurrection of Christ, typical Nottingham alabaster panel from an altarpiece set, 1450–90, with remains of the paint\n\nGypsum alabaster is a common mineral, which occurs in England in the Keuper marls of the Midlands, especially at Chellaston in Derbyshire, at Fauld in Staffordshire, and near Newark in Nottinghamshire. Deposits at all of these localities have been worked extensively.\n\nIn the 14th and 15th centuries its carving into small statues and sets of relief panels for altarpieces was a valuable local industry in Nottingham, as well as a major English export. These were usually painted, or partly painted. It was also used for the effigies, often life size, on tomb monuments, as the typical recumbent position suited the material's lack of strength, and it was cheaper and easier to work than good marble. After the English Reformation the making of altarpiece sets was discontinued, but funerary monument work in reliefs and statues continued.\n\nBesides examples of these carvings still in Britain (especially at the Nottingham Castle Museum, British Museum, and Victoria and Albert Museum), trade in mineral alabaster (rather than just the antiques trade) has scattered examples in the material that may be found as far afield as the Musée de Cluny, Spain, and Scandinavia.\n\nAlabaster also is found, although in smaller quantity, at Watchet in Somerset, near Penarth in Glamorganshire, and elsewhere. In Cumbria it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in thick nodular beds or \"floors\" in spheroidal masses known as \"balls\" or \"bowls\" and in smaller lenticular masses termed \"cakes.\" At Chellaston, where the local alabaster is known as \"Patrick,\" it has been worked into ornaments under the name of \"Derbyshire spar\"―a term more properly applied to fluorspar.\n\n====Black alabaster====\n''Black alabaster'' is a rare anhydrite form of the gypsum-based mineral. This black form is found in only three veins in the world, one each in Oklahoma, Italy, and China.\n\nAlabaster Caverns State Park, near Freedom, Oklahoma is home to a natural gypsum cave in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster.\n\n===Gallery===\n\n====Ancient and Classical Near East====\n\nEbih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg|''Statue of Ebih-Il'', Mari on the Euphrates, made of gypsum alabaster (25th century BC)\nStatue Ammaalay Louvre AO20282.jpg|Alabaster statue, Yemen (1st century BC)\nFile:Assyrian royal lion Hunt19.JPG|Assyrian relief; King Ashurbanipal spears a lion\n\n\n====European Middle Ages====\n\nNorbury, Derbyshire - Nicholas Fitzherbert.jpg|Alabaster tomb monument to Sir Nicholas Fitzherbert (died 1612)\nFile:Fossanova Abbey fc02.jpg|Fossanova Abbey church (12th century), Province of Latina, Italy; choir with alabaster windows\nFile:Casamari coro.jpg|Casamari Abbey church (1203–1217), Lazio, Italy; central apse with alabaster windows and rosette\nFile:Orvieto083.jpg|Alabaster window in 14th-century Orvieto Cathedral, Orvieto, Umbria, central Italy\n\n\n\n====Modern====\n\nArchaizing Relief of a Seated King and Attendants, late 19th century.jpg|Archaizing Relief of a Seated King and Attendants, Iran, Qajar period (late 19th century CE, in the style of 5th-4th century BC). Brooklyn Museum.\nAlabasterlampe Umgang Oktogon erleuchtet.jpg|Alabaster lamp, Aachen Cathedral, Germany (early 20th century)\nalabaster-satin spar.jpg|Objet d'art with gypsum alabaster base, showing typical mottling (modern)\n\n",
"\n===Mineralogy===\n*Calcite – mineral consisting of calcium carbonate (); archaeologists and stone trade professionals, unlike mineralogists, call one variety of calcite \"alabaster\"\n*Gypsum – mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (·); alabaster is one of its varieties\n**Anhydrite – a mineral closely related to gypsum\n**Calcium sulfate – the main inorganic compound () of gypsum\n*Fengite – translucent sheets of marble or alabaster used during the Early Middle Ages for windows instead of glass\n*List of minerals\n\n===Window and roof panels===\nChronological list of examples:\n*Mausoleum of Galla Placidia – 5th century, Ravenna\n*Basilica of San Vitale – 6th century, Ravenna\n*Valencia Cathedral – mainly 13th–14th century, Valencia, Spain; the lantern of the octagonal crossing tower\n*Orvieto Cathedral – 14th-century, Orvieto, Umbria, central Italy\n*St. Peter's Basilica – 17th century, Rome; alabaster window by Bernini (1598–1680) used to create a \"spotlight\"\n*Church of All Nations – 1924, Jerusalem, architect: Antonio Barluzzi. Windows fitted with dyed alabaster panels.\n*Church of the Transfiguration – 1924, Mount Tabor, architect: Antonio Barluzzi. Alabaster roofing was attempted.\n",
"\n",
"* Harrell J.A. (1990), \"Misuse of the term 'alabaster' in Egyptology,\" ''Göttinger Miszellen'', '''119''', pp. 37–42.\n* Mackintosh-Smith T. (1999), \"Moonglow from Underground\". Aramco World May–June 1999.\n",
"\n* ''More about alabaster and travertine'', brief guide explaining the confusing, different use of the same terms by geologists, archaeologists and the stone trade. Oxford University Museum of Natural History, 2012\n* Alabaster Craftmanship in Volterra\n* \n* Richard Hotchkiss, ''Alabaster'', student paper in geology; page of geology instructor Roger Weller, Cochise College, Arizona\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Properties and usability",
"Modern processing",
"Types, occurrence, history",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alabaster |
[
"\n\n'''Ahab''' (; ; ; ) was the seventh king of Israel since Jeroboam I, the son and successor of Omri, and the husband of Jezebel of Sidon, according to the Hebrew Scriptures. The Hebrew Bible presents Ahab as a wicked king. He is criticised for following the ways of his wife Jezebel, killing his subject Naboth, and leading the nation of Israel into idolatry.\n\nThe existence of Ahab is historically supported outside of the Bible. Shalmaneser III documented 853 BC that he defeated an alliance of a dozen kings in the Battle of Qarqar; one of these was Ahab.\n\nAhab became king of Israel in the thirty-eighth year of Asa, king of Judah, and reigned for twenty-two years, according to 1 Kings. \nWilliam F. Albright dated his reign to 869–850 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 874–853 BC. Most recently, Michael D. Coogan has dated Ahab's reign to 871–852 BC.\n",
"Omri (Ahab's father and founder of the short-lived Omri Dynasty) seems to have been a successful military leader; he is reported in the text of the Moabite Mesha Stele to have \"oppressed Moab for many days\". During Ahab's reign, Moab, which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary. Ahab was allied by marriage with Jehoshaphat, who was king of Judah. Only with Aram Damascus is he believed to have had strained relations.\n\nAhab married Jezebel, the daughter of the King of Tyre. 1 Kings 16–22 tells the story of Ahab and Jezebel, and indicates that Jezebel was a dominant influence on Ahab and strove to spread idol worship of Baal in Israel. Ahab was succeeded by Ahaziah and Jehoram, who reigned over Israel until Jehu's revolt of 842 BC.\nShalmaneser III's (859–824 BC) Kurkh Monolith names King Ahab. (See List of artifacts significant to the Bible)\n\n===Battle of Qarqar===\nThe Battle of Qarqar is mentioned in extra-biblical records, and was perhaps at Apamea, where Shalmaneser III of Assyria fought a great confederation of princes from Cilicia, Northern Syria, Israel, Ammon, and the tribes of the Syrian desert (853 BC), including Ahab the Israelite (''A-ha-ab-bu matSir-'a-la-a-a'') and Hadadezer (''Adad-'idri'').\n\nAhab's contribution was estimated at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. In reality, however, the number of chariots in Ahab's forces was probably closer to a number in the hundreds (based upon archaeological excavations of the area and the foundations of stables that have been found). If, however, the numbers are referring to allies it could possibly include forces from Tyre, Judah, Edom, and Moab. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in 849 BC and 846 BC against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success. According to the Tanakh, however, Ahab with 7,000 troops had previously overthrown Ben-hadad and his thirty-two kings, who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year obtained a decisive victory over him at Aphek, probably in the plain of Sharon at Antipatris (1 Kings 20). A treaty was made whereby Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from Ahab's father, and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted.\n\nJezreel has been identified as Ahab's fortified chariot and cavalry base.\n\n===Ahab and the Prophets===\nIn the Biblical text, Ahab has five important encounters with prophets. \nThe first encounter is with Elijah, whom Ahab refers to as \"the troubler of Israel\" (1 Kings 18:17), in which Elijah predicts a drought (1 Kings 17:1). This encounter ends with Elijah victorious over the official Baal prophets of Israel in a contest held for the sake of the Israelites and their king, Ahab. The contest ends when Elijah's God consumes the offering which the Baal worshipers could not induce their god to touch, after which Elijah slaughters the Baal prophets (1 Kings 18:17–40). The second encounter is between Ahab and an unnamed prophet in 1 Kings 20:22. The third is again between Ahab and an unnamed prophet who condemns Ahab for his actions in a battle that had just taken place (1 Kings 20:34-43). The fourth is when Elijah confronts Ahab over Ahab's and Jezebel's execution of Naboth and usurpation of the latter's ancestral vineyard (1 Kings 21:1-16). Upon the prophet's remonstration (\"Hast thou killed and also taken possession?\" (1 Kings, 21:19)), Ahab displayed sincere remorse (1 Kings 21:27). The fifth encounter is with Micaiah, the prophet who, when asked for advice on a military campaign, first assures Ahab he will be successful and ultimately gives Ahab a glimpse into God's plan for Ahab to die in battle (1 Kings 22).\nDeath of Ahab, by Gustave Doré\n===Death of Ahab===\nThree years later, war broke out east of the Jordan River, and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went to recover Ramoth-Gilead from the Arameans. During this battle Ahab disguised himself, but was mortally wounded by an unaimed arrow (1 Kings 22). The Hebrew Bible says that dogs licked his blood, according to the prophecy of Elijah. But the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) adds that pigs also licked his blood, symbolically making him unclean to the Israelites, who abstained from pork. Ahab was succeeded by his sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram.\n\nJezebel's death, however, was more dramatic than Ahab's. As recorded in 2 Kings 9:30-34, Jezebel was confronted by Jehu who had her servants throw her out the window, causing her death.\n",
"1 Kings 16:29 through 22:40 contains the story of Ahab's reign. This reign is one which faces opposition from several prophets of Yahweh throughout as well as various consequences because of his marriage to Jezebel, because of his worship of Baal, disobedience to prophetic warnings and words, and also because of the murder of Naboth. The murder of Naboth (see Jezebel), an act of royal encroachment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of the Israelite prophets, including Elijah and Micaiah. Indeed, he is referred to, for this and other things, as being \"more evil than all the kings before him\" (1 Kings 16:30). The followers of Yahweh found their champion in Elijah. His denunciation of the royal dynasty of Israel and his emphatic insistence on the worship of Yahweh and Yahweh alone, illustrated by the contest between Yahweh and Baal on Mount Carmel (1 Kings 18), form the keynote to a period which culminated in the accession of Jehu, an event in which Elijah's chosen disciple Elisha was the leading figure.\n",
"*Captain Ahab\n",
"\n",
"* Craig, James A. \"The Monolith Inscription of Salmaneser II.\" ''Hebraica'' 3,4 (1887): 201-232\n",
"* Ahab—Archaeowiki.org\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Ahab's life and reign",
"Legacy",
"See also",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Ahab |
[
"'''ASIC''' is an integrated circuit developed for a particular use, as opposed to a general-purpose device.\n\n'''ASIC''' may also refer to:\n* Accreditation Service for International Colleges, an educational accreditation agency in the UK\n* Acid-sensing ion channels, a protein family\n* Air and Space Interoperability Council \n* Arfoire Syndicate of International Crime, the antagonist group in the video game ''Hyperdimension Neptunia Mk2''\n* ASIC programming language, a dialect of BASIC\n* Associated Signature Containers (ASiC) specifies the use of container structures to bind together one or more signed objects with either advanced electronic signatures or time-stamp tokens into one single digital container.\n* Association for Science and Information on Coffee, see Andrea Illy\n* Australian Securities and Investments Commission, an independent Australian government body that acts as Australia's corporate regulator\n* Aviation Security Identification Card, an Australian identification card\n* Application-specific integrated circuit.\n",
"* ASICS, an athletic equipment company\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"See also"
] | ASIC (disambiguation) |
[
"\n\n'''Dasyproctidae''' is a family of large South American rodents, comprising the agoutis and acouchis. Their fur is a reddish or dark colour above, with a paler underside. They are herbivorous, often feeding on ripe fruit that falls from trees. They live in burrows, and, like squirrels, will bury some of their food for later use.\n\nDasyproctids exist in Central and South America, which are the tropical parts of the new world. The fossil record of this family can be traced back to the Oligocene period (34-23 million years ago). \n\nAs with all rodents, members of this family have incisors, pre-molars, and molars, but no canines. The cheek teeth are hypsodont and flat-crowned.\n",
"Fossil taxa follow McKenna and Bell, with modifications following Kramarz.\n\n*'''Family Dasyproctidae'''\n**Genus †''Alloiomys''\n**Genus †''Australoprocta''\n**Genus †''Branisamys''\n**Genus †''Incamys''\n**Genus †''Neoreomys''\n**Genus †''Megastus''\n**Genus †''Palmiramys''\n**Genus ''Dasyprocta''\n***Azara's agouti, ''D. azarae''\n***Coiban agouti, ''D. coibae''\n***Crested agouti, ''D. cristata''\n***Black agouti, ''D. fuliginosa''\n***Orinoco agouti, ''D. guamara''\n***Kalinowski's agouti, ''D. kalinowskii''\n***Red-rumped agouti, ''D. leporina''\n***Mexican agouti, ''D. mexicana''\n***Black-rumped agouti, ''D. prymnolopha''\n***Central American agouti, ''D. punctata''\n***Ruatan Island agouti, ''D. ruatanica''\n**Genus ''Myoprocta''\n***Green acouchi, ''M. pratti''\n***Red acouchi, ''M. acouchy''\n\nThe pacas (genus ''Cuniculus'') are placed by some authorities in Dasyproctidae, but molecular studies have demonstrated they do not form a monophyletic group.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nhttp://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=463\nhttp://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dasyproctidae/\nhttp://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1519-69842014000300585"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Classification",
"References"
] | Dasyproctidae |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Algol''', designated '''Beta Persei''' ('''β Persei''', abbreviated '''Beta Per''', '''β Per'''), known colloquially as the '''Demon Star''', is a bright multiple star in the constellation of Perseus. It is the first and best known eclipsing binary, and one of the first non-nova variable stars to be discovered. It is a three-star system, consisting of Beta Persei Aa1, Aa2, and Ab - in which the large and bright primary β Persei Aa1 is regularly eclipsed by the dimmer β Persei Aa2. Thus, Algol's magnitude is usually near-constant at 2.1, but regularly dips to 3.4 every 2.86 days (2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes) during the roughly 10-hour-long partial eclipses. There is also a secondary eclipse (the \"second minimum\") when the brighter star occults the fainter secondary. This secondary eclipse can only be detected photoelectrically.\n\nAlgol gives its name to its class of eclipsing variable, known as Algol variables.\n",
"The Algol system on 12 August 2009. This is a CHARA interferometer image with -milliarcsecond resolution in the near-infrared H-band. The elongated appearance of Algol Aa2 (labelled B) and the round appearance of Algol Aa1 (labelled A) are real, but the form of Algol Ab (labelled C) is an artifact.\nAn Ancient Egyptian Calendar of Lucky and Unlucky Days composed some 3,200 years ago is claimed to be the oldest historical document of the discovery of Algol.\n\n\nThe association of Algol with a demon-like creature (Gorgon in the Greek tradition, ghoul in the Arabic tradition) suggests that its variability was known long before the 17th century, but except for the Ancient Egyptian discovery there is still no indisputable evidence for this.\n\nThe variability of Algol was noted in 1667 by Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari, but the periodic nature of its variations in brightness was not recognized until more than a century later, when the British amateur astronomer John Goodricke also proposed a mechanism for the star's variability. In May 1783, he presented his findings to the Royal Society, suggesting that the periodic variability was caused by a dark body passing in front of the star (or else that the star itself has a darker region that is periodically turned toward the Earth). For his report he was awarded the Copley Medal.\n\nIn 1881, the Harvard astronomer Edward Charles Pickering presented evidence that Algol was actually an eclipsing binary. This was confirmed a few years later, in 1889, when the Potsdam astronomer Hermann Carl Vogel found periodic doppler shifts in the spectrum of Algol, inferring variations in the radial velocity of this binary system. Thus Algol became one of the first known spectroscopic binaries. Joel Stebbins at the University of Illinois Observatory used an early selenium cell photometer to produce the first-ever photoelectric study of a variable star. The light curve revealed the second minimum and the reflection effect between the two stars.\nSome difficulties in explaining the observed spectroscopic features led to the conjecture that a third star may be present in the system; four decades later this conjecture was found to be correct.\n",
"CHARA interferometer in the near-infrared H-band, sorted according to orbital phase. Because some phases are poorly covered, Aa2 jumps at some points along its path. Interpolation of the orbit of Aa2 around Aa1 with focus on Aa1. \nFrom the point of view of the Earth, Algol Aa1 and Algol Aa2 form an eclipsing binary because their orbital plane contains the line of sight to the Earth. To be more precise, Algol is a triple-star system: the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 astronomical units (au) from each other, whereas the third star in the system (Algol Ab) is at an average distance of 2.69 au from the pair, and the mutual orbital period of the trio is 681 Earth days. The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of Aa1, Aa2, and Ab are about 4.5 to 1 to 2.\n\nThe three components of the bright triple star used to be, and still sometimes are, referred to as β Per A, B, and C. The Washington Double Star Catalog lists them as Aa1, Aa2, and An, with two very faint stars B and C about one arcmin distant. A further five faint stars are also listed as companions.\n\nStudies of Algol led to the Algol paradox in the theory of stellar evolution: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive stars, the more massive component Algol A is still in the main sequence, but the less massive Algol B is a subgiant star at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by mass transfer: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its Roche lobe, and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can be seen.\n\nThis system also exhibits x-ray and radio wave flares. The x-ray flares are thought to be caused by the magnetic fields of the A and B components interacting with the mass transfer. The radio-wave flares might be created by magnetic cycles similar to those of sunspots, but because the magnetic fields of these stars are up to ten times stronger than the field of the Sun, these radio flares are more powerful and more persistent.\n\nMagnetic activity cycles in the chromospherically active secondary component induce changes in its radius of gyration that have been linked to recurrent orbital period variations on the order of ≈ 10−5 via the Applegate mechanism. Mass transfer between the components is small in the Algol system but could be a significant source of period change in other Algol-type binaries.\n\nAlgol is about 92.8 light-years from the Sun, but about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light-years of the Solar System and its apparent magnitude was about −2.5, which is considerably brighter than the star Sirius is today. Because the total mass of the Algol system is about 5.8 solar masses, at the closest approach this might have given enough gravity to perturb the Oort cloud of the Solar System somewhat and hence increase the number of comets entering the inner Solar System. However, the actual increase in net cometary collisions is thought to have been quite small.\n",
"''Beta Persei'' is the star's Bayer designation. The name ''Algol'' derives from Arabic ''raʾs al-ghūl'' : head (''raʾs'') of the ogre (''al-ghūl'') (see \"ghoul\"). The English name \"''Demon Star''\" is a direct translation of this. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included ''Algol'' for this star. It is so entered on the IAU Catalog of Star Names.\n\nIn Hebrew folklore, Algol was called ''Rōsh ha Sāṭān'' or \"Satan's Head\", as stated by Edmund Chilmead, who called it \"Divels head\" or ''Rosch hassatan''. A Latin name for Algol from the 16th century was ''Caput Larvae'' or \"the Spectre's Head\". Hipparchus and Pliny made this a separate, though connected, constellation.\n\nIn Chinese, (), meaning ''Mausoleum'', refers to an asterism consisting of β Persei, 9 Persei, τ Persei, ι Persei, κ Persei, ρ Persei, 16 Persei and 12 Persei. Consequently, β Persei itself is known as (, English: The Fifth Star of Mausoleum.). According to R.H. Allen the star bore the grim name of ''Tseih She'' (), meaning \"Piled up Corpses\" but this appears to be a misidentification, and ''Dié Shī'' is correctly π Persei, which is inside the Mausoleum.\n",
"\n\n\nHistorically, the star has received a strong association with bloody violence across a wide variety of cultures. In the ''Tetrabiblos'', the 2nd-century astrological text of the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy, Algol is referred to as \"the Gorgon of Perseus\" and associated with death by decapitation: a theme which mirrors the myth of the hero Perseus's victory over the snake-haired Gorgon Medusa. Astrologically, Algol is considered one of the unluckiest stars in the sky, and was listed as one of the 15 Behenian stars.\n",
"* Algol in fiction\n\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Observation history",
"System",
"Names",
"Cultural significance",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Algol |
[
"\nThe bottom of page 53 of ''Olney Hymns'' shows the first stanza of the hymn beginning \"Amazing Grace!\"\n\n\"'''Amazing Grace'''\" is a Christian hymn published in 1779, with words written by the English poet and Anglican clergyman John Newton (1725–1807).\n\nNewton wrote the words from personal experience. He grew up without any particular religious conviction, but his life's path was formed by a variety of twists and coincidences that were often put into motion by his recalcitrant insubordination. He was pressed (conscripted) into service in the Royal Navy, and after leaving the service, he became involved in the Atlantic slave trade. In 1748, a violent storm battered his vessel off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland, so severely that he called out to God for mercy, a moment that marked his spiritual conversion. He continued his slave trading career until 1754 or 1755, when he ended his seafaring altogether and began studying Christian theology.\n\nOrdained in the Church of England in 1764, Newton became curate of Olney, Buckinghamshire, where he began to write hymns with poet William Cowper. \"Amazing Grace\" was written to illustrate a sermon on New Year's Day of 1773. It is unknown if there was any music accompanying the verses; it may have simply been chanted by the congregation. It debuted in print in 1779 in Newton and Cowper's ''Olney Hymns'' but settled into relative obscurity in England. In the United States, however, \"Amazing Grace\" was used extensively during the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century. It has been associated with more than 20 melodies, but in 1835 it was joined to a tune named \"New Britain\" to which it is most frequently sung today. \n\nWith the message that forgiveness and redemption are possible regardless of sins committed and that the soul can be delivered from despair through the mercy of God, \"Amazing Grace\" is one of the most recognizable songs in the English-speaking world. Author Gilbert Chase writes that it is \"without a doubt the most famous of all the folk hymns\", and Jonathan Aitken, a Newton biographer, estimates that it is performed about 10 million times annually. It has had particular influence in folk music, and has become an emblematic African American spiritual. Its universal message has been a significant factor in its crossover into secular music. \"Amazing Grace\" saw a resurgence in popularity in the U.S. during the 1960s and has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century, occasionally appearing on popular music charts.\n",
"\n\nAccording to the ''Dictionary of American Hymnology'' \"Amazing Grace\" is John Newton's spiritual autobiography in verse.\n\nIn 1725, Newton was born in Wapping, a district in London near the Thames. His father was a shipping merchant who was brought up as a Catholic but had Protestant sympathies, and his mother was a devout Independent unaffiliated with the Anglican Church. She had intended Newton to become a clergyman, but she died of tuberculosis when he was six years old. For the next few years, Newton was raised by his emotionally distant stepmother while his father was at sea, and spent some time at a boarding school where he was mistreated. At the age of eleven, he joined his father on a ship as an apprentice; his seagoing career would be marked by headstrong disobedience.\n\nAs a youth, Newton began a pattern of coming very close to death, examining his relationship with God, then relapsing into bad habits. As a sailor, he denounced his faith after being influenced by a shipmate who discussed ''Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times'', a book by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury, with him. In a series of letters he later wrote, \"Like an unwary sailor who quits his port just before a rising storm, I renounced the hopes and comforts of the Gospel at the very time when every other comfort was about to fail me.\" His disobedience caused him to be pressed into the Royal Navy, and he took advantage of opportunities to overstay his leave and finally deserted to visit Mary \"Polly\" Catlett, a family friend with whom he had fallen in love. After enduring humiliation for deserting, he managed to get himself traded to a slave ship where he began a career in slave trading.\n \nJohn Newton in his later years\n\nNewton often openly mocked the captain by creating obscene poems and songs about him that became so popular the crew began to join in. He entered into disagreements with several colleagues that resulted in his being starved almost to death, imprisoned while at sea and chained like the slaves they carried, then outright enslaved and forced to work on a plantation in Sierra Leone near the Sherbro River. After several months he came to think of Sierra Leone as his home, but his father intervened after Newton sent him a letter describing his circumstances, and a ship found him by coincidence. Newton claimed the only reason he left was because of Polly.\n\nWhile aboard the ship ''Greyhound'', Newton gained notoriety for being one of the most profane men the captain had ever met. In a culture where sailors commonly used oaths and swore, Newton was admonished several times for not only using the worst words the captain had ever heard, but creating new ones to exceed the limits of verbal debauchery. In March 1748, while the ''Greyhound'' was in the North Atlantic, a violent storm came upon the ship that was so rough it swept overboard a crew member who was standing where Newton had been moments before. After hours of the crew emptying water from the ship and expecting to be capsized, Newton and another mate tied themselves to the ship's pump to keep from being washed overboard, working for several hours. After proposing the measure to the captain, Newton had turned and said, \"If this will not do, then Lord have mercy upon us!\" Newton rested briefly before returning to the deck to steer for the next eleven hours. During his time at the wheel he pondered his divine challenge.\n\nAbout two weeks later, the battered ship and starving crew landed in Lough Swilly, Ireland. For several weeks before the storm, Newton had been reading ''The Christian's Pattern'', a summary of the 15th-century ''The Imitation of Christ'' by Thomas à Kempis. The memory of his own \"Lord have mercy upon us!\" uttered during a moment of desperation in the storm did not leave him; he began to ask if he was worthy of God's mercy or in any way redeemable as he had not only neglected his faith but directly opposed it, mocking others who showed theirs, deriding and denouncing God as a myth. He came to believe that God had sent him a profound message and had begun to work through him.\n\nNewton's conversion was not immediate, but he contacted Polly's family and announced his intentions to marry her. Her parents were hesitant as he was known to be unreliable and impetuous. They knew he was profane, but they allowed him to write to Polly, and he set to begin to submit to authority for her sake. He sought a place on a slave ship bound for Africa, and Newton and his crewmates participated in most of the same activities he had written about before; the only immorality from which he was able to free himself was profanity. After a severe illness his resolve was renewed, yet he retained the same attitude towards slavery as was held by his contemporaries. Newton continued in the slave trade through several voyages where he sailed up rivers in Africa now as a captain procured slaves being offered for sale in larger ports, and subsequently transported them to North America. In between voyages, he married Polly in 1750 and he found it more difficult to leave her at the beginning of each trip. After three shipping experiences in the slave trade, Newton was promised a position as ship's captain with cargo unrelated to slavery when, at the age of thirty, he collapsed and never sailed again.\n\nThe vicarage in Olney, where Newton wrote the hymn that would become \"Amazing Grace\"\n",
"Working as a customs agent in Liverpool starting in 1756, Newton began to teach himself Latin, Greek, and theology. He and Polly immersed themselves in the church community, and Newton's passion was so impressive that his friends suggested he become a priest in the Church of England. He was turned down by John Gilbert, Archbishop of York, in 1758, ostensibly for having no university degree, although the more likely reasons were his leanings toward evangelism and tendency to socialize with Methodists. Newton continued his devotions, and after being encouraged by a friend, he wrote about his experiences in the slave trade and his conversion. George Legge, 3rd Earl of Dartmouth, impressed with his story, sponsored Newton for ordination by John Green, Bishop of Lincoln, and offered him the curacy of Olney, Buckinghamshire, in 1764.\n\n=== ''Olney Hymns'' ===\n\n\n\nOlney was a village of about 2,500 residents whose main industry was making lace by hand. The people were mostly illiterate and many of them were poor. Newton's preaching was unique in that he shared many of his own experiences from the pulpit; many clergy preached from a distance, not admitting any intimacy with temptation or sin. He was involved in his parishioners' lives and was much loved, although his writing and delivery were sometimes unpolished. But his devotion and conviction were apparent and forceful, and he often said his mission was to \"break a hard heart and to heal a broken heart\". He struck a friendship with William Cowper, a gifted writer who had failed at a career in law and suffered bouts of insanity, attempting suicide several times. Cowper enjoyed Olney and Newton's company; he was also new to Olney and had gone through a spiritual conversion similar to Newton's. Together, their effect on the local congregation was impressive. In 1768, they found it necessary to start a weekly prayer meeting to meet the needs of an increasing number of parishioners. They also began writing lessons for children.\n\nPartly from Cowper's literary influence, and partly because learned vicars were expected to write verses, Newton began to try his hand at hymns, which had become popular through the language, made plain for common people to understand. Several prolific hymn writers were at their most productive in the 18th century, including Isaac Watts whose hymns Newton had grown up hearing and Charles Wesley, with whom Newton was familiar. Wesley's brother John, the eventual founder of the Methodist Church, had encouraged Newton to go into the clergy. Watts was a pioneer in English hymn writing, basing his work after the Psalms. The most prevalent hymns by Watts and others were written in the common meter in 8.6.8.6: the first line is eight syllables and the second is six.\n\nNewton and Cowper attempted to present a poem or hymn for each prayer meeting. The lyrics to \"Amazing Grace\" were written in late 1772 and probably used in a prayer meeting for the first time on January 1, 1773. A collection of the poems Newton and Cowper had written for use in services at Olney was bound and published anonymously in 1779 under the title ''Olney Hymns''. Newton contributed 280 of the 348 texts in ''Olney Hymns''; \"1 Chronicles 17:16–17, Faith's Review and Expectation\" was the title of the poem with the first line \"Amazing grace! (how sweet the sound)\".\n\n=== Critical analysis ===\nThe general impact of ''Olney Hymns'' was immediate and it became a widely popular tool for evangelicals in Britain for many years. Scholars appreciated Cowper's poetry somewhat more than Newton's plaintive and plain language driven from his forceful personality. The most prevalent themes in the verses written by Newton in ''Olney Hymns'' are faith in salvation, wonder at God's grace, his love for Jesus, and his cheerful exclamations of the joy he found in his faith. As a reflection of Newton's connection to his parishioners, he wrote many of the hymns in first person, admitting his own experience with sin. Bruce Hindmarsh in ''Sing Them Over Again To Me: Hymns and Hymnbooks in America'' considers \"Amazing Grace\" an excellent example of Newton's testimonial style afforded by the use of this perspective. Several of Newton's hymns were recognized as great work (\"Amazing Grace\" was not among them) while others seem to have been included to fill in when Cowper was unable to write. Jonathan Aitken calls Newton, specifically referring to \"Amazing Grace\", an \"unashamedly middlebrow lyricist writing for a lowbrow congregation\", noting that only twenty-one of the nearly 150 words used in all six verses have more than one syllable.\n\nWilliam Phipps in the ''Anglican Theological Review'' and author James Basker have interpreted the first stanza of \"Amazing Grace\" as evidence of Newton's realization that his participation in the slave trade was his wretchedness, perhaps representing a wider common understanding of Newton's motivations. Newton joined forces with a young man named William Wilberforce, the British Member of Parliament who led the Parliamentarian campaign to abolish the slave trade in the British Empire, culminating in the Slave Trade Act 1807. However, Newton became an ardent and outspoken abolitionist after he left Olney in the 1780s; he never connected the construction of the hymn that became \"Amazing Grace\" to anti-slavery sentiments. The lyrics in ''Olney Hymns'' were arranged by their association to the Biblical verses that would be used by Newton and Cowper in their prayer meetings and did not address any political objective. For Newton, the beginning of the year was a time to reflect on one's spiritual progress. At the same time he completed a diary which has since been lost that he had begun 17 years before, two years after he quit sailing. The last entry of 1772 was a recounting of how much he had changed since then.\n\n\n\nThe title ascribed to the hymn, \"1 Chronicles 17:16–17\", refers to David's reaction to the prophet Nathan telling him that God intends to maintain his family line forever. Some Christians interpret this as a prediction that Jesus Christ, as a descendant of David, was promised by God as the salvation for all people. Newton's sermon on that January day in 1773 focused on the necessity to express one's gratefulness for God's guidance, that God is involved in the daily lives of Christians though they may not be aware of it, and that patience for deliverance from the daily trials of life is warranted when the glories of eternity await. Newton saw himself a sinner like David who had been chosen, perhaps undeservedly, and was humbled by it. According to Newton, unconverted sinners were \"blinded by the god of this world\" until \"mercy came to us not only undeserved but undesired ... our hearts endeavored to shut him out till he overcame us by the power of his grace.\"\n\nThe New Testament served as the basis for many of the lyrics of \"Amazing Grace\". The first verse, for example, can be traced to the story of the Prodigal Son. In the Gospel of Luke the father says, \"For this son of mine was dead and is alive again; he was lost, and is found\". The story of Jesus healing a blind man who tells the Pharisees that he can now see is told in the Gospel of John. Newton used the words \"I was blind but now I see\" and declared \"Oh to grace how great a debtor!\" in his letters and diary entries as early as 1752. The effect of the lyrical arrangement, according to Bruce Hindmarsh, allows an instant release of energy in the exclamation \"Amazing grace!\", to be followed by a qualifying reply in \"how sweet the sound\". In ''An Annotated Anthology of Hymns'', Newton's use of an exclamation at the beginning of his verse is called \"crude but effective\" in an overall composition that \"suggest(s) a forceful, if simple, statement of faith\". Grace is recalled three times in the following verse, culminating in Newton's most personal story of his conversion, underscoring the use of his personal testimony with his parishioners.\n\nThe sermon preached by Newton was his last, of those that William Cowper heard in Olney, since Cowper's mental instability returned shortly thereafter. Steve Turner, author of ''Amazing Grace: The Story of America's Most Beloved Song'', suggests Newton may have had his friend in mind, employing the themes of assurance and deliverance from despair for Cowper's benefit.\n\nAn 1847 publication of ''Southern Harmony'', showing the title \"New Britain\" and shape note music.\n",
"Although it had its roots in England, \"Amazing Grace\" became an integral part of the Christian tapestry in the United States. More than 60 of Newton and Cowper's hymns were republished in other British hymnals and magazines, but \"Amazing Grace\" was not, appearing only once in a 1780 hymnal sponsored by the Countess of Huntingdon. Scholar John Julian commented in his 1892 ''A Dictionary of Hymnology'' that outside of the United States, the song was unknown and it was \"far from being a good example of Newton's finest work\". Between 1789 and 1799, four variations of Newton's hymn were published in the U.S. in Baptist, Dutch Reformed, and Congregationalist hymnodies; by 1830 Presbyterians and Methodists also included Newton's verses in their hymnals.\n\nThe greatest influences in the 19th century that propelled \"Amazing Grace\" to spread across the U.S. and become a staple of religious services in many denominations and regions were the Second Great Awakening and the development of shape note singing communities. A tremendous religious movement swept the U.S. in the early 19th century, marked by the growth and popularity of churches and religious revivals that got their start in Kentucky and Tennessee. Unprecedented gatherings of thousands of people attended camp meetings where they came to experience salvation; preaching was fiery and focused on saving the sinner from temptation and backsliding. Religion was stripped of ornament and ceremony, and made as plain and simple as possible; sermons and songs often used repetition to get across to a rural population of poor and mostly uneducated people the necessity of turning away from sin. Witnessing and testifying became an integral component to these meetings, where a congregation member or even a stranger would rise and recount his turn from a sinful life to one of piety and peace. \"Amazing Grace\" was one of many hymns that punctuated fervent sermons, although the contemporary style used a refrain, borrowed from other hymns, that employed simplicity and repetition such as:\n\n\n\nSimultaneously, an unrelated movement of communal singing was established throughout the South and Western states. A format of teaching music to illiterate people appeared in 1800. It used four sounds to symbolize the basic scale: fa-sol-la-fa-sol-la-mi-fa. Each sound was accompanied by a specifically shaped note and thus became known as shape note singing. The method was simple to learn and teach, so schools were established throughout the South and West. Communities would come together for an entire day of singing in a large building where they sat in four distinct areas surrounding an open space, one member directing the group as a whole. Most of the music was Christian, but the purpose of communal singing was not primarily spiritual. Communities either could not afford music accompaniment or rejected it out of a Calvinistic sense of simplicity, so the songs were sung a cappella.\n\nWilliam Walker, the composer who first joined John Newton's verses to \"New Britain\", to create the song that has become \"Amazing Grace\"\n\n=== \"New Britain\" tune ===\nWhen originally used in Olney, it is unknown what music, if any, accompanied the verses written by John Newton. Contemporary hymnbooks did not contain music and were simply small books of religious poetry. The first known instance of Newton's lines joined to music was in ''A Companion to the Countess of Huntingdon's Hymns'' (London, 1808), where it is set to the tune \"Hephzibah\" by English composer John Jenkins Husband. Common meter hymns were interchangeable with a variety of tunes; more than twenty musical settings of \"Amazing Grace\" circulated with varying popularity until 1835 when William Walker assigned Newton's words to a traditional song named \"New Britain\", which was itself an amalgamation of two melodies (\"Gallaher\" and \"St. Mary\") first published in the ''Columbian Harmony'' by Charles H. Spilman and Benjamin Shaw (Cincinnati, 1829). Spilman and Shaw, both students at Kentucky's Centre College, compiled their tunebook both for public worship and revivals, to satisfy \"the wants of the Church in her triumphal march\". Most of the tunes had been previously published, but \"Gallaher\" and \"St. Mary\" had not. As neither tune is attributed and both show elements of oral transmission, scholars can only speculate that they are possibly of British origin. A manuscript from 1828 by Lucius Chapin, a famous hymn writer of that time, contains a tune very close to \"St. Mary\", but that does not mean that he wrote it.\n\n\"Amazing Grace\", with the words written by Newton and joined with \"New Britain\", the melody most currently associated with it, appeared for the first time in Walker's shape note tunebook ''Southern Harmony'' in 1847. It was, according to author Steve Turner, a \"marriage made in heaven ... The music behind 'amazing' had a sense of awe to it. The music behind 'grace' sounded graceful. There was a rise at the point of confession, as though the author was stepping out into the open and making a bold declaration, but a corresponding fall when admitting his blindness.\" Walker's collection was enormously popular, selling about 600,000 copies all over the U.S. when the total population was just over 20 million. Another shape note tunebook named ''The Sacred Harp'' (1844) by Georgia residents Benjamin Franklin White and Elisha J. King became widely influential and continues to be used.\n\nAnother verse was first recorded in Harriet Beecher Stowe's immensely influential 1852 anti-slavery novel ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''. Three verses were emblematically sung by Tom in his hour of deepest crisis. He sings the sixth and fifth verses in that order, and Stowe included another verse not written by Newton that had been passed down orally in African American communities for at least 50 years. It was originally one of between 50 and 70 verses of a song titled \"Jerusalem, My Happy Home\" that first appeared in a 1790 book called ''A Collection of Sacred Ballads'':\n\n\n\n\n\n\"Amazing Grace\" came to be an emblem of a Christian movement and a symbol of the U.S. itself as the country was involved in a great political experiment, attempting to employ democracy as a means of government. Shape note singing communities, with all the members sitting around an open center, each song employing a different director, illustrated this in practice. Simultaneously, the U.S. began to expand westward into previously unexplored territory that was often wilderness. The \"dangers, toils, and snares\" of Newton's lyrics had both literal and figurative meanings for Americans. This became poignantly true during the most serious test of American cohesion in the U.S. Civil War (1861–1865). \"Amazing Grace\" set to \"New Britain\" was included in two hymnals distributed to soldiers and with death so real and imminent, religious services in the military became commonplace. The hymn was translated into other languages as well: while on the Trail of Tears, the Cherokee sang Christian hymns as a way of coping with the ongoing tragedy, and a version of the song by Samuel Worcester that had been translated into the Cherokee language became very popular.\n\n=== Urban revival ===\nAlthough \"Amazing Grace\" set to \"New Britain\" was popular, other versions existed regionally. Primitive Baptists in the Appalachian region often used \"New Britain\" with other hymns, and sometimes sing the words of \"Amazing Grace\" to other folk songs, including titles such as \"In the Pines\", \"Pisgah\", \"Primrose\", and \"Evan\", as all are able to be sung in common meter, of which the majority of their repertoire consists. A tune named \"Arlington\" accompanied Newton's verses as much as \"New Britain\" for a time in the late 19th century.\n\nTwo musical arrangers named Dwight Moody and Ira Sankey heralded another religious revival in the cities of the U.S. and Europe, giving the song international exposure. Moody's preaching and Sankey's musical gifts were significant; their arrangements were the forerunners of gospel music, and churches all over the U.S. were eager to acquire them. Moody and Sankey began publishing their compositions in 1875, and \"Amazing Grace\" appeared three times with three different melodies, but they were the first to give it its title; hymns were typically published using the first line of the lyrics, or the name of the tune such as \"New Britain\". A publisher named Edwin Othello Excell gave the version of \"Amazing Grace\" set to \"New Britain\" immense popularity by publishing it in a series of hymnals that were used in urban churches. Excell altered some of Walker's music, making it more contemporary and European, giving \"New Britain\" some distance from its rural folk-music origins. Excell's version was more palatable for a growing urban middle class and arranged for larger church choirs. Several editions featuring Newton's first three stanzas and the verse previously included by Harriet Beecher Stowe in ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' were published by Excell between 1900 and 1910, and his version of \"Amazing Grace\" became the standard form of the song in American churches.\n\n\n",
"With the advent of recorded music and radio, \"Amazing Grace\" began to cross over from primarily a gospel standard to secular audiences. The ability to record combined with the marketing of records to specific audiences allowed \"Amazing Grace\" to take on thousands of different forms in the 20th century. Where Edwin Othello Excell sought to make the singing of \"Amazing Grace\" uniform throughout thousands of churches, records allowed artists to improvise with the words and music specific to each audience. AllMusic lists more than 7,000 recordings including re-releases and compilations as of September 2011. Its first recording is an a cappella version from 1922 by the Sacred Harp Choir. It was included from 1926 to 1930 in Okeh Records' catalogue, which typically concentrated strongly on blues and jazz. Demand was high for black gospel recordings of the song by H. R. Tomlin and J. M. Gates. A poignant sense of nostalgia accompanied the recordings of several gospel and blues singers in the 1940s and 1950s who used the song to remember their grandparents, traditions, and family roots. It was recorded with musical accompaniment for the first time in 1930 by Fiddlin' John Carson, although to another folk hymn named \"At the Cross\", not to \"New Britain\". \"Amazing Grace\" is emblematic of several kinds of folk music styles, often used as the standard example to illustrate such musical techniques as lining out and call and response, that have been practiced in both black and white folk music.\n\n\n\nMahalia Jackson's 1947 version received significant radio airplay, and as her popularity grew throughout the 1950s and 1960s, she often sang it at public events such as concerts at Carnegie Hall. Author James Basker states that the song has been employed by African Americans as the \"paradigmatic Negro spiritual\" because it expresses the joy felt at being delivered from slavery and worldly miseries. Anthony Heilbut, author of ''The Gospel Sound'', states that the \"dangers, toils, and snares\" of Newton's words are a \"universal testimony\" of the African American experience. During the Civil Rights Movement and opposition to the Vietnam War, the song took on a political tone. Mahalia Jackson employed \"Amazing Grace\" for Civil Rights marchers, writing that she used it \"to give magical protection a charm to ward off danger, an incantation to the angels of heaven to descend ... I was not sure the magic worked outside the church walls ... in the open air of Mississippi. But I wasn't taking any chances.\" Folk singer Judy Collins, who knew the song before she could remember learning it, witnessed Fannie Lou Hamer leading marchers in Mississippi in 1964, singing \"Amazing Grace\". Collins also considered it a talisman of sorts, and saw its equal emotional impact on the marchers, witnesses, and law enforcement who opposed the civil rights demonstrators. According to fellow folk singer Joan Baez, it was one of the most requested songs from her audiences, but she never realized its origin as a hymn; by the time she was singing it in the 1960s she said it had \"developed a life of its own\". It even made an appearance at the Woodstock Music Festival in 1969 during Arlo Guthrie's performance.\n\n\n\nCollins decided to record it in the late 1960s amid an atmosphere of counterculture introspection; she was part of an encounter group that ended a contentious meeting by singing \"Amazing Grace\" as it was the only song to which all the members knew the words. Her producer was present and suggested she include a version of it on her 1970 album ''Whales & Nightingales''. Collins, who had a history of alcohol abuse, claimed that the song was able to \"pull her through\" to recovery. It was recorded in St. Paul's, the chapel at Columbia University, chosen for the acoustics. She chose an ''a cappella'' arrangement that was close to Edwin Othello Excell's, accompanied by a chorus of amateur singers who were friends of hers. Collins connected it to the Vietnam War, to which she objected: \"I didn't know what else to do about the war in Vietnam. I had marched, I had voted, I had gone to jail on political actions and worked for the candidates I believed in. The war was still raging. There was nothing left to do, I thought ... but sing 'Amazing Grace'.\" Gradually and unexpectedly, the song began to be played on the radio, and then be requested. It rose to number 15 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, remaining on the charts for 15 weeks, as if, she wrote, her fans had been \"waiting to embrace it\". In the UK, it charted 8 times between 1970 and 1972, peaking at number 5 and spending a total of 75 weeks on popular music charts. Her rendition also reached number 5 in New Zealand and number 12 in Ireland in 1971.\n\nAlthough Collins used it as a catharsis for her opposition to the Vietnam War, two years after her rendition, the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, senior Scottish regiment of the British Army, recorded an instrumental version featuring a bagpipe soloist accompanied by a pipe and drum band. The tempo of their arrangement was slowed to allow for the bagpipes, but it was based on Collins': it began with a bagpipe solo introduction similar to her lone voice, then it was accompanied by the band of bagpipes and horns, whereas in her version she is backed up by a chorus. It topped the ''RPM'' national singles chart in Canada for three weeks, and rose as high as number 11 in the U.S. It is also a controversial instrumental, as it combined pipes with a military band. The Pipe Major of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards was summoned to Edinburgh Castle and chastised for demeaning the bagpipes. Funeral processions for killed police, fire, and military personnel have often played a bagpipes version ever since.\n\nAretha Franklin and Rod Stewart also recorded \"Amazing Grace\" around the same time, and both of their renditions were popular. All four versions were marketed to distinct types of audiences thereby assuring its place as a pop song. Johnny Cash recorded it on his 1975 album ''Sings Precious Memories'', dedicating it to his older brother Jack, who had been killed in a mill accident when they were boys in Dyess, Arkansas. Cash and his family sang it to themselves while they worked in the cotton fields following Jack's death. Cash often included the song when he toured prisons, saying \"For the three minutes that song is going on, everybody is free. It just frees the spirit and frees the person.\"\n\nThe U.S. Library of Congress has a collection of 3,000 versions of and songs inspired by \"Amazing Grace\", some of which were first-time recordings by folklorists Alan and John Lomax, a father and son team who in 1932 traveled thousands of miles across the South to capture the different regional styles of the song. More contemporary renditions include samples from such popular artists as Sam Cooke and the Soul Stirrers (1963), the Byrds (1970), Elvis Presley (1971), Skeeter Davis (1972), Mighty Clouds of Joy (1972), Amazing Rhythm Aces (1975), Willie Nelson (1976), and the Lemonheads (1992).\n\n\n",
"Following the appropriation of the hymn in secular music, \"Amazing Grace\" became such an icon in American culture that it has been used for a variety of secular purposes and marketing campaigns, placing it in danger of becoming a cliché. It has been mass-produced on souvenirs, lent its name to a Superman villain, appeared on ''The Simpsons'' to demonstrate the redemption of a murderous character named Sideshow Bob, incorporated into Hare Krishna chants and adapted for Wicca ceremonies. It can also be sung to the theme from ''The Mickey Mouse Club'', as Garrison Keillor has observed. The hymn has been employed in several films, including ''Alice's Restaurant'', ''Coal Miner's Daughter'', and ''Silkwood''. It is referenced in the 2006 film ''Amazing Grace'', which highlights Newton's influence on the leading British abolitionist William Wilberforce, and in the upcoming film biography of Newton, ''Newton's Grace''. The 1982 science fiction film ''Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan'' used \"Amazing Grace\" amid a context of Christian symbolism, to memorialize Mr. Spock following his death, but more practically, because the song has become \"instantly recognizable to many in the audience as music that sounds appropriate for a funeral\" according to a ''Star Trek'' scholar. Since 1954, when an organ instrumental of \"New Britain\" became a bestseller, \"Amazing Grace\" has been associated with funerals and memorial services. It has become a song that inspires hope in the wake of tragedy, becoming a sort of \"spiritual national anthem\" according to authors Mary Rourke and Emily Gwathmey. For example, President Barack Obama recited and then sang the hymn at the memorial service for Clementa Pinckney, one of the victims of the 2015 Charleston church shooting.\n",
"\n\n\nIn recent years, the words of the hymn have been changed in some religious publications to downplay a sense of imposed self-loathing by its singers. The second line, \"That saved a wretch like me!\" has been rewritten as \"That saved and strengthened me\", \"save a soul like me\", or \"that saved and set me free\". Kathleen Norris in her book ''Amazing Grace: A Vocabulary of Faith'' characterizes this transformation of the original words as \"wretched English\" making the line that replaces the original \"laughably bland\". Part of the reason for this change has been the altered interpretations of what wretchedness and grace means. Newton's Calvinistic view of redemption and divine grace formed his perspective that he considered himself a sinner so vile that he was unable to change his life or be redeemed without God's help. Yet his lyrical subtlety, in Steve Turner's opinion, leaves the hymn's meaning open to a variety of Christian and non-Christian interpretations. \"Wretch\" also represents a period in Newton's life when he saw himself outcast and miserable, as he was when he was enslaved in Sierra Leone; his own arrogance was matched by how far he had fallen in his life.\n\nbagpiper playing \"Amazing Grace\" during a memorial service, October 29, 2009, at Forward Operating Base Wilson, Afghanistan\n\nThe communal understanding of redemption and human self-worth has changed since Newton's time. Since the 1970s, self-help books, psychology, and some modern expressions of Christianity have viewed this disparity in terms of grace being an innate quality within all people who must be inspired or strong enough to find it: something to achieve. In contrast to Newton's vision of wretchedness as his willful sin and distance from God, wretchedness has instead come to mean an obstacle of physical, social, or spiritual nature to overcome in order to achieve a state of grace, happiness, or contentment. Since its immense popularity and iconic nature, \"grace\" and the meaning behind the words of \"Amazing Grace\" have become as individual as the singer or listener. Bruce Hindmarsh suggests that the secular popularity of \"Amazing Grace\" is due to the absence of any mention of God in the lyrics until the fourth verse (by Excell's version, the fourth verse begins \"When we've been there ten thousand years\"), and that the song represents the ability of humanity to transform itself instead of a transformation taking place at the hands of God. \"Grace\", however, to John Newton had a clearer meaning, as he used the word to represent God or the power of God.\n\nThe transformative power of the song was investigated by journalist Bill Moyers in a documentary released in 1990. Moyers was inspired to focus on the song's power after watching a performance at Lincoln Center, where the audience consisted of Christians and non-Christians, and he noticed that it had an equal impact on everybody in attendance, unifying them. James Basker also acknowledged this force when he explained why he chose \"Amazing Grace\" to represent a collection of anti-slavery poetry: \"there is a transformative power that is applicable ... : the transformation of sin and sorrow into grace, of suffering into beauty, of alienation into empathy and connection, of the unspeakable into imaginative literature.\"\n\nMoyers interviewed Collins, Cash, opera singer Jessye Norman, Appalachian folk musician Jean Ritchie and her family, white Sacred Harp singers in Georgia, black Sacred Harp singers in Alabama, and a prison choir at the Texas State Penitentiary at Huntsville. Collins, Cash, and Norman were unable to discern if the power of the song came from the music or the lyrics. Norman, who once notably sang it at the end of a large outdoor rock concert for Nelson Mandela's 70th birthday, stated, \"I don't know whether it's the text I don't know whether we're talking about the lyrics when we say that it touches so many people or whether it's that tune that everybody knows.\" A prisoner interviewed by Moyers explained his literal interpretation of the second verse: \"'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear, and grace my fears relieved\" by saying that the fear became immediately real to him when he realized he may never get his life in order, compounded by the loneliness and restriction in prison. Gospel singer Marion Williams summed up its effect: \"That's a song that gets to everybody\".\n\nThe ''Dictionary of American Hymnology'' claims it is included in more than a thousand published hymnals, and recommends its use for \"occasions of worship when we need to confess with joy that we are saved by God's grace alone; as a hymn of response to forgiveness of sin or as an assurance of pardon; as a confession of faith or after the sermon\".\n",
"'''Explanatory notes'''\n\n\n'''Citations'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n\n\n* Aitken, Jonathan (2007). ''John Newton: From Disgrace to Amazing Grace'', Crossway Books. \n* Basker, James (2002). ''Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems About Slavery, 1660–1810'', Yale University Press. \n* Benson, Louis (1915). ''The English Hymn: Its Development and Use in Worship'', The Presbyterian Board of Publication, Philadelphia.\n* Bradley, Ian (ed.)(1989). ''The Book of Hymns'', The Overlook Press. \n* Brown, Tony; Kutner, Jon; Warwick, Neil (2000). ''Complete Book of the British Charts: Singles & Albums'', Omnibus. \n* Bruner, Kurt; Ware, Jim (2007). ''Finding God in the Story of Amazing Grace'', Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. \n* Chase, Gilbert (1987). ''America's Music, From the Pilgrims to the Present'', McGraw-Hill. \n* Collins, Judy (1998). ''Singing Lessons: A Memoir of Love, Loss, Hope, and Healing '', Pocket Books. \n* Duvall, Deborah (2000). ''Tahlequah and the Cherokee Nation'', Arcadia Publishing. \n* Julian, John (ed.)(1892). ''A Dictionary of Hymnology'', Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.\n* Martin, Bernard (1950). ''John Newton: A Biography'', William Heineman, Ltd., London.\n* Martin, Bernard and Spurrell, Mark, (eds.)(1962). ''The Journal of a Slave Trader (John Newton)'', The Epworth Press, London.\n* Newton, John (1811). ''Thoughts Upon the African Slave Trade'', Samuel Whiting and Co., London.\n* Newton, John (1824). ''The Works of the Rev. John Newton Late Rector of the United Parishes of St. Mary Woolnoth and St. Mary Woolchurch Haw, London: Volume 1'', Nathan Whiting, London.\n* Noll, Mark A.; Blumhofer, Edith L. (eds.) (2006). ''Sing Them Over Again to Me: Hymns and Hymnbooks in America'', University of Alabama Press. \n* Norris, Kathleen (1999). ''Amazing Grace: A Vocabulary of Faith'', Riverhead. \n* Patterson, Beverly Bush (1995). ''The Sound of the Dove: Singing in Appalachian Primitive Baptist Churches'', University of Illinois Press. \n* Porter, Jennifer; McLaren, Darcee (eds.)(1999). ''Star Trek and Sacred Ground: Explorations of Star Trek, Religion, and American Culture'', State University of New York Press, \n* Rourke, Mary; Gwathmey, Emily (1996). ''Amazing Grace in America: Our Spiritual National Anthem'', Angel City Press. \n* Stowe, Harriet Beecher (1899). ''Uncle Tom's Cabin, or Life Among the Lowly'', R. F. Fenno & Company, New York City.\n* Swiderski, Richard (1996). ''The Metamorphosis of English: Versions of Other Languages'', Greenwood Publishing Group. \n* Turner, Steve (2002). ''Amazing Grace: The Story of America's Most Beloved Song'', HarperCollins. \n* Watson, J. R. (ed.)(2002). ''An Annotated Anthology of Hymns'', Oxford University Press. \n* Whitburn, Joel (2003). ''Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles, 1955–2002'', Record Research, Inc. \n\n\n",
"\n* Amazing Grace at Hymnary.org\n* The Amazing Grace\n* U.S. Library of Congress Amazing Grace collection\n* Cowper & Newton Museum in Olney, England\n* Amazing Grace: Some Early Tunes Anthology of the American Hymn-Tune Repertory\n* Amazing Grace: The story behind the song and its connection to Lough Swilly\n* Amazing Grace Sound Recording Completely original music by composer Michael John Trotta.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" John Newton's conversion ",
" Olney curate ",
" Dissemination ",
" Recorded versions ",
" In popular culture ",
" Modern interpretations ",
"References",
" External links "
] | Amazing Grace |
[
"\n\n\nCarinthia, Austria.\n\nThe terms '''''' ('''AD''') and '''before Christ''' ('''BC''') are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term '''' is Medieval Latin and means \"in the year of the Lord\", but is often translated as \"in the year of our Lord\".\n\nThis calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with ''AD'' counting years from the start of this epoch, and ''BC'' denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800.\n\nThe Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations.\n\nTraditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the \"AD\" abbreviation before the year number. However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD , but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in \"fourth century AD\" or \"second millennium AD\" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). Because BC is the English abbreviation for ''Before Christ'', it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means ''After Death'', i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would not be included in either of the BC and the AD time scales.\n\nTerminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current or Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common or Current Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years.\n",
"The ''Anno Domini'' dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the \"present year\" was \"the consulship of Probus Junior\", which was 525 years \"since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\". Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. \"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date.\"\n\nBonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are:\n* In modern times, Incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity.\n* The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year).\n* There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls.\n* There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years.\n\nIt is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was \"about thirty years old\" shortly after \"the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar\", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table. It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hegira, but rather weeks later, on the first subsequent occurrence of the month of Muharram (corresponding to 16 July 622).\n\nIt has also been speculated by Georges Declercq that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old ''Anno Mundi'' calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the ''Anno Mundi'' calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the ''Anno Mundi'' calendar marking the end of the world. ''Anno Mundi'' 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius.\n\n=== Popularization ===\nThe Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used ''Anno Domini'' dating in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', completed in 731. In this same history, he also used another Latin term, ''ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo'' (\"in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord's incarnation\"), equivalent to the English \"before Christ\", to identify years before the first year of this era. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded ''Anno Domini'' as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but \"the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25\" (''Annunciation style'').\n\nStatue of Charlemagne by Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the ''Anno Domini'' epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire.\nOn the continent of Europe, ''Anno Domini'' was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries.\n\nAlthough ''Anno Domini'' was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term \"Before Christ\" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede the Venerable used the expression ''\"anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam\"'' (so in the year before the Incarnation of the Lord) twice. ''\"Anno an xpi nativitate\"'' (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk. In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work ''De doctrina temporum'', popularized the usage ''ante Christum'' (Latin for \"Before Christ\") to mark years prior to AD.\n\n===Change of year===\nWhen the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology:\n* From 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the incarnation of Jesus. That first \"Annunciation style\" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century, then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called ''calculus pisanus'' since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750.\n* From 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called \"Nativity style\" and had been spread by the Venerable Bede together with the ''Anno Domini'' in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century.\n* From 25 March 754 AUC (today in AD 1). That second \"Annunciation style\" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century, but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa, so it got the name of ''calculus florentinus''. It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752.\n* From Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That ''mos gallicanus'' (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite.\nWith these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101.\n",
"\n\nThe date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. The historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating, but the date is estimated through two different approaches - one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus.\n",
"\nDuring the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.\n\nAlthough the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years. Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888.\n\nAnother calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an ''Era of Incarnation'', were exclusively used and are yet used, in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called ''Anno Mundi'', \"year of the world\" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used ''Anno Mundi'' years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single ''Anno Mundi'' epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his ''Chronicle'' used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami).\n\nSpain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the ''Anno Domini'' system.\n\nThe Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts.\n",
"\n\nAlternative names for the ''Anno Domini'' era include ''vulgaris aerae'' (found 1615 in Latin),\n\"Vulgar Era\" (in English, as early as 1635),\n\"Christian Era\" (in English, in 1652),\n\"Common Era\" (in English, 1708),\nand \"Current Era\".\nSince 1856,\nthe alternative abbreviations CE and BCE, (sometimes written C.E. and B.C.E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC.\n\nThe \"Common/Current Era\" (\"CE\") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references.\nFor example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that \"B.C.E./C.E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D.\" Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 (\"xī yuán\", \"Western Era\"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 (''gōngyuán'', \"Common Era\") for all purposes domestic and foreign.\n",
"\n\nIn the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. There is no year \"0\" between them. Because of this, most experts agree that a new century begins in a year which has \"01\" as the final digits (e.g., 1801, 1901, 2001). New millennia likewise are considered to have begun in 1001 and 2001. This is at odds with the much more common conception that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.); for example, the worldwide celebration of the new millennium took place on New Year's Eve 1999, when the year number ticked over to 2000.\n\nFor computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc. In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD.\n",
"* Ante Christum natum\n* Calendar\n* Common Era\n* Holocene calendar\n",
"\n",
"\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Sources ===\n\n* \n* \n* Bede. (731). ''Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum''. Accessed 2007-12-07.\n* \n* \n* \n* Corrected reprinting of original 1999 edition.\n* \n* (despite beginning with 2, it is English)\n* Declercq, G. \"Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era\". ''Sacris Erudiri'' 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of ''Anno Domini''.\n* Doggett. (1992). \"Calendars\" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) ''Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac.'' Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. .\n* Patrick, J. (1908). \"General Chronology\". In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm\n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* Calendar Converter\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Historical birth date of Jesus ",
"Other eras",
" CE and BCE ",
" No year zero / Start and end of a century ",
"See also",
" Notes ",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Anno Domini |
[
"\n'''AV''' and variants may refer to:\n* Audiovisual, meaning possessing both a sound and a visual component\n",
"* ''A.V.'' (film), a 2005 Hong Kong film directed by Pang Ho-Cheung\n* Adult video, a pornographic film\n* Audiovisual, meaning possessing both a sound and a visual component\n",
"* America Votes, an American 501(c)4 organization that promotes progressive causes\n* Aston Villa F.C., an English football club\n* AV Akademikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG, an imprint of the German group VDM Publishing\n* Avaya, a technology company formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange with symbol \"AV\"\n* Avianca (IATA airline code AV)\n* Aviva, British insurance company, listed on the New York Stock Exchange and London Stock Exchange as \"AV\"\n* AeroVironment, manufacturer of unmanned military aircraft and systems\n",
"* Anguilla (FIPS 10-4 and obsolete NATO digram AV)\n* Antelope Valley, a valley in Southern California where pronghorn antelope are said to have once lived\n* Province of Avellino, a province of Italy in the ISO 3166-2:IT code\n",
"===Anatomy and medicine===\n* Aerobic vaginitis, vaginal infection associated with overgrowth of aerobic bacteria\n* Arteriovenous (disambiguation)\n* Atrioventricular (disambiguation)\n\n===Electronics and computing===\n* Access violation, a computer software error\n* Antivirus software, used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software\n* Audio and video connector, a cable between two devices\n\n===Fluid dynamics===\n* Annular velocity\n* Apparent viscosity\n\n===Vehicles===\n* AV (cyclecar)\n* Bavarian A V, an 1853 steam locomotive model\n* AV, the designation for \"seaplane tender\" in the United States Navy's ship classification system\n* Autonomous cars (known as '''autonomous vehicles''')\n\n===Other uses in science and technology===\n* A-type main-sequence star, in astronomy, abbreviated AV\n* Aperture value mode, in photography\n",
"* Alternative vote, an electoral system used to elect a single winner from a field of more than two candidates\n* Approval voting, a non-ranking vote system\n* ''Aurum'' (''avrvm'', Latin for \"gold\") used in numismatics\n* Authorised Version of the Bible (also known as King James Version)\n* Av (month), a month in the Hebrew calendar\n* Avar language (ISO 639-1 code)\n* Avenue (disambiguation) (''Ave.'' is more frequently used)\n* Aviation, abbreviated Av, in military use\n",
"* A5 (disambiguation)\n* α5 (disambiguation)\n* AV idol, a type of Japanese porn star\n* \n* \n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Arts and entertainment",
"Businesses and organizations",
"Places",
"Science and technology",
" Other uses",
"See also"
] | AV |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alcuin of York''' (; ; 735 – 19 May 804 AD)—also called '''Ealhwine''', '''Alhwin''' or '''Alchoin'''—was an English scholar, clergy, poet and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Archbishop Ecgbert at York. At the invitation of Charlemagne, he became a leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court, where he remained a figure in the 780s and '90s.\n\nAlcuin wrote many theological and dogmatic treatises, as well as a few grammatical works and a number of poems. He was made Abbot of Tours in 796, where he remained until his death. \"The most learned man anywhere to be found\", according to Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne'' (''ca.'' 817-833), he is considered among the most important architects of the Carolingian Renaissance. Among his pupils were many of the dominant intellectuals of the Carolingian era.\n",
"\n===Background===\nAlcuin, roof figure, Museum of History of Arts, Vienna.\nAlcuin was born in Northumbria, presumably sometime in the 730s. Virtually nothing is known of his parents, family background, or origin. In common hagiographical fashion, the ''Vita Alcuini'' asserts that Alcuin was 'of noble English stock,' and this statement has usually been accepted by scholars. Alcuin's own work only mentions such collateral kinsmen as Wilgils, father of the missionary saint Willibrord; and Beornred, abbot of Echternach and bishop of Sens, who was more distantly related.\n\nIn his ''Life'' of St Willibrord, Alcuin writes that Wilgils, called a ''paterfamilias'', had founded an oratory and church at the mouth of the Humber, which had fallen into Alcuin's possession by inheritance. Because in early Anglo-Latin writing ''paterfamilias'' (\"head of a family, householder\") usually referred to a ceorl, Donald A. Bullough suggests that Alcuin's family was of cierlisc status: ''i.e.,'' free but subordinate to a noble lord, and that Alcuin and other members of his family rose to prominence through beneficial connections with the aristocracy. If so, Alcuin's origins may lie in the southern part of what was formerly known as Deira.\n\n===York===\nThe young Alcuin came to the cathedral church of York during the golden age of Archbishop Ecgbert and his brother, the Northumbrian King Eadberht. Ecgbert had been a disciple of the Venerable Bede, who urged him to raise York to an archbishopric. King Eadberht and Archbishop Ecgbert oversaw the re-energising and re-organisation of the English church, with an emphasis on reforming the clergy and on the tradition of learning that Bede had begun. Ecgbert was devoted to Alcuin, who thrived under his tutelage.\n\nThe York school was renowned as a centre of learning in the liberal arts, literature, and science, as well as in religious matters. It was from here that Alcuin drew inspiration for the school he would lead at the Frankish court. He revived the school with the trivium and quadrivium disciplines, writing a codex on the trivium, while his student Hraban wrote one on the quadrivium.\n\nAlcuin graduated to become a teacher during the 750s. His ascendancy to the headship of the York school, the ancestor of St Peter's School, began after Aelbert became Archbishop of York in 767. Around the same time Alcuin became a deacon in the church. He was never ordained a priest. Though there is no real evidence that he took monastic vows, he lived as if he had.\n\nIn 781, King Elfwald sent Alcuin to Rome to petition the Pope for official confirmation of York's status as an archbishopric and to confirm the election of the new archbishop, Eanbald I. On his way home he met Charlemagne (whom he had met once before), this time in the Italian city of Parma.\n\n===Charlemagne===\nAlcuin's intellectual curiosity allowed him to be reluctantly persuaded to join Charlemagne's court. He joined an illustrious group of scholars that Charlemagne had gathered around him, the mainsprings of the Carolingian Renaissance: Peter of Pisa, Paulinus of Aquileia, Rado, and Abbot Fulrad. Alcuin would later write that \"the Lord was calling me to the service of King Charles.\"\n\nAlcuin became Master of the Palace School of Charlemagne in Aachen (''Urbs Regale'') in 782. It had been founded by the king's ancestors as a place for the education of the royal children (mostly in manners and the ways of the court). However, Charlemagne wanted to include the liberal arts and, most importantly, the study of religion. From 782 to 790, Alcuin taught Charlemagne himself, his sons Pepin and Louis, as well as young men sent to be educated at court, and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel. Bringing with him from York his assistants Pyttel, Sigewulf, and Joseph, Alcuin revolutionised the educational standards of the Palace School, introducing Charlemagne to the liberal arts and creating a personalised atmosphere of scholarship and learning, to the extent that the institution came to be known as the 'school of Master Albinus'.\n\nIn this role as adviser, he took issue with the emperor's policy of forcing pagans to be baptised on pain of death, arguing, \"Faith is a free act of the will, not a forced act. We must appeal to the conscience, not compel it by violence. You can force people to be baptised, but you cannot force them to believe.\" His arguments seem to have prevailed – Charlemagne abolished the death penalty for paganism in 797.\n\nCharlemagne gathered the best men of every land in his court, and became far more than just the king at the centre. It seems that he made many of these men his closest friends and counsellors. They referred to him as 'David', a reference to the Biblical king David. Alcuin soon found himself on intimate terms with Charlemagne and the other men at court, where pupils and masters were known by affectionate and jesting nicknames. Alcuin himself was known as 'Albinus' or 'Flaccus'. While at Aachen, Alcuin bestowed pet names upon his pupils – derived mainly from Virgil's ''Eclogues''. According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', \"He loved Charlemagne and enjoyed the king’s esteem, but his letters reveal that his fear of him was as great as his love.\n\n===Return to Northumbria and back to Francia===\nIn 790 Alcuin returned from the court of Charlemagne to England, to which he had remained attached. He dwelt there for some time, but Charlemagne then invited him back to help in the fight against the Adoptionist heresy which was at that time making great progress in Toledo, the old capital of the Visigoths and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with Beatus of Liébana, from the Kingdom of Asturias, who fought against Adoptionism. At the Council of Frankfurt in 794, Alcuin upheld the orthodox doctrine against the views expressed by Felix of Urgel, an heresiarch according to the Catholic Encyclopaedia. Having failed during his stay in Northumbria to influence King Æthelred in the conduct of his reign, Alcuin never returned home.\n\nHe was back at Charlemagne's court by at least mid-792, writing a series of letters to Æthelred, to Hygbald, Bishop of Lindisfarne, and to Æthelhard, Archbishop of Canterbury in the succeeding months, dealing with the Viking attack on Lindisfarne in July 793. These letters and Alcuin's poem on the subject, ''De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii'', provide the only significant contemporary account of these events. In his description of the Viking attack, he wrote: \"''Never before has such terror appeared in Britain. Behold the church of St Cuthbert, splattered with the blood of God's priests, robbed of its ornaments''.\"\n\n===Tours and death===\nIn 796 Alcuin was in his sixties. He hoped to be free from court duties and upon the death of Abbot Itherius of Saint Martin at Tours, Charlemagne put Marmoutier Abbey into Alcuin's care, with the understanding that he should be available if the king ever needed his counsel. There he encouraged the work of the monks on the beautiful Carolingian minuscule script, ancestor of modern Roman typefaces.\n\nAlcuin died on 19 May 804, some ten years before the emperor, and was buried at St. Martin's Church under an epitaph that partly read:\n\n\nThe majority of details on Alcuin's life come from his letters and poems. There are also autobiographical sections in Alcuin's poem on York and in the ''Vita Alcuini'', a ''Life'' written for him at Ferrières in the 820s, possibly based in part on the memories of Sigwulf, one of Alcuin's pupils.\n",
"\n===Mathematician===\n\nThe collection of mathematical and logical word problems entitled ''Propositiones ad acuendos juvenes'' (\"Problems to Sharpen Youths\") is sometimes attributed to Alcuin. In a 799 letter to Charlemagne the scholar claimed to have sent \"certain figures of arithmetic for the joy of cleverness,\" which some scholars have identified with the ''Propositiones.''\nThe text contains about 53 mathematical word problems (with solutions), in no particular pedagogical order. Among the most famous of these problems are: four that involve river crossings, including the problem of three anxious brothers, each of whom has an unmarried sister whom he cannot leave alone with either of the other men lest she be defiled (Problem 17); the problem of the wolf, goat, and cabbage (Problem 18); and the problem of \"the two adults and two children where the children weigh half as much as the adults\" (Problem 19). Alcuin's sequence is the solution to one of the problems of that book.\n\n===Literary influence===\nAlcuin made the abbey school into a model of excellence and many students flocked to it. He had many manuscripts copied using outstandingly beautiful calligraphy, the Carolingian minuscule based on round and legible uncial letters. He wrote many letters to his English friends, to Arno, bishop of Salzburg and above all to Charlemagne. These letters (of which 311 are extant) are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they form an important source of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time and are the most reliable authority for the history of humanism during the Carolingian age. Alcuin trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died.\n\nAlcuin is the most prominent figure of the Carolingian Renaissance, in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the Italians occupy a central place; in the second, Alcuin and the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third (from 804), the influence of Theodulf, the Visigoth is preponderant.\n\nAlcuin also developed manuals used in his educational work – a grammar and works on rhetoric and dialectics. These are written in the form of dialogues, and in two of them the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He wrote several theological treatises: a ''De fide Trinitatis'', and commentaries on the Bible. Alcuin is credited with inventing the first known question mark, though it didn't resemble the modern symbol.\n\nAlcuin transmitted to the Franks the knowledge of Latin culture which had existed in Anglo-Saxon England. A number of his works still exist. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of Venantius Fortunatus, he wrote some long poems, and notably he is the author of a history (in verse) of the church at York, ''Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae''.\n\n=== Use of homo-erotic language in writings ===\nPassages in Alcuin's writings have been seen to exhibit homosocial desire, possibly even homoerotic imagery. David Clark suggests it is not possible to determine whether Alcuin's homosocial desires were the result of an outward expression of erotic feelings. Historian John Boswell cited this as a personal outpouring of Alcuin's internalized homosexual feelings. Others agree that Alcuin at times \"comes perilously close to communicating openly his same sex desires\", and this reflects the erotic subculture of the Carolingian monastic school, but also perhaps a 'queer space' where \"erotic attachment and affections may be safely articulated”.\n\nErotic and religious love are intertwined in Alcuin's writings, and he frequently \"eroticizes his personal relationships to his beloved friends”. Alcuin's friendships also extended to the ladies of the court, especially the queen mother and the king's daughters, though his relationships with these women never reached the intense level of those of the men around him.\n\nThe interpretation of homosexual desire has been disputed by Allen Frantzen, who identifies Alcuin's language with that of medieval Christian ''amicitia'' or friendship. Karl Liersch, in his 1880 inaugural dissertation, cites several passages from poems by Theodulf of Orleans. In these poems Theodulf reports that Alcuin had a female muse named Delia in the king's court (she was probably Charlemagne's daughter). Delia is also the addressee of several poems by Alcuin.\n\nDavid Dales and Rowan Williams say \"the use of language drawn by Alcuin from the ''Song of Songs'' transforms apparently erotic language into something within Christian friendship - 'an ordained affection'.\"\n\nDespite inconclusive evidence of Alcuin's personal passions, he was clear in his own writings that the men of Sodom had been punished with fire for \"sinning against nature with men\" - a view commonly held by the Church at the time. Such sins, argued Alcuin, were therefore more serious than lustful acts with women, for which the earth was cleansed and revivified by the water of the Flood, and merit to be \"withered by flames unto eternal barrenness.\"\n",
"In several churches of the Anglican Communion, Alcuin is celebrated on 20 May, the first available day after the day of his death (as Dunstan is celebrated on 19 May).\n\nAlcuin College, one of the colleges of the University of York, England, is named after him.\n",
"\n\n* \"Quadpropter potius animam curare memento, quam carnem, quoniam haec manet, illa perit.\": 'Remember to care for the soul more than the body, since the former remains, the latter perishes.'\n* \"Nec audiendi qui solent dicere, Vox populi, vox Dei, quum tumultuositas vulgi semper insaniae proxima sit.\": 'And do not listen to those who keep saying, 'The voice of the people is the voice of God.' because the tumult of the crowd is always close to madness.'\n* \"In the morning, at the height of my powers, I sowed the seed in Britain, now in the evening when my blood is growing cold I am still sowing in France, hoping both will grow, by the grace of God, giving some the honey of the holy scriptures, making others drunk on the old wine of ancient learning...\"\n* \"Man thinks, God directs.”\n",
"For a complete census of Alcuin's works, see Marie-Hélène Jullien and Françoise Perelman, eds., ''Clavis scriptorum latinorum medii aevi: Auctores Galliae 735–987. Tomus II: Alcuinus.'' Turnhout: Brepols, 1999.\n\n;Poetry\n*''Carmina'', ed. Ernst Dümmler, MGH ''Poetae Latini aevi Carolini'' I. Berlin: Weidmann, 1881. 160–351.\n**Godman, Peter, tr., ''Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance''. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1985. 118–49.\n**Stella, Francesco, tr., comm., ''La poesia carolingia'', Firenze: Le Lettere, 1995, pp. 94–96, 152–161, 266–267, 302–307, 364–371, 399–404, 455–457, 474–477, 503–507.\n**Isbell, Harold, tr.. ''The Last Poets of Imperial Rome''. Baltimore: Penguin, 1971.\n*Poem on York, ''Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae'', ed. and tr. Peter Godman, ''De pontificibus et sanctis Ecclesiae Eboracensis, The Bishops, Kings, and Saints of York.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.\n*''De clade Lindisfarnensis monasterii'', \"On the destruction of the monastery of Lindisfarne\" (''Carmen'' 9, ed. Dümmler, pp. 229–35.)\n\n;''Epistolae'' (Letters)\nOf Alcuin's letters, just over 310 have survived.\n*''Epistolae'', ed. Ernst Dümmler, MGH ''Epistolae'' IV.2. Berlin: Weidmann, 1895. 1–493.\n*Jaffé, Philipp, Ernst Dümmler, and W. Wattenbach, eds. ''Monumenta Alcuiniana''. Berlin: Weidmann, 1873. 132–897.\n*Chase, Colin, ed. ''Two Alcuin Letter-books''. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1975.\n**Allott, Stephen, tr. ''Alcuin of York, c. AD 732 to 804. His life and letters''. York: William Sessions, 1974.\n**Sturgeon, Thomas G., tr. ''The Letters of Alcuin: Part One, the Aachen Period (762–796)''. Harvard University Ph.D. Thesis, 1953.\n\n;Didactic works\n*''Ars grammatica''. PL 101: 854–902.\n*''De orthographia'', ed. H. Keil, ''Grammatici Latini'' VII, 1880. 295–312; ed. Sandra Bruni, ''Alcuino de orthographia''. Florence: SISMEL, 1997.\n*''De dialectica''. PL 101: 950–76.\n*''Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastico'' \"Dialogue of Pepin, the Most Noble and Royal Youth, with the Teacher Albinus\", ed. L.W. Daly and W. Suchier, ''Altercatio Hadriani Augusti et Epicteti Philosophi''. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1939. 134–46; ed. Wilhelm Wilmanns, \"Disputatio regalis et nobilissimi juvenis Pippini cum Albino scholastico.\" ''Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum'' 14 (1869): 530–55, 562.\n*''Disputatio de rhetorica et de virtutibus sapientissimi regis Carli et Albini magistri'', ed. and tr. Wilbur Samuel Howell, ''The Rhetoric of Alcuin and Charlemagne.'' New York: Russell and Russell, 1965 (1941); ed. C. Halm, ''Rhetorici Latini Minores''. Leipzig: Teubner, 1863. 523–50.\n*''De virtutibus et vitiis'' (moral treatise dedicated to Count Wido of Brittany, 799 x 800). PL 101: 613–639 ( transcript available online). A new critical edition is being prepared for the ''Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Medievalis''.\n*''De animae ratione (ad Eulaliam virginem)'' (written for Gundrada, Charlemagne's cousin). PL 101: 639–50.\n*''De Cursu et Saltu Lunae ac Bissexto'', astronomical treatise. PL 101: 979–1002.\n*(?) ''Propositiones ad acuendos iuvenes'', ed. Menso Folkerts, \"Die alteste mathematische Aufgabensammlung in lateinischer Sprache: Die Alkuin zugeschriebenen ''Propositiones ad acuendos iuvenes''; Überlieferung, Inhalt, Kritische Edition,\" in ''idem'', ''Essays on Early Medieval Mathematics: The Latin Tradition.'' Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003.\n\n;Theology\n*''Compendium in Canticum Canticorum'': Alcuino, ''Commento al Cantico dei cantici - con i commenti anonimi Vox ecclesie e Vox antique ecclesie'', ed. Rossana Guglielmetti, Firenze, SISMEL 2004\n*''Quaestiones in Genesim''. PL 100: 515–66.\n*''De Fide Sanctae Trinitatis et de Incarnatione Christi; Quaestiones de Sancta Trinitate'' ed. E. Knibbs & E. Ann Matter (Corpus Christianorum - Continuatio Mediaevalis 249: Brepols, 2012)\n\n;Hagiography\n*''Vita II Vedastis episcopi Atrebatensis''. Revision of the earlier ''Vita Vedastis'' by Jonas of Bobbio. ''Patrologia Latina'' 101: 663–82.\n*''Vita Richarii confessoris Centulensis''. Revision of an earlier anonymous life. MGH Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum 4: 381–401.\n*''Vita Willibrordi archiepiscopi Traiectensis'', ed. W. Levison, ''Passiones vitaeque sanctorum aevi Merovingici''. MGH Scriptores Rerum Merovingicarum 7: 81–141.\n",
"\n* Propositiones ad Acuendos Juvenes\n* Carolingian art\n* Carolingian Empire\n* Category: Carolingian period\n* Correctory\n",
"\n\n",
"*\n*\n*\n*Frederick Lorenz. '' The life of Alcuin'' (Thomas Hurst, 1837).\n* Murphy, Richard E., ''Alcuin of York: De Virtutibus et Vitiis, Virtues and Vices.'' \n*Rolph Barlow Page. '' The Letters of Alcuin'' (New York: Forest Press, 1909).\n*E. M. Wilmot-Buxton. '' Alcuin'' (P J Kennedy, 1922).\n*Stephen Allot. ''Alcuin of York, his life and letters'' \n*Andrew Fleming West. '' Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools'' (C. Sscribner's Sons, 1912) \n*Eleanor Shipley Duckett. ''Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne,'' (1951)\n*Eleanor Shipley Duckett. ''Carolingian Portraits'', (1962)\n*F. L. Ganshof. ''The Carolingians and the Frankish Monarchy'' \n*Brian P. McGuire. ''Friendship, and Community: The Monastic Experience'' \n*Thomas Stehling. ''Medieval Latin Love Poems of Male Love and Friendship'',\n*Peter Godman. ''Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance'' \n* Stella, Francesco, \"Alkuins Dichtung\" in ''Alkuin von York und die geistige Grundlegung Europas '', Sankt Gallen, Verlag am Klosterhof, 2010, pp. 107 – 128.\n*Throop, Priscilla, trans. ''Alcuin: His Life; On Virtues and Vices; Dialogue with Pepin'' (Charlotte, VT: MedievalMS, 2011)\n*Bullough, D. A, 'Alcuin - Achievement and Reputation (Brill, 2004)\n*Dales, Douglas J, 'Alcuin - His Life and Legacy' (James Clarke & Co., Cambridge, UK, 2012)\n*Dales, Douglas J, 'Alcuin - Theology and Thought' (James Clarke & Co., Cambridge, UK, 2013)\n*\n",
"\n\n\n\n*\n*\n* Alcuin's book, ''Problems for the Quickening of the Minds of the Young''\n* Introduction to Alcuin's writings by Robert Levine and Whitney Bolton\n* ''The Alcuin Society''\n* ''Anglo-Saxon York on History of York site''\n* Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis: new critical editions in preparation\n* Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography\n* THE LIFE OF ALCUIN BY DR. FREDERICK LORENZ in BTM Format\n* \n* \n* Alcuin, inventor of Christianity\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Carolingian Renaissance figure and legacy",
"Legacy",
"Quotations",
"Selected works",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Alcuin |
[
"\n\n\n'''Saint Angilbert''' ( – 18 February 814), sometimes known as '''Angilberk''' or '''Engelbert''', was a noble Frankish poet who was educated under Alcuin and served Charlemagne as a secretary, diplomat, and son-in-law. He was venerated as a pre-Congregation saint and is still honored on the day of his death, 18 February.\n",
"Angilbert seems to have been brought up at the court of Charlemagne at the palace school in Aquae Grani (Aachen). He was educated there as the pupil and then friend of the great English scholar Alcuin. When Charlemagne sent his young son Pepin to Italy as King of the Lombards Angilbert went along as ''primicerius palatii,'' a high administrator of the satellite court. As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on Iconoclasm from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to Pope Adrian I, and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794, and 796. At one time, he served an officer of the maritime provinces. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 811.\n\nThere are various traditions concerning Angilbert's relationship with Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne. One holds that they were married, another that they were not. They had, however, at least two sons, one of whom, Nithard, became a notable figure in the mid-9th century. Control of marriage and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the Middle Ages. Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices. On the other hand, some historians have speculated that Charlemagne opposed formal marriages for his daughters out of concern for political rivalries from their potential husbands; none of Charlemagne's daughters were married, despite political offers of arranged marriages.\n\nIn 790, he retired to the abbey of Centulum, the \"Monastery of St Richarius\" () at present-day Saint-Riquier in Picardy. Elected abbot in 794, he rebuilt the monastery and endowed it with a library of 200 volumes. It was not uncommon for the Merovingian, Carolingian, or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries; the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation. Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier; when he completed it, Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there. In keeping with Carolingian policies, Angilbert established a school at Saint-Riquier to educate the local boys.\n\nHis Latin poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. Charlemagne and the other men at court were known by affectionate and jesting nicknames. Charlemagne was referred to as \"David\", a reference to the Biblical king David. Angilbert was nicknamed \"Homer\" because he wrote poetry, and was the probable author of an epic, of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from Virgil, Ovid, Lucan and Venantius Fortunatus, composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the Avars (796), an epistle to David (i.e., Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.\n",
"Angilbert's poems were published by Ernst Dümmler in the ''Monumenta Germaniae Historica''. For criticisms of this edition, see Ludwig Traube in Max Roediger's ''Schriften für germanische Philologie'' (1888).\n",
"\n",
"* .\n* \n* \n* .\n* \n\n'''Attribution:'''\n* \n",
"* A. Molinier, ''Les Sources de l'histoire de France''.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Works",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading"
] | Angilbert |
[
"\n\n\n\n Primary amine !! Secondary amine !! Tertiary amine\n\n primary amine\n secondary amine\n tertiary amine\n\nIn organic chemistry, '''amines''' (, ) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline; see :Category:Amines for a list of amines. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as chloramine (NClH2); see :Category:Inorganic amines.\n\nCompounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure R–CO–NR′R″, are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines.\n",
"\nAn aliphatic amine has no aromatic ring attached directly to the nitrogen atom. Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring as in the various anilines. The aromatic ring decreases the alkalinity of the amine, depending on its substituents. The presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating effect.\n\nAmines are organized into four subcategories:\n\n*'''Primary amines'''—Primary amines arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aromatic. Important primary alkyl amines include, methylamine, most amino acids, and the buffering agent tris, while primary aromatic amines include aniline.\n*'''Secondary amines'''—Secondary amines have two organic substituents (alkyl, aryl or both) bound to the nitrogen together with one hydrogen. Important representatives include dimethylamine, while an example of an aromatic amine would be diphenylamine.\n*'''Tertiary amines'''—In tertiary amines, nitrogen has three organic substituents. Examples include trimethylamine, which has a distinctively fishy smell, and EDTA.\n*'''Cyclic amines'''—Cyclic amines are either secondary or tertiary amines. Examples of cyclic amines include the 3-membered ring aziridine and the six-membered ring piperidine. ''N''-methylpiperidine and ''N''-phenylpiperidine are examples of cyclic tertiary amines.\n\nIt is also possible to have four organic substituents on the nitrogen. These species are not amines but are quaternary ammonium cations and have a charged nitrogen center. Quaternary ammonium salts exist with many kinds of anions.\n",
"Amines are named in several ways. Typically, the compound is given the prefix \"amino-\" or the suffix: \"-amine\". The prefix \"''N''-\" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom. An organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine, triamine, tetraamine and so forth.\n\nSystematic names for some common amines:\n\n\n Lower amines are named with the suffix ''-amine''.\n100px\n'''methylamine'''\n Higher amines have the prefix ''amino'' as a functional group. IUPAC however does not recommend this convention , but prefers the alkanamine form, e.g. pentan-2-amine. \n150px\n'''2-aminopentane'''(or sometimes: ''pent-2-yl-amine'' or ''pentan-2-amine'')\n\n",
"Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines. Thus the melting point and boiling point of amines is higher than those of the corresponding phosphines, but generally lower than those of the corresponding alcohols and carboxylic acids. For example, methyl and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions, whereas the corresponding methyl and ethyl alcohols are liquids. Amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive \"fishy\" smell.\n\nThe nitrogen atom features a lone electron pair that can bind H+ to form an ammonium ion R3NH+. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water solubility of simple amines is enhanced by hydrogen bonding involving these lone electron pairs. Typically salts of ammonium compounds exhibit the following order of solubility in water: primary ammonium () > secondary ammonium () > tertiary ammonium (R3NH+). Small aliphatic amines display significant solubility in many solvents, whereas those with large substituents are lipophilic. Aromatic amines, such as aniline, have their lone pair electrons conjugated into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Their boiling points are high and their solubility in water is low.\n",
"===Alkyl amines===\nAlkyl amines characteristically feature tetrahedral nitrogen centers. C-N-C and C-N-H angles approach the idealized angle of 109°. C-N distances are slightly shorter than C-C distances. The energy barrier for the nitrogen inversion of the stereocenter is about 7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella into a strong wind.\n\nAmines of the type NHRR′ and NRR′R″ are chiral: the nitrogen center bears four substituents counting the lone pair. Because of the low barrier to inversion, amines of the type NHRR′ cannot be obtained in optical purity. For chiral tertiary amines, NRR′R″ can only be resolved when the R, R′, and R″ groups are constrained in cyclic structures such as N-substituted aziridines (quaternary ammonium salts are resolvable).\n\n |76px\n | style=\"font-size:200%\" | ⇌ \n |76px\n |-\n | colspan=3 style=\"font-size:small\" |Inversion of an amine. The pair of dots represents the lone electron pair on the nitrogen atom.\n\n\n===Aromatic amines===\nIn aromatic amines (\"anilines\"), nitrogen is often nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter. In aniline, the C-N distance is the same as the C-C distances.\n",
"Like ammonia, amines are bases. Compared to alkali metal hydroxides, amines are weaker (see table for examples of conjugate acid ''K''a values). \n\n\n\nAlkylamine or aniline\n pKa\n ''K''b\n\n methylamine (MeNH2)\n 10.62\n 4.17E-04\n\n dimethylamine (Me2NH)\n 10.64\n 4.37E-04\n\n trimethylamine (Me3N)\n 9.76\n 5.75E-05\n\n ethylamine (EtNH2)\n 10.63\n 4.27E-04\n\n aniline (PhNH2)\n 4.62\n 4.17E-10\n\n 4-methoxyaniline (4-MeOC6H4NH2)\n 5.36\n 2.29E-09\n\n N,N-Dimethylaniline (PhNMe2)\n 5.07\n 1.17E-09\n\n 3-Nitroaniline (3-NO2-C6H4NH2)\n 2.46\n 2.88E-12\n\n 4-Nitroaniline (4-NO2-C6H4NH2)\n 1\n 1.00E-13\n\n 4-trifluoromethylaniline (CF3C6H4NH2)\n 2.75\n 5.62E-12\n\n\nThe basicity of amines depends on:\n# The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it).\n# The degree of solvation of the protonated amine, which includes steric hindrance by the groups on nitrogen.\n\n===Electronic effects===\nOwing to inductive effects, the basicity of an amine might be expected to increase with the number of alkyl groups on the amine. Correlations are complicated owing to the effects of solvation which are opposite the trends for inductive effects. Solvation effects also dominate the basicity of aromatic amines (anilines). For anilines, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen delocalises into the ring, resulting in decreased basicity. Substituents on the aromatic ring, and their positions relative to the amine group, also affect basicity as seen in the table.\n\n===Solvation effects===\nSolvation significantly affects the basicity of amines. N-H groups strongly interact with water, especially in ammonium ions. Consequently, the basicity of ammonia is enhanced by 1011 by solvation. The intrinsic basicity of amines, i.e. the situation where solvation is unimportant, has been evaluated in the gas phase. In the gas phase, amines exhibit the basicities predicted from the electron-releasing effects of the organic substituents. Thus tertiary amines are more basic than secondary amines, which are more basic than primary amines, and finally ammonia is least basic. The order of pKb's (basicities in water) does not follow this order. Similarly aniline is more basic than ammonia in the gas phase, but ten thousand times less so in aqueous solution.\n\nIn aprotic polar solvents such as DMSO, DMF, and acetonitrile the energy of solvation is not as high as in protic polar solvents like water and methanol. For this reason, the basicity of amines in these aprotic solvents is almost solely governed by the electronic factors.\n",
"\n\n===Alkylation===\nThe most industrially significant amines are prepared from ammonia by alkylation with alcohols:\n:ROH + NH3 → RNH2 + H2O\nThese reactions require catalysts, specialized apparatus, and additional purification measures since the selectivity can be problematic. The same amines can be prepared by treatment of haloalkanes with ammonia and amines:\n:RX + 2 R′NH2 → RR′NH + RR′NH2X\nSuch reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. Selectivity can be improved via the Delépine reaction, although this is rarely employed on an industrial scale.\n\n===Reductive routes===\nVia the process of hydrogenation, nitriles are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Reactions are sensitive to acidic or alkaline conditions, which can cause hydrolysis of the –CN group. LiAlH4 is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale. Similarly, LiAlH4 reduces amides to amines. Many amines are produced from aldehydes and ketones via reductive amination, which can either proceed catalytically or stoichiometrically.\n\nAniline (C6H5NH2) and its derivatives are prepared by reduction of the nitroaromatics. In industry, hydrogen is the preferred reductant, whereas, in the laboratory, tin and iron are often employed.\n\n===Specialized methods===\nMany laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines, many of these methods being rather specialized.\n\n\n Comment\n\n Gabriel synthesis\nOrganohalide\n Reagent: potassium phthalimide\n\n Staudinger reduction\nAzide\n This reaction also takes place with a reducing agent such as lithium aluminium hydride.\n\n Schmidt reaction\nCarboxylic acid\n\n\n Aza-Baylis–Hillman reaction\nImine\n Synthesis of allylic amines\n\n Birch reduction\n Imine\n Useful for reactions that trap unstable imine intermediates, such as Grignard reactions with nitriles.\n\n Hofmann degradation\nAmide\n This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines.\n\n Hofmann elimination\n Quaternary ammonium salt\nUpon treatment with strong base\n\n Amide reduction\n amide\n\n\n Nitrile reduction\n Nitriles\nEither accomplished with reducing agents or by electrosynthesis\n\n Reduction of nitro compounds\n Nitro compounds\nCan be accomplished with elemental zinc, tin or iron with an acid.\n\n Amine alkylation\n Haloalkane\n\n\n Delepine reaction\n Organohalide\nreagent Hexamine\n\n Buchwald–Hartwig reaction\n Aryl halide\n Specific for aryl amines\n\n Menshutkin reaction\n Tertiary amine\n Reaction product a quaternary ammonium cation\n\n Hydroamination\n Alkenes and alkynes\n\n\n Oxime reduction\n Oximes\n\n\n Leuckart reaction\n Ketones and aldehydes\n Reductive amination with formic acid and ammonia via an imine intermediate\n\n Hofmann–Löffler reaction\n Haloamine\n\n\n Eschweiler–Clarke reaction\n Amine\n Reductive amination with formic acid and formaldehyde via an imine intermediate\n\n",
"\n===Alkylation, acylation, and sulfonation===\nAside from their basicity, the dominant reactivity of amines is their nucleophilicity. Most primary amines are good ligands for metal ions to give coordination complexes. Amines are alkylated by alkyl halides. Acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines to form amides (the \"Schotten–Baumann reaction\").\nAmide formation\nSimilarly, with sulfonyl chlorides, one obtains sulfonamides. This transformation, known as the Hinsberg reaction, is a chemical test for the presence of amines.\n\nBecause amines are basic, they neutralize acids to form the corresponding ammonium salts R3NH+. When formed from carboxylic acids and primary and secondary amines, these salts thermally dehydrate to form the corresponding amides.\n:\n\n===Diazotization===\nAmines react with nitrous acid to give diazonium salts. The alkyl diazonium salts are of little synthetic importance because they are too unstable. The most important members are derivatives of aromatic amines such as aniline (\"phenylamine\") (A = aryl or naphthyl):\n\n:{ANH2} + {HNO2} + HX -> {AN+2X^-} + 2H2O\n\nAnilines and naphthylamines form more stable diazonium salts, which can be isolated in the crystalline form. Diazonium salts undergo a variety of useful transformations involving replacement of the N2 group with anions. For example, cuprous cyanide gives the corresponding nitriles:\n\n:{AN+2} + Y^- -> {AY} + N2\n\nAryldiazonium couple with electron-rich aromatic compounds such as a phenol to form azo compounds. Such reactions are widely applied to the production of dyes.\n\n===Conversion to imines===\nImine formation is an important reaction. Primary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form imines. In the case of formaldehyde (R′ H), these products typically exist as cyclic trimers.\n: RNH2 + R′2CO → R′2CNR + H2O\nReduction of these imines gives secondary amines:\n: R′2CNR + H2 → R′2CH–NHR\n\nSimilarly, secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form enamines:\n: R2NH + R′(R″CH2)C=O → R″CHC(NR2)R′ + H2O\n\n===Overview===\nAn overview of the reactions of amines is given below:\n\n\n Comment\n\n Amine alkylation\nAmines\n Degree of substitution increases\n\n Schotten–Baumann reaction\nAmide\n Reagents: acyl chlorides, acid anhydrides\n\n Hinsberg reaction\nSulfonamides\n Reagents: sulfonyl chlorides\n\n Amine–carbonyl condensation\nImines\n\n Organic oxidation\nNitroso compounds\n Reagent: peroxymonosulfuric acid\n\n Organic oxidation\n Diazonium salt\n Reagent: nitrous acid\n\n Zincke reaction\nZincke aldehyde\n Reagent: pyridinium salts, with primary and secondary amines\n\n Emde degradation\nTertiary amine\n Reduction of quaternary ammonium cations\n\n Hofmann–Martius rearrangement\nAryl-substituted anilines\n\n von Braun reaction\n Organocyanamide\nBy cleavage (tertiary amines only) with cyanogen bromide\n\n Hofmann elimination\n Alkene\nProceeds by β-elimination of less hindered carbon\n\n Cope reaction\n Alkene\nSimilar to Hofmann elimination\n\n carbylamine reaction\n Isonitrile\nPrimary amines only\n\n Hoffmann's mustard oil test\n Isothiocyanate\nCS2 and HgCl2 are used. Thiocyanate smells like mustard.\n\n",
"Amines are ubiquitous in biology. The breakdown of amino acids releases amines, famously in the case of decaying fish which smell of trimethylamine. Many neurotransmitters are amines, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine. Protonated amino groups () are the most common positively charged moieties in proteins, specifically in the amino acid lysine. The anionic polymer DNA is typically bound to various amine-rich proteins. Additionally, the terminal charged primary ammonium on lysine forms salt bridges with carboxylate groups of other amino acids in polypeptides, which is one of the primary influences on the three-dimensional structures of proteins.\n",
"\n===Dyes===\nPrimary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes. It reacts with nitrous acid to form diazonium salt, which can undergo coupling reaction to form an azo compound. As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as:\n\n* Methyl orange\n* Direct brown 138\n* Sunset yellow FCF\n* Ponceau\n\n===Drugs===\nMany drugs are designed to mimic or to interfere with the action of natural amine neurotransmitters, exemplified by the amine drugs:\n* Chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine that helps to relieve allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings.\n* Chlorpromazine is a tranquilizer that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder.\n* Ephedrine and phenylephrine, as amine hydrochlorides, are used as decongestants.\n* Amphetamine, methamphetamine, and methcathinone are psychostimulant amines that are listed as controlled substances by the US DEA.\n* Amitriptyline, imipramine, lofepramine and clomipramine are tricyclic antidepressants and tertiary amines.\n* Nortriptyline, desipramine, and amoxapine are tricyclic antidepressants and secondary amines. (The tricyclics are grouped by the nature of the final amine group on the side chain.)\n* Substituted tryptamines and phenethylamines are key basic structures for a large variety of psychedelic drugs.\n* Opiate analgesics such as morphine, codeine, and heroin are tertiary amines.\n\n===Gas treatment===\nAqueous monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), diethanolamine (DEA), diisopropanolamine (DIPA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) are widely used industrially for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from natural gas and refinery process streams. They may also be used to remove CO2 from combustion gases and flue gases and may have potential for abatement of greenhouse gases. Related processes are known as sweetening.\n",
"Low molecular weight amines, such as ethylamine, are toxic, and some are easily absorbed through the skin. Many higher molecular weight amines are, biologically, highly active.\n",
"* Acid-base extraction\n* Amine gas treating\n* Ammine\n* Biogenic amine\n* Imine\n* IUPAC nomenclature for the official naming rules for amines.\n* Ligand isomerism\n",
"",
"\n* Primary amine synthesis: synthetic protocols from organic-reaction.com\n* Amines have been implicated in migraine headaches; link contains citations, and list of amine containing foods.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Classes of amines",
"Naming conventions",
"Physical properties",
"Structure",
"Basicity",
" Synthesis ",
"Reactions",
"Biological activity",
"Application of amines",
"Safety",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Amine |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*1091 – Battle of Levounion: The Pechenegs are defeated by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos.\n*1386 – Battle of the Vikhra River: The Principality of Smolensk is defeated by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and becomes its vassal.\n*1429 – Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orléans.\n*1483 – Gran Canaria, the main island of the Canary Islands, is conquered by the Kingdom of Castile.\n*1521 – Swedish War of Liberation: Swedish troops defeat a Danish force in the Battle of Västerås.\n*1770 – James Cook arrives in Australia at Botany Bay, which he names.\n*1781 – American Revolutionary War: British and French ships clash in the Battle of Fort Royal off the coast of Martinique.\n*1834 – Charles Darwin during the second survey voyage of HMS ''Beagle'', ascended the Bell mountain, Cerro La Campana on 17 August 1834, his visit being commemorated by a memorial plaque.\n*1861 – American Civil War: Maryland's House of Delegates votes not to secede from the Union.\n*1862 – American Civil War: The Capture of New Orleans by Union forces under David Farragut.\n*1864 – Theta Xi fraternity is founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the only fraternity to be founded during the American Civil War.\n*1903 – A 30 million cubic-metre landslide kills 70 people in Frank, in the District of Alberta, Canada.\n*1910 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the People's Budget, the first budget in British history with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the British public.\n*1911 – Tsinghua University, one of mainland China's leading universities, is founded.\n*1916 – World War I: The UK's 6th Indian Division surrenders to Ottoman Forces at the Siege of Kut in one of the largest surrenders of British forces up to that point.\n* 1916 – Easter Rising: After six days of fighting, Irish rebel leaders surrender to British forces in Dublin, bringing the Easter Rising to an end.\n*1944 – World War II: British agent Nancy Wake, a leading figure in the French Resistance and the Gestapo's most wanted person, parachutes back into France to be a liaison between London and the local maquis group.\n*1945 – World War II: The German army in Italy unconditionally surrenders to the Allies.\n* 1945 – World War II: Start of Operation Manna.\n* 1945 – World War II: The HMS ''Goodall'' (K479) is torpedoed by ''U-286'' outside the Kola Inlet becoming the last Royal Navy ship to be sunk in the European theatre of World War II.\n* 1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: Adolf Hitler marries his longtime partner Eva Braun in a Berlin bunker and designates Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor; Hitler and Braun both commit suicide the following day.\n* 1945 – Dachau concentration camp is liberated by United States troops.\n* 1945 – The Italian commune of Fornovo di Taro is liberated from German forces by Brazilian forces.\n*1946 – The International Military Tribunal for the Far East convenes and indicts former Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tojo and 28 former Japanese leaders for war crimes.\n*1951 – Tibetan delegates to the Central People's Government arrive in Beijing and draft a Seventeen Point Agreement for Chinese sovereignty and Tibetan autonomy.\n*1953 – The first U.S. experimental 3D television broadcast showed an episode of ''Space Patrol'' on Los Angeles ABC affiliate KECA-TV.\n*1965 – Pakistan's Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) successfully launches its seventh rocket in its ''Rehber'' series.\n*1967 – After refusing induction into the United States Army the previous day, Muhammad Ali is stripped of his boxing title.\n*1968 – The controversial musical ''Hair'', a product of the hippie counter-culture and sexual revolution of the 1960s, opens at the Biltmore Theatre on Broadway, with some of its songs becoming anthems of the anti-Vietnam War movement.\n*1970 – Vietnam War: United States and South Vietnamese forces invade Cambodia to hunt Viet Cong.\n*1974 – Watergate scandal: United States President Richard Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of White House tape recordings relating to the scandal.\n*1975 – Vietnam War: Operation Frequent Wind: The U.S. begins to evacuate U.S. citizens from Saigon before an expected North Vietnamese takeover. U.S. involvement in the war comes to an end.\n* 1975 – Vietnam War: The North Vietnamese army completes its capture of all parts of South Vietnamese-held Trường Sa Islands.\n*1986 – A fire at the Central library of the City of Los Angeles Public Library damages or destroys 400,000 books and other items.\n* 1986 – Chernobyl disaster: American and European spy satellites capture the ruins of the 4th Reactor at the Chernobyl Power Plant\n*1991 – A cyclone strikes the Chittagong district of southeastern Bangladesh with winds of around , killing at least 138,000 people and leaving as many as ten million homeless.\n* 1991 – The 7.0 Racha earthquake affects Georgia with a maximum MSK intensity of IX (''Destructive''), killing 270 people.\n*1992 – Los Angeles riots: Riots in Los Angeles, following the acquittal of police officers charged with excessive force in the beating of Rodney King. Over the next three days 63 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed.\n*1997 – The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 enters into force, outlawing the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons by its signatories.\n*2011 – The Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton takes place at Westminster Abbey in London.\n*2013 – A powerful explosion occurs in an office building in Prague, believed to have been caused by natural gas, injures 43 people.\n*2015 – A baseball game between the Baltimore Orioles and the Chicago White Sox sets the all-time low attendance mark for Major League Baseball. Zero fans were in attendance for the game, as the stadium was officially closed to the public due to the 2015 Baltimore protests.\n\n",
"\n*912 – Minamoto no Mitsunaka, Japanese samurai (d. 997)\n*1469 – William II, Landgrave of Hesse (d. 1509)\n*1587 – Sophie of Saxony, Duchess of Pomerania (d. 1635)\n*1636 – Esaias Reusner, German lute player and composer (d. 1679)\n*1665 – James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, Irish general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1745)\n*1667 – John Arbuthnot, Scottish-English physician and polymath (d. 1735)\n*1686 – Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1742)\n*1727 – Jean-Georges Noverre, French actor and dancer (d. 1810)\n*1745 – Oliver Ellsworth, American lawyer and politician, 3rd Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1807)\n*1758 – Georg Carl von Döbeln, Swedish general (d. 1820)\n*1762 – Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, French general and politician, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1833)\n*1780 – Charles Nodier, French librarian and author (d. 1844)\n*1783 – David Cox, English landscape painter (d. 1859)\n*1784 – Samuel Turell Armstrong, American publisher and politician, 14th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1850)\n*1810 – Thomas Adolphus Trollope, English journalist and author (d. 1892)\n*1814 – Sadok Barącz, Galician religious leader, historian, folklorist, archivist (d. 1892) \n*1818 – Alexander II of Russia (d. 1881)\n*1837 – Georges Ernest Boulanger, French general and politician, French Minister of War (d. 1891)\n*1842 – Carl Millöcker, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1899)\n*1847 – Joachim Andersen, Danish flautist, composer, conductor, and co-founder of the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra (d. 1907)\n*1848 – Raja Ravi Varma, Indian painter and academic (d. 1906)\n*1854 – Henri Poincaré, French mathematician, physicist, and engineer (d. 1912)\n*1863 – Constantine P. Cavafy, Egyptian-Greek journalist and poet (d. 1933)\n* 1863 – William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (d. 1951)\n* 1863 – Maria Teresia Ledóchowska, Austrian nun and missionary (d. 1922)\n*1872 – Harry Payne Whitney, American businessman and lawyer (d. 1930)\n* 1872 – Forest Ray Moulton, American astronomer and academic (d. 1952)\n*1875 – Rafael Sabatini, Italian-English novelist and short story writer (d. 1950)\n*1878 – Friedrich Adler, Jewish-German academic, artist and designer. (d.1945)\n*1880 – Fethi Okyar, Turkish military officer, diplomat and politician (d. 1943)\n*1882 – Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer, typographer, and Nazi resister (d. 1945)\n*1891 – Bharathidasan, Indian poet and activist (d. 1964)\n*1894 – Marietta Blau, Austrian physicist and academic (d. 1970)\n*1885 – Egon Erwin Kisch, Czech journalist and author (d. 1948)\n*1887 – Raymond Thorne, American swimmer (d. 1921)\n*1893 – Harold Urey, American chemist and astronomer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)\n*1895 – Vladimir Propp, Russian scholar and critic (d. 1970)\n* 1895 – Malcolm Sargent, English organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1967)\n*1899 – Douglas Abbott, Canadian lawyer and politician, 10th Canadian Minister of National Defence (d. 1987)\n* 1899 – Duke Ellington, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1974)\n* 1899 – Mary Petty, American illustrator (d. 1976)\n*1901 – Hirohito, Japanese emperor (d. 1989)\n*1907 – Fred Zinnemann, Austrian-American director and producer (d. 1997)\n*1908 – Jack Williamson, American author and academic (d. 2006)\n*1909 – Tom Ewell, American actor (d. 1994)\n*1912 – Richard Carlson, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1977)\n*1915 – Henry H. Barschall, German-American physicist and academic (d. 1997)\n*1917 – Maya Deren, Ukrainian-American director, poet, and photographer (d. 1961)\n* 1917 – Celeste Holm, American actress and singer (d. 2012)\n* 1917 – Marcel Trudel, Canadian historian and author (d. 2011)\n*1918 – George Allen, American football player and coach (d. 1990)\n*1919 – Gérard Oury, French actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2006)\n*1920 – Edward Blishen, English author and radio host (d. 1996)\n* 1920 – Harold Shapero, American composer (d. 2013)\n*1922 – Helmut Krackowizer, Austrian motorcycle racer and journalist (d. 2001)\n* 1922 – Toots Thielemans, Belgian guitarist and harmonica player (d. 2016)\n*1923 – Irvin Kershner, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2010)\n*1924 – Al Balding, Canadian golfer (d. 2006)\n* 1924 – Zizi Jeanmaire, French ballerina and actress\n*1925 – John Compton, Saint Lucian lawyer and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (d. 2007)\n* 1925 – Iwao Takamoto, American animator, director, and producer (d. 2007)\n*1926 – Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (d. 2009)\n*1927 – Dorothy Manley, English sprinter\n* 1927 – Bill Slater, English footballer \n*1928 – Carl Gardner, American R&B/rock & roll singer (The Robins, The Coasters) (d. 2011)\n* 1928 – Heinz Wolff, German-English physiologist, engineer, and academic\n*1929 – Walter Kempowski, German author and academic (d. 2007)\n* 1929 – Mickey McDermott, American baseball player and coach (d. 2003)\n* 1929 – Peter Sculthorpe, Australian composer and conductor (d. 2014)\n* 1929 – Maurice Strong, Canadian businessman and diplomat (d. 2015)\n* 1929 – Jeremy Thorpe, English lawyer and politician (d. 2014)\n*1930 – Jean Rochefort, French actor and director\n*1931 – Frank Auerbach, British-German painter\n* 1931 – Lonnie Donegan, Scottish-English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)\n* 1931 – Chris Pearson, Canadian politician, 1st Premier of Yukon (d. 2014)\n*1932 – Joy Clements, American soprano and actress (d. 2005)\n* 1932 – David Tindle, English painter and educator\n*1933 – Ed Charles, African-American baseball player and coach\n* 1933 – Mark Eyskens, Belgian economist and politician, 61st Prime Minister of Belgium\n* 1933 – Rod McKuen, American singer-songwriter and poet (d. 2015)\n* 1933 – Willie Nelson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor \n*1934 – Luis Aparicio, Venezuelan-American baseball player\n* 1934 – Peter de la Billière, English general\n* 1934 – Erika Fisch, German sprinter and hurdler\n* 1934 – Pedro Pires, Cape Verdean politician, 3rd President of Cape Verde\n*1935 – Otis Rush, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*1936 – Zubin Mehta, Indian bassist and conductor\n* 1936 – Adolfo Nicolás, Spanish priest, 13th Superior General of the Society of Jesus\n* 1936 – Jacob Rothschild, 4th Baron Rothschild, English banker and philanthropist\n* 1936 – April Stevens, American pop singer\n*1937 – Arvo Mets, Estonian-Russian poet and translator (d. 1997)\n* 1937 – Jill Paton Walsh, English author\n*1938 – Bernard Madoff, American businessman and financier\n* 1938 – Klaus Voormann, German artist, bass player, and producer \n*1940 – Stephanos of Tallinn, Estonian metropolitan\n* 1940 – Brian Taber, Australian cricketer\n*1941 – Jonah Barrington, English-Irish squash player\n* 1941 – Hanne Darboven, German painter (d. 2009)\n*1942 – Lynda Chalker, Baroness Chalker of Wallasey, English politician, Minister of State for Europe\n* 1942 – Rennie Fritchie, Baroness Fritchie, English civil servant and academic\n* 1942 – Galina Kulakova, Russian skier\n*1943 – Duane Allen, American country singer (The Oak Ridge Boys)\n* 1943 – Brenda Dean, Baroness Dean of Thornton-le-Fylde, English union leader and politician\n* 1943 – Ruth Deech, Baroness Deech, English lawyer and academic\n*1944 – Francis Lee, English footballer and businessman\n*1945 – Brian Charlesworth, English biologist, geneticist, and academic\n* 1945 – Catherine Lara, French singer-songwriter and violinist\n* 1945 – Tammi Terrell, American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1970)\n*1946 – Aleksander Wolszczan, Polish astronomer\n*1947 – Serge Bernier, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1947 – Tommy James, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1947 – Johnny Miller, American golfer and sportscaster\n* 1947 – Jim Ryun, American runner and politician\n*1948 – Bruce Cutler, American lawyer\n*1950 – Paul Holmes, New Zealand journalist (d. 2013)\n* 1950 – Phillip Noyce, Australian director and producer\n* 1950 – Debbie Stabenow, American social worker and politician\n*1951 – Rick Burleson, American baseball player\n* 1951 – Dale Earnhardt, American race car driver (d. 2001)\n* 1951 – John Holmes, English diplomat, British Ambassador to France\n*1952 – Nora Dunn, American actress and comedian\n* 1952 – David Icke, English footballer and sportscaster\n* 1952 – Bob McClure, American baseball player and coach\n* 1952 – Rob Nicholson, Canadian lawyer and politician, 11th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs\n* 1952 – Ron Washington, American baseball player and manager\n*1954 – Jake Burton Carpenter, American snowboarder and businessman, founded Burton Snowboards\n* 1954 – Jerry Seinfeld, American comedian, actor, and producer\n*1955 – Don McKinnon, Australian rugby league player\n* 1955 – Kate Mulgrew, American actress\n*1956 – Karen Barad, American physicist and philosopher\n*1957 – Daniel Day-Lewis, British-Irish actor \n* 1957 – Mark Kendall, American guitarist and songwriter \n*1958 – Michelle Pfeiffer, American actress\n* 1958 – Eve Plumb, American actress\n* 1958 – Mike Stenhouse, American baseball player and sportscaster\n*1960 – Bill Glasson, American golfer\n* 1960 – Robert J. Sawyer, Canadian author and academic\n*1962 – Bruce Driver, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1962 – Rob Druppers, Dutch runner\n* 1962 – Stephan Burger, German Catholic archbishop\n*1963 – Mike Babcock, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1963 – Claude Loiselle, Canadian ice hockey player and manager\n*1964 – Federico Castelluccio, Italian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1964 – Radek Jaroš, Czech mountaineer and author\n*1965 – Michel Bussi, French geographer, author, and academic\n* 1965 – Peter Rauhofer, Austrian-American disc jockey and producer (d. 2013)\n* 1965 – Larisa Turchinskaya, Russian-Australian heptathlete and coach\n* 1965 – Brendon Tuuta, New Zealand rugby league player\n*1966 – Marie Plourde, Canadian journalist\n* 1966 – Christian Tetzlaff, German violinist\n* 1966 – Phil Tufnell, English cricketer and radio host\n*1967 – Marcel Albers, Dutch race car driver (d. 1992)\n* 1967 – Curtis Joseph, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n*1968 – Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, 4th President of Croatia (2015-)\n* 1968 – Carnie Wilson, American singer-songwriter \n*1969 – Jack Mackenroth, American swimmer, model, and fashion designer\n*1970 – Andre Agassi, American tennis player\n* 1970 – Uma Thurman, American actress \n*1972 – Dustin McDaniel, American lawyer and politician, 55th Arkansas Attorney General\n*1974 – Jasper Wood, Canadian violinist and educator\n* 1974 – Anggun, Diva Indonesia\n*1975 – Rafael Betancourt, Venezuelan baseball player\n* 1975 – Artem Yashkin, Ukrainian footballer\n*1976 – Chiyotaikai Ryūji, Japanese sumo wrestler\n*1977 – Zuzana Hejdová, Czech tennis player\n* 1977 – Claus Jensen, Danish footballer and sportscaster\n* 1977 – Titus O'Neil, American football player and wrestler\n* 1977 – Attila Zsivoczky, Hungarian decathlete and high jumper\n*1978 – Tony Armas, Jr., Venezuelan baseball player\n* 1978 – Bob Bryan, American tennis player\n* 1978 – Mike Bryan, American tennis player\n* 1978 – Javier Colon, American singer-songwriter and musician\n* 1978 – Craig Gower, Australian rugby player\n* 1978 – Tyler Labine, Canadian actor and comedian\n*1979 – Lee Dong-gook, South Korean footballer\n* 1979 – Ryan Sharp, Scottish race car driver and manager\n*1980 – Mathieu Biron, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1980 – Kelly Shoppach, American baseball player\n*1981 – Lisa Allen, English chef\n* 1981 – George McCartney, Northern Irish footballer\n* 1981 – Émilie Mondor, Canadian runner (d. 2006)\n*1983 – Jay Cutler, American football player\n* 1983 – Tommie Harris, American football player\n* 1983 – David Lee, American basketball player\n*1984 – Kirby Cote, Canadian swimmer\n* 1984 – Paulius Jankūnas, Lithuanian basketball player\n* 1984 – Lina Krasnoroutskaya, Russian tennis player\n* 1984 – Vassilis Xanthopoulos, Greek basketball player\n*1985 – Jean-François Jacques, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1986 – Viljar Veski, Estonian basketball player\n* 1986 – Sisa Waqa, Fijian rugby league player\n*1987 – Knut Børsheim, Norwegian golfer\n* 1987 – Sara Errani, Italian tennis player\n*1988 – Elías Hernández, Mexican footballer\n* 1988 – Jovan Leacock, American football player\n* 1988 – Jonathan Toews, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1991 – Adam Smith, English footballer\n*1992 – Emilio Orozco, American soccer player\n*1994 – Christina Shakovets, German tennis player\n*1995 – Victoria Sinitsina, Russian ice dancer\n*1998 – Kimberly Birrell, Australian tennis player\n\n",
"* 643 – Hou Junji, Chinese general and politician, Chancellor of the Tang dynasty\n* 926 – Burchard II, Duke of Swabia (b. 883)\n*1326 – Blanche of Burgundy, queen consort of France (b. c. 1296)\n*1380 – Catherine of Siena, Italian mystic, philosopher, and saint (b. 1347)\n*1417 – Louis II of Naples (b. 1377)\n*1594 – Thomas Cooper, English bishop, lexicographer, and theologian (b. 1517)\n*1630 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French soldier and poet (b. 1552)\n*1658 – John Cleveland, English poet and author (b. 1613)\n*1676 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (b. 1607)\n*1688 – Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (b. 1620)\n*1698 – Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Suffolk (b. 1655)\n*1707 – George Farquhar, Irish-English actor and playwright (b. 1678)\n*1743 – Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre, French theorist and author (b. 1658)\n*1768 – Georg Brandt, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (b. 1694)\n*1771 – Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, French-Italian architect, designed Winter Palace and Catherine Palace (b. 1700)\n*1776 – Edward Wortley Montagu, English explorer and author (b. 1713)\n*1793 – John Michell, English geologist and astronomer (b. 1724)\n*1798 – Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus, Austrian entomologist and author (b. 1723)\n*1833 – William Babington, Anglo-Irish physician and mineralogist (b. 1756)\n*1854 – Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1768)\n*1903 – Paul Du Chaillu, French-American anthropologist and zoologist (b. 1835)\n*1905 – Ignacio Cervantes, Cuban pianist and composer (b. 1847)\n*1916 – Jørgen Pedersen Gram, Danish mathematician and academic (b. 1850)\n*1920 – William H. Seward Jr., American general and banker (b. 1839)\n*1921 – Arthur Mold, English cricketer (b. 1863)\n*1933 – Constantine P. Cavafy, Greek poet and journalist (b. 1863)\n*1937 – William Gillette, American actor and playwright (b. 1853)\n*1944 – Bernardino Machado, Portuguese academic and politician, 3rd President of Portugal (b. 1851)\n*1945 – Matthias Kleinheisterkamp, German SS officer (b. 1893)\n*1947 – Irving Fisher, American economist and statistician (b. 1867)\n*1951 – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (b. 1889)\n*1954 – Kathleen Clarice Groom, Australian-English author and screenwriter (b. 1872)\n*1956 – Harold Bride, English soldier and operator (b. 1890)\n* 1956 – Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, German field marshal (b. 1876)\n*1959 – Kenneth Arthur Noel Anderson, India-born English soldier and Governor of Gibraltar (b. 1891)\n*1966 – William Eccles, English physicist and engineer (b. 1875)\n* 1966 – Paula Strasberg, American actress, acting coach, and member of the Communist Party (b. 1909)\n*1967 – J. B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929)\n*1976 – Edvard Drabløs, Norwegian actor and director (b. 1883)\n*1978 – Theo Helfrich, German racing driver (b. 1913) \n*1979 – Muhsin Ertuğrul, Turkish actor and director (b. 1892)\n* 1979 – Hardie Gramatky, American author and illustrator (b. 1907)\n*1980 – Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (b. 1899)\n*1982 – Raymond Bussières, French actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1907)\n*1992 – Mae Clarke, American actress (b. 1910)\n*1993 – Michael Gordon, American actor and director (b. 1909)\n* 1993 – Mick Ronson, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1946)\n*1997 – Mike Royko, American journalist and author (b. 1932)\n*1998 – Hal Laycoe, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1922)\n*2000 – Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1906)\n*2001 – Arthur B. C. Walker, Jr., American physicist and academic (b. 1936)\n*2002 – Bob Akin, American race car driver and journalist (b. 1936)\n*2004 – Sid Smith, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1925)\n*2005 – William J. Bell, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1927)\n* 2005 – Louis Leithold, American mathematician and academic (b. 1924)\n*2006 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to India (b. 1908)\n*2007 – Milt Bocek, American baseball player and soldier (b. 1912)\n* 2007 – Josh Hancock, American baseball player (b. 1978)\n* 2007 – Dick Motz, New Zealand cricketer and rugby player (b. 1940)\n* 2007 – Ivica Račan, Croatian politician, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (b. 1944)\n*2008 – Chuck Daigh, American racing driver (b. 1923)\n* 2008 – Albert Hofmann, Swiss chemist and academic (b. 1906)\n*2010 – Sandy Douglas, English computer scientist and academic, designed ''OXO'' (b. 1921)\n*2011 – Siamak Pourzand, Iranian journalist and critic (b. 1931)\n*2012 – Shukri Ghanem, Libyan politician, Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1942)\n* 2012 – Joel Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (b. 1957)\n* 2012 – Roland Moreno. French engineer, invented the smart card (b. 1945)\n* 2012 – Kenny Roberts, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926)\n*2013 – Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (b. 1992)\n* 2013 – Pesah Grupper, Israeli politician, 13th Israel Minister of Agriculture (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Parekura Horomia, New Zealand politician, 40th Minister of Māori Affairs (b. 1950)\n* 2013 – John La Montaine, American pianist and composer (b. 1920)\n* 2013 – Ernest Michael, American mathematician and scholar (b. 1925)\n* 2013 – Kevin Moore, English footballer (b. 1958)\n* 2013 – Marianna Zachariadi, Greek pole vaulter (b. 1990)\n*2014 – Iveta Bartošová, Czech singer and actress (b. 1966)\n* 2014 – Al Feldstein, American author and illustrator (b. 1925)\n* 2014 – Bob Hoskins, English actor (b. 1942)\n* 2014 – Michael Kadosh, Israeli footballer and manager (b. 1940)\n*2015 – François Michelin, French businessman (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Jean Nidetch, American businesswoman, co-founded Weight Watchers (b. 1923)\n* 2015 – Calvin Peete, American golfer (b. 1943)\n* 2015 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (b. 1922)\n*2016 – Renato Corona, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (b. 1948)\n\n",
"* Christian feast day:\n** Catherine of Siena (Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Church)\n** Endelienta\n** Hugh of Cluny\n** Robert of Molesme\n** Torpes of Pisa\n** April 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations)\n* International Dance Day (UNESCO)\n* Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan)\n",
"\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"References",
"External links"
] | April 29 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*29 BC – Octavian holds the second of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes.\n*1040 – King Duncan I is killed in battle against his first cousin and rival Macbeth. The latter succeeds him as King of Scotland.\n*1183 – Taira no Munemori and the Taira clan take the young Emperor Antoku and the three sacred treasures and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the Minamoto clan (traditional Japanese date: Twenty-fifth Day of the Seventh Month of the Second Year of Juei).\n*1288 – Count Adolf VIII of Berg grants town privileges to Düsseldorf, the village on the banks of the Düssel.\n*1352 – War of the Breton Succession: Anglo-Bretons defeat the French in the Battle of Mauron.\n*1370 – Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, grants city privileges to Carlsbad which is subsequently named after him.\n*1385 – Portuguese Crisis of 1383–85: Battle of Aljubarrota: Portuguese forces commanded by King John I and his general Nuno Álvares Pereira defeat the Castilian army of King John I.\n*1457 – Publication of the Mainz Psalter, the first book to feature a printed date of publication and printed colophon\n*1480 – Battle of Otranto: Ottoman troops behead 800 Christians for refusing to convert to Islam; they are later honored in the Church.\n*1592 – The first sighting of the Falkland Islands by John Davis.\n*1598 – Nine Years' War: Battle of the Yellow Ford: Irish forces under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, defeats an English expeditionary force under Henry Bagenal.\n*1720 – The Spanish military Villasur expedition is wiped out by Pawnee and Otoe warriors near present-day Columbus, Nebraska.\n*1791 – Slaves from plantations in Saint-Domingue hold a Vodou ceremony lead by houngan Dutty Boukman at Bois Caïman, marking the start of the Haitian Revolution.\n*1814 – A cease fire agreement, called the Convention of Moss, ended the Swedish–Norwegian War.\n*1816 – The United Kingdom formally annexes the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, administering the islands from the Cape Colony in South Africa.\n*1842 – American Indian Wars: Second Seminole War ends, with the Seminoles forced from Florida to Oklahoma.\n*1848 – Oregon Territory is organized by act of Congress.\n*1880 – Construction of Cologne Cathedral, the most famous landmark in Cologne, Germany, is completed.\n*1885 – Japan's first patent is issued to the inventor of a rust-proof paint.\n*1888 – An audio recording of English composer Arthur Sullivan's \"The Lost Chord\", one of the first recordings of music ever made, is played during a press conference introducing Thomas Edison's phonograph in London, England.\n*1893 – France becomes the first country to introduce motor vehicle registration.\n*1900 – The Eight-Nation Alliance occupies Beijing, China, in a campaign to end the bloody Boxer Rebellion in China.\n*1901 – The first claimed powered flight, by Gustave Whitehead in his Number 21.\n*1911 – United States Senate leaders agree to rotate the office of President pro tempore of the Senate among leading candidates to fill the vacancy left by William P. Frye's death.\n*1912 – U.S. Marines invade Nicaragua to support the U.S.-backed government installed there after José Santos Zelaya had resigned three years earlier.\n*1914 – World War I: Start of the Battle of Lorraine, an unsuccessful French offensive designed to recover the lost province of Moselle from Germany.\n*1916 – Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary.\n*1921 – Tannu Uriankhai, later Tuvan People's Republic is established as a completely independent country (which is supported by Soviet Russia).\n*1933 – Loggers cause a forest fire in the Coast Range of Oregon, later known as the first forest fire of the Tillamook Burn; it is not fully extinguished until September 5, after destroying .\n*1935 – Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act, creating a government pension system for the retired.\n*1936 – Rainey Bethea is hanged in Owensboro, Kentucky in the last known public execution in the United States.\n*1937 – The beginning of air-to-air combat of the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II in general, when six Japanese bombers are shot down by Chinese fighters while raiding Chinese air bases.\n*1941 – World War II: Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt sign the Atlantic Charter of war stating postwar aims.\n*1945 – Japan accepts the Allied terms of surrender in World War II and the Emperor records the Imperial Rescript on Surrender (August 15 in Japan Standard Time).\n* 1945 – The Viet Minh launches August Revolution amid the political confusion and power vacuum engulfing Vietnam.\n*1947 – Pakistan gains Independence from the British Empire and joins the Commonwealth of Nations.\n*1959 – Founding and first official meeting of the American Football League.\n*1967 – UK Marine Broadcasting Offences Act declares participation in offshore pirate radio illegal.\n*1969 – Operation Banner: British troops are deployed in Northern Ireland.\n*1971 – Bahrain declares independence as the State of Bahrain.\n*1972 – An Ilyushin Il-62 airliner crashes near Königs Wusterhausen, East Germany, due to an in-flight fire, killing 156.\n*1973 – The Pakistan Constitution of 1973 comes into effect.\n*1975 – ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'', the longest-running release in film history, opens in London.\n*1980 – Lech Wałęsa leads strikes at the Gdańsk, Poland shipyards.\n*1994 – Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, also known as \"Carlos the Jackal\", is captured.\n*1996 – Greek Cypriot refugee Solomos Solomou is murdered by Turkish forces while trying to climb a flagpole in order to remove a Turkish flag from its mast in the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus.\n*2003 – A widescale power blackout affects the northeast United States and Canada.\n*2003– Project Thread, an operation launched by CSIS and other Canadian law enforcement agencies, saw the arrest and incarceration of 24 innocent Muslim men, most of them young Pakistani students.\n*2005 – Helios Airways Flight 522, en route from Larnaca, Cyprus to Prague, Czech Republic via Athens, crashes in the hills near Grammatiko, Greece, killing 121 passengers and crew.\n*2006 – Sixty-one schoolgirls killed in Chencholai bombing by Sri Lankan Air Force air strike.\n*2007 – The Kahtaniya bombings kills at least 334 people.\n*2013 – Egypt declares a state of emergency as security forces kill hundreds of demonstrators supporting former president Mohamed Morsi.\n*2015 – The US Embassy in Havana, Cuba re-opens after 54 years of being closed when Cuba–United States relations were broken off.\n",
"* 928 – Qian Hongzuo, king of Wuyue (d. 947)\n*1297 – Emperor Hanazono of Japan (d. 1348)\n*1473 – Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury (d. 1541)\n*1479 – Catherine of York (d. 1527)\n*1499 – John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, English politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1526)\n*1502 – Pieter Coecke van Aelst, Flemish painter (d. 1550)\n*1530 – Giambattista Benedetti, Italian mathematician and physicist (d. 1590)\n*1552 – Paolo Sarpi, Italian writer (d. 1623)\n*1561 – Christopher Heydon, English politician (d. 1623)\n*1575 – Robert Hayman, English-Canadian poet and politician (d. 1629)\n*1586 – William Hutchinson, founder of Rhode Island (d. 1642)\n*1599 – Méric Casaubon, Swiss-English scholar and author (d. 1671)\n*1625 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (d. 1695)\n*1642 – Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1723)\n*1645 – Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Mexican secular priest, scientist, and savant (d. 1700)\n*1653 – Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle, English colonel and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica (d. 1688)\n*1688 – Frederick William I of Prussia (d. 1740)\n*1714 – Claude Joseph Vernet, French painter (d. 1789)\n*1738 – Leopold Hofmann, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1793)\n*1740 – Pope Pius VII (d. 1823)\n*1758 – Carle Vernet, French painter and lithographer (d. 1835)\n*1777 – Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish physicist and chemist (d. 1851)\n*1817 – Alexander H. Bailey, American lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1874)\n*1840 – Richard von Krafft-Ebing, German-Austrian psychologist and author (d. 1902)\n*1847 – Robert Comtesse, Swiss lawyer and politician, President of the Swiss National Council (d. 1922)\n*1848 – Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Anglo-Irish astronomer and author (d. 1915)\n*1851 – Yannoulis Chalepas, Greek sculptor (d. 1938)\n* 1851 – Doc Holliday, American dentist and gambler (d. 1887)\n*1857 – Max Wagenknecht, German organist, composer, and educator (d. 1922)\n*1863 – Ernest Thayer, American poet and author (d. 1940)\n*1865 – Guido Castelnuovo, Italian mathematician and academic (d. 1952)\n*1866 – Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin, Belgian mathematician and academic (d. 1962)\n*1867 – Cupid Childs, American baseball player (d. 1912)\n*1867 – John Galsworthy, English novelist and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1933)\n*1870 – Nelson McDowell, American actor (d. 1947)\n*1871 – Guangxu Emperor of China (d. 1908)\n*1875 – Mstislav Dobuzhinsky, Russian-Lithuanian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1957)\n*1876 – Alexander I of Serbia (d. 1903)\n*1880 – Fred Alexander, American tennis player (d. 1969)\n*1881 – Francis Ford, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1953)\n*1886 – Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, Canadian-American physicist and academic (d. 1950)\n*1887 – Marija Leiko, Latvian actress (d. 1937)\n*1889 – Otto Tief, Estonian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Estoria (d. 1976)\n*1890 – Bruno Tesch, German chemist and businessman (d. 1946)\n*1892 – Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, English pianist, composer, and critic (d. 1988)\n*1893 – Francis Dvornik, Czech priest and academic (d. 1975)\n*1895 – Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer (d. 1973)\n*1896 – Albert Ball, English fighter pilot (d. 1917)\n* 1896 – Theodor Luts, Estonian director and cinematographer (d. 1980)\n*1901 – Alice Rivaz, Swiss pianist and author (d. 1998)\n*1903 – Lodewijk Bruckman, Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 1995)\n*1907 – Skinnay Ennis, American bandleader and singer (d. 1963) \n*1910 – Willy Ronis, French photographer (d. 2009)\n* 1910 – Pierre Schaeffer, French composer and producer (d. 1995)\n*1911 – Jan Koetsier, Dutch composer and conductor (d. 2006)\n* 1911 – Vethathiri Maharishi, Indian spiritual leader, philosopher, and author (d. 2006)\n*1912 – Frank Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (d. 1985)\n*1913 – Hector Crawford, Australian director and producer (d. 1991)\n* 1913 – Paul Dean, American baseball player (d. 1981)\n*1914 – Herman Branson, African-American physicist, chemist, and academic (d. 1995)\n*1915 – B. A. Santamaria, Australian political activist and publisher (d. 1998)\n*1916 – Frank and John Craighead, American naturalists (twins, Frank d. 2001, John d. 2016)\n* 1916 – Fumio Fujimura, Japanese baseball player and manager (d. 1992)\n* 1916 – Wellington Mara, American businessman (d. 2005)\n*1918 – Patsy Smart, English actress (d. 1996)\n*1922 – Leslie Marr, English race car driver\n*1923 – Patriarch Diodoros of Jerusalem (d. 2000)\n* 1923 – Alice Ghostley, American actress (d. 2007)\n*1924 – Sverre Fehn, Norwegian architect, designed the Hedmark Museum (d. 2009)\n* 1924 – Holger Juul Hansen, Danish actor (d. 2013)\n* 1924 – Georges Prêtre, French conductor (d. 2017)\n* 1924 – Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa, Tibetan spiritual leader (d. 1981)\n*1925 – Russell Baker, American critic and essayist\n*1926 – René Goscinny, French author and illustrator (d. 1977)\n* 1926 – Buddy Greco, American singer and pianist (d. 2017)\n*1928 – Lina Wertmüller, Italian director and screenwriter\n*1929 – Kinnaird R. McKee, American admiral (d. 2013)\n* 1929 – Gene Scott, American pastor and broadcaster (d. 2005)\n* 1929 – Dick Tiger, Nigerian boxer (d. 1971)\n*1930 – Earl Weaver, American baseball player and manager (d. 2013)\n*1931 – Frederic Raphael, American journalist, author, and screenwriter\n*1932 – Lee Hoffman, American author (d. 2007)\n*1933 – Richard R. Ernst, Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n*1935 – John Brodie, American football player and golfer\n*1940 – Darrell \"Dash\" Crofts, American singer-songwriter and musician \n* 1940 – Galen Hall, American football player and coach\n*1941 – David Crosby, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1941 – Connie Smith, American country music singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1941 – Ernest Everett Just, African-American biologist and academic (d. 1941)\n*1942 – Willie Dunn, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)\n* 1942 – Lionel Morton, English singer-songwriter, guitarist and television presenter\n*1943 – Ronnie Campbell, English miner and politician\n* 1943 – Ben Sidran, American jazz and rock keyboardist, producer, label owner, and music writer\n*1944 – John Dunt, English admiral\n*1945 – Steve Martin, American actor, comedian, musician, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1945 – Wim Wenders, German director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1946 – Larry Graham, American soul/funk bass player and singer-songwriter\n* 1946 – Susan Saint James, American actress \n* 1946 – Tom Walkinshaw, Scottish race car driver and businessman (d. 2010)\n*1947 – Bruce Nash, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1947 – Maddy Prior, English folk singer \n* 1947 – Danielle Steel, American author\n* 1947 – Jiro Taniguchi, Japanese author and illustrator\n* 1947 – Joop van Daele, Dutch footballer and manager\n*1948 – Terry Adams, American pianist and composer \n* 1948 – Bruce Thomas, English bass player and author\n*1949 – Morten Olsen, Danish footballer and coach\n*1950 – Gary Larson, American cartoonist\n*1951 – Slim Dunlap, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1951 – Norbert Hofmann, German footballer and manager\n*1952 – Debbie Meyer, American swimmer\n*1953 – James Horner, American composer and conductor (d. 2015)\n*1954 – Mark Fidrych, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2009)\n* 1954 – Stanley A. McChrystal, American general\n*1956 – Sharon Bryant, American R&B singer \n* 1956 – Jackée Harry, American actress and television personality\n* 1956 – Andy King, English footballer and manager (d. 2015)\n* 1956 – Rusty Wallace, American race car driver and sportscaster\n* 1956 – Erica Flapan, American mathematician\n*1957 – Peter Costello, Australian lawyer and politician, 35th Treasurer of Australia\n*1958 – Philip Dunne, English farmer and politician, Minister for Defence Equipment, Support and Technology\n* 1958 – Bobby Eaton, American wrestler and trainer\n*1959 – Frank Brickowski, American basketball player\n* 1959 – Marcia Gay Harden, American actress\n* 1959 – Magic Johnson, American basketball player and coach\n*1960 – Sarah Brightman, English singer-songwriter and actress\n* 1960 – Fred Roberts, American basketball player and educator\n*1961 – Eddie Gilbert, American wrestler and manager (d. 1995)\n*1962 – Mark Gubicza, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1962 – Kevin Harris, Canadian skateboarder \n* 1962 – Andres Herkel, Estonian academic and politician\n* 1962 – Rameez Raja, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster\n*1963 – Emmanuelle Béart, French actress \n* 1963 – José Cóceres, Argentinian golfer\n*1964 – Neal Anderson, American football player and coach\n* 1964 – Jason Dunstall, Australian footballer and sportscaster\n*1965 – Brannon Braga, American producer, director, and screenwriter\n* 1965 – Paul Broadhurst, English golfer\n* 1965 – Terry Richardson, American photographer and director\n*1966 – Halle Berry, American model, actress, and producer, Miss World United States 1986\n* 1966 – Karl Petter Løken, Swedish-Norwegian footballer and sportscaster\n* 1966 – Tuncay Özkan, Turkish journalist and politician\n*1967 – Erik Gandini, Italian-Swedish director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1968 – Pravin Amre, Indian cricketer and coach\n* 1968 – Catherine Bell, English-American actress and producer\n* 1968 – Darren Clarke, Northern Irish golfer\n* 1968 – Jason Leonard, English rugby player\n* 1968 – Medy van der Laan, Dutch politician\n*1969 – Tracy Caldwell Dyson, American chemist and astronaut\n* 1969 – Stig Tøfting, Danish footballer and manager\n*1970 – Kevin Cadogan, American rock singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (Third Eye Blind)\n*1971 – Raoul Bova, Italian actor, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1971 – Mark Loretta, American baseball player and coach\n* 1971 – Pramodya Wickramasinghe, Sri Lankan cricketer\n*1972 – Tamer El Said, Egyptian director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1972 – Laurent Lamothe, Haitian businessman and politician, 15th Prime Minister of Haiti\n*1973 – Jared Borgetti, Mexican footballer\n* 1973 – Jay-Jay Okocha, Nigerian footballer\n* 1973 – Kieren Perkins, Australian swimmer and sportscaster\n*1974 – Chucky Atkins, American basketball player and coach\n*1975 – Mike Vrabel, American football player and coach\n*1976 – Fabrizio Donato, Italian triple jumper\n*1977 – Ed Harcourt, English singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1977 – Juan Pierre, American baseball player\n*1978 – Randika Galhenage, Sri Lankan cricketer\n* 1978 – Anastasios Kyriakos, Greek footballer\n* 1978 – Greg Rawlinson, South African-New Zealand rugby player\n*1979 – Jérémie Bréchet, French footballer\n* 1979 – Paul Burgess, Australian pole vaulter\n* 1979 – Yōichirō Morikawa, Japanese actor, director, and screenwriter\n*1980 – Aydın Toscalı, Turkish footballer\n* 1980 – Roy Williams, American football player\n*1981 – Earl Barron, American basketball player\n* 1981 – Matthew Etherington, English footballer\n* 1981 – Paul Gallen, Australian rugby league player\n* 1981 – Julius Jones, American football player\n* 1981 – Kofi Kingston, Ghanaian-American wrestler\n*1982 – Simon Andrews, English motorcycle racer (d. 2014)\n*1983 – Elena Baltacha, Ukrainian-Scottish tennis player (d. 2014)\n* 1983 – Mila Kunis, Ukrainian-born American actress\n* 1983 – Juan Oviedo, Dominican baseball player\n* 1983 – Spencer Pratt, American television personality\n* 1984 – Eva Birnerová, Czech tennis player\n* 1984 – Clay Buchholz, American baseball player\n* 1984 – Giorgio Chiellini, Italian footballer\n* 1984 – Josh Gorges, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1984 – Nick Grimshaw, English radio and television host\n* 1984 – Nicola Slater, Scottish tennis player\n* 1984 – Robin Söderling, Swedish tennis player\n*1985 – Christian Gentner, German footballer\n* 1985 – Shea Weber, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1986 – Cameron Jerome, English footballer\n* 1986 – Sam Moa, Tongan-New Zealand rugby league player\n* 1986 – Braian Rodríguez, Uruguayan footballer\n*1987 – Tim Tebow, American football and baseball player, television personality and sportscaster\n*1989 – Florian Abel, German footballer\n* 1989 – Ander Herrera, Spanish footballer \n* 1989 – Kyle Turris, Canadian ice hockey player\n\n\n",
"* 582 – Tiberius II Constantine, Byzantine emperor (b. 535)\n* 902 – Badr al-Mu'tadidi, commander-in-chief of the Abbasid Caliphate under al-Mu'tadid\n*1040 – Duncan I of Scotland (b. 1001)\n*1167 – Rainald of Dassel, Italian archbishop (b. 1120)\n*1204 – Minamoto no Yoriie, Japanese shogun (b. 1182)\n*1297 – Frederick III, Burgrave of Nuremberg (b. c. 1220)\n*1319 – Waldemar, Margrave of Brandenburg-Stendal (b. c. 1280)\n*1388 – James Douglas, 2nd Earl of Douglas \n*1390 – John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel, English soldier (b. 1364)\n*1433 – John I of Portugal (b. 1357)\n*1464 – Pope Pius II (b. 1405)\n*1573 – Saitō Tatsuoki, Japanese daimyo (b. 1548)\n*1657 – Giovanni Paolo Lascaris, 57th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1560)\n*1691 – Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, Irish soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1630)\n*1727 – William Croft, English organist and composer (b. 1678)\n*1774 – Johann Jakob Reiske, German physician and scholar (b. 1716)\n*1784 – Nathaniel Hone the Elder, Irish-born English painter and academic (b. 1718)\n*1856 – Constant Prévost, French geologist and academic (b. 1787)\n*1860 – André Marie Constant Duméril, French zoologist and entomologist (b. 1774)\n*1870 – David Farragut, American admiral (b. 1801)\n*1874 – Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs, American minister and politician (b. 1821)\n*1890 – Michael J. McGivney, American priest, founded the Knights of Columbus (b. 1852)\n*1905 – Simeon Solomon, English soldier and painter (b. 1840)\n*1909 – William Stanley, American engineer and philanthropist (b. 1829)\n*1926 – John H. Moffitt, American sergeant and politician, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1843)\n*1928 – Klabund, German author and poet (b. 1890)\n*1938 – Hugh Trumble, Australian cricketer and accountant (b. 1876)\n*1941 – Maximilian Kolbe, Polish martyr and saint (b. 1894)\n* 1941 – Paul Sabatier, French chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1854)\n*1943 – Lore Berger, Swiss author and translator (b. 1921)\n* 1943 – Joe Kelley, American baseball player and manager (b. 1871)\n*1951 – William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and politician, founded the Hearst Corporation (b. 1863)\n*1954 – Hugo Eckener, German pilot and designer (b. 1868)\n* 1954 – Nikos Ploumpidis, Greek activist (b. 1901)\n*1955 – Herbert Putnam, American lawyer and publisher, Librarian of Congress (b. 1861)\n*1956 – Bertolt Brecht, German poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898)\n*1958 – Frédéric Joliot-Curie, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)\n* 1958 – Konstantin von Neurath, German lawyer and politician, Reich Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1873)\n*1963 – Clifford Odets, American director, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1906)\n*1964 – Johnny Burnette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1934)\n*1965 – Vello Kaaristo, Estonian skier (b. 1911)\n*1966 – Tip Snooke, South African cricketer (b. 1881)\n*1967 – Bob Anderson, English motorcycle racer and race car driver (b. 1931)\n*1972 – Oscar Levant, American actor, pianist, and composer (b. 1906)\n* 1972 – Jules Romains, French author and poet (b. 1885)\n*1973 – Fred Gipson, American journalist and author (b. 1908)\n*1978 – Nicolas Bentley, English author and illustrator (b. 1907)\n*1980 – Dorothy Stratten, Canadian-American model and actress (b. 1960)\n*1981 – Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor and director (b. 1894)\n* 1981 – Dudley Nourse, South African cricketer (b. 1910)\n*1982 – Mahasi Sayadaw, Burmese monk and philosopher (b. 1904)\n*1984 – Spud Davis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1904)\n* 1984 – J. B. Priestley, English novelist and playwright (b. 1894)\n*1985 – Gale Sondergaard, American actress (b. 1899)\n*1988 – Roy Buchanan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939)\n* 1988 – Robert Calvert, South African-English singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1945)\n* 1988 – Enzo Ferrari, Italian race car driver and businessman, founded Ferrari (b. 1898)\n*1989 – Ricky Berry, American basketball player (b. 1964)\n*1991 – Alberto Crespo, Argentinian race car driver (b. 1920)\n*1992 – John Sirica, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904)\n*1994 – Elias Canetti, Bulgarian-Swiss novelist, playwright, memoirist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)\n* 1994 – Alice Childress, American actress, playwright, and author (b. 1912)\n*1996 – Sergiu Celibidache, Romanian conductor and composer (b. 1912)\n*1999 – Pee Wee Reese, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1918)\n*2000 – Alain Fournier, French-Canadian computer scientist and academic (b. 1943)\n*2002 – Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (b. 1923)\n*2003 – Helmut Rahn, German footballer (b. 1929)\n*2004 – Czesław Miłosz, Polish-born American novelist, essayist, and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n* 2004 – Trevor Skeet, New Zealand-English lawyer and politician (b. 1918)\n*2006 – Adriaan de Groot, Dutch psychologist and chess player (b. 1914)\n* 2006 – Bruno Kirby, American actor (b. 1949)\n*2007 – Pinchas Goldstein, Israeli politician (b. 1939)\n* 2007 – Tikhon Khrennikov, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1913)\n* 2007 – Kotozakura Masakatsu, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 53rd Yokozuna (b. 1940)\n*2010 – Rallis Kopsidis, Greek painter and author (b. 1929)\n* 2010 – Herman Leonard, American soldier and photographer (b. 1923)\n*2011 – Fritz Korbach, German footballer and manager (b. 1945)\n*2012 – Maja Bošković-Stulli, Croatian historian and academic (b. 1922)\n* 2012 – Vilasrao Deshmukh, Indian lawyer and politician, 14th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (b. 1945)\n* 2012 – Svetozar Gligorić, Serbian chess player and theoretician (b. 1923)\n* 2012 – Sergey Kapitsa, English-Russian physicist and demographer (b. 1928)\n* 2012 – Phyllis Thaxter, American actress (b. 1919)\n*2013 – Jack Garfinkel, American basketball player and coach (b. 1918)\n* 2013 – Jack Germond, American journalist and author (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – Paddy Power, Irish educator and politician, 22nd Irish Minister for Defence (b. 1928)\n*2014 – Leonard Fein, American journalist and academic, co-founded ''Moment Magazine'' (b. 1934)\n* 2014 – George V. Hansen, American soldier and politician (b. 1930)\n*2015 – Agustín Cejas, Argentinian footballer (b. 1945)\n* 2015 – Bob Farrell, American businessman, founded Farrell's Ice Cream Parlour (b. 1927)\n* 2015 – Bob Johnston, American songwriter and producer (b. 1932)\n*2016 – Philip \"Fyuvsh\" Finkel, American actor (b. 1922)\n\n",
"*Christian feast day:\n**Domingo Ibáñez de Erquicia\n**Eusebius of Rome\n**Jonathan Myrick Daniels (Episcopal Church)\n**Kaj Munk (with Kolbe, Lutheran Church)\n**Martyrs of Otranto \n**Maximilian Kolbe\n**August 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Anniversary Day (Tristan da Cunha)\n*Commemoration of Wadi al-Dahab (Morocco)\n*Engineer's Day (Dominican Republic)\n*Day of the Defenders of the Fatherland (Abkhazia) (state is not fully recognized)\n*Independence Day, celebrates the day when Pakistan was declared a sovereign nation following the end of the British Raj in 1947.\n*Pramuka Day (Indonesia)\n*Falklands Day\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 14 |
[
"\nZero kelvin (−273.15 °C) is defined as absolute zero.\n'''Absolute zero''' is the lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reaches its minimum value, taken as 0. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equates to −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.\n\nIt is commonly thought of as the lowest temperature possible, but it is not the lowest ''enthalpy'' state possible, because all real substances begin to depart from the ideal gas when cooled as they approach the change of state to liquid, and then to solid; and the sum of the enthalpy of vaporization (gas to liquid) and enthalpy of fusion (liquid to solid) exceeds the ideal gas's change in enthalpy to absolute zero. In the quantum-mechanical description, matter (solid) at absolute zero is in its ground state, the point of lowest internal energy.\n\nThe laws of thermodynamics indicate that absolute zero cannot be reached using only thermodynamic means, because the temperature of the substance being cooled approaches the temperature of the cooling agent asymptotically, and a system at absolute zero still possesses quantum mechanical zero-point energy, the energy of its ground state at absolute zero. The kinetic energy of the ground state cannot be removed. \n \nScientists and technologists routinely achieve temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits quantum effects such as superconductivity and superfluidity.\n",
"At temperatures near , nearly all molecular motion ceases and Δ''S'' = 0 for any adiabatic process, where ''S'' is the entropy. In such a circumstance, pure substances can (ideally) form perfect crystals as ''T'' → 0. Max Planck's strong form of the third law of thermodynamics states the entropy of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. The original Nernst ''heat theorem'' makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy change for any isothermal process approaches zero as ''T'' → 0:\n:\n\nThe implication is that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value.\n\nThe Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T = 0 as coincident with the adiabat S = 0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T = 0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature. (≈ Callen, pp. 189–190)\n\nA mathematical proof exists that shows the temperature of absolute zero cannot be physically achieved because it's impossible for the entropy (or disorder) of a system to cool a system to absolute zero in a finite time.\n\nA perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational symmetry along three (not usually orthogonal) axes. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For substances that exist in two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as diamond and graphite for carbon, there is a kind of ''chemical degeneracy''. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at ''T'' = 0 even though each is perfectly ordered.\n\nPerfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous material inclusions, can and do simply get \"frozen in\" at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.\n\nUsing the Debye model, the specific heat and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to ''T'' 3, while the enthalpy and chemical potential are proportional to ''T'' 4. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their ''T'' = 0 limiting values and approach with ''zero'' slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10 K. Even the less detailed Einstein model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish at absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of thermal expansion. Maxwell's relations show that various other quantities also vanish. These phenomena were unanticipated.\n\nSince the relation between changes in Gibbs free energy (''G''), the enthalpy (''H'') and the entropy is\n\n:\n\nthus, as ''T'' decreases, Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' approach each other (so long as Δ''S'' is bounded). Experimentally, it is found that all spontaneous processes (including chemical reactions) result in a decrease in ''G'' as they proceed toward equilibrium. If Δ''S'' and/or ''T'' are small, the condition Δ''G'' < 0 may imply that Δ''H'' < 0, which would indicate an exothermic reaction. However, this is not required; endothermic reactions can proceed spontaneously if the ''T''Δ''S'' term is large enough.\n\nMoreover, the slopes of the derivatives of Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' converge and are equal to zero at ''T'' = 0. This ensures that Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures and justifies the approximate empirical Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot, which states that ''the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one that evolves the greatest amount of heat'', i.e., an actual process is the ''most exothermic one''. (Callen, pp. 186–187)\n\nOne model that estimates the properties of an electron gas at absolute zero in metals is the Fermi gas. The electrons, being Fermions, must be in different quantum states, which leads the electrons to get very high typical velocities, even at absolute zero. The maximum energy that electrons can have at absolute zero is called the Fermi energy. The Fermi temperature is defined as this maximum energy divided by Boltzmann's constant, and is of the order of 80,000 K for typical electron densities found in metals. For temperatures significantly below the Fermi temperature, the electrons behave in almost the same way as at absolute zero. This explains the failure of the classical equipartition theorem for metals that eluded classical physicists in the late 19th century.\n",
"\n\nVelocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms at a temperature within a few billionths of a degree above absolute zero. Left: just before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.\nA Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter of a dilute gas of weakly interacting bosons confined in an external potential and cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero. Under such conditions, a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.\n\nThis state of matter was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924–25. Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons). Einstein was impressed, translated the paper from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the ''Zeitschrift für Physik'', which published it. Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to material particles (or matter) in two other papers.\n\nSeventy years later, in 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST-JILA lab, using a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK) ().\n\nA record cold temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. The associated black-body (peak emittance) wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.\n",
"Absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature is conventionally measured in kelvins (Celsius-scaled increments) and in the Rankine scale (Fahrenheit-scaled increments) with increasing rarity. Absolute temperature measurement is uniquely determined by a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the ''degree'', so the ''ratios'' of two absolute temperatures, ''T''2/''T''1, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition of this standard comes from the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. It can also be found in Fermi–Dirac statistics (for particles of half-integer spin) and Bose–Einstein statistics (for particles of integer spin). All of these define the relative numbers of particles in a system as decreasing exponential functions of energy (at the particle level) over ''kT'', with ''k'' representing the Boltzmann constant and ''T'' representing the temperature observed at the macroscopic level.\n",
"\n\nTemperatures that are expressed as negative numbers on the familiar Celsius or Fahrenheit scales are simply colder than the zero points of those scales. Certain systems can achieve truly negative temperatures; that is, their thermodynamic temperature (expressed in kelvins) can be of a negative quantity. A system with a truly negative temperature is not colder than absolute zero. Rather, a system with a negative temperature is hotter than ''any'' system with a positive temperature, in the sense that if a negative-temperature system and a positive-temperature system come in contact, heat flows from the negative to the positive-temperature system.\n\nMost familiar systems cannot achieve negative temperatures because adding energy always increases their entropy. However, some systems have a maximum amount of energy that they can hold, and as they approach that maximum energy their entropy actually begins to decrease. Because temperature is defined by the relationship between energy and entropy, such a system's temperature becomes negative, even though energy is being added. As a result, the Boltzmann factor for states of systems at negative temperature increases rather than decreases with increasing state energy. Therefore, no complete system, i.e. including the electromagnetic modes, can have negative temperatures, since there is no highest energy state , so that the sum of the probabilities of the states would diverge for negative temperatures. However, for quasi-equilibrium systems (e.g. spins out of equilibrium with the electromagnetic field) this argument does not apply, and negative effective temperatures are attainable.\n\nOn 3 January 2013, physicists announced that they had created a quantum gas made up of potassium atoms with a negative temperature in motional degrees of freedom for the first time.\n",
"Robert Boyle pioneered the idea of an absolute zero.\nOne of the first to discuss the possibility of an absolute minimal temperature was Robert Boyle. His 1665 ''New Experiments and Observations touching Cold'', articulated the dispute known as the ''primum frigidum''. The concept was well known among naturalists of the time. Some contended an absolute minimum temperature occurred within earth (as one of the four classical elements), others within water, others air, and some more recently within nitre. But all of them seemed to agree that, \"There is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality.\"\n\n===Limit to the \"degree of cold\"===\nThe question whether there is a limit to the degree of coldness possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first addressed by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air-thermometer. His instrument indicated temperatures by the height at which a certain mass of air sustained a column of mercury—the volume, or \"spring\" of the air varying with temperature. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air was reduced to nothing. He used a scale that marked the boiling-point of water at +73 and the melting-point of ice at 51, so that the zero was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale.\n\nThis close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved upon in 1779 by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who observed that might be regarded as absolute cold.\n\nValues of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his ''Chemical Philosophy'' gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.\n\n===Lord Kelvin's work===\nAfter James Prescott Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature that was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based on Carnot's theory of the Motive Power of Heat and data published by Henri Victor Regnault. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer. This value was not immediately accepted; values ranging from to , derived from laboratory measurements and observations of astronomical refraction, remained in use in the early 20th century.\n\n===The race to absolute zero===\n\nCommemorative plaque in Leiden\nWith a better theoretical understanding of absolute zero, scientists were eager to reach this temperature in the lab. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, and reached a new record for lowest temperatures by reaching . Faraday believed that certain gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen, were permanent gases and could not be liquified. Decades later, in 1873 Dutch theoretical scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals demonstrated that these gases could be liquefied, but only under conditions of very high pressure and very low temperatures. In 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air . This was followed in 1883 by the production of liquid oxygen by the Polish professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.\n\nScottish chemist and physicist James Dewar and rival Heike Kamerlingh Onnes took on the challenge to liquefy the remaining gases hydrogen and helium. In 1898, after 20 years of effort, Dewar was first to liquefy hydrogen, reaching a new low temperature record of . However Onnes, his rival, was the first to liquefy helium, in 1908, using several precooling stages and the Hampson–Linde cycle. He lowered the temperature to the boiling point of helium . By reducing the pressure of the liquid helium he achieved an even lower temperature, near 1.5 K. These were the coldest temperatures achieved on earth at the time and his achievement earned him the Nobel Prize in 1913. Onnes would continue to study the properties of materials at temperatures near absolute zero, describing superconductivity and superfluids for the first time.\n",
"The rapid expansion of gases leaving the Boomerang Nebula, a bi-polar, filamentary, likely proto-planetary nebula in Centaurus, causes the lowest observed temperature outside a laboratory: 1 K\nThe average temperature of the universe today is approximately , based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation.\n\nAbsolute zero cannot be achieved, although it is possible to reach temperatures close to it through the use of cryocoolers, dilution refrigerators, and nuclear adiabatic demagnetization. The use of laser cooling has produced temperatures less than a billionth of a kelvin. At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties, including superconductivity, superfluidity, and Bose–Einstein condensation. To study such phenomena, scientists have worked to obtain even lower temperatures.\n* The current world record was set in 1999 at 100 picokelvins (pK), or 0.000 000 000 1 of a kelvin, by cooling the nuclear spins in a piece of rhodium metal.\n* In November 2000, nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom – a quantum property called nuclear spin – not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom.\n* In February 2003, the Boomerang Nebula was observed to have been releasing gases at a speed of 500,000 km/h (over 300,000 mph) for the last 1,500 years. This has cooled it down to approximately 1 K, as deduced by astronomical observation, which is the lowest natural temperature ever recorded.\n* In May 2005, the European Space Agency proposed research in space to achieve femto-kelvin temperatures.\n* In May 2006, the Institute of Quantum Optics at the University of Hannover gave details of technologies and benefits of femto-kelvin research in space.\n* In January 2013, physicist Ulrich Schneider of the University of Munich in Germany reported to have achieved temperatures below absolute zero (\"negative temperatures\") in gases; the gas reportedly became hotter rather than colder.\n* In September 2014, scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous volume.\n* In June 2015, experimental physicists at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) successfully cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvins, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules a bit further.\n",
"\n\n* Absolute hot\n* Heat\n* ITS-90\n* Orders of magnitude (temperature)\n* Planck temperature\n* Thermodynamic (absolute) temperature\n* Triple point\n* Ultracold atom\n* Kinetic energy\n* Entropy\n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"* \"Absolute zero\": a two part ''NOVA'' episode originally aired January 2008\n* \"What is absolute zero?\" ''Lansing state journal''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Thermodynamics near absolute zero",
"Relation with Bose–Einstein condensates",
"Absolute temperature scales",
"Negative temperatures",
"History",
"Very low temperatures",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Absolute zero |
[
"\n\n\n\nIn thermodynamics, an '''adiabatic process''' is one that occurs without transfer of heat or matter between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to its surroundings only as work. The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics.\n\nSome chemical and physical processes occur so rapidly that they may be conveniently described by the term \"adiabatic approximation\", meaning that there is not enough time for the transfer of energy as heat to take place to or from the system.\n\nBy way of example, the adiabatic flame temperature is an idealization that uses the \"adiabatic approximation\" so as to provide an upper limit calculation of temperatures produced by combustion of a fuel. The adiabatic flame temperature is the temperature that would be achieved by a flame if the process of combustion took place in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings.\n",
"\nA process that does not involve the transfer of heat or matter into or out of a system, so that , is called an adiabatic process, and such a system is said to be adiabatically isolated. The assumption that a process is adiabatic is a frequently made simplifying assumption. For example, the compression of a gas within a cylinder of an engine is assumed to occur so rapidly that on the time scale of the compression process, little of the system's energy can be transferred out as heat to the surroundings. Even though the cylinders are not insulated and are quite conductive, that process is idealized to be adiabatic. The same can be said to be true for the expansion process of such a system.\n\nThe assumption of adiabatic isolation of a system is a useful one, and is often combined with others so as to make the calculation of the system's behaviour possible. Such assumptions are idealizations. The behaviour of actual machines deviates from these idealizations, but the assumption of such \"perfect\" behaviour provide a useful first approximation of how the real world works. According to Laplace, when sound travels in a gas, there is no time for heat conduction in the medium and so the propagation of sound is adiabatic. For such an adiabatic process, the modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus) can be expressed as , where is the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume ( ) and is the pressure of the gas .\n\n=== Various applications of the adiabatic assumption ===\n\nFor a closed system, one may write the first law of thermodynamics as : , where denotes the change of the system's internal energy, the quantity of energy added to it as heat, and the work done on it by its surroundings.\n\n*If the system has rigid walls such that work cannot be transferred in or out (), and the walls of the system are not adiabatic and energy is added in the form of heat (), and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise.\n*If the system has rigid walls such that pressure–volume work cannot be done, and the system walls are adiabatic (), but energy is added as isochoric work in the form of friction or the stirring of a viscous fluid within the system (), and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise.\n*If the system walls are adiabatic (), but not rigid (), and, in a fictive idealized process, energy is added to the system in the form of frictionless, non-viscous pressure–volume work, and there is no phase change, the temperature of the system will rise. Such a process is called an isentropic process and is said to be \"reversible\". Fictively, if the process is reversed, the energy added as work can be recovered entirely as work done by the system. If the system contains a compressible gas and is reduced in volume, the uncertainty of the position of the gas is reduced, and seemingly would reduce the entropy of the system, but the temperature of the system will rise as the process is isentropic (). Should the work be added in such a way that friction or viscous forces are operating within the system, then the process is not isentropic, and if there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise, the process is said to be \"irreversible\", and the work added to the system is not entirely recoverable in the form of work.\n*If the walls of a system are not adiabatic, and energy is transferred in as heat, entropy is transferred into the system with the heat. Such a process is neither adiabatic nor isentropic, having , and according to the second law of thermodynamics.\n\nNaturally occurring adiabatic processes are irreversible (entropy is produced).\n\nThe transfer of energy as work into an adiabatically isolated system can be imagined as being of two idealized extreme kinds. In one such kind, there is no entropy produced within the system (no friction, viscous dissipation, etc.), and the work is only pressure-volume work (denoted by ). In nature, this ideal kind occurs only approximately, because it demands an infinitely slow process and no sources of dissipation.\n\nThe other extreme kind of work is isochoric work (), for which energy is added as work solely through friction or viscous dissipation within the system. A stirrer that transfers energy to a viscous fluid of an adiabatically isolated system with rigid walls, without phase change, will cause a rise in temperature of the fluid, but that work is not recoverable. Isochoric work is irreversible. The second law of thermodynamics observes that a natural process, of transfer of energy as work, always consists at least of isochoric work and often both of these extreme kinds of work. Every natural process, adiabatic or not, is irreversible, with , as friction or viscosity are always present to some extent.\n",
"The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas.\n\n'''Adiabatic heating''' occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased from work done on it by its surroundings, e.g., a piston compressing a gas contained within a cylinder and raising the temperature where in many practical situations heat conduction through walls can be slow compared with the compression time. This finds practical application in diesel engines which rely on the lack of heat dissipation during the compression stroke to elevate the fuel vapor temperature sufficiently to ignite it.\n\nAdiabatic heating occurs in the Earth's atmosphere when an air mass descends, for example, in a katabatic wind, Foehn wind, or chinook wind flowing downhill over a mountain range. When a parcel of air descends, the pressure on the parcel increases. Due to this increase in pressure, the parcel's volume decreases and its temperature increases as work is done on the parcel of air, thus increasing its internal energy, which manifests itself by a rise in the temperature of that mass of air. The parcel of air can only slowly dissipate the energy by conduction or radiation (heat), and to a first approximation it can be considered adiabatically isolated and the process an adiabatic process.\n\n'''Adiabatic cooling''' occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature falls as its internal energy decreases. Adiabatic cooling occurs in the Earth's atmosphere with orographic lifting and lee waves, and this can form pileus or lenticular clouds.\n\nAdiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is via adiabatic demagnetisation, where the change in magnetic field on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling. Also, the contents of an expanding universe can be described (to first order) as an adiabatically cooling fluid. (See heat death of the universe.)\n\nRising magma also undergoes adiabatic cooling before eruption, particularly significant in the case of magmas that rise quickly from great depths such as kimberlites.\n\nSuch temperature changes can be quantified using the ideal gas law, or the hydrostatic equation for atmospheric processes.\n\nIn practice, no process is truly adiabatic. Many processes rely on a large difference in time scales of the process of interest and the rate of heat dissipation across a system boundary, and thus are approximated by using an adiabatic assumption. There is always some heat loss, as no perfect insulators exist.\n",
"\n\nFor a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the internal energy of the working substance must decrease\nThe mathematical equation for an ideal gas undergoing a reversible (i.e., no entropy generation) adiabatic process can be represented by the polytropic process equation \n: \nwhere is pressure, is volume, and for this case where \n: \n being the specific heat for constant pressure, being the specific heat for constant volume, is the adiabatic index, and is the number of degrees of freedom (3 for monatomic gas, 5 for diatomic gas and collinear molecules e.g. carbon dioxide).\n\nFor a monatomic ideal gas, , and for a diatomic gas (such as nitrogen and oxygen, the main components of air) . Note that the above formula is only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose–Einstein or Fermi gases.\n\nFor reversible adiabatic processes, it is also true that\n\n: \n\n: \n\nwhere ''T'' is an absolute temperature. This can also be written as\n\n: \n\n===Example of adiabatic compression===\nThe compression stroke in a gasoline engine can be used as an example of adiabatic compression. The model assumptions are: the uncompressed volume of the cylinder is one litre (1 l = 1000 cm3 = 0.001 m3 ); the gas within is the air consisting of molecular nitrogen and oxygen only (thus a diatomic gas with five degrees of freedom and so ); the compression ratio of the engine is 10:1 (that is, the 1 l volume of uncompressed gas is reduced to 0.1 l by the piston); and the uncompressed gas is at approximately room temperature and pressure (a warm room temperature of ~27 °C or 300 K, and a pressure of 1 bar = 100 kPa, i.e. typical sea-level atmospheric pressure).\n\n: \n: \n\nso our adiabatic constant for this example is about 6.31 Pa m4.2.\n\nThe gas is now compressed to a 0.1 l (0.0001 m3) volume (we will assume this happens quickly enough that no heat can enter or leave the gas through the walls). The adiabatic constant remains the same, but with the resulting pressure unknown\n\n: \n\nso solving for P:\n\n: \n\nor 25.1 bar. Note that this pressure increase is more than a simple 10:1 compression ratio would indicate; this is because the gas is not only compressed, but the work done to compress the gas also increases its internal energy which manifests itself by a rise in the gas's temperature and an additional rise in pressure above what would result from a simplistic calculation of 10 times the original pressure.\n\nWe can solve for the temperature of the compressed gas in the engine cylinder as well, using the ideal gas law, PV=nRT (n is amount of gas in mol and R the gas constant for that gas). Our initial conditions being 100 kPa of pressure, 1 l volume, and 300 K of temperature, our experimental constant (=nR) is:\n\n: \n\nWe know the compressed gas has = 0.1 l and = , so we can solve for temperature:\n\n: \n\nThat is a final temperature of 753 K, or 479 °C, or 896 °F, well above the ignition point of many fuels. This is why a high-compression engine requires fuels specially formulated to not self-ignite (which would cause engine knocking when operated under these conditions of temperature and pressure), or that a supercharger with an intercooler to provide a pressure boost but with a lower temperature rise would be advantageous. A diesel engine operates under even more extreme conditions, with compression ratios of 20:1 or more being typical, in order to provide a very high gas temperature which ensures immediate ignition of the injected fuel.\n\n===Adiabatic free expansion of a gas===\n\nFor an adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas, the gas is contained in an insulated container and then allowed to expand in a vacuum. Because there is no external pressure for the gas to expand against, the work done by or on the system is zero. Since this process does not involve any heat transfer or work, the first law of thermodynamics then implies that the net internal energy change of the system is zero. For an ideal gas, the temperature remains constant because the internal energy only depends on temperature in that case. Since at constant temperature, the entropy is proportional to the volume, the entropy increases in this case, therefore this process is irreversible.\n\n===Derivation of ''P''–''V'' relation for adiabatic heating and cooling===\nThe definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, . Then, according to the first law of thermodynamics,\n\n:\n\nwhere is the change in the internal energy of the system and is work done ''by'' the system. Any work () done must be done at the expense of internal energy , since no heat is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure–volume work done ''by'' the system is defined as\n\n:\n\nHowever, does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but instead changes along with .\n\nIt is desired to know how the values of and relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds. For an ideal gas the internal energy is given by\n\n:\n\nwhere is the number of degrees of freedom divided by two, is the universal gas constant and is the number of moles in the system (a constant).\n\nDifferentiating Equation (3) and use of the ideal gas law, , yields\n\n:\n\nEquation (4) is often expressed as because .\n\nNow substitute equations (2) and (4) into equation (1) to obtain\n\n: \n\nfactorize :\n\n: \n\nand divide both sides by :\n\n: \n\nAfter integrating the left and right sides from to and from to and changing the sides respectively,\n\n: \n\nExponentiate both sides, and substitute with , the heat capacity ratio\n\n: \n\nand eliminate the negative sign to obtain\n\n: \n\nTherefore,\n\n: \n\nand\n\n: \n\n===Derivation of ''P''–''T'' relation for adiabatic heating and cooling===\n\nSubstituting the ideal gas law into the above, we obtain\n\n: \n\nwhich simplifies to\n\n: \n\n===Derivation of discrete formula===\nThe change in internal energy of a system, measured from state 1 to state 2, is equal to\n\n:\n\nAt the same time, the work done by the pressure-volume changes as a result from this process, is equal to\n\n:\n\nSince we require the process to be adiabatic, the following equation needs to be true\n\n:\n\nBy the previous derivation,\n\n:\n\nRearranging (4) gives\n\n:\n\nSubstituting this into (2) gives\n\n:\n\nIntegrating,\n\n:\n\nSubstituting ,\n\n:\n\nRearranging,\n\n:\n\nUsing the ideal gas law and assuming a constant molar quantity (as often happens in practical cases),\n\n:\n\nBy the continuous formula,\n\n:\n\nOr,\n\n:\n\nSubstituting into the previous expression for ,\n\n:\n\nSubstituting this expression and (1) in (3) gives\n\n:\n\nSimplifying,\n\n:\n\nSimplifying,\n\n:\n\nSimplifying,\n\n:\n",
"An adiabat is a curve of constant entropy in a diagram. Some properties of adiabats on a ''P''–''V'' diagram are indicated. These properties may be read from the classical behaviour of ideal gases, except in the region where ''PV'' becomes small (low temperature), where quantum effects become important.\n\n# Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the ''V'' axis and the ''P'' axis (just like isotherms).\n# Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once.\n# An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical).\n# If isotherms are concave towards the north-east direction (45°), then adiabats are concave towards the east north-east (31°).\n# If adiabats and isotherms are graphed at regular intervals of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves towards the axes (towards the south-west), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats grow. The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see Nernst's theorem).\n\nThe following diagram is a ''P''–''V'' diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms:\n\nImage:Entropyandtemp.PNG\n\nThe isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves.\n\nThe adiabats are isentropic.\n\nVolume is the horizontal axis and pressure is the vertical axis.\n",
"\nThe term ''adiabatic'' () is an anglicization of the Greek term ἀδιάβατος \"impassable\" (used by Xenophon of rivers).\nIt is used in the thermodynamic sense by Rankine (1866), and adopted by Maxwell in 1871 (explicitly attributing the term to Rankine). \nThe etymological origin corresponds here to an impossibility of transfer of energy as heat and of transfer of matter across the wall. \n\nThe Greek word ἀδιάβατος is formed from privative ἀ- (\"not\") and διαβατός, \"passable\", in turn deriving from διά (\"through\"), and βαῖνειν (\"to walk, go, come\").\n",
"\nThe adiabatic process has been important for thermodynamics since its early days. It was important in the work of Joule, because it provided a way of nearly directly relating quantities of heat and work.\n\nFor a thermodynamic system that is enclosed by walls that do not allow mass transfer, energy can pass in and out only as heat or work. Thus a quantity of work can be related almost directly to an equivalent quantity of heat in a cycle of two limbs. The first is an isochoric adiabatic work process that adds to the system's internal energy. Then an isochoric and workless heat transfer returns the system to its original state. The first limb adds a definite amount of energy and the second removes it. Accordingly, Rankine measured quantity of heat in units of work, rather than as a calorimetric quantity . In 1854, Rankine used a quantity that he called \"the thermodynamic function\" that later was called entropy, and at that time he wrote also of the \"curve of no transmission of heat\", which he later called an adiabatic curve. Besides it two isothermal limbs, Carnot's cycle has two adiabatic limbs.\n\nFor the foundations of thermodynamics, the conceptual importance of this was emphasized by Bryan, by Carathéodory, and by Born. The reason is that calorimetry presupposes a type of temperature as already defined before the statement of the first law of thermodynamics, such as one based on empirical scales. Such a presupposition involves making the distinction between empirical temperature and absolute temperature. Rather, the definition of absolute thermodynamic temperature is best left till the second law is available as a conceptual basis.\n\nIn the eighteenth century, the law of conservation of energy was yet to be fully formulated or established, and the nature of heat was debated. One approach to these problems was to regard heat, measured by calorimetry, as a primary substance that is conserved in quantity. By the middle of the nineteenth century, it was recognized as a form of energy, and the law of conservation of energy was thereby also recognized. The view that eventually established itself, and is currently regarded as right, is that the law of conservation of energy is a primary axiom, and that heat is to be analyzed as consequential. In this light, heat cannot be a component of the total energy of a single body because it is not a state variable, but, rather, is a variable that describes a process of transfer between two bodies. The adiabatic process is important because it is a logical ingredient of this current view.\n",
"This present article is written from the viewpoint of macroscopic thermodynamics, and the word ''adiabatic'' is used in this article in the traditional way of thermodynamics, introduced by Rankine. It is pointed out in the present article that, for example, if a compression of a gas is rapid, then there is little time for heat transfer to occur, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall. In this sense, a rapid compression of a gas is sometimes approximately or loosely said to be ''adiabatic'', though often far from isentropic, even when the gas is not adiabatically isolated by a definite wall.\n\nQuantum mechanics and quantum statistical mechanics, however, use the word ''adiabatic'' in a very different sense, one that can at times seem almost opposite to the classical thermodynamic sense. In quantum theory, the word ''adiabatic'' can mean something perhaps near isentropic, or perhaps near quasi-static, but the usage of the word is very different between the two disciplines.\n\nOn the one hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done almost infinitely slowly (that is to say quasi-statically), it is said to have been done ''adiabatically''. The idea is that the shapes of the eigenfunctions change slowly and continuously, so that no quantum jump is triggered, and the change is virtually reversible. While the occupation numbers are unchanged, nevertheless there is change in the energy levels of one-to-one corresponding, pre- and post-compression, eigenstates. Thus a perturbative element of work has been done without heat transfer and without introduction of random change within the system. For example, Max Born writes \"Actually, it is usually the 'adiabatic' case with which we have to do: i.e. the limiting case where the external force (or the reaction of the parts of the system on each other) acts very slowly. In this case, to a very high approximation\n\n:\n\nthat is, there is no probability for a transition, and the system is in the initial state after cessation of the perturbation. Such a slow perturbation is therefore reversible, as it is classically.\"\n\nOn the other hand, in quantum theory, if a perturbative element of compressive work is done rapidly, it randomly changes the occupation numbers of the eigenstates, as well as changing their shapes. In that theory, such a rapid change is said not to be ''adiabatic'', and the contrary word ''diabatic'' is applied to it. One might guess that perhaps Clausius, if he were confronted with this, in the now-obsolete language he used in his day, would have said that \"internal work\" was done and that 'heat was generated though not transferred'.\n\nIn classical thermodynamics, such a rapid change would still be called adiabatic because the system is adiabatically isolated, and there is no transfer of energy as heat. The strong irreversibility of the change, due to viscosity or other entropy production, does not impinge on this classical usage.\n\nThus for a mass of gas, in macroscopic thermodynamics, words are so used that a compression is sometimes loosely or approximately said to be adiabatic if it is rapid enough to avoid heat transfer, even if the system is not adiabatically isolated. But in quantum statistical theory, a compression is not called adiabatic if it is rapid, even if the system is adiabatically isolated in the classical thermodynamic sense of the term. The words are used differently in the two disciplines, as stated just above.\n",
"* Cyclic process\n* First law of thermodynamics\n* Heat burst\n* Isobaric process\n* Isenthalpic process\n* Isentropic process\n* Isochoric process\n* Isothermal process\n* Polytropic process\n* Entropy (classical thermodynamics)\n* Quasistatic process\n* Total air temperature\n* Magnetic refrigeration\n",
"\n\n;General\n* \n* Broholm, Collin. \"Adiabatic free expansion.\" Physics & Astronomy @ Johns Hopkins University. N.p., 26 Nov. 1997. Web. 14 Apr. *Nave, Carl Rod. \"Adiabatic Processes.\" HyperPhysics. N.p., n.d. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. .\n* Thorngren, Dr. Jane R.. \"Adiabatic Processes.\" Daphne – A Palomar College Web Server. N.p., 21 July 1995. Web. 14 Apr. 2011. .\n",
"*\n* Article in HyperPhysics Encyclopaedia\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Adiabatic heating and cooling",
"Ideal gas (reversible process)",
"Graphing adiabats",
"Etymology",
"Conceptual significance in thermodynamic theory",
"Divergent usages of the word ''adiabatic''",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Adiabatic process |
[
"\n\nStructures of three kinds of amides: an organic amide, a sulfonamide, and a phosphoramide.\nAn '''amide''' ( or or ), also known as an '''acid amide''', is a compound with the functional group R''n''E(O)''x''NR′2 (R and R′ refer to H or organic groups). Most common are carboxamides (organic amides) (''n'' = 1, E = C, ''x'' = 1), but many other important types of amides are known, including phosphoramides (''n'' = 2, E = P, ''x'' = 1 and many related formulas) and sulfonamides (E = S, ''x'' = 2). The term amide refers both to ''classes of compounds'' and to the ''functional group'' (R''n''E(O)''x''NR′2) within those compounds.\n\nAmide can '''also''' refer to the conjugate base of ammonia (the anion H2N−) or of an organic amine (an anion R2N−). For discussion of these \"anionic amides\", see Alkali metal amides.\n\nThe remainder of this article is about the carbonyl–nitrogen sense of ''amide''.\n",
"The simplest amides are derivatives of ammonia wherein one hydrogen atom has been replaced by an acyl group. The ensemble is generally represented as RC(O)NH2 and is described as a primary amide. Closely related and even more numerous are secondary amides which can be derived from primary amines (R′NH2) and have the formula RC(O)NHR′. Tertiary amides are commonly derived from secondary amines (R′R″NH) and have the general structure RC(O)NR′R″. Amides are usually regarded as derivatives of carboxylic acids in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an amine or ammonia.\n:Amide resonance:\nThe lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is delocalized into the carbonyl, thus forming a partial double bond between N and the carbonyl carbon. Consequently, the nitrogen in amides is not pyramidal. It is estimated that acetamide is described by resonance structure A for 62% and by B for 28% (which does not sum to 100% because there are additional resonance forms that are not depicted in the above Figure).\n\nAmides possess a conjugated system spread over the O, C and N atoms, consisting of molecular orbitals occupied by delocalized electrons. One of the π molecular orbitals in formamide is shown above.\n",
"\nIn the usual nomenclature, one adds the term \"amide\" to the stem of the parent acid's name. For instance, the amide derived from acetic acid is named acetamide (CH3CONH2). IUPAC recommends ethanamide, but this and related formal names are rarely encountered. When the amide is derived from a primary or secondary amine, the substituents on nitrogen are indicated first in the name. Thus, the amide formed from dimethylamine and acetic acid is ''N'',''N''-dimethylacetamide (CH3CONMe2, where Me = CH3). Usually even this name is simplified to dimethylacetamide. Cyclic amides are called lactams; they are necessarily secondary or tertiary amides. Functional groups consisting of –P(O)NR2 and –SO2NR2 are phosphonamides and sulfonamides, respectively.\n\n===Pronunciation===\nSome chemists make a pronunciation distinction between the two, saying for the carbonyl–nitrogen compound and for the anion. Others replace one of these with , while still others pronounce both , making them homonyms.\n",
"\n===Basicity===\nCompared to amines, amides are very weak bases. While the conjugate acid of an amine has a p''K''a of about 9.5, the conjugate acid of an amide has a p''K''a around −0.5. Therefore, amides don't have as clearly noticeable acid–base properties in water. This relative lack of basicity is explained by the electron-withdrawing nature of the carbonyl group where the lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is delocalized by resonance. On the other hand, amides are much stronger bases than carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones (their conjugate acids' p''K''as are between −6 and −10). It is estimated in silico that acetamide is represented by resonance structure A for 62% and by B for 28%. Resonance is largely prevented in the very strained quinuclidone.\n\nBecause of the greater electronegativity of oxygen, the carbonyl (C=O) is a stronger dipole than the N–C dipole. The presence of a C=O dipole and, to a lesser extent a N–C dipole, allows amides to act as H-bond acceptors. In primary and secondary amides, the presence of N–H dipoles allows amides to function as H-bond donors as well. Thus amides can participate in hydrogen bonding with water and other protic solvents; the oxygen atom can accept hydrogen bonds from water and the N–H hydrogen atoms can donate H-bonds. As a result of interactions such as these, the water solubility of amides is greater than that of corresponding hydrocarbons.\n\nThe proton of a primary or secondary amide does not dissociate readily under normal conditions; its p''K''a is usually well above 15. Conversely, under extremely acidic conditions, the carbonyl oxygen can become protonated with a p''K''a of roughly −1.\n\n===Solubility===\nThe solubilities of amides and esters are roughly comparable. Typically amides are less soluble than comparable amines and carboxylic acids since these compounds can both donate and accept hydrogen bonds. Tertiary amides, with the important exception of ''N'',''N''-dimethylformamide, exhibit low solubility in water.\n",
"The presence of the functional group is generally easily established, at least in small molecules. They are the most common non-basic functional group. They can be distinguished from nitro and cyano groups by their IR spectra. Amides exhibit a moderately intense ''ν''CO band near 1650 cm−1. By 1H NMR spectroscopy, CON'''H'''R signals occur at low fields. In X-ray crystallography, the C(O)N center together with the three immediately adjacent atoms characteristically define a plane.\n",
"Amides are pervasive in nature and technology as structural materials. The amide linkage is easily formed, confers structural rigidity, and resists hydrolysis. Nylons are polyamides, as are the very resilient materials Aramid, Twaron, and Kevlar. Amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of proteins, the secondary structure of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides. Amide linkages in a biochemical context are called peptide bonds when they occur in the main chain of a protein and isopeptide bonds when they occur to a side-chain of the protein. Proteins can have structural roles, such as in hair or spider silk, but also nearly all enzymes are proteins. Low molecular weight amides, such as dimethylformamide (HC(O)N(CH3)2), are common solvents. Many drugs are amides, including paracetamol, penicillin and LSD. Moreover, plant ''N''-alkylamides have a wide range of biological functionalities.\n\n==Amide synthesis==\nMany methods exist in amide synthesis. On paper, the simplest method for making amides is by coupling a carboxylic acid with an amine. In general this reaction is thermodynamically favorable, however it suffers from a high activation energy, largely due to the amine first deprotonating the carboxylic acid, which reduces its reactivity. As such the direct reaction often requires high temperatures.\n\n:RCO2H + R′R″NH + RC(O)NR′R″ + H2O\n\nMany methods are known for driving the equilibrium to the right. For the most part these reactions involve \"activating\" the carboxylic acid by first converting it to a better electrophile; such as esters, acid chlorides (Schotten-Baumann reaction) or anhydrides (Lumière–Barbier method). Conventional methods in peptide synthesis use coupling agents such as HATU, HOBt, or PyBOP. In recent years there has also been a surge in the development of Boron-based reagents for amide bond formation, including catalytic use of 2-IodoPhenylBoronic acid or MIBA, and stoichiometric use of Tris(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) borate.\n\n\n\n Details\n\n Beckmann rearrangement\nCyclic ketone\n Reagent: hydroxylamine and acid\n\n Schmidt reaction\nKetones\n Reagent: hydrazoic acid\n\n Nitrile hydrolysis\nNitrile\n Reagent: water; acid catalyst\n\n Willgerodt–Kindler reaction\n Aryl alkyl ketones\n Sulfur and morpholine\n\nPasserini reaction\n Carboxylic acid, ketone or aldehyde\n\n\nUgi reaction\n Isocyanide, carboxylic acid, ketone, primary amine\n\n\nBodroux reaction\n Carboxylic acid, Grignard reagent with an aniline derivative ArNHR′\n Bodroux reaction\n\nChapman rearrangement\nAryl imino ether\nFor ''N'',''N''-diaryl amides. The reaction mechanism is based on a nucleophilic aromatic substitution. Chapman Rearrangement\n\n Leuckart amide synthesis\n Isocyanate\n Reaction of arene with isocyanate catalysed by aluminium trichloride, formation of aromatic amide.\n\n Ritter reaction\n Alkenes, alcohols, or other carbonium ion sources\n Secondary amides via an addition reaction between a nitrile and a carbonium ion in the presence of concentrated acids.\n\n Photolytic addition of formamide to olefins\n Terminal alkenes\n A free radical homologation reaction between a terminal alkene and formamide.\n\n Ester aminolysis\n Esters\n Base catalyzed reaction of esters with various amines to form alcohols and amides.\n\n\n\n===Other methods===\nThe seemingly simple direct reaction between an alcohol and an amine to an amide was not tried until 2007 when a special ruthenium-based catalyst was reported to be effective in a so-called dehydrogenative acylation:\n:H2.\n\nThe generation of hydrogen gas compensates for unfavorable thermodynamics. The reaction is believed to proceed by one dehydrogenation of the alcohol to the aldehyde followed by formation of a hemiaminal and the after a second dehydrogenation to the amide. Elimination of water in the hemiaminal to the imine is not observed.\n\nA direct generation of amide from aryl (heteroaryl) alkyl ketones has been accomplished via copper(II) catalyzed\nC-C bond cleavage in the presence of diisopropylamine at moderate temperature. The transformation steps for\namide formation comprise catalytic generation of α-bromo carbonyl species followed by nucleophilic displacement\nof bromide with sodium azide in the presence of diisopropylamine. The final step involves the formation of imine\nby heating in situ followed by hydrolysis to give the related amide.\n\n== Amide reactions ==\n:Mechanism for acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an amide.\nAmides undergo many chemical reactions, although they are less reactive than esters. Amides hydrolyse in hot alkali as well as in strong acidic conditions. Acidic conditions yield the carboxylic acid and the ammonium ion while basic hydrolysis yield the carboxylate ion and ammonia. Amides are also versatile precursors to many other functional groups.Electrophiles attack the carbonyl oxygen. This step often precedes hydrolysis, which is catalyzed by both Bronsted acids and Lewis acids. Enzymes, e.g. peptidases and artificial catalysts, are known to accelerate the hydrolysis reactions.\n\n\n\n Comment\n\n Dehydration\nNitrile\n Reagent: phosphorus pentoxide; benzenesulfonyl chloride; TFAA/py\n\n Hofmann rearrangement\nAmine with one fewer carbon atom\nReagents: bromine and sodium hydroxide\n\n Amide reduction\n Amine\nReagent: lithium aluminium hydride followed by hydrolysis\n\nVilsmeier–Haack reaction\nAldehyde (via imine)\n POCl3, aromatic substrate, formamide\n\nBischler–Napieralski reaction\nCyclic imine\n POCl3, SOCl2, etc.\n\n\n",
"* Amidicity\n* Metal amides\n",
"\n",
"\n* Amide synthesis (coupling reaction) – Synthetic protocols from organic-reaction.com\n* IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Structure and bonding",
"Nomenclature",
"Properties",
"Characterization",
"Applications and occurrence",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Amide |
[
"\n\n'''Animism''' (from Latin '''', \"breath, spirit, life\") is the religious belief that objects, places and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork and perhaps even words—as animated and alive. \n\nAnimism is the oldest known type of belief system in the world that even predates paganism. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in many traditional societies. Animism is used in the anthropology of religion as a term for the belief system of many indigenous tribal peoples, especially in contrast to the relatively more recent development of organised religions. Although each culture has its own different mythologies and rituals, \"animism\" is said to describe the most common, foundational thread of indigenous peoples' \"spiritual\" or \"supernatural\" perspectives. The animistic perspective is so widely held and inherent to most animistic indigenous peoples that they often do not even have a word in their languages that corresponds to \"animism\" (or even \"religion\"); the term is an anthropological construct.\n\nLargely due to such ethnolinguistic and cultural discrepancies, opinion has differed on whether ''animism'' refers to an ancestral mode of experience common to indigenous peoples around the world, or to a full-fledged religion in its own right. The currently accepted definition of animism was only developed in the late 19th century by Sir Edward Tylor, who created it as \"one of anthropology's earliest concepts, if not the first\".\n\nAnimism encompasses the beliefs that all material phenomena have agency, that there exists no hard and fast distinction between the spiritual and physical (or material) world and that soul or spirit or sentience exists not only in humans, but also in other animals, plants, rocks, geographic features such as mountains or rivers or other entities of the natural environment, including thunder, wind and shadows. Animism thus rejects Cartesian dualism. Animism may further attribute souls to abstract concepts such as words, true names or metaphors in mythology. Some members of the non-tribal world also consider themselves animists (such as author Daniel Quinn, sculptor Lawson Oyekan and many contemporary Pagans).\n",
"\n=== Old animism ===\n\nEarlier anthropological perspectives – since termed the \"old animism\" – were concerned with knowledge surrounding what is alive and what factors make something alive. The \"old animism\" assumed that animists were individuals who were unable to understand the difference between persons and things.\nCritics of the \"old animism\" have accused it of preserving \"colonialist and dualist worldviews and rhetoric\".\n\n==== Edward Tylor's definition ====\nEdward Tylor developed animism as an anthropological theory.\n\nThe idea of animism was developed by the anthropologist Sir Edward Tylor in his 1871 book ''Primitive Culture'', in which he defined it as \"the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general.\" According to Tylor, animism often includes \"an idea of pervading life and will in nature\"; i.e., a belief that natural objects other than humans have souls. This formulation was little different from that proposed by Auguste Comte as \"fetishism\", although the terms now have distinct meanings.\n\nFor Tylor, animism represented the earliest form of religion, being situated within an evolutionary framework of religion which has developed in stages and which will ultimately lead to humanity rejecting religion altogether in favor of scientific rationality.\nThus, for Tylor, animism was fundamentally seen as a mistake, a basic error from which all religion grew. He did not believe that animism was inherently illogical, but suggested that it arose from early humans' dreams and visions, and thus while being a rational system, it was based on erroneous, un-scientific observations about the nature of reality. Stringer notes that his reading of ''Primitive Culture'' led him to believe that Tylor was far more sympathetic in regard to “primitive” populations than many of his contemporaries, and that Tylor expressed no belief that there was any difference between the intellectual capabilities of “savage” people and Westerners.\n\nTylor had initially wanted to describe this phenomenon as \"spiritualism,\" however he decided against this upon recognizing that it would cause confusion with the modern religion of Spiritualism which was prevalent across Western nations during his own time. He adopted the term \"animism\" from the writings of the German scientist Georg Ernst Stahl, who, in 1708, had developed the term '''' as a biological theory that souls formed the vital principle and that the normal phenomena of life and the abnormal phenomena of disease could be traced to spiritual causes. The earliest known usage in English appeared in 1819.\n\nThe idea that there had once been \"one universal form of primitive religion\" – whether labelled \"animism\", \"totemism\", or \"shamanism\" – has been dismissed as \"unsophisticated\" and \"erroneous\" by the archaeologist Timothy Insoll, who stated that \"it removes complexity, a precondition of religion now, in ''all'' its variants\".\n\n==== Social evolutionist conceptions ====\nTylor's definition of animism was a part of a growing international debate on the nature of 'primitive society' by lawyers, theologians, and philologists. The debate defined the field of research of a new science – anthropology. By the end of the nineteenth century, an orthodoxy on 'primitive society' had emerged, although few anthropologists today would accept their definition; the 'nineteenth century armchair anthropologists' argued 'primitive society' (an evolutionary category) was ordered by kinship and was divided into exogamous descent groups related by a series of marriage exchanges. Their religion was animism – the belief that natural species and objects had souls. With the development of private property, these descent groups were displaced by the emergence of the territorial state. These rituals and beliefs eventually evolved over time into the vast array of \"developed\" religions. According to Tylor, the more scientifically advanced a society became, the fewer members of that society believed in animism; however, any remnant ideologies of souls or spirits, to Tylor, represented \"survivals\" of the original animism of early humanity.\n\n\n\nIn 1869 (three years after Tylor proposed his definition of animism), the Edinburgh lawyer, John Ferguson McLellan, argued that the animistic thinking evident in fetishism gave rise to a religion he named Totemism. Primitive people believed, he argued, that they were descended of the same species as their totemic animal. Subsequent debate by the 'armchair anthropologists' (including J. J. Bachofen, Émile Durkheim and Sigmund Freud) remained focused on totemism rather than animism, with few directly challenging Tylor's definition. Indeed, anthropologists \"have commonly avoided the issue of Animism and even the term itself rather than revisit this prevalent notion in light of their new and rich ethnographies.\"\n\nAccording to the anthropologist Tim Ingold, animism shares similarities to totemism but differs in its focus on individual spirit beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life. Certain indigenous religious groups such as the Australian Aboriginals are more typically totemic, whereas others like the Inuit are more typically animistic in their worldview.\n\nFrom his studies into child development, Jean Piaget suggested that children were born with an innate animist worldview in which they anthropomorphized inanimate objects, and that it was only later that they grew out of this belief. Conversely, from her ethnographic research, Margaret Mead argued the opposite, believing that children were not born with an animist worldview but that they became acculturated to such beliefs as they were educated by their society.\nStewart Guthrie saw animism – or \"attribution\" as he preferred it – as an evolutionary strategy to aid survival. He argued that both humans and other animal species view inanimate objects as potentially alive as a means of being constantly on guard against potential threats. His suggested explanation, however, did not deal with the question of why such a belief became central to religion.\n\nIn 2000, Guthrie suggested that the \"most widespread\" concept of animism was that it was the \"attribution of spirits to natural phenomena\nsuch as stones and trees\".\n\n=== The new animism ===\n\nMany anthropologists ceased using the term \"animism\", deeming it to be too close to early anthropological theory and religious polemic. However, the term had also been claimed by religious groups – namely indigenous communities and nature worshipers – who felt that it aptly described their own beliefs, and who in some cases actively identified as \"animists\". It was thus readopted by various scholars, however they began using the term in a different way, placing the focus on knowing how to behave toward other persons, some of whom aren't human. As the religious studies scholar Graham Harvey stated, while the \"old animist\" definition had been problematic, the term \"animism\" was nevertheless \"of considerable value as a critical, academic term for a style of religious and cultural relating to the world.\"\n\nFive Ojibwe chiefs in the 19th century; it was anthropological studies of Ojibwe religion that resulted in the development of the \"new animism\".\nThe \"new animism\" emerged largely from the publications of the anthropologist Irving Hallowell which were produced on the basis of his ethnographic research among the Ojibwe communities of Canada in the mid-20th century. For the Ojibwe encountered by Hallowell, ''personhood'' did not require human-likeness, but rather humans were perceived as being like other persons, who for instance included rock persons and bear persons. For the Ojibwe, these persons were each wilful beings who gained meaning and power through their interactions with others; through respectfully interacting with other persons, they themselves learned to \"act as a person\". Hallowell's approach to the understanding of Ojibwe personhood differed strongly from prior anthropological concepts of animism. He emphasized the need to challenge the modernist, Western perspectives of what a person is by entering into a dialogue with different worldwide-views.\n\nHallowell's approach influenced the work of anthropologist Nurit Bird-David, who produced a scholarly article reassessing the idea of animism in 1999. Seven comments from other academics were provided in the journal, debating Bird-David's ideas.\n\nMore recently post-modern anthropologists are increasingly engaging with the concept of animism. Modernism is characterized by a Cartesian subject-object dualism that divides the subjective from the objective, and culture from nature; in this view, Animism is the inverse of scientism, and hence inherently invalid. Drawing on the work of Bruno Latour, these anthropologists question these modernist assumptions, and theorize that all societies continue to \"animate\" the world around them, and not just as a Tylorian survival of primitive thought. Rather, the instrumental reason characteristic of modernity is limited to our \"professional subcultures,\" which allows us to treat the world as a detached mechanical object in a delimited sphere of activity. We, like animists, also continue to create personal relationships with elements of the so-called objective world, whether pets, cars or teddy-bears, who we recognize as subjects. As such, these entities are \"approached as communicative subjects rather than the inert objects perceived by modernists.\" These approaches are careful to avoid the modernist assumptions that the environment consists dichotomously of a physical world distinct from humans, and from modernist conceptions of the person as composed dualistically as body and soul.\n\nNurit Bird-David argues that \"Positivistic ideas about the meaning of 'nature', 'life' and 'personhood' misdirected these previous attempts to understand the local concepts. Classical theoreticians (it is argued) attributed their own modernist ideas of self to 'primitive peoples' while asserting that the 'primitive peoples' read their idea of self into others!\" She argues that animism is a \"relational epistemology\", and not a Tylorian failure of primitive reasoning. That is, self-identity among animists is based on their relationships with others, rather than some distinctive feature of the self. Instead of focusing on the essentialized, modernist self (the \"individual\"), persons are viewed as bundles of social relationships (\"dividuals\"), some of which are with \"superpersons\" (i.e. non-humans).\n\nGuthrie expressed criticism of Bird-David's attitude toward animism, believing that it promulgated the view that \"the world is in large measure whatever our local imagination makes it\". This, he felt, would result in anthropology abandoning \"the scientific project\".\n\nTim Ingold, like Bird-David, argues that animists do not see themselves as separate from their environment: \"Hunter-gatherers do not, as a rule, approach their environment as an external world of nature that has to be 'grasped' intellectually ... indeed the separation of mind and nature has no place in their thought and practice.\" Willerslev extends the argument by noting that animists reject this Cartesian dualism, and that the animist self identifies with the world, \"feeling at once ''within'' and ''apart'' from it so that the two glide ceaselessly in and out of each other in a sealed circuit.\" The animist hunter is thus aware of himself as a human hunter, but, through mimicry is able to assume the viewpoint, senses, and sensibilities of his prey, to be one with it. Shamanism, in this view, is an everyday attempt to influence spirits of ancestors and animals by mirroring their behaviours as the hunter does his prey.\n\nCultural ecologist and philosopher David Abram articulates and elaborates an intensely ethical and ecological form of animism grounded in the phenomenology of sensory experience. In his books ''Becoming Animal'' and ''The Spell of the Sensuous,'' Abram suggests that material things are never entirely passive in our direct experience, holding rather that perceived things actively \"solicit our attention\" or \"call our focus,\" coaxing the perceiving body into an ongoing participation with those things. In the absence of intervening technologies, sensory experience is inherently animistic, disclosing a material field that is animate and self-organizing from the get-go. Drawing upon contemporary cognitive and natural science, as well as upon the perspectival worldviews of diverse indigenous, oral cultures, Abram proposes a richly pluralist and story-based cosmology, in which matter is alive through and through. Such an ontology is in close accord, he suggests, with our spontaneous perceptual experience; it would draw us back to our senses and to the primacy of the sensuous terrain, enjoining a more respectful and ethical relation to the more-than-human community of animals, plants, soils, mountains, waters and weather-patterns that materially sustains us. In contrast to a long-standing tendency in the Western social sciences, which commonly provide rational explanations of animistic experience, Abram develops an animistic account of reason itself. He holds that civilized reason is sustained only by an intensely animistic participation between human beings and their own written signs. Indeed, as soon as we turn our gaze toward the alphabetic letters written on a page or a screen, these letters speak to us—we 'see what they say'—much as ancient trees and gushing streams and lichen-encrusted boulders once spoke to our oral ancestors. Hence reading is an intensely concentrated form of animism, one that effectively eclipses all of the other, older, more spontaneous forms of participation in which we once engaged. \"To tell the story in this manner—to provide an animistic account of reason, rather than the other way around—is to imply that animism is the wider and more inclusive term, and that oral, mimetic modes of experience still underlie, and support, all our literate and technological modes of reflection. When reflection's rootedness in such bodily, participatory modes of experience is entirely unacknowledged or unconscious, reflective reason becomes dysfunctional, unintentionally destroying the corporeal, sensuous world that sustains it.\" \n\nThe religious studies scholar Graham Harvey defined animism as the belief \"that the world is full of persons, only some of whom are human, and that life is always lived in relationship with others\". He added that it is therefore \"concerned with learning how to be a good person in respectful relationships with other persons\".\nGraham Harvey, in his 2013 Handbook of Contemporary Animism, identifies the animist perspective in line with Martin Buber's \"I-thou\" as opposed to \"I-it\". In such, Harvey says, the Animist takes an I-thou approach to relating to his world, where objects and animals are treated as a \"thou\" rather than as an \"it\".\n",
"A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as \"shaman\" in the literature\nBozo village, Mopti, Bandiagara, Mali in 1972\n\nThere is ongoing disagreement (and no general consensus) as to whether animism is merely a singular, broadly encompassing religious belief or a worldview in and of itself, comprising many diverse mythologies found worldwide in many diverse cultures. This also raises a controversy regarding the ethical claims animism may or may not make: whether animism ignores questions of ethics altogether or, by endowing various non-human elements of nature with spirituality or personhood, in fact promotes a complex ecological ethics.\n\n=== Fetishism/totemism ===\n\n\nIn many animistic world views, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with other animals, plants, and natural forces.\n\n=== Shamanism ===\n\n\nA shaman is a person regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits, who typically enters into a trance state during a ritual, and practices divination and healing. According to Mircea Eliade, shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the spiritual world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment. Abram, however, articulates a less supernatural and much more ecological understanding of the shaman's role than that propounded by Eliade. Drawing upon his own field research in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Americas, Abram suggests that in animistic cultures, the shaman functions primarily as an intermediary between the human community and the more-than-human community of active agencies — the local animals, plants, and landforms (mountains, rivers, forests, winds and weather patterns, all of whom are felt to have their own specific sentience). Hence the shaman's ability to heal individual instances of dis-ease (or imbalance) within the human community is a by-product of her/his more continual practice of balancing the reciprocity between the human community and the wider collective of animate beings in which that community is embedded. \n\n=== Distinction from pantheism ===\nAnimism is not the same as pantheism, although the two are sometimes confused. Some religions are both pantheistic and animistic. One of the main differences is that while animists believe everything to be spiritual in nature, they do not necessarily see the spiritual nature of everything in existence as being united (monism), the way pantheists do. As a result, animism puts more emphasis on the uniqueness of each individual soul. In pantheism, everything shares the same spiritual essence, rather than having distinct spirits and/or souls.\n\n=== Examples ===\n* Mun, (also called Munism or Bongthingism) is the traditional polytheistic, animist, shamanistic, and syncretic religion of the Lepcha people.\n* The New Age movement commonly demonstrates animistic traits in asserting the existence of nature spirits.\n* Some Neopagan groups, including Eco-Pagans, describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings and spirits with whom humans share the world/cosmos.\n",
"\n=== Animals, plants, and the elements ===\n\nAnimism entails the belief that \"all living things have a soul\", and thus a central concern of animist thought surrounds how animals can be eaten or otherwise used for humans' subsistence needs. The actions of non-human animals are viewed as \"intentional, planned and purposive\", and they are understood to be persons because they are both alive and communicate with others. In animist world-views, non-human animals are understood to participate in kinship systems and ceremonies with humans, as well as having their own kinship systems and ceremonies. Harvey cited an example of an animist understanding of animal behaviour that occurred at a powwow held by the Conne River Mi'kmaq in 1996; an eagle flew over the proceedings, circling over the central drum group. The assembled participants called out ''kitpu'' (\"eagle\"), conveying welcome to the bird and expressing pleasure at its beauty, and they later articulated the view that the eagle's actions reflected its approval of the event and the Mi'kmaq's return to traditional spiritual practices.\n\nSome animists also view plant and fungi life as persons and interact with them accordingly. The most common encounter between humans and these plant and fungi persons is with the former's collection of the latter for food, and for animists this interaction typically has to be carried out respectfully. Harvey cited the example of Maori communities in New Zealand, who often offer ''karakia'' invocations to sweet potatoes as they dig the latter up; while doing so there is an awareness of a kinship relationship between the Maori and the sweet potatoes, with both understood as having arrived in Aotearoa together in the same canoes. In other instances, animists believe that interaction with plant and fungi persons can result in the communication of things unknown or even otherwise unknowable. Among some modern Pagans, for instance, relationships are cultivated with specific trees, who are understood to bestow knowledge or physical gifts, such as flowers, sap, or wood that can be used as firewood or to fashion into a wand; in return, these Pagans give offerings to the tree itself, which can come in the form of libations of mead or ale, a drop of blood from a finger, or a strand of wool.\n\nVarious animistic cultures also comprehend as stones as persons. Discussing ethnographic work conducted among the Ojibwe, Harvey noted that their society generally conceived of stones as being inanimate, but with two notable exceptions: the stones of the Bell Rocks and those stones which are situated beneath trees struck by lightning, which were understood to have become Thunderers themselves. The Ojibwe conceived of weather as being capable of having personhood, with storms being conceived of as persons known as 'Thunderers' whose sounds conveyed communications and who engaged in seasonal conflict over the lakes and forests, throwing lightning at lake monsters. Wind, similarly, can be conceived as a person in animistic thought.\n\nThe importance of place is also a recurring element of animism, with some places being understood to be persons in their own right.\n\n=== Spirits ===\n\nAnimism can also entail relationships being established with non-corporeal spirit entities.\n",
"\n=== Science and animism ===\nIn the early 20th century, William McDougall defended a form of Animism in his book ''Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism'' (1911).\n\nThe physicist Nick Herbert has argued for \"quantum animism\" in which mind permeates the world at every level.\n\n\nWerner Krieglstein wrote regarding his quantum Animism:\n\n\n=== Socio-political impact ===\n\nHarvey opined that animism's views on personhood represented a radical challenge to the dominant perspectives of modernity, because it accords \"intelligence, rationality, consciousness, volition, agency, intentionality, language and desire\" to non-humans. Similarly, it challenges the view of human uniqueness that is prevalent in both Abrahamic religions and Western rationalism.\n\n=== In art and literature ===\n\nAnimist beliefs can also be expressed through artwork. For instance, among the Maori communities of New Zealand, there is an acknowledgment that creating art through carving wood or stone entails violence against the wood or stone person, and that the persons who are damaged therefore have to be placated and respected during the process; any excess or waste from the creation of the artwork is returned to the land, while the artwork itself is treated with particular respect. Harvey therefore argued that the creation of art among the Maori was not about creating an inanimate object for display, but rather a transformation of different persons within a relationship.\n\nHarvey expressed the view that animist worldviews were present in various works of literature, citing such examples as the writings of Alan Garner, Leslie Silko, Barbara Kingsolver, Alice Walker, Daniel Quinn, Linda Hogan, David Abram, Patricia Grace, Chinua Achebe, Ursula Le Guin, Louise Erdrich, and Marge Piercy.\n",
"* Anecdotal cognitivism\n* Animatism\n* Ecotheology\n* Folk religion\n* Hylozoism\n* Mana\n* Nature worship\n* Panpsychism\n* Religion and environmentalism\n* Sacred trees\n* Wildlife totemization\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n*\n*\n* \n*\n* \n* \n* \n* \n*\n* \n* \n",
"* Badenberg, Robert: \"How about 'Animism'? An Inquiry beyond Label and Legacy\". In: ''Mission als Kommunikation. Festschrift für Ursula Wiesemann zu ihrem 75. Geburtstag'', edited by Klaus W. Müller. VTR, Nürnberg 2007; and VKW, Bonn 2007; \n* Hallowell, A. Irving. \"Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view\" in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. ''Culture in History'' (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp. 17–49\n* Harvey, Graham. 2005. ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press)\n* Ingold, Tim: 'Rethinking the animate, re-animating thought'. Ethnos, 71(1) / 2006: pp. 9–20\n* Wundt, W. (1906). ''Mythus und Religion'', Teil II. Leipzig 1906 (''Völkerpsychologie'', volume II)\n* Quinn, Daniel. ''The Story of B''\n* Käser, Lothar: ''Animismus. Eine Einführung in die begrifflichen Grundlagen des Welt- und Menschenbildes traditionaler (ethnischer) Gesellschaften für Entwicklungshelfer und kirchliche Mitarbeiter in Übersee''. Liebenzeller Mission, Bad Liebenzell 2004, \n** mit dem verkürzten Untertitel ''Einführung in seine begrifflichen Grundlagen'' auch bei: Erlanger Verlag für Mission und Okumene, Neuendettelsau 2004, \n* \n",
"\n* Animism, Rinri, Modernization; the Base of Japanese Robotics\n* Urban Legends Reference Pages: Weight of the Soul \n* Animist Network\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Theories of animism ",
" Religion ",
" Animist life ",
" Other usages ",
" See also ",
" References ",
"References",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | Animism |
[
"\n\n\nMuseo Internazionale e Biblioteca della Musica di Bologna is generally believed to be of Vivaldi and may be linked to the Morellon La Cave engraving, which appears to be a modified mirror reflection of it.\" Michael Talbot, ''The Vivaldi Compendium'' (2011), p. 148.\n\n'''Antonio Lucio Vivaldi''' (; 4 March 1678 – 28 July 1741) was an Italian Baroque composer, virtuoso violinist, teacher and cleric. Born in Venice, he is recognized as one of the greatest Baroque composers, and his influence during his lifetime was widespread across Europe. He composed many instrumental concertos, for the violin and a variety of other instruments, as well as sacred choral works and more than forty operas. His best-known work is a series of violin concertos known as ''The Four Seasons''.\n\nMany of his compositions were written for the female music ensemble of the ''Ospedale della Pietà'', a home for abandoned children where Vivaldi (who had been ordained as a Catholic priest) was employed from 1703 to 1715 and from 1723 to 1740. Vivaldi also had some success with expensive stagings of his operas in Venice, Mantua and Vienna. After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to Vienna, hoping for preferment. However, the Emperor died soon after Vivaldi's arrival, and Vivaldi himself died less than a year later in poverty.\n",
"\n===Childhood===\nChurch where Vivaldi was baptised: San Giovanni in Bragora, Sestiere di Castello, Venice\n\nAntonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on 4 March 1678 in Venice, then the capital of the Republic of Venice. He was baptized immediately after his birth at his home by the midwife, which led to a belief that his life was somehow in danger. Though not known for certain, the child's immediate baptism was most likely due either to his poor health or to an earthquake that shook the city that day. In the trauma of the earthquake, Vivaldi's mother may have dedicated him to the priesthood. Vivaldi's official church baptism took place two months later.\n\nVivaldi's parents were Giovanni Battista Vivaldi and Camilla Calicchio, as recorded in the register of San Giovanni in Bragora. Vivaldi had eight siblings: Iseppo Santo Vivaldi, Iseppo Gaetano Vivaldi, Bonaventura Tomaso Vivaldi, Margarita Gabriela Vivaldi, Cecilia Maria Vivaldi , Gerolama Michela Vivaldi, Francesco Gaetano Vivaldi, and Zanetta Anna Vivaldi. Giovanni Battista, who was a barber before becoming a professional violinist, taught Antonio to play the violin and then toured Venice playing the violin with his young son. Antonio was probably taught at an early age, judging by the extensive musical knowledge he had acquired by the age of 24, when he started working at the Ospedale della Pietà. Giovanni Battista was one of the founders of the ''Sovvegno dei musicisti di Santa Cecilia'', an association of musicians.\n\nThe president of the ''Sovvegno'' was Giovanni Legrenzi, an early Baroque composer and the ''maestro di cappella'' at St Mark's Basilica. It is possible that Legrenzi gave the young Antonio his first lessons in composition. The Luxembourg scholar Walter Kolneder has discerned the influence of Legrenzi's style in Vivaldi's early liturgical work ''Laetatus sum'' (RV Anh 31), written in 1691 at the age of thirteen. Vivaldi's father may have been a composer himself: in 1689, an opera titled ''La Fedeltà sfortunata'' was composed by a Giovanni Battista Rossi—the name under which Vivaldi's father had joined the Sovvegno di Santa Cecilia.\n\nVivaldi's health was problematic. His symptoms, ''strettezza di petto'' (\"tightness of the chest\"), have been interpreted as a form of asthma. This did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, composing or taking part in musical activities, although it did stop him from playing wind instruments. In 1693, at the age of fifteen, he began studying to become a priest. He was ordained in 1703, aged 25, and was soon nicknamed ''il Prete Rosso'', \"The Red Priest\". (''Rosso'' is Italian for \"red\", and would have referred to the color of his hair, a family trait.)\n\nNot long after his ordination, in 1704, he was given a dispensation from celebrating Mass because of his ill health. Vivaldi only said Mass as a priest a few times and appeared to have withdrawn from priestly duties, though he remained a priest.\n\n===At the ''Conservatorio dell'Ospedale della Pietà''===\nIn September 1703, Vivaldi became ''maestro di violino'' (master of violin) at an orphanage called the Pio Ospedale della Pietà (Devout Hospital of Mercy) in Venice. While Vivaldi is most famous as a composer, he was regarded as an exceptional technical violinist as well. The German architect Johann Friedrich Armand von Uffenbach referred to Vivaldi as \"the famous composer and violinist\" and said that \"Vivaldi played a solo accompaniment excellently, and at the conclusion he added a free fantasy an improvised cadenza which absolutely astounded me, for it is hardly possible that anyone has ever played, or ever will play, in such a fashion.\"\n\nCommemorative plaque beside the Ospedale della Pietà\nVivaldi was only 25 when he started working at the Ospedale della Pietà. Over the next thirty years he composed most of his major works while working there. There were four similar institutions in Venice; their purpose was to give shelter and education to children who were abandoned or orphaned, or whose families could not support them. They were financed by funds provided by the Republic. The boys learned a trade and had to leave when they reached 15. The girls received a musical education, and the most talented stayed and became members of the Ospedale's renowned orchestra and choir.\n\nShortly after Vivaldi's appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad, too. Vivaldi wrote concertos, cantatas and sacred vocal music for them. These sacred works, which number over 60, are varied: they included solo motets and large-scale choral works for soloists, double chorus, and orchestra. In 1704, the position of teacher of ''viola all'inglese'' was added to his duties as violin instructor. The position of ''maestro di coro'', which was at one time filled by Vivaldi, required a lot of time and work. He had to compose an oratorio or concerto at every feast and teach the orphans both music theory and how to play certain instruments.\n\nHis relationship with the board of directors of the Ospedale was often strained. The board had to take a vote every year on whether to keep a teacher. The vote on Vivaldi was seldom unanimous, and went 7 to 6 against him in 1709. After a year as a freelance musician, he was recalled by the Ospedale with a unanimous vote in 1711; clearly during his year's absence the board had realized the importance of his role. He became responsible for all of the musical activity of the institution when he was promoted to ''maestro de' concerti'' (music director) in 1716.\n\nIn 1705, the first collection (''Connor Cassara'') of his works was published by Giuseppe Sala: his Opus 1 is a collection of 12 sonatas for two violins and basso continuo, in a conventional style. In 1709, a second collection of 12 sonatas for violin and basso continuo appeared, his Opus 2. A real breakthrough as a composer came with his first collection of 12 concerti for one, two, and four violins with strings, ''L'estro armonico'' Opus 3, which was published in Amsterdam in 1711 by Estienne Roger, dedicated to Grand Prince Ferdinand of Tuscany. The prince sponsored many musicians including Alessandro Scarlatti and George Frideric Handel. He was a musician himself, and Vivaldi probably met him in Venice. ''L'estro armonico'' was a resounding success all over Europe. It was followed in 1714 by ''La stravaganza'' Opus 4, a collection of concerti for solo violin and strings, dedicated to an old violin student of Vivaldi's, the Venetian noble Vettor Dolfin.\n\nIn February 1711, Vivaldi and his father traveled to Brescia, where his setting of the Stabat Mater (RV 621) was played as part of a religious festival. The work seems to have been written in haste: the string parts are simple, the music of the first three movements is repeated in the next three, and not all the text is set. Nevertheless, perhaps in part because of the forced essentiality of the music, the work is one of his early masterpieces.\n\nDespite his frequent travels from 1718, the Pietà paid him 2 sequins to write two concerti a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least five times when in Venice. The Pietà's records show that he was paid for 140 concerti between 1723 and 1733.\n\n===Opera impresario===\nFirst edition of ''Juditha triumphans''\n\nIn early 18th-century Venice, opera was the most popular musical entertainment. It proved most profitable for Vivaldi. There were several theaters competing for the public's attention. Vivaldi started his career as an opera composer as a sideline: his first opera, ''Ottone in villa'' (RV 729) was performed not in Venice, but at the Garzerie Theater in Vicenza in 1713. The following year, Vivaldi became the impresario of the Teatro San Angelo in Venice, where his opera ''Orlando finto pazzo'' (RV 727) was performed. The work was not to the public's taste, and it closed after a couple of weeks, being replaced with a repeat of a different work already given the previous year.\n\nIn 1715, he presented ''Nerone fatto Cesare'' (RV 724, now lost), with music by seven different composers, of which he was the leader. The opera contained eleven arias, and was a success. In the late season, Vivaldi planned to put on an opera composed entirely by him, ''Arsilda, regina di Ponto'' (RV 700), but the state censor blocked the performance. The main character, Arsilda, falls in love with another woman, Lisea, who is pretending to be a man. Vivaldi got the censor to accept the opera the following year, and it was a resounding success.\n\nAt this period, the ''Pietà'' commissioned several liturgical works. The most important were two oratorios. ''Moyses Deus Pharaonis'', (RV 643) is lost. The second, ''Juditha triumphans'' (RV 644), celebrates the victory of the Republic of Venice against the Turks and the recapture of the island of Corfu. Composed in 1716, it is one of his sacred masterpieces. All eleven singing parts were performed by girls of the Pietà, both the female and male roles. Many of the arias include parts for solo instruments—recorders, oboes, violas d'amore, and mandolins—that showcased the range of talents of the girls.\n\nAlso in 1716, Vivaldi wrote and produced two more operas, ''L'incoronazione di Dario'' (RV 719) and ''La costanza trionfante degli amori e degli odi'' (RV 706). The latter was so popular that it performed two years later, re-edited and retitled ''Artabano re dei Parti'' (RV 701, now lost). It was also performed in Prague in 1732. In the following years, Vivaldi wrote several operas that were performed all over Italy.\n\nFrontispiece of ''Il teatro alla moda''\nHis progressive operatic style caused him some trouble with more conservative musicians, like Benedetto Marcello, a magistrate and amateur musician who wrote a pamphlet denouncing him and his operas. The pamphlet, ''Il teatro alla moda'', attacks Vivaldi without mentioning him directly. The cover drawing shows a boat (the Sant'Angelo), on the left end of which stands a little angel wearing a priest's hat and playing the violin. The Marcello family claimed ownership of the Teatro Sant'Angelo, and a long legal battle had been fought with the management for its restitution, without success. The obscure writing under the picture mentions non-existent places and names: ''ALDIVIVA'' is an anagram of ''A. Vivaldi''.\n\nIn a letter written by Vivaldi to his patron Marchese Bentivoglio in 1737, he makes reference to his \"94 operas\". Only around 50 operas by Vivaldi have been discovered, and no other documentation of the remaining operas exists. Although Vivaldi may have exaggerated, in his dual role of composer and ''impresario'' it is plausible that he may either have written or been responsible for the production of as many as 94 operas during a career which by then had spanned almost 25 years. While Vivaldi certainly composed many operas in his time, he never reached the prominence of other great composers like Alessandro Scarlatti, Johann Adolph Hasse, Leonardo Leo, and Baldassare Galuppi, as evidenced by his inability to keep a production running for any extended period of time in any major opera house.\n\n===Mantua and the'' Four Seasons''===\nIn 1717 or 1718, Vivaldi was offered a new prestigious position as ''Maestro di Cappella'' of the court of prince Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt, governor of Mantua. He moved there for three years and produced several operas, among which was ''Tito Manlio'' (RV 738). In 1721, he was in Milan, where he presented the pastoral drama ''La Silvia'' (RV 734, 9 arias survive). He visited Milan again the following year with the oratorio ''L'adorazione delli tre re magi al bambino Gesù'' (RV 645, also lost). In 1722 he moved to Rome, where he introduced his operas' new style. The new pope Benedict XIII invited Vivaldi to play for him. In 1725, Vivaldi returned to Venice, where he produced four operas in the same year.\n\nCaricature by P. L. Ghezzi, Rome (1723)\nDuring this period Vivaldi wrote the ''Four Seasons'', four violin concertos depicting scenes appropriate for each season. Three of the concerti are of original conception, while the first, \"Spring\", borrows motifs from a Sinfonia in the first act of his contemporaneous opera ''Il Giustino''. The inspiration for the concertos was probably the countryside around Mantua. They were a revolution in musical conception: in them Vivaldi represented flowing creeks, singing birds (of different species, each specifically characterized), barking dogs, buzzing mosquitoes, crying shepherds, storms, drunken dancers, silent nights, hunting parties from both the hunters' and the prey's point of view, frozen landscapes, ice-skating children, and warming winter fires. Each concerto is associated with a sonnet, possibly by Vivaldi, describing the scenes depicted in the music. They were published as the first four concertos in a collection of twelve, ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione'', Opus 8, published in Amsterdam by Michel-Charles Le Cène in 1725.\n\nDuring his time in Mantua, Vivaldi became acquainted with an aspiring young singer Anna Tessieri Girò who was to become his student, protégée, and favorite prima donna. Anna, along with her older half-sister Paolina, became part of Vivaldi's entourage and regularly accompanied him on his many travels. There was speculation about the nature of Vivaldi's and Giro's relationship, but no evidence to indicate anything beyond friendship and professional collaboration. Although Vivaldi's relationship with Anna Girò was questioned, he adamantly denied any romantic relationship in a letter to his patron Bentivoglio dated 16 November 1737.\n\n===Later life and death===\nAt the height of his career, Vivaldi received commissions from European nobility and royalty. The ''serenata'' (cantata) ''Gloria e Imeneo'' (RV 687) was commissioned in 1725 by the French ambassador to Venice in celebration of the marriage of Louis XV. The following year, another ''serenata'', ''La Sena festeggiante'' (RV 694), was written for and premiered at the French embassy as well, celebrating the birth of the French royal princesses, Henriette and Louise Élisabeth. Vivaldi's Opus 9, ''La cetra'', was dedicated to Emperor Charles VI. In 1728, Vivaldi met the emperor while the emperor was visiting Trieste to oversee the construction of a new port. Charles admired the music of the Red Priest so much that he is said to have spoken more with the composer during their one meeting than he spoke to his ministers in over two years. He gave Vivaldi the title of knight, a gold medal and an invitation to Vienna. Vivaldi gave Charles a manuscript copy of ''La cetra'', a set of concerti almost completely different from the set of the same title published as Opus 9. The printing was probably delayed, forcing Vivaldi to gather an improvised collection for the emperor.\n\nAccompanied by his father, Vivaldi traveled to Vienna and Prague in 1730, where his opera ''Farnace'' (RV 711) was presented. ''Farnace'' garnered six revivals later. Some of his later operas were created in collaboration with two of Italy's major writers of the time. ''L'Olimpiade'' and ''Catone in Utica'' were written by Pietro Metastasio, the major representative of the Arcadian movement and court poet in Vienna. ''La Griselda'' was rewritten by the young Carlo Goldoni from an earlier libretto by Apostolo Zeno.\n\nLike many composers of the time, the final years of Vivaldi's life found him in financial difficulties. His compositions were no longer held in such high esteem as they once were in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded. In response, Vivaldi chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance his migration to Vienna. The reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that, after the success of his meeting with Emperor Charles VI, he wished to take up the position of a composer in the imperial court. On his way to Vienna, Vivaldi may have stopped in Graz to see Anna Girò.\n\nIt is also likely that Vivaldi went to Vienna to stage operas, especially as he took up residence near the Kärntnertortheater. Shortly after his arrival in Vienna, Charles VI died, which left the composer without any royal protection or a steady source of income. Soon afterwards, Vivaldi became impoverished and died during the night of 27/28 July 1741, aged 63, of \"internal infection\", in a house owned by the widow of a Viennese saddlemaker. On 28 July he was buried in a simple grave in a burial ground that was owned by the public hospital fund. Vivaldi's funeral took place at St. Stephen's Cathedral, but contrary to popular legend, the young Joseph Haydn had nothing to do with this burial, since no music was performed on that occasion. The cost of his funeral with a 'Kleingeläut' was 19 Gulden 45 Kreuzer which was rather expensive for the lowest class of peal of bells.\n\nHe was buried next to Karlskirche, in an area which is now part of the site of the Technical Institute. The house where he lived in Vienna has since been destroyed; the Hotel Sacher is built on part of the site. Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi \"star\" in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltplatz.\n\nOnly two, possibly three original portraits of Vivaldi are known to survive: an engraving, an ink sketch and an oil painting. The engraving, which was the basis of several copies produced at some later time by other artists, was made in 1725 by François Morellon La Cave for the first edition of ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione'', and shows Vivaldi holding a sheet of music. The ink sketch, a caricature, was done by Ghezzi in 1723 and shows Vivaldi's head and shoulders in profile. It exists in two versions: a first jotting kept at the Vatican Library, and a much lesser-known, slightly more detailed copy recently discovered in Moscow. The oil painting, which can be seen in the International Museum and Library of Music of Bologna, is anonymous, and is thought to be of Vivaldi due to its strong resemblance to the La Cave engraving.\n",
"\nVivaldi's music was innovative. He brightened the formal and rhythmic structure of the concerto, in which he looked for harmonic contrasts and innovative melodies and themes; many of his compositions are flamboyantly, almost playfully, exuberant.\n\nJohann Sebastian Bach was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his ''St John Passion'', ''St Matthew Passion'', and cantatas). Bach transcribed six of Vivaldi's concerti for solo keyboard, three for organ, and one for four harpsichords, strings, and basso continuo (BWV 1065) based upon the concerto for four violins, two violas, cello, and basso continuo (RV 580).\n",
"During his lifetime, Vivaldi was popular in many countries, including France, but after his death the composer's popularity dwindled. After the Baroque period, Vivaldi's published concerti became relatively unknown and were largely ignored. Even Vivaldi's most famous work, ''The Four Seasons'', was unknown in its original edition during the Classical and Romantic periods.\n\nDuring the early 20th century, Fritz Kreisler's Concerto in C, in the Style of Vivaldi (which he passed off as an original Vivaldi work) helped revive Vivaldi's reputation. This spurred the French scholar Marc Pincherle to begin an academic study of Vivaldi's oeuvre. Many Vivaldi manuscripts were rediscovered, which were acquired by the Turin National University Library as a result of the generous sponsorship of Turinese businessmen Roberto Foa and Filippo Giordano, in memory of their sons. This led to a renewed interest in Vivaldi by, among others, Mario Rinaldi, Alfredo Casella, Ezra Pound, Olga Rudge, Desmond Chute, Arturo Toscanini, Arnold Schering and Louis Kaufman, all of whom were instrumental in the Vivaldi revival of the 20th century.\n\nIn 1926, in a monastery in Piedmont, researchers discovered fourteen folios of Vivaldi's work that were previously thought to have been lost during the Napoleonic Wars. Some missing volumes in the numbered set were discovered in the collections of the descendants of the Grand Duke Durazzo, who had acquired the monastery complex in the 18th century. The volumes contained 300 concertos, 19 operas and over 100 vocal-instrumental works.\n\nThe resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly due to the efforts of Alfredo Casella, who in 1939 organized the historic Vivaldi Week, in which the rediscovered Gloria (RV 589) and l'Olimpiade were revived. Since World War II, Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed wide success. Historically informed performances, often on \"original instruments\", have increased Vivaldi's fame still further.\n\nRecent rediscoveries of works by Vivaldi include two psalm settings of ''Nisi Dominus'' (RV 803, in eight movements) and ''Dixit Dominus'' (RV 807, in eleven movements). These were identified in 2003 and 2005 respectively, by the Australian scholar Janice Stockigt. The Vivaldi scholar Michael Talbot described RV 807 as \"arguably the best nonoperatic work from Vivaldi's pen to come to light since... ...the 1920s\". Vivaldi's lost 1730 opera ''Argippo'' (RV 697) was rediscovered in 2006 by the harpsichordist and conductor Ondřej Macek, whose Hofmusici orchestra performed the work at Prague Castle on 3 May 2008, its first performance since 1730.\n",
"\n\nA composition by Vivaldi is identified by RV number, which refers to its place in the \"Ryom-Verzeichnis\" or \"Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi\", a catalog created in the 20th century by the musicologist Peter Ryom.\n\n''Le quattro stagioni'' (The Four Seasons) of 1723 is his most famous work. Part of ''Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione'' (\"The Contest between Harmony and Invention\"), it depicts moods and scenes from each of the four seasons. This work has been described as an outstanding instance of pre-19th century program music.\n\nVivaldi wrote more than 500 other concertos. About 350 of these are for solo instrument and strings, of which 230 are for violin, the others being for bassoon, cello, oboe, flute, viola d'amore, recorder, lute, or mandolin. About forty concertos are for two instruments and strings and about thirty are for three or more instruments and strings.\n\nAs well as about 46 operas, Vivaldi composed a large body of sacred choral music. Other works include sinfonias, about 90 sonatas and chamber music.\n\nSome sonatas for flute, published as ''Il Pastor Fido'', have been erroneously attributed to Vivaldi, but were composed by Nicolas Chédeville.\n",
"Vivaldi's works attracted cataloging efforts befitting a major composer. Scholarly work intended to increase the accuracy and variety of Vivaldi performances also supported new discoveries which made old catalogs incomplete. Works still in circulation today may be numbered under several different systems (some earlier catalogs are mentioned here).\n\nBecause the simply consecutive Complete Edition (CE) numbers did not reflect the individual works (Opus numbers) into which compositions were grouped, Fanna numbers were often used in conjunction with CE numbers. Combined Complete Edition (CE)/Fanna numbering was especially common in the work of Italian groups driving the mid-20th century revival of Vivaldi, such as Gli Accademici di Milano under Piero Santi. For example, the Bassoon Concerto in B major, \"La Notte\" RV 501, became CE 12, F. VIII,1\n\nDespite the awkwardness of having to overlay Fanna numbers onto the Complete Edition number for meaningful grouping of Vivaldi's oeuvre, these numbers displaced the older Pincherle numbers as the (re-)discovery of more manuscripts had rendered older catalogs obsolete.\n\nThis cataloging work was led by the Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi, where Gian Francesco Malipiero was both the director and the editor of the published scores (Edizioni G. Ricordi). His work built on that of Antonio Fanna, a Venetian businessman and the Institute's founder, and thus formed a bridge to the scholarly catalog dominant today.\n\nCompositions by Vivaldi are identified today by RV number, the number assigned by Danish musicologist Peter Ryom in works published mostly in the 1970s, such as the \"Ryom-Verzeichnis\" or \"Répertoire des oeuvres d'Antonio Vivaldi\". Like the Complete Edition before it, the RV does not typically assign its single, consecutive numbers to \"adjacent\" works that occupy one of the composer's single opus numbers. Its goal as a modern catalog is to index the manuscripts and sources that establish the existence and nature of all known works. These several numbering systems are cross-referenced at classical.net.\n",
"The movie '''' was completed in 2005 as an Italian-French co-production under the direction of Jean-Louis Guillermou. In 2005, ABC Radio National commissioned a radio play about Vivaldi, which was written by Sean Riley. Entitled ''The Angel and the Red Priest'', the play was later adapted for the stage and was performed at the Adelaide Festival of the Arts.\n\nJanice Jordan Shefelman wrote a children's book detailing the life of Vivaldi entitled ''I, Vivaldi''.\n\nClassical Kids Music Education produces live theatre productions, and has issued a CD entitled Vivaldi's Ring of Mystery an original fictional story about an orphan girl in the early 1700s who is in search of her roots. A central clue to the mystery is a missing Stradivarius violin that the Duke of Cremona has brought to Vivaldi’s school of the Pieta in the hopes of finding his long lost grandchild. Vivaldi music is featured throughout the story to support the narrative.\n",
"'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Sources and further reading'''\n* Brizi, Bruno, \"Maria Grazia Pensa\" in ''Music & Letters'', Vol. 65, No. 1 (January 1984), pp. 62–64\n* Bukofzer, Manfred (1947). ''Music in the Baroque Era''. New York, W. W. Norton & Co. .\n* Cross, Eric (1984). Review of ''I libretti vivaldiani: recensione e collazione dei testimoni a stampa by Anna Laura Bellina;\n* Formichetti, Gianfranco ''Venezia e il prete col violino. Vita di Antonio Vivaldi'', Bompiani (2006), .\n* Heller, Karl ''Antonio Vivaldi: The Red Priest of Venice'', Amadeus Press (1997), \n* Kolneder, Walter ''Antonio Vivaldi: Documents of His Life and Works'', C F Peters Corp (1983), \n* Robbins Landon, H. C., ''Vivaldi: Voice of the Baroque'', University of Chicago Press, 1996 \n* Romijn, André. ''Hidden Harmonies: The Secret Life of Antonio Vivaldi'', 2007 \n* Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1994). ''Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi''. New York, Dover Publications. .\n*Talbot, Michael (1992). ''Vivaldi'', second edition. London: J. M. Dent. American reprint, New York: Schirmer Books: Maxwell Macmillan International, 1993.\n* Talbot, Michael, ''Antonio Vivaldi'', Insel Verlag (1998), \n* Talbot, Michael: \"Antonio Vivaldi\", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 26 August 2006), (subscription access)\n",
"\n\n* \n* Catalog of instrumental works\n* Complete works catalog\n* Free scores by Antonio Vivaldi at Open Music Library\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Project Anima Veneziana, Free English eBooks: 1. Talbot, M. ''Vivaldi''. 1993; 2. Heller, K. ''Antonio Vivaldi: The Red Priest of Venice''. 1997; 3. Pincherle, Marc. ''Vivaldi: Genius of the Baroque'', 1957; 4. Ryom, Peter. ''Vivaldi Werkverzeichnis''. 1st edition, 2007\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Style and influence",
"Posthumous reputation",
"Works",
"Catalogs of Vivaldi works",
"In popular culture",
"References",
"External links"
] | Antonio Vivaldi |
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"\n\n\n'''Adrian''' is a form of the Latin given name ''Adrianus'' or ''Hadrianus''. Its ultimate origin is most likely via the former river Adria from the Venetic and Illyrian word ''adur'', meaning 'sea' or 'water'. The Adria was until the 8th century BC the main channel of the Po River into the Adriatic Sea but ceased to exist before the 1st century BC. Hecataeus of Miletus (c.550 - c.476 BC) asserted that both the Etruscan harbor city of Adria and the Adriatic Sea had been named after it. Emperor Hadrian's family was named after the city or region of Adria/Hadria, now Atri, in Picenum, which most likely started as an Etruscan or Greek colony of the older harbor city of the same name. \n\nSeveral saints and six popes have borne this name, including the only English pope, Adrian IV, and the only Dutch pope, Adrian VI. As an English name, it has been in use since the Middle Ages, although it did not become common until modern times.\n",
"* Pope Adrian I (c. 700-795)\n* Pope Adrian II (792–872)\n* Pope Adrian III (died 885)\n* Pope Adrian IV (c. 1100–1159), English pope\n* Pope Adrian V (c. 1205–1276)\n* Pope Adrian VI (1459–1523), Dutch pope\n* Adrian of Batanea (died 308), Christian martyr and saint\n* Adrian of Canterbury (died 710), scholar and Abbot of St Augustine's Abbey in Canterbury\n* Adrian of Castello (1460–1521), Italian cardinal and writer\n* Adrian of May (died 875), Scottish saint from the Isle of May, martyred by Vikings\n* Adrian of Moscow (1627–1700), last pre-revolutionary Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia\n* Adrian of Nicomedia (died 306), martyr and Herculian Guard of the Roman Emperor Galerius Maximian\n* Adrian of Ondrusov (died 1549), Russian Orthodox saint and wonder-worker\n* Adrian of Poshekhonye (died 1550), Russian Orthodox saint, hegumen of Dormition monastery in Yaroslavl region\n* Adrian Fortescue (martyr) (1476–1539), English courtier at Henry VIII's court, beatified as a Roman Catholic martyr\n* Adrian Gouffier de Boissy (1479–1523), French Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal\n* Adrian Kivumbi Ddungu (1923–2009), Ugandan Roman Catholic bishop\n* Adrian Leo Doyle (born 1936), Australian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church\n",
"* Adrian Amstutz (born 1953), Swiss politician\n* Adrian Bailey (born 1945), British Labour Co-operative politician\n* Adrian von Bubenberg (1434–1479), Bernese knight, military commander and mayor\n* Adrian Carton de Wiart (1880–1963), Belgian-born British Army officer\n* Adrian Cole (1895–1966), Australian World War I flying ace\n* Adrian Fenty (born 1970), American politician, mayor of Washington D.C.\n* Adrian Hasler (born 1964), Liechtenstein politician\n* Adrian Johns (born 1951), English governor of Gibraltar and former senior officer in the Royal Navy\n* Adrian Năstase (born 1950), Romanian politician\n* Adrian von Renteln (1897–1946), Nazi commander in Lithuania\n* Adrian M. Smith (born 1970), American politician from Nebraska\n* Adrian Severin (born 1954), Romanian politician and Member of the European Parliament\n* Adrian Dietrich Lothar von Trotha (1848–1920), German military commander in Africa\n* Adrian Warburton (1918–1944), British World War II pilot\n* Adrián Woll (1795–1875), French Mexican general during the Texas Revolution and the Mexican–American War\n",
"* Adrian Albert (1905–1972), American mathematician \n* Adrian Bejan (born 1948), Romanian-born professor of mechanical engineering at Duke University\n* Adrian Beverland (1650–1716), Dutch philosopher and jurist who settled in England\n* Adrian Bird (born 1947), British geneticist\n* Adrian Curaj (born 1958), Romanian engineer\n* Adrian Darby (born 1937), British conservationist and academic\n* Adrian Goldsworthy (born 1969), British historian and author who writes mostly about ancient Roman history\n* Adrian Hardy Haworth (1767–1833), English entomologist, botanist and carcinologist\n* Adrian Jacobsen (1853–1947), Norwegian ethnologist and explorer \n* Adrián Recinos (1886–1962), Guatemalan historian, Mayanist and diplomat\n",
"* Adrián (footballer) (born 1978), Spanish football goalkeeper\n* Adrian Adonis (1954–1988), American professional wrestler\n* Adrián Aldrete (born 1988), Mexican footballer\n* Adrian Aliaj (born 1976), Albanian footballer\n* Adrian Alston (born 1949), Australian soccer player\n* Adrian Amos (born 1993), American football player\n* Adrian Anca (born 1976), Romanian footballer\n* Adrián Annus (born 1973), Hungarian hammer thrower\n* '''Adrian Constantine Anson''' better known as Cap Anson (1852–1922), American baseball player\n* Adrian Apostol (born 1990), Romanian rugby player\n* Adrian Archibald (born 1969), British motorcycle racer\n* Adrián Argachá (born 1986), Uruguayan footballer\n* Adrian Autry (born 1972), American basketball player\n* Adrian Avrămia (born 1992), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Aucoin (born 1973), Canadian National Hockey League player\n* Adrian Awasom (born 1983), Cameroon-born American football player\n* Adrian Aymes (born 1964), British cricketer\n* Adrian Barath (born 1990), West Indian cricketer\n* Adrián Bastía (born 1978), Argentine footballer\n* Adrián Beltré (born 1979), Dominican Republic baseball player\n* Adrián Berbia (born 1977), Uruguayan goalkeeper\n* Adrián Bone (born 1988), Ecuadorian footballer\n* Adrian Boothroyd (born 1971), English footballer and manager\n* Adrian Branch (born 1963), American basketball player\n* Adrian Buchan (born 1982), Australian surfer\n* Adrian Bumbescu (born 1960), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Burnside (born 1977), Australian baseball player\n* Adrian Caldwell (born 1966), American basketball player\n* Adrián Calello (born 1987), Argentine footballer\n* Adrián Campos (born 1960), Spanish Formula One driver\n* Adrian Cann (born 1980), Canadian Major League Soccer player\n* Adrián Centurión (born 1993), Argentine footballer\n* Adrián Chávez (born 1962), Mexican footballer\n* Adrián Colunga (born 1984), Spanish footballer\n* Adrian Cosma (born 1950), Romanian handball player\n* Adrian Crișan (born 1980), Romanian table tennis player\n* Adrian Cristea (born 1983), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Dantley (born 1956), American retired National Basketball Association (NBA) player\n* Adrian Diaconu (born 1978), Romanian professional boxer\n* Adrian Elrick (born 1949), New Zealand association footballer\n* Adrián Escudero (1927–2011), Spanish footballer\n* Adrián Fernández (born 1965), Mexican racing driver\n* Adrian Foster (born 1982), Canadian ice hockey player\n* Adrian Garvey (born 1968), Zimbabwean-born South African rugby union player\n* Adrián Gavira (born 1987), Spanish beach volleyball player\n* Adrian Gonzalez (born 1982), Mexican-American Major League Baseball player\n* Adrián Hernán González (born 1976), Argentine footballer\n* Adrián González Morales (born 1988), Spanish footballer\n* Adrian Griffin (born 1974), American retired NBA player\n* Adrián Gunino (born 1989), Uruguayan footballer\n* Adrian Gunnell (born 1972), English snooker player\n* Adrian Heath (born 1961), English football manager and former player\n* Adrián Hernández (boxer) (born 1986), Mexican boxer\n* Adrian Iencsi (born 1975), Romanian football player and manager\n* Adrian Ilie (born 1974), Romanian retired footballer\n* Adrian Joss (1880–1911), American baseball pitcher\n* Adrian Knup (born 1968), Swiss footballer\n* Adrian Kurek (born 1988), Polish road bicycle racer\n* Adrian Leijer (born 1986), Australian footballer\n* Adrian Lewis (born 1985), English darts player \n* Adrián López (born 1988), Spanish footballer\n* Adrián Luna (born 1992), Uruguayan footballer\n* Adrian Madaschi (born 1982), Australian footballer \n* Adrian Mannarino (born 1988), French tennis player\n* Adrian Mariappa (born 1986), English footballer\n* Adrián Martínez (born 1970), Mexican goalkeeper\n* Adrian Metcalfe (born 1942), British runner and sports broadcaster\n* Adrian Mierzejewski (born 1986), Polish footballer\n* Adrian Mihalcea (born 1976), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Mikhalchishin (born 1954), Ukrainian chess grandmaster\n* Adrian Moorhouse (born 1964), English breaststroke swimmer\n* Adrian Morley (born 1977), English professional rugby player\n* Adrian Mutu (born 1979), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Neaga (born 1979), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Neville (born 1986), English professional wrestler\n* Adrian Newey (born 1958), British race car engineer and designer\n* Adrián Alonso Pereira (born 1988), Spanish futsal player\n* Adrian Peterson (born 1985), American NFL running back\n* Adrian Phillips (born 1992), American football player\n* Adrian Piţ (born 1983), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Popa (born 1988), Romanian football striker\n* Adrian Popescu (born 1960), Romanian football defender\n* Adrian Pukanych (born 1981), Ukrainian footballer\n* Adrian Quaife-Hobbs (born 1991), British race car driver\n* Adrian Quist (1913–1991), Australian male tennis player\n* Adrián Ramos (born 1986), Colombian footballer\n* Adrián Ricchiuti (born 1978), Argentine footballer\n* Adrián Romero (born 1977), Uruguayan footballer\n* Adrian Ropotan (born 1986), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Sălăgeanu (born 1983), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Schultheiss (born 1988), Swedish figure skater\n* Adrian Serioux (born 1979), Canadian soccer player\n* Adrian Sikora (born 1980), Polish footballer\n* Adrian Smith (basketball) (born 1936), American basketball player\n* Adrian Aas Stien (born 1992), Norwegian cyclist\n* Adrian Stoian (born 1991), Romanian footballer\n* Adrian Stoop (1883–1957), English rugby union player\n* Adrian Strzałkowski (born 1990), Polish long jumper\n* Adrian Sutil (born 1983), German Formula One racing driver\n* Adrian Tudor (born 1985), Romanian basketball player\n* Adrian Ungur (born 1985), Romanian tennis player\n* Adrián Vallés (born 1986), Spanish race car driver\n* Adrian Voinea (born 1974), Romanian tennis player\n* Adrian Wichser (born 1980), Swiss ice hockey player\n* Adrian Wilson (American football) (born 1979), American football safety\n* Adrian Winter (born 1986), Swiss football midfielder\n* Adrian Zaugg (born 1986), South African race car driver\n* Adrian Zieliński (born 1989), Polish weightlifter\n",
"* Adrian (costume designer) (1903–1959), born Adrian Adolph Greenberg, costume designer for over 250 films\n* Adrian (video gamer) (born 1997), American professional videogamer\n* Adrian Adlam (born 1963), British violinist and conductor\n* Adrian Aeschbacher (1912–2002), Swiss classical pianist\n* Adrian Allinson (1890–1959), British painter, potter and engraver\n* Adrián Alonso (born 1994), Mexican actor\n* Adrian Alphona, Canadian comic book artist\n* Adrian Anantawan (born 1986), Canadian violinist\n* Adrian Baker (born 1951), English singer, songwriter, and record producer\n* Adrian Batten (1591–1637), English organist\n* Adrian Belew (born 1949), American guitarist, singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist and record producer\n* Adrian Biddle (1952–2005), English cinematographer\n* Adrian Borland (1957–1999), English singer, songwriter, guitarist and record producer\n* Adrian Boult (1889–1983), English conductor\n* Adrian Brunel (1892–1958), English film director and screenwriter\n* Adrián Caetano (born 1969), Uruguayan-Argentine film director, producer and screenplay writer\n* Adrian Carmack (born 1969), American video game artist\n* Adrian Chiles (born 1967), British television and radio presenter\n* Adrian Dunbar (born 1958), Northern Ireland actor\n* '''Adrian Edmondson''' better known as Ade Edmonson (born 1957), English actor, comedian, director, writer and musician\n* Adrian Enescu (born 1948), Romanian composer\n* Adrian Erlandsson (born 1970), Swedish heavy metal drummer\n* Adrian Fisher (musician) (1952-2000), former guitarist for Sparks (band)\n* Adrian Gaxha (born 1984), Macedonian singer-songwriter and producer\n* Adrian Ghenie (born 1977), Romanian painter\n* Adrian Gonzales (1937-1998), Filipino comic book artist\n* Adrian Grenier (born 1976), American actor, musician and director\n* Adrian Gurvitz (born 1949), English singer, musician and songwriter\n* Adrian Hates (born 1973), German dark wave musician\n* Adrian Hoven (1922–1981), Austrian actor, producer and film director\n* Adrian Ivaniţchi (born 1947), Romanian folk musician and guitarist\n* Adrian Jones (sculptor) (1845–1938), English sculptor and painter who specialized in animals, particularly horses\n* Adrian Kowanek (born 1977), Polish musician\n* Adrian Le Roy (1520–1598), French string player, composer, music publisher and educator\n* Adrian Leaper (born 1953), English conductor\n* Adrian Legg (born 1948), English guitar player\n* Adrian Lester (born 1968), British actor\n* Adrian Lulgjuraj (born 1980), Albanian rock singer\n* Adrian Lukis (born 1957), British actor\n* Adrian Lux (born 1986), Swedish discjockey and music producer\n* Adrian Lyne (born 1941), English filmmaker and producer\n* Adrian Martinez, American actor\n* Adrian Minune (born 1974), Romani-Romanian manele singer\n* Adrian Mitchell (1932–2008), English poet, novelist and playwright\n* Adrian Noble (born 1950), English theatre director\n* Adrian Pasdar (born 1965), American actor and film director\n* Adrian Paul (born 1959), English actor\n* Adrian Piotrovsky (1898–1937), Russian dramaturge\n* Adrian Piper (born 1948), American conceptual artist and philosophy professor\n* Adrian R'Mante (born 1978), American television actor\n* Adrian Rawlins (born 1958), English actor\n* Adrian Ludwig Richter (1803–1884), German painter and etcher\n* Adrián Rodríguez (born 1988), Spanish actor and singer from Catalonia\n* Adrian Rollini (1903–1956), American multi-instrumentalist best known for his jazz music\n* Adrian Ross (1859–1933), British lyricist\n* Adrian Scarborough (born 1968), English character actor\n* Adrian Scott (1912–1972), American screenwriter and film producer\n* Adrian Shaposhnikov (1888–1967), Russian classical composer \n* Adrian Sherwood (born 1958), English record producer\n* Adrian Sînă (born 1977), Romanian singer-songwriter and record producer\n* Adrian D. Smith (born 1944), American architect\n* Adrian Smith (born 1957), English musician and one of three guitarists/songwriters in the English band Iron Maiden\n* Adrian Scott Stokes (1854–1935), English landscape painter\n* Adrián Suar (born 1968), Argentine actor and media producer\n* Adrián Terrazas-González (born 1975), Mexican jazz composer and wind player\n* Adrian Thaws (born 1968), English musician and actor\n* Adrian Tomine (born 1974), American cartoonist\n* Adrian Utley (born 1957), English musician best known as a member of the band Portishead\n* Adrian Vandenberg (born 1954), Dutch rock guitarist\n* Adrian Willaert (c. 1490–1562), Flemish composer of the Renaissance and founder of the Venetian School\n* Adrian Young (born 1969), American drummer for the rock band No Doubt\n* Adrian Zingg (1734–1816), Swiss painter\n* Adrian Zmed (born 1954), American television personality and film actor\n",
"* Adrian A. Basora (born 1938), American diplomat\n* Adrian Block (1567–1627), Dutch explorer of the American East Coast\n* Adrian Cioroianu (born 1967), Romanian historian, politician, journalist, and essayist\n* Adrian Conan Doyle (1910–1970), English race-car driver, big-game hunter, explorer, and writer\n* Adrian Cronauer (born 1938), American former lawyer and radio speaker\n* Adrian Diel (1756–1839), German physician\n* Adrian Finighan (born 1964), British journalist\n* Adrian Frutiger (born 1928), Swiss typeface designer\n* Adrian Fulford (born 1953), British judge\n* Adrian Geiges (born 1960), German writer and journalist\n* Adrian Anthony Gill (1954–2016), British writer and critic\n* Adrian Hanauer (born 1966), American businessman and minority owner and general manager of the Seattle Sounders FC\n* Adrian Holovaty (born 1981), American web developer, journalist and entrepreneur\n* Adrian van Hooydonk (born 1964), Dutch automobile designer\n* Adrian A. Husain (born 1945), Pakistani poet\n* Adrian Albert Jurgens (1886–1953), South African philatelist\n* Adrian Kantrowitz (1918–2008), American cardiac surgeon\n* Adrian Kashchenko (1858–1921), Ukrainian writer, historian of Zaporozhian Cossacks\n* Adrian Knox (1863–1932), Australian judge\n* Adrian Künzi (born 1973), Swiss banker \n* Adrian Lamo (born 1981), Colombian-American threat analyst and \"grey hat\" hacker\n* Adrian Lim (1942–1988), Singaporean serial killer\n* Adrian von Mynsicht (1603–1638), German alchemist\n* Adrian Păunescu (1943–2010), Romanian poet, journalist, and politician\n* Adrian Plass (born 1948), English author and speaker\n* Adrian Rogers (1931–2005), American pastor, conservative, author\n* Adrian Anthony Spears (1910–1991), American judge\n* Adrian Stephen (1883–1948), British author and psychoanalyst, brother of Virginia Woolf and Vanessa Bell\n* Adrian Ursu (born 1968), Romanian journalist\n* Adrian Weale (born 1964), English writer, journalist, illustrator and photographer\n* Adrian Wewer (1836–1914), German-born American architect and Franciscan monk\n* Adrian Zecha (born 1933), Indonesian hotelier\n",
"* Adrian Corbo, alias Flex, a Marvel Comics superhero\n* Adrian Ivashkov, character in Richelle Mead's ''Vampire Academy'' and protagonist in ''Bloodlines''\n* Adrian Leverkühn, protagonist of Thomas Mann's ''Doctor Faustus''\n* Adrian Mole, protagonist of ''The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole''\n* Adrian Monk, protagonist of the television series ''Monk''\n* Adrian Pennino, wife of Rocky Balboa\n* Adrian Shephard, protagonist of the Half-Life expansion \"Half-Life: Opposing Force\"\n* Alucard (Castlevania), Adrian Fahrenheit Ţepeş, in the Castlevania video games\n* Adrian Toomes, alias ''Vulture'', a Marvel Comics villain\n* Adrian Veidt, alias ''Ozymandias'', character in the Watchmen graphic novel series\n* Adrian, spawn of Satan in the film ''Rosemary's Baby''\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Religion",
"Government, politics and the military",
"Academics",
"Sports",
"Arts and entertainment",
"Other",
"Fictional characters",
"References"
] | Adrian |
[
"\n\nThe '''Aare''' () or '''Aar''' is a tributary of the High Rhine and the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland.\n\nIts total length from its source to its junction with the Rhine comprises about , during which distance it descends , draining an area of , almost entirely within Switzerland, and accounting for close to half the area of the country, including all of Central Switzerland.\n\nThere are more than 40 hydroelectric plants along the course of the Aare River.\n\nThe river's name dates to at least the La Tène period, and it is attested as ''Nantaror'' \"Aare valley\" in the Berne zinc tablet.\n\nThe name was Latinized as ''Arula''/''Arola''/''Araris''.\n",
"The Unteraargletscher\nThe Aare at Innertkirchen\nInside the Aare Gorge\n\nThe Aare rises in the great Aargletschers (Aare Glaciers) of the Bernese Alps, in the canton of Bern and west of the Grimsel Pass. The Finsteraargletscher and Lauteraargletscher come together to form the Unteraargletscher (Lower Aar Glacier), which is the main source of water for the Grimselsee (Lake of Grimsel). The Oberaargletscher (Upper Aar Glacier) feeds the Oberaarsee, which also flows into the Grimselsee. The Aare leaves the Grimselsee just to the east to the Grimsel Hospiz, below the Grimsel Pass, and then flows northwest through the Haslital, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, , past Guttannen.\n\nRight after Innertkirchen it is joined by its first major tributary, the Gamderwasser. Less than later the river carves through a limestone ridge in the Aare Gorge (). It is here that the Aare proves itself to be more than just a river, as it attracts thousands of tourists annually to the causeways through the gorge. A little past Meiringen, near Brienz, the river expands into Lake Brienz. Near the west end of the lake it indirectly receives its first important tributary, the Lütschine, by the Lake of Brienz. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli (Swiss German diminutive for ground) between Interlaken and Unterseen before flowing into Lake Thun.\n\nNear the west end of Lake Thun, the river indirectly receives the waters of the Kander, which has just been joined by the Simme, by the Lake of Thun. Lake Thun marks the head of navigation. On flowing out of the lake it passes through Thun, and then flows through the city of Bern, passing beneath eighteen bridges and around the steeply-flanked peninsula on which the Old City of Berne is located. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or La Sarine it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the 19th century, the Jura water correction, the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent flooding, was diverted by the Aare-Hagneck Canal into the Lac de Bienne. From the upper end of the lake, at Nidau, the river issues through the Nidau-Büren Canal, also called the Aare Canal, and then runs east to Büren. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravel and snowmelt that the river brings from the Alps, and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the \"vegetable garden of Switzerland\".\n\nFrom here the Aare flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town Solothurn (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhre, and Wildegg, where the Seetal Aabach falls in on the right. A short distance further, below Brugg it receives first the Reuss, its major tributary, and shortly afterwards the Limmat, its second strongest tributary. It now turns to north, and soon becomes itself a tributary of the Rhine, which it even surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite downsstreams from Koblenz (Switzerland), opposite Waldshut in Germany. The Rhine, in turn, empties into the North Sea after crossing into the Netherlands.\n",
"At the \"Wasserschloss\", where the rivers Aare, Reuss and Limmat flow together\nThe convergence of the Aare and the Rhine at Koblenz\n\n*Limmat (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden)\n**Reppisch\n**Sihl\n***Alp\n***Minster\n**Lake Zurich\n***Linthkanal\n****Lake Walen\n*****Linth\n******Löntsch\n******Sernf\n******Flätschbach\n*****Seez\n*Reuss (after and northeast of Brugg, and northwest of Baden)\n**Lorze\n**Kleine Emme\n**Lake Lucerne\n***Sarner Aa\n***Engelberger Aa\n***Muota\n**Schächen\n**Chärstelenbach\n**Göschener Reuss\n*Aabach (coming from Seetal, in Wildegg)\n**Bünz\n*Suhre (after and north of Aarau)\n**Wyna\n*Aabach (from the left in Aarau)\n*Stegbach\n*Dünnern (in Olten)\n*Wigger (right before Aarburg)\n*Murg (before, west of Murgenthal)\n**Rot (Roggwil)\n**Langete (Langenthal)\n***Ursenbach (Kleindietwil)\n***Rotbach (Huttwil)\n*(Grosse) Emme (after, east of Solothurn)\n*Lake of Bienne\n**La Suze (in Biel/Bienne, right next to the outflow)\n**Zihlkanal\n***Lake of Neuchatel\n****La Broye (flows through Lake Morat)\n****Zihl/La Thielle\n*****L'Orbe\n*****Le Talent\n*Saane/La Sarine (after, west of Wohlensee)\n**Sense\n*Gürbe (in Muri bei Bern)\n*Zulg (west of Steffisburg)\n*Lake Thun\n**Kander (west of Spiez)\n***Simme\n***Entschlige\n*Lake Brienz\n**Lütschine (at the end of Lake Brienz, right next to the outflow)\n*Gadmerwasser (right after, northwest of Innertkirchen)\n",
"* Lake Grimsel, \n* Lake Brienz, \n* Lake Thun, \n* Lake Wohlen, \n* Niederriedsee, \n* Lake Biel, \n* Klingnauer Stausee, \n",
"\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n* The Aare Gorge (Aareschlucht)\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Course",
" Tributaries ",
"Reservoirs",
"Notes",
"Footnotes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Aare |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Abraham''' (, Arabic: إبراهيم ''Ibrahim''), originally '''Avram''' or '''Abram''', is the common patriarch of the three Abrahamic religions.\nIn Judaism he is the founding father of the Covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God; in Christianity, he is the prototype of all believers, Jewish or Gentile; and in Islam he is seen as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.\n\nThe narrative in Genesis revolves around the themes of posterity and land. Abraham is called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land originally given to Canaan, but which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. Various candidates are put forward who might inherit the land after Abraham, but all are dismissed except for Isaac, his son by his half-sister Sarah. Abraham purchases a tomb (the Cave of the Patriarchs) at Hebron to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land, and in the second generation his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin, thus ruling the Canaanites out of any inheritance. Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons, but on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives \"all Abraham's goods\", while the other sons receive only \"gifts\" (Genesis 25:5–8).\n\nThe Abraham story cannot be definitively related to any specific time, and it is widely agreed that the patriarchal age, along with the exodus and the period of the judges, is a late literary construct that does not relate to any period in actual history. A common hypothesis among scholars is that it was composed in the early Persian period (late 6th century BCE) as a result of tensions between Jewish landowners who had stayed in Judah during the Babylonian captivity and traced their right to the land through their \"father Abraham\", and the returning exiles who based their counter-claim on Moses and the Exodus tradition.\n",
"József Molnár\n\n===Abram's origins and calling===\nTerah, the ninth in descent from Noah, was the father of three sons: Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran was the father of Lot (who was thus Abram's nephew), and died in his native city, Ur of the Chaldees. Abram married Sarah (Sarai), who was barren. Terah, with Abram, Sarai, and Lot, then departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran, where Terah died at the age of 205. God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan.\n\n''Abraham's Counsel to Sarai'' (watercolor c. 1896–1902 by James Tissot)\n\n===Abram and Sarai===\nThere was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households, traveled south to Egypt. On the way Abram told his wife Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty to Pharaoh, and she was taken into his palace, and Abram was given provisions: \"oxen, and he-asses, and menservants, and maidservants, and she-asses, and camels\". However, God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with great plagues, for which he tried to find the reason. Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that they and their household leave immediately, with all their goods.\n\n===Abram and Lot separate===\nDepiction of the separation of Abraham and Lot by Wenceslaus Hollar\n\n\nWhen they came back to the Bethel and Hai area, Abram's and Lot's sizable livestock herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand (north) or on the right hand (south), that there be no conflict amongst brethren. But Lot chose to go the plain of Jordan where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoar, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom. Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God.\n\n===Abram and Chedorlaomer===\n\nDieric Bouts the Elder)\nDuring the rebellion of the Jordan River cities against Elam, Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies. Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target.\n\nOne person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a battle plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abram's unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah, just north of Damascus. They freed Lot, as well as his household and possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that had been taken.\n\nUpon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the \"king's dale\". Also, Melchizedek king of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of God Most High, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God. Abram then gave Melchizedek a tenth of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Abram refused any deal from the king of Sodom, other than the share to which his allies were entitled.\n\nThe vision of the Lord directing Abraham to count the stars (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 ''Bible in Pictures'')\n\n===Abrahamic covenant===\n\nThe voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaims, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and Jebusites.\n\n===Abram and Hagar===\n\n''Abraham, Sarah and Hagar'', imagined here in a Bible illustration from 1897.\n\nAbram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son. After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Therefore, Sarai mistreated Hagar, and Hagar fled away. En route an angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain in the way to Shur. He instructed her to return and that her son would be \"a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren.\" She was told to call her son Ishmael. Hagar then called God who spoke to her \"El-roi\", (\"Thou God seest me:\" KJV). From that day, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, (\"The well of him that liveth and seeth me.\" KJV margin). She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was eighty-six years of age when Ishmael was born.\n\n===Abraham and Sarah===\nThirteen years later, when Abram was ninety-nine years of age, God declared Abram's new name: \"Abraham\" – \"a father of many nations\". Abraham then received the instructions for the covenant, of which circumcision was to be the sign. Then God declared Sarai's new name: \"Sarah\" and blessed her and told Abraham, \"I will give thee a son also of her\". But Abraham laughed, and \"said in his heart, 'Shall a ''child'' be born unto him that is an hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?'\" Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised.\n\n===Abraham's three visitors===\n''Abraham and the Three Angels'' (watercolor c. 1896–1902 by James Tissot)\nNot long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the terebinths of Mamre. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread, to which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarah's tent to order cakes made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them, waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate.\n\nOne of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.\n\n===Abraham's plea===\n\n''Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames'' (watercolor c. 1896–1902 by James Tissot)\nAfter eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that \"if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?\" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city.\n\nWhen the two visitors got to Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two \"men\" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that they bring out his guests so that they may \"know\" (v.5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not \"known\" (v.8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests, thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction.\n\nEarly the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He \"looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah\" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even \"ten righteous\" (v.18:32) had been found, as \"the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace.\"\n\n===Abraham and Abimelech===\n\nAbraham settled between Kadesh and Shur in the land of the Philistines. While he was living in Gerar, Abraham openly claimed that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King Abimelech had her brought to him. God then came to Abimelech in a dream and declared that taking her would result in death because she was a man's wife. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he would also slay a righteous nation, especially since Abraham had claimed that he and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continued to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. Abimelech was informed that Abraham was a prophet who would pray for him.\n\nEarly next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: \"And yet indeed ''she is'' my sister; she ''is'' the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife.\" Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.\n\nAfter living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abraham's well. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a grove in Beersheba and called upon \"the name of the , the everlasting God.\"\n\n===Birth of Isaac===\n''Sacrifice of Isaac'', by Caravaggio\nAs had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year, Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was \"an hundred years old\", when his son whom he named Isaac was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old. For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, \"God hath made me to laugh, so that all that hear will laugh with me.\" Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac.\n\n===Abraham and Ishmael===\n\nIshmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to a different mother, Sarah. Sarah had finally borne her own child, even though she had passed her child-bearing period. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that \"in Isaac shall seed be called to thee.\" He also said that Ishmael would make a nation, \"because he is thy seed\".\n\nEarly the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, an angel of the Lord confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation. A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt.\n\n===Abraham and Isaac===\n''The Angel Hinders the Offering of Isaac'' by Rembrandt\nAbraham about to sacrifice Isaac. From a 14th-century missal\n\nAt some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied \"God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering\". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a \"ram caught in a thicket by his horns\", which he sacrificed instead of his son. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba.\n\n===Later years===\nSarah died, and Abraham buried her in the Cave of the Patriarchs (the \"cave of Machpelah\"), near Hebron which he had purchased along with the adjoining field from Ephron the Hittite. After the death of Sarah, Abraham took another wife, a concubine named Keturah, by whom he had six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. According to the Bible, reflecting the change of his name to \"Abraham\" meaning \"a father of many nations\", Abraham is considered to be the progenitor of many nations mentioned in the Bible, among others the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Edomites,) Amalekites, Kenizzites, Midianites and Assyrians, and through his nephew Lot he was also related to the Moabites and Ammonites. Abraham lived to see his son marry Rebekah, (and to see the birth of his twin grandsons Jacob and Esau). He died at age 175, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael.\n\n\n",
"===Historicity===\nAbraham's well at Beersheba\n\nIn the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as William F. Albright, and biblical scholars such as Albrecht Alt, believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the \"patriarchal age\", the 2nd millennium BCE. But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in Thomas L. Thompson's ''The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives'' (1974), and John Van Seters' ''Abraham in History and Tradition'' (1975). Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations. By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures.\n\n=== Origins of the narrative===\nAbraham's name is apparently very ancient, as the tradition found in Genesis no longer understands its original meaning (probably \"Father is exalted\" – the meaning offered in Genesis 17:5, \"Father of a multitude\", is a popular etymology). The story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory. At some stage the oral traditions became part of the written tradition of the Pentateuch; a majority of scholars believe this stage belongs to the Persian period, roughly 520–320 BCE. The mechanisms by which this came about remain unknown, but there are currently two important hypotheses. The first, called Persian Imperial authorisation, is that the post-Exilic community devised the Torah as a legal basis on which to function within the Persian Imperial system; the second is that Pentateuch was written to provide the criteria for who would belong to the post Exilic Jewish community and to establish the power structures and relative positions of its various groups, notably the priesthood and the lay \"elders\".\n\nNevertheless, the completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions. In Ezekiel , written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), Ezekiel, an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they don't observe Torah. Isaiah similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the \"gôlâ\"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham. The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., Ezra-Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.\n",
"\n\n===Overview===\nAbraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. In Judaism he is the founding father of the Covenant, the special relationship between the Jewish people and God – a belief which gives the Jews a unique position as the Chosen People of God. In Christianity, the Apostle Paul taught that Abraham's faith in God – preceding the Mosaic law – made him the prototype of all believers, circumcised and uncircumcised. The Islamic prophet Muhammad claimed Abraham, whose submission to God constituted ''Islam'' as a \"believer before the fact\" and undercut Jewish claims to an exclusive relationship with God and the Covenant.\n\n===Judaism===\nIn Jewish tradition, Abraham is called ''Avraham Avinu'' (אברהם אבינו), \"our father Abraham,\" signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews (including converts, according to Jewish tradition), and the father of Judaism, the first Jew. His story is read in the weekly Torah reading portions, predominantly in the parashot: Lech-Lecha (לֶךְ-לְךָ), Vayeira (וַיֵּרָא), Chayei Sarah (חַיֵּי שָׂרָה), and Toledot (תּוֹלְדֹת).\n\n==== Sefer Yetzirah ====\n\nA cryptic story in the Babylonian Talmud states that \"On the eve of every Shabbat, Judah the Prince's pupils, Rab Hanina and Rab Hoshaiah, who devoted themselves especially to cosmogony, used to create a delicious calf by means of the ''Sefer Yetzirah'', and ate it on the Sabbath.\" Mystics assert that the biblical patriarch Abraham used the same method to create the calf prepared for the three angels who foretold Sarah's pregnancy in the biblical account at .\n\n===Christianity===\nAbraham does not loom so large in Christianity as he does in Judaism and Islam. It is Jesus as the Jewish Messiah who is central to Christianity, and the idea of a divine Messiah is what separates Christianity from the other two religions. In Romans 4, Abraham's merit is less his obedience to the divine will than his faith in God's ultimate grace; this faith provides him the merit for God having chosen him for the covenant, and the covenant becomes one of faith, not obedience.\n\nThe Roman Catholic Church calls Abraham \"our father in Faith\" in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass (see ''Abraham in the Catholic liturgy''). He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on 20 August by the Maronite Church, 28 August in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East (with the full office for the latter), and on 9 October by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. In the introduction to his 15th-century translation of the Golden Legend's account of Abraham, William Caxton noted that this patriarch's life was read in church on Quinquagesima Sunday.\nHe is the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry. The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the \"Righteous Forefather Abraham\", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on 9 October (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, 9 October falls on 22 October of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew \"Righteous Lot\". The other is on the \"Sunday of the Forefathers\" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora, and Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple.\n\n===Islam===\n\nIslam regards Abraham as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.\n\nIbrāhīm is mentioned in 35 chapters of the Quran, more often than any other biblical personage apart from Moses. He is called both a ''hanif'' (monotheist) and ''muslim'' (one who submits), and Muslims regard him as a prophet and patriarch, the archetype of the perfect Muslim, and the revered reformer of the Kaaba in Mecca. Islamic traditions consider Ibrāhīm (Abraham) the first Pioneer of Islam (which is also called ''millat Ibrahim'', the \"religion of Abraham\"), and that his purpose and mission throughout his life was to proclaim the Oneness of God. In Islam, Abraham holds an exalted position among the major prophets and he is referred to as \"Ibrahim Khalilullah\", meaning \"Abraham the Friend of Allah\".\n",
"\n===Painting and sculpture===\nPaintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others. Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of Lazarus resting in the \"Bosom of Abraham\", as described in the Gospel of Luke, became an iconic image in Christian works. According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the \"somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom\". Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Caravaggio (1573–1610), Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600–1682). Rembrandt (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) did several, Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and James Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.\n\n16th century plaster cast of a late Roman era Sacrifice of Isaac. The hand of God originally came down to restrain Abraham's knife (both are now missing).\n\nThe Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as \"probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture.\" The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under Old St. Peter's Basilica, was rediscovered in 1597, and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of St. Peter's Basilica) in the Vatican. The base is approximately 4 × 8 × 4 feet. The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the New Testament, in an early form of typology. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac.\n\nGeorge Segal created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work ''Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael''. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.\n\n;Abraham in Christian iconography\nUsually Abraham can be identified by the context of the image the meeting with Melchizedek, the three visitors, or the sacrifice of Isaac. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his attribute, as in this statue by Gian Maria Morlaiter or this painting by Lorenzo Monaco. He always wears a gray or white beard.\n\nAs early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian typology in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example this 11th-century Christian altar engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.\n\nSome early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the triune God. Thus in Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, a 5th-century mosaic portrays only the visitors against a gold ground and puts semitransparent copies of them in the \"heavenly\" space above the scene. In Eastern Orthodox art the visit is the chief means by which the Trinity is pictured (example). Some images do not include Abraham and Sarah, like Andrei Rublev's ''Trinity'', which shows only the three visitors as beardless youths at a table.\n\n===Literature===\n''Fear and Trembling'' (original Danish title: ''Frygt og Bæven'') is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym ''Johannes de silentio'' (''John the Silent''). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.\n\n=== Music ===\nIn 1994, Steve Reich released an opera named ''The Cave''. The title refers to the Cave of the Patriarchs. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham and his immediate family as it is recounted in the various religious texts, and as it is understood by individual people from different cultures and religious traditions.\n\nBob Dylan's \"Highway 61 Revisited\" is the title track for his 1965 album ''Highway 61 Revisited''. In 2004, ''Rolling Stone'' magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to \"kill me a son\". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.\n",
"\n* Abraham in Islam\n* Abraham Path\n* Abraham's Gate at Tel Dan\n* ''Abraham in History and Tradition''\n* Apocalypse of Abraham\n* Book of Abraham\n* Bosom of Abraham\n* Gathering of Israel\n* Genealogies of Genesis\n* Jewish Kabbalah\n* Pearl of Great Price\n* Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions\n* The evil Nimrod vs. the righteous Abraham\n* Zoroaster\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: link pp. 30–31\n: \n: \n: \n\n",
"\n\n\n\n* \"Abraham\" at chabad.org.\n* Abraham smashes the idols (accessed 24 March 2011).\n* \"Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham\", a map dating back to 1590.\n* Kitáb-i-Íqán\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"Introduction",
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"Historicity and origins",
" Abraham in religious traditions ",
" Abraham in the arts ",
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" External links "
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[
"\n\n\n'''Abraxas''' (Gk. ΑΒΡΑΞΑΣ, variant form '''Abrasax''', ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ) was a word of mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic Basilides, being there applied to the \"Great Archon\" (Gk., ''megas archōn''), the princeps of the 365 spheres (Gk., ''ouranoi''). The word is found in Gnostic texts such as the ''Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit'', and also appears in the Greek Magical Papyri. It was engraved on certain antique gemstones, called on that account '''Abraxas stones''', which were used as amulets or charms. As the initial spelling on stones was 'Abrasax' (Αβρασαξ), the spelling of 'Abraxas' seen today probably originates in the confusion made between the Greek letters Sigma and Xi in the Latin transliteration.\n\nThe seven letters spelling its name may represent each of the seven classic planets. The word may be related to ''Abracadabra'', although other explanations exist.\n\nThere are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basilides's teaching, ancient Gnostic texts, the larger Greco-Roman magical traditions, and modern magical and esoteric writings. Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon. The Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung transcribed a short Gnostic treatise in 1916, attributed to Basilides in Alexandria called ''The Seven Sermons to the Dead'', which called Abraxas the supreme power of being transcending both God and the Devil and unites all opposites into one Being.\n",
"It is uncertain what the actual role and function of Abraxas was in the Basilidian system, as our authorities (see below) often show no direct acquaintance with the doctrines of Basilides himself.\n\n=== As an Archon ===\nGemstone carved with Abraxas, obverse and reverse.\n\nIn the system described by Irenaeus, \"the Unbegotten Father\" is the progenitor of ''Nous'', and from ''Nous Logos'', from ''Logos Phronesis'', from ''Phronesis Sophia'' and ''Dynamis'', from ''Sophia'' and ''Dynamis'' principalities, powers, and angels, the last of whom create \"the first heaven.\" They in turn originate a second series, who create a second heaven. The process continues in like manner until 365 heavens are in existence, the angels of the last or visible heaven being the authors of our world. \"The ruler\" ''principem, i.e.'', probably ''ton archonta'' of the 365 heavens \"is Abraxas, and for this reason he contains within himself 365 numbers.\"\n\nThe name occurs in the ''Refutation of all Heresies'' (vii. 26) by Hippolytus, who appears in these chapters to have followed the ''Exegetica'' of Basilides. After describing the manifestation of the Gospel in the Ogdoad and Hebdomad, he adds that the Basilidians have a long account of the innumerable creations and powers in the several 'stages' of the upper world (''diastemata''), in which they speak of 365 heavens and say that \"their great archon\" is Abrasax, because his name contains the number 365, the number of the days in the year; i.e. the sum of the numbers denoted by the Greek letters in ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ according to the rules of isopsephy is 365:\n\n:Α = 1, Β = 2, Ρ = 100, Α = 1, Σ = 200, Α = 1, Ξ = 60\n\n=== As a god ===\nEpiphanius (''Haer''. 69, 73 f.) appears to follow partly Irenaeus, partly the lost Compendium of Hippolytus. He designates Abraxas more distinctly as \"the power above all, and First Principle,\" \"the cause and first archetype\" of all things; and mentions that the Basilidians referred to 365 as the number of parts (''mele'') in the human body, as well as of days in the year.\n\nThe author of the appendix to Tertullian ''De Praescr. Haer''. (c. 4), who likewise follows Hippolytus's Compendium, adds some further particulars; that 'Abraxas' gave birth to Mind (''nous''), the first in the series of primary powers enumerated likewise by Irenaeus and Epiphanius; that the world, as well as the 365 heavens, was created in honour of 'Abraxas;' and that Christ was sent not by the Maker of the world but by 'Abraxas.'\n\nNothing can be built on the vague allusions of Jerome, according to whom 'Abraxas' meant for Basilides \"the greatest God\" (''De vir. ill''. 21), \"the highest God\" (''Dial. adv. Lucif''. 23), \"the Almighty God\" (''Comm. in Amos'' iii. 9), and \"the Lord the Creator\" (''Comm. in Nah''. i. 11). The notices in Theodoret (''Haer. fab''. i. 4), Augustine (''Haer''. 4), and 'Praedestinatus' (i. 3), have no independent value.\n\nIt is evident from these particulars that Abrasax was the name of the first of the 365 Archons, and accordingly stood below Sophia and Dynamis and their progenitors; but his position is not expressly stated, so that the writer of the supplement to Tertullian had some excuse for confusing him with \"the Supreme God.\"\n\n=== As an Aeon ===\nAbraxas from Infernal Dictionary, 6th Edition, 1863\nWith the availability of primary sources, such as those in the Nag Hammadi library, the identity of Abrasax remains unclear. The ''Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit'', for instance, refers to Abrasax as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Pleroma Dukias in the light of the luminary Eleleth. In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abraxas, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Pleroma that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.\n\n=== As a demon ===\nThe Catholic church later deemed Abraxas a pagan god, and ultimately branded him a demon as documented in J. Collin de Plancy's ''Infernal Dictionary'', Abraxas (or Abracax) is labeled the \"supreme God\" of the Basilidians, whom he describes as \"heretics of the second century.\" He further indicated the Basilidians attributed to Abraxas the rule over \"365 skies\" and \"365 virtues\". In a final statement on Basilidians, de Plancy states that their view was that Jesus Christ was merely a \"benevolent ghost sent on Earth by Abracax.\"\n",
"A vast number of engraved stones are in existence, to which the name \"Abrasax-stones\" has long been given. One particularly fine example was included as part of the Thetford treasure from fourth century Norfolk, UK. The subjects are mythological, and chiefly grotesque, with various inscriptions, in which ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ often occurs, alone or with other words. Sometimes the whole space is taken up with the inscription. In certain obscure magical writings of Egyptian origin ἀβραξάς or ἀβρασάξ is found associated with other names which frequently accompany it on gems; it is also found on the Greek metal ''tesseræ'' among other mystic words. The meaning of the legends is seldom intelligible: but some of the gems are amulets; and the same may be the case with nearly all.\n\nA print from Bernard de Montfaucon's ''L'antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures'' (Band 2,2 page 358 ff plaque 144) with different images of Abraxas.\n\n*'''The Abrasax-image alone, without external Iconisms, and either without, or but a simple, inscription.''' The Abrasax-imago proper is usually found with a shield, a sphere or wreath and whip, a sword or sceptre, a cock's head, the body clad with armor, and a serpent's tail. There are, however, innumerable modifications of these figures: Lions', hawks', and eagles' skins, with or without mottos, with or without a trident and star, and with or without reverses.\n*'''Abrasax ''combined'' with other Gnostic Powers.''' If, in a single instance, this supreme being was represented in connection with powers of subordinate rank, nothing could have been more natural than to represent it also in combination with its emanations, the seven superior spirits, the thirty Aeons, and the three hundred and sixty-five cosmical Genii; and yet this occurs upon none of the relics as yet discovered, whilst those with Powers not belonging to the Gnostic system are frequently met with.\n*'''Abrasax with Jewish symbols.''' This combination predominates, not indeed with symbolical figures, but in the form of inscriptions, such as: ''Iao, Eloai, Adonai, Sabaoth, Michael, Gabriel, Uriel, Onoel, Ananoel, Raphael, Japlael'', and many others. The name ΙΑΩ, to which ΣΑΒΑΩΘ is sometimes added, is found with this figure even more frequently than ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ, and they are often combined. Beside an Abrasax figure the following, for instance, is found: ΙΑΩ ΑΒΡΑΣΑΞ ΑΔΩΝ ΑΤΑ, \"Iao Abrasax, thou art the Lord\". With the Abrasax-shield are also found the divine names Sabaoth Iao, Iao Abrasax, Adonai Abrasax, etc.\n*'''Abrasax with Persian deities.''' Chiefly, perhaps exclusively, in combination with Mithras, and possibly a few specimens with the mystical gradations of ''mithriaca'', upon Gnostic relics.\n*'''Abrasax with Egyptian deities.''' It is represented as a figure, with the sun-god Phre leading his chariot, or standing upon a lion borne by a crocodile; also as a name, in connection with Isis, Phtha, Neith, Athor, Thot, Anubis, Horus, and Harpocrates in a Lotus-leaf; also with a representation of the Nile, the symbol of prolificacy, with Agathodaemon (Chnuphis), or with scarabs, the symbols of the revivifying energies of nature.\n*'''Abrasax with Grecian deities''', sometimes as a figure, and again with the simple name, in connection with the planets, especially Venus, Hecate, and Zeus, richly engraved.\n*'''Simple or ornamental representations of the journey of departed spirits through the starry world to Amenti''', borrowed, as those above-named, from the Egyptian religion. The spirit wafted from the earth, either with or without the corpse, and transformed at times into Osiris or Helios, is depicted as riding upon the back of a crocodile, or lion, guided in some instances by Anubis, and other genii, and surrounded by stars; and thus attended hastening to judgment and a higher life.\n*'''Representations of the judgment''', which, like the preceding, are either ornamental or plain, and imitations of Egyptian art, with slight modifications and prominent symbols, as the vessel in which Anubis weighs the human heart, as comprehending the entire life of man, with all its errors.\n*'''Worship and consecrating services''' were, according to the testimony of Origen in his description of tho ophitic diagram, conducted with figurative representations in the secret assemblies of the Gnostics unless indeed the statement on which this opinion rests designates, as it readily may, a statue of glyptic workmanship. It is uncertain if any of the discovered specimens actually represent the Gnostic cultus and religious ceremonies, although upon some may be seen an Abrasax-figure laying its hand upon a person kneeling, as though for baptism or benediction.\n*'''Astrological groups'''. The Gnostics referred everything to astrology. Even the Bardesenists located the inferior powers, the seven, twelve and thirty-six, among the planets, in the zodiac and starry region, as rulers of the celestial phenomena which influence the earth and its inhabitants. Birth and health, wealth and allotment, are considered to be mainly under their control. Other sects betray still stronger partiality for astrological conceits. Many of these specimens also are improperly ascribed to Gnosticism, but the Gnostic origin of others is too manifest to allow of contradiction.\n*'''Inscriptions''', of which there are three kinds:\n**Those destitute of symbols or iconisms, engraved upon stone, iron, lead and silver plates, in Greek, Latin, Coptic or other languages, of amuletic import, and in the form of prayers for health and protection.\n**Those with some symbol, as a serpent in an oval form.\n**Those with iconisms, at times very small, but often made the prominent object, so that the legend is limited to a single word or name. Sometimes the legends are as important as the images. It is remarkable, however, that thus far none of the plates or medals found seem to have any of the forms or prayers reported by Origen. It is necessary to distinguish those specimens that belong to the proper Gnostic period from such as are indisputably of later origin, especially since there is a strong temptation to place those of more recent date among the older class.\n\n===Gallery===\n\n\nFile:Montfaucon 358 Abraxas.xcf|Plaque 144\nFile:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 145.xcf|Plaque 145\nFile:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 146.xcf|Plaque 146\nFile:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 147.xcf|Plaque 147\nFile:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 148.xcf|Plaque 148\nFile:Montfaucon Abraxas Plaque 149.xcf|Plaque 149\n\n\n=== Anguipede ===\nEngraving from an Abrasax stone.\nIn a great majority of instances the name Abrasax is associated with a singular composite figure, having a Chimera-like appearance somewhat resembling a basilisk or the Greek primordial god Chronos (not to be confused with the Greek titan Cronus). According to E. A. Wallis Budge, \"as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phœbus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield.\" This form was also referred to as the Anguipede. Budge surmised that Abrasax was \"a form of the Adam Kadmon of the Kabbalists and the Primal Man whom God made in His own image.\"\n\nSome parts at least of the figure mentioned above are solar symbols, and the Basilidian Abrasax is manifestly connected with the sun. J. J. Bellermann has speculated that \"the whole represents the Supreme Being, with his Five great Emanations, each one pointed out by means of an expressive emblem. Thus, from the human body, the usual form assigned to the Deity, forasmuch as it is written that God created man in his own image, issue the two supporters, ''Nous'' and ''Logos'', symbols of the inner sense and the quickening understanding, as typified by the serpents, for the same reason that had induced the old Greeks to assign this reptile for an attribute to Pallas. His head—a cock's—represents ''Phronesis'', the fowl being emblematical of foresight and vigilance. His two hands bear the badges of ''Sophia'' and ''Dynamis'', the shield of Wisdom, and the scourge of Power.\"\n\n=== Origin ===\nIn the absence of other evidence to show the origin of these curious relics of antiquity the occurrence of a name known as Basilidian on patristic authority has not unnaturally been taken as a sufficient mark of origin, and the early collectors and critics assumed this whole group to be the work of Gnostics. During the last three centuries attempts have been made to sift away successively those gems that had no claim to be considered in any sense Gnostic, or specially Basilidian, or connected with Abrasax. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones fall into three classes:\n* ''Abrasax'', or stones of Basilidian origin\n* ''Abrasaxtes'', or stones originating in ancient forms of worship and adapted by the Gnostics\n* ''Abraxoïdes'', or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides\n\nWhile it would be rash to assert positively that no existing gems were the work of Gnostics, there is no valid reason for attributing all of them to such an origin. The fact that the name occurs on these gems in connection with representations of figures with the head of a cock, a lion, or an ass, and the tail of a serpent was formerly taken in the light of what Irenaeus says about the followers of Basilides:\n\n\n\nIncantations by mystic names were characteristic of the hybrid Gnosticism planted in Spain and southern Gaul at the end of the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth, which Jerome connects with Basilides and which (according to his ''Epist''., lxxv.) used the name Abrasax.\n\nIt is therefore not unlikely that some Gnostics used amulets, though the confident assertions of modern writers to this effect rest on no authority. Isaac de Beausobre properly calls attention to the significant silence of Clement in the two passages in which he instructs the Christians of Alexandria on the right use of rings and gems, and the figures which may legitimately be engraved on them (''Paed''. 241 ff.; 287 ff.). But no attempt to identify the figures on existing gems with the personages of Gnostic mythology has had any success, and ''Abrasax'' is the only Gnostic term found in the accompanying legends that is not known to belong to other religions or mythologies. The present state of the evidence therefore suggests that their engravers and the Basilidians received the mystic name from a common source now unknown.\n\n=== Magical papyri ===\nHaving due regard to the magic papyri, in which many of the unintelligible names of the Abrasax-stones reappear, besides directions for making and using gems with similar figures and formulas for magical purposes, it can scarcely be doubted that many of these stones are pagan amulets and instruments of magic.\n\nThe magic papyri reflect the same ideas as the Abrasax-gems and often bear Hebraic names of God. The following example is illustrative: \"I conjure you by Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax, and by the great god, Iaeō\". The patriarchs are sometimes addressed as deities; for which fact many instances may be adduced. In the group \"Iakoubia, Iaōsabaōth Adōnai Abrasax,\" the first name seems to be composed of Jacob and Ya. Similarly, entities considered angels in Judaism are invoked as gods alongside Abrasax: thus \"I conjure you... by the god Michaēl, by the god Souriēl, by the god Gabriēl, by the god Raphaēl, by the god Abrasax Ablathanalba Akrammachari...\".\n\nIn text PGM V. 96-172, Abrasax is identified as part of the \"true name which has been transmitted to the prophets of Israel\" of the \"Headless One, who created heaven and earth, who created night and day... Osoronnophris whom none has ever seen... awesome and invisible god with an empty spirit\"; the name also includes Iaō and Adōnai. \"Osoronnophris\" represents Egyptian ''Wsir Wn-nfr'', \"Osiris the Perfect Being\". Another identification with Osiris is made in PGM VII. 643-51: \"you are not wine, but the guts of Osiris, the guts of... Ablanathanalba Akrammachamarei Eee, who has been stationed over necessity, Iakoub Ia Iaō Sabaōth Adōnai Abrasax.\" PGM VIII. 1-63, on the other hand, identifies Abrasax as a name of \"Hermes\" (i.e. Thoth). Here the numerological properties of the name are invoked, with its seven letters corresponding to the seven planets and its isopsephic value of 365 corresponding to the days of the year. Thoth is also identified with Abrasax in PGM LXXIX. 1-7: \"I am the soul of darkness, Abrasax, the eternal one, Michaēl, but my true name is Thōouth, Thōouth.\"\n\nOne papyrus titled the \"Monad\" or the \"Eighth Book of Moses\" (PGM XIII. 1-343) contains an invocation to a supreme creator God; Abrasax is given as being the name of this God in the language of the baboons. The papyrus goes on to describe a cosmogonic myth about Abrasax, describing how he created the Ogdoad by laughing. His first laughter created light; his second divided the primordial waters; his third created the mind; his fourth created fertility and procreation; his fifth created fate; his sixth created time (as the sun and moon); and his seventh and final laughter created the soul. Then, from various sounds made by Abrasax, there arose the serpent Python who \"foreknew all things\", the first man (or Fear), and the god Iaō, \"who is lord of all\". The man fought with Iaō, and Abrasax declared that Iaō's power would derive from both of the others, and that Iaō would take precedence over all the other gods. This text also describes Helios as an archangel of God/Abrasax.\n\nThe Leyden Papyrus recommends that this invocation be pronounced to the moon:\n\n\nThe magic word \"Ablanathanalba,\" which reads in Greek the same backward as forward, also occurs in the Abrasax-stones as well as in the magic papyri. This word is usually conceded to be derived from the Hebrew (Aramaic), meaning \"Thou art our father\" (אב לן את), and also occurs in connection with Abrasax; the following inscription is found upon a metal plate in the Carlsruhe Museum:\n\nАВРАΣАΞ\nΑΒΛΑΝΑΘ\nΑΝΑΛΒΑ\n",
"Gaius Julius Hyginus (''Fab''. 183) gives ''Abrax Aslo Therbeeo'' as names of horses of the sun mentioned by 'Homerus.' The passage is miserably corrupt: but it may not be accidental that the first three syllables make Abraxas.\n\nThe proper form of the name is evidently ''Abrasax'', as with the Greek writers, Hippolytus, Epiphanias, Didymus (''De Trin''. iii. 42), and Theodoret; also Augustine and 'Praedestinatus'; and in nearly all the legends on gems. By a probably euphonic inversion the translator of Irenaeus and the other Latin authors have ''Abraxas'', which is found in the magical papyri, and even, though most sparingly, on engraved stones.\n\nThe attempts to discover a derivation for the name, Greek, Hebrew, Coptic, or other, have not been entirely successful:\n\n=== Egyptian ===\n* Claudius Salmasius thought it Egyptian, but never gave the proofs which he promised.\n*J. J. Bellermann thinks it a compound of the Egyptian words ''abrak'' and ''sax'', meaning “the honorable and hallowed word,” or “the word is adorable.”\n* Samuel Sharpe finds in it an Egyptian invocation to the Godhead, meaning “hurt me not.”\n\n=== Hebrew ===\n* Abraham Geiger sees in it a Grecized form of ''ha-berakhah'', “the blessing,” a meaning which C.W. King declares philologically untenable.\n*J. B. Passerius derives it from ''abh'', “father,” ''bara'', “to create,” and ''a-'' negative—“the uncreated Father.”\n*Giuseppe Barzilai goes back for explanation to the first verse of the prayer attributed to Rabbi Nehunya ben HaKanah, the literal rendering of which is “O God, with thy mighty right hand deliver the unhappy people,” forming from the initial and final letters of the words the word ''Abrakd'' (pronounced Abrakad), with the meaning “the host of the winged ones,” i.e., angels. But this extremely ingenious theory would at most explain only the mystic word ''Abracadabra'', whose connection with Abrasax is by no means certain.\n\n=== Greek ===\n* Wendelin discovers a compound of the initial letters, amounting to 365 in numerical value, of four Hebrew and three Greek words, all written with Greek characters: ''ab, ben, rouach, hakadōs; sōtēria apo xylou'' (“Father, Son, Spirit, holy; salvation from the cross”).\n*According to a note of Isaac de Beausobre’s, Jean Hardouin accepted the first three of these, taking the four others for the initials of the Greek ''anthrōpoussōzōn hagiōi xylōi'', “saving mankind by the holy cross.”\n* Isaac de Beausobre derives Abrasax from the Greek ''habros'' and ''saō'', “the beautiful, the glorious Savior.”\n\nPerhaps the word may be included among those mysterious expressions discussed by Adolf von Harnack, “which belong to no known speech, and by their singular collocation of vowels and consonants give evidence that they belong to some mystic dialect, or take their origin from some supposed divine inspiration.”\n\nYet we may with better reason suppose that it came originally from a foreign mythology, and that the accident of its numerical value in Greek merely caused it to be singled out at Alexandria for religious use. It is worth notice that ΜΕΙΘΡΑΣ and ΝΕΙΛΟΣ have the same value. The Egyptian author of the book ''De Mysteriis'' in reply to Porphyry (vii. 4) admits a preference of 'barbarous' to vernacular names in sacred things, urging a peculiar sanctity in the languages of certain nations, as the Egyptians and Assyrians; and Origen (''Contra Cels''. i. 24) refers to the 'potent names' used by Egyptian sages, Persian Magi, and Indian Brahmins, signifying deities in the several languages.\n",
"Medieval Seal representing Abraxas.\n* In the 1516 novel ''Utopia'' by Thomas More, the island called Utopia once had the name \"Abraxa\", which scholars have suggested is a related use.\n* Abrasax is invoked in Aleister Crowley's 1913 work, \"The Gnostic Mass\" of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica:\n\n: As a piece of mystical and religious syncretism, the work reflects more the personal preferences of the modern magician than it holds historical veracity.\n* Abraxas is an important figure in Carl Jung's 1916 book ''Seven Sermons to the Dead'', a representation of the driving force of individuation (synthesis, maturity, oneness), referred with the figures for the driving forces of differentiation (emergence of consciousness and opposites), Helios God-the-Sun, and the Devil.\n\n\n* Several references to the god Abraxas appear in Hermann Hesse's 1919 novel ''Demian'', such as:\n\n\n\n* Salman Rushdie's novel ''Midnight's Children'' (1981) contains a reference to Abraxas in the chapter \"Abracadabra\":\n\n* In James Branch Cabell's novel \"Jurgen\" (1919) in Chapter 44: In the Manager's Office, Koshchei, who made all things as they are, when identified as Koshchei the Deathless, calls himself \"Koshchei, or Adnari, or Ptha, or Jaldalaoth, or Abraxas—it is all one what I may be called hereabouts.\" Since Jung wrote about Koshchei (see above) in 1916, and JURGEN was published in 1919, Cabell might well have been familiar with Jung's treatise when he used the name.\n* J Collin de Plancy's ''Dictionnaire Infernal (Infernal Dictionary)'' states that Abraxas (or Abracax) was an anguipede (a deity represented with snake feet) pagan God of \"Asian theogonies\" with a \"rooster's head, dragon's feet and a whip in his hand.\" De Plancy says that demonologists describe Abraxas as a demon having a \"king's head and snakes in lieu of feet.\"\n*In J.K. Rowling's novel \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\" in Chapter 9: The character Draco Malfoy mentions that his grandfather was named Abraxas Malfoy.\n* In Andrew Hussie's webcomic \"Homestuck\", Abraxas is the denizen (a powerful half-snake enemy that resides in the core of a planet assigned to each protagonist) of Homestuck character Jake, but has only been mentioned.\n",
"* Arimanius\n* Chronos\n",
"\n",
"* \n*Wendelin, in a letter in \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n*Idem, ''Abraxas'' in Herzog, ''RE'', 2d ed., 1877.\n* \n* \n* \n*Idem, ''Appendice alla dissertazione sugli Abraxas'', ib. 1874.\n* \n* \n*Harnack, ''Geschichte'', i. 161. The older material is listed by Matter, ''ut sup''., and Wessely, ''Ephesia grammata'', vol. ii., Vienna, 1886.\n* Eng. transl., 10 vols., London, 1721-25.\n* \n* \n* \n\n===Attribution===\n* \n* \n* \n",
"*\n* by Internet Archive on 26 May 2015.\n",
"* The complete texts of Carl Jung's \"The Seven Sermons To The Dead\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
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"Introduction",
" Sources ",
" Abrasax stones ",
" Etymology ",
" In literature ",
" See also ",
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" Bibliography ",
"Further reading",
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"\nThe death of Absalom, hanging from a tree by his hair (14th-century German miniature).\n\n'''Absalom''' or '''Avshalom''' () according to the Hebrew Bible was the third son of David, King of Israel with Maachah, daughter of Talmai, King of Geshur.\n\n describes him as the most handsome man in the kingdom. Absalom eventually rebelled against his father and was killed during the Battle of Ephraim Wood.\n",
"Absalom, David's third son, by Maacah, was born in Hebron, and moved at an early age along with the transfer of the capital to Jerusalem, where he spent most of his life. He was a great favorite of his father and of the people. His charming manners, personal beauty, and insinuating ways, together with his love of pomp and royal pretensions, captivated the hearts of the people from the beginning. He lived in great style, drove in a magnificent chariot and had fifty men run before him.\n\nLittle is known of Absalom's family life, but the biblical narrative states that he had three sons and one daughter, whose name was also Tamar. From the language of , \"I have no son to keep my name in remembrance\", it is inferred that his sons died at an early age.\n\n says that Absalom has another daughter or grand-daughter named Maacah, who later became the favorite wife of Rehoboam.\n",
"The Banquet of Absalom attributed to Niccolò de Simone around 1650\nAbsalom's sister Tamar was raped by Amnon, who was their half-brother. Amnon was also David's eldest son. After the rape, Absalom waited two years, and then avenged Tamar by sending his servants to murder a drunken Amnon at a feast, to which Absalom had invited all the king's sons ().\n\nAfter this murder Absalom fled to Talmai, who was the king of Geshur and Absalom's maternal grandfather (see also or ). It was not until three years later that Absalom was fully reinstated in his father's favour and finally returned to Jerusalem (see Joab).\n",
"Two views of the burial chamber inside the so-called Tomb of Absalom in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem, which has no connection to biblical Absalom.\n\nWhile at Jerusalem, Absalom built support for himself by speaking to those who came to King David for justice, saying, “See, your claims are good and right; but there is no one deputed by the king to hear you\", perhaps reflecting flaws in the judicial system of the United Monarchy. \"If only I were the judge of the land! Then all who had a suit or cause might come to me, and I would give them justice.\" He made gestures of humility by kissing those who bowed before him instead of accepting supplication. He \"stole the hearts of the people of Israel\".\n\nAfter four years he declared himself king, raised a revolt at Hebron, the former capital, and slept with his father's concubines. All Israel and Judah flocked to him, and David, attended only by the Cherethites and Pelethites and his former bodyguard, which had followed him from Gath, found it expedient to flee. The priests Zadok and Abiathar remained in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as David's spies. Absalom reached the capital and consulted with the renowned Ahithophel (sometimes spelled Achitophel).\n\nDavid took refuge from Absalom's forces beyond the Jordan River. However, he took the precaution of instructing a servant, Hushai, to infiltrate Absalom's court and subvert it. Hushai convinced Absalom to ignore Ahithophel's advice to attack his father while he was on the run, and instead to prepare his forces for a major attack. This gave David critical time to prepare his own troops for the coming battle.\n",
"\n\nA fateful battle was fought in the Wood of Ephraim (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed. Absalom's head was caught in the boughs of an oak tree as the mule he was riding ran beneath it. He was discovered there still alive by one of David's men, who reported this to Joab, the king's commander. Joab, accustomed to avenging himself, took this opportunity to even the score with Absalom. Absalom once had Joab's field set on fire and then made Amasa Captain of the Host instead of Joab. Killing Absalom was against David's explicit command, \"Beware that none touch the young man Absalom\". Joab killed Absalom with three darts through the heart.\n\nWhen David heard that Absalom was killed, although not how he was killed, he greatly sorrowed.\n:''O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!'' \nDavid withdrew to the city (Mahanaim) in mourning, until Joab roused him from \"the extravagance of his grief\" and called on him to fulfil his duty to his people.\n",
"Absalom had erected a monument near Jerusalem to perpetuate his name:\n\nNow Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a monument, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's monument.\n\nThis is now the monument known as the Pillar or Tomb of Absalom, which is dated to the first century AD.\n",
"\n===Poetry===\n* ''Absalom and Achitophel'' (1681) is a landmark poetic political satire by John Dryden, using the Biblical story as a metaphor for the politics of the poet's own time.\n* \"Absaloms Abfall\" by Rainer Maria Rilke (\"The Fall of Absalom\", trans. Stephen Cohn).\n* \"Absalom\" is a section in Muriel Rukeyser's long poem ''The Book of the Dead'' (1938), spoken by a mother who lost three sons to silicosis\n* \"Avshalom\" by Yona Wallach, published in her first poetry collection ''Devarim'' (1966).\n* \"Convito di Assalonne\" by Niccolo Tornioli, 17th Century.\n* Jon Silkin refers to \"My sons, my Absoloms\"—presumably a misspelling of Absalom—in \"The Poem\", from his 2002 (posthumous) collection ''Making a Republic''.\n\n===Fiction===\n* Georg Christian Lehms, ''Des israelitischen Printzens Absolons und seiner Prinzcessin Schwester Thamar Staats- Lebens- und Helden-Geschichte'' (''The Heroic Life and History of the Israelite Prince Absolom and his Princess Sister Tamar''), novel in German published in Nuremberg, 1710\n* ''Absalom, Absalom!'' is a novel by William Faulkner, and refers to the return of Thomas Sutpen's son.\n* ''Oh Absalom!'' was the original title of Howard Spring's novel ''My Son, My Son!'', later adapted for the film of the latter name.\n* ''Cry, the Beloved Country'' by Alan Paton. Absalom was the name of Stephen Kumalo's son in the novel. Like the historical Absalom, Absalom Kumalo was at odds with his father, the two fighting a moral and ethical battle of sorts over the course of some of the novel's most important events. Absalom kills and murders a man, and also meets an untimely death.\n* ''Ender's Shadow'' references the story of Absalom and King David's lament. Bean, as he sends his soldiers on a suicide mission to destroy the Buggers, says to them, \"O my son Absalom. My son, my son Absalom. Would God I could die for thee, O Absalom, my son. My sons!\"\n* The character of Absalom appears in Susanna Clarke's ''Jonathan Strange & Mr. Norrell''\n* Throughout Robertson Davies's ''The Manticore'' a comparison is repeatedly made between the protagonist's problematic relations with his father and those of between the Biblical Absalom and King David. Paradoxically, in the modern version, it is the rebellious son who has the first name \"David\". The book also introduces the term \"Absalonism\", as a generic term for a son's rebellion against his father.\n* The character of Absalom appears in Michael Cook's ''The Head Guts and Sound Bone Dance''\n* Absalom is a character in Michael Crummey's Newfoundland-set ''Galore''.\n* Absalom's attempted coup against his father David is explored in the novel ''Zoheleth'' by J Francis Hudson (Lion Publishing 1994).\n* In ''Death of a Hero'' by Richard Aldington, the narrator adapts the famous quote \"O my son Absalom. My son, my son Absalom.\" During a discussion on the nature of war as the protagonist rides the train towards the WWI front lines.\n* A scene in the Swedish writer Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel \"The Long Ships\" depicts a 10th Century Christian missionary recounting the story of Absalom's rebellion to the assembled Danish court, including the aging King Harald Bluetooth and his son Sweyn Forkbeard; thereupon, King Harald exclaims \"Some people can learn a lesson from this story!\", casting a meaningful glance at his son Sweyn—whom the King (rightly) suspects of plotting a rebellion.\n\n===Music===\n* Josquin des Prez composed the motet \"Absalon, fili mi\" on the occasion of the death of Juan Borgia.\n* Leonard Cohen's poem \"Prayer for Sunset\" compares the setting sun to the raving Absalom, and asks whether another Joab will arrive tomorrow night to kill Absalom again.\n* Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672) composed \"Fili mi, Absalon\" as part of his Sinfoniae Sacrae, op. 6.\n* The single verse, 2 Samuel 18:33, regarding David's grief at the loss of his son (\"And the king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept: and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! would God I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!\"), is the inspiration for the text of several pieces of choral music, usually entitled ''When David Heard'' (such as those by Renaissance composers Thomas Tomkins and Thomas Weelkes, or modern composers Eric Whitacre, Joshua Shank, and Norman Dinerstein). This verse is also used in \"David's Lamentation\" by William Billings, first published in 1778.\n* \"Absalom, Absalom\" is a song on the 1996 Compass CD ''Making Light of It'' by singer/songwriter Pierce Pettis, incorporating several elements of the biblical narrative.\n* The Australian composer Nigel Butterley set the verse in his 2008 choral work \"Beni Avshalom\", commissioned by the Sydney Chamber Choir\n* During the finale of the song \"Distant Early Warning\" by Canadian band Rush, Geddy Lee sings, \"Absalom Absalom Absalom\"; lyrics written by drummer Neil Peart.\n* David Olney's 2000 CD ''Omar's Blues'' includes the song \"Absalom.\" The song depicts David grieving over the death of his son.\n* The story of Absalom is referred to several places in folk singer Adam Arcuragi's song \"Always Almost Crying\".\n* The San Francisco-based band Om mentions Absalom in their song \"Kapila's Theme\" from their debut album ''Variations on a Theme''.\n* The garage folk band David's Doldrums references Absalom in their song, \"My Name Is Absalom\". The song alludes to Absalom's feelings of solemnity and abandonment of love and hope.\n* In \"Every Kind Word\" by Lackthereof, Danny Seim's project parallel to Menomena, Seim sings \"...and your hair is long like Absalom.\"\n* \"Barach Hamelech\" an Israeli song by Amos Etinger and Yosef Hadar.\n* The grindcore band Discordance Axis references Absalom at the end of the track entitled \"Castration Rite\".\n* The Progressive Metal band from Barranquilla, Colombia, Absalom has his name.\n* In 2007 Ryland Angel released \"Absalom\" on Ryland Angel-Manhattan Records.\n* \"Hanging By His Hair\" from the 1998 ''WORMWOOD'' album by The Residents recounts Absalom's defiance and death. Also performed on Roadworms (The Berlin Sessions) and Wormwood Live.\n* \"Absalom\" is a song on Brand New Shadows's debut album, ''White Flags''. It is a mournful lament from King David's perspective.\n* \"Absalom\" is an album by the Experimental/Progressive band \"Stick Men\" featuring Tony Levin, Markus Reuter and Pat Mastelotto.\n* The American Rock band Little Feat reference Absalom in their song \"Gimme a Stone\" on the album entitled ''Chinese Work Songs''. This song is written from the perspective of King David—mainly focusing on the task of fighting Goliath—but contains a lament to Absalom.\n\n===Video games===\n* In ''Darksiders II'', Absalom was the leader of an Old Race known as the Nephilim. When Mankind was given the prize of Eden, Absalom led his armies against Heaven and Hell in an attempt to steal it back. He is the main antagonist of Darksiders 2.\n* One of Willie Trombone's letters in ''The Neverhood'' reads, \"Hang me from a tree by my hoop so I can play 'Absalom'\".\n* In ''Fallout 4'', the player character can stumble upon a dangerous lone sniper named Absalom who will immediately attack on sight. On death, Absalom may say \"Well, that's never happened before.\"\n\n===As a name===\n\n\"Avshalom\" (אבשלום), the original Hebrew form, is commonly used as a male first name in contemporary Israel. Other variants, used either as a first name or a surname, include \"Absalom\", \"Absolon\", \"Avessalom\", \"Avesalom\", \"Absalon\", and \"Absolom\".\n",
"\n",
"\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"Murder of Amnon",
"The revolt at Hebron",
"The Battle of Ephraim's Wood",
"Memorial to Absalom",
"Absalom in art",
" References ",
"External links"
] | Absalom |
[
"'''Abydos''' may mean:\n\n*Abydos, Egypt, an Ancient Egyptian city\n*Abydos (Hellespont), an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor\n*Abydos (''Stargate''), name of a fictional planet in the ''Stargate'' science fiction universe\n* Abydos Station, a pastoral lease and cattle station in Western Australia\n\n'''Abidos''' may mean:\n*Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, a commune of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques ''département'', in southwestern France\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Abydos |
[
"\n\n\n'''Abydos''' is one of the oldest cities of ancient Egypt, and also of the eighth nome in Upper Egypt, of which it was the capital city. It is located about west of the Nile at latitude 26° 10' N, near the modern Egyptian towns of el-'Araba el Madfuna and al-Balyana. In the ancient Egyptian language, the city was called '''Abdju''' (''ꜣbdw'' or ''AbDw''). The English name ''Abydos'' comes from the Greek , a name borrowed by Greek geographers from the unrelated city of Abydos on the Hellespont.\nAmy, Flinders Petrie's sister-in-law, buying antiquities at Abydos, c. 1899\nConsidered one of the most important archaeological sites in Egypt, the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including Umm el-Qa'ab, a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site.\n\nToday, Abydos is notable for the memorial temple of Seti I, which contains an inscription from the nineteenth dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from Menes until Seti I's father, Ramesses I.\n\nThe Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost; many may have been destroyed by the new construction.\n",
"Green glazed faience weight, inscribed for the high Steward Aabeni. Late Middle Kingdom. From Abydos, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London\n\n\nAbydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously.\n\nThe pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty, and his successor, Aha. It was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the second dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well. Funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great 'forts', were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty; the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy.\n\nPart of the ''Abydos King List''\nTomb relief depicting the vizier Nespeqashuty and his wife, KetjKetj, making the journey of the dead to the holy city of Abydos – from Deir el-Bahri, Late Period, twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, reign of Psammetichus I\nPanel from the Osiris temple: Horus presents royal regalia to a worshipping pharaoh.\nThe Osireion\nTemple of Seti I, Abydos\nFrom the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, ''foremost of the Westerners'', came to be seen as a manifestation of the dead pharaoh in the underworld. Pepi I (sixth dynasty) constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult.\n\nDuring the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentiu's name became an epithet of Osiris. King Mentuhotep II was the first one building a royal chapel. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III. Associated with this tomb was a ''cenotaph'', a cult temple and a small town known as \"Wah-Sut\", that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to that cenotaph were buried at least two kings of the thirteenth dynasty (in tombs S9 and S10) and some rulers of the Second Intermediate Period, such as Senebkay. An indigenous line of kings, the Abydos Dynasty, may have ruled the region from Abydos at the time.\n\nThe building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area; very little of it remains today.\n\nThutmose III built a far larger temple, about . He also made a processional way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, featuring a great gateway of granite.\n\nSeti I, in the nineteenth dynasty, founded a temple to the south of the town in honor of the ancestral pharaohs of the early dynasties; this was finished by Ramesses II, who also built a lesser temple of his own. Merneptah added the Osireion just to the north of the temple of Seti.\n\nAhmose II in the twenty-sixth dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within approximately . depth of the ruins discovered in modern times; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by more than 4,000 measurements and 1,000 levellings.\n\nThe latest building was a new temple of Nectanebo I, built in the thirtieth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times of the Greek occupancy of Egypt, that began three hundred years before the Roman occupancy that followed, the structure began to decay and no later works are known.\n",
"From earliest times, Abydos was a cult centre, first of the local deity, Khentiamentiu, and from the end of the Old Kingdom, the rising cult of Osiris and Isis.\n\nA tradition developed that the Early Dynastic cemetery was the burial place of Osiris and the tomb of Djer was reinterpreted as that of Osiris.\n\nDecorations in tombs throughout Egypt, such as the one displayed to the right, record journeys to and from Abydos, as important pilgrimages made by individuals who were proud to have been able to make the vital trip.\n",
"Plan of Abydos\n=== Great Osiris Temple ===\n\nSuccessively from the first dynasty to the twenty-sixth dynasty, nine or ten temples were built on one site at Abydos. The first was an enclosure, about , surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Incorporating one wall of this first structure, the second temple of about square was built within a wall about thick. An outer ''temenos'' (enclosure) wall surrounded the grounds. This outer wall was thickened about the second or third dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the fourth dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in these ashes and probably were the substitutes for live sacrifices decreed by Khufu (or Cheops) in his temple reforms.\n\nAt an undetermined date, a great clearance of temple offerings had been made and a modern discovery of a chamber into which they were gathered yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles that show the splendid work of the first dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple hieroglyphs inlaid into a green glaze and tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces found. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this great pharaoh.\n\nThe temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by Pepi I in the sixth dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the eleventh dynasty Mentuhotep I added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Mentuhotep II entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about square, and added subsidiary chambers. Soon thereafter in the twelfth dynasty, Senusret I laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area and the new temple itself was about three times the earlier size.\n\n=== Temple of Seti I ===\nEgypt – Temple of Seti I, Abydus. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nFile:Brooklyn Museum - Egypt-Abydos (pd).jpg|thumbnail|right|Views, Objects: Egypt. Abydos selected images. View 01: Egypt – Memnonium of Seti I. Wall Inscriptions, Abydos., n.d., New York. Brooklyn Museum Archives\nEgypt – Abydos. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nThe temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This surviving building is best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal purpose of the temple was that of a memorial temple to the king Seti I, as well as reverence of the early pharaohs, which is incorporated within as part of the \"Rite of the Ancestors\". The long list of the pharaohs of the principal dynasties—recognized by Seti—are carved on a wall and known as the \"Abydos King List\" (showing the cartouche name of many dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until his time)- with the exception of those noted above. There were significant names deliberately left out of the list. So rare as an almost complete list of pharaoh names, the Table of Abydos, re-discovered by William John Bankes, has been called the \"Rosetta Stone\" of Egyptian archaeology, analogous to the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian writing, beyond the Narmer Palette.\n\nThere also were seven chapels built for the worship of the pharaoh and principal deities, being the \"state\" deities Ptah, Re-Horakhty, and (centrally positioned) Amun-Re; the remaining three chapels are dedicated to the Abydos triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus. The rites recorded in the deity chapels represent the first complete form of the Daily Ritual, which was performed throughout temples daily in Egypt throughout the pharaonic period. At the back of the temple is an enigmatic structure known as the Osireion, which served as a cenotaph for Seti-Osiris, and is thought to be connected with the worship of Osiris as an \"Osiris tomb\". It is possible that from those chambers led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Merenptah. The temple was originally long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part still in good condition is about\n long and wide, including the wing at the side. Magazines for food and offerings storage were built to either side of the forecourts, as well as a small palace for the king and his retinue, to the southeast of the first forecourt (Ghazouli, The Palace and Magazines Attached to the Temple of Sety I at Abydos and the Facade of This Temple. '''ASAE''' 58 (1959)).\n\nExcept for the list of pharaohs and a panegyric on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical, but religious in nature, dedicated to the transformation of the king after his death. The temple reliefs are celebrated for their delicacy and artistic refinement, utilizing both the archaism of earlier dynasties with the vibrancy of late 18th Dynasty reliefs. The sculptures had been published mostly in hand copy, not facsimile, by Auguste Mariette in his ''Abydos'', I. The temple has been partially recorded epigraphically by Amice Calverley and Myrtle Broome in their 4 volume publication of ''The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos'' (1933–1958).\n\n=== Ramesses II temple ===\n\nThe adjacent temple of Ramesses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside that lauded his achievements, of which the lower parts remain. The outside of the temple was decorated with scenes of the Battle of Kadesh. His list of pharaohs, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum.\n",
"\n Seti I, wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt, with Prince Rammeses, (Rammeses II) is ready to rope the sacred bull for sacrifice\nPyramidion of Nesnubhotep, top of a limestone chapel monument. A scarab and adoring baboons in relief. 26th Dynasty. From Abydos, Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London\n\nThe Royal necropolis of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile into the great desert plain, in a place now known as Umm el-Qa'ab, ''The Mother of Pots'', because of the shards remaining from all of the devotional objects left by religious pilgrims. The earliest burial is about inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also built before Menes are . The probable tomb of Menes is of the latter size. Afterward the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is surrounded by chambers to hold offerings, the sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small pits, tombs for the servants of the pharaoh surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. Some of the offerings included sacrificed animals, such as the asses found in the tomb of Merneith. Evidence of human sacrifices exists in the early tombs, but this practice was changed into symbolic offerings later.\n\nBy the end of the second dynasty the type of tomb constructed changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either side, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies, covered a space of over , however it is possible for this to be several tombs which have met in the making of a tomb; the Egyptians had no means of mapping the positioning of the tombs. The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; but enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointments, and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The seals of various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements.\n\nThe cemetery of private persons began during the first dynasty with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the eighteenth to twentieth dynasties, and members of later dynasties continued to bury their dead here until Roman times. Many hundreds of funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, without any record of the burials being made. Later excavations have been recorded by Edward R. Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; Maclver, ''El Amrah and Abydos''; and Garstang, ''El Arabah''.\n",
"Some of the tomb structures, referred to as \"forts\" by modern researchers, lay behind the town. Known as Shunet ez Zebib, it is about over all, and one still stands high. It was built by Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the second dynasty. Another structure nearly as large adjoined it, and probably is older than that of Khasekhemwy. A third \"fort\" of a squarer form is now occupied by a convent of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; its age cannot be ascertained.\n",
"\nThe retouched and eroded hieroglyphs in the Temple of Seti I which are said to represent modern vehicles – a helicopter, a submarine, and a zeppelin or plane.\nSome of the hieroglyphs carved over an arch on the site have been interpreted in esoteric and \"ufological\" circles as depicting modern technology.\n\nThe carvings are often thought to be a helicopter, a battle tank or submarine, and a fighter plane (some interpret this as a U.F.O.) However, these conjectures are largely based in pseudoarchaeology, and the picture often claimed as \"evidence\" has been retouched (see right).\n",
"* Abydos offering formula\n* Dorothy Eady\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Mariette, Auguste, ''Abydos'', ii. and iii.\n* William Flinders Petrie, ''Abydos'', i. and ii.\n* William Flinders Petrie, ''Royal Tombs'', i. and ii.\n",
"\n\n* \n* ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online'', \"Abydos\" search: EncBrit-Abydos, importance of Abydos\n* The Mortuary Temple of Seti I at Abydos\n* University of Pennsylvania Museum excavations at Abydos\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Cult centre ",
" Major constructions ",
" Tombs ",
" \"Forts\" ",
" Hieroglyphs in the Temple of Seti I ",
" See also ",
" Notes ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Abydos, Egypt |
[
"\n'''Abydos''' () or '''Abydus''', was an ancient city and bishopric in Mysia in Asia Minor. It was located on the coast of the Hellespont.\n\nIn Greek mythology, Abydos is presented in the myth of Hero and Leander as the home of Leander. The city is also mentioned in ''Rodanthe and Dosikles'', a novel written by Theodore Prodromos, a 12th century writer, in which Dosikles kidnaps Rodanthe at Abydos.\n",
"===Classical period===\nAbydos is mentioned in the Iliad as a Trojan ally, and, according to Strabo, was occupied by Thracians after the Trojan War. Abydos was settled by Milesian colonists contemporaneously with the foundation of the cities of Priapos and Prokonnesos in c. 670 BC. Strabo related that Gyges, King of Lydia granted his consent to the Milesians to settle Abydos. Abydos was ruled by Daphnis, a pro-Persian tyrant, in the 520s, but was occupied by the Persian Empire in 514. Darius I destroyed the city following his Scythian campaign in 512. In 480, at the onset of the Second Persian invasion of Greece, Xerxes I and the Persian army passed through Abydos on its march to Greece.\n\nAfter the failed Persian invasion, Abydos became a member of the Delian League, and was part of the Hellespontine district. Ostensibly an ally, Abydos was hostile to Athens throughout this time. During the Second Peloponnesian War, a Spartan expedition led by Dercylidas arrived at Abydos in early May 411 and successfully convinced the city to defect from the Delian League and fight against Athens, at which time he was made ''harmost'' (commander/governor) of Abydos. Abydos was attacked by the Athenians in the winter of 409/408 BC, but was repelled by a Persian force led by Pharnabazus, ''satrap'' (governor) of Hellespontine Phrygia. Dercylidas held the office of ''harmost'' of Abydos until at least c. 407.\n\nAccording to Aristotle, Abydos held an oligarchic constitution at this time. At the beginning of the Corinthian War in 394 BC, Agesilaus, King of Sparta, passed through Abydos into Thrace. Abydos remained an ally of Sparta throughout the war and Dercylidas served as ''harmost'' of the city from 394 until he was replaced by Anaxibius in c. 390, who was killed in an ambush near Abydos by the Athenian general Iphicrates in c. 389/388. At the conclusion of the Corinthian War, under the terms of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC, Abydos was annexed to the Persian Empire.\n\nIn c. 360, the city came under the control of the tyrant Iphiades. Abydos remained under Persian control until it was seized by a Macedonian army led by Parmenion, a general of Alexander the Great, in the spring of 336 BC. In 335, whilst Parmenion besieged the city of Pitane, Abydos was besieged by a Persian army led by Memnon of Rhodes, forcing Parmenion to abandon his siege of Pitane and march north to relieve Abydos. Alexander ferried across from Sestos to Abydos in 334 and travelled south to the city of Troy, after which he returned to Abydos. The following day, Alexander left Abydos and led his army north to Percote. Alexander later established a royal mint at Abydos, as well as at other cities in Asia Minor.\n\nIn 302, during the Fourth War of the Diadochi, Lysimachus, King of Thrace, crossed over into Anatolia and invaded the Kingdom of Antigonus I. Unlike the neighbouring cities of Parium and Lampsacus which surrendered, Abydos resisted Lysimachus and was besieged. Lysimachus was forced to abandon the siege, however, after the arrival of a relief force sent by Demetrius, son of King Antigonus I.\n\nDuring the Second Macedonian War, Abydos was besieged by Philip V, King of Macedonia, in 200 BC, during which many of its citizens chose to commit suicide rather than surrender. Ultimately, the city was forced to surrender to Philip V due to a lack of reinforcements. The Macedonian occupation ended after the Peace of Flamininus at the end of the war in 196 BC. At this time, Abydos was substantially depopulated and partially ruined as a result of the Macedonian occupation. In the spring of 196 BC, Abydos was seized by Antiochus III, ''Megas Basileus'' of the Seleucid Empire, who refortified the city in 192/191 BC.\n\nUnder the Eastern Roman Empire, the city was administered by an ''komes ton Stenon'' (count of the straits) or an ''archon'', and was the centre for customs collection at the southern entrance of the Sea of Marmara. In the 6th century AD, Emperor Justinian I introduced the office of ''komes'' with responsibility for collecting customs duty in Abydos.\n\n===Medieval period===\nAs a result of the administrative reforms of the 7th century, Abydos came to be administered as part of the theme of Opsikion. The office of ''kommerkiarios'' of Abydos is first attested in the mid-7th century, and was later sometimes combined with the office of ''paraphylax'', the military governor of the fort, introduced in the 8th century, at which time the office of ''komes ton stenon'' is last mentioned.\n\nAfter the 7th century AD, Abydos became a major seaport. Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, during his campaign against Constantinople, crossed over into Thrace at Abydos in July 717. In 801, Empress Irene reduced commercial tariffs collected at Abydos. Emperor Nikephoros I, Irene's successor, introduced a tax on slaves purchased beyond the city. The city later also became part of the theme of the Aegean Sea and was the seat of a ''tourmarches'' (commander of a tourma). In the early 11th century, Abydos became the seat of a separate command and the office of ''strategos'' (governor) of Abydos is first mentioned in 1004 with authority over the northern shore of the Hellespont and the islands of the Sea of Marmara.\n\nAbydos was sacked by an Arab fleet led by Leo of Tripoli in 904 AD whilst en route to Constantinople. The revolt of Bardas Phokas was defeated by Emperor Basil II at the Battle of Abydos in 989 AD. In 992, Venetians were granted reduced commercial tariffs at Abydos as a special privilege. In 1024, a Rus' raid led by a certain Chrysocheir defeated the local commander at Abydos and proceeded to travel south through the Hellespont. Following the defeat at the Battle of Manzikert, Abydos was seized by the Turks but was recovered in 1086 AD. In 1092/1093, the city was attacked by Tzachas, a Turkish pirate. Emperor Manuel I Komnenos repaired Abydos' fortifications in the late 12th century.\n\nBy the 13th century AD, the crossing from Lampsacus to Kallipolis had become more common and largely replaced the crossing from Abydos to Sestos. During the Fourth Crusade, in 1204, Venetians seized Abydos, and, following the Fall of Constantinople and the formation of the Latin Empire later that year, Emperor Baldwin granted the land between Abydos to Adramyttium to his brother Henry of Flanders. Henry of Flanders passed through Abydos on 11 November 1204 and continued his march to Adramyttium. Abydos was seized by the Empire of Nicaea, a successor state of the Eastern Roman Empire, during its offensive in 1206-1207, but was reconquered by the Latin Empire in 1212-1213. The city was later recovered by Emperor John III Vatatzes. Abydos later fell to the Turks in the 14th century.\n",
"The bishopric of Abydus in the Roman province of Hellespontus appears in all the ''Notitiae Episcopatuum'' of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the mid-7th century until the time of Andronicus III (1341), first as a suffragan of Cyzicus and then from 1084 as a metropolitan see without suffragans. The earliest bishop mentioned in extant documents is Marcianus, who signed the joint letter of the bishops of Hellespontus to Emperor Leo I the Thracian in 458, protesting about the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. A letter of Peter the Fuller (471–488) mentions a bishop of Abydus called Pamphilus. Ammonius signed the decretal letter of the Council of Constantinople in 518 against Severus of Antioch and others. Isidorus was at the Third Council of Constantinople (680–681), Ioannes at the Trullan Council (692), Theodorus at the Second Council of Nicaea (787). An unnamed bishop of Abydus was a counsellor of Emperor Nicephorus II in 969. Abydos remained a metropolitan see until the city fell to the Turks in the 14th century.\n\nIn c. 1220, during the Latin occupation, the dioceses of Abydos and Madytos were united and placed under direct Papal authority. No longer a residential bishopric, Abydus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Ecclesiastical history",
"References",
"Bibliography"
] | Abydos (Hellespont) |
[
"\n\n\n'''''Acacia s.l.''''' ( or ), known commonly as '''mimosa''', '''acacia''', '''thorntree''' or '''wattle''', is a polyphyletic genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. It was described by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773 based on the African species ''Acacia nilotica''. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not. All species are pod-bearing, with sap and leaves often bearing large amounts of tannins and condensed tannins that historically found use as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.\n\nThe genus ''Acacia'' constitutes, in its traditional circumspection, the second largest genus in Fabaceae (''Astragalus'' being the largest), with roughly 1,300 species, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas (see List of ''Acacia'' species). The genus was divided into five separate genera under the tribe \"Acacieae\". The genus now called ''Acacia'' represents the majority of the Australian species and a few native to southeast Asia, Réunion, and Pacific Islands. Most of the species outside Australia, and a small number of Australian species, are classified into ''Vachellia'' and ''Senegalia''. The two final genera, ''Acaciella'' and ''Mariosousa'', each contain about a dozen species from the Americas (but see \"Classification\" below for the ongoing debate concerning their taxonomy).\n''Acacia'' tree near the limit of its range in the Negev Desert of southern Israel\nGolden wattle ''(Acacia pycnantha''), the floral emblem of AustraliaSeed pods of ''Acacia'' species from the MHNT\n\nThis article describes acacias in the broader sense.\n",
"\nEnglish botanist and gardener Philip Miller adopted the name ''Acacia'' in 1754. The generic name is derived from (), the name given by early Greek botanist-physician Pedanius Dioscorides (middle to late first century) to the medicinal tree ''A. nilotica'' in his book ''Materia Medica''. This name derives from the Ancient Greek word for its characteristic thorns, (; \"thorn\"). The species name ''nilotica'' was given by Linnaeus from this tree's best-known range along the Nile river. This became the type species of the genus.\n\nThe traditional circumscription of ''Acacia'' eventually contained approximately 1,300 species. However, evidence began to accumulate that the genus as described was not monophyletic. Queensland botanist Les Pedley proposed the subgenus ''Phyllodineae'' be renamed ''Racosperma'' and published the binomial names. This was taken up in New Zealand but generally not followed in Australia, where botanists declared more study was needed.\n \nEventually, consensus emerged that ''Acacia'' needed to be split as it was not monophyletic. This led to Australian botanists Bruce Maslin and Tony Orchard pushing for the retypification of the genus with an Australian species instead of the original African type species, an exception to traditional rules of priority that required ratification by the International Botanical Congress. That decision has been controversial, and debate continued, with some taxonomists (and many other biologists) deciding to continue to use the traditional ''Acacia sensu lato'' circumscription of the genus, in defiance of decisions by an International Botanical Congress. However, a second International Botanical Congress has now confirmed the decision to apply the name ''Acacia'' to the mostly Australian plants, which some had been calling ''Racosperma'', and which had formed the overwhelming majority of ''Acacia sensu lato''. Debate continues regarding the traditional acacias of Africa, possibly placed in ''Senegalia'' and ''Vachellia'', and some of the American species, possibly placed in ''Acaciella'' and ''Mariosousa''.\n\nAcacias belong to the subfamily Mimosoideae, the major clades of which may have formed in response to drying trends and fire regimes that accompanied increased seasonality during the late Oligocene to early Miocene (∼25 mya). Pedley (1978), following Vassal (1972), viewed Acacia as comprising three large subgenera, but subsequently (1986) raised the rank of these groups to genera '''''Acacia''''', ''Senegalia'' (''s.l.'') and ''Racosperma'', which was underpinned by later genetic studies.\n\nIn common parlance, the term \"acacia\" is occasionally applied to species of the genus ''Robinia'', which also belongs in the pea family. ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', an American species locally known as black locust, is sometimes called \"false acacia\" in cultivation in the United Kingdom and throughout Europe.\n",
"\n''Acacia fasciculifera'' seedling in the transitional stage between pinnate leaves and phyllodes\nThe leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific Islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened in order to serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as \"phyllodes\". The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight since with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light as fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as ''Acacia glaucoptera'') lack leaves or phyllodes altogether but instead possess cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.\n\nThe small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense, globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, or even purple (''Acacia purpureopetala'') or red (''Acacia leprosa'' 'Scarlet Blaze'). ''Acacia'' flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, ''Albizia'', by their stamens, which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual ''Mimosa'' flowers, those of ''Acacia'' have more than ten stamens.\n\nThe plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches that have become short, hard, and pungent, though they sometimes represent leaf-stipules. ''Acacia armata'' is the kangaroo-thorn of Australia, and ''Acacia erioloba'' (syn. ''Acacia eriolobata'') is the camelthorn of Africa.\n\nAcacia seeds can be difficult to germinate. Research has found that immersing the seeds in various temperatures (usually around 80 °C (176 °F)) and manual seed coat chipping can improve growth to around 80%.\n",
"''Acacia collinsii'' stipules\nSwollen stipules of ''Acacia drepanolobium'' that serve as ant domatia. An entry hole can be seen at the base of one of the spines of the largest domatia. From the MHNT\nIn the Central American bullthorn acacias—''Acacia sphaerocephala'', ''Acacia cornigera'' and ''Acacia collinsii'' — some of the spiny stipules are large, swollen and hollow. These afford shelter for several species of ''Pseudomyrmex'' ants, which feed on extrafloral nectaries on the leaf-stalk and small lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies. In return, the ants add protection to the plant against herbivores. Some species of ants will also remove competing plants around the acacia, cutting off the offending plants' leaves with their jaws and ultimately killing them. Other associated ant species appear to do nothing to benefit their hosts.\n\nSimilar mutualisms with ants occur on ''Acacia'' trees in Africa, such as the whistling thorn acacia. The acacias provide shelter for ants in similar swollen stipules and nectar in extrafloral nectaries for their symbiotic ants, such as ''Crematogaster mimosae''. In turn, the ants protect the plant by attacking large mammalian herbivores and stem-boring beetles that damage the plant.\n\nThe predominantly herbivorous spider ''Bagheera kiplingi'', which is found in Central America and Mexico, feeds on nubs at the tips of the acacia leaves, known as Beltian bodies, which contain high concentrations of protein. These nubs are produced by the acacia as part of a symbiotic relationship with certain species of ant, which also eat them.\n",
"In Australia, ''Acacia'' species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus ''Aenetus'' including ''A. ligniveren''. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on ''Acacia'' include brown-tail, ''Endoclita malabaricus'' and turnip moth. The leaf-mining larvae of some bucculatricid moths also feed on ''Acacia''; ''Bucculatrix agilis'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia horrida'' and ''Bucculatrix flexuosa'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia nilotica''.\n\nAcacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals.\n",
"\n===Use as human food===\n''Acacia dealbata'' seeds\n\nAcacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products.\n\nIn Burma, Laos, and Thailand, the feathery shoots of ''Acacia pennata'' (common name ''cha-om'', ชะอม and ''su pout ywet'' in Burmese) are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.\n\n===Gum===\nVarious species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of ''Acacia senegal'', abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria.\n\n''Acacia nilotica'' (syn. ''Acacia arabica'') is the gum arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum arabic. Gum arabic is used in a wide variety of food products, including some soft drinks and confections.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians used acacia gum in paints.\nSap, from which gum can be made, oozing from an ''Acacia'' tree in Phoenix, Arizona\nThe gum of ''Acacia xanthophloea'' and ''Acacia karroo'' has a high sugar content and is sought out by the lesser bushbaby. ''Acacia karroo'' gum was once used for making confectionery and traded under the name \"Cape Gum\". It was also used medicinally to treat cattle suffering poisoning by ''Moraea'' species.\n\n===Uses in folk medicine===\n''Acacia'' species have possible uses in folk medicine. A 19th-century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species (known as ''grar'') mixed with the root of the ''tacha'', then boiled, as a cure for rabies.\n\nAn astringent medicine high in tannins, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from ''Senegalia catechu'' (syn. ''Acacia catechu''), by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. The catechu extract from ''A. catechu'' figures in the history of chemistry in giving its name to the catechin, catechol, and catecholamine chemical families ultimately derived from it.\n\n===Ornamental uses===\nA few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is ''A. dealbata'' (silver wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as \"mimosa\" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus ''Mimosa''.\n\nAnother ornamental acacia is the fever tree. Southern European florists use ''A. baileyana'', ''A. dealbata'', ''A. pycnantha'' and ''A. retinodes'' as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa.\n\nOrnamental species of acacias are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security. The sharp thorns of some species are a deterrent to trespassing, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a reasonable alternative to constructed fences and walls.\n\n===Perfume===\n''Acacia farnesiana''\n''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries.\n\n===Symbolism and ritual===\nEgyptian goddess Isis\n\nAcacia also supposed to have been used for Zulu warriors' iziQu (or isiKu) beads, which passed on through Sir Robert Baden-Powell to the Boy Scout movement's Wood Badge training award.\n\nEgyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life, such as in the Myth of Osiris and Isis.\n\nSeveral parts (mainly bark, root, and resin) of ''Acacia'' species are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, and China including in its Tibet region. Smoke from acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia, and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit.\nAccording to Easton's Bible Dictionary, the acacia tree may be the “burning bush” (Exodus 3:2) which Moses encountered in the desert. Also, when God gave Moses the instructions for building the Tabernacle, he said to \"make an ark\" and \"a table of acacia wood\" (Exodus 25:10 & 23, Revised Standard Version). Also, in the Christian tradition, Christ's crown of thorns is thought to have been woven from acacia.\n\nIn Russia, Italy, and other countries, it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas (among other flowers) on International Women's Day (March 8). These \"mimosas\" may be from ''A. dealbata'' (silver wattle).\n\n===Tannin===\nThe bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''A. pycnantha'' (golden wattle), ''A. decurrens'' (tan wattle), ''A. dealbata'' (silver wattle) and ''A. mearnsii'' (black wattle).\n\nBlack wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa and South America. Most Australian ''Acacia'' species introduced to South Africa have become an enormous problem, due to their naturally aggressive propagation. The pods of ''A. nilotica'' (under the name of ''neb-neb''), and of other African species, are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. In Yemen, the principal tannin substance was derived from the leaves of the salam-tree (''Acacia etbaica''), a tree known locally by the name ''qaraẓ'' (''garadh''). A bath solution of the crushed leaves of this tree, into which raw leather had been inserted for prolonged soaking, would take only 15 days for curing. The water and leaves, however, required changing after seven or eight days, and the leather needed to be turned over daily.\n\n===Wood===\n''Acacia koa'' wood\nSome ''Acacia'' species are valuable as timber, such as ''A. melanoxylon'' (blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''A. omalophylla'' (myall wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber used for ornaments. ''A. seyal'' is thought to be the shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. ''A. koa'' from the Hawaiian Islands and ''A. heterophylla'' from Réunion are both excellent timber trees. Depending on abundance and regional culture, some ''Acacia'' species (e.g. ''A. fumosa'') are traditionally used locally as firewoods. It is also used to make homes for different animals.\n\n''A. heterophylla'' wood\n\n===Pulpwood===\nIn Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sabah), plantations of ''A. mangium'' are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry.\n\nAcacia wood pulp gives high opacity and below average bulk paper. This is suitable in lightweight offset papers used for Bibles and dictionaries. It is also used in paper tissue where it improves softness.\n\n===Land reclamation===\nAcacias can be planted for erosion control, especially after mining or construction damage.\n",
"For the same reasons it is favored as an erosion-control plant, with its easy spreading and resilience, some varieties of acacia are potentially invasive species. One of the most globally significant invasive acacias is black wattle ''A. mearnsii'', which is taking over grasslands and abandoned agricultural areas worldwide, especially in moderate coastal and island regions where mild climate promotes its spread. Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment gives it a \"high risk, score of 15\" rating and it is considered one of the world's 100 most invasive species.\nExtensive ecological studies should be performed before further introduction of acacia varieties, as this fast-growing genus, once introduced, spreads quickly and is extremely difficult to eradicate.\n",
"\n===Cyanogenic glycosides===\nNineteen different species of ''Acacia'' in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the \"leaves\". This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock.\n\nIf fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia \"leaves\" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quantities of cyanic glycosides.\n\nSome ''Acacia'' species containing cyanogens include ''Acacia erioloba'', ''A. cunninghamii'', ''A. obtusifolia'', ''A. sieberiana'', and ''A. sieberiana'' var. ''woodii''\n",
"The Arbre du Ténéré in Niger was the most isolated tree in the world, about from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973.\n\nIn Nairobi, Kenya, the Thorn Tree Café is named after a Naivasha thorn tree (''Acacia xanthophloea'') in its centre. Travelers used to pin notes to others to the thorns of the tree. The current tree is the third of the same variety.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n* Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. \n\n",
"\n\n\n* \n* World Wide Wattle\n* Acacia-world\n* Wayne's Word on \"The Unforgettable Acacias\"\n* The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga\n* A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs\n* Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases\n* Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia\n* Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles\n* List of Acacia Species in the U.S.\n* FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species\n* FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage\n* Long-term effects of roller chopping on antiherbivore defenses in three shrub species, Jason R. Schindlera, Timothy E. Fulbright\n* Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference – No. 21 February 24, 1999\n* Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya\n* Description of Acacia Morphology\n\n* Nitrogen Fixation in Acacias\n* Acacias with Cyagenic Compounds\n* Acacia Alarm System\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Classification",
"Description",
"Symbiosis",
"Pests",
"Uses",
"Ecological invasion",
"Phytochemistry",
"Famous acacias",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Acacia sensu lato |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Acapulco de Juárez''' (), commonly called '''Acapulco''', is a city, municipality and major seaport in the state of Guerrero on the Pacific coast of Mexico, south of Mexico City. Acapulco is located on a deep, semicircular bay and has been a port since the early colonial period of Mexico's history. It is a port of call for shipping and cruise lines running between Panama and San Francisco, California, United States. The city of Acapulco is the largest in the state, far larger than the state capital Chilpancingo. Acapulco is also Mexico's largest beach and balneario resort city.\n\nThe city is one of Mexico's oldest beach resorts, which came into prominence in the 1940s throu 1960s as a getaway for Hollywood stars and millionaires. Acapulco is still famous and still attracts many tourists, although most are now from Mexico itself. The resort area is divided into three parts: The north end of the bay and beyond is the \"traditional\" area, which encompasses the area from Parque Papagao through the Zocalo and onto the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the main part of the bay known as \"Zona Dorada\" (golden zone in Spanish), where the famous in the mid-20th century vacationed, and the south end \"Diamante\" (diamond in Spanish) which is dominated by newer luxury high-rise hotels and condominiums.\n\nThe name \"Acapulco\" comes from Nahuatl language ''Aca-pōl-co'', and means \"where the reeds were destroyed or washed away\". The \"de Juárez\" was added to the official name in 1885 to honor Benito Juárez, former President of Mexico (1806–1872). The seal for the city shows broken reeds or cane. The island and municipality of Capul, in the Philippines, derives its name from Acapulco; Capul was the western end of the trans-Pacific sailing route from Acapulco to what was then a Spanish colony.\n",
"\n\n===Pre-Columbian===\nA 1628 relief atlas of Acapulco Bay.\nBy the 8th century around the Acapulco Bay area, there was a small culture which would first be dominated by the Olmecs, then by a number of others during the pre-Hispanic period and before it ended in the 1520s. At Acapulco Bay itself, there were two Olmec sites, one by Playa Larga and the other on a hill known as El Guitarrón. Olmec influence caused the small spread-out villages here to coalesce into larger entities and build ceremonial centers.\n\nLater, Teotihuacan influence made its way here via Cuernavaca and Chilpancingo. Then Mayan influence arrived from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and through what is now Oaxaca. This history is known through the archaeological artifacts that have been found here, especially at Playa Hornos, Pie de la Cuesta and Tambuco.\n\nIn the 11th century, new waves of migration of Nahuas and Coixas came through here. These people were the antecedents of the Aztecs. In the later 15th century, after four years of military struggle, Acapulco became part of the Aztec empire during the reign of Ahuizotl (1486–1502). It was annexed to a tributary province named ''Tepecuacuilco''. However, this was only transitory, as the Aztecs could only establish an unorganized military post at the city's outskirts. The city was on territory under control of the Yopes, who continued defending it and living there until the arrival of the Spanish in the 1520s.\n\n===16th century===\nThere are two stories about how Acapulco bay was discovered by Europeans. The first states that two years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés sent explorers west to find gold. The explorers had subdued this area after 1523, and Captain Saavedra Cerón was authorized by Cortés to found a settlement here. The other states that the bay was discovered on December 13, 1526 by a small ship named the El Tepache Santiago captained by Santiago Guevara.\nThe first encomendero was established in 1525 at Cacahuatepec, which is part of the modern Acapulco municipality. In 1531, a number of Spaniards, most notably Juan Rodriguez de Villafuerte, left the Oaxaca coast and founded the village of Villafuerte where the city of Acapulco now stands. Villafuerte was unable to subdue the local native peoples, and this eventually resulted in the Yopa Rebellion in the region of Cuautepec. Hernán Cortés was obligated to send Vasco Porcayo to negotiate with the indigenous people giving concessions. The province of Acapulco became the encomendero of Rodriguez de Villafuerte who received taxes in the form of cocoa, cotton and corn.\n\nCodex Tudela: \"Acapulco's Yope Indian, at the South Sea\"''View of Acapulco'', 1879, oil painting by Carl SaltzmannCortés established Acapulco as a major port by the early 1530s, with the first major road between Mexico City and the port constructed by 1531. The wharf, named Marqués, was constructed by 1533 between Bruja Point and Diamond Point. Soon after, the area was made an \"alcadia\" (major province or town).\n\nSpanish trade in the Far East would give Acapulco a prominent position in the economy of New Spain. Galleons started arriving here from Asia by 1550, and in that year thirty Spanish families were sent to live here from Mexico City to have a permanent base of European residents. Acapulco would become the second most important port, after Veracruz, due to its direct trade with the Philippines. This trade would focus on the yearly Manila-Acapulco Galleon trade, which was the nexus of all kinds of communications between New Spain, Europe and Asia. In 1573, the port was granted the monopoly of the Manila trade.\n\n===17th–19th centuries===\nThe galleon trade made its yearly run from the mid-16th century until the early 19th. The luxury items it brought to New Spain attracted the attention of English and Dutch pirates, such as Francis Drake, Henry Morgan and Thomas Cavendish, who called it \"The Black Ship.\" A Dutch fleet invaded Acapulco in 1615, destroying much of the town before being driven off. The Fort of San Diego was built the following year to protect the port and the cargo of arriving ships. The fort was destroyed by an earthquake in 1776 and was rebuilt between 1778 and 1783.\nAt the beginning of the 19th century, King Charles IV declared Acapulco a Ciudad Official and it became an essential part of the Spanish Crown. However, not long after, the Mexican War of Independence began. In 1810, José María Morelos y Pavón attacked and burnt down the city, after he defeated royalist commander Francisco Parés at the Battle of Tres Palos. The independence of Mexico in 1821 ended the run of the Manila Galleon.\nAcapulco's importance as a port recovered during the California Gold Rush in the mid-19th-century, with ships going to and coming from Panama stopping here. This city was the besieged on 19 April 1854 by Antonio López de Santa Anna after Guerrero's leadership had rebelled by issuing the Plan de Ayutla. After an unsuccessful week of fighting, Santa Anna retreated.\n\n===20th century===\nIn 1911, revolutionary forces took over the main plaza of Acapulco.\nIn 1920, the Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VIII) visited the area. Impressed by what he saw, he recommended the place to his compatriots in Europe, making it popular with the elite there. Much of the original hotel and trading infrastructure was built by an East Texas businessman named Albert B. Pullen from Corrigan, Texas, in the area now known as Old Acapulco. In 1933 Carlos Barnard started the first section of Hotel El Mirador, with 12 rooms on the cliffs of La Quebrada. Wolf Schoenborn purchased large amounts of undeveloped land and Albert Pullen built the Las Americas Hotel.\n\nIn the mid-1940s, the first commercial wharf and warehouses were built. In the early 1950s, President Miguel Alemán Valdés upgraded the port's infrastructure, installing electrical lines, drainage systems, roads and the first highway to connect the port with Mexico City.\n\nThe Bay of Acapulco from the top of Palma Sola\nThe economy grew and foreign investment increased with it. During the 1950s, Acapulco became the fashionable place for millionaire Hollywood stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Frank Sinatra, Eddie Fisher and Brigitte Bardot. Former Swing Musician Teddy Stauffer, so called \"Mister Acapulco\", was a hotel manager (\"Villa Vera\", \"Casablanca\"), who attracted a lot of celebrities to Acapulco.\n\nBeach at Acapulco\n\nFrom a population of only 4,000 or 5,000 in the 1940s, by the early 1960s, Acapulco had a population of about 50,000. In 1958, the Diocese of Acapulco was created by Pope Pius XII. It became an archdiocese in 1983.\n\nDuring the 1960s and 1970s, new hotel resorts were built, and accommodation and transport were made cheaper. It was no longer necessary to be a millionaire to spend a holiday in Acapulco; the foreign and Mexican middle class could now afford to travel here. However, as more hotels were built in the south part of the bay, the old hotels of the 1950s lost their grandeur.\n\nIn the 1970s, there was a significant expansion of the port.\n\nThe Miss Universe 1978 pageant took place in the city. In 1983, singer-songwriter Juan Gabriel wrote the song \"Amor eterno\", which pays homage to Acapulco. The song was first and most famously recorded by Rocio Durcal. Additionally, Acapulco is the hometown of actress, singer and comedian Aída Pierce, who found fame during the 1980s, 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century.\n\nDuring the 1990s, the road known as the Ruta del Sol was built, crossing the mountains between Mexico City and Acapulco. The journey takes only about three and a half hours, making Acapulco a favorite weekend destination for Mexico City inhabitants. It was in that time period that the economic impact of Acapulco as a tourist destination increased positively and as a result a new type of services emerged like the Colegio Nautilus. This educational project, backed by the state government, was created for the families of local and foreign investors and businessmen living in Acapulco who were in need of a bilingual and international education for their children.\n\nThe port continued to grow and in 1996, a new private company, API Acapulco, was created to manage operations. This consolidated operations and now Acapulco is the major port for car exports to the Pacific.\n\nAcapulco skyline\nThe city was devastated by Hurricane Pauline in 1997. The storm stranded tourists and left more than 100 dead in the city. Most of the victims were from the shantytowns built on steep hillsides that surround the city. Other victims were swept away by thirty-foot waves and winds. The main road, Avenida Costera, became a fast-moving three-foot-deep river of sludge.\n\n===21st century===\nIn the 2000s, the drug war in Mexico has had a negative effect on tourism in Acapulco as rival drug traffickers fight each other for the Guerrero coast route that brings drugs from South America as well as soldiers that have been fighting the cartels since 2006. A major gun battle between 18 gunmen and soldiers took place in the summer of 2009 in the Old Acapulco seaside area, lasting hours and killing 16 of the gunmen and two soldiers. This came after the swine flu outbreak earlier in the year nearly paralyzed the Mexican economy, forcing hotels to give discounts to bring tourists back. However, hotel occupancy for 2009 was down five percent from the year before. The death of Arturo Beltran Leyva in December 2009 resulted in infighting among different groups within the Beltran Leyva cartel.\n\nGang violence continued to plague Acapulco through 2010 and into 2011, most notably with at least 15 dying in drug-related violence on March 13, 2010, and another 15 deaths on January 8, 2011. Among the first incident's dead were six members of the city police and the brother of an ex-mayor. In the second incident, the headless bodies of 15 young men were found dumped near the Plaza Senderos shopping center. On August 20, 2011, Mexican authorities reported that five headless bodies were found in Acapulco, three of which were placed in the city's main tourist area and two of which were cut into multiple pieces. On February 4, 2013, six Spanish men were tied up and robbed and the six Spanish women with them were gang-raped by five masked gunmen who stormed a beach house on the outskirts of Acapulco, though after these accusations, none of the victims decided to press charges. On September 28, 2014, a Mexican politician called Braulio Zaragoza was gunned down at the El Mirador hotel in the city. He was the leader of the conservative opposition National Action Party (PAN) in southern Guerrero state. Several politicians have been targeted by drug cartels operating in the area. Investigations are under way, but no arrests have yet been made. The insecurity due to individuals involved with drug cartels has cost the city of Acapulco its popularity among national and international tourists. It was stated by the Dirección General de Aeronáutica Civil that the amount of international flyers coming to Acapulco decreased from 355,760 flyers registered in 2006 to 52,684 flyers in the year 2015, the amount of international tourists flying to Acapulco lost 85% in the interval of nine years.\n",
"The city, located on the Pacific coast of Mexico in the state of Guerrero, is classified as one of the state's seven regions, dividing the rest of the Guerrero coast into the Costa Grande and the Costa Chica.\nForty percent of the municipality is mountainous terrain. Another forty percent is semi-flat, and the other twenty percent is flat. Altitude varies from sea level to . The highest peaks are Potrero, San Nicolas and Alto Camarón. There is one major river, the Papagayo, which runs through the municipality, along with a number of arroyos. There are also two small lagoons, Tres Palos and Coyuca. along with a number of thermal springs.\nAcapulco features a tropical wet and dry climate (Köppen: Aw): hot with distinct wet and dry seasons, with more even temperatures between seasons than resorts farther north in Mexico, but this varies depending on altitude. The warmest areas are next to the sea where the city is. Tropical storms and hurricanes are threats from May through November. The forested area tends to lose leaves during the winter dry season, with evergreen pines in the highest elevations. Fauna consists mostly of deer, small mammals, a wide variety of both land and sea birds, and marine animals such as turtles.\n\n\n\n\n\n+Acapulco mean sea temperature\n\nJan\nFeb\nMar\nApr\nMay\nJun\nJul\nAug\nSep\nOct\nNov\nDec\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe temperature of the sea is quite stable, with lows of between January – March, and a high of in August.\n",
"\nBandera monumental in the background\nAs the seat of a municipality, the city of Acapulco is the government authority for over 700 other communities, which together have a territory of 1,880.60 km2. This municipality borders the municipalities of Chilpancingo, Juan R Escudero (Tierra Colorada), San Marcos, Coyuca de Benítez with the Pacific Ocean to the south.\n\nThe metropolitan area is made up of the municipalities of Acapulco de Juárez and Coyuca de Benitez. The area has a population () of 786,830.\n",
"Tourism is the main economic activity of the municipality and most of this is centered on Acapulco Bay. About seventy-three percent of the municipality's population is involved in commerce, most of it related to tourism and the port. Mining and manufacturing employ less than twenty percent and only about five percent is dedicated to agriculture. Industrial production is limited mostly to bottling, milk products, cement products, and ice and energy production. Agricultural products include tomatoes, corn, watermelon, beans, green chili peppers, and melons.\n\n===Tourism===\nLa Quebrada\nAcapulco Yacht Club\nFort of San Diego\nManzanillo Beach, a beach in the tourist area of Acapulco\nAcapulco is one of Mexico's oldest coastal tourist destinations, reaching prominence in the 1950s as the place where Hollywood stars and millionaires vacationed on the beach in an exotic locale. In modern times, tourists in Acapulco have been facing problems with local corrupt police who steal money by extortion and intimidate visitors with threats of jail.\n\nThe \"original\" Acapulco, where hotels like Hotel Los Flamingos, owned by personalities Johnny Weissmuller and John Wayne are located, is on the northern end of the bay. This area is part of the \"traditional zone\", anchored by attractions such as the beaches of Caleta and Caletilla, the cliff divers of La Quebrada, and the city square, known as \"El Zocalo.\" The \"heyday\" of this part of Acapulco ran from the late 30s until the 60s. Starting in the late 50s, and with development continuing through the 80s, the main area of Acapulco bay grew into what as known at the \"Zona Dorada\" or Golden Zone. This is where the boardwalk and main square are and today the area is filled with modern, Mexican and International branded hotels, with discothèques and restaurants within walking distance. This area also has the higher hotel occupancy rates.\n\nSouth of the bay connected by the highway La Escenia holds the newer constructions, including high-rise hotels and condominios. This area known simply as \"Acapulco Diamante\" includes Playa Diamante, Puerto Marqués, and stretches from the airport to the mountains that separates it from the bay. In this area, all along Boulevard de Las Naciones no one walks, as almost all transportation is by car, limousine or golf cart. The older section of town now caters to mostly middle class, almost exclusively Mexican clientele, while the glitzier newer section caters to the Mexican upper classes, many of whom never venture into the older, traditional part of town.\n\nAcapulco's reputation is that of a high-energy party town, where one can \"have dinner at midnight, dance until dawn then relax in the daytime on the beach. The nightlife has long been a major tourist draw of the city. From November to April, luxury liners stop here daily and include ships such as the MS ''Queen Victoria'', the MS ''Rotterdam'', ''Crystal Harmony'', and all the Princess line ships. Despite Acapulco's international fame, most of its visitors are from central Mexico, especially the affluent from Mexico City. Acapulco is one of the embarkation ports for the Mexican cruise line Ocean Star Cruises.\n\nFor the Christmas season of 2009, Acapulco received 470,000 visitors, most of whom are Mexican nationals, adding 785 million pesos to the economy. Eighty percent arrive by land and 18 percent by air. The area has over 25,000 condominiums, most of which function as second homes for their Mexican owners. Acapulco is still popular with Mexican celebrities and the wealthy, such as Luis Miguel, Plácido Domingo, and Dolores Olmedo, who maintain homes here.\n\nMarqués Port\nWhile much of the glitz and glamour that made Acapulco famous still remains, from the latter 20th century on, the city has also taken on other less-positive reputations. Some consider it a \"passé\" resort, eclipsed by the newer Cancún and Cabo San Lucas. Over the years, a number of problems have developed here, especially in the bay and the older sections of the city. The large number of wandering vendors on the beaches such as Tamarindos, who offer everything from newspapers to massages, are a recognized problem. It is a bother to tourists who simply want to relax on the beach, but the government says it is difficult to eradicate, as there is a lot of unemployment and poverty here. Around the city are many small shantytowns that cling to the mountainsides, populated by migrants who have come here looking for work. In the last decade, drug-related violence has caused problems for the local tourism trade.\n\nAnother problem is garbage that has accumulated in the bay. Although 60.65 tons have recently been extracted from the bays of Acapulco and nearby Zihuatanejo, more needs to be done. Most of trash removal during the off seasons is done on the beaches and in the waters closest to them. However, the center of the bay is not touched. The reason trash winds up in the bay is that it is common here to throw it in streets, rivers and the bay itself. The most common items cleaned out of the bay are beer bottles and car tires. Acapulco has seen some success in this area, having several beaches receiving the high \"blue flag\" certifications for cleanliness and water quality\n\n===Gastronomy===\nAcapulco's gastronomy is very rich, the following are typical dishes from the region:\n'''Relleno''' is baked pork with a variety of vegetables and fruits such as potatoes, raisins, carrots and chiles. It is eaten with bread called bolillo.\n'''Pozole''' is a soup with a salsa base (it can be white, red or green),corn, meat that can be either pork or chicken and it is accompanied with 'antojitos' like tostadas, tacos and tamales. This dish is served as part of a weekly Thursday event in the city and the state, with many restaurants offering the meal with special entertainment, from bands to dancers to celebrity impersonators.\n\n===Attractions===\nPapagayo Park\nAcapulco's main attraction is its nightlife, as it has been for many decades. Nightclubs change names and owners frequently. \nFor example, Baby ‘O has been open to the national and international public since 1976 and different celebrities have visited their installations such as Mexican singer Luis Miguel, Bono from U2 and Sylvester Stallone. Another nightclub is Palladium, located in the Escénica Avenue, the location gives the nightclub a beautiful view of the Santa Lucia Bay at night. Various dj’s have had a performance in Palladium among them DVBBS, Tom Swoon, NERVO and Junkie KID.\n\nInformal lobby or poolside cocktail bars often offer free live entertainment. In addition, there is the beach bar zone, where younger crowds go. These are located along the Costera road, face the ocean and feature techno or alternative rock. Most are concentrated between the Fiesta Americana and Continental Plaza hotels. These places tend to open earlier and have more informal dress. There is a bungee jump in this area as well.\n\nLa Quebrada Cliff Divers\nAnother enigmatic attraction at Acapulco are the La Quebrada Cliff Divers. The tradition started in the 1930s when young men casually competed against each other to see who could dive from the highest point into the sea below. Eventually, locals began to ask for tips for those coming to see the men dive. Today the divers are professionals, diving from heights of into an inlet that is only wide and deep, after praying first at a shrine to the Virgin of Guadalupe. On December 12, the feast day of this Virgin, freestyle cliff divers jump into the sea to honor her. Dives range from the simple to the complicated and end with the \"Ocean of Fire\" when the sea is lit with gasoline, making a circle of flames which the diver aims for. The spectacle can be seen from a public area which charges a small fee or from the Hotel Plaza Las Glorias/El Mirador from its bar or restaurant terrace.\n\nThere are a number of beaches in the Acapulco Bay and the immediate coastline. In the bay proper there are the La Angosta (in the Quebrada), Caleta, Caletilla, Dominguillo, Tlacopanocha, Hornos, Hornitos, Honda, Tamarindo, Condesa, Guitarrón, Icacos, Playuela, Playuelilla and Playa del Secreto. In the adjoining, smaller Bay of Puerto Marqués there is Pichilingue, Las Brisas, and Playa Roqueta. Facing open ocean just northwest of the bays is Pie de la Cuesta and southeast are Playa Revolcadero, Playa Aeromar, Playa Encantada and Barra Vieja. Two lagoons are in the area, Coyuca to the northwest of Acapulco Bay and Tres Palos to the southeast. Both lagoons have mangroves and offer boat tours. Tres Palos also has sea turtle nesting areas which are protected.\n\nIn addition to sunbathing, the beaches around the bay offer a number of services, such as boat rentals, boat tours, horseback riding, scuba diving and other aquatic sports. One popular cruise is from Caletilla Beach to Roqueta Island, which has places to snorkel, have lunch, and a lighthouse. There is also an underwater statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe here, created in 1958 by Armando Quesado in memory of a group of divers who died here. Many of the scuba-diving tours come to this area as well, where there are sunken ships, sea mountains, and cave rock formations. Another popular activity is deep-sea fishing. The major attraction is sail fishing. Fish caught here have weighed between 89 and 200 pounds. Sailfish are so plentiful that boat captains have been known to bet with a potential customer that if he does not catch anything, the trip is free.\n\nIn the old part of the city, there is a traditional main square called the Zócalo, lined with shade trees, cafés and shops. At the north end of the square is Nuestra Señora de la Soledad cathedral, with blue onion-shaped domes and Byzantine towers. The building was originally constructed as a movie set, but was later adapted into a church. Acapulco's most historic building is the Fort of San Diego, located east of the main square and originally built in 1616 to protect the city from pirate attacks. The fort was partially destroyed by the Dutch in the mid-17th century, rebuilt, then destroyed again in 1776 by an earthquake. It was rebuilt again by 1783 and this is the building that can be seen today, unchanged except for renovations done to it in 2000. Parts of the moats remain as well as the five bulwarks and the battlements. Today the fort serves as the Museo Histórico de Acapulco (Acapulco Historical Museum), which shows the port's history from the pre-Hispanic period until independence. There are temporary exhibits as well.\n\nTlacopanocha, or Tlaco de Panocha, is one of the city's main beaches\nThe Centro Internacional de Convivencia Infantil or CICI is a sea-life and aquatic park located on Costera Miguel Aleman. It offers wave pools, water slides and water toboggans. There are also dolphin shows daily and a swim with dolphins program. The center mostly caters to children. Another place that is popular with children is the Parque Papagayo: a large family park which has life-sized replicas of a Spanish galleon and the space shuttle Columbia, three artificial lakes, an aviary, a skating rink, rides, go-karts and more.\n\nThe Dolores Olmedo House is located in the traditional downtown of Acapulco and is noted for the murals by Diego Rivera that adorn it. Olmedo and Rivera had been friend since Olmedo was a child and Rivera spent the last two years of his life here. During that time, he painted nearly nonstop and created the outside walls with tile mosaics, featuring Aztec deities such as Quetzalcoatl. The interior of the home is covered in murals. The home is not a museum, so only the outside murals are able to be seen by the public.\n\nThere is a small museum called Casa de la Máscara (House of Masks) which is dedicated to masks, most of them from Mexico, but there are examples from many parts of the world. The collection contains about one thousand examples and is divided into seven rooms called Masks of the World, Mexico across History, The Huichols and the Jaguar, Alebrijes and Dances of Guerrero, Devils and Death, Identity and Fantasy, and Afro-Indian masks.\nThe Botanical Garden of Acapulco is a tropical garden located on lands owned by the Universidad Loyola del Pacífico. Most of the plants here are native to the region, and many, such as the Peltogyne mexicana or purple stick tree, are in danger of extinction.\n\nOne cultural event that is held yearly in Acapulco is the Festival Internacional de la Nao, it takes place in the Fort of San Diego, located near the Zócalo in downtown of the city. The Festival honors the remembrance of the city’s interaction and trades with Oriental territories which started back in the Sixteenth Century. The Nao Festival consists of cultural activities with the support of organizations and embassies from India, China, Japan, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia and South Korea. The variety of events go from film projections, musical interpretations and theatre to gastronomical classes, some of the events are specifically for kids.\n\nThe annual French Festival takes place throughout Acapulco city and offers a multitude of events that cement cultural links between Mexico and France. The main features are a fashion show and a gourmet food fair. The Cinépolis Galerías Diana and the Teatro Juan Ruíz de Alarcón present French and French literary figures who give talks on their specialised subjects. Even some of the local nightclubs feature French DJs. Other festivals celebrated here include Carnival, the feast of San Isidro Labrador on 15 May, and in November, a crafts and livestock fair called the Nao de China.\n\nThere are a number of golf courses in Acapulco including the Acapulco Princess and the Pierre Marqués course, the latter designed by Robert Trent Jones in 1972 for the World Cup Golf Tournament. The Mayan Palace course was designed by Pedro Guericia and an economical course called the Club de Golf Acapulco is near the convention center. The most exclusive course is that of the Tres Vidas Golf Club, designed by Robert von Hagge. It is located next to the ocean and is home to flocks of ducks and other birds.\n\nAnother famous sport tournament that has been held in Acapulco since 1993 is the Abierto Mexicano Telcel, a 500 ATP that takes place in the tennis courts of the Princess Mundo Imperial, a resort located in the Diamante zone of Acapulco. Initially it was played in clay courts but it changed to hard court. The event has gained popularity within the passing of the years, in 2017 the tournament took place from the 27th of February to the 4th of March. The athletes who participated in the competition were some of the most famous players in the last couple of years, among them were Novak Djokovic currently ranked second, Rafael Nadal positioned sixth in the ranking and Marin Cilic who is the number eight in the ranking.\nThe prizes are $250,000.00 USD for WTA and $1,200,000.00 USD for ATP.\n\nAcapulco also has a bullring, called the Plaza de Toros, near Caletilla Beach. The season runs during the winter and is called the Fiesta Brava.\n\n\n\n===Spring break===\nOver 100,000 American teenagers and young adults travel to resort areas and balnearios throughout Mexico during spring break each year. The main reason students head to Mexico is the 18-year-old drinking age (versus 21 for the United States), something that has been marketed by tour operators along with the sun and ocean. This has become attractive since the 1990s, especially since more traditional spring break places such as Daytona Beach, Florida, have enacted restrictions on drinking and other behaviors. This legislation has pushed spring break visitation to various parts of Mexico, with Acapulco as one of the top destinations.\n\nIn the late 1990s and early 2000s, Cancún had been favored as the spring break destination of choice. However, Cancún has taken some steps to control the reckless behavior associated with the event, and students have been looking for someplace new. This has led many more to choose Acapulco, in spite of the fact that for many travelers, the flight is longer and more expensive than to Cancún. Many are attracted by the glitzy hotels on the south side and Acapulco's famous nightlife. In 2008, 22,500 students came to Acapulco for spring break. Hotels did not get that many in 2009, due mostly to the economic situation in the United States, and partially because of scares of drug-related violence.\n\nIn February 2009, the US State Department issued a travel alert directed at college students planning spring break trips to Acapulco. The warning—a result of violent activity springing from Mexico's drug cartel débâcle—took college campuses by storm, with some schools going so far as to warn their students about the risks of travel to Mexico over spring break. The New York Times tracked the travels of a Penn student on spring break in Acapulco just a week after the dissemination of the email, while Bill O'Reilly devoted a segment of his show, ''The O'Reilly Factor'', to urge students to stay away from Acapulco. In June 2009, a number of incidents occurred between the drug cartel and the government. These included coordinated attacks on police headquarters and open battles in the streets, involving large-caliber weapons and grenades. However, no incidents of violence against spring breakers were reported.\n",
"General Juan N. Álvarez International Airport\nCruising at the International Transatlantic Port Lieutenant José Azueta\nAcapulco's Miguel Alemán Coastal Avenue\nFrom the U.S., many airlines now fly to Juan N. Álvarez International Airport year-round. In the city, there are many buses and taxi services one can take to get from place to place, but most of the locals choose to walk to their destinations. However, an important mode of transportation is the government subsidized 'Colectivo' cab system. These cabs cost 13 pesos per person to ride, but they are not private. The driver will pick up more passengers as long as seats are available, and will transport them to their destination based on first-come first-served rules. The colectivos each travel a designated area of the city, the three main ones being Costera, Colosio, Coloso, or a mixture of the three. Coloso cabs travel mainly to old Acapulco. Colosio cabs travel through most of the tourist area of Acapulco. Costera cabs drive up and down the coast of Acapulco, where most of the hotels for visitors are located, but which includes some of old Acapulco. Where a driver will take you is partly his choice. Some are willing to travel to the other designated areas, especially during slow periods of the day.\n\nThe bus system is highly complex and can be rather confusing to an outsider. As far as transportation goes, it is the cheapest form, other than walking, in Acapulco. The most expensive buses have air conditioning, while the cheaper buses do not. For tourists, the Acapulco city government has established a system of yellow buses with Acapulco painted on the side of them. These buses are not for tourists only, but are certainly the nicest and most uniform of the bus systems. These buses travel the tourist section of Acapulco, driving up and down the coast. There are buses with specific routes and destinations, generally written on their windshields or shouted out by a barker riding in the front seat. Perhaps the most unusual thing about the privately operated buses is the fact that they are all highly decorated and personalized, with decals and home-made interior designs that range from comic book scenes, to pornography, and even to \"Hello Kitty\" themes.\n\nThe conflictive public transportation would be upgraded the 25th of June 2016 with the implementation of the Acabus. The Acabus infrastructure has a length of , counts with 16 stations that spread through the city of Acapulco and 5 routes. This project will help organize traffic because the buses now have a specific line on the roads and there would be more control over transportation and passengers.\n",
"\n=== Consulates ===\n\n\nCountry\nType\nRef.\n\n'''Canada'''\nConsular agency\n\n\n'''United States'''\nConsular agency\n\n\n'''The Russian Federation'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''Finland'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''France'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''Philippines'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''Poland'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''Spain'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n'''United Kingdom'''\nHonorary consul\n\n\n",
"\n* Acapulco (municipality)\n* Triangle of the Sun\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Geography and climate",
"Government",
"Economy",
"Transportation",
" International relations ",
"See also",
"References",
"Bibliography",
" External links "
] | Acapulco |
[
"\n\n\n'''Alan Curtis Kay''' (born May 17, 1940) is an American computer scientist. He has been elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Royal Society of Arts. He is best known for his pioneering work on object-oriented programming and windowing graphical user interface design.\n\nHe is the president of the Viewpoints Research Institute, and an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of California, Los Angeles. He is also on the advisory board of TTI/Vanguard. Until mid-2005, he was a Senior Fellow at HP Labs, a Visiting Professor at Kyoto University, and an Adjunct Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became Atari's chief scientist for three years.\n\nKay is also a former professional jazz guitarist, composer, and theatrical designer, and an amateur classical pipe organist.\n",
"In an interview on education in America with the Davis Group Ltd. Alan Kay said,\n\n\n\nOriginally from Springfield, Massachusetts, Kay attended the University of Colorado at Boulder, earning a bachelor's degree in Mathematics and Molecular Biology. Before and during this time, he worked as a professional jazz guitarist.\n\nIn 1966, he began graduate school at the University of Utah College of Engineering, earning a master's degree and a Ph.D. degree.\n\nHis doctoral thesis was entitled ''FLEX: A Flexible Extendable Language'', describing an invention of computer language known as FLEX.\n\nWhile at the University of Utah, he worked with Ivan Sutherland, who had done pioneering graphics programs including Sketchpad. This greatly inspired Kay's evolving views on objects and programming. As he grew busier with ARPA research, he quit his career as a professional musician.\n\nIn 1968, he met Seymour Papert and learned of the Logo programming language, a dialect of Lisp optimized for educational purposes. This led him to learn of the work of Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky, and of constructionist learning. These further influenced his views.\n\nIn 1970, Kay joined Xerox Corporation's Palo Alto Research Center, PARC. In the 1970s he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language Smalltalk. These inventions were later commercialized by Apple Computer in their Lisa and Macintosh computers.\n\nKay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, which he named, along with some colleagues at PARC. Some of the original object-oriented concepts, including the use of the words 'object' and 'class', had been developed for Simula 67 at the Norwegian Computing Center. Later he said: \n\nI'm sorry that I long ago coined the term \"objects\" for this topic because it gets many people to focus on the\n lesser idea. The big idea is \"messaging\"\n\nKay conceived the Dynabook concept which defined the conceptual basics for laptop and tablet computers and E-books, and is the architect of the modern overlapping windowing graphical user interface (GUI). Because the Dynabook was conceived as an educational platform, Kay is considered to be one of the first researchers into mobile learning, and indeed, many features of the Dynabook concept have been adopted in the design of the One Laptop Per Child educational platform, with which Kay is actively involved.\n\nThe field of computing is awaiting new revolution to happen, according to Kay, in which educational communities, parents, and children will not see in it a set of tools invented by Douglas Engelbart, but a medium in the Marshall McLuhan sense. He wrote:\n\nAs with Simulas leading to OOP, this encounter finally hit me with what the destiny of personal computing really was going to be. Not a personal dynamic vehicle, as in Engelbart’s metaphor opposed to the IBM “railroads”, but something much more profound: a personal dynamic medium. With a vehicle one could wait until high school and give “drivers ed”, but if it was a medium, it had to extend into the world of childhood.\n",
"Starting in 1984, Kay was an Apple Fellow at Apple Computer until the closing of the ATG (Advanced Technology Group), one of the company's R&D divisions. He was then recruited by his friend Bran Ferren, head of R&D at Walt Disney, to join Walt Disney Imagineering as a Disney Fellow and remained there until Ferren left to start Applied Minds Inc, with Imagineer Danny Hillis, and Disney ended its Fellows program. After Disney, in 2001 he founded Viewpoints Research Institute, a non-profit organization dedicated to children, learning, and advanced software development. For its first ten years, Kay and his Viewpoints group were based at Applied Minds in Glendale, where he and Ferren continued to work together on various projects.\n\nLater, Kay became a Senior Fellow at Hewlett-Packard until HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20, 2005. He is currently head of Viewpoints Research Institute.\n\nKay taught a Fall 2011 class, \"Powerful Ideas: Useful Tools to Understand the World\", at NYU's Interactive Telecommunications Program (ITP) along with full-time ITP faculty member Nancy Hechinger. The goal of the class was to devise new forms of teaching/learning based on fundamental, powerful concepts rather than traditional rote learning.\n\n=== Squeak, Etoys, and Croquet ===\nIn December 1995, while still at Apple, Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source Squeak version of Smalltalk, and he continues to work on it. As part of this effort, in November 1996, his team began research on what became the Etoys system. More recently he started, along with David A. Smith, David P. Reed, Andreas Raab, Rick McGeer, Julian Lombardi and Mark McCahill, the Croquet Project, an open source networked 2D and 3D environment for collaborative work.\n\n=== Tweak ===\nIn 2001, it became clear that the Etoy architecture in Squeak had reached its limits in what the Morphic interface infrastructure could do. Andreas Raab was a researcher working in Kay's group, then at Hewlett-Packard. He proposed defining a \"script process\" and providing a default scheduling mechanism that avoids several more general problems. The result was a new user interface, proposed to replace the Squeak Morphic user interface in the future. Tweak added mechanisms of islands, asynchronous messaging, players and costumes, language extensions, projects, and tile scripting. Its underlying object system is class-based, but to users (during programming) it acts like it is prototype-based. Tweak objects are created and run in Tweak project windows.\n\n=== Children's Machine ===\nIn November 2005, at the World Summit on the Information Society, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new laptop computer, for educational use around the world. It has many names: the $100 Laptop, the One Laptop per Child program, the Children's Machine, and the XO-1. The program was begun and is sustained by Kay's friend, Nicholas Negroponte, and is based on Kay's Dynabook ideal. Kay is a prominent co-developer of the computer, focusing on its educational software using Squeak and Etoys.\n\n=== Reinventing programming ===\nKay has lectured extensively on the idea that the computer revolution is very new, and all of the good ideas have not been universally implemented. Lectures at OOPSLA 1997 conference and his ACM Turing award talk, entitled \"The Computer Revolution Hasn't Happened Yet\" were informed by his experiences with Sketchpad, Simula, Smalltalk, and the bloated code of commercial software.\n\nOn August 31, 2006, Kay's proposal to the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) was granted, thus funding Viewpoints Research Institute for several years. The proposal title was: ''STEPS Toward the Reinvention of Programming'': A compact and Practical Model of Personal Computing as a Self-exploratorium. A sense of what Kay is trying to do comes from this quote, from the abstract of a seminar on this given at Intel Research Labs, Berkeley: \"The conglomeration of commercial and most open source software consumes in the neighborhood of several hundreds of millions of lines of code these days. We wonder: how small could be an understandable practical \"Model T\" design that covers this functionality? 1M lines of code? 200K LOC? 100K LOC? 20K LOC?\"\n\n=== Awards and honors ===\nAlan Kay has received many awards and honors. Among them:\n* 2001: UdK 01-Award in Berlin, Germany for pioneering the GUI; J-D Warnier Prix D'Informatique; NEC C&C Prize\n* 2002: Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology in Telluride, Colorado\n* 2003: ACM Turing Award \"For pioneering many of the ideas at the root of contemporary object-oriented programming languages, leading the team that developed Smalltalk, and for fundamental contributions to personal computing.\"\n* 2004: Kyoto Prize; Charles Stark Draper Prize with Butler W. Lampson, Robert W. Taylor and Charles P. Thacker\n* 2012: UPE Abacus Award awarded to individuals who have provided extensive support and leadership for student-related activities in the computing and information disciplines,\n* Honorary doctorates:\n** 2002: Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan (Royal Institute of Technology) in Stockholm\n** 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology\n** 2005: Columbia College Chicago awarded Doctor of Humane Letters, Honoris Causa\n** 2007: Laurea Honoris Causa in Informatica, Università di Pisa, Italy\n** 2008: University of Waterloo\n** 2010: Universidad de Murcia\n* Honorary Professor, Berlin University of the Arts\n* Elected fellow of:\n** American Academy of Arts and Sciences\n** National Academy of Engineering\n** Royal Society of Arts\n** 1999: Computer History Museum \"for his fundamental contributions to personal computing and human-computer interface development.\"\n** 2008: Association for Computing Machinery \"For fundamental contributions to personal computing and object-oriented programming.\"\n** 2011: Hasso Plattner Institute\n\nHis other honors include the J-D Warnier Prix d’Informatique, the ACM Systems Software Award, the NEC Computers & Communication Foundation Prize, the Funai Foundation Prize, the Lewis Branscomb Technology Award, and the ACM SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contributions to Computer Science Education.\n",
"* List of pioneers in computer science\n",
"\n",
"\n* Viewpoints Research Institute\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life and work ",
" Recent work and recognition ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Alan Kay |
[
"\n\n\n\nPromotional material for APL from 1976\n'''APL''' (named after the book ''A Programming Language'') is a programming language developed in the 1960s by Kenneth E. Iverson. Its central datatype is the multidimensional array. It uses a large range of special graphic symbols to represent most functions and operators, leading to very concise code. It has been an important influence on the development of concept modeling, spreadsheets, functional programming, and computer math packages. It has also inspired several other programming languages. It is still used today for certain applications.\n",
"The mathematical notation for manipulating arrays which developed into the APL programming language was developed by Iverson at Harvard University starting in 1957, and published in his ''A Programming Language'' in 1962.\nThe preface states its premise:\nApplied mathematics is largely concerned with the design and analysis of explicit procedures for calculating the exact or approximate values of various functions. Such explicit procedures are called algorithms or ''programs''. Because an effective notation for the description of programs exhibits considerable syntactic structure, it is called a ''programming language''.\n\n\nIn 1960, he began work for IBM and, working with Adin Falkoff, created APL based on the notation he had developed. This notation was used inside IBM for short research reports on computer systems, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its stack mechanism when stack machines versus register machines were being evaluated by IBM for upcoming computers.\n\nAlso in 1960, Iverson used his notation in a draft of the chapter \"A Programming Language\", written for a book he was writing with Fred Brooks, ''Automatic Data Processing'', which would be published in 1963.\n\nAs early as 1962, the first attempt to use the notation to describe a complete computer system happened after Falkoff discussed with Dr. William C. Carter his work in the standardization of the instruction set for the machines that later became the IBM System/360 family.\n\nIn 1963, Herbert Hellerman, working at the IBM Systems Research Institute, implemented a part of the notation on an IBM 1620 computer, and it was used by students in a special high school course on calculating transcendental functions by series summation. Students tested their code in Hellerman's lab. This implementation of a portion of the notation was called PAT (Personalized Array Translator).\n\nIn 1963, Falkoff, Iverson, and Edward H. Sussenguth Jr., all working at IBM, used the notation for a formal description of the IBM System/360 series machine architecture and functionality, which resulted in a paper published in ''IBM Systems Journal'' in 1964. After this was published, the team turned their attention to an implementation of the notation on a computer system. One of the motivations for this focus of implementation was the interest of John L. Lawrence who had new duties with Science Research Associates, an educational company bought by IBM in 1964. Lawrence asked Iverson and his group to help utilize the language as a tool for the development and use of computers in education.\n\nAfter Lawrence M. Breed and Philip S. Abrams of Stanford University joined the team at IBM Research, they continued their prior work on an implementation programmed in FORTRAN IV for a portion of the notation which had been done for the IBM 7090 computer running under the IBSYS operating system. This work was finished in late 1965 and later known as IVSYS (Iverson System). The basis of this implementation was described in detail by Abrams in a Stanford University Technical Report, \"An Interpreter for Iverson Notation\" in 1966. this was formally supervised by Niklaus Wirth. Like Hellerman's PAT system earlier, this implementation did not include the APL character set but used special English reserved words for functions and operators. The system was later adapted for a time-sharing system and, by November 1966, it had been reprogrammed for the IBM System/360 Model 50 computer running in a time sharing mode and was used internally at IBM.\n\nIBM typeballs (one OCR) with clip, coin for scale\n\nA key development in the ability to use APL effectively, before the widespread use of CRT terminals, was the development of a special IBM Selectric typewriter interchangeable typeball with all the special APL characters on it. This was used on paper printing terminal workstations using the Selectric typewriter and typeball mechanism, such as the IBM 1050 and IBM 2741 terminal. Keycaps could be placed over the normal keys to show which APL characters would be entered and typed when that key was struck. For the first time, a programmer could actually type in and see real APL characters as used in Iverson's notation and not be forced to use awkward English keyword representations of them. Falkoff and Iverson had the special APL Selectric typeballs, 987 and 988, designed in late 1964, although no APL computer system was available to use them. Iverson cited Falkoff as the inspiration for the idea of using an IBM Selectric typeball for the APL character set.\n\nA programmer's view of the IBM 2741 keyboard layout with the APL typeball print head inserted\n\nSome APL symbols, even with the APL characters on the typeball, still had to be typed in by over-striking two existing typeball characters. An example is the \"grade up\" character, which had to be made from a \"delta\" (shift-H) and a \"Sheffer stroke\" (shift-M). This was necessary because the APL character set was larger than the 88 characters allowed on the Selectric typeball.\n\nThe first APL interactive login and creation of an APL workspace was in 1966 by Larry Breed using an IBM 1050 terminal at the IBM Mohansic Labs near Thomas J. Watson Research Center, the home of APL, in Yorktown Heights, New York.\n\nIBM was chiefly responsible for the introduction of APL to the marketplace. APL was first available in 1967 for the IBM 1130 as ''APL\\1130''. It would run in as little as 8k 16-bit words of memory, and used a dedicated 1 megabyte hard disk.\n\nAPL gained its foothold on mainframe timesharing systems from the late 1960s through the early 1980s, in part because it would run on lower-specification systems that were not equipped with Dynamic Address Translation hardware. Additional improvements in performance for selected IBM System/370 mainframe systems included the \"APL Assist Microcode\" in which some support for APL execution was included in the actual firmware as opposed to APL being exclusively a software product. Somewhat later, as suitably performing hardware was finally becoming available in the mid- to late-1980s, many users migrated their applications to the personal computer environment.\n\nEarly IBM APL interpreters for IBM 360 and IBM 370 hardware implemented their own multi-user management instead of relying on the host services, thus they were timesharing systems in their own right. First introduced in 1966, the ''APL\\360'' system was a multi-user interpreter. The ability to programmatically communicate with the operating system for information and setting interpreter system variables was done through special privileged \"I-beam\" functions, using both monadic and dyadic operations.\n\nIn 1973, IBM released ''APL.SV'', which was a continuation of the same product, but which offered shared variables as a means to access facilities outside of the APL system, such as operating system files. In the mid-1970s, the IBM mainframe interpreter was even adapted for use on the IBM 5100 desktop computer, which had a small CRT and an APL keyboard, when most other small computers of the time only offered BASIC. In the 1980s, the ''VSAPL'' program product enjoyed widespread usage with CMS, TSO, VSPC, MUSIC/SP and CICS users.\n\nIn 1973-1974, Dr. Patrick E. Hagerty directed the implementation of the University of Maryland APL interpreter for the Sperry Univac 1100 Series mainframe computers. At the time, Sperry had nothing. In 1974, student Alan Stebbens was assigned the task of implementing an internal function.\n\nSeveral timesharing firms sprang up in the 1960s and 1970s that sold APL services using modified versions of the IBM APL\\360 interpreter. In North America, the better-known ones were I. P. Sharp Associates, STSC, Time Sharing Resources (TSR) and The Computer Company (TCC). CompuServe also entered the fray in 1978 with an APL Interpreter based on a modified version of Digital Equipment Corp and Carnegie Mellon's which ran on DEC's KI and KL 36 bit machines. CompuServe's APL was available both to its commercial market and the consumer information service. With the advent first of less expensive mainframes such as the IBM 4300 and later the personal computer, the timesharing industry had all but disappeared by the mid-1980s.\n\n''Sharp APL'' was available from I. P. Sharp Associates, first on a timesharing basis in the 1960s, and later as a program product starting around 1979. ''Sharp APL'' was an advanced APL implementation with many language extensions, such as ''packages'' (the ability to put one or more objects into a single variable), file system, nested arrays, and shared variables.\n\nAPL interpreters were available from other mainframe and mini-computer manufacturers as well, notably Burroughs, CDC, Data General, DEC, Harris, Hewlett-Packard, Siemens AG, Xerox, and others.\n\nGarth Foster of Syracuse University sponsored regular meetings of the APL implementers' community at Syracuse's Minnowbrook Conference Center in Blue Mountain Lake, New York. In later years, Eugene McDonnell organized similar meetings at the Asilomar Conference Grounds near Monterey, California, and at Pajaro Dunes near Watsonville, California. The SIGAPL special interest group of the Association for Computing Machinery continues to support the APL community.\n\nIn 1979, Iverson received the Turing Award for his work on APL.\n\nFilmography, Videos: Over the years APL has been the subject of more than a few films and videos. Some of these include:\n* \"Chasing Men Who Stare at Arrays\" Catherine Lathwell's Film Diaries; 2014, film synopsis - \"people who accept significantly different ways of thinking, challenge the status quo and as a result, created an invention that subtly changes the world. And no one knows about it. And a Canadian started it all… I want everyone to know about it.\"\n* \"The Origins of APL - 1974 - YouTube\", YouTube video, 2012, uploaded by Catherine Lathwell; a talk show style interview with the original developers of APL.\n* \"50 Years of APL\", YouTube, 2009, by Graeme Robertson, uploaded by MindofZiggi, history of APL, quick introduction to APL, a powerful programming language currently finding new life due to its ability to create and implement systems, web-based or otherwise.\n* \"APL demonstration 1975\", YouTube, 2013, uploaded by Imperial College London; 1975 live demonstration of the computer language APL (A Programming Language) by Professor Bob Spence, Imperial College London.\n\n=== APL2 ===\nStarting in the early 1980s, IBM APL development, under the leadership of Dr Jim Brown, implemented a new version of the APL language that contained as its primary enhancement the concept of ''nested arrays'', where an array can contain other arrays, as well as new language features which facilitated the integration of nested arrays into program workflow. Ken Iverson, no longer in control of the development of the APL language, left IBM and joined I. P. Sharp Associates, where one of his major contributions was directing the evolution of Sharp APL to be more in accordance with his vision.\n\nAs other vendors were busy developing APL interpreters for new hardware, notably Unix-based microcomputers, APL2 was almost always the standard chosen for new APL interpreter developments. Even today, most APL vendors or their users cite APL2 compatibility, as a selling point for those products.\n\n''APL2'' for IBM mainframe computers is still available. IBM cites its use for problem solving, system design, prototyping, engineering and scientific computations, expert systems, for teaching mathematics and other subjects, visualization and database access and was first available for CMS and TSO in 1984. The APL2 Workstation edition (Windows, OS/2, AIX, Linux, and Solaris) followed much later in the early 1990s.\n\n=== Microcomputers ===\nThe first microcomputer implementation of APL was on the Intel 8008-based MCM/70, the first general purpose personal computer, in 1973. Size of arrays along any dimension could not be larger than 255 and the machine was quite slow, but very convenient for education purposes. Interestingly, a significant percentage of sales was to small businesses, who found it more cost effective and accessible than the time sharing services that were available at the time, and for whom the array size limitations were not a barrier.\n\nIBM's own IBM 5100 microcomputer (1975) offered APL as one of two built-in ROM-based interpreted languages for the computer, complete with a keyboard and display that supported all the special symbols used in the language. While the 5100 was very slow and operated its screen only like a typewriter, its follower the 5110 had more acceptable performances and a read-write addressable text screen. Graphics could be printed on an external matrix printer.\n\nIn 1976 DNA Systems introduced an APL interpreter for their TSO Operating System, which ran timesharing on the IBM 1130, Digital Scientific Meta-4, General Automation GA 18/30 and Computer Hardware CHI 21/30.\n\nThe VideoBrain Family Computer, released in 1977, only had one programming language available for it, and that was a dialect of APL called APL/S.\n\nA Small APL for the Intel 8080 called EMPL was released in 1977, and Softronics APL, with most of the functions of full APL, for 8080-based CP/M systems was released in 1979.\n\nIn 1977, the Canadian firm Telecompute Integrated Systems, Inc. released a business-oriented APL interpreter known as TIS APL, for Z80-based systems. It featured the full set of file functions for APL, plus a full screen input and switching of right and left arguments for most dyadic operators by introducing the ~. prefix to all single character dyadic functions such as - or /.\n\nVanguard APL was available for Z80 CP/M-based processors in the late 1970s. TCC released APL.68000 in the early 1980s for Motorola 68000-based processors, this system being the basis for MicroAPL Limited's APLX product. I. P. Sharp Associates released a version of their APL interpreter for the IBM PC and PC-XT/370. For the IBM PC, an emulator was written that facilitated reusing much of the IBM 370 mainframe code. Arguably, the best known APL interpreter for the IBM Personal Computer was STSC's APL*Plus/PC.\n\nThe Commodore SuperPET, introduced in 1981, included an APL interpreter developed by the University of Waterloo.\n\nIn the early 1980s, the Analogic Corporation developed ''The APL Machine'', which was an array processing computer designed to be programmed only in APL. There were actually three processing units, the user's workstation, an IBM PC, where programs were entered and edited, a Motorola 68000 processor that ran the APL interpreter, and the Analogic array processor that executed the primitives. At the time of its introduction, The APL Machine was likely the fastest APL system available. Although a technological success, The APL Machine was a marketing failure. The initial version supported a single process at a time. At the time the project was discontinued, the design had been completed to allow multiple users. As an aside, an unusual aspect of The APL Machine was that the library of workspaces was organized such that a single function or variable that was shared by many workspaces existed only once in the library. Several of the members of The APL Machine project had previously spent a number of years with Burroughs implementing ''APL\\700''.\n\nAt one stage, it was claimed by Bill Gates in his Open Letter to Hobbyists, Microsoft Corporation planned to release a version of APL, but these plans never materialized.\n\nAn early 1978 publication of Rodnay Zaks from Sybex was ''A microprogrammed APL implementation'' , which is the complete source listing for the microcode for a Digital Scientific Corporation Meta 4 microprogrammable processor implementing APL. This topic was also the subject of his PhD thesis.\n\nIn 1979, William Yerazunis wrote a partial version of APL in Prime Computer FORTRAN, extended it with graphics primitives, and released it. This was also the subject of his Masters thesis.\n\n=== Extensions ===\n\nVarious implementations of APL by APLX, Dyalog, et al., include extensions for object-oriented programming, support for .NET, XML-array conversion primitives, graphing, operating system interfaces, and lambda expressions.\n",
"\nUnlike traditionally structured programming languages, APL code is typically structured as chains of monadic or dyadic functions, and operators acting on arrays. APL has many nonstandard ''primitives'' (functions and operators) that are indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols. All primitives are defined to have the same precedence, and always associate to the right; hence APL is ''read'' or best understood from right-to-left.\n\n''Early'' APL implementations (circa 1970 or so) did not have programming loop-flow control structures, such as \"do\" or \"while\" loops, and \"if-then-else\" constructions. Instead, they used array operations, and use of structured programming constructs was often not necessary, since an operation could be carried out on an entire array in a single statement. For example, the ''iota'' function (''ι'') can replace for-loop iteration: ιN when applied to a scalar positive integer yields a one-dimensional array (vector), 1 2 3 ... N. More recent implementations of APL generally include comprehensive control structures, so that data structure and program control flow can be clearly and cleanly separated.\n\nThe APL environment is called a ''workspace''. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can also manipulate the data without having to define a program. In the examples below, the APL interpreter first types six spaces before awaiting the user's input. Its own output starts in column one.\n\n\n n ← 4 5 6 7\n Assigns vector of values, {4 5 6 7}, to variable n, an array create operation. An equivalent yet more concise APL expression would be n ← 3 + ⍳4. Multiple values are stored in array '''n''', the operation performed '''without formal loops or control flow language'''.\n\n n \n4 5 6 7\n Display the contents of n, currently an array or vector.\n\n n+4\n8 9 10 11\n 4 is now added to all elements of vector n, creating a 4-element vector {8 9 10 11}. As above, APL's interpreter displays the result because the expression's value was not assigned to a variable (with a ←).\n\n +/n\n22\n APL displays the sum of components of the vector n, i.e. 22 (= 4 + 5 + 6 + 7) using a very compact notation: read +/ as \"plus, over...\" and a slight change would be \"multiply, over...\"\n\n m ← +/(3+⍳4)\n m\n22\n These operations can be combined into a single statement, remembering that APL evaluates expressions right to left: first ⍳4 creates an array, 1,2,3,4, then 3 is added to each component, which are summed together and the result stored in variable m, finally displayed.\nIn conventional mathematical notation, it is equivalent to: . - remember that mathematical expressions are not read right-to-left...\n\n\nThe user can save the workspace with all values, programs, and execution status.\n\nAPL is well known for its use of a set of non-ASCII symbols, which are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. Having single character names for SIMD vector functions is one way that APL enables compact formulation of algorithms for data transformation such as computing Conway's Game of Life in one line of code. In nearly all versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is, in one line of code.\n\nBecause of the unusual character set, many programmers use special keyboards with APL keytops to write APL code. Although there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters, in practice it is almost never done. (This may be thought to support Iverson's thesis about notation as a tool of thought.) Most if not all modern implementations use standard keyboard layouts, with special mappings or input method editors to access non-ASCII characters. Historically, the APL font has been distinctive, with uppercase italic alphabetic characters and upright numerals and symbols. Most vendors continue to display the APL character set in a custom font.\n\nAdvocates of APL claim that the examples of so-called \"write-only code\" (badly written and almost incomprehensible code) are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. Advocates of APL also claim that they are far more productive with APL than with more conventional computer languages, and that working software can be implemented in far less time and with far fewer programmers than using other technology.\n\nThey also may claim that because it is compact and terse, APL lends itself well to larger-scale software development and complexity, because the number of lines of code can be dramatically reduced. Many APL advocates and practitioners also view standard programming languages such as COBOL and Java as being comparatively tedious. APL is often found where time-to-market is important, such as with trading systems.\n\nIverson later designed the ''J programming language'', which uses ASCII with digraphs instead of special symbols.\n",
"Because APL's core objects are arrays, it lends itself well to parallelism, parallel computing, massively parallel applications, and very-large-scale integration or VLSI.\n\n=== Interpreters ===\nAPLNext (formerly APL2000) offers an advanced APL interpreter that operates under Linux, Unix, and Windows. It supports Windows automation, supports calls to operating system and user defined DLLs, has an advanced APL File System, and represents the current level of APL language development. APL2000's product is an advanced continuation of STSC's successful APL*Plus/PC and APL*Plus/386 product line.\n\n''Dyalog APL'' is an advanced APL interpreter that operates under AIX, Linux (including on the Raspberry Pi), macOS and Microsoft Windows. Dyalog has extensions to the APL language, which include new object-oriented features, numerous language enhancements, plus a consistent namespace model used for both its Microsoft Automation interface, as well as native namespaces. For the Windows platform, Dyalog APL offers tight integration with .NET, plus limited integration with the Microsoft Visual Studio development platform.\n\nIBM offers a version of IBM APL2 for IBM AIX, Linux, Sun Solaris and Windows systems. This product is a continuation of APL2 offered for IBM mainframes. IBM APL2 was arguably the most influential APL system, which provided a solid implementation standard for the next set of extensions to the language, focusing on nested arrays.\n\nNARS2000 is an open-source APL interpreter written by Bob Smith, a well-known APL developer and implementor from STSC in the 1970s and 1980s. NARS2000 contains advanced features and new datatypes, runs natively under Windows (32- and 64-bit versions), and runs under Linux and Apple macOS with Wine.\n\nMicroAPL Limited offers APLX, a full-featured 64 bit interpreter for Linux, Microsoft Windows, and macOS systems. The core language is closely modelled on IBM's APL2 with various enhancements. ''APLX'' includes close integration with .NET, Java, Ruby and R. Effective July 11, 2016, MicroAPL withdrew APLX from commercial sale. Dyalog began hosting the APLX website including the download area and documentation.\n\nSoliton Incorporated offers the SAX interpreter, which stands for ''S''harp ''A''PL for Uni''X'', for Unix and Linux systems. This is a further development of I. P. Sharp Associates' Sharp APL product. Unlike most other APL interpreters, Kenneth E. Iverson had some influence in the way nested arrays were implemented in Sharp APL and SAX. Nearly all other APL implementations followed the course set by IBM with APL2, thus some important details in Sharp APL differ from other implementations.\n\nOpenAPL is an open source implementation of APL published by Branko Bratkovic. It is based on code by Ken Thompson of Bell Laboratories, together with contributions by others. It is licensed under the GNU General Public License, and runs on Unix systems including Linux on x86, SPARC and other CPUs.\n\nGNU APL is a free implementation of ISO Standard 13751 and hence similar to APL2. It runs on GNU/Linux and on Windows using Cygwin. It uses Unicode internally. GNU APL was written by Jürgen Sauermann.\n\n=== Compilers ===\nAPL programs are normally interpreted and less often compiled. In reality, most APL compilers translated source APL to a lower level language such as C, leaving the machine-specific details to the lower level compiler. Compilation of APL programs was a frequently discussed topic in conferences. Although some of the newer enhancements to the APL language such as nested arrays have rendered the language increasingly difficult to compile, the idea of APL compilation is still under development today.\n\nIn the past, APL compilation was regarded as a means to achieve execution speed comparable to other mainstream languages, especially on mainframe computers. Several APL compilers achieved some levels of success, though comparatively little of the development effort spent on APL over the years went to perfecting compilation into machine code.\n\nAs is the case when moving APL programs from one vendor's APL interpreter to another, APL programs invariably will require changes to their content. Depending on the compiler, variable declarations might be needed, certain language features would need to be removed or avoided, or the APL programs would need to be cleaned up in some way. Some features of the language, such as the execute function (an expression evaluator) and the various reflection and introspection functions from APL, such as the ability to return a function's text or to materialize a new function from text, are simply not practical to implement in machine code compilation.\n\nA commercial compiler was brought to market by STSC in the mid-1980s as an add-on to IBM's VSAPL Program Product.\nUnlike more modern APL compilers, this product produced machine code that would execute only in the interpreter environment, it was not possible to eliminate the interpreter component. The compiler could compile many scalar and vector operations to machine code, but it would rely on the APL interpreter's services to perform some more advanced functions, rather than attempt to compile them. However, dramatic speedups did occur, especially for heavily iterative APL code.\n\nAround the same time, the book ''An APL Compiler'' by Timothy Budd appeared in print. This book detailed the construction of an APL translator (aplc), written in C, which performed certain optimizations such as loop fusion specific to the needs of an array language. The source language was APL-like in that a few rules of the APL language were changed or relaxed to permit more efficient compilation. The translator would emit C code which could then be compiled and run outside of the APL workspace. Another compiler, also named aplc, was later created by Samuel W. Sirlin, based on Budd's work.\n\nThe Burroughs/Unisys ''APLB'' interpreter (1982) was the first to use dynamic incremental compilation to produce code for an APL-specific virtual machine. It recompiled on-the-fly as identifiers changed their functional meanings. In addition to removing parsing and some error checking from the main execution path, such compilation also streamlines the repeated entry and exit of user-defined functional operands. This avoids the stack setup and take-down for function calls made by APL's built-in operators such as '''Reduce''' and '''Each'''.\n\n\n\n''APEX'', a research APL compiler, is available under the GNU Public License, per Snake Island Research Inc. APEX compiles flat APL (a subset of ISO N8485) into SAC, a functional array language with parallel semantics, and currently runs under Linux. APEX-generated code uses loop fusion and 'array contraction', special-case algorithms not generally available to interpreters (e.g., upgrade of permutation matrix/vector), to achieve a level of performance comparable to that of Fortran.\n\nThe APLNext ''VisualAPL'' system is a departure from a conventional APL system in that VisualAPL is a true .NET language which is fully interoperable with other .NET languages such as VB.NET and C#. VisualAPL is inherently object-oriented and Unicode-based. While VisualAPL incorporates most of the features of standard APL implementations, the VisualAPL language extends standard APL to be .NET-compliant. VisualAPL is hosted in the standard Microsoft Visual Studio IDE and as such, invokes compilation in a manner identical to that of other .NET languages. By producing Common Intermediate Language (CIL) code, it utilizes the Microsoft just-in-time compiler (JIT) to support 32-bit or 64-bit hardware. Substantial performance speed-ups over standard APL have been reported, especially when (optional) strong typing of function arguments is used.\n\nAn APL-to-C# translator is available from Causeway Graphical Systems. This product was designed to allow the APL code, translated to equivalent C#, to run completely outside of the APL environment. The Causeway compiler requires a run-time library of array functions. Some speedup, sometimes dramatic, is visible, but happens on account of the optimisations inherent in Microsoft's .NET Framework.\n\n=== Matrix optimizations ===\nAPL was unique in the speed with which it could perform complicated matrix operations. For example, a very large matrix multiplication would take only a few seconds on a machine that was much less powerful than those today, ref. history of supercomputing and \"because it operates on arrays and performs operations like matrix inversion internally, well written APL can be surprisingly fast.\" There were both technical and economic reasons for this advantage:\n* Commercial interpreters delivered highly tuned linear algebra library routines.\n* Very low interpretive overhead was incurred per-array—not per-element.\n* APL response time compared favorably to the runtimes of early optimizing compilers.\n* IBM provided microcode assist for APL on a number of IBM370 mainframes.\n\nPhil Abrams' much-cited paper \"An APL Machine\" illustrated how APL could make effective use of lazy evaluation where calculations would not actually be performed until the results were needed and then only those calculations strictly required. An obvious (and easy to implement) lazy evaluation is the ''J-vector'': when a monadic ''iota'' is encountered in the code, it is kept as a representation instead of being expanded in memory; in future operations, a J-vectors contents are the loop's induction register, not reads from memory.\n\nAlthough such techniques were not widely used by commercial interpreters, they exemplify the language's best survival mechanism: not specifying the order of scalar operations or the exact contents of memory. As standardized, in 1983 by ANSI working group X3J10, APL remains highly data-parallel. This gives language implementers immense freedom to schedule operations as efficiently as possible. As computer innovations such as cache memory, and SIMD execution became commercially available, APL programs are ported with almost no extra effort spent re-optimizing low-level details.\n",
"APL makes a clear distinction between ''functions'' and ''operators''. Functions take arrays (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return arrays as results. Operators (similar to higher-order functions) take functions or arrays as arguments, and derive related functions. For example, the \"sum\" function is derived by applying the \"reduction\" operator to the \"addition\" function. Applying the same reduction operator to the \"maximum\" function (which returns the larger of two numbers) derives a function which returns the largest of a group (vector) of numbers. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms \"verb\" for \"function\" and \"adverb\" or \"conjunction\" for \"operator\".\n\nAPL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as ''primitives''. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some versions of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment.\n\nSome words used in APL literature have meanings that differ from those in both mathematics and the generality of computer science.\n\n\n\n Term\n Description\n\n function\n operation or mapping that takes zero, one (right) or two (left & right) arguments which may be scalars, arrays, or more complicated structures, and may return a similarly complex result. A function may be:\n* Primitive: built-in and represented by a single glyph;\n* Defined: as a named and ordered collection of program statements;\n* Derived: as a combination of an operator with its arguments.\n\n array\n data valued object of zero or more orthogonal dimensions in row-major order in which each item is a primitive scalar datum or another array.\n\n niladic\n not taking or requiring any arguments,\n\n monadic\n requiring only one argument; on the right for a function, on the left for an operator, unary\n\n dyadic\n requiring both a left and a right argument, binary\n\n ambivalent or monadic\n capable of use in a monadic or dyadic context, permitting its left argument to be elided\n\n operator\n operation or mapping that takes one (left) or two (left & right) function or array valued arguments (operands) and derives a function. An operator may be:\n* Primitive: built-in and represented by a single glyph;\n* Defined: as a named and ordered collection of program statements.\n\n",
"\nAPL has explicit representations of functions, operators, and syntax, thus providing a basis for the clear and explicit statement of extended facilities in the language, as well as tools for experimentation upon them.\n",
"\n=== Hello, World ===\nThis displays \"Hello, world\":\n\n\n'Hello, world'\n\n'Hello World,' sample user session on YouTube\n\nA design theme in APL is to define default actions in some cases that would produce syntax errors in most other programming languages.\n\nThe 'Hello, world' string constant above displays, because display is the default action on any expression for which no action is specified explicitly (e.g. assignment, function parameter).\n\n=== Exponentiation ===\n\nAnother example of this theme is that exponentiation in APL is written as \"\", which indicates raising 2 to the power 3 (this would be written as \"\" in some other languages and \"\" in FORTRAN and Python). However, if no base is specified (as with the statement \"\" in APL, or \"\" in other languages), most other programming languages one would have a syntax error. APL however assumes the missing base to be the natural logarithm constant e (2.71828....), and so interpreting \"\" as \"\".\n\n=== \"Pick 6\" lottery numbers ===\n\nThis following immediate-mode expression generates a typical set of \"Pick 6\" lottery numbers: six pseudo-random integers ranging from 1 to 40, ''guaranteed non-repeating'', and displays them sorted in ascending order:\n\n\nx⍋x←6?40\n\n\nThe above does a lot, concisely; although it seems complex to a beginning APLer. It combines the following APL '''functions''' (also called ''primitives'' and ''glyphs''):\n* The first to be executed (APL executes from rightmost to leftmost) is dyadic function \"?\" (named '''deal''' when dyadic) that returns a vector consisting of a select number (left argument: 6 in this case) of random integers ranging from 1 to a specified maximum (right argument: 40 in this case), which, if said maximum ≥ vector length, is guaranteed to be non-repeating; thus, generate/create 6 random integers ranging from 1-40.\n* This vector is then '''assigned''' (←) to the variable x, because it is needed later.\n* This vector is then '''sorted''' in ascending order by a monadic \"⍋\" function, which has as its right argument everything to the right of it up to the next unbalanced '''close-bracket''' or close-parenthesis. The result of ⍋ is the indices that will put its argument into ascending order.\n* Then the output of ⍋ is applied to the variable x, which we saved earlier, and it puts the items of x into '''ascending''' sequence.\n\nSince there is no function to the left of the left-most x to tell APL what to do with the result, it simply outputs it to the display (on a single line, separated by spaces) without needing any explicit instruction to do that.\n\n\"?\" also has a monadic equivalent called '''roll''', which simply returns a single random integer between 1 and its sole operand to the right of it, inclusive. Thus, a role-playing game program might use the expression \"?20\" to roll a twenty-sided die.\n\n=== Prime numbers ===\n\nThe following expression finds all prime numbers from 1 to R. In both time and space, the calculation complexity is (in Big O notation).\n\n\n(~R∊R∘.×R)/R←1↓ιR\n\n\nExecuted from right to left, this means:\n* '''Iota''' ι creates a vector containing integers from 1 to R (if R = 6 at the beginning of the program, ιR is 1 2 3 4 5 6)\n* '''Drop''' first element of this vector (↓ function), i.e. 1. So 1↓ιR is 2 3 4 5 6\n* '''Set''' R to the new vector (←, '''assignment''' primitive), i.e. 2 3 4 5 6\n* The / '''reduction''' operator is dyadic (binary) and the interpreter first evaluates its left argument (entirely in parentheses):\n* Generate '''outer product''' of R multiplied by R, i.e. a matrix that is the ''multiplication table'' of R by R (°.× operator), i.e.\n\n\n\n 4\n 6\n 8\n 10\n 12\n\n 6\n 9\n 12\n 15\n 18\n\n 8\n 12\n 16\n 20\n 24\n\n 10\n 15\n 20\n 25\n 30\n\n 12\n 18\n 24\n 30\n 36\n\n* Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (∈, '''set inclusion''' or '''element of''' or '''Epsilon''' operator), i.e. 0 0 1 0 1\n* Logically negate ('''not''') values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (∼, logical '''not''' or '''Tilde''' operator), i.e. 1 1 0 1 0\n* Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (/ '''reduction''' operator), i.e. 2 3 5\n(Note, this assumes the APL origin is 1, i.e. indices start with 1. APL can be set to use 0 as the origin, so that ι6 is 0 1 2 3 4 5, which is convenient for some calculations.)\n\n=== Sorting ===\nThe following expression sorts a word list stored in matrix X according to word length:\n\n\nX⍋X+.≠' ';\n\n\n=== Game of Life ===\n\nThe following function \"life\", written in Dyalog APL, takes a boolean matrix and calculates the new generation according to Conway's Game of Life. It demonstrates the power of APL to implement a complex algorithm in very little code, but it is also very hard to follow unless one has advanced knowledge of APL.\n\n\nlife←{↑1 ⍵∨.∧3 4=+/,¯1 0 1∘.⊖¯1 0 1∘.⌽⊂⍵}\n\n\n=== HTML tags removal ===\n\nIn the following example, also Dyalog, the first line assigns some HTML code to a variable txt and then uses an APL expression to remove all the HTML tags ( explanation):\n\n\ntxt←'This is emphasized text.'\n⎕←{⍵/⍨~{⍵∨≠\\⍵}⍵∊''}txt\n\n\nThis returns the text This is emphasized text.\n",
"\n\n'''APL''' has been both criticized and praised for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. Some who learn it become ardent adherents, suggesting that there is some weight behind Iverson's idea that the notation used does make a difference. In the beginning, there were few terminal devices and even display monitors that could reproduce the APL character set—the most popular ones employing the IBM Selectric print mechanism used with a special APL type element. One of the early APL line terminals (line-mode operation only, ''not'' full screen) was the Texas Instruments TI Model 745 (circa 1977) with the full APL character set which featured half and full duplex telecommunications modes, for interacting with an APL time-sharing service or remote mainframe to run a remote computer job, called an RJE.\n\nOver time, with the universal use of high-quality graphic displays, printing devices and Unicode support, the APL character font problem has largely been eliminated. However, entering APL characters requires the use of input method editors, keyboard mappings, virtual/on-screen APL symbol sets, or easy-reference printed keyboard cards which can frustrate beginners accustomed to other programming languages. With beginners who have no prior experience with other programming languages, a study involving high school students found that typing and using APL characters did not hinder the students in any measurable way.\n\nIn defense of the APL community, APL requires less coding to type in, and keyboard mappings become memorized over time. Also, special APL keyboards are manufactured and in use today, as are freely available downloadable fonts for operating system platforms such as Microsoft Windows. The reported productivity gains assume that one will spend enough time working in APL to make memorization of the symbols, their semantics, and keyboard mappings worthwhile.\n",
"APL has long had a select, mathematically inclined and curiosity-driven user base, who reference its powerful and symbolic nature. For example, one symbol/character can perform an entire sort; another can perform regression. It was and still is popular in financial, pre-modeling applications, and insurance applications, in simulations, and in mathematical applications. APL has been used in a wide variety of contexts and for many and varied purposes, including artificial intelligence and robotics. A newsletter titled \"Quote-Quad\" dedicated to APL was published from the 1970s until 2007 by the SIGAPL section of the Association for Computing Machinery (Quote-Quad is the name of the APL character used for text input and output).\n\nBefore the advent of full-screen systems and until as late as the mid-1980s, systems were written such that the user entered instructions in his own business specific vocabulary. APL time-sharing vendors delivered applications in this form. On the I. P. Sharp timesharing system, a workspace called 39 MAGIC offered access to financial and airline data plus sophisticated (for the time) graphing and reporting. Another example is the GRAPHPAK workspace supplied with IBM's APL, then APL2.\n\nBecause of its matrix operations, APL was for some time quite popular for computer graphics programming, where graphic transformations could be encoded as matrix multiplications. One of the first commercial computer graphics houses, Digital Effects, based in New York City, produced an APL graphics product known as \"Visions\", which was used to create television commercials and, reportedly, animation for the 1982 film ''Tron''. Digital Effects' use of APL was informally described at a number of SIGAPL conferences in the late 1980s; examples discussed included the early UK Channel 4 TV logo/ident.\n\nInterest in APL has declined from a peak in the mid-1980s. This appears partly due to lack of smooth migration pathways from higher performing memory-intensive mainframe implementations to low-cost personal computer alternatives - APL implementations for computers before the Intel 80386 released in the late 1980s were only suitable for small applications. Another important reason for the decline is the lack of low cost, standardized and robust, compiled APL executables - usable across multiple computer hardware and OS platforms. There are several APL version permutations across various APL implementations, particularly differences between IBM's APL2 and APL2000's APL+ versions. Another practical limitation is that APL has fallen behind modern integrated computing environments with respect to debugging capabilities or test-driven development. Consequently, while APL remains eminently suitable for small-to-medium-sized programs, productivity gains for larger projects involving teams of developers would be questionable.\n\nThe growth of end-user computing tools such as Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access has indirectly eroded potential APL usage. These are frequently appropriate platforms for what may have been APL applications in the 1970s and 1980s. Some APL users migrated to the J programming language, which offers some advanced features. Lastly, the decline was also due in part to the growth of MATLAB, GNU Octave, and Scilab. These scientific computing array-oriented platforms provide an interactive computing experience similar to APL, but more closely resemble conventional programming languages such as Fortran, and use standard ASCII. Other APL users continue to wait for a very low-cost, standardized, broad-hardware-usable APL implementation.\n\nNotwithstanding this decline, APL finds continued use in certain fields, such as accounting research, pre-hardcoded modeling, DNA identification technology, symbolic mathematical expression and learning. It remains an inspiration to its current user base as well as for other languages.\n",
"APL has been standardized by the ANSI working group X3J10 and ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001.\n",
"* A+ (programming language)\n* APL EBCDIC code page\n* APL Shared Variables\n* I. P. Sharp Associates\n* TK Solver\n* IBM Type-III Library\n* IBM 1130\n* Iverson Award\n* J (programming language)\n* K (programming language)\n* Q (programming language from Kx Systems)\n* LYaPAS\n* Scientific Time Sharing Corporation\n* Soliton Incorporated\n* ELI (programming language)\n* RPL (programming language)\n",
"\n",
"* ''An APL Machine'' (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams)\n* ''A Personal History Of APL'' (1982 article by Michael S. Montalbano)\n* \n* \n* ''A Programming Language'' by Kenneth E. Iverson\n* ''APL in Exposition'' by Kenneth E. Iverson\n* Brooks, Frederick P.; Kenneth Iverson (1965). ''Automatic Data Processing, System/360 Edition''. .\n* \n* \n* ''History of Programming Languages'', chapter 14\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n* SIGAPL - SIGPLAN Chapter on Array Programming languages\n* APL Wiki\n* APL2C, a source of links to APL compilers\n* TryAPL.org, an online APL primer\n* '' Vector'', the journal of the British APL Association\n* \n* Dyalog APL\n* IBM APL2\n* APL2000\n* NARS2000\n* GNU APL\n* OpenAPL\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" History ",
" Design ",
" Execution ",
" Terminology ",
" Syntax ",
" Examples ",
" Character set ",
" Use ",
" Standardization ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | APL (programming language) |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''ALGOL''' (short for '''Algorithmic Language''') is a family of imperative computer programming languages, originally developed in the mid-1950s, which greatly influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the ACM in textbooks and academic sources for more than thirty years.\n\nIn the sense that the syntax of most modern languages is \"Algol-like\", it was arguably the most influential of the four high-level programming languages with which it was roughly contemporary: FORTRAN, Lisp, and COBOL. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with FORTRAN and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages, including PL/I, Simula, BCPL, B, Pascal, and C.\n\nALGOL introduced code blocks and the begin…end pairs for delimiting them. It was also the first language implementing nested function definitions with lexical scope. Moreover, it was the first programming language which gave detailed attention to formal language definition and through the ''Algol 60 Report'' introduced Backus–Naur form, a principal formal grammar notation for language design.\n\nThere were three major specifications, named after the year they were first published:\n* ALGOL 58 – originally proposed to be called ''IAL'', for ''International Algebraic Language''.\n* ALGOL 60 – first implemented as ''X1 ALGOL 60'' in mid-1960. Revised 1963.\n* ALGOL 68 – introduced new elements including flexible arrays, slices, parallelism, operator identification. Revised 1973.\n\nNiklaus Wirth based his own ALGOL W on ALGOL 60 before developing Pascal. ALGOL-W was based on the proposal for the next generation ALGOL, but the ALGOL 68 committee decided on a design that was more complex and advanced, rather than a cleaned, simplified ALGOL 60.\n\nALGOL 68 is substantially different from ALGOL 60 and was not well received, so that in general \"Algol\" means ALGOL 60 and dialects thereof.\n",
"The International Algebraic Language (IAL) was extremely influential and generally considered the ancestor of most of the modern programming languages (the so-called Algol-like languages). Additionally, '''ALGOL object code''' was a simple, compact, and stack-based instruction set architecture commonly used in teaching compiler construction and other high order languages (of which Algol is generally considered the first).\n",
"ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in 1958 at ETH Zurich (cf. ALGOL 58). It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs periods) for different languages.\n\nALGOL was used mostly by research computer scientists in the United States and in Europe. Its use in commercial applications was hindered by the absence of standard input/output facilities in its description and the lack of interest in the language by large computer vendors other than Burroughs Corporation. ALGOL 60 did however become the standard for the publication of algorithms and had a profound effect on future language development.\n\nJohn Backus developed the Backus normal form method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by Peter Naur for ALGOL 60, and at Donald Knuth's suggestion renamed Backus–Naur form.\n\nPeter Naur: \"As editor of the ALGOL Bulletin I was drawn into the international discussions of the language and was selected to be member of the European language design group in November 1959. In this capacity I was the editor of the ALGOL 60 report, produced as the result of the ALGOL 60 meeting in Paris in January 1960.\"\n\nThe following people attended the meeting in Paris (from 1 to 16 January):\n* Friedrich L. Bauer, Peter Naur, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Bernard Vauquois, Adriaan van Wijngaarden, and Michael Woodger (from Europe)\n* John W. Backus, Julien Green, Charles Katz, John McCarthy, Alan J. Perlis, and Joseph Henry Wegstein (from the USA).\nAlan Perlis gave a vivid description of the meeting: \"The meetings were exhausting, interminable, and exhilarating. One became aggravated when one's good ideas were discarded along with the bad ones of others. Nevertheless, diligence persisted during the entire period. The chemistry of the 13 was excellent.\"\n\nALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it. C. A. R. Hoare remarked: \"Here is a language so far ahead of its time that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors but also on nearly all its successors.\" The Scheme programming language, a variant of Lisp that adopted the block structure and lexical scope of ALGOL, also adopted the wording \"Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme\" for its standards documents in homage to ALGOL.\n\n===Algol and programming language research===\nAs Peter Landin noted, the language Algol was the first language to combine seamlessly imperative effects with the (call-by-name) lambda calculus. Perhaps the most elegant formulation of the language is due to John C. Reynolds, and it best exhibits its syntactic and semantic purity. Reynolds's idealized Algol also made a convincing methodological argument regarding the suitability of local effects in the context of call-by-name languages, to be contrasted with the global effects used by call-by-value languages such as ML. The conceptual integrity of the language made it one of the main objects of semantic research, along with PCF and ML.\n\n===IAL implementations timeline===\nTo date there have been at least 70 augmentations, extensions, derivations and sublanguages of Algol 60.\n\n\n\nName\nYear\nAuthor\nCountry\nDescription\nTarget CPU\n\n ZMMD-implementation\n 1958 \n Friedrich L. Bauer, Heinz Rutishauser, Klaus Samelson, Hermann Bottenbruch \n Germany \n implementation of ALGOL 58 \n Z22 (later Zuse's Z23 was delivered with an Algol 60 compiler)\n\nX1 ALGOL 60 \n August 1960 \n Edsger W. Dijkstra and Jaap A. Zonneveld \n Netherlands \n First implementation of ALGOL 60 \n Electrologica X1\n\nElliott ALGOL\n 1960s \n C. A. R. Hoare \n UK \n Subject of the 1980 Turing lecture\n Elliott 803 & the Elliott 503\n\nJOVIAL\n 1960 \n Jules Schwarz \n USA \n A DOD HOL prior to Ada \n Various (see article)\n\nBurroughs Algol (Several variants)\n 1961 \n Burroughs Corporation (with participation by Hoare, Dijkstra, and others) \n USA \n Basis of the Burroughs (and now Unisys MCP based) computers \n Burroughs large systems and their midrange as well.\n\nCase ALGOL\n 1961 \n Case Institute of Technology \n USA \n Simula was originally contracted as a simulation extension of the Case ALGOL \n UNIVAC 1107\n\nGOGOL\n 1961 \n William McKeeman \n USA \n For ODIN time-sharing system \n PDP-1\n\nRegneCentralen ALGOL\n 1961 \n Peter Naur, Jørn Jensen \n Denmark \n Implementation of full Algol 60 \n DASK at Regnecentralen\n\nDartmouth ALGOL 30\n 1962 \n Thomas Eugene Kurtz et al. \n USA \n \n LGP-30\n\nUSS 90 Algol\n 1962 \n L. Petrone \n Italy \n\n\n Algol Translator \n 1962 \n G. van der Mey and W.L. van der Poel \n Netherlands \n Staatsbedrijf der Posterijen, Telegrafie en Telefonie \n ZEBRA\n\nKidsgrove Algol\n 1963 \n F. G. Duncan \n UK \n \n English Electric Company KDF9\n\nVALGOL\n 1963 \n Val Schorre \n USA \n A test of the META II compiler compiler\n\nWhetstone\n 1964 \n Brian Randell and L. J. Russell \n UK \n Atomic Power Division of English Electric Company. Precursor to Ferranti Pegasus, National Physical Laboratories ACE and English Electric DEUCE implementations. \n English Electric Company KDF9\n\nNU ALGOL\n 1965 \n \n Norway \n \n UNIVAC\n\nALGEK\n 1965 \n \n USSR \n Minsk-22 \n АЛГЭК, based on ALGOL-60 and COBOL support, for economical tasks\n\nALGOL W\n 1966 \n Niklaus Wirth \n USA \n Proposed successor to ALGOL 60 \n IBM System/360\n\nMALGOL\n 1966 \n publ. A. Viil, M Kotli & M. Rakhendi, \n Estonian SSR \n Minsk-22\n\nALGAMS\n 1967 \n GAMS group (ГАМС, группа автоматизации программирования для машин среднего класса), cooperation of Comecon Academies of Science \n Comecon \n Minsk-22, later ES EVM, BESM\n\nALGOL/ZAM\n 1967 \n \n Poland \n \n Polish ZAM computer\n\nSimula 67\n 1967 \n Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard \n Norway \n Algol 60 with classes \n UNIVAC 1107\n\n Chinese Algol\n 1972 \n \n China \n Chinese characters, expressed via the Symbol system\n\nDG/L\n 1972 \n \n USA \n \n DG Eclipse family of Computers\n\nS-algol\n 1979 \n Ron Morrison \n UK \n Addition of orthogonal datatypes with intended use as a teaching language \n PDP-11 with a subsequent implementation on the Java VM\n\n\nThe Burroughs dialects included special Bootstrapping dialects such as ESPOL and NEWP. The latter is still used for Unisys MCP system software.\n",
"ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of ''transput'' (input/output) facilities.\n\nALGOL 60 allowed for two evaluation strategies for parameter passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name. Call-by-name has certain effects in contrast to call-by-reference. For example, without specifying the parameters as ''value'' or ''reference'', it is impossible to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. Think of passing a pointer to swap(i, Ai) in to a function. Now that every time swap is referenced, it is reevaluated. Say i := 1 and Ai := 2, so every time swap is referenced it'll return the other combination of the values (1,2, 2,1, 1,2 and so on). A similar situation occurs with a random function passed as actual argument.\n\nCall-by-name is known by many compiler designers for the interesting \"thunks\" that are used to implement it. Donald Knuth devised the \"man or boy test\" to separate compilers that correctly implemented \"recursion and non-local references.\" This test contains an example of call-by-name.\n\nALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by Adriaan van Wijngaarden and which bears his name. Van Wijngaarden grammars use a context-free grammar to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled \"semantics\" and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ''ad hoc'' code attached to the formal language parser.\n",
"\n===Code sample comparisons===\n\n====ALGOL 60====\n(The way the bold text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER' -- quotation marks included -- for '''integer'''. This is known as stropping.)\n\n '''procedure''' Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k);\n '''value''' n, m; '''array''' a; '''integer''' n, m, i, k; '''real''' y;\n '''comment''' The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m\n is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;\n '''begin'''\n '''integer''' p, q;\n y := 0; i := k := 1;\n '''for''' p := 1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' n '''do'''\n '''for''' q := 1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' m '''do'''\n '''if''' abs(ap, q) > y '''then'''\n '''begin''' y := abs(ap, q);\n i := p; k := q\n '''end'''\n '''end''' Absmax\n\nHere's an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL.\n\n FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST'\n BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D'\n \n READ D'\n \n FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO\n BEGIN\n PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??'\n B := SIN(A)'\n C := COS(A)'\n PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C'\n END'\n END'\n\nPUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch.\nSAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments.\nALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point.\n\n====ALGOL 68====\nThe following code samples are ALGOL 68 versions of the above ALGOL 60 code samples.\n\nALGOL 68 implementations used ALGOL 60's approaches to stropping. In ALGOL 68's case tokens with the '''bold''' typeface are reserved words, types ('''mode'''s) or operators.\n\n '''proc''' abs max = (,'''real''' a, '''ref''' '''real''' y, '''ref''' '''int''' i, k)'''real''':\n '''comment''' The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size ⌈a by 2⌈a\n is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k; '''comment'''\n '''begin'''\n '''real''' y := 0; i := ⌊a; k := 2⌊a;\n '''for''' p '''from''' ⌊a '''to''' ⌈a '''do'''\n '''for''' q '''from''' 2⌊a '''to''' 2⌈a '''do'''\n '''if''' '''abs''' ap, q > y '''then'''\n y := '''abs''' ap, q;\n i := p; k := q\n '''fi'''\n '''od'''\n '''od''';\n y\n '''end''' # abs max #\nNote: lower (⌊) and upper (⌈) bounds of an array, and array slicing, are directly available to the programmer.\n\n floating point algol68 test:\n (\n '''real''' a,b,c,d;\n \n # ''printf'' - sends output to the '''file''' ''stand out''. #\n # ''printf($p$);'' – selects a ''new page'' #\n printf(($pg$,\"Enter d:\")); \n read(d);\n \n '''for''' step '''from''' 0 '''while''' a:=step*d; a );\n END.\n\nAn even simpler program using the Display statement:\n\n BEGIN DISPLAY(\"HELLO WORLD!\") END.\n\nAn alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows. Elliott Algol used different characters for \"open-string-quote\" and \"close-string-quote\":\n\n '''program''' HiFolks;\n '''begin'''\n '''print''' ‘Hello world’;\n '''end''';\n\nHere's a version for the Elliott 803 Algol (A104) The standard Elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape and thus only had upper case. The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote. Special sequences were placed in double quotes (e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter).\n\n HIFOLKS'\n BEGIN\n PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??'\n END'\n\nThe ICT 1900 series Algol I/O version allowed input from paper tape or punched card. Paper tape 'full' mode allowed lower case. Output was to a line printer. The open and close quote characters were represented using '(' and ')' and spaces by %.\n 'BEGIN'\n WRITE TEXT('('HELLO%WORLD')');\n 'END'\n\n====ALGOL 68====\n\n\n'''ALGOL 68''' code was published with reserved words typically in lowercase, but bolded or underlined.\n '''begin'''\n printf(($gl$,\"Hello, world!\"))\n '''end'''\nIn the language of the \"Algol 68 Report\" the input/output facilities were collectively called the \"Transput\".\n\n===Timeline of ALGOL special characters===\n\nThe ALGOLs were conceived at a time when character sets were diverse and evolving rapidly; also, the ALGOLs were defined so that only ''uppercase'' letters were required.\n\n1960: IFIP – The Algol 60 language and report included several mathematical symbols which are available on modern computers and operating systems, but, unfortunately, were not supported on most computing systems at the time. For instance: ×, ÷, ≤, ≥, ≠, ¬, ∨, ∧, ⊂, ≡, ␣ and ⏨.\n\n1961 September: ASCII – The ASCII character set, then in an early stage of development, had the \\ (Back slash) character added to it in order to support ALGOL's boolean operators /\\ and \\/.\n\n1962: ALCOR – This character set included the unusual \"᛭\" (iron/runic cross) character and the \"⏨\" (Decimal Exponent Symbol) for floating point notation.\n\n1964: GOST – The 1964 Soviet standard GOST 10859 allowed the encoding of 4-bit, 5-bit, 6-bit and 7-bit characters in ALGOL.\n\n1968: The \"Algol 68 Report\" – used existing ALGOL characters, and further adopted →, ↓, ↑, □, ⌊, ⌈, ⎩, ⎧, ○, ⊥ and ¢ characters which can be found on the IBM 2741 keyboard with \"golf-ball\" print heads inserted (such as the APL golfball). These became available in the mid-1960s while ALGOL 68 was being drafted. The report was translated into Russian, German, French and Bulgarian, and allowed programming in languages with larger character sets, e.g. Cyrillic alphabet of the Soviet BESM-4. All ALGOL's characters are also part of the Unicode standard and most of them are available in several popular fonts.\n\n2009 October: Unicode – The \"⏨\" (Decimal Exponent Symbol) for floating point notation was added to Unicode 5.2 for backward compatibility with historic Buran (spacecraft) ALGOL software.\n",
"\n\n* Address programming language\n* Atlas Autocode\n* Coral 66\n* Edinburgh IMP\n* Jensen's Device\n* ISWIM\n\n* JOVIAL\n* Tron (video game)\n* NELIAC\n* Simula\n* S-algol\n* Scheme (programming language)\n\n",
"\n",
"* F.L. Bauer, R. Baumann, M. Feliciano, K. Samelson, ''Introduction to Algol''. Prentice Hall, 1964, \n* Brian Randell and L. J. Russell, ''ALGOL 60 Implementation: The Translation and Use of ALGOL 60 Programs on a Computer''. Academic Press, 1964. The design of the '''Whetstone Compiler'''. One of the early published descriptions of implementing a compiler. See the related papers: Whetstone Algol Revisited, and The Whetstone KDF9 Algol Translator by Brian Randell\n* \n* Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60 by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition\n* \"The European Side of the Last Phase of the Development of ALGOL 60\" by Peter Naur\n",
"* History of ALGOL at the Computer History Museum\n* Web enabled ALGOL-F compiler for small experiments\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Important implementations",
"History",
"Properties",
"Examples and portability issues",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | ALGOL |
[
"\n\n\n'''AWK''' is a programming language designed for text processing and typically used as a data extraction and reporting tool. It is a standard feature of most Unix-like operating systems.\n\nThe AWK language is a data-driven scripting language consisting of a set of actions to be taken against streams of textual data – either run directly on files or used as part of a pipeline – for purposes of extracting or transforming text, such as producing formatted reports. The language extensively uses the string datatype, associative arrays (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and regular expressions. While AWK has a limited intended application domain and was especially designed to support one-liner programs, the language is Turing-complete, and even the early Bell Labs users of AWK often wrote well-structured large AWK programs.\n\nAWK was created at Bell Labs in the 1970s, and its name is derived from the surnames of its authors—Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan. The acronym is pronounced the same as the name of the bird auk (which acts as an emblem of the language such as on ''The AWK Programming Language'' book cover – the book is often referred to by the abbreviation ''TAPL''). When written in all lowercase letters, as awk, it refers to the Unix or Plan 9 program that runs scripts written in the AWK programming language.\n",
"AWK was initially developed in 1977 by Alfred Aho, Peter Weinberger, and Brian Kernighan, from whose initials the language takes its name. As one of the early tools to appear in Version 7 Unix, AWK added computational features to a Unix pipeline besides the Bourne shell, the only scripting language available in a standard Unix environment. It is one of the mandatory utilities of the Single UNIX Specification, and is required by the Linux Standard Base specification.\n\nAWK was significantly revised and expanded in 1985–88, resulting in the GNU AWK implementation written by Paul Rubin, Jay Fenlason, and Richard Stallman, released in 1988. GNU AWK is the most widely deployed version because it is included with GNU-based Linux packages. GNU AWK has been maintained solely by Arnold Robbins since 1994. Brian Kernighan's nawk (New AWK) source was first released in 1993 unpublicized, and publicly since the late 1990s; many BSD systems use it to avoid GPL license.\n\nAWK was preceded by sed (1974). Both were designed for text processing. They share the line-oriented, data-driven paradigm, and are particularly suited to writing one-liner programs, due to the implicit main loop and current line variables. The power and terseness of early AWK programs – notably the powerful regular expression handling and conciseness due to implicit variables, which facilitate one-liners – together with the limitations of AWK at the time, were important inspirations for the Perl language (1987). In the 1990s, Perl became very popular, competing with AWK in the niche of Unix text-processing languages.\n",
"\n\n\"'''AWK''' is a language for processing text files. A file is treated as a sequence of records, and by default each line is a record. Each line is broken up into a sequence of fields, so we can think of the first word in a line as the first field, the second word as the second field, and so on. '''An AWK program is a sequence of pattern-action statements'''. AWK reads the input a line at a time. A line is scanned for each pattern in the program, and for each pattern that matches, the associated action is executed.\" - Alfred V. Aho\n\n\nAn AWK program is a series of pattern action pairs, written as:\n\n\ncondition { action }\ncondition { action }\n...\n\n\nwhere ''condition'' is typically an expression and ''action'' is a series of commands. The input is split into records, where by default records are separated by newline characters so that the input is split into lines. The program tests each record against each of the conditions in turn, and executes the ''action'' for each expression that is true. Either the ''condition'' or the ''action'' may be omitted. The ''condition'' defaults to matching every record. The default ''action'' is to print the record. This is the same pattern-action structure as sed.\n\nIn addition to a simple AWK expression, such as foo == 1 or /^foo/, the ''condition'' can be BEGIN or END causing the ''action'' to be executed before or after all records have been read, or ''pattern1, pattern2'' which matches the range of records starting with a record that matches ''pattern1'' up to and including the record that matches ''pattern2'' before again trying to match against ''pattern1'' on future lines.\n\nIn addition to normal arithmetic and logical operators, AWK expressions include the tilde operator, ~, which matches a regular expression against a string. As handy syntactic sugar, ''/regexp/'' without using the tilde operator matches against the current record; this syntax derives from sed, which in turn inherited it from the ed editor, where / is used for searching. This syntax of using slashes as delimiters for regular expressions was subsequently adopted by Perl and ECMAScript, and is now quite common. The tilde operator was also adopted by Perl, but has not seen as wide use.\n",
"\nAWK commands are the statements that are substituted for ''action'' in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of dynamically linked libraries, which can also provide more functions.\n\n=== The ''print'' command ===\n\nThe ''print'' command is used to output text. The output text is always terminated with a predefined string called the output record separator (ORS) whose default value is a newline. The simplest form of this command is:\n\n; print\n:This displays the contents of the current record. In AWK, records are broken down into ''fields'', and these can be displayed separately:\n; print $1\n: Displays the first field of the current record\n; print $1, $3\n: Displays the first and third fields of the current record, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character\n\nAlthough these fields (''$X'') may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in Perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current record. A special case, ''$0'', refers to the entire record. In fact, the commands \"print\" and \"print $0\" are identical in functionality.\n\nThe ''print'' command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls:\n\n(pattern)\n{\n print 3+2\n print foobar(3)\n print foobar(variable)\n print sin(3-2)\n}\n\n\nOutput may be sent to a file:\n\n(pattern)\n{\n print \"expression\" > \"file name\"\n}\n\n\nor through a pipe:\n\n(pattern)\n{\n print \"expression\" | \"command\"\n}\n\n\n=== Built-in variables ===\n\nAwk's built-in variables include the field variables: $1, $2, $3, and so on ($0 represents the entire record). They hold the text or values in the individual text-fields in a record.\n\nOther variables include:\n* NR: Keeps a current count of the number of input records.\n* NF: Keeps a count of the number of fields in an input record. The last field in the input record can be designated by $NF.\n* FILENAME: Contains the name of the current input-file.\n* FS: Contains the \"field separator\" character used to divide fields on the input record. The default, \"white space\", includes any space and tab characters. FS can be reassigned to another character to change the field separator.\n* RS: Stores the current \"record separator\" character. Since, by default, an input line is the input record, the default record separator character is a \"newline\".\n* OFS: Stores the \"output field separator\", which separates the fields when Awk prints them. The default is a \"space\" character.\n* ORS: Stores the \"output record separator\", which separates the output records when Awk prints them. The default is a \"newline\" character.\n* OFMT: Stores the format for numeric output. The default format is \"%.6g\".\n\n=== Variables and syntax ===\n\nVariable names can use any of the characters A-Za-z0-9_, with the exception of language keywords. The operators ''+ - * /'' represent addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other. It is optional to use a space in between if string constants are involved, but two variable names placed adjacent to each other require a space in between. Double quotes delimit string constants. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using ''#'' as the first character on a line.\n\n=== User-defined functions ===\n\nIn a format similar to C, function definitions consist of the keyword function, the function name, argument names and the function body. Here is an example of a function.\n\nfunction add_three (number) {\n return number + 3\n}\n\n\nThis statement can be invoked as follows:\n\n(pattern)\n{\n print add_three(36) # Outputs '''39'''\n}\n\n\nFunctions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some whitespace in the argument list before the local variables, to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin.\n",
"\n=== Hello World ===\n\nHere is the customary \"Hello, world\" program written in AWK:\n\nBEGIN { print \"Hello, world!\" }\n\n\nNote that an explicit exit statement is not needed here; since the only pattern is BEGIN, no command-line arguments are processed.\n\n=== Print lines longer than 80 characters ===\n\nPrint all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line.\n\nlength($0) > 80\n\n\n=== Print a count of words ===\n\nCount words in the input and print the number of lines, words, and characters (like wc):\n\n{\n w += NF\n c += length + 1\n}\nEND { print NR, w, c }\n\n\nAs there is no pattern for the first line of the program, every line of input matches by default, so the increment actions are executed for every line. Note that w += NF is shorthand for w = w + NF.\n\n=== Sum last word ===\n\n\n{ s += $NF }\nEND { print s + 0 }\n\n\n''s'' is incremented by the numeric value of ''$NF'', which is the last word on the line as defined by AWK's field separator (by default, white-space). ''NF'' is the number of fields in the current line, e.g. 4. Since ''$4'' is the value of the fourth field, ''$NF'' is the value of the last field in the line regardless of how many fields this line has, or whether it has more or fewer fields than surrounding lines. $ is actually a unary operator with the highest operator precedence. (If the line has no fields, then ''NF'' is 0, ''$0'' is the whole line, which in this case is empty apart from possible white-space, and so has the numeric value 0.)\n\nAt the end of the input the ''END'' pattern matches, so ''s'' is printed. However, since there may have been no lines of input at all, in which case no value has ever been assigned to ''s'', it will by default be an empty string. Adding zero to a variable is an AWK idiom for coercing it from a string to a numeric value. (Concatenating an empty string is to coerce from a number to a string, e.g. ''s \"\"''. Note, there's no operator to concatenate strings, they're just placed adjacently.) With the coercion the program prints \"0\" on an empty input, without it an empty line is printed.\n\n=== Match a range of input lines ===\n\nNR % 4 == 1, NR % 4 == 3 { printf \"%6d %s\\n\", NR, $0 }\n\nThe action statement prints each line numbered. The printf function emulates the standard C printf and works similarly to the print command described above. The pattern to match, however, works as follows: ''NR'' is the number of records, typically lines of input, AWK has so far read, i.e. the current line number, starting at 1 for the first line of input. ''%'' is the modulo operator. ''NR % 4 == 1'' is true for the 1st, 5th, 9th, etc., lines of input. Likewise, ''NR % 4 == 3'' is true for the 3rd, 7th, 11th, etc., lines of input. The range pattern is false until the first part matches, on line 1, and then remains true up to and including when the second part matches, on line 3. It then stays false until the first part matches again on line 5.\n\nThus, the program prints lines 1,2,3, skips line 4, and then 5,6,7, and so on. For each line, it prints the line number (on a 6 character-wide field) and then the line contents. For example, when executed on this input:\n Rome\n Florence\n Milan\n Naples\n Turin\n Venice\n\nThe previous program prints:\n 1 Rome\n 2 Florence\n 3 Milan\n 5 Turin\n 6 Venice\n\n==== Printing the initial or the final part of a file ====\nAs a special case, when the first part of a range pattern is constantly true, e.g. ''1'', the range will start at the beginning of the input. Similarly, if the second part is constantly false, e.g. ''0'', the range will continue until the end of input. For example,\n\n /^--cut here--$/, 0\n\nprints lines of input from the first line matching the regular expression ''^--cut here--$'', that is, a line containing only the phrase \"--cut here--\", to the end.\n\n=== Calculate word frequencies ===\n\nWord frequency using associative arrays:\n\nBEGIN {\n FS=\"^a-zA-Z+\"\n}\n{\n for (i=1; i\n\nThe BEGIN block sets the field separator to any sequence of non-alphabetic characters. Note that separators can be regular expressions. After that, we get to a bare action, which performs the action on every input line. In this case, for every field on the line, we add one to the number of times that word, first converted to lowercase, appears. Finally, in the END block, we print the words with their frequencies. The line\n for (i in words)\ncreates a loop that goes through the array ''words'', setting ''i'' to each ''subscript'' of the array. This is different from most languages, where such a loop goes through each ''value'' in the array. The loop thus prints out each word followed by its frequency count. tolower was an addition to the One True awk (see below) made after the book was published.\n\n=== Match pattern from command line ===\n\nThis program can be represented in several ways. The first one uses the Bourne shell to make a shell script that does everything. It is the shortest of these methods:\n\n#!/bin/sh\n\npattern=\"$1\"\nshift\nawk '/'\"$pattern\"'/ { print FILENAME \":\" $0 }' \"$@\"\n\n\nThe $pattern in the awk command is not protected by single quotes so that the shell does expand the variable but it needs to be put in double quotes to properly handle patterns containing spaces. A pattern by itself in the usual way checks to see if the whole line ($0) matches. FILENAME contains the current filename. awk has no explicit concatenation operator; two adjacent strings concatenate them. $0 expands to the original unchanged input line.\n\nThere are alternate ways of writing this. This shell script accesses the environment directly from within awk:\n\n#!/bin/sh\n\nexport pattern=\"$1\"\nshift\nawk '$0 ~ ENVIRON\"pattern\" { print FILENAME \":\" $0 }' \"$@\"\n\n\nThis is a shell script that uses ENVIRON, an array introduced in a newer version of the One True awk after the book was published. The subscript of ENVIRON is the name of an environment variable; its result is the variable's value. This is like the getenv function in various standard libraries and POSIX. The shell script makes an environment variable pattern containing the first argument, then drops that argument and has awk look for the pattern in each file.\n\n~ checks to see if its left operand matches its right operand; !~ is its inverse. Note that a regular expression is just a string and can be stored in variables.\n\nThe next way uses command-line variable assignment, in which an argument to awk can be seen as an assignment to a variable:\n\n#!/bin/sh\n\npattern=\"$1\"\nshift\nawk '$0 ~ pattern { print FILENAME \":\" $0 }' \"pattern=$pattern\" \"$@\"\n\n\nOr You can use the ''-v var=value'' command line option (e.g. ''awk -v pattern=\"$pattern\" ...'').\n\nFinally, this is written in pure awk, without help from a shell or without the need to know too much about the implementation of the awk script (as the variable assignment on command line one does), but is a bit lengthy:\n\nBEGIN {\n pattern = ARGV1\n for (i = 1; i \n\nThe BEGIN is necessary not only to extract the first argument, but also to prevent it from being interpreted as a filename after the BEGIN block ends. ARGC, the number of arguments, is always guaranteed to be ≥1, as ARGV0 is the name of the command that executed the script, most often the string \"awk\". Also note that ARGVARGC is the empty string, \"\". # initiates a comment that expands to the end of the line.\n\nNote the if block. awk only checks to see if it should read from standard input before it runs the command. This means that\n awk 'prog'\nonly works because the fact that there are no filenames is only checked before prog is run! If you explicitly set ARGC to 1 so that there are no arguments, awk will simply quit because it feels there are no more input files. Therefore, you need to explicitly say to read from standard input with the special filename -.\n",
"\nOn Unix-like operating systems self-contained AWK scripts can be constructed using the shebang syntax.\n\nFor example, a script that prints the content of a given file may be built by creating a file named print.awk with the following content:\n\n#!/usr/bin/awk -f\n{ print $0 }\n\n\nIt can be invoked with: ./print.awk \n\nThe -f tells AWK that the argument that follows is the file to read the AWK program from, which is the same flag that is used in sed. Since they are often used for one-liners, both these programs default to executing a program given as a command-line argument, rather than a separate file.\n",
"\nAWK was originally written in 1977 and distributed with Version 7 Unix.\n\nIn 1985 its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book ''The AWK Programming Language'', published 1988, and its implementation was made available in releases of UNIX System V. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes called \"new awk\" or ''nawk''. This implementation was released under a free software license in 1996 and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan (see external links below).\n \nOld versions of Unix, such as UNIX/32V, included awkcc, which converted AWK to C. Kernighan wrote a program to turn awk into C++; its state is not known.\n\n* '''BWK awk''', also known as '''nawk''', refers to the version by Brian Kernighan. It has been dubbed the \"One True AWK\" because of the use of the term in association with the book that originally described the language and the fact that Kernighan was one of the original authors of AWK. FreeBSD refers to this version as ''one-true-awk''. This version also has features not in the book, such as tolower and ENVIRON that are explained above; see the FIXES file in the source archive for details. This version is used by e.g. FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD, macOS and illumos.\n* '''gawk''' (GNU awk) is another free-software implementation and the only implementation that makes serious progress implementing internationalization and localization and TCP/IP networking. It was written before the original implementation became freely available. It includes its own debugger, and its profiler enables the user to make measured performance enhancements to a script. It also enables the user to extend functionality with shared libraries. Linux distributions are mostly GNU software, and so they include ''gawk''. FreeBSD before version 5.0 also included ''gawk'' version 3.0, but subsequent versions of FreeBSD use ''BWK awk'' to avoid the more restrictive GNU General Public License (GPL), as well as for its technical characteristics.\n* '''mawk''' is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a bytecode interpreter.\n* '''libmawk''' is a fork of mawk, allowing applications to embed multiple parallel instances of awk interpreters.\n* '''awka''' (whose front end is written atop the ''mawk'' program) is another translator of AWK scripts into C code. When compiled, statically including the author's libawka.a, the resulting executables are considerably sped up and, according to the author's tests, compare very well with other versions of AWK, Perl, or Tcl. Small scripts will turn into programs of 160–170 kB.\n* '''tawk''' (Thompson AWK) is an AWK compiler for Solaris, DOS, OS/2, and Windows, previously sold by Thompson Automation Software (which has ceased its activities).\n* '''Jawk''' is a project to implement AWK in Java, hosted on SourceForge. Extensions to the language are added to provide access to Java features within AWK scripts (i.e., Java threads, sockets, collections, etc.).\n* '''xgawk''' is a fork of ''gawk'' that extends ''gawk'' with dynamically loadable libraries. The XMLgawk extension was integrated into the official GNU Awk release 4.1.0.\n* '''QSEAWK''' is an embedded AWK interpreter implementation included in the QSE library that provides embedding application programming interface (API) for C and C++.\n* '''BusyBox''' includes an AWK implementation written by Dmitry Zakharov. This is a very small implementation suitable for embedded systems.\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* ''Arnold Robbins maintained the GNU Awk implementation of AWK for more than 10 years. The free GNU Awk manual was also published by O'Reilly in May 2001. Free download of this manual is possible through the following book references.''\n",
"\n* Data transformation\n* Event-driven programming\n* List of Unix commands\n* Procedural programming\n* sed\n",
"\n\n",
"\n* – Interview with Alfred V. Aho on AWK\n* \n* \n* \n* AWK – Become an expert in 60 minutes\n* \n* \n* Gawkinet: TCP/IP Internetworking with Gawk\n",
"\n\n* The Amazing Awk Assembler by Henry Spencer.\n* \n* Git repository of the direct lineage of the original AWK source code\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
" Structure of AWK programs ",
" Commands ",
" Sample applications ",
" Self-contained AWK scripts ",
" Versions and implementations ",
" Books ",
" See also ",
" References ",
" Further reading ",
" External links "
] | AWK |
[
"\nYggdrasil\nIn Norse religion, '''Asgard''' (; \"Enclosure of the Æsir\") is one of the Nine Worlds and home to the Æsir tribe of gods. It is surrounded by an incomplete wall attributed to a Hrimthurs riding the stallion Svaðilfari, according to ''Gylfaginning''. Odin and his wife, Frigg, are the rulers of Asgard.\n\nOne of Asgard's well known realms is Valhalla, in which Odin rules.\n",
"In the ''Prose Edda'', Gylfi, King of Sweden before the arrival of the Æsir under Odin, travels to Asgard, questions the three officials shown in the illumination concerning the Æsir, and is beguiled. Note that the officials have one eye, a sign of Odin. One of his attributes is that he can make the false seem true. 18th century Icelandic manuscript.\nThe primary sources regarding Asgard come from the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson, and the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from a basis of much older Skaldic poetry.\n\n===''Poetic Edda''===\n\n''Völuspá'', the first poem of the work, mentions many of the features and characters of Asgard portrayed by Snorri, such as Yggdrasil and Iðavöllr. Asgard is composed of 12 realms including Valhalla, Thrudheim, Breidablik who are rule over Odin, Thor and Balder respectively.\n\n===''Prose Edda''===\nThe Prose Edda presents two views regarding Asgard.\n\n====''Prologue''====\nIn the ''Prologue'' Snorri offers an euhemerized and Christian-influenced interpretation of the myths and tales of his forefathers. Asgard, he conjectures, is the home of the Æsir (singular Ás) in As-ia, making a folk etymological connection between the three \"As-\"; that is, the Æsir were \"men of Asia\", not gods, who moved from Asia to the north and some of which intermarried with the peoples already there. Snorri's interpretation of the 13th century foreshadows 20th-century views of Indo-European migration from the east.\n\nSnorri further writes that Asgard is a land more fertile than any other, blessed also with a great abundance of gold and jewels. Correspondingly, the Æsir excelled beyond all other people in strength, beauty and talent.\n\nSnorri proposes the location of Asgard as Troy, the center of the earth. About it were 12 kingdoms and 12 chiefs. One of them, Múnón, married Priam's daughter, Tróán, and had by her a son, Trór, to be pronounced Thor in Old Norse. The latter was raised in Thrace. At age 12 he was whiter than ivory, had hair lighter than gold, and could lift 10 bear skins at once. He explored far and wide. His father, Odin, led a migration to the northern lands, where they took wives and had many children, populating the entire north with Aesir. One of the sons of Odin was Yngvi, founder of the Ynglingar, an early royal family of Sweden. These accounts were written 200 years after the \n\nChristianization of Iceland.\n\n====''Gylfaginning''====\nA depiction of the creation of the world by Odin, Vili and Vé. Illustration by Lorenz Frølich.\nIn ''Gylfaginning'', Snorri presents the mythological version, taken no doubt from his sources. Icelanders were still being converted at that time. He could not present the myths as part of any current belief. Instead he resorts to a debunking device: Gylfi, king of Sweden before the Æsir, travels to Asgard and finds there a large hall (Valhalla) in Section 2.\n\nWithin are three officials (three Aesir Kings), whom Gylfi in the guise of Gangleri is allowed to question about the Asgard and the Æsir. A revelation of the ancient myths follows, but at the end the palace and the people disappear in a clap of thunder and Gylfi finds himself alone on the plain, having been deluded (Section 59).\n\nIn Gylfi's delusion, ancient Asgard was ruled by the senior god, the all-father, who had twelve names. He was the ruler of everything and the creator of heaven and earth (Section 3). During a complex creation myth in which the cosmic cow Audhumbla licked Búri free from the ice, the sons of Buri's son, Bor, who were Odin, Vili and Vé, constructed the universe and put Midgard in it as a residence for the first human couple, Ask and Embla, whom they created from driftwood trees in Section 9.\n\nThe sons of Bor then constructed Asgard (to be identified with Troy, Snorri insists in section 9) as a home for the Æsir, who were divinities. Odin is identified as the all-father. Asgard is conceived as being on the earth. A rainbow bridge, Bifröst, connects it to heaven (Section 13). In Asgard also is a temple for the 12 gods, Gladsheim, and another for the 12 goddesses, Vingólf. The plain of Idavoll is the centre of Asgard (Section 14).\n\nThe gods hold court there every day at the Well of Urd, beneath an ash tree, Yggdrasil, debating the fates of men and gods. The more immediate destinies of men are assigned by the Norns (Section 15). It also states Thor is a god as well.\n\nLong descriptions of the gods follow. Among the more memorable details are the Valkyries, the battle maidens whom Odin sends to allot death or victory to soldiers. Section 37 names 13 Valkyries and states that the source as the Poetic Edda poem ''Grímnismál''. Odin's residence is Valhalla, to which he takes those slain in battle, the Einherjar (Section 20). Snorri quips: \"There is a huge crowd there, and there will be many more still ....\" (Section 39). They amuse themselves every day by fighting each other and then going to drink in the big hall.\n\nToward the end of the chapter Snorri becomes prophetic, describing Ragnarök, the twilight of the gods. Much of it sounds like the Apocalypse, by which Snorri, a Christian, can hardly fail to have been influenced. It will begin with three winters of snow, with no summers in between. Wars will follow, then earthquakes and tidal waves. The sky will split open and out will ride the sons of Muspell intent on universal destruction. They will try to enter heaven but Bifröst will break (Section 55). Heimdall will blow his mighty horn Gjöll and the Æsir and Einherjar will ride out to battle. Most of the Æsir will die and Asgard be destroyed. Snorri quotes his own source saying: \"The sun will go black, earth sink in the sea, heaven be stripped of its bright stars;....\" (Section 56).\n\nAfterwards, the earth rises again from the sea, is fairer than before, and where Asgard used to be a remnant of the Æsir gather, some coming up from Hel, and talk and play chess all day with the golden chessmen of the ancient Æsir, which they find in the grass (Section 58).\n\n====''Skáldskaparmál''====\nThe 10th century Skald Þorbjörn dísarskáld is quoted in ''Skáldskaparmál'' as stating:\n\nThor has defended Asgard and Ygg's Odin's people the gods with strength.\n\n\n===''Heimskringla''===\n\n====''Ynglinga Saga''====\nBy the time of the ''Ynglinga Saga'', Snorri had developed his concept of Asgard further, although the differences might be accounted for by his sources. In the initial stanzas of the poem Asagarth is the capital of Asaland, a section of Asia to the east of the Tana-kvísl or Vana-Kvísl river (kvísl is \"fork\"), which Snorri explains is the Tanais, or Don River, flowing into the Black Sea. The river divides \"Sweden the Great\", a concession to the Viking point of view. It is never called that prior to the Vikings (Section 1).\n\nThe river lands are occupied by the Vanir and are called Vanaland or Vanaheim. It is unclear what people Snorri thinks the Vanes are, whether the proto-Slavic Venedi or the east Germanic Vandals, who had been in that region at that time for well over 1000 years. He does not say; however, the Germanic names of the characters, such as Njord, Frey and Vanlandi, indicate he had the Vandals in mind.\n\nOdin is the chief of Asagarth. From there he conducts and dispatches military expeditions to all parts of the world. He has the virtue of never losing a battle (Section 2). When he is away, his two brothers, Vili and Vé, rule Asaland from Asagarth.\n\nOn the border of Sweden is a mountain range running from northeast to southwest. South of it are the lands of the Turks, where Odin had possessions; thus, the mountains must be the Caucasus Mountains. On the north are the uninhabitable fells, which must be the tundra/taiga country. Apparently the Vikings did not encounter the Urals or the Uralics of the region. Snorri evidences no knowledge of them.\n\nThere also is no mention of Troy, which was not far from Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire and militarily beyond the reach of the Vikings. Troy cannot have been Asagarth, Snorri realizes, the reason being that the Æsir in Asaland were unsettled by the military activities of the Romans; that is, of the Byzantine Empire.\n\nAs a result, Odin led a section of the Æsir to the north looking for new lands in which to settle. They used the Viking route up the Don and the Volga through Garðaríki, Viking Russia. From there they went to Saxland (Germany) and to the lands of Gylfi in Scandinavia (Section 5). The historical view, of course, is mainly fantastical. The Germanics were in Germany and Scandinavia during earliest mention of them in Roman literature, long before the Romans had even conquered Italy. To what extent Snorri's presentation is poetic creation only remains unclear.\n\nDemoted from his position as all-father, or king of the gods, Odin becomes a great sorcerer in the Ynglinga Saga. He can shape-shift, speaks only in verse, and lies so well that everything he says seems true. He strikes enemies blind and deaf but when his own men fight they go berserk and cannot be harmed. He has a ship that can be rolled up like a tablecloth when not used, he relies on two talking ravens to gather intelligence, and he consults the talking head of a dwarf for prophecy (he carries it around long since detached from its body) (Section 7).\n\nAs a man, however, Odin is faced with the necessity to die. He is cremated and his possessions are burned with him so that he can ascend to - where? If Asgard is an earthly place, not there. Snorri says at first it is Valhalla and then adds: \"The Swedes now believed that he had gone to the old Asagarth and would live there forever\" (Section 9). Finally Snorri resorts to Heaven, even though nothing in Christianity advocates cremation and certainly the burning of possessions avails the Christian nothing.\n",
"''Asgard'' is derived from Old Norse ''āss'', god + ''garðr'', enclosure; from Indo-European roots ''ansu-'' spirit, demon (see cognate ahura; also asura) + ''gher-'' grasp, enclose (see cognates garden and yard), essentially meaning \"garden of gods\".\n",
"* The Asgard are a highly advanced, fictional extraterrestrial race in the science fiction series ''Stargate SG-1'' and ''Stargate Atlantis''. The series assert that gods of ancient cultures are based on contacts with various alien races and individuals.\n* Asgard is the name of a fictional realm and its capital city within the Marvel Comics universe, referenced in film, television shows, comics, and even a Disneyland Themepark attraction.\n* Ysgard, based on Asgard and therefore sometimes spelled Asgard, is an Outer Plane in the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game.\n* Asguard (band), a Belarusian death metal band\n* ''Asgard'' (album), by the German folk black metal band Adorned Brood\n",
"* Alternatives Anglicisations: Ásgard, Ásegard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarthr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Esageard, Ásgardhr, Asgaard\n* Common Swedish and Danish form: Asgård, Aasgaard\n* , Aasgaard (both also Åsgård)\n* Icelandic, \n",
"\n",
"*\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Attestations",
"Etymology",
"In popular culture",
"Other spellings",
"References",
"Bibliography"
] | Asgard |
[
"\n\n\nBuzz Aldrin (pictured) walked on the Moon with Neil Armstrong, on Apollo 11, July 20–21, 1969|alt=Astronaut Buzz Aldrin stands on the Moon\n\nThe '''Apollo program''', also known as '''Project Apollo''', was the third United States human spaceflight program carried out by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), which accomplished landing the first humans on the Moon from 1969 to 1972. First conceived during Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration as a three-man spacecraft to follow the one-man Project Mercury which put the first Americans in space, Apollo was later dedicated to President John F. Kennedy's national goal of \"landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth\" by the end of the 1960s, which he proposed in an address to Congress on May 25, 1961.\n\nKennedy's goal was accomplished on the Apollo 11 mission when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Lunar Module (LM) on July 20, 1969, and walked on the lunar surface, while Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit in the Command/Service Module (CSM), and all three landed safely on Earth on July 24. Five subsequent Apollo missions also landed astronauts on the Moon, the last in December 1972. In these six spaceflights, twelve men walked on the Moon.\n\nApollo ran from 1961 to 1972, with the first manned flight in 1968. It achieved its goal of manned lunar landing, despite the major setback of a 1967 Apollo 1 cabin fire that killed the entire crew during a prelaunch test. After the first landing, sufficient flight hardware remained for nine follow-on landings with a plan for extended lunar geological and astrophysical exploration. Budget cuts forced the cancellation of three of these. Five of the remaining six missions achieved successful landings, but the Apollo 13 landing was prevented by an oxygen tank explosion in transit to the Moon, which damaged the CSM's propulsion and life support. The crew returned to Earth safely by using the Lunar Module as a \"lifeboat\" for these functions. Apollo used Saturn family rockets as launch vehicles, which were also used for an Apollo Applications Program, which consisted of Skylab, a space station that supported three manned missions in 1973–74, and the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint Earth orbit mission with the Soviet Union in 1975.\n\nApollo set several major human spaceflight milestones. It stands alone in sending manned missions beyond low Earth orbit. Apollo 8 was the first manned spacecraft to orbit another celestial body, while the final Apollo 17 mission marked the sixth Moon landing and the ninth manned mission beyond low Earth orbit. The program returned of lunar rocks and soil to Earth, greatly contributing to the understanding of the Moon's composition and geological history. The program laid the foundation for NASA's subsequent human spaceflight capability, and funded construction of its Johnson Space Center and Kennedy Space Center. Apollo also spurred advances in many areas of technology incidental to rocketry and manned spaceflight, including avionics, telecommunications, and computers.\n",
"The Apollo program was conceived during the Eisenhower administration in early 1960, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While the Mercury capsule could only support one astronaut on a limited Earth orbital mission, Apollo would carry three astronauts. Possible missions included ferrying crews to a space station, circumlunar flights, and eventual manned lunar landings. The program was named after the Greek god of light, music, and the sun by NASA manager Abe Silverstein, who later said that \"I was naming the spacecraft like I'd name my baby.\" Silverstein chose the name at home one evening, early in 1960, because he felt \"Apollo riding his chariot across the Sun was appropriate to the grand scale of the proposed program.\"\n\n===Spacecraft feasibility studies===\n\n\nIn July 1960, NASA Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden announced the Apollo program to industry representatives at a series of Space Task Group conferences. Preliminary specifications were laid out for a spacecraft with a ''mission module'' cabin separate from the ''command module'' (piloting and re-entry cabin), and a ''propulsion and equipment module''. On August 30, a feasibility study competition was announced, and on October 25, three study contracts were awarded to General Dynamics/Convair, General Electric, and the Glenn L. Martin Company. Meanwhile, NASA performed its own in-house spacecraft design studies led by Maxime Faget, to serve as a gauge to judge and monitor the three industry designs.\n\n===Political pressure builds===\n\n\nIn November 1960, John F. Kennedy was elected president after a campaign that promised American superiority over the Soviet Union in the fields of space exploration and missile defense. Up to the election of 1960, Kennedy had been speaking out against the \"missile gap\" that he and many other senators felt had formed between the Soviets and themselves due to the inaction of President Eisenhower. Beyond military power, Kennedy used aerospace technology as a symbol of national prestige, pledging to make the US not \"first but, first and, first if, but first period.\" Despite Kennedy's rhetoric, he did not immediately come to a decision on the status of the Apollo program once he became president. He knew little about the technical details of the space program, and was put off by the massive financial commitment required by a manned Moon landing. When Kennedy's newly appointed NASA Administrator James E. Webb requested a 30 percent budget increase for his agency, Kennedy supported an acceleration of NASA's large booster program but deferred a decision on the broader issue.\n\nOn April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union. At a meeting of the US House Committee on Science and Astronautics one day after Gagarin's flight, many congressmen pledged their support for a crash program aimed at ensuring that America would catch up. Kennedy was circumspect in his response to the news, refusing to make a commitment on America's response to the Soviets.\n\nPresident Kennedy delivers his proposal to put a man on the Moon before a joint session of Congress, May 25, 1961|alt=President John F. Kennedy addresses a joint session of Congress, with Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and House Speaker Sam Rayburn seated behind him\nOn April 20, Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up. Johnson responded approximately one week later, concluding that \"we are neither making maximum effort nor achieving results necessary if this country is to reach a position of leadership.\" His memo concluded that a manned Moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.\n\nOn May 25, 1961, twenty days after the first US manned spaceflight ''Freedom 7'', Kennedy proposed the manned Moon landing in a ''Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs'':\n\"Now it is time to take longer strides - time for a great new American enterprise - time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth....I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.\" \n",
"At the time of Kennedy's proposal, only one American had flown in space—less than a month earlier—and NASA had not yet sent an astronaut into orbit. Even some NASA employees doubted whether Kennedy's ambitious goal could be met. By 1963, Kennedy even came close to agreeing to a joint US-USSR Moon mission, to eliminate duplication of effort.\n\nWith the clear goal of a manned landing replacing the more nebulous goals of space stations and cislunar flights, NASA had to hit the ground running, and decided to discard the feasibility study designs of Convair, GE, and Martin, and proceed with Faget's command / service module design. The mission module was determined to be only useful as an extra room, and therefore deemed unnecessary. They used Faget's design as the specification for another competition for spacecraft procurement bids in October 1961. On November 28, 1961, it was announced that North American Aviation had won the contract, although its bid was not rated as good as Martin's. Webb, Dryden and Robert Seamans chose it in preference due to North American's longer association with NACA.\n\nLanding men on the Moon by the end of 1969 required the most sudden burst of technological creativity, and the largest commitment of resources ($24 billion) ever made by any nation in peacetime. At its peak, the Apollo program employed 400,000 people and required the support of over 20,000 industrial firms and universities.\n\nOn July 1, 1960, NASA established the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama. MSFC designed the heavy lift-class Saturn launch vehicles, which would be required for Apollo.\n\n===Manned Spacecraft Center===\n\n\nIt became clear that managing the Apollo program would exceed the capabilities of Robert R. Gilruth's Space Task Group, which had been directing the nation's manned space program from NASA's Langley Research Center. So Gilruth was given authority to grow his organization into a new NASA center, the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC). A site was chosen in Houston, Texas, on land donated by Rice University, and Administrator Webb announced the conversion on September 19, 1961. It was also clear NASA would soon outgrow its practice of controlling missions from its Cape Canaveral Air Force Station launch facilities in Florida, so a new Mission Control Center would be included in the MSC.\n\nPresident Kennedy speaks at Rice University, September 12, 1962 (17 min, 47 sec)\nIn September 1962, by which time two Project Mercury astronauts had orbited the Earth, Gilruth had moved his organization to rented space in Houston, and construction of the MSC facility was under way, Kennedy visited Rice to reiterate his challenge in a famous speech:\n\"But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? ... \nWe choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard; because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our energies and skills; because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win ... . \n\nThe MSC was completed in September 1963. It was renamed by the US Congress in honor of Lyndon Johnson soon after his death in 1973.\n\n===Launch Operations Center===\n\n\nIt also became clear that Apollo would outgrow the Canaveral launch facilities in Florida. The two newest launch complexes were already being built for the Saturn I and IB rockets at the northernmost end: LC-34 and LC-37. But an even bigger facility would be needed for the mammoth rocket required for the manned lunar mission, so land acquisition was started in July 1961 for a Launch Operations Center (LOC) immediately north of Canaveral at Merritt Island. The design, development and construction of the center was conducted by Kurt H. Debus, a member of Dr. Wernher von Braun's original V-2 rocket engineering team. Debus was named the LOC's first Director. Construction began in November 1962. Upon Kennedy's death, President Johnson issued an executive order on November 29, 1963, to rename the LOC and Cape Canaveral in honor of Kennedy.\n\nThe LOC included Launch Complex 39, a Launch Control Center, and a 130 million cubic foot (3.7 million cubic meter) Vertical Assembly Building (VAB) in which the space vehicle (launch vehicle and spacecraft) would be assembled on a Mobile Launcher Platform and then moved by a transporter to one of several launch pads. Although at least three pads were planned, only two, designated A and B, were completed in October 1965. The LOC also included an Operations and Checkout Building (OCB) to which Gemini and Apollo spacecraft were initially received prior to being mated to their launch vehicles. The Apollo spacecraft could be tested in two vacuum chambers capable of simulating atmospheric pressure at altitudes up to , which is nearly a vacuum.\n\n===Organization===\nAdministrator Webb realized that in order to keep Apollo costs under control, he had to develop greater project management skills in his organization, so he recruited Dr. George E. Mueller for a high management job. Mueller accepted, on the condition that he have a say in NASA reorganization necessary to effectively administer Apollo. Webb then worked with Associate Administrator (later Deputy Administrator) Seamans to reorganize the Office of Manned Space Flight (OMSF). On July 23, 1963, Webb announced Mueller's appointment as Deputy Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, to replace then Associate Administrator D. Brainerd Holmes on his retirement effective September 1. Under Webb's reorganization, the directors of the Manned Spacecraft Center (Gilruth) Marshall Space Flight Center (von Braun) and the Launch Operations Center (Debus) effectively reported to Mueller.\n\nBased on his industry experience on Air Force missile projects, Mueller realized some skilled managers could be found among high-ranking officers in the United States Air Force, so he got Webb's permission to recruit General Samuel C. Phillips, who gained a reputation for his effective management of the Minuteman program, as OMSF program controller. Phillips' superior officer Bernard A. Schriever agreed to loan Phillips to NASA, along with a staff of officers under him, on the condition that Phillips be made Apollo Program Director. Mueller agreed, and Phillips managed Apollo from January 1964, until it achieved the first manned landing in July 1969, after which he returned to Air Force duty.\n\n",
"John Houbolt explaining the LOR concept\n\n\nOnce Kennedy had defined a goal, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a spacecraft that could meet it while minimizing risk to human life, cost, and demands on technology and astronaut skill. Four possible mission modes were considered:\n* '''Direct Ascent:''' The spacecraft would be launched as a unit and travel directly to the Moon and land. It would return, leaving its landing stage on the Moon. This design would have required development of the extremely powerful Nova launch vehicle.\n* '''Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR):''' Multiple rocket launches (up to 15 in some plans) would carry parts of a Direct Ascent spacecraft and propulsion units for translunar injection (TLI). These would be assembled into a single spacecraft in Earth orbit.\n* '''Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR):''' A single Saturn V could launch a spacecraft that was composed of a mother ship which would remain in orbit around the Moon, while a smaller, two-stage lander would carry two astronauts to the surface, return to dock with the mother ship, and then be discarded. Landing only a small part of the spacecraft on the Moon and returning an even smaller part to lunar orbit minimized the total mass to be launched from the Earth.\n* '''Lunar Surface Rendezvous:''' Two spacecraft would be launched in succession. The first, an automated vehicle carrying propellant for the return to Earth, would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the manned vehicle. Propellant would have to be transferred from the automated vehicle to the manned vehicle.\n\nDirect Ascent and Earth Orbit Rendezvous, 1961\nIn early 1961, direct ascent was generally the mission mode in favor at NASA. Many engineers feared that a rendezvous—let alone a docking—neither of which had been attempted even in Earth orbit, would be extremely difficult in lunar orbit. Dissenters including John Houbolt at Langley Research Center emphasized the important weight reductions that were offered by the LOR approach. Throughout 1960 and 1961, Houbolt campaigned for the recognition of LOR as a viable and practical option. Bypassing the NASA hierarchy, he sent a series of memos and reports on the issue to Associate Administrator Robert Seamans; while acknowledging that he spoke \"somewhat as a voice in the wilderness,\" Houbolt pleaded that LOR should not be discounted in studies of the question.\n\n\nSeamans' establishment of an ad-hoc committee headed by his special technical assistant Nicholas E. Golovin in July 1961, to recommend a launch vehicle to be used in the Apollo program, represented a turning point in NASA's mission mode decision. This committee recognized that the chosen mode was an important part of the launch vehicle choice, and recommended in favor of a hybrid EOR-LOR mode. Its consideration of LOR—as well as Houbolt's ceaseless work—played an important role in publicizing the workability of the approach. In late 1961 and early 1962, members of the Manned Spacecraft Center began to come around to support LOR, including the newly hired deputy director of the Office of Manned Space Flight, Joseph Shea, who became a champion of LOR. The engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC), which had much to lose from the decision, took longer to become convinced of its merits, but their conversion was announced by Wernher von Braun at a briefing on June 7, 1962.\n\nBut even after NASA reached internal agreement, it was far from smooth sailing. Kennedy's science advisor Jerome Wiesner, who had expressed his opposition to manned spaceflight to Kennedy before the President took office, and had opposed the decision to land men on the Moon, hired Golovin, who had left NASA, to chair his own \"Space Vehicle Panel\", ostensibly to monitor, but actually to second-guess NASA's decisions on the Saturn V launch vehicle and LOR by forcing Shea, Seamans, and even Webb to defend themselves, delaying its formal announcement to the press on July 11, 1962, and forcing Webb to still hedge the decision as \"tentative\".\n\nWiesner kept up the pressure, even making the disagreement public during a two-day September visit by the President to Marshall Space Flight Center. Wiesner blurted out \"No, that's no good\" in front of the press, during a presentation by von Braun. Webb jumped in and defended von Braun, until Kennedy ended the squabble by stating that the matter was \"still subject to final review\". Webb held firm, and issued a request for proposal to candidate Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) contractors. Wiesner finally relented, unwilling to settle the dispute once and for all in Kennedy's office, because of the President's involvement with the October Cuban Missile Crisis, and fear of Kennedy's support for Webb. NASA announced the selection of Grumman as the LEM contractor in November 1962.\n\nSpace historian James Hansen concludes that:\n\n\nAn Apollo Test Capsule is on exhibit in the Meteor Crater Visitor Center in Winslow, Arizona. \nThe LOR method had the advantage of allowing the lander spacecraft to be used as a \"lifeboat\" in the event of a failure of the command ship. Some documents prove this theory was discussed before and after the method was chosen. A 1964 MSC study concluded, \"The LM as lifeboat ... was finally dropped, because no single reasonable CSM failure could be identified that would prohibit use of the SPS.\" Ironically, just such a failure happened on Apollo 13 when an oxygen tank explosion left the CSM without electrical power. The Lunar Module provided propulsion, electrical power and life support to get the crew home safely.\n",
"\n\nFaget's preliminary Apollo design employed a cone-shaped command module, supported by one of several service modules providing propulsion and electrical power, sized appropriately for the space station, cislunar, and lunar landing missions. Once Kennedy's Moon landing goal became official, detailed design began of a ''Command/Service Module'' (CSM) in which the crew would spend the entire direct-ascent mission and lift off from the lunar surface for the return trip, after being soft-landed by a larger landing propulsion module. The final choice of lunar orbit rendezvous changed the CSM's role to the translunar ferry used to transport the crew, along with a new spacecraft, the ''Lunar Excursion Module'' (LEM, later shortened to ''Lunar Module'', LM) which would take two men to the lunar surface and return them to the CSM.\n\n===Command/Service Module===\n\nApollo 15 CSM in lunar orbit|alt=The cone-shaped Command Module, attached to the cylindrical Service Module, orbits the Moon with a panel removed, exposing the Scientific Instrument Module\n\nThe Command Module (CM) was the conical crew cabin, designed to carry three astronauts from launch to lunar orbit and back to an Earth ocean landing. It was the only component of the Apollo spacecraft to survive without major configuration changes as the program evolved from the early Apollo study designs. Its exterior was covered with an ablative heat shield, and had its own reaction control system (RCS) engines to control its attitude and steer its atmospheric entry path. Parachutes were carried to slow its descent to splashdown. The module was tall, in diameter, and weighed approximately .\n\nA cylindrical Service Module (SM) supported the Command Module, with a service propulsion engine and an RCS with propellants, and a fuel cell power generation system with liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen reactants. A high-gain S-band antenna was used for long-distance communications on the lunar flights. On the extended lunar missions, an orbital scientific instrument package was carried. The Service Module was discarded just before re-entry. The module was long and in diameter. The initial lunar flight version weighed approximately fully fueled, while a later version designed to carry a lunar orbit scientific instrument package weighed just over .\n\nNorth American Aviation won the contract to build the CSM, and also the second stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle for NASA. Because the CSM design was started early before the selection of lunar orbit rendezvous, the service propulsion engine was sized to lift the CSM off of the Moon, and thus was oversized to about twice the thrust required for translunar flight. Also, there was no provision for docking with the Lunar Module. A 1964 program definition study concluded that the initial design should be continued as Block I which would be used for early testing, while Block II, the actual lunar spacecraft, would incorporate the docking equipment and take advantage of the lessons learned in Block I development.\n\n===Lunar Module===\n\nApollo 16 LM on the Moon\n\nThe Lunar Module (LM) was designed to descend from lunar orbit to land two astronauts on the Moon and take them back to orbit to rendezvous with the Command Module. Not designed to fly through the Earth's atmosphere or return to Earth, its fuselage was designed totally without aerodynamic considerations, and was of an extremely lightweight construction. It consisted of separate descent and ascent stages, each with its own engine. The descent stage contained storage for the descent propellant, surface stay consumables, and surface exploration equipment. The ascent stage contained the crew cabin, ascent propellant, and a reaction control system. The initial LM model weighed approximately , and allowed surface stays up to around 34 hours. An Extended Lunar Module weighed over , and allowed surface stays of over 3 days. The contract for design and construction of the Lunar Module was awarded to Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, and the project was overseen by Thomas J. Kelly.\n",
"Four Apollo rocket assemblies, drawn to scale: Little Joe II, Saturn I, Saturn IB, and Saturn V\n\nBefore the Apollo program began, Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket engineers had started work on plans for very large launch vehicles, the Saturn series, and the even larger Nova series. In the midst of these plans, von Braun was transferred from the Army to NASA, and made Director of the Marshall Space Flight Center. The initial direct ascent plan to send the three-man Apollo Command/Service Module directly to the lunar surface, on top of a large descent rocket stage, would require a Nova-class launcher, with a lunar payload capability of over . The June 11, 1962, decision to use lunar orbit rendezvous enabled the Saturn V to replace the Nova, and the MSFC proceeded to develop the Saturn rocket family for Apollo.\n\n===Little Joe II===\n\n\nSince Apollo, like Mercury, would require a launch escape system (LES) in case of a launch failure, a relatively small rocket was required for qualification flight testing of this system. A size bigger than the NAA Little Joe would be required, so the Little Joe II was built by General Dynamics/Convair. After an August 1963 qualification test flight, four LES test flights (A-001 through 004) were made at the White Sands Missile Range between May 1964 and January 1966.\n\n===Saturn I===\n\nA Saturn IB rocket launches Apollo 7, 1968\n\nSince Apollo, like Mercury, used more than one launch vehicle for space missions, NASA used spacecraft-launch vehicle combination series numbers: AS-10x for Saturn I, AS-20x for Saturn IB, and AS-50x for Saturn V (compare Mercury-Redstone 3, Mercury-Atlas 6) to designate and plan all missions, rather than numbering them sequentially as in Project Gemini. This was changed by the time manned flights began.\n\nSaturn I, the first US heavy lift launch vehicle, was initially planned to launch partially equipped CSMs in low Earth orbit tests. The S-I first stage burned RP-1 with liquid oxygen (LOX) oxidizer in eight clustered Rocketdyne H-1 engines, to produce of thrust. The S-IV second stage used six liquid hydrogen-fueled Pratt & Whitney RL-10 engines with of thrust. A planned Centaur (S-V) third stage with two RL-10 engines never flew on Saturn I.\n\nThe first four Saturn I test flights were launched from LC-34, with only live first stages, carrying dummy upper stages filled with water. The first flight with a live S-IV was launched from LC-37. This was followed by five launches of boilerplate CSMs (designated AS-101 through AS-105) into orbit in 1964 and 1965. The last three of these further supported the Apollo program by also carrying Pegasus satellites, which verified the safety of the translunar environment by measuring the frequency and severity of micrometeorite impacts.\n\nIn September 1962, NASA planned to launch four manned CSM flights on the Saturn I from late 1965 through 1966, concurrent with Project Gemini. The payload capacity would have severely limited the systems which could be included, so the decision was made in October 1963 to use the uprated Saturn IB for all manned Earth orbital flights.\n\n===Saturn IB===\n\n\nThe Saturn IB was an upgraded version of the Saturn I. The S-IB first stage increased the thrust to by uprating the H-1 engine. The second stage replaced the S-IV with the S-IVB-200, powered by a single J-2 engine burning liquid hydrogen fuel with LOX, to produce of thrust. A restartable version of the S-IVB was used as the third stage of the Saturn V. The Saturn IB could send over into low Earth orbit, sufficient for a partially fueled CSM or the LM. Saturn IB launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-200 series number, \"AS\" indicating \"Apollo Saturn\" and the \"2\" indicating the second member of the Saturn rocket family.\n\n===Saturn V===\n\nA Saturn V launches Apollo 11 in 1969\n\nSaturn V launch vehicles and flights were designated with an AS-500 series number, \"AS\" indicating \"Apollo Saturn\" and the \"5\" indicating Saturn V. The three-stage Saturn V was designed to send a fully fueled CSM and LM to the Moon. It was in diameter and stood tall with its lunar payload. Its capability grew to for the later advanced lunar landings. The S-IC first stage burned RP-1/LOX for a rated thrust of , which was upgraded to . The second and third stages burned liquid hydrogen, and the third stage was a modified version of the S-IVB, with thrust increased to and capability to restart the engine for translunar injection after reaching a parking orbit.\n",
"\nApollo 1 crew: Edward H. White, command pilot Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee\n\nNASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations during the Apollo program was Donald K. \"Deke\" Slayton, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts who was medically grounded in September 1962 due to a heart murmur. Slayton was responsible for making all Gemini and Apollo crew assignments.\n\nApollo 11 crew, who made the first manned landing: commander Neil Armstrong, CM pilot Michael Collins, and LM pilot Buzz Aldrin\nThirty-two astronauts were assigned to fly missions in the Apollo program. Twenty-four of these left Earth’s orbit and flew around the Moon between December 1968 and December 1972 (three of them twice). Half of the 24 walked on its surface, though none of them returned to the Moon after landing once. One of the moonwalkers was a trained geologist. Of the 32, Gus Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Chaffee were killed during a ground test in preparation for their Apollo 1 mission.\n\nThe Apollo astronauts were chosen from the Project Mercury and Gemini veterans, plus from two later astronaut groups. All missions were commanded by Gemini or Mercury veterans. Crews on all development flights (except the Earth orbit CSM development flights) through the first two landings on Apollo 11 and Apollo 12, included at least two (sometimes three) Gemini veterans. Dr. Harrison Schmitt, a geologist, was the first NASA scientist astronaut to fly in space, and landed on the Moon on the last mission, Apollo 17. Schmitt participated in the lunar geology training of all of the Apollo landing crews.\n\nNASA awarded all 32 of these astronauts its highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, given for \"distinguished service, ability, or courage\", and personal \"contribution representing substantial progress to the NASA mission\". The medals were awarded posthumously to Grissom, White, and Chaffee in 1969, then to the crews of all missions from Apollo 8 onward. The crew that flew the first Earth orbital test mission Apollo 7, Walter M. Schirra, Donn Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, were awarded the lesser NASA Exceptional Service Medal, because of discipline problems with the Flight Director's orders during their flight. The NASA Administrator in October, 2008, decided to award them the Distinguished Service Medals, by this time posthumously to Schirra and Eisele.\n",
"The nominal planned lunar landing mission proceeded as follows:\n\nFile:apollo11-01.png|'''Launch''' The 3 Saturn V stages burn for about 11 minutes to achieve a circular parking orbit. The third stage burns a small portion of its fuel to achieve orbit.\nFile:apollo11-02.png|'''Translunar injection''' After one to two orbits to verify readiness of spacecraft systems, the S-IVB third stage reignites for about 6 minutes to send the spacecraft to the Moon.\nFile:apollo11-03.png|'''Transposition and docking (1)''' The Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) panels separate to free the CSM and expose the LM. The Command Module Pilot (CMP) moves the CSM out a safe distance, and turns 180°.\nFile:apollo11-04.png|'''Transposition and docking (2)''', The CMP docks with the LM, and pulls the combined spacecraft away from the S-IVB, which then is sent into solar orbit. The lunar voyage takes between 2 and 3 days. Midcourse corrections are made as necessary using the SM engine.\nFile:apollo11-05.png|'''Lunar orbit insertion''' The spacecraft passes about behind the Moon, and the SM engine is fired to slow the spacecraft and put it into a orbit, which is soon circularized at 60 nautical miles by a second burn.\nFile:apollo11-07.png|After a rest period, the Commander (CDR) and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) move to the LM, power up its systems, and deploy the landing gear. The CSM and LM separate; the CMP visually inspects the LM, then the LM crew move a safe distance away and fire the descent engine for '''Descent orbit insertion''', which takes it to a perilune of about .\nFile:apollo11-08.png|'''Powered descent''' At perilune, the descent engine fires again to start the descent. The CDR takes over manual control after pitchover for a vertical landing.\nFile:apollo11-09.png|The CDR and LMP perform one or more EVAs exploring the lunar surface and collecting samples, alternating with rest periods.\nFile:apollo11-10.png|The ascent stage lifts off, using the descent stage as a launching pad.\nFile:apollo11-11.png|The LM rendezvouses and docks with the CSM.\nFile:apollo11-12.png|The CDR and LMP transfer back to the CM with their material samples, then the LM ascent stage is jettisoned, to eventually fall out of orbit and crash on the surface.\nFile:apollo11-13.png|'''Trans-Earth injection''' The SM engine fires to send the CSM back to Earth.\nFile:apollo11-14.png|The SM is jettisoned just before reentry, and the CM turns 180° to face its blunt end forward for reentry.\nFile:apollo11-15.png|Atmospheric drag slows the CM. Aerodynamic heating surrounds it with an envelope of ionized air which causes a communications blackout for several minutes.\nFile:apollo11-16.png|Parachutes are deployed, slowing the CM for a splashdown in the Pacific Ocean. The astronauts are recovered and brought to an aircraft carrier.\n\n\n\nFile:Apollo-Moon-mission-profile.png|Lunar flight profile (distances not to scale).\n\n\n===Profile variations===\n*Starting with Apollo 13, descent orbit insertion was to be performed using the Service Module engine instead of the LM engine, in order to allow a greater fuel reserve for landing. This was actually done for the first time on Apollo 14, since the Apollo 13 mission was aborted before landing.\n*The first three lunar missions (Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and Apollo 11) used a free return trajectory, keeping a flight path coplanar with the lunar orbit, which would allow a return to Earth in case the SM engine failed to make lunar orbit insertion. Landing site lighting conditions on later missions dictated a lunar orbital plane change, which required a course change maneuver soon after TLI, and eliminated the free-return option.\n*After Apollo 12 placed the second of several seismometers on the Moon, the S-IVBs on subsequent missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon instead of being sent to solar orbit, as an active seismic experiment to induce vibrations in the Moon.\n*As another active seismic experiment, the jettisoned LM ascent stages on Apollo 12 and later missions were deliberately crashed on the Moon at known locations. The only exceptions to this were the Apollo 13 LM which burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16, where a loss of attitude control after jettison prevented making a targeted impact.\n",
"\n===Unmanned flight tests===\n\nFile:Apollo unmanned launches.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo unmanned development mission launches. Click on a launch image to read the main article about each mission|alt=Composite image of unmanned development Apollo mission launches in chronological sequence.\nrect 0 0 91 494 AS-201 first unmanned CSM test\nrect 92 0 181 494 AS-203 S-IVB stage development test\nrect 182 0 270 494 AS-202 second unmanned CSM test\nrect 271 0 340 494 Apollo 4 first unmanned Saturn V test\nrect 341 0 434 494 Apollo 5 unmanned LM test\nrect 435 0 494 494 Apollo 6 second unmanned Saturn V test\n\n\n\nTwo Block I CSMs were launched from LC-34 on suborbital flights in 1966 with the Saturn IB. The first, AS-201 launched on February 26, reached an altitude of and splashed down downrange in the Atlantic Ocean. The second, AS-202 on August 25, reached altitude and was recovered downrange in the Pacific Ocean. These flights validated the Service Module engine and the Command Module heat shield.\n\nA third Saturn IB test, AS-203 launched from pad 37, went into orbit to support design of the S-IVB upper stage restart capability needed for the Saturn V. It carried a nosecone instead of the Apollo spacecraft, and its payload was the unburned liquid hydrogen fuel, the behavior of which engineers measured with temperature and pressure sensors, and a TV camera. This flight occurred on July 5, before AS-202, which was delayed because of problems getting the Apollo spacecraft ready for flight.\n\n===Preparation for manned flight===\nTwo manned orbital Block I CSM missions were planned: AS-204 and AS-205. The Block I crew positions were titled Command Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Pilot. The Senior Pilot would assume navigation duties, while the Pilot would function as a systems engineer. The astronauts would wear a modified version of the Gemini spacesuit.\n\nAfter an unmanned LM test flight AS-206, a crew would fly the first Block II CSM and LM in a dual mission known as AS-207/208, or AS-278 (each spacecraft would be launched on a separate Saturn IB). The Block II crew positions were titled Commander (CDR) Command Module Pilot (CMP) and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP). The astronauts would begin wearing a new Apollo A6L spacesuit, designed to accommodate lunar extravehicular activity (EVA). The traditional visor helmet was replaced with a clear \"fishbowl\" type for greater visibility, and the lunar surface EVA suit would include a water-cooled undergarment.\n\nDeke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became Director of Flight Crew Operations for the Gemini and Apollo programs, selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee. NASA announced the final crew selection for AS-204 on March 21, 1966, with the backup crew consisting of Gemini veterans James McDivitt and David Scott, with rookie Russell L. \"Rusty\" Schweickart. Mercury/Gemini veteran Wally Schirra, Eisele, and rookie Walter Cunningham were announced on September 29 as the prime crew for AS-205.\n\nIn December 1966, the AS-205 mission was canceled, since the validation of the CSM would be accomplished on the 14-day first flight, and AS-205 would have been devoted to space experiments and contribute no new engineering knowledge about the spacecraft. Its Saturn IB was allocated to the dual mission, now redesignated AS-205/208 or AS-258, planned for August 1967. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were promoted to the prime AS-258 crew, and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the Apollo 1 backup crew.\n\n====Program delays====\nThe spacecraft for the AS-202 and AS-204 missions were delivered by North American Aviation to the Kennedy Space Center with long lists of equipment problems which had to be corrected before flight; these delays caused the launch of AS-202 to slip behind AS-203, and eliminated hopes the first manned mission might be ready to launch as soon as November 1966, concurrently with the last Gemini mission. Eventually the planned AS-204 flight date was pushed to February 21, 1967.\n\nNorth American Aviation was prime contractor not only for the Apollo CSM, but for the Saturn V S-II second stage as well, and delays in this stage pushed the first unmanned Saturn V flight AS-501 from late 1966 to November 1967. (The initial assembly of AS-501 had to use a dummy spacer spool in place of the stage.)\n\nThe problems with North American were severe enough in late 1965 to cause Manned Space Flight Administrator George Mueller to appoint program director Samuel Phillips to head a \"tiger team\" to investigate North American's problems and identify corrections. Phillips documented his findings in a December 19 letter to NAA president Lee Atwood, with a strongly worded letter by Mueller, and also gave a presentation of the results to Mueller and Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans. Meanwhile, Grumman was also encountering problems with the Lunar Module, eliminating hopes it would be ready for manned flight in 1967, not long after the first manned CSM flights.\n\n====Apollo 1 fire====\n\nCharred Apollo 1 cabin interior\n\nGrissom, White, and Chaffee decided to name their flight Apollo 1 as a motivational focus on the first manned flight. They trained and conducted tests of their spacecraft at North American, and in the altitude chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. A \"plugs-out\" test was planned for January, which would simulate a launch countdown on LC-34 with the spacecraft transferring from pad-supplied to internal power. If successful, this would be followed by a more rigorous countdown simulation test closer to the February 21 launch, with both spacecraft and launch vehicle fueled.\n\nThe plugs-out test began on the morning of January 27, 1967, and immediately was plagued with problems. First the crew noticed a strange odor in their spacesuits, which delayed the sealing of the hatch. Then, communications problems frustrated the astronauts and forced a hold in the simulated countdown. During this hold, an electrical fire began in the cabin, and spread quickly in the high pressure, 100% oxygen atmosphere. Pressure rose high enough from the fire that the cabin inner wall burst, allowing the fire to erupt onto the pad area and frustrating attempts to rescue the crew. The astronauts were asphyxiated before the hatch could be opened.\n\nNASA immediately convened an accident review board, overseen by both houses of Congress. While the determination of responsibility for the accident was complex, the review board concluded that \"deficiencies existed in Command Module design, workmanship and quality control.\" At the insistence of NASA Administrator Webb, North American removed Harrison Storms as Command Module program manager. Webb also reassigned Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) Manager Joseph Francis Shea, replacing him with George Low.\n\nThe Block II spacesuit in January 1968, before (left) and after changes recommended after the Apollo 1 fire\nTo remedy the causes of the fire, changes were made in the Block II spacecraft and operational procedures, the most important of which were use of a nitrogen/oxygen mixture instead of pure oxygen before and during launch, and removal of flammable cabin and space suit materials. The Block II design already called for replacement of the Block I plug-type hatch cover with a quick-release, outward opening door. NASA discontinued the manned Block I program, using the Block I spacecraft only for unmanned Saturn V flights. Crew members would also exclusively wear modified, fire-resistant A7L Block II space suits, and would be designated by the Block II titles, regardless of whether a LM was present on the flight or not.\n\n====Unmanned Saturn V and LM tests====\nOn April 24, 1967, Mueller published an official Apollo mission numbering scheme, using sequential numbers for all flights, manned or unmanned. The sequence would start with Apollo 4 to cover the first three unmanned flights while retiring the Apollo 1 designation to honor the crew, per their widows' wishes.\n\nIn September 1967, Mueller approved a sequence of mission types which had to be successfully accomplished in order to achieve the manned lunar landing. Each step had to be successfully accomplished before the next ones could be performed, and it was unknown how many tries of each mission would be necessary; therefore letters were used instead of numbers. The '''A''' missions were unmanned Saturn V validation; '''B''' was unmanned LM validation using the Saturn IB; '''C''' was manned CSM Earth orbit validation using the Saturn IB; '''D''' was the first manned CSM/LM flight (this replaced AS-258, using a single Saturn V launch); '''E''' would be a higher Earth orbit CSM/LM flight; '''F''' would be the first lunar mission, testing the LM in lunar orbit but without landing (a \"dress rehearsal\"); and '''G''' would be the first manned landing. The list of types covered follow-on lunar exploration to include '''H''' lunar landings, '''I''' for lunar orbital survey missions, and '''J''' for extended-stay lunar landings.\n\nThe delay in the CSM caused by the fire enabled NASA to catch up on man-rating the LM and Saturn V. Apollo 4 (AS-501) was the first unmanned flight of the Saturn V, carrying a Block I CSM on November 9, 1967. The capability of the Command Module's heat shield to survive a trans-lunar reentry was demonstrated by using the Service Module engine to ram it into the atmosphere at higher than the usual Earth-orbital reentry speed.\n\nApollo 5 (AS-204) was the first unmanned test flight of LM in Earth orbit, launched from pad 37 on January 22, 1968, by the Saturn IB that would have been used for Apollo 1. The LM engines were successfully test-fired and restarted, despite a computer programming error which cut short the first descent stage firing. The ascent engine was fired in abort mode, known as a \"fire-in-the-hole\" test, where it was lit simultaneously with jettison of the descent stage. Although Grumman wanted a second unmanned test, George Low decided the next LM flight would be manned.\n\nThis was followed on April 4, 1968, by Apollo 6 (AS-502) which carried a CSM and a LM Test Article as ballast. The intent of this mission was to achieve trans-lunar injection, followed closely by a simulated direct-return abort, using the Service Module engine to achieve another high-speed reentry. The Saturn V experienced pogo oscillation, a problem caused by non-steady engine combustion, which damaged fuel lines in the second and third stages. Two S-II engines shut down prematurely, but the remaining engines were able to compensate. The damage to the third stage engine was more severe, preventing it from restarting for trans-lunar injection. Mission controllers were able to use the Service Module engine to essentially repeat the flight profile of Apollo 4. Based on the good performance of Apollo 6 and identification of satisfactory fixes to the Apollo 6 problems, NASA declared the Saturn V ready to fly men, cancelling a third unmanned test.\n\n===Manned development missions===\n\nFile:Apollo manned development missions insignia.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo manned development mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission|alt=Composite image of 6 manned Apollo development mission patches, from Apollo 1 to Apollo 11.\nrect 0 0 595 600 Apollo 1 unsuccessful first manned CSM test\nrect 596 0 1376 600 Apollo 7 first manned CSM test\nrect 1377 0 2076 600 Apollo 8 first manned flight to the Moon\nrect 0 601 595 1200 Apollo 9 manned Earth orbital LM test\nrect 596 601 1376 1200 Apollo 10 manned lunar orbital LM test\nrect 1377 601 2076 1200 Apollo 11 first manned Moon landing\n\n\nApollo 7, launched from LC-34 on October 11, 1968, was the C mission, crewed by Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham. It was an 11-day Earth-orbital flight which tested the CSM systems.\n\nApollo 8 was planned to be the D mission in December 1968, crewed by McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart, launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn IBs. In the summer it had become clear that the LM would not be ready in time. Rather than waste the Saturn V on another simple Earth-orbiting mission, ASPO Manager George Low suggested the bold step of sending Apollo 8 to orbit the Moon instead, deferring the D mission to the next mission in March 1969, and eliminating the E mission. This would keep the program on track. The Soviet Union had sent two tortoises, mealworms, wine flies, and other lifeforms around the Moon on September 15, 1968, aboard Zond 5, and it was believed they might soon repeat the feat with human cosmonauts. The decision was not announced publicly until successful completion of Apollo 7. Gemini veterans Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, and rookie William Anders captured the world's attention by making ten lunar orbits in 20 hours, transmitting television pictures of the lunar surface on Christmas Eve, and returning safely to Earth.\n\nThe following March, LM flight, rendezvous and docking were successfully demonstrated in Earth orbit on Apollo 9, and Schweickart tested the full lunar EVA suit with its Portable Life Support System (PLSS) outside the LM. The F mission was successfully carried out on Apollo 10 in May 1969 by Gemini veterans Thomas P. Stafford, John Young and Eugene Cernan. Stafford and Cernan took the LM to within of the lunar surface.\n\nNeil Armstrong descends the LM's ladder in preparation for the first steps on the lunar surface, as televised live on July 20, 1969\nThe G mission was achieved on Apollo 11 in July 1969 by an all-Gemini veteran crew consisting of Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin performed the first landing at the Sea of Tranquility at 20:17:40 UTC on July 20, 1969. They spent a total of 21 hours, 36 minutes on the surface, and spent 2 hours, 31 minutes outside the spacecraft, walking on the surface, taking photographs, collecting material samples, and deploying automated scientific instruments, while continuously sending black-and-white television back to Earth. The astronauts returned safely on July 24.\n\n\n===Production lunar landings===\n\nFile:Apollo lunar landing missions insignia.png|thumb|right|250px|Apollo production manned lunar landing mission patches. Click on a patch to read the main article about that mission|alt=Composite image of 6 production manned Apollo lunar landing mission patches, from Apollo 12 to Apollo 17.\nrect 0 0 602 600 Apollo 12 second manned Moon landing\nrect 603 0 1205 600 Apollo 13 unsuccessful Moon landing attempt\nrect 1206 0 1885 600 Apollo 14 third manned Moon landing\nrect 0 601 602 1200 Apollo 15 fourth manned Moon landing\nrect 603 601 1205 1200 Apollo 16 fifth manned Moon landing\nrect 1206 601 1885 1200 Apollo 17 sixth manned Moon landing\n\n\nApollo landings on the Moon, 1969–1972\nIn November 1969, Gemini veteran Charles \"Pete\" Conrad and rookie Alan L. Bean made a precision landing on Apollo 12 within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 unmanned lunar probe, which had landed in April 1967 on the Ocean of Storms. The Command Module Pilot was Gemini veteran Richard F. Gordon Jr. Conrad and Bean carried the first lunar surface color television camera, but it was damaged when accidentally pointed into the Sun. They made two EVAs totaling 7 hours and 45 minutes. On one, they walked to the Surveyor, photographed it, and removed some parts which they returned to Earth.\n\nThe success of the first two landings allowed the remaining missions to be crewed with a single veteran as Commander, with two rookies. Apollo 13 launched Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise in April 1970, headed for the Fra Mauro formation. But two days out, a liquid oxygen tank exploded, disabling the Service Module and forcing the crew to use the LM as a \"life boat\" to return to Earth. Another NASA review board was convened to determine the cause, which turned out to be a combination of damage of the tank in the factory, and a subcontractor not making a tank component according to updated design specifications. Apollo was grounded again, for the remainder of 1970 while the oxygen tank was redesigned and an extra one was added.\n\nThe contracted batch of 15 Saturn Vs were enough for lunar landing missions through Apollo 20. NASA publicized a preliminary list of eight more planned landing sites, with plans to increase the mass of the CSM and LM for the last five missions, along with the payload capacity of the Saturn V. These final missions would combine the I and J types in the 1967 list, allowing the CMP to operate a package of lunar orbital sensors and cameras while his companions were on the surface, and allowing them to stay on the Moon for over three days. These missions would also carry the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) increasing the exploration area and allowing televised liftoff of the LM. Also, the Block II spacesuit was revised for the extended missions to allow greater flexibility and visibility for driving the LRV.\n\n====Mission cutbacks====\n\nAbout the time of the first landing in 1969, it was decided to use an existing Saturn V to launch the Skylab orbital laboratory pre-built on the ground, replacing the original plan to construct it in orbit from several Saturn IB launches; this eliminated Apollo 20. NASA's yearly budget also began to shrink in light of the successful landing, and NASA also had to make funds available for the development of the upcoming Space Shuttle. By 1971, the decision was made to also cancel missions 18 and 19. The two unused Saturn Vs became museum exhibits at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, George C. Marshall Space Center in Huntsville, Alabama, Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans, Louisiana, and Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.\n\nThe cutbacks forced mission planners to reassess the original planned landing sites in order to achieve the most effective geological sample and data collection from the remaining four missions. Apollo 15 had been planned to be the last of the H series missions, but since there would be only two subsequent missions left, it was changed to the first of three J missions.\n\nApollo 13's Fra Mauro mission was reassigned to Apollo 14, commanded in February 1971 by Mercury veteran Alan Shepard, with Stuart Roosa and Edgar Mitchell. This time the mission was successful. Shepard and Mitchell spent 33 hours and 31 minutes on the surface, and completed two EVAs totalling 9 hours 24 minutes, which was a record for the longest EVA by a lunar crew at the time.\n\nIn August 1971, just after conclusion of the Apollo 15 mission, President Richard Nixon proposed canceling the two remaining lunar landing missions, Apollo 16 and 17. Office of Management and Budget Deputy Director Caspar Weinberger was opposed to this, and persuaded Nixon to keep the remaining missions.\n\n====Extended missions====\nLunar Roving Vehicle used on Apollos 15–17\nPlaque left on the Moon by Apollo 17\nApollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, with David Scott, Alfred Worden and James Irwin. Scott and Irwin landed on July 30 near Hadley Rille, and spent just under two days, 19 hours on the surface. In over 18 hours of EVA, they collected about of lunar material.\n\nApollo 16 landed in the Descartes Highlands on April 20, 1972. The crew was commanded by John Young, with Ken Mattingly and Charles Duke. Young and Duke spent just under three days on the surface, with a total of over 20 hours EVA.\n\nApollo 17 was the last of the Apollo program, landing in the Taurus-Littrow region in December 1972. Eugene Cernan commanded Ronald E. Evans and NASA's first scientist-astronaut, geologist Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt. Schmitt was originally scheduled for Apollo 18, but the lunar geological community lobbied for his inclusion on the final lunar landing. Cernan and Schmitt stayed on the surface for just over three days and spent just over 23 hours of total EVA.\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n Designation !! Date !! LaunchVehicle !! CSM !! LM !! Crew !! Summary\n\n AS-201 \n Feb 26, 1966\n AS-201 \n CSM-009\n None\n None\n First flight of Saturn IB and Block I CSM; suborbital to Atlantic Ocean; qualified heat shield to orbital reentry speed\n\n AS-203 \n Jul 5, 1966\n AS-203 \n None\n None\n None\n No spacecraft; observations of liquid hydrogen fuel behavior in orbit, to support design of S-IVB restart capability\n\n AS-202 \n Aug 25, 1966\n AS-202 \n CSM-011\n None\n None\n Suborbital flight of CSM to Pacific Ocean\n\n Apollo 1 \n Feb 21, 1967\n AS-204 \n CSM-012\n None\nGus GrissomEdward H. WhiteRoger B. Chaffee \n Not flown; all crew members perished in fire on launch pad on January 27, 1967\n\n Apollo 4 \n Nov 9, 1967\n AS-501 \n CSM-017\n LTA-10R\n None\n First test flight of Saturn V, placed a CSM in a high Earth orbit; demonstrated S-IVB restart; qualified CM heat shield to lunar reentry speed\n\n Apollo 5 \n Jan 22–23, 1968\n AS-204 \n None\n LM-1\n None\n Earth orbital flight test of LM, launched on Saturn IB; demonstrated ascent and descent propulsion; man-rated the LM\n\n Apollo 6 \n Apr 4, 1968\n AS-502 \n CM-020SM-014\n LTA-2R\n None\n Unmanned, attempted demonstration of trans-lunar injection, and direct-return abort using SM engine; three engine failures, including failure of S-IVB restart. Flight controllers used SM engine to repeat Apollo 4's flight profile. Man-rated the Saturn V.\n\n Apollo 7 \n Oct 11–22, 1968\n AS-205 \n CSM-101\n None\nWally SchirraWalt CunninghamDonn Eisele\n First manned Earth orbital demonstration of Block II CSM, launched on Saturn IB. First live television publicly broadcast from a manned mission\n\n Apollo 8 \n Dec 21–27, 1968\n AS-503 \n CSM-103\n LTA-B\nFrank BormanJames LovellWilliam Anders\n First manned flight to Moon; CSM made 10 lunar orbits in 20 hours.\n\n Apollo 9 \n Mar 3–13, 1969\n AS-504 \n CSM-104 ''Gumdrop''\n LM-3''Spider''\nJames McDivittDavid ScottRussell Schweickart\n First manned flight of CSM and LM in Earth orbit; demonstrated Portable Life Support System to be used on the lunar surface\n\n Apollo 10 \n May 18–26, 1969\n AS-505 \n CSM-106 ''Charlie Brown''\n LM-4''Snoopy\nThomas StaffordJohn YoungEugene Cernan\n Dress rehearsal for first lunar landing; flew LM down to from lunar surface\n\n Apollo 11 \n Jul 16–24, 1969\n AS-506 \nCSM-107 ''Columbia''\n LM-5 ''Eagle''\nNeil ArmstrongMichael CollinsBuzz Aldrin\n First manned landing, in Tranquility Base, Sea of Tranquility. Surface EVA time: 2:31 hr. Samples returned: \n\n Apollo 12 \n Nov 14–24, 1969\n AS-507 \nCSM-108 ''Yankee Clipper''\n LM-6''Intrepid''\nC. \"Pete\" ConradRichard GordonAlan Bean\n Second landing, in Ocean of Storms near Surveyor 3 . Surface EVA time: 7:45 hr. Samples returned: \n\n Apollo 13 \n Apr 11–17, 1970\n AS-508 \n CSM-109 ''Odyssey''\n LM-7''Aquarius''\nJames LovellJack SwigertFred Haise\n Third landing attempt aborted near the Moon, due to SM failure. Crew used LM as \"life boat\" to return to Earth.\n\n Apollo 14 \n Jan 31 – Feb 9, 1971\n AS-509 \n CSM-110 ''Kitty Hawk''\n LM-8''Antares''\nAlan ShepardStuart RoosaEdgar Mitchell\n Third landing, in Fra Mauro formation, located northeast of the Sea of Storms. Surface EVA time: 9:21 hr. Samples returned: .\n\n Apollo 15 \n Jul 26 – Aug 7, 1971\n AS-510 \n CSM-112 ''Endeavour''\n LM-10''Falcon''\nDavid Scott Alfred Worden James Irwin\n First Extended LM and rover, landed in Hadley-Apennine, located near the Sea of Showers/Rains. Surface EVA time:18:33 hr. Samples returned: .\n\n Apollo 16 \n Apr 16–27, 1972\n AS-511 \n CSM-113 ''Casper''\n LM-11''Orion''\nJohn YoungT. Kenneth MattinglyCharles Duke\n Landed in Plain of Descartes. Surface EVA time: 20:14 hr. Samples returned: .\n\n Apollo 17 \n Dec 7–19, 1972\n AS-512 \n CSM-114 ''America''\n LM-12''Challenger''\nEugene CernanRonald EvansHarrison Schmitt\n Only Saturn V night launch. Landed in Taurus-Littrow. First geologist on the Moon. Final manned Moon landing. Surface EVA time: 22:02 hr. Samples returned: .\n\nSource: ''Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference'' (Orloff 2004).\n",
"\n\n\nThe Apollo program returned over of lunar rocks and soil to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory in Houston. Today, 75% of the samples are stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility built in 1979.\n\nThe rocks collected from the Moon are extremely old compared to rocks found on Earth, as measured by radiometric dating techniques. They range in age from about 3.2 billion years for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria, to about 4.6 billion years for samples derived from the highlands crust. As such, they represent samples from a very early period in the development of the Solar System, that are largely absent on Earth. One important rock found during the Apollo Program is dubbed the Genesis Rock, retrieved by astronauts David Scott and James Irwin during the Apollo 15 mission. This anorthosite rock is composed almost exclusively of the calcium-rich feldspar mineral anorthite, and is believed to be representative of the highland crust. A geochemical component called KREEP was discovered by Apollo 12, which has no known terrestrial counterpart. KREEP and the anorthositic samples have been used to infer that the outer portion of the Moon was once completely molten (see lunar magma ocean).\n\nAlmost all the rocks show evidence of impact process effects. Many samples appear to be pitted with micrometeoroid impact craters, which is never seen on Earth rocks, due to the thick atmosphere. Many show signs of being subjected to high pressure shock waves that are generated during impact events. Some of the returned samples are of ''impact melt'' (materials melted near an impact crater.) All samples returned from the Moon are highly brecciated as a result of being subjected to multiple impact events.\n\nAnalysis of composition of the lunar samples supports the giant impact hypothesis, that the Moon was created through impact of a large astronomical body with the Earth.\n",
"When President Kennedy first chartered the Moon landing program, a preliminary cost estimate of $7 billion was generated, but this proved an extremely unrealistic guess of what could not possibly be determined precisely, and James Webb used his judgment as administrator to change the estimate to $20 billion before giving it to Vice President Johnson.\n\nWhen Kennedy made his 1962 speech at Rice University, the annual space budget was $5.4 billion, and he described this cost as 40 cents per person per week, \"somewhat less than we pay for cigarettes and cigars every year\", but that the Moon program would soon raise this to \"more than 50 cents a week for every man, woman and child in the United States\".\n\n\n Year !! Apollo budget ($ in thousands) !! NASA budget ($ in thousands)!! Apollo share of total budget (%)\n\n 1960 \n100 \n523,575 \n<1% \n\n 1961 \n1,000 \n964,000 \n<1%\n\n 1962 \n160,000 \n1,671,750 \n10%\n\n 1963 \n617,164 \n3,674,115 \n17%\n\n 1964 \n2,272,952 \n3,974,979 \n57%\n\n 1965 \n2,614,619 \n4,270,695 \n61%\n\n 1966 \n2,967,385 \n4,511,644 \n66%\n\n 1967 \n2,916,200 \n4,175,100 \n70%\n\n 1968 \n2,556,000 \n3,970,000 \n64%\n\n 1969 \n2,025,000 \n3,193,559 \n63%\n\n 1970 \n1,686,145 \n3,113,765 \n54%\n\n 1971 \n913,669 \n2,555,000 \n36%\n\n 1972 \n601,200 \n2,517,700 \n24%\n\n 1973 \n76,700 \n2,509,900 \n3% \n\n Total \n19,408,134 \n56,661,332 \n34%\n\n\t\nWebb's estimate shocked many at the time (including the President) but ultimately proved to be reasonably accurate. In January 1969, NASA prepared an itemized estimate of the run-out cost of the Apollo program. The total came to $23.9 billion, itemized as follows:\n\n\n Aircraft/Operation !! Cost ($)\n\n Apollo spacecraft \n7,945.0 million\n\n Saturn I launch vehicles \n767.1 million\n\n Saturn IB launch vehicles \n1,131.2 million\n\n Saturn V launch vehicles \n6,871.1 million\n\n Launch vehicle engine development \n854.2 million\n\n Mission support \n1,432.3 million\n\n Tracking and data acquisition \n664.1 million\n\n Ground facilities \n1,830.3 million\n\n Operation of installations \n2,420.6 million\n\n\nThe final cost of Apollo was reported to Congress as $25.4 billion in 1973, It took up the majority of NASA's budget while it was being developed. For example, in 1966 it accounted for about 60 percent of NASA's total $5.2 billion budget. That was one of the biggest investment of the US in science, research and development, and employed thousands of American scientists. A single Saturn V launch in 1969 cost up to $375 million, compared to the National Science Foundation's fiscal year 1970 budget of $440 million.\n\nIn 2009, NASA held a symposium on project costs which presented an estimate of the Apollo program costs in 2005 dollars as roughly $170 billion. This included all research and development costs; the procurement of 15 Saturn V rockets, 16 Command/Service Modules, 12 Lunar Modules, plus program support and management costs; construction expenses for facilities and their upgrading, and costs for flight operations. This was based on a Congressional Budget Office report, ''A Budgetary Analysis of NASA's New Vision for Space'', September 2004. ''The Space Review'' estimated in 2010 the cost of Apollo from 1959 to 1973 as $20.4 billion, or $109 billion in 2010 dollars.\n",
"\nLooking beyond the manned lunar landings, NASA investigated several post-lunar applications for Apollo hardware. The Apollo Extension Series (''Apollo X'',) proposed up to 30 flights to Earth orbit, using the space in the Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) to house a small orbital laboratory (workshop). Astronauts would continue to use the CSM as a ferry to the station. This study was followed by design of a larger orbital workshop to be built in orbit from an empty S-IVB Saturn upper stage, and grew into the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). The workshop was to be supplemented by the Apollo Telescope Mount, which could be attached to the ascent stage of the lunar module via a rack. The most ambitious plan called for using an empty S-IVB as an interplanetary spacecraft for a Venus fly-by mission.\n\nThe S-IVB orbital workshop was the only one of these plans to make it off the drawing board. Dubbed Skylab, it was constructed complete on the ground rather than in space, and launched in 1973 using the two lower stages of a Saturn V. It was equipped with an Apollo Telescope Mount. Skylab's last crew departed the station on February 8, 1974, and the station itself re-entered the atmosphere in 1979.\n\nThe Apollo-Soyuz Test Project also used Apollo hardware for the first joint nation space flight, paving the way for future cooperation with other nations in the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs.\n",
"Tranquility Base, imaged in March 2012 by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter\n\nIn September 2007, the X PRIZE Foundation and Google announced the Google Lunar X Prize, to be awarded for a robotic lunar landing mission which transmits close-up images of the Apollo Lunar Modules and other artificial objects on the surface.\n\nIn 2008, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's SELENE probe observed evidence of the halo surrounding the Apollo 15 Lunar Module blast crater while orbiting above the lunar surface. In 2009, NASA's robotic Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, while orbiting above the Moon, began photographing the remnants of the Apollo program left on the lunar surface, and photographed each site where manned Apollo flights landed. All of the U. S. flags left on the Moon during the Apollo missions were found to still be standing, with the exception of the one left during the Apollo 11 mission, which was blown over during that mission's lift-off from the lunar surface and return to the mission Command Module in lunar orbit; the degree to which these flags retain their original colors remains unknown.\n\nIn a November 16, 2009 editorial, ''The New York Times'' opined:\n\n",
"\n===Science and engineering===\n\n\nThe Apollo program has been called the greatest technological achievement in human history. Apollo stimulated many areas of technology, leading to over 1,800 spinoff products as of 2015. The flight computer design used in both the Lunar and Command Modules was, along with the Polaris and Minuteman missile systems, the driving force behind early research into integrated circuits (IC). By 1963, Apollo was using 60 percent of the United States' production of ICs. The crucial difference between the requirements of Apollo and the missile programs was Apollo's much greater need for reliability. While the Navy and Air Force could work around reliability problems by deploying more missiles, the political and financial cost of failure of an Apollo mission was unacceptably high.\n\n===Cultural impact===\n''Earthrise'' photograph taken by Apollo 8 on December 24, 1968. \"Everything that I ever knew – my life, my loved ones, the Navy – everything, the whole world was behind my thumb.\" –James Lovell |alt=The Earth over the lunar horizon, photographed by the Apollo 8 crew\n\nThe crew of Apollo 8 sent the first live televised pictures of the Earth and the Moon back to Earth, and read from the creation story in the Book of Genesis, on Christmas Eve 1968. An estimated one quarter of the population of the world saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon, and an estimated one fifth of the population of the world watched the live transmission of the Apollo 11 moonwalk.\n\n''The Blue Marble'' photograph taken on December 7, 1972 during Apollo 17. \"We went to explore the Moon, and in fact discovered the Earth.\" –Eugene Cernan \nThe Apollo program also affected environmental activism in the 1970s due to photos taken by the astronauts. The most famous, taken by the Apollo 17 astronauts, is The Blue Marble. This image, which was released during a surge in environmentalism, became a symbol of the environmental movement, as a depiction of Earth's frailty, vulnerability, and isolation amid the vast expanse of space.\n\nAccording to ''The Economist'', Apollo succeeded in accomplishing President Kennedy's goal of taking on the Soviet Union in the Space Race, and beat it by accomplishing a singular and significant achievement, and thereby showcased the superiority of the capitalistic, free-market system as represented by the US. The publication noted the irony that in order to achieve the goal, the program required the organization of tremendous public resources within a vast, centralized government bureaucracy.\n\nThere are those who, despite evidence to the contrary, deny that the moon landings took place. The Apollo moon landing hoax claims helped propel conspiracy theories into a quasi-political narrative.\n\n===Apollo 11 broadcast data restoration project===\n\n\nAs part of Apollo 11's 40th anniversary in 2009, NASA spearheaded an effort to digitally restore the existing videotapes of the mission's live televised moonwalk. After an exhaustive three-year search for missing tapes of the original video of the Apollo 11 moonwalk, NASA concluded the data tapes had more than likely been accidentally erased.\n\n\n\nThe Moon landing data was recorded by a special Apollo TV camera which recorded in a format incompatible with broadcast TV. This resulted in lunar footage that had to be converted for the live television broadcast and stored on magnetic telemetry tapes. During the following years, a magnetic tape shortage prompted NASA to remove massive numbers of magnetic tapes from the National Archives and Records Administration to be recorded over with newer satellite data. Stan Lebar, who led the team that designed and built the lunar television camera at Westinghouse Electric Corporation, also worked with Nafzger to try to locate the missing tapes.\n\n\n\nWith a budget of $230,000, the surviving original lunar broadcast data from Apollo 11 was compiled by Nafzger and assigned to Lowry Digital for restoration. The video was processed to remove random noise and camera shake without destroying historical legitimacy. The images were from tapes in Australia, the CBS News archive, and kinescope recordings made at Johnson Space Center. The restored video, remaining in black and white, contains conservative digital enhancements and did not include sound quality improvements.\n",
"\n===Documentaries===\nNumerous documentary films cover the Apollo program and the Space Race, including:\n\n* ''Moonwalk One'' (1970)\n* ''For All Mankind'' (1989)\n* \"Moon\" from the BBC miniseries ''The Planets'' (1999)\n* ''Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D'' (2005)\n* ''The Wonder of It All'' (2007)\n* ''In the Shadow of the Moon'' (2007)\n* ''When We Left Earth: The NASA Missions'' (miniseries) (2008)\n* ''Moon Machines'' (miniseries) (2008)\n* ''James May on the Moon'' (documentary commemorating 40 years since the landings) (2009)\n* ''NASA's Story'' (documentary series) (2009)\n\n\n===Docudramas===\nThe Apollo program, or certain missions, have been dramatized in ''Apollo 13'' (1995), ''Apollo 11'' (1996), ''From the Earth to the Moon'' (1998), ''The Dish'' (2000), ''Space Race'' (2005), and ''Moonshot'' (2009).\n",
"\n\n\n* Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package\n* Exploration of the Moon\n* List of man-made objects on the Moon\n* List of megaprojects\n* Lockheed Propulsion Company\n* Moon landing conspiracy theories\n* Soviet manned lunar programs\n* Space policy of the United States\n* Splashdown (spacecraft landing)\n* Stolen and missing Moon rocks\n* Apollo 21, a fictional Moon landing\n\n",
"\n\n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975\n* Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.\n* Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.\n* History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.\n* Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.\n* Details the flight of Apollo 13.\n* Tells Grumman's story of building the Lunar Modules.\n* \n* History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960, to January 5, 1968.\n* Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.\n* From origin to November 7, 1962\n* November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964\n* October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966\n* January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974\n* The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.\n\n",
"\n\n\n* Apollo program history at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website\n* The Apollo Program at the NASA History Program Office\n* \n* The Apollo Program at the National Air and Space Museum\n* Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature at NASA (in Flash)\n* Lunar Mission Timeline at the Lunar and Planetary Institute\n\n'''NASA reports'''\n* Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* NASA History Series Publications\n* Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at the NASA History Program Office\n* The ''Apollo Lunar Surface Journal'' edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover\n* The ''Apollo Flight Journal'' by W. David Woods, ''et al.''\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n* NASA Apollo Program images and videos\n* Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University\n* Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, ''et al.'', discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962)\n* The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings\n* The Project Apollo Archive on Flickr\n* Apollo Image Atlas – almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Background",
"NASA expansion",
"Choosing a mission mode",
"Spacecraft",
"Launch vehicles",
"Astronauts",
"Lunar mission profile",
"Development history",
"Mission summary",
"Samples returned",
"Costs",
"Apollo Applications Program",
"Recent observations",
"Legacy",
"Depictions on film",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Apollo program |
[
"\n\n\n\nIn criminal and civil law, '''assault''' is an attempt to initiate harmful or offensive contact with a person, or a threat to do so. It is distinct from battery, which refers to the actual achievement of such contact.\n\nAn assault is carried out by a threat of bodily harm coupled with an apparent, present ability to cause the harm. It is both a crime and a tort and, therefore, may result in either criminal and/or civil liability. Generally, the common law definition is the same in criminal and tort law. There is, however, an additional criminal law category of assault consisting of an attempted but unsuccessful battery. The term is often confused with battery, which involves physical contact. The specific meaning of assault varies between countries, but can refer to an act that causes another to apprehend immediate and personal violence, or in the more limited sense of a threat of violence caused by an immediate show of force. Assault in many US jurisdictions and Scotland is defined more broadly still as any intentional physical contact with another person without their consent; but in England and Wales and in most other common law jurisdictions in the world, this is defined instead as battery. Some jurisdictions have incorporated the definition of civil assault into the definition of the crime making it a criminal assault intentionally to cause another person to apprehend a harmful or offensive contact.\n",
"\n===Battery===\nAssault usually accompanies battery if the assailant both threatens to make unwanted contact and then carries through with this threat. See common assault. The elements of battery are (1) a volitional act (2) done for the purpose of causing a harmful or offensive contact with another person or under circumstances that make such contact substantially certain to occur and (3) which causes such contact. Thus throwing a rock at someone for the purpose of hitting him is a battery if the rock in fact strikes the person, and is an assault if the rock misses.\n\n===Aggravated assault===\nAggravated assault is, in some jurisdictions, a stronger form of assault, usually using a deadly weapon. A person has committed an aggravated assault when that person attempts to:\n* cause serious bodily injury to another person with a deadly weapon\n* have sexual relations with a person who is under the age of consent\n* cause bodily harm by recklessly operating a motor vehicle during road rage; often referred to as either '''vehicular assault''' or '''aggravated assault with a motor vehicle.'''\n\nAggravated assault can also be charged in cases of attempted harm against police officers or other public servants.\n",
"Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the following represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:\n\n===Consent===\nExceptions exist to cover unsolicited physical contact which amount to normal social behavior known as de minimis harm. Assault can also be considered in cases involving the spitting on, or unwanted exposure of bodily fluids to others.\n\nConsent may be a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably England, it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe, as long as there is no legally recognized good reason for the assault. This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual sadomasochistic sexual activity, the most notable case being the Operation Spanner case. Legally recognized good reasons for consent include surgery, activities within the rules of a game (Mixed martial arts, wrestling, boxing, or contact sports), bodily adornment (R v Wilson), or horseplay (Jones and others). However, any activity outside the rules of the game is not legally recognized as a defense of consent. In Scottish Law, consent is not a defense for assault.\n\n===Arrest and other official acts===\nPolice officers and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of performing an arrest or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary.\n\n===Punishment===\nIn some jurisdictions such as Singapore, judicial corporal punishment is part of the legal system. The officers who administer the punishment have immunity from prosecution for assault.\n\nIn the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada, corporal punishment administered to children by their parent or legal guardian is not legally considered to be assault unless it is deemed to be excessive or unreasonable. What constitutes \"reasonable\" varies in both statutory law and case law. Unreasonable physical punishment may be charged as assault or under a separate statute for child abuse.\n\nMany countries, including some US states, also permit the use of corporal punishment for children in school. In English law, s58 Children Act 2004, limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s39 Criminal Justice Act 1988.\n\n===Prevention of crime===\nThis may or may not involve self-defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.\n\n===Defense of property===\nSome jurisdictions allow force to be used in defense of property, to prevent damage either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971 it may be argued that the defendant has a ''lawful excuse'' to damaging property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter vigilantes and excessive self-help. Furthermore, some jurisdictions, such as Ohio, allow residents in their homes to use force when ejecting an intruder. The resident merely needs to assert to the court that he felt threatened by the intruder's presence.\n\nThis defense is not universal: in New Zealand (for example) homeowners have been convicted of assault for attacking burglars.\n",
"\n===Canada===\nAssault is an offence under s. 265 of the Canadian Criminal Code. There is a wide range of the types of assault that can occur. Generally, an assault occurs when a person directly or indirectly applies force intentionally to another person without their consent. It can also occur when a person attempts to apply such force, or threatens to do so, without the consent of the other person. An injury need not occur for an assault to be committed, but the force used in the assault must be offensive in nature with an intention to apply force. It can be an assault to \"tap\", \"pinch\", \"push\", or direct another such minor action toward another, but an accidental application of force is not an assault.\n\nThe potential punishment for an assault in Canada varies depending on the manner in which the charge proceeds through the court system and the type of assault that is committed. The Criminal Code defines assault as a dual offence (indictable or summary offence). Police officers can arrest someone without a warrant for an assault if it is in the public's interest to do so notwithstanding S.495(2)(d) of the Code. This public interest is usually satisfied by preventing a continuation or repetition of the offence on the same victim.\n\nSome variations on the ordinary crime of assault include:\n\n* Assault: The offence is defined by section 265 of the Code.\n* Assault with a weapon: Section 267(a) of the Code.\n* Assault causing bodily harm: See assault causing bodily harm Section 267(b) of the Code.\n* Aggravated assault: Section 268 of the Code.\n* Assaulting a peace officer, etc.: Section 270 of the Code.\n* Sexual assault: Section 271 of the Code.\n* Sexual assault with a weapon or threats or causing bodily harm: Section 272 of the Code.\n* Aggravated sexual assault: See aggravated sexual assault.\n\nAn individual cannot consent to an assault with a weapon, assault causing bodily harm, aggravated assault, or any sexual assault. Consent will also be vitiated if two people consent to fight but serious bodily harm is intended and caused (R v Paice; R v Jobidon). A person cannot consent to serious bodily harm.\n\n===India===\nThe Indian Penal Code covers the punishments and types of assault in Chapter 16, sections 351 through 358.\n\n\nThe Code further explains that \"''mere words do not amount to an assault. But the words which a person uses may give to his gestures or preparation such a meaning as may make those gestures or preparations amount to an assault.''\" Assault is in Indian criminal law an attempt to use criminal force (with criminal force being described in s.350). The attempt itself has been made an offence in India, as in other states.\n\n===Nigeria===\nThe Criminal Code Act (chapter 29 of Part V; sections 351 to 365) creates a number of offences of assault. Assault is defined by section 252 of that Act. Assault is a misdemeanor punishable by one year imprisonment; assault with \"intent to have carnal knowledge of him or her\" or who indecently assaults another, or who commits other more-serious variants of assault (as defined in the Act) are guilty of a felony, and longer prison terms are provided for.\n\n===Pacific Islands===\n'''Marshall Islands'''\n\nThe offence of assault is created by section 113 of the Criminal Code. A person is guilty of this offence if he unlawfully offers or attempts, with force or violence, to strike, beat, wound, or do bodily harm to, another.\n\n===Republic of Ireland===\nSection 2 of the Non-Fatal Offences against the Person Act 1997 creates the offence of assault, and section 3 of that Act creates the offence of assault causing harm.\n\n===South Africa===\nSouth African law does not draw the distinction between assault and battery. ''Assault'' is a common law crime defined as \"unlawfully and intentionally applying force to the person of another, or inspiring a belief in that other that force is immediately to be applied to him.\" The law also recognises the crime of ''assault with intent to cause grievous bodily harm'', where grievous bodily harm is defined as \"harm which in itself is such as seriously to interfere with health.\" The common law crime of ''indecent assault'' was repealed by the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007, and replaced by a statutory crime of ''sexual assault''.\n\n===United Kingdom===\n;Piracy with violence: Section 2 of the Piracy Act 1837 provides that it is an offence, amongst other things, for a person, with intent to commit or at the time of or immediately before or immediately after committing the crime of piracy in respect of any ship or vessel, to assault, with intent to murder, any person being on board of or belonging to such ship or vessel.\n\n;Assault on an officer of Revenue and Customs: This offence is created by section 32(1) of the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.\n\n;Assaulting an immigration officer: This offence is created by section 22(1) of the UK Borders Act 2007.\n\n;Assaulting a person designated under section 43 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005: This offence is created by section 51(1) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.\n\n;Assaulting an accredited financial investigator: This section is created by section 453A of the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002.\n\n;Assaulting a member of an international joint investigation team: This offence is created by section 57(2) of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005.\n\n;Attacks on internationally protected persons: Section 1(1)(a) of the Internationally Protected Persons Act 1978 (c.17) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm or causing injury on \"protected persons\" (including Heads of State).\n\n;Attacks on UN Staff workers: Section 1(2)(a) of the United Nations Personnel Act 1997 (c.13) makes provision for assault causing injury, and section 1(2)(b) makes provision for assault occasioning actual bodily harm, on UN staff.\n\n;Assault by person committing an offence under the Night Poaching Act 1828: This offence is created by section 2 of the Night Poaching Act 1828.\n\nAbolished offence:\n\n;Assault on customs and excise officers, etc.: Section 16(1)(a) of the Customs and Excise Management Act 1979 (c.2) provided that it was an offence to, amongst other things, assault any person duly engaged in the performance of any duty or the exercise of any power imposed or conferred on him by or under any enactment relating to an assigned matter, or any person acting in his aid. For the meaning of \"assault\" in this provision, see Logdon v. DPP 1976 Crim LR 121, DC. This offence was abolished and replaced by the Commissioners for Revenue and Customs Act 2005.\n\n====England and Wales====\n\n\nEnglish law provides for two offences of assault: common assault and battery. Assault (or common assault) is committed if one intentionally or recklessly causes another person to apprehend immediate and unlawful personal violence. ''Violence'' in this context means any unlawful touching, though there is some debate over whether the touching must also be hostile. Confusingly, the terms \"assault\" and \"common assault\" often encompass the separate offence of battery, even in statutory settings such as s 40(3)(a) of the Criminal Justice Act 1988.\n\nA common assault is an assault that lacks any of the aggravating features which Parliament has deemed serious enough to deserve a higher penalty. Section 39 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988 provides that common assault, like battery, is triable only in the magistrates' court in England and Wales (unless it is linked to a more serious offence, which is triable in the Crown Court). Additionally, if a Defendant has been charged on an indictment with assault occasioning actual bodily harm (ABH), or racially/religiously aggravated assault, then a jury in the Crown Court may acquit the Defendant of the more serious offence, but still convict of common assault if it finds common assault has been committed.\n\n=====Aggravated assaults=====\n;Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: The offence of assault occasioning actual bodily harm is created by section 47 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.\n\n;Assault with intent to rob: The penalty for assault with intent to rob is provided by section 8(2) of the Theft Act 1968.\n\n;Racially or religiously aggravated common assault: This offence is created by section 29(1)(c) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998.\n\n;Racially or religiously aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm: This offence is created by section 29(1)(b) of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998.\n\n;Assault with intent to resist arrest: The offence of assault with intent to resist arrest is created by section 38 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.\n\n;Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty: Section 89(1) of the Police Act 1996 provides that it is an offence for a person to assault either:\n::a constable acting in the execution of his duty; or\n::a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.\n\n;Assaulting a traffic officer: This offence is created by section 10(1) of the Traffic Management Act 2004.\n\n;Assaulting a person designated or accredited under sections 38 or 39 or 41 or 41A of the Police Reform Act 2002: This offence is created by section 46(1) of the Police Reform Act 2002.\n\n;Assault on a prison custody officer: This offence is created by section 90(1) of the Criminal Justice Act 1991 (c.53).\n\n;Assault on a secure training centre custody officer: This offence is created by section 13(1) of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 (c.33).\n\n;Assault on officer saving wreck: This offence is created by section 37 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.\n\n;Assaulting an officer of the court: This offence is created by section 14(1)(b) of the County Courts Act 1984.\n\n;Cruelty to persons under sixteen: Section 1(1) of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 provides that it is an offence for a person who has attained the age of sixteen years, and who has responsibility for a child or young person under that age, to, amongst other things, wilfully assault that child or young person, or to cause or procure that child or young person to be assaulted, in a manner likely to cause him unnecessary suffering or injury to health.\n\n;Sexual assault: The offence of sexual assault created by section 3 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003. It is not defined in terms of the offences of common assault or battery. It instead requires intentional touching and the absence of a reasonable belief in consent.\n\n====Scotland====\nIn Scots Law, assault is defined as an \"attack upon the person of another\". There is no distinction made in Scotland between assault and battery (which is not a term used in Scots law), although, as in England and Wales, assault can be occasioned without a ''physical'' attack on another's person, as demonstrated in ''Atkinson v. HM Advocate'' wherein the accused was found guilty of assaulting a shop assistant by simply jumping over a counter wearing a ski mask. The court said:\n\n\n\nScottish law also provides for a more serious charge of aggravated assault on the basis of such factors as severity of injury, the use of a weapon, or ''Hamesuken'' (to assault a person in his own home). The ''mens rea'' for assault is simply \"evil intent\", although this has been held to mean no more than that assault ''\"cannot be committed accidentally or recklessly or negligently\"'' as upheld in ''Lord Advocate's Reference No 2 of 1992'' where it was found that a \"hold-up\" in a shop justified as a joke would still constitute an offence.\n\nIt is a separate offence to assault on a constable in the execution of his duty, under Section 90, Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012 (Previously Section 41 of the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 which provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.\n\n====Northern Ireland====\nSeveral offences of assault exist in Northern Ireland. The Offences against the Person Act 1861 creates the offences of:\n* Common assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 42;\n* Aggravated assault and battery: a summary offence, under section 43\n* Common assault: under section 47\n* Assault occasioning actual bodily harm: under section 47\nThe Criminal Justice (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 creates the offences of:\n* Assault with intent to resist arrest: under section 7(1)(b); this offence was formerly created by s.38 of the OAPA 1861.\n\nThat Act formerly created the offence of 'Assault on a constable in the execution of his duty'. under secction 7(1)(a), but that section has been superseded by section 66(1) of the Police (Northern Ireland) Act 1998 (c.32) which now provides that it is an offence for a person to, amongst other things, assault a constable in the execution of his duty, or a person assisting a constable in the execution of his duty.\n\n=== Australia ===\nThe term ‘assault’, when used in legislation, commonly refers to both common assault and battery, even though the two offences remain distinct. Common assault involves intentionally or recklessly causing a person to apprehend the imminent infliction of unlawful force, whilst battery refers to the actual infliction of force.\n\nEach state has legislation relating to the act of assault, and offences against the act that constitute assault are heard in the Magistrates Court of that state or indictable offences are heard in a District or Supreme Court of that State. The legislation that defines assault of each state outline what the elements are that make up the assault, where the assault is sectioned in legislation or criminal codes, and the penalties that apply for the offence of assault.\n\nIn New South Wales, the Crimes Act 1900 defines a range of assault offences deemed more serious than common assault and which attract heavier penalties. These include:\n\n'''Assault with further specific intent'''\n* Acts done to the person with intent to murder\n* Wounding or grievous bodily harm\n* Use or possession of a weapon to resist arrest \n'''Assault causing certain injuries''' \n* Actual bodily harm - the term is not defined in the ''Crimes Act'', but case law indicates actual bodily harm may include injuries such as bruises and scratches, as well as psychological injuries if the injury inflicted is more than merely transient (the injury does not necessarily need to be permanent)\n* Wounding - where there is breaking of the skin\n* Grievous bodily harm - which includes the destruction of a foetus, permanent or serious disfiguring, and transmission of a grievous bodily disease\n\n===United States===\n''Felony Sentences in State Courts'', study by the United States Department of Justice.\n\nAmerican common law has defined assault as an attempt to commit a battery.\n\nAssault is typically treated as a misdemeanor and not as a felony (unless it involves a law enforcement officer). The more serious crime of aggravated assault is treated as a felony.\n\nFour elements were required at common law:\n# The apparent, present ability to carry out;\n# An unlawful attempt;\n# To commit a violent injury; \n# Upon another.\n\nSimple assault can be distinguished without the intent of injury upon another person. The violation of one's personal space or touching in a way the victim deemed inappropriate can be simple assault. In common law states an assault is not committed by merely, for example, swearing at another; without threat of battery, there can be no assault.\n\nAs the criminal law evolved, element one was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice. These four elements were eventually codified in most states.\n\nLaws on assault vary by state. Since each state has its own laws, there is no universal assault law. Acts classified as assault in one state may be classified as battery, menacing, intimidation, reckless endangerment etc. in another state. Modern American statutes may define assault as including:\n* an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another \n* negligently causing bodily injury to another with a dangerous weapon.\n* causing bodily harm by reckless operation of a motor vehicle (vehicular assault).\n* threatening another in a menacing manner.\n* knowingly causing physical contact with another person knowing the other person will regard the contact as offensive or provocative\n* causing stupor, unconsciousness or physical injury by intentionally administering a drug or controlled substance without consent\n*purposely or knowingly causing reasonable apprehension of bodily injury in another\n*any act which is intended to place another in fear of immediate physical contact which will be painful, injurious, insulting, or offensive, coupled with the apparent ability to execute the act.\n\nThe laws on assault differ significantly from state to state as exemplified below.\n\nIn Tennessee assault is defined as follows:\n\n39-13-101. Assault.\n:(a) A person commits assault who:\n:(1) Intentionally, knowingly or recklessly causes bodily injury to another;\n:(2) Intentionally or knowingly causes another to reasonably fear imminent bodily injury; or\n:(3) Intentionally or knowingly causes physical contact with another and a reasonable person would regard the contact as extremely offensive or provocative.\n\nIn Kansas the law on assault states:\n\n:Assault. \n:Assault is intentionally placing another person in reasonable apprehension of immediate bodily harm.\n\nNorth Dakota law states:\n\nSimple assault.\n:1. A person is guilty of an offense if that person:\n:a. Willfully causes bodily injury to another human being; or\n:b. Negligently causes bodily injury to another human being by means of a firearm, destructive device, or other weapon, the use of which against a human being is likely to cause death or serious bodily injury.\n\nStates vary on whether it is possible to commit an \"attempted assault\" since it can be considered a double inchoate offense.\n\nIn some states, consent is a complete defense to assault. In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense, with the result that the misdemeanor is treated as a ''petty misdemeanor''.\n\nIn New York State assault as defined in the New York State Penal Code Article 120, requires an actual injury. Other states define this as battery. There is no crime of battery in New York. The threat of imminent injury without physical contact in New York is called Menacing. New York also has specific laws against Hazing when such threats are made as requirement to join an organization.\n\nFurthermore, the crime of assault generally requires that both the perpetrator and the victim of an assault be human. Thus, there is no assault if an ox gores a man. However, the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004 treats the fetus as a separate person for the purposes of assault and other violent crimes, under certain limited circumstances. See H.R. 1997 / P.L. 108-212\n\nSome possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof are:\n* A defendant could argue that since he was drunk, he could not form the specific intent to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail since only involuntary intoxication is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.\n* A defendant could also argue that he was engaged in mutually consensual behavior.\n\n===Ancient Greece===\nAssault in Ancient Greece was normally termed hubris. Contrary to modern usage, the term did not have the extended connotation of overweening pride, self-confidence or arrogance, often resulting in fatal retribution. In Ancient Greece, \"hubris\" referred to actions which, intentionally or not, shamed and humiliated the victim, and frequently the perpetrator as well. It was most evident in the public and private actions of the powerful and rich.\n\nViolations of the law against hubris included what would today be termed assault and battery; sexual crimes ranging from forcible rape of women or children to consensual but improper activities; or the theft of public or sacred property. Two well-known cases are found in the speeches of Demosthenes, a prominent statesman and orator in ancient Greece. These two examples occurred when first, Meidias punched Demosthenes in the face in the theater (Against Meidias), and second when (in Against Konon) a defendant allegedly assaulted a man and crowed over the victim.\n\nHubris, though not specifically defined, was a legal term and was considered a crime in classical Athens. It was also considered the greatest sin of the ancient Greek world. That was so because it not only was proof of excessive pride, but also resulted in violent acts by or to those involved. The category of acts constituting hubris for the ancient Greeks apparently broadened from the original specific reference to mutilation of a corpse, or a humiliation of a defeated foe, or irreverent, \"outrageous treatment\", in general.\n\nThe meaning was eventually further generalized in its modern English usage to apply to any outrageous act or exhibition of pride or disregard for basic moral laws. Such an act may be referred to as an \"act of hubris\", or the person committing the act may be said to be hubristic. Atë, Greek for 'ruin, folly, delusion', is the action performed by the hero, usually because of his/her hubris, or great pride, that leads to his/her death or downfall.\n\nCrucial to this definition are the ancient Greek concepts of honor (timē) and shame. The concept of timē included not only the exaltation of the one receiving honor, but also the shaming of the one overcome by the act of hubris. This concept of honor is akin to a zero-sum game. Rush Rehm simplifies this definition to the contemporary concept of \"insolence, contempt, and excessive violence\".\n",
"* Affray\n* Assault (tort)\n* Battery (crime)\n* Common assault\n* Domestic violence\n* Gay bashing\n* Hate crime\n* Mayhem\n* Misdemeanor\n* Offences against the Person Act 1861\n* Rape\n* Sexual assault\n* Street fighting\n* Terroristic threat\n",
"* chapter 9\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* A guide to the non fatal offences against the person\n* H.R. 1997 / P.L. 108-212 Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004\n* IPC Chapter XVI (Mobile Friendly)\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Related definitions",
"Defenses",
"Regional details",
"See also",
"References",
"Notes",
"External links"
] | Assault |
[
"\n''Meadow Elves'', by Nils Blommér, 1850\n\n'''Alfheim''' (, \"Land Of The Elves\" or \"Elfland\"), also called '''Ljosalfheim''' (''Ljósálfaheimr'', \"home of the light-elves\"), is one of the Nine Worlds and home of the Light Elves in Norse mythology.\n",
"\nÁlfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in Old Norse texts.\n\nThe eddic poem ''Grímnismál'' describes twelve divine dwellings beginning in stanza 5 with:\nÝdalir call they the place where Ull\nA hall for himself hath set;\nAnd Álfheim the gods to Frey once gave\nAs a tooth-gift in ancient times.\n\nA tooth-gift was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth.\n\nIn the 12th century eddic prose ''Gylfaginning'', Snorri Sturluson relates it as the first of a series of abodes in heaven:\nThat which is called Álfheim is one, where dwell the peoples called ''ljósálfar'' Light Elves; but the ''dökkálfar'' Dark Elves dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-elves are blacker than pitch.\n\nThe account later, in speaking of a hall in the Highest Heaven called Gimlé that shall survive when heaven and earth have died, explains:\nIt is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called Andlang ''Andlangr'' 'Endlong' but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called Vídbláin ''Vídbláinn'' 'Wide-blue' and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.\nIt is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to Álfheim or distinct. Some texts read Vindbláin (''Vindbláinn'' 'Wind-blue') instead of Vídbláin.\n\nModern commentators speculate (or sometimes state as fact) that Álfheim was one of the nine worlds (''heima'') mentioned in stanza 2 of the eddic poem ''Völuspá''.\n",
"* J. R. R. Tolkien anglicized ''Álfheim'' as ''Elvenhome'', or ''Eldamar'' in the speech of the Elves. In his stories, Eldamar lies in a coastal region of the Undying Lands in the Uttermost West. The High King of the Elves in the West was Ingwë, an echo of the name Yngvi often found as a name for Frey, whose abode was in ''Álfheim'' according to the ''Grímnismál''.\n* In the Japanese light novel and anime series Sword Art Online, the setting for the second and fourth arc is based on Álfheimr.\n* In the Japanese game ''Bayonetta'', there are angelic portals called Alfheim where the player travels to do specific angel slaying for broken witch hearts or moon pearls to increase vitality or witch power. It does not involve elves, however. Only its name is based on Norse mythology.\n",
"* Fairyland\n",
"*''Wikisource:Prose Edda/Gylfaginning (The Fooling Of Gylfe)'' by Sturluson, Snorri, 13th century Edda, in English. Accessed Apr. 16, 2007\n*''Gylfaginning'' in Old Norse\n*Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959). ''The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology.'' New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.\n*Bulfinch, Thomas (1834). ''Bulfinch's Mythology.'' New York: Harper & Row, 1970, p. 348. .\n*Marshall Jones Company (1930). ''The Mythology of All Races'' Series, Volume 2 ''Eddic'', Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, pp. 220–221.\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"In Old Norse texts",
"Popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources"
] | Álfheimr |
[
"\n\"Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin create Askr and Embla\" (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.\nIn Norse mythology, '''Ask and Embla''' (from Old Norse ''Askr ok Embla'')—male and female respectively—were the first two humans, created by the gods. The pair are attested in both the ''Poetic Edda'', compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the ''Prose Edda'', written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In both sources, three gods, one of whom is Odin, find Ask and Embla and bestow upon them various corporeal and spiritual gifts. A number of theories have been proposed to explain the two figures, and there are occasional references to them in popular culture.\n",
"A depiction of Ask and Embla (1919) by Robert Engels.\nOld Norse ''askr'' literally means \"ash tree\" but the etymology of ''embla'' is uncertain, and two possibilities of the meaning of ''embla'' are generally proposed. The first meaning, \"elm tree\", is problematic, and is reached by deriving ''*Elm-la'' from ''*Almilōn'' and subsequently to ''almr'' (\"elm\"). The second suggestion is \"vine\", which is reached through ''*Ambilō'', which may be related to the Greek term ''ámpelos'', itself meaning \"vine, liana\". The latter etymology has resulted in a number of theories.\n\nAccording to Benjamin Thorpe \"Grimm says the word embla, emla, signifies a busy woman, from amr, ambr, aml, ambl, assiduous labour; the same relation as Meshia and Meshiane, the ancient Persian names of the first man and woman, who were also formed from trees.\"\n",
"In stanza 17 of the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Völuspá'', the völva reciting the Poem states that Hœnir, Lóðurr and Odin once found Ask and Embla on Land. The Völva says that the two were capable of very little, lacking in ''ørlög'' and says that they were given three gifts by the three Gods:\n\n\n\n:Old Norse:\n:''Ǫnd þau né átto, óð þau né hǫfðo,''\n:''lá né læti né lito góða.''\n:''Ǫnd gaf Óðinn, óð gaf Hœnir,''\n:''lá gaf Lóðurr ok lito góða.''\n\n:Benjamin Thorpe translation:\n:Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not,\n:blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour.\n:Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hœnir,\n:blood gave Lodur, and goodly colour.\n\n:Henry Adams Bellows translation:\n:Soul they had not, sense they had not,\n:Heat nor motion, nor goodly hue;\n:Soul gave Othin, sense gave Hönir,\n:Heat gave Lothur and goodly hue.\n\n\n\nThe meaning of these gifts has been a matter of scholarly disagreement and translations therefore vary.\n\nAccording to chapter 9 of the ''Prose Edda'' book ''Gylfaginning'', the three brothers Vili, Vé, and Odin, are the creators of the first man and woman. The brothers were once walking along a beach and found two trees there. They took the wood and from it created the first human beings; Ask and Embla. One of the three gave them the breath of life, the second gave them movement and intelligence, and the third gave them shape, speech, hearing and sight. Further, the three gods gave them clothing and names. Ask and Embla go on to become the progenitors of all humanity and were given a home within the walls of Midgard.\n",
"\"Ask och Embla\" (1948) by Stig Blomberg. In Sölvesborg, Sweden. Photo by Henrik Sendelbach.\n\n===Indo-European origins===\nA Proto-Indo-European basis has been theorized for the duo based on the etymology of ''embla'' meaning \"vine.\" In Indo-European societies, an analogy is derived from the drilling of fire and sexual intercourse. Vines were used as a flammable wood, where they were placed beneath a drill made of harder wood, resulting in fire. Further evidence of ritual making of fire in Scandinavia has been theorized from a depiction on a stone plate on a Bronze Age grave in Kivik, Scania, Sweden.\n\nJaan Puhvel comments that \"ancient myths teem with trite 'first couples' of the type of Adam and his by-product Eve. In Indo-European tradition, these range from the Vedic Yama and Yamī and the Iranian Mašya and Mašyānag to the Icelandic Askr and Embla, with trees or rocks as preferred raw material, and dragon's teeth or other bony substance occasionally thrown in for good measure\".\n\nIn his study of the comparative evidence for an origin of mankind from trees in Indo-European society, Anders Hultgård observes that \"myths of the origin of mankind from trees or wood seem to be particularly connected with ancient Europe and Indo-Europe and Indo-European-speaking peoples of Asia Minor and Iran. By contrast the cultures of the Near East show almost exclusively the type of anthropogonic stories that derive man's origin from clay, earth or blood by means of a divine creation act\".\n\n===Other potential Germanic analogues===\nTwo wooden figures—the Braak Bog Figures—of \"more than human height\" were unearthed from a peat bog at Braak in Schleswig, Germany. The figures depict a nude male and a nude female. Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that these figures may represent a \"Lord and Lady\" of the Vanir, a group of Norse gods, and that \"another memory of these wooden deities may survive in the tradition of the creation of Ask and Embla, the man and woman who founded the human race, created by the gods from trees on the seashore\".\n\nA figure named Æsc (Old English \"ash tree\") appears as the son of Hengest in the Anglo-Saxon genealogy for the kings of Kent. This has resulted in an amount of theories that the figures may have had an earlier basis in pre-Norse Germanic mythology.\n\nConnections have been proposed between Ask and Embla and the Vandal kings Assi and Ambri, attested in Paul the Deacon's 7th century AD work ''Origo Gentis Langobardorum''. There, the two ask the god Godan (Odin) for victory. The name ''Ambri'', like Embla, likely derives from ''*Ambilō''.\n\n===Catalog of dwarfs===\nA stanza preceding the account of the creation of Ask and Embla in ''Völuspá'' provides a catalog of dwarfs, and stanza 10 has been considered as describing the creation of human forms from the earth. This may potentially mean that dwarfs formed humans, and that the three gods gave them life. Carolyne Larrington theorizes that humans are metaphorically designated as trees in Old Norse works (examples include \"trees of jewellery\" for women and \"trees of battle\" for men) due to the origin of humankind stemming from trees; Ask and Embla.\n",
"Ask and Embla have been the subject of a number of references and artistic depictions. A sculpture depicting the two stands in the southern Swedish city of Sölvesborg, created in 1948 by Stig Blomberg. Ask and Embla are depicted on two of the sixteen wooden panels found on the Oslo City Hall in Oslo, Norway, by Dagfin Werenskiold. In 2003, Faroese artist Anker Eli Petersen included a depiction of the couple in his series of Faroe Islands stamps.\nIn A.S. Byatt's novel Possession, one of the characters is a poet who writes a series of verses about Ask and Embla.\n",
"* Líf and Lífþrasir, two humans who survive the events of Ragnarök and repopulate the reborn world in Norse mythology.\n* Sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology\n",
"\n",
"\n\n* Bellows, Henry Adams (Trans.) (1936). ''The Poetic Edda''. Princeton University Press. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation.\n* Byock, Jesse (Trans.) (2006). ''The Prose Edda''. Penguin Classics. \n* Davidson, H. R. Ellis (1975). ''Scandinavian Mythology''. Paul Hamlyn. \n* Hultgård, Anders (2006). \"The Askr and Embla Myth in a Comparative Perspective\". In Andrén, Anders; Jennbert, Kristina; Raudvere, Catharina (editors).''Old Norse Religion in Long-term Perspectives''. Nordic Academic Press. \n* Dronke, Ursula (Trans.) (1997). ''The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems''. Oxford University Press. \n* Larrington, Carolyne (Trans.) (1999). ''The Poetic Edda''. Oxford World's Classics. \n* Lindow, John (2001). '' Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs''. Oxford University Press. \n* Orchard, Andy (1997). ''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend''. Cassell. \n* Puhvel, Jaan (1989 1987). ''Comparative Mythology''. Johns Hopkins University Press. \n* Schach, Paul (1985). \"Some Thoughts on ''Völuspá''\" as collected in Glendinning, R. J. Bessason, Heraldur (Editors). ''Edda: a Collection of Essays.'' University of Manitoba Press. \n* Simek, Rudolf (2007) translated by Angela Hall. ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology''. D.S. Brewer. \n* Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1907). ''The Elder Edda of Saemund Sigfusson''. Norrœna Society.\n* Thorpe, Benjamin (Trans.) (1866). '' Edda Sæmundar Hinns Frôða: The Edda of Sæmund the Learned.'' Part I. London: Trübner & Co.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology",
"Attestations",
"Theories",
"Modern influence",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Ask and Embla |
[
"\n\n\nThe '''Alabama River''', in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about north of Montgomery, near the suburb of Wetumpka\n\nThe river flows west to Selma, then southwest until, about from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.\n",
"The course of the Alabama is very meandering. Its width varies from , and its depth from . Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is , and by steamboat measurement, .\n\nThe river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the mineral regions of north-central Alabama.\n\nAfter the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about long and joins the Alabama River about below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about above Wetumpka (about below Rome and below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.\n\nThe navigation of the Tallapoosa River – which has its source in Paulding County, Georgia, and is about long – is prevented by shoals and a fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa. The Alabama is navigable throughout the year.\n\nThe river played an important role in the growth of the economy in the region during the 19th century as a source of transportation of goods. The river is still used for transportation of farming produce; however, it is not as important as it once was due to the construction of roads and railways.\n\nDiscovered in 1712, the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers were central to the homeland of the Creek Indians before their removal by United States forces to the Indian Territory in the 1830s.\n",
"The Edmund Pettus Bridge crosses the Alabama River near Selma. The bridge was the site of a civil rights march in 1965.\n",
"The Alabama River has three lock and dams between Montgomery and the Mobile River. The Robert F. Henry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 236.2, the Millers Ferry Lock & Dam is located at river mile 133.0, and the Claiborne Lock & Dam is located at river mile 72.5.\n",
"\nImage:USACE Claiborne Lock and Dam.jpg|Claiborne Lock and Dam on the Alabama River, approximately upriver from Claiborne, Monroe County\nImage:USACE Robert F Henry Lock and Dam.jpg|Robert F. Henry Lock and Dam on the Alabama River, approximately east of Selma\nImage:Cesam249.jpg|Millers Ferry Lock and Dam on the Alabama River in Wilcox County, approximately northwest of Camden\nImage:Alabama River RM192 Selma.JPG|Alabama River in Dallas County looking upstream towards Selma.\nImage:Alabama River at Benton Park.JPG|The Alabama River in Lowndes County as seen from Benton Park in Benton, Alabama.\n\n",
"*List of Alabama rivers\n*Tallapoosa River\n*Coosa River\n*Mobile River\n* South Atlantic-Gulf Water Resource Region\n",
"\n",
"\n* Allrefer.com\n*\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Description",
"Edmund Pettus Bridge",
"Lock and dams",
"Gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Alabama River |
[
"Alanus ab Insulis (Alain de Lille).\n'''Alain de Lille''' (or '''Alanus ab Insulis''') ( 11281202/03) was a French theologian and poet. He was born in Lille, some time before 1128. His exact date of death remains unclear as well, with most research pointing toward it being between April 14, 1202, and April 5, 1203.\n",
"\nLittle is known of his life, however it is clear that Alan entered the schools no earlier than the late 1140s; first attending the school at Paris, and then at Chartres. He probably studied under masters such as Peter Abelard, Gilbert of Poitiers, and Thierry of Chartres. This is known through the writings of John of Salisbury, who is thought to have been a near exact contemporary student of Alan of Lille. His earliest writings were probably written in the 1150s, and probably in Paris. Alan spent many years teaching at the school in Paris and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179. Though the only accounts of his lectures seem to show a sort of eccentric style and approach, he was said to have been good friends with many other masters at the school in Paris, and taught there, as well as some time in southern France, into his old age. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called '''Alanus de Montepessulano'''), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Cîteaux, where he died in 1202.\n\nHe had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be called ''Doctor Universalis''. Many of Alan’s writings are unable to be exactly dated, and the circumstances and details surrounding his writing are often unknown as well. However, it does seem clear that his first notable work, ''Summa Quoniam Homines'', was completed somewhere between 1155 and 1165, with the most conclusive date being 1160, and was probably developed through his lectures at the school in Paris. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages; one of these, the ''De planctu naturae'', is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He created the allegory of grammatical \"conjugation\" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The ''Anticlaudianus'', a treatise on morals as allegory, the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity.\n",
"\nAs a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the ''Anticlaudianus'' he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, ''Ars catholicae fidei'', as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality.\n\nAlan’s philosophy was a sort of mixture of Aristotelian logic and Neoplatonic philosophy. The Platonist seemed to outweigh the Aristotelian in Alan, but he felt strongly that the divine is all intelligibility and argued this notion through much Aristotelian logic combined with Pythagorean mathematics.\n",
"One of Alan's most notable works was one he modeled after Boethius’ ''Consolation of Philosophy'', to which he gave the title ''De Planctu Naturae'', or ''The Plaint of Nature'', and which was most likely written in the late 1160s. In this work, Alan uses prose and verse to illustrate the way in which nature defines its own position as inferior to that of God. He also attempts to illustrate the way in which humanity, through sexual perversion and specifically homosexuality, has defiled itself from nature and God. In ''Anticlaudianus'', another of his notable works, Alan uses a poetical dialogue to illustrate the way in which nature comes to the realization of her failure in producing the perfect man. She has only the ability to create a soulless body, and thus she is “persuaded to undertake the journey to heaven to ask for a soul,” and “the Seven Liberal Arts produce a chariot for her... the Five Senses are the horses”. The ''Anticlaudianus'' was translated into French and German in the following century, and toward 1280 was re-worked into a musical anthology by Adam de la Bassée. One of Alan’s most popular and widely distributed works is his manual on preaching, ''Ars Praedicandi'', or ''The Art of Preaching''. This work shows how Alan saw theological education as being a fundamental preliminary step in preaching and strove to give clergyman a manuscript to be “used as a practical manual” when it came to the formation of sermons and art of preaching.\n\nAlan wrote three very large theological textbooks, one being his first work, ''Summa Quoniam Homines''. Another of his theological textbooks that strove to be more minute in its focus, is his ''De Fide Catholica'', dated somewhere between 1185 and 1200, Alan sets out to refute heretical views, specifically that of the Waldensians and Cathars. In his third theological textbook, ''Regulae Caelestis Iuris'', he presents a set of what seems to be theological rules; this was typical of the followers of Gilbert of Poitiers, of which Alan could be associated. Other than these theological textbooks, and the aforementioned works of the mixture of prose and poetry, Alan of Lille had numerous other works on numerous subjects, primarily including Speculative Theology, Theoretical Moral Theology, Practical Moral Theology, and various collections of poems.\n\nAlain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with another Alanus (Alain, bishop of Auxerre), Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the ''Life of St Bernard'' should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the ''Commentary upon Merlin'' to Alan of Tewkesbury. Alan of Lille was not the author of a ''Memoriale rerum difficilium'', published under his name, nor of ''Moralium dogma philosophorum'', nor of the satirical ''Apocalypse of Golias'' once attributed to him; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the ''Dicta Alani de lapide philosophico'' really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the ''Ars catholicae fidei'' and the treatise ''Contra haereticos''.\n\nIn his sermons on capital sins, Alain argued that sodomy and homicide are the most serious sins, since they call forth the wrath of God, which led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. His chief work on penance, the ''Liber poenitenitalis'' dedicated to Henry de Sully, exercised great influence on the many manuals of penance produced as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council. Alain's identification of the sins against nature included bestiality, masturbation, oral and anal intercourse, incest, adultery and rape. In addition to his battle against moral decay, Alan wrote a work against Islam, Judaism and Christian heretics dedicated to William VIII of Montpellier.\n",
"\n* God is an intelligible sphere whose centre is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere.\n* Do not hold as gold all that shines as gold.\n",
"*''De Planctu Naturae''\n*''Anticlaudianus''\n*''Rhythmus de Incarnatione et de Septem Artibus''\n*''De Miseria Mundi''\n*''Quaestiones Alani Textes''\n*''Summa Quoniam Homines''\n*''Regulae Theologicae''\n*''Hierarchia Alani''\n*''De Fide Catholica: Contra Haereticos, Valdenses, Iudaeos et Paganos''\n*''De Virtutibus, de Vitiis, de Donis Spiritus Sancti''\n*''Liber Parabolarum''\n*''Distinctiones Dictionum Theologicalium''\n*''Elucidatio in Cantica Canticorum''\n*''Glosatura super Cantica''\n*''Expositio of the Pater Noster''\n*''Expositiones of the Nicene and Apostolic Creeds''\n*''Expositio Prosae de Angelis''\n*''Quod non est celebrandum bis in die''\n*''Liber Poenitentialis''\n*''De Sex Alis Cherubim''\n*''Ars Praedicandi''\n*''Sermones''\n",
"\n'''Attribution:'''\n*\n",
"*Alan of Lille, ''A Concise Explanation of the Song of Songs in Praise of the Virgin Mary'', trans Denys Turner, in Denys Turner, ''Eros and Allegory: Medieval Exegesis of the Song of Songs'', (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995), 291–308\n*''The Plaint of Nature'', translated by James J Sheridan, (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980)\n*''Anticlaudian: Prologue, Argument and Nine Books'', edited by W.H, Cornog, (Philadelphia, 1935)\n",
"* Dynes, Wayne R. 'Alan of Lille.' in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'', Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32.\n* Alanus de insulis, ''Anticlaudianus'', a c. di . M. Sannelli, La Finestra editrice, Lavis, 2004.\n* \n*\n*\n",
"* Alanus ab Insulis, ''Anticlaudianus sive De officiis viri boni et perfecti''\n* Alanus ab Insulis, ''Liber de planctu naturae\n* Alanus ab Insulis, ''Omnis mundi creatura''\n*Alain de Lille, '' The Complaint of Nature''\n* Alanus ab Insulis, ''Distinctiones dictionum theologicalium''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Theology and Philosophy",
"Works and attributions",
"Quotes",
"List of known works",
"References",
"Translations",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alain de Lille |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n'''NYSE American''', formerly known as the '''American Stock Exchange''' ('''AMEX'''), and more recently as '''NYSE MKT''', is an American stock exchange situated in New York City, New York. AMEX was previously a mutual organization, owned by its members. Until 1953, it was known as the '''New York Curb Exchange'''.\n\nNYSE Euronext acquired AMEX on October 1, 2008, with AMEX integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the '''NYSE Alternext U.S.''' In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to '''NYSE Amex Equities'''. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to '''NYSE MKT LLC'''.\n\nFollowing the SEC approval of competing stock exchange IEX in 2016, NYSE MKT rebranded as '''NYSE American''' and introduced a 350-microsecond delay in trading, referred to as a \"speed bump\", which is also present on the IEX.\n",
"===The Curb market===\n\nCurb brokers in Wall Street, New York City, 1920, a year before the trading was moved indoors. That year, journalist Edwin C. Hill described the curb trading on lower Broad Street as \"a roaring, swirling whirlpool... like nothing else under the astonishing sky that is its only roof.”\nThe exchange grew out of the loosely organized curb market of curbstone brokers on Broad Street in Manhattan. Efforts to organize and standardize the market started early in the 20th century under Emanuel S. Mendels and Carl H. Pforzheimer. The curb brokers had been kicked out of the Mills Building front by 1907, and had moved to the pavement outside the Blair Building where cabbies lined up. There they were given a \"little domain of asphalt\" fenced off by the police on Broad Street between Exchange Place and Beaver Street. As of 1907, the curb market operated starting at 10'clock in the morning, each day except Sundays, until a gong at 3 o'clock. Orders for the purchase and sale of securities were shouted down from the windows of nearby brokerages, with the execution of the sale then shouted back up to the brokerage. \n\n===Organizing and 'Curb list'===\nAs of 1907, E. S. Mendels gave the brokers rules \"by right of seniority\", but the curb brokers intentionally avoided organizing. According to the ''Times'', this came from a general belief that if a curb exchange was organized, the exchange authorities would force members to sell their other exchange memberships. However, in 1908 the '''New York Curb Market Agency''' was established, which developed appropriate trading rules for curbstone brokers, organized by Mendels. The informal '''Curb Association''' formed in 1910 to weed out undesirables. The curb exchange was for years at odds with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), or \"Big Board\", operating several buildings away. Explained the ''New York Times'' in 1910, the Big Board looked at the curb as \"a trading place for 'cats and dogs.'\" On April 1, 1910, however, when the NYSE abolished its unlisted department, the NYSE stocks \"made homeless by the abolition\" were \"refused domicile\" by the curb brokers on Broad Street until they had complied with the \"Curb list\" of requirements. In 1911, Mendels and his advisers drew up a constitution and formed the '''New York Curb Market Association''', which can be considered the first formal constitution of American Stock Exchange.\n\n===1920s-1940s: Move indoors===\nAmerican Stock Exchange building, constructed in 1921.\nIn 1920, journalist Edwin C. Hill wrote that the curb exchange on lower Broad Street was a roaring, swirling whirlpool” that \"tears control of a gold-mine from an unlucky operator, then pauses to auction a puppy-dog. It is like nothing else under the astonishing sky that is its only roof.” After a group of Curb brokers formed a real estate company to design a building, Starrett & Van Vleck designed the new exchange building on Greenwich Street in Lower Manhattan between Thames and Rector, at 86 Trinity Place. It opened in 1921, and the curbstone brokers moved indoors on June 27, 1921. In 1929, the New York Curb Market changed its name to the New York Curb Exchange. Within no time, the Curb Exchange became the leading international stock market, listing more foreign issues than all other U.S. securities markets combined.\n\nGeorge Rea was approached about the position of president of the New York Curb Exchange in 1939. He was unanimously elected as the first paid president in the history of the Curb Exchange. He was paid $25,000 per year and held the position for 3 years before offering his resignation in 1942. He left the position having \"done such a good job that there is virtually no need for a full-time successor.\"\n\n===Modernization as the American Stock Exchange===\nIn 1953 the Curb Exchange was renamed the American Stock Exchange. The exchange was shaken by a scandal in 1961, and in 1962 began a reorganization. Its reputation recently damaged by charges of mismanagement, in 1962 the American Stock Exchange named Edwin Etherington its president. Writes CNN, he and executive vice president Paul Kolton were \"tapped in 1962 to clean up and reinvigorate the scandal-plagued American Stock Exchange.\" At AMEX for five years, he was credited with improving opportunities for minorities and women. In 1971, Johnson Products Company became the first African American-owned company to be listed on the American Stock Exchange.\n\nAs of 1971, it was the second largest stock exchange in the United States. Paul Kolton succeeded Ralph S. Saul as AMEX president on June 17, 1971, making him the first person to be selected from within the exchange to serve as its leader, succeeding Ralph S. Saul, who announced his resignation in March 1971. In November 1972, Kolton was named as the exchange's first chief executive officer and its first salaried top executive. As chairman, Kolton oversaw the introduction of options trading. Kolton opposed the idea of a merger with the New York Stock Exchange while he headed the exchange saying that \"two independent, viable exchanges are much more likely to be responsive to new pressures and public needs than a single institution\". Kolton announced in July 1977 that he would be leaving his position at the American Exchange in November of that year.\n\nIn 1977, Thomas Peterffy purchased a seat on the American Stock Exchange and played a role in developing the electronic trading of securities. Peterffy created a major stir among traders by introducing handheld computers onto the trading floor in the early 1980s.\n\nRichard F. Syron joined the American Stock Exchange as CEO in 1994 held that post for five years, which included its merger in 1998 into the National Association of Securities Dealers.\n\n===NYSE merger===\nAs of 2003, AMEX was the only U.S. stock market to permit the transmission of buy and sell orders through hand signals.\n\nIn October 2008 NYSE Euronext completed acquisition of the AMEX for $260 million in stock. Before the closing of the acquisition, NYSE Euronext announced that the AMEX would be integrated with the Alternext European small-cap exchange and renamed the NYSE Alternext U.S. The American Stock Exchange merged with the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE Euronext) on October 1, 2008. Post merger, the Amex equities business was branded \"NYSE Alternext US\". As part of the re-branding exercise, NYSE Alternext US was re-branded as NYSE Amex Equities. On December 1, 2008, the Curb Exchange building at 86 Trinity Place was closed, and the Amex Equities trading floor was moved to the NYSE Trading floor at 11 Wall Street. 90 years after its 1921 opening, the old New York Curb Market building was empty but remained standing. In March 2009, NYSE Alternext U.S. was changed to NYSE Amex Equities. On May 10, 2012, NYSE Amex Equities changed its name to NYSE MKT LLC.\n\nIn June 2016, a competing stock exchange IEX (which operated with a 350-microsecond delay in trading), gained approval from the SEC, despite lobbying protests by the NYSE and other exchanges and trading firms. Subsequently the NYSE renamed NYSE MKT to NYSE American, and announced plans to introduce its own 350-microsecond \"speed bump\" in trading on the small and mid-cap company exchange.\n",
"*Intellidex\n",
"\nFile:Cotton Exchange Building plague 2017.jpg|The text reads: \"On June 27, 1921, the curbstone brokers moved from their outdoor Market on Broad Street to establish on this site the indoor securities market that became the American Stock Exchange.\"\nFile:US Navy 040601-N-6371Q-096 Vice Adm. Gary Roughead, right, rings the opening bell at the American Stock Exchange, during the 17th Annual Fleet Week in New York.jpg|2004: Vice Adm. Gary Roughead, right, rings the opening bell at the American Stock Exchange, during the 17th Annual Fleet Week in New York\nFile:Old American Stock Exchange Building 2009.JPG|Old American Stock Exchange Building 2009\n\n",
"\n* NYSE Arca Major Market Index\n*Microcap stock\n* Economy of New York City \n* List of stock exchanges in the Americas \n* List of stock exchange mergers in the Americas\n* Consolidated Tape System\n*Hal S. Scott\n*Michael J. Meehan \n\n",
"\n",
"* \n* \n",
"\n* NYSE MKT\n* NYSE Composite (NYA)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Products",
"Gallery",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | NYSE American |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 309/310 – Pope Eusebius is banished by the Emperor Maxentius to Sicily, where he dies, perhaps from a hunger strike.\n* 682 - St Leo II begins his reign as Catholic Pope.\n* 986 – Byzantine–Bulgarian wars: Battle of the Gates of Trajan: The Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Samuel and Aron defeat the Byzantine forces at the Gate of Trajan, with Byzantine Emperor Basil II barely escaping.\n*1186 – Georgenberg Pact: Ottokar IV, Duke of Styria and Leopold V, Duke of Austria sign a heritage agreement in which Ottokar gives his duchy to Leopold and to his son Frederick under the stipulation that Austria and Styria would henceforth remain undivided.\n*1386 – Karl Topia, the ruler of Princedom of Albania forges an alliance with the Republic of Venice, committing to participate in all wars of the Republic and receiving coastal protection against the Ottomans in return.\n*1424 – Hundred Years' War: Battle of Verneuil: An English force under John, Duke of Bedford defeats a larger French army under Jean II, Duke of Alençon, John Stewart, and Earl Archibald of Douglas.\n*1498 – Cesare Borgia, son of Pope Alexander VI, becomes the first person in history to resign the cardinalate; later that same day, King Louis XII of France names him Duke of Valentinois.\n*1549 – Battle of Sampford Courtenay: The Prayer Book Rebellion is quashed in England.\n*1560 – The Roman Catholic Church is overthrown and Protestantism is established as the national religion in Scotland.\n*1585 – Eighty Years' War: Siege of Antwerp: Antwerp is captured by Spanish forces under Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, who orders Protestants to leave the city and as a result over half of the 100,000 inhabitants flee to the northern provinces.\n* 1585 – A first group of colonists sent by Sir Walter Raleigh under the charge of Ralph Lane lands in the New World to create Roanoke Colony on Roanoke Island, off the coast of present-day North Carolina.\n*1597 – Islands Voyage: Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, and Sir Walter Raleigh set sail on an expedition to the Azores.\n*1668 – A magnitude 8.0 earthquake causes 8,000 deaths in Anatolia, Ottoman Empire.\n*1712 – Action of 17 August 1712 New Deep naval battle between Denmark and Sweden.\n*1717 – Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18: The month-long Siege of Belgrade ends with Prince Eugene of Savoy's Austrian troops capturing the city from the Ottoman Empire.\n*1723 – Ioan Giurgiu Patachi becomes Bishop of Făgăraș and is festively installed in his position at the St. Nicolas Cathedral in Făgăraș, after being formally confirmed earlier by Pope Clement XI.\n*1740 – Pope Benedict XIV, previously known as Prospero Lambertini, succeeds Clement XII as the 247th Pope.\n*1784 – Classical composer Luigi Boccherini receives a pay rise of 12000 reals from his employer, the Infante Luis, Count of Chinchón.\n*1798 – The Vietnamese Roman Catholics report a Marian apparition in Quảng Trị, an event which is called Our Lady of La Vang.\n*1807 – Robert Fulton's ''North River Steamboat'' leaves New York City for Albany, New York, on the Hudson River, inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.\n* 1827 - Dutch King Willem I and Pope Leo XII sign concord\n* 1836 - British parliament accepts registration of births, marriages and deaths\n*1862 – American Indian Wars: The Dakota War of 1862 begins in Minnesota as Lakota warriors attack white settlements along the Minnesota River.\n* 1862 – American Civil War: Major General J. E. B. Stuart is assigned command of all the cavalry of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia.\n*1863 – American Civil War: In Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter.\n*1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Gainesville: Confederate forces defeat Union troops near Gainesville, Florida.\n*1866 – The Grand Duchy of Baden announces her withdrawal from the German Confederation and signs a treaty of peace and alliance with Prussia.\n*1883 – The first public performance of the Dominican Republic's national anthem, ''Himno Nacional''.\n*1907 – Pike Place Market, a popular tourist destination and registered historic district in Seattle, opened.\n*1908 – ''Fantasmagorie'', the first animated cartoon, created by Émile Cohl, is shown in Paris, France.\n*1914 – World War I: Battle of Stallupönen: The German army of General Hermann von François defeats the Russian force commanded by Paul von Rennenkampf near modern-day Nesterov, Russia.\n*1915 – Jewish American Leo Frank is lynched in Marietta, Georgia after a 13-year-old girl is murdered.\n* 1915 – A Category 4 hurricane hits Galveston, Texas with winds at .\n*1918 – Bolshevik revolutionary leader Moisei Uritsky is assassinated.\n*1942 – World War II: U.S. Marines raid the Japanese-held Pacific island of Makin. \n*1943 – World War II: The U.S. Eighth Air Force suffers the loss of 60 bombers on the Schweinfurt–Regensburg mission.\n* 1943 – World War II: The U.S. Seventh Army under General George S. Patton arrives in Messina, Italy, followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, thus completing the Allied conquest of Sicily.\n* 1943 – World War II: First Québec Conference of Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and William Lyon Mackenzie King begins.\n* 1943 – World War II: The Royal Air Force begins Operation Hydra, the first air raid of the Operation Crossbow strategic bombing campaign against Germany's V-weapon program.\n*1945 – Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta proclaim the independence of Indonesia, igniting the Indonesian National Revolution against the Dutch Empire.\n* 1945 – The novella ''Animal Farm'' by George Orwell is first published.\n*1947 – The Radcliffe Line, the border between the Dominions of India and Pakistan, is revealed.\n*1953 – Addiction: First meeting of Narcotics Anonymous takes place, in Southern California.\n*1958 – ''Pioneer 0'', America's first attempt at lunar orbit, is launched using the first Thor-Able rocket and fails. Notable as one of the first attempted launches beyond Earth orbit by any country.\n*1959 – Quake Lake is formed by the magnitude 7.5 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake near Hebgen Lake in Montana.\n*1962 – Peter Fechter is shot and bleeds to death while trying to cross the new Berlin Wall.\n*1969 – Category 5 Hurricane Camille hits the U.S. Gulf Coast, killing 256 and causing $1.42 billion in damage.\n*1970 – Venera program: ''Venera 7'' launched. It will later become the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another planet (Venus).\n*1977 – The Soviet icebreaker ''Arktika'' becomes the first surface ship to reach the North Pole.\n*1978 – ''Double Eagle II'' becomes first balloon to cross the Atlantic Ocean when it lands in Miserey, France near Paris, 137 hours after leaving Presque Isle, Maine.\n*1988 – President of Pakistan Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq and U.S. Ambassador Arnold Raphel are killed in a plane crash.\n*1991 – Strathfield massacre: In Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, taxi driver Wade Frankum shoots seven people and injures six others before turning the gun on himself.\n*1998 – Lewinsky scandal: US President Bill Clinton admits in taped testimony that he had an \"improper physical relationship\" with White House intern Monica Lewinsky; later that same day he admits before the nation that he \"misled people\" about the relationship.\n*1999 – The 7.6 İzmit earthquake shakes northwestern Turkey with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (''Violent''), leaving 17,118–17,127 dead and 43,953–50,000 injured.\n*2004 – The National Assembly of Serbia unanimously adopts new state symbols for Serbia: Bože pravde becomes the new anthem and the coat of arms is adopted for the whole country.\n*2005 – The first forced evacuation of settlers, as part of Israeli disengagement from Gaza, starts.\n* 2005 – Over 500 bombs are set off by terrorists at 300 locations in 63 out of the 64 districts of Bangladesh\n*2008 – American swimmer Michael Phelps becomes the first person to win eight gold medals at one Olympic Games.\n*2009 – An accident at the Sayano–Shushenskaya Dam in Khakassia, Russia, kills 75 and shuts down the hydroelectric power station, leading to widespread power failure in the local area.\n*2015 – A bomb explodes near the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok, Thailand, killing at least 19 people and injuring 123 others.\n*2017 – The 2017 Barcelona attack, when a van was driven into pedestrians in La Rambla, killing 14 and injuring at least 100.\n",
"\n*1153 – William IX, Count of Poitiers (d. 1156)\n*1465 – Philibert I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1482)\n*1473 – Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York (d. 1483)\n*1501 – Philipp II, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg (d. 1529)\n*1556 – Alexander Briant, English martyr and saint (d. 1581)\n*1578 – Francesco Albani, Italian painter (d. 1660)\n* 1578 – Johann, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, first prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (d. 1638)\n*1582 – John Matthew Rispoli, Maltese philosopher (d. 1639)\n*1586 – Johann Valentin Andrea, German theologian (d. 1654)\n*1607 – Pierre de Fermat, French lawyer and mathematician (d. 1665)\n*1603 – Lennart Torstensson, Swedish Field Marshal, Privy Councillour and Governor-General (d. 1651)\n*1612 – Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, Polish nobleman (d. 1651)\n*1629 – John III Sobieski, Polish–Lithuanian king (d. 1696)\n*1686 – Nicola Porpora, Italian composer and educator (d. 1768)\n*1753 – Josef Dobrovský, Bohemian philologist and historian (d. 1828)\n*1768 – Louis Desaix, French general (d. 1800)\n*1786 – Davy Crockett, American soldier and politician (d. 1836)\n* 1786 – Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (d. 1861)\n*1828 – Jules Bernard Luys, French neurologist and physician (d. 1897)\n*1840 – Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, English poet and activist (d. 1922)\n*1849 – William Kidston, Scottish-Australian politician, 17th Premier of Queensland (d. 1919)\n*1863 – Gene Stratton-Porter, American author and photographer (d. 1924)\n*1865 – Julia Marlowe, English-American actress (d. 1950)\n*1866 – Mahbub Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VI, Indian 6th Nizam of Hyderabad (d. 1911)\n*1873 – John A. Sampson, American gynecologist and academic (d. 1946)\n*1877 – Ralph McKittrick, American golfer and tennis player (d. 1923)\n*1878 – Reggie Duff, Australian cricketer (d. 1911)\n*1880 – Percy Sherwell, South African cricketer and tennis player (d. 1948)\n*1887 – Charles I of Austria (d. 1922)\n* 1887 – Marcus Garvey, Jamaican journalist and activist, founded Black Star Line (d. 1940)\n*1888 – Monty Woolley, American actor, raconteur, and pundit (d. 1963)\n*1890 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish soldier and pilot (d. 1920)\n* 1890 – Harry Hopkins, American politician and diplomat, 8th United States Secretary of Commerce (d. 1946)\n*1893 – John Brahm, German-American director and production manager (d. 1982)\n* 1893 – Mae West, American actress, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1980)\n*1894 – William Rootes, 1st Baron Rootes, English businessman, founded Rootes Group (d. 1964)\n*1896 – Leslie Groves, American general and engineer (d. 1970)\n* 1896 – Tõnis Kint, Estonian lieutenant and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 1991)\n* 1896 – Oliver Waterman Larkin, American historian and author (d. 1970)\n*1904 – Mary Cain, American journalist and politician (d. 1984)\n* 1904 – Leopold Nowak, Austrian composer and musicologist (d. 1991)\n*1909 – Larry Clinton, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1985)\n* 1909 – Wilf Copping, English footballer (d. 1980)\n*1911 – Mikhail Botvinnik, Russian chess player and engineer (d. 1995)\n* 1911 – Martin Sandberger, German colonel and lawyer (d. 2010)\n*1913 – Mark Felt, American lawyer and agent, 2nd Deputy Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (d. 2008)\n* 1913 – Oscar Alfredo Gálvez, Argentinian race car driver (d. 1989)\n* 1913 – Rudy York, American baseball player and manager (d. 1970)\n*1914 – Bill Downs, American journalist (d. 1978)\n* 1914 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1988)\n*1916 – Moses Majekodunmi, Nigerian physician and politician (d. 2012)\n*1918 – Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (d. 1985)\n* 1918 – Ike Quebec, American saxophonist and pianist (d. 1963)\n* 1918 – Michael John Wise, English geographer and academic (d. 2015)\n*1919 – Georgia Gibbs, American singer (d. 2006)\n*1920 – Maureen O'Hara, Irish-American actress and singer (d. 2015)\n* 1920 – Lida Moser, American photographer and author (d. 2014)\n*1921 – Geoffrey Elton, German-English historian and academic (d. 1994)\n*1922 – Roy Tattersall, English cricketer (d. 2011)\n*1923 – Larry Rivers, American painter and sculptor (d. 2002)\n*1924 – Evan S. Connell, American novelist, poet, and short story writer (d. 2013)\n*1926 – Valerie Eliot, English businesswoman (d. 2012)\n* 1926 – Jiang Zemin, Chinese engineer and politician, former General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and 5th President of China\n*1927 – Sam Butera, American saxophonist and bandleader (d. 2009)\n* 1927 – F. Ray Keyser Jr., American lawyer and politician, 72nd Governor of Vermont (d. 2015)\n*1928 – T. J. Anderson, American composer, conductor, and educator\n* 1928 – Willem Duys, Dutch tennis player, sportscaster, and producer (d. 2011)\n*1929 – Francis Gary Powers, American captain and pilot (d. 1977)\n*1930 – Harve Bennett, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2015)\n* 1930 – Ted Hughes, English poet and playwright (d. 1998)\n*1931 – Tony Wrigley, English historian, demographer, and academic\n*1932 – V. S. Naipaul, Trinidadian-English novelist and essayist, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1932 – Duke Pearson, American pianist and composer (d. 1980)\n* 1932 – Jean-Jacques Sempé, French cartoonist\n*1933 – Mark Dinning, American pop singer (d. 1986)\n*1934 – João Donato, Brazilian pianist and composer\n* 1934 – Ron Henry, English footballer (d. 2014)\n*1936 – Seamus Mallon, Irish educator and politician, Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland\n* 1936 – Margaret Heafield Hamilton, American computer scientist, systems engineer, and business owner.\n*1938 – Theodoros Pangalos, Greek lawyer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece\n*1939 – Luther Allison, American blues guitarist and singer (d. 1997)\n*1940 – Eduardo Mignogna, Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2006)\n* 1940 – Barry Sheerman, English academic and politician\n*1941 – Lothar Bisky, German businessman and politician (d. 2013)\n* 1941 – Jean Pierre Lefebvre, Canadian director and screenwriter\n*1942 – Shane Porteous, Australian actor, animator, and screenwriter\n*1943 – Edward Cowie, English composer, painter, and author\n* 1943 – Robert De Niro, American actor, entrepreneur, director, and producer\n* 1943 – John Humphrys, Welsh journalist and author\n* 1943 – Dave \"Snaker\" Ray, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)\n*1944 – Larry Ellison, American businessman, co-founded the Oracle Corporation\n* 1944 – Jean-Bernard Pommier, French pianist and conductor\n*1945 – Rachel Pollack, American author, poet, and educator\n*1946 – Hugh Baiocchi, South African golfer\n* 1946 – Martha Coolidge, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1946 – Patrick Manning, Trinidadian-Tobagonian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2016)\n*1947 – Mohamed Abdelaziz, President of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976-2016) (d. 2016)\n* 1947 – Gary Talley, American guitarist (The Box Tops), singer-songwriter, and author \n*1948 – Alexander Ivashkin, Russian-English cellist and conductor (d. 2014)\n*1949 – Norm Coleman, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Mayor of St. Paul\n* 1949 – Sue Draheim, American fiddler and composer (d. 2013)\n* 1949 – Julian Fellowes, English actor, director, screenwriter, and politician\n* 1949 – Sib Hashian, American rock drummer (Boston) (d. 2017)\n* 1951 – Richard Hunt (puppeteer) , Muppet performer (d. 1992) \n*1952 – Aleksandr Maksimenkov, Russian footballer and coach (d. 2012)\n* 1952 – Nelson Piquet, Brazilian race car driver and businessman\n* 1952 – Mario Theissen, German engineer and businessman\n* 1952 – Guillermo Vilas, Argentinian tennis player\n*1953 – Mick Malthouse, Australian footballer and coach\n* 1953 – Herta Müller, Romanian-German poet and author, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1953 – Korrie Layun Rampan, Indonesian author, poet, and critic (d. 2015)\n* 1953 – Kevin Rowland, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1954 – Eric Johnson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n* 1954 – Andrés Pastrana Arango, Colombian lawyer and politician, 38th President of Colombia\n*1955 – Colin Moulding, English singer-songwriter and bassist \n*1956 – Gail Berman, American businessman, co-founded BermanBraun\n* 1956 – Álvaro Pino, Spanish cyclist\n*1957 – Ken Kwapis, American director and screenwriter\n* 1957 – Laurence Overmire, American poet, author, and actor\n* 1957 – Robin Cousins, British competitive figure skater \n*1958 – Belinda Carlisle, American singer-songwriter \n* 1958 – Fred Goodwin, Scottish banker and accountant\n* 1958 – Maurizio Sandro Sala, Brazilian race car driver\n*1959 – Jonathan Franzen, American novelist and essayist\n* 1959 – Jacek Kazimierski, Polish footballer\n* 1959 – Eric Schlosser, American journalist and author\n*1960 – Stephan Eicher, Swiss singer-songwriter \n* 1960 – Sean Penn, American actor, director, and political activist\n*1962 – Gilby Clarke, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1962 – Dan Dakich, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster\n*1963 – Jon Gruden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster\n*1964 – Colin James, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n* 1964 – Maria McKee, American singer-songwriter (Lone Justice)\n* 1964 – Dave Penney, English footballer and manager\n*1965 – Steve Gorman, American drummer \n* 1965 – Dottie Pepper, American golfer\n*1966 – Jüri Luik, Estonian politician and diplomat, 18th Estonian Minister of Defense\n* 1966 – Rodney Mullen, American skateboarder and stuntman\n* 1966 – Don Sweeney, Canadian ice hockey player and manager\n*1968 – Andriy Kuzmenko, Ukrainian singer-songwriter (d. 2015)\n* 1968 – Ed McCaffrey, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1968 – Helen McCrory, English actress\n*1969 – Christian Laettner, American basketball player and coach\n* 1969 – Donnie Wahlberg, American singer-songwriter, actor and producer\n* 1969 – Kelvin Mercer, American rapper, songwriter and producer (De La Soul)\n*1970 – Jim Courier, American tennis player and sportscaster\n* 1970 – Andrus Kivirähk, Estonian author\n* 1970 – Øyvind Leonhardsen, Norwegian footballer and coach\n*1971 – Uhm Jung-hwa, South Korean singer and actress\n* 1971 – Jorge Posada, Puerto Rican-American baseball player\n* 1971 – Shaun Rehn, Australian footballer and coach\n*1972 – Habibul Bashar, Bangladeshi cricketer\n*1974 – Johannes Maria Staud, Austrian composer\n*1976 – Eric Boulton, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1976 – Geertjan Lassche, Dutch journalist and director\n* 1976 – Serhiy Zakarlyuka, Ukrainian footballer and manager (d. 2014)\n*1977 – Nathan Deakes, Australian race walker\n* 1977 – William Gallas, French footballer\n* 1977 – Thierry Henry, French footballer\n* 1977 – Mike Lewis, Welsh guitarist \n* 1977 – Tarja Turunen, Finnish singer-songwriter and producer \n*1979 – Antwaan Randle El, American football player and journalist\n*1980 – Keith Dabengwa, Zimbabwean cricketer\n* 1980 – Daniel Güiza, Spanish footballer\n* 1980 – Jan Kromkamp, Dutch footballer\n* 1980 – Lene Marlin, Norwegian singer-songwriter\n*1982 – Phil Jagielka, English footballer\n* 1982 – Cheerleader Melissa, American wrestler and manager\n*1983 – Dustin Pedroia, American baseball player\n*1984 – Dee Brown, American basketball player\n* 1984 – Oksana Domnina, Russian ice dancer\n* 1984 – Garrett Wolfe, American football player\n*1985 – Yu Aoi, Japanese actress and model\n*1986 – Rudy Gay, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Tyrus Thomas, American basketball player\n*1988 – Natalie Sandtorv, Norwegian singer-songwriter \n* 1988 – Jihadi John, Kuwaiti-British member of ISIS (d. 2015)\n* 1988 – Erika Toda, Japanese actress\n*1992 – Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (d. 2013)\n* 1992 – Chanel Mata'utia, Australian rugby league player \n* 1992 – Paige, English professional wrestler\n*1993 – Sarah Sjöström, Swedish swimmer\n*1995 – Gracie Gold, American figure skater\n* 1995 – Dallin Watene-Zelezniak, New Zealand rugby league player\n*1996 – Jake Virtanen, Canadian ice hockey player\n\n",
"* 754 – Carloman, mayor of the palace of Austrasia\n* 949 – Li Shouzhen, Chinese general and governor\n*1153 – Eustace IV, Count of Boulogne (b. 1130)\n*1304 – Emperor Go-Fukakusa of Japan (b. 1243)\n*1324 – Irene of Brunswick (b. 1293)\n*1338 – Nitta Yoshisada, Japanese samurai (b. 1301)\n*1424 – John Stewart, Earl of Buchan (b. c. 1381)\n*1510 – Edmund Dudley, English politician, Speaker of the House of Commons (b. 1462)\n* 1510 – Richard Empson, English statesman\n*1547 – Katharina von Zimmern, Swiss sovereign abbess (b. 1478)\n*1673 – Regnier de Graaf, Dutch physician and anatomist (b. 1641)\n*1676 – Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, German author (b. 1621)\n*1720 – Anne Dacier, French scholar and translator (b. 1654)\n*1723 – Joseph Bingham, English scholar and academic (b. 1668)\n*1768 – Vasily Trediakovsky, Russian poet and playwright (b. 1703)\n*1785 – Jonathan Trumbull, English-American merchant and politician, 16th Governor of Connecticut (b. 1710)\n*1786 – Frederick the Great, Prussian king (b. 1712)\n*1814 – John Johnson, English architect and surveyor (b. 1732)\n*1834 – Husein Gradaščević, Ottoman general (b. 1802)\n*1838 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, Italian playwright and poet (b. 1749)\n*1850 – José de San Martín, Argentinian general and politician, 1st President of Peru (b. 1778)\n*1861 – Alcée Louis la Branche, American politician and diplomat, 1st United States Ambassador to Texas (b. 1806)\n*1870 – Perucho Figueredo, Cuban poet and activist (b. 1818)\n*1875 – Wilhelm Bleek, German linguist and anthropologist (b. 1827)\n*1897 – William Jervois, English engineer and diplomat, 10th Governor of South Australia (b. 1821)\n*1901 – Edmond Audran, French organist and composer (b. 1842)\n*1903 – Hans Gude, Norwegian-German painter and academic (b. 1825)\n*1908 – Radoje Domanović, Serbian satirist and journalist (b. 1873)\n*1909 – Madan Lal Dhingra, Indian activist (b. 1883)\n*1918 – Moisei Uritsky, Russian activist and politician (b. 1873)\n*1920 – Ray Chapman, American baseball player (b. 1891)\n*1924 – Tom Kendall, English-Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1851)\n*1925 – Ioan Slavici, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1848)\n*1935 – Adam Gunn, American decathlete (b. 1872)\n* 1935 – Charlotte Perkins Gilman, American sociologist and author (b. 1860)\n*1936 – José María of Manila, Spanish-Filipino priest and martyr (b. 1880)\n*1940 – Billy Fiske, American soldier and pilot (b. 1911)\n*1945 – Reidar Haaland, Norwegian police officer and soldier (b. 1919)\n*1949 – Gregorio Perfecto, Filipino journalist, jurist, and politician (b. 1891)\n*1958 – Arthur Fox, English-American fencer (b. 1878)\n*1966 – Ken Miles, English race car driver and engineer (b. 1918)\n*1969 – Otto Stern, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1888)\n*1970 – Rattana Pestonji, Thai director and producer (b. 1908)\n*1971 – Maedayama Eigorō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 39th Yokozuna (b. 1914)\n* 1971 – Wilhelm List, German field marshal (b. 1880)\n*1973 – Conrad Aiken, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet (b. 1889)\n* 1973 – Jean Barraqué, French pianist and composer (b. 1928)\n* 1973 – Paul Williams, American singer and choreographer (b. 1939)\n*1979 – John C. Allen, American roller coaster designer (b. 1907)\n* 1979 – Vivian Vance, American actress and singer (b. 1909)\n*1983 – Ira Gershwin, American songwriter (b. 1896)\n*1987 – Gary Chester, Italian drummer and educator (b. 1924)\n* 1987 – Rudolf Hess, German soldier and politician (b. 1894)\n* 1987 – Shaike Ophir, Israeli actor and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n*1988 – Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (b. 1924)\n* 1988 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1914)\n* 1988 – Victoria Shaw, Australian-American actress (b. 1935)\n*1990 – Pearl Bailey, American actress and singer (b. 1918)\n*1993 – Feng Kang, Chinese mathematician and academic (b. 1920)\n*1994 – Luigi Chinetti, Italian-American race car driver and businessman (b. 1901)\n* 1994 – Jack Sharkey, American boxer and referee (b. 1902)\n*1995 – Howard E. Koch, American playwright and screenwriter (b. 1902)\n* 1995 – Ted Whitten, Australian footballer and coach (b. 1933)\n*1998 – Władysław Komar, Polish shot putter and actor (b. 1940)\n* 1998 – Tadeusz Ślusarski, Polish pole vaulter (b. 1950)\n*2000 – Jack Walker, English businessman (b. 1929)\n*2004 – Thea Astley, Australian author and educator (b. 1925)\n*2005 – John N. Bahcall, American astrophysicist and academic (b. 1934)\n*2006 – Shamsur Rahman, Bangladeshi poet and journalist (b. 1929)\n*2007 – Bill Deedes, English journalist and politician (b. 1913)\n* 2007 – Eddie Griffin, American basketball player (b. 1982)\n*2008 – Franco Sensi, Italian businessman and politician (b. 1926)\n*2010 – Francesco Cossiga, Italian lawyer and politician, 8th President of Italy (b. 1928)\n*2012 – Aase Bjerkholt, Norwegian politician, Minister of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion (b. 1915)\n* 2012 – Victor Poor, American engineer, developed the Datapoint 2200 (b. 1933)\n* 2012 – Patrick Ricard, French businessman (b. 1945)\n* 2012 – John Lynch-Staunton, Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1930)\n*2013 – Odilia Dank, American educator and politician (b. 1938)\n* 2013 – Jack Harshman, American baseball player (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – John Hollander, American poet and critic (b. 1929)\n* 2013 – Frank Martínez, American painter (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Gus Winckel, Dutch lieutenant and pilot (b. 1912)\n*2014 – Børre Knudsen, Norwegian minister and activist (b. 1937)\n* 2014 – Wolfgang Leonhard, German historian and author (b. 1921)\n* 2014 – Sophie Masloff, American civil servant and politician, 56th Mayor of Pittsburgh (b. 1917)\n* 2014 – Miodrag Pavlović, Serbian poet and critic (b. 1928)\n* 2014 – Pierre Vassiliu, French singer-songwriter (b. 1937)\n*2015 – Yvonne Craig, American ballet dancer and actress (b. 1937)\n* 2015 – Mike Gaechter, American football player (b. 1940)\n* 2015 – Gerhard Mayer-Vorfelder, German businessman (b. 1933)\n* 2015 – László Paskai, Hungarian cardinal (b. 1927)\n*2016 – Arthur Hiller, Canadian actor, director, and producer (b. 1923)\n\n",
"*Birthday of Marcus Garvey (Rastafari)\n*Christian feast day:\n**Clare of the Cross\n**Donatus of Ripacandida\n**Hyacinth of Poland\n**Jacobo Kyushei Tomonaga\n**Jeanne Delanoue\n**Johann Gerhard (Lutheran) \n**Mammes of Caesarea (Catholic Church)\n**Samuel Johnson, Timothy Cutler, and Thomas Bradbury Chandler (Episcopal Church)\n**August 17 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Engineer's Day (Colombia)\n*Flag Day (Bolivia)\n*Independence Day, celebrates the independence proclamation of Indonesia from Japan in 1945.\n*Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Gabon from France in 1960.\n*Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia)\n*San Martin Day (Argentina)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 17 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\nIt is the peak of the Perseid meteor shower. It is also known as the \"Glorious Twelfth\" in the United Kingdom, as it marks the traditional start of the grouse shooting season.\n",
"*1099 – First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid forces led by Al-Afdal Shahanshah. This is considered the last engagement of the First Crusade.\n*1121 – Battle of Didgori: The Georgian army under King David IV wins a decisive victory over the famous Seljuk commander Ilghazi.\n*1164 – Battle of Harim: Nur ad-Din Zangi defeats the Crusader armies of the County of Tripoli and the Principality of Antioch.\n*1323 – Signature of the Treaty of Nöteborg between Sweden and Novgorod Republic, that regulates the border between the two countries for the first time.\n*1492 – Christopher Columbus arrives in the Canary Islands on his first voyage to the New World.\n*1499 – First engagement of the Battle of Zonchio between Venetian and Ottoman fleets.\n*1624 – The president of Louis XIII of France's royal council is arrested, leaving Cardinal Richelieu in the role of the King's principal minister.\n*1676 – Praying Indian John Alderman shoots and kills Metacomet, the Wampanoag war chief, ending King Philip's War.\n*1687 – Battle of Mohács: Charles of Lorraine defeats the Ottoman Empire.\n*1765 – Treaty of Allahabad is signed. The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of Company rule in India.\n*1793 – The Rhône and Loire ''départments'' are created when the former ''département'' of Rhône-et-Loire is split into two.\n*1806 – Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires re-takes the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina after the first British invasion.\n*1831 – French intervention forces William I of the Netherlands to abandon his attempt to suppress the Belgian Revolution.\n*1851 – Isaac Singer is granted a patent for his sewing machine.\n*1865 – Joseph Lister, British surgeon and scientist, performs 1st antiseptic surgery.\n*1883 – The last quagga dies at the Natura Artis Magistra, a zoo in Amsterdam, Netherlands.\n*1898 – The Hawaiian flag is lowered from ʻIolani Palace in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the flag of the United States to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the Republic of Hawaii to the United States.\n*1914 – World War I: The United Kingdom declares war on Austria-Hungary; the countries of the British Empire follow suit.\n* 1914 – World War I: The Battle of Halen a.k.a. Battle of the Silver Helmets a clash between large Belgian and German cavalry formations at Halen, Belgium.\n*1944 – Waffen-SS troops massacre 560 people in Sant'Anna di Stazzema.\n* 1944 – Nazi German troops end the week-long Wola massacre, during which time at least 40,000 people were killed indiscriminately or in mass executions.\n* 1944 – Alençon is liberated by General Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, the first city in France to be liberated from the Nazis by French forces.\n*1950 – Korean War: Bloody Gulch massacre: American POWs are massacred by North Korean Army.\n*1952 – The Night of the Murdered Poets: Thirteen prominent Jewish intellectuals are murdered in Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union.\n*1953 – The first testing of a real thermonuclear weapon (not test devices): The Soviet atomic bomb project continues with the detonation of \"RDS-6s\" (''Joe 4''), the first Soviet thermonuclear bomb.\n* 1953 – The 7.2 Ionian earthquake shakes the southern Ionian Islands with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme''). Between 445 and 800 people were killed.\n*1960 – ''Echo 1A'', NASA's first successful communications satellite, is launched.\n*1964 – South Africa is banned from the Olympic Games due to the country's racist policies.\n*1969 – Violence erupts after the Apprentice Boys of Derry march in Derry, Northern Ireland, resulting in a three-day communal riot known as the Battle of the Bogside.\n*1976 – Between 1,000 and 3,500 Palestinians are killed in the Tel al-Zaatar massacre, one of the bloodiest events of the Lebanese Civil War\n*1977 – The first free flight of the .\n* 1977 – The Sri Lanka Riots:, targeting the minority Sri Lankan Tamils, begin, less than a month after the United National Party came to power. Over 300 Tamils are killed.\n*1981 – The IBM Personal Computer is released.\n*1985 – Japan Airlines Flight 123 crashes into Osutaka ridge in Gunma Prefecture, Japan, killing 520, to become the worst single-plane air disaster.\n*1990 – Sue, the largest and most complete ''Tyrannosaurus Rex'' skeleton found to date, is discovered by Sue Hendrickson in South Dakota.\n*1992 – Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).\n*1994 – Major League Baseball players go on strike, forcing the cancellation of the 1994 World Series.\n*2000 – The Russian Navy submarine explodes and sinks in the Barents Sea during a military exercise, killing her entire 118-man crew.\n*2015 – At least two massive explosions kill 173 people and injure nearly 800 more in Tianjin, China.\n",
"*1452 – Abraham Zacuto, Jewish astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, rabbi and historian (d. 1515)\n*1503 – Christian III of Denmark (d. 1559)\n*1506 – Franciscus Sonnius, Dutch counter-Reformation theologian (d. 1576)\n*1591 – Louise de Marillac, co-founder of the Daughters of Charity (d. 1660)\n*1599 – Sir William Curtius FRS, German magistrate, English baronet (d. 1678).\n*1604 – Tokugawa Iemitsu, Japanese shogun (d. 1651)\n*1626 – Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian composer (d. 1690)\n*1629 – Archduchess Isabella Clara of Austria, Austrian archduchess (d. 1685)\n*1644 – Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber, Bohemian-Austrian violinist and composer (d. 1704)\n*1686 – John Balguy, English philosopher and author (d. 1748)\n*1696 – Maurice Greene, English organist and composer (d. 1755)\n*1762 – George IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1830)\n*1773 – Karl Faber, Prussian historian and academic (d. 1853)\n*1774 – Robert Southey, English poet and author (d. 1843)\n*1831 – Helena Blavatsky, Russian theosophist and scholar (d. 1891)\n*1852 – Michael J. McGivney, American priest, founded the Knights of Columbus (d. 1890)\n*1856 – Diamond Jim Brady, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1917)\n*1857 – Ernestine von Kirchsberg, Austrian painter and educator (d. 1924)\n*1859 – Katharine Lee Bates, American poet and author (d. 1929)\n*1860 – Klara Hitler, Austrian mother of Adolf Hitler (d. 1907)\n*1866 – Jacinto Benavente, Spanish playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)\n* 1866 – Henrik Sillem, Dutch target shooter, mountaineer, and jurist (d. 1907)\n*1867 – Edith Hamilton, German-American author and educator (d. 1963)\n*1870 – Henry Reuterdahl, Swedish-American artist (d. 1925)\n*1871 – Gustavs Zemgals, Latvian politician, 2nd President of Latvia (d. 1939)\n*1876 – Mary Roberts Rinehart, American author and playwright (d. 1958)\n*1877 – Albert Bartha, Hungarian general and politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (d. 1960)\n*1880 – Radclyffe Hall, English poet, author, and activist (d. 1943)\n* 1880 – Christy Mathewson, American baseball player and manager (d. 1925)\n*1881 – Cecil B. DeMille, American director and producer (d. 1959)\n*1883 – Martha Hedman, Swedish-American actress and playwright (d. 1974)\n* 1883 – Marion Lorne, American actress (d. 1968)\n*1885 – Jean Cabannes, French physicist and academic (d. 1959)\n* 1885 – Keith Murdoch, Australian journalist (d. 1952)\n* 1885 – Juhan Simm, Estonian composer and conductor (d. 1959)\n*1887 – Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1961)\n*1889 – Zerna Sharp, American author and educator (d. 1981)\n*1891 – C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and academic (d. 1953)\n* 1891 – John McDermott, American golfer (d. 1971)\n*1892 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (d. 1977)\n*1897 – Maurice Fernandes, Guyanese cricketer (d. 1981)\n*1899 – Ben Sealey, Trinidadian cricketer (d. 1963)\n*1902 – Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian politician, 1st Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1980)\n*1904 – Idel Jakobson, Latvian-Estonian NKVD officer (d. 1997)\n* 1904 – Tamás Lossonczy, Hungarian painter (d. 2009)\n* 1904 – Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia (d. 1918)\n*1906 – Harry Hopman, Australian tennis player and coach (d. 1985)\n* 1906 – Tedd Pierce, American animator, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1972)\n*1907 – Gladys Bentley, American blues singer (d. 1960)\n* 1907 – Joe Besser, American actor (d. 1988)\n* 1907 – Boy Charlton, Australian swimmer (d. 1975)\n* 1907 – Benjamin Sheares, Singaporean physician and politician, 2nd President of Singapore (d. 1981)\n*1909 – Bruce Matthews, Canadian general and businessman (d. 1991)\n*1910 – Yusof bin Ishak, Singaporean journalist and politician, 1st President of Singapore (d. 1970)\n* 1910 – Jane Wyatt, American actress (d. 2006)\n*1911 – Cantinflas, Mexican actor, screenwriter, and producer (d. 1993)\n*1912 – Samuel Fuller, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1997)\n*1913 – Richard L. Bare, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)\n*1914 – Gerd Buchdahl, German-English philosopher and author (d. 2001)\n* 1914 – Ruth Lowe, Canadian pianist and songwriter (d. 1981)\n*1915 – Michael Kidd, American dancer and choreographer (d. 2007)\n*1916 – Ioan Dicezare, Romanian general and pilot (d. 2012)\n* 1916 – Edward Pinkowski, American writer, journalist and Polonia historian \n*1917 – Oliver Crawford, American screenwriter and author (d. 2008)\n*1918 – Sid Bernstein, American record producer (d. 2013)\n* 1918 – Guy Gibson, Anglo-Indian commander and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1944)\n*1919 – Margaret Burbidge, English-American astrophysicist and academic\n* 1919 – Vikram Sarabhai, Indian physicist and academic (d. 1971)\n*1920 – Charles Gibson, American ethnohistorian (d. 1985)\n* 1920 – Percy Mayfield, American R&B singer-songwriter (d. 1984)\n*1922 – Fulton Mackay, Scottish actor and playwright (d. 1987)\n* 1922 – Miloš Jakeš, Czech communist politician\n*1923 – John Holt, Jamaican cricketer (d. 1997)\n*1924 – Derek Shackleton, English cricketer, coach, and umpire (d. 2007)\n* 1924 – Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, Pakistani general and politician, 6th President of Pakistan (d. 1988)\n*1925 – Dale Bumpers, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 38th Governor of Arkansas (d. 2016)\n* 1925 – Guillermo Cano Isaza, Colombian journalist (d. 1986)\n* 1925 – Donald Justice, American poet and writing teacher (d. 2004)\n* 1925 – Norris McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 2004)\n* 1925 – Ross McWhirter, Scottish publisher and activist, co-founded the Guinness World Records (d. 1975)\n* 1925 – George Wetherill, American physicist and academic (d. 2006)\n*1926 – John Derek, American actor, director, and cinematographer (d. 1998)\n* 1926 – Joe Jones, American R&B singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)\n*1927 – Porter Wagoner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)\n*1928 – Charles Blackman, Australian painter and illustrator\n* 1928 – Bob Buhl, American baseball player (d. 2001)\n* 1928 – Dan Curtis, American director and producer (d. 2006)\n*1929 – Buck Owens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2006)\n*1930 – George Soros, Hungarian-American businessman and investor, founded the Soros Fund Management\n* 1930 – Kanagaratnam Sriskandan, Sri Lankan engineer and civil servant (d. 2010)\n* 1930 – Jacques Tits, Belgian-French mathematician and academic\n*1931 – William Goldman, American author, playwright, and screenwriter\n*1932 – Dallin H. Oaks, American lawyer, jurist, and religious leader\n* 1932 – Charlie O'Donnell, American radio and television announcer (d. 2010)\n* 1932 – Sirikit, Queen mother of Thailand\n*1933 – Parnelli Jones, American race car driver and businessman\n* 1933 – Frederic Lindsay, Scottish author and educator (d. 2013)\n*1934 – Robin Nicholson, English metallurgist and academic\n*1935 – John Cazale, American actor (d. 1978)\n*1936 – Kjell Grede, Swedish director and screenwriter\n*1937 – Walter Dean Myers, American author and poet (d. 2014)\n*1938 – Jean-Paul L'Allier, Canadian journalist and politician, 38th Mayor of Quebec City (d. 2016)\n*1939 – George Hamilton, American actor \n* 1939 – Pam Kilborn, Australian track and field athlete\n* 1939 – David King, South African chemist and academic\n* 1939 – Sushil Koirala, Nepalese politician, 37th Prime Minister of Nepal (d. 2016)\n* 1939 – Roy Romanow, Canadian lawyer and politician, 12th Premier of Saskatchewan\n*1940 – Eddie Barlow, South African cricketer and coach (d. 2005)\n*1941 – L. M. Kit Carson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2014)\n* 1941 – Réjean Ducharme, Canadian author and playwright\n* 1941 – Dana Ivey, American actress\n*1942 – Hans-Wilhelm Müller-Wohlfahrt, German physician and author\n*1945 – Dorothy E. Denning, American computer scientist and academic\n* 1945 – Ron Mael, American keyboard player and songwriter \n*1946 – Terry Nutkins, English television host and author (d. 2012)\n*1948 – Siddaramaiah, Indian lawyer and politician, 22nd Chief Minister of Karnataka\n* 1948 – Graham J. Zellick, English academic and jurist\n*1949 – Panagiotis Chinofotis, Greek admiral and politician\n* 1949 – Mark Knopfler, Scottish-English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1949 – Lou Martin, Northern Irish pianist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2012)\n* 1949 – Alex Naumik, Lithuanian-Norwegian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2013)\n* 1949 – Rick Ridgeway, American mountaineer and photographer\n*1950 – Jim Beaver, American actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1950 – August \"Kid Creole\" Darnell, American musician, bandleader, singer-songwriter, and record producer\n*1952 – Daniel Biles, American associate justice of the Kansas Supreme Court \n*1954 – Rob Borbidge, Australian politician, 35th Premier of Queensland \n* 1954 – Leung Chun-ying, Hong Kong businessman and politician, 3rd Chief Executive of Hong Kong\n* 1954 – Ibolya Dávid, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Minister of Justice of Hungary\n* 1954 – François Hollande, French lawyer and politician, 24th President of France\n* 1954 – Pat Metheny, American jazz guitarist and composer\n*1956 – Lee Freedman, Australian horse trainer\n* 1956 – Bruce Greenwood, Canadian actor and producer\n* 1956 – Sidath Wettimuny, Sri Lankan cricketer\n*1957 – Friedhelm Schütte, German footballer\n*1958 – Jürgen Dehmel, German bass player and songwriter \n*1959 – Kerry Boustead, Australian rugby league player\n* 1959 – Amanda Redman, English actress\n*1960 – Laurent Fignon, French cyclist and sportscaster (d. 2010)\n* 1960 – Greg Thomas, Welsh-English cricketer\n*1961 – Roy Hay, English guitarist, keyboard player, and composer \n* 1961 – Mark Priest, New Zealand cricketer\n*1963 – Kōji Kitao, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 60th Yokozuna\n* 1963 – Campbell Newman, Australian politician, 38th Premier of Queensland\n* 1963 – Sir Mix-a-Lot, American rapper, producer, and actor\n*1964 – Michael Hagan, Australian rugby league player and coach\n*1965 – Peter Krause, American actor \n*1966 – Tobias Ellwood, American-English captain and politician\n*1967 – Andy Hui, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1967 – Andrey Plotnikov, Russian race walker\n* 1967 – Regilio Tuur, Dutch boxer\n*1968 – Thorsten Boer, German footballer and manager\n* 1968 – Ülar Mark, Estonian architect\n*1969 – Aga Muhlach, Filipino actor and politician\n* 1969 – Stuart Williams, Nevisian cricketer\n*1970 – Aleksandar Đurić, Bosnian footballer\n* 1970 – Charles Mesure, English-Australian actor and screenwriter\n* 1970 – Toby Perkins, English businessman and politician\n* 1970 – Jim Schlossnagle, American baseball player and coach\n* 1970 – Anthony Swofford, American soldier and author\n*1971 – Michael Ian Black, American comedian, actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1971 – Rebecca Gayheart, American actress\n* 1971 – Pete Sampras, American tennis player\n*1972 – Demir Demirkan, Turkish singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1972 – Mark Kinsella, Irish footballer and manager \n* 1972 – Takanohana Kōji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 65th Yokozuna\n* 1972 – Gyanendra Pandey, Indian cricketer\n*1973 – Jonathan Coachman, American basketball player, wrestler, and sportscaster\n* 1973 – Todd Marchant, American ice hockey player and coach\n*1974 – Matt Clement, American baseball player and coach\n* 1974 – Karl Stefanovic, Australian television host \n*1975 – Casey Affleck, American actor\n*1976 – Pedro Collins, Barbadian cricketer\n* 1976 – Mikko Lindström, Finnish guitarist \n* 1976 – Henry Tuilagi, Samoan rugby player\n* 1976 – Antoine Walker, American basketball player \n*1977 – Plaxico Burress, American football player\n* 1977 – Jesper Grønkjær, Danish footballer\n*1978 – Chris Chambers, American football player\n* 1978 – Hayley Wickenheiser, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1979 – D. J. Houlton, American baseball player\n* 1979 – Ian Hutchinson, English motorcycle racer\n* 1979 – Cindy Klassen, Canadian speed skater\n* 1979 – Austra Skujytė, Lithuanian pentathlete\n*1980 – Javier Chevantón, Uruguayan footballer\n* 1980 – Maggie Lawson, American actress\n* 1980 – Dominique Swain, American actress\n* 1980 – Matt Thiessen, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n*1981 – Tony Capaldi, Norwegian-Northern Irish footballer\n* 1981 – Djibril Cissé, French footballer\n*1982 – Boban Grnčarov, Macedonian footballer\n* 1982 – Alexandros Tzorvas, Greek footballer\n*1983 – Klaas-Jan Huntelaar, Dutch footballer\n* 1983 – Kléber Giacomance de Souza Freitas, Brazilian footballer\n* 1983 – Manoa Vosawai, Italian rugby player\n*1984 – Bryan Pata, American football player (d. 2006)\n*1985 – Danny Graham, English footballer\n* 1985 – Franck Moutsinga, German rugby player\n*1986 – Andrei Agius, Maltese footballer\n* 1986 – Kyle Arrington, American football player\n*1987 – Vanessa Watts, West Indian cricketer\n*1988 – Tyson Fury, English boxer\n* 1988 – Matt Gillett, Australian rugby league player\n*1989 – Tom Cleverley, English footballer\n* 1989 – Hong Jeong-ho, South Korean footballer\n*1990 – Mario Balotelli, Italian footballer\n* 1990 – Marvin Zeegelaar, Dutch footballer\n* 1990 – Martin Zurawsky, German footballer\n*1991 – Jesinta Campbell, Australian model\n* 1991 – Sam Hoare, Australian rugby league player\n*1992 – Cara Delevingne, English model and actress\n* 1992 – Isabella Escobar, Guatemalan tennis player\n* 1992 – Jacob Loko, Australian rugby player\n* 1992 – Teo Gheorghiu, Swiss pianist and actor\n*1993 – Ewa Farna, Czech singer-songwriter\n*1996 – Julio Urías, Mexican baseball player\n*1999 – Matthijs de Ligt, Dutch footballer\n\n",
"*30 BC– Cleopatra, Egyptian queen (b. 69 BC)\n* 792 – Jænberht, archbishop of Canterbury\n* 875 – Louis II, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 825)\n* 960 – Li Gu, chancellor of Later Zhou (b. 903)\n* 961 – Yuan Zong, emperor of Southern Tang (b. 916)\n*1222 – Vladislaus III, duke of Bohemia\n*1295 – Charles Martel, king of Hungary (b. 1271)\n*1319 – Rudolf I, duke of Bavaria (b. 1274)\n*1315 – Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick, English nobleman\n*1335 – Prince Moriyoshi, Japanese shogun (b. 1308)\n*1424 – Yongle, emperor of the Ming Empire (b. 1360)\n*1484 – Sixtus IV, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 1414)\n*1546 – Francisco de Vitoria, Spanish theologian (b. 1492)\n*1577 – Thomas Smith, English scholar and diplomat (b. 1513)\n*1588 – Alfonso Ferrabosco the elder, Italian-English composer (b. 1543)\n*1602 – Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, Mughal vizier and historian (b. 1551)\n*1612 – Giovanni Gabrieli, Italian organist and composer (b. 1557)\n*1638 – Johannes Althusius, German jurist and philosopher (b. 1557)\n*1674 – Philippe de Champaigne, Belgian-French painter and educator (b. 1602)\n*1689 – Pope Innocent XI (b. 1611)\n*1778 – Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Lincolnshire (b. 1714)\n*1809 – Mikhail Kamensky, Russian field marshal (b. 1738)\n*1810 – Étienne Louis Geoffroy, French pharmacist and entomologist (b. 1725)\n*1822 – Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Irish-English politician, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs (b. 1769)\n*1827 – William Blake, English poet and painter (b. 1757)\n*1829 – Charles Sapinaud de La Rairie, French general (b. 1760)\n*1848 – George Stephenson, English engineer and academic (b. 1781)\n*1849 – Albert Gallatin, Swiss-American ethnologist, linguist, and politician, 4th United States Secretary of the Treasury (b. 1761)\n*1851 – John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune, British lawyer and activist (b. 1801)\n*1861 – Eliphalet Remington, American inventor and businessman, founded Remington Arms (b. 1793)\n*1864 – Sakuma Shōzan, Japanese scholar and politician (b. 1811)\n*1865 – William Jackson Hooker, English botanist and academic (b. 1785)\n*1891 – James Russell Lowell, American poet and critic (b. 1819)\n*1896 – Thomas Chamberlain, American colonel (b. 1841)\n*1900 – Wilhelm Steinitz, Austrian chess player and theoretician (b. 1836)\n*1901 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Finnish-Swedish botanist, geologist, mineralogist, and explorer (b. 1832)\n*1904 – William Renshaw, English tennis player (b. 1861)\n*1914 – John Philip Holland, Irish engineer, designed the HMS Holland 1 (b. 1840)\n*1918 – William Thompson, American archer (b. 1848)\n*1921 – Pyotr Boborykin, Russian playwright and journalist (b. 1836)\n*1922 – Arthur Griffith, Irish journalist and politician, 3rd President of Dáil Éireann (b. 1871)\n*1924 – Sándor Bródy, Hungarian journalist and author (b. 1863)\n*1928 – Leoš Janáček, Czech composer and educator (b. 1854)\n*1934 – Hendrik Petrus Berlage, Dutch architect, designed the Beurs van Berlage (b. 1856)\n*1935 – Friedrich Schottky, German mathematician and academic (b. 1851)\n*1940 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter, illustrator, and academic (b. 1884) \n*1941 – Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon, English soldier and politician, 56th Governor General of Canada (b. 1866)\n* 1941 – Bobby Peel, English cricketer and umpire (b. 1857)\n*1943 – Vittorio Sella, Italian photographer and mountaineer (b. 1859)\n*1944 – Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1915)\n*1952 – David Bergelson, Ukrainian author and playwright (b. 1884)\n*1955 – Thomas Mann, German author and critic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1875)\n* 1955 – James B. Sumner, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)\n*1959 – Mike O'Neill, Irish-American baseball player and manager (b. 1877)\n*1964 – Ian Fleming, English spy, journalist, and author (b. 1908)\n*1966 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (b. 1923)\n*1967 – Esther Forbes, American historian and author (b. 1891)\n*1973 – Walter Rudolf Hess, Swiss physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)\n* 1973 – Karl Ziegler, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1898)\n*1978 – John Williams, English motorcycle racer (b. 1946)\n*1979 – Ernst Boris Chain, German-Irish biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)\n*1982 – Henry Fonda, American actor (b. 1905)\n* 1982 – Salvador Sánchez, Mexican boxer (b. 1959)\n*1983 – Theodor Burchardi, German admiral (b. 1892)\n*1985 – Kyu Sakamoto, Japanese singer-songwriter (b. 1941)\n* 1985 – Manfred Winkelhock, German race car driver (b. 1951)\n*1986 – Evaline Ness, American author and illustrator (b. 1911)\n*1988 – Jean-Michel Basquiat, American painter (b. 1960)\n*1989 – William Shockley, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)\n*1990 – Dorothy Mackaill, English-American actress (b. 1903)\n*1992 – John Cage, American composer and theorist (b. 1912)\n*1996 – Victor Ambartsumian, Georgian-Armenian astrophysicist and academic (b. 1908)\n* 1996 – Mark Gruenwald, American author and illustrator (b. 1953)\n*1997 – Jack Delano, American photographer and composer (b. 1914)\n*1999 – Jean Drapeau, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Mayor of Montreal (b. 1916)\n*2000 – Gennady Lyachin, Russian captain (b. 1955)\n* 2000 – Loretta Young, American actress (b. 1913)\n*2002 – Enos Slaughter, American baseball player and manager (b. 1916)\n*2004 – Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1919)\n*2005 – John Loder, English sound engineer and producer, founded Southern Studios (b. 1946)\n*2007 – Merv Griffin, American actor, singer, and producer, created ''Jeopardy!'' and ''Wheel of Fortune'' (b. 1925)\n* 2007 – Mike Wieringo, American author and illustrator (b. 1963)\n*2008 – Christie Allen, English-Australian singer (b. 1954)\n*2009 – Les Paul, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1915)\n*2010 – Isaac Bonewits, American Druid, author, and activist; founded Ár nDraíocht Féin (b. 1949)\n* 2010 – Guido de Marco, Maltese lawyer and politician, 6th President of Malta (b. 1931)\n* 2010 – Richie Hayward, American drummer and songwriter (b. 1946)\n* 2010 – André Kim, South Korean fashion designer (b. 1935)\n*2011 – Robert Robinson, English journalist and author (b. 1927)\n*2012 – Jimmy Carr, American football player and coach (b. 1933) \n* 2012 – Jerry Grant, American race car driver (b. 1935)\n* 2012 – Joe Kubert, Polish-American illustrator, founded The Kubert School (b. 1926)\n* 2012 – Édgar Morales Pérez, Mexican engineer and politician\n* 2012 – Alf Morris, English politician and activist (b. 1928)\n*2013 – Tereza de Arriaga, Portuguese painter (b. 1915)\n* 2013 – Hans-Ekkehard Bob, German soldier and pilot (b. 1917)\n* 2013 – Pauline Maier, American historian and academic (b. 1938)\n* 2013 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (b. 1952)\n* 2013 – Vasiliy Mihaylovich Peskov, Russian ecologist and journalist (b. 1930)\n*2014 – Lauren Bacall, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1924)\n* 2014 – Futatsuryū Jun'ichi, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1950)\n* 2014 – Kongō Masahiro, Japanese sumo wrestler (b. 1948)\n*2015 – Jaakko Hintikka, Finnish philosopher and academic (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – Stephen Lewis, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Meshulim Feish Lowy, Hungarian-Canadian rabbi and author (b. 1921)\n* 2015 – John Scott, English organist and conductor (b. 1956)\n*2017 – Bryan Murray, Canadian ice hockey coach (b. 1942)\n\n",
"* Christian feast day:\n** Euplius\n** Eusebius of Milan\n** Herculanus of Brescia\n** Pope Innocent XI\n** Jænberht\n** Jane Frances de Chantal \n** Muiredach (or Murtagh)\n** Porcarius\n** August 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)\n* HM the Queen's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand)\n* International Youth Day (United Nations)\n* Russian Air Force Day (Russia)\n* Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)\n* Sea Org Day (Scientology)\n* World Elephant Day\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 12 |
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"\n\n\n\n\n'''Alfred Russel Wallace''' (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural selection; his paper on the subject was jointly published with some of Charles Darwin's writings in 1858. This prompted Darwin to publish his own ideas in ''On the Origin of Species.'' Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed the Wallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect Australasia.\n\nHe was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the \"father of biogeography\". Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made many other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation.\n\nWallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas (such as evolution). His advocacy of spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with some members of the scientific establishment.\n\nAside from scientific work, he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system (capitalism) in 19th-century Britain. His interest in natural history resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. He was also a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Singapore, Indonesia and Malaysia, ''The Malay Archipelago'', was both popular and highly regarded. Since its publication in 1869 it has never been out of print.\n\nWallace had financial difficulties throughout much of his life. His Amazon and Far Eastern trips were supported by the sale of specimens he collected and, after he lost most of the considerable money he made from those sales in unsuccessful investments, he had to support himself mostly from the publications he produced. Unlike some of his contemporaries in the British scientific community, such as Darwin and Charles Lyell, he had no family wealth to fall back on, and he was unsuccessful in finding a long-term salaried position, receiving no regular income until he was awarded a small government pension, through Darwin's efforts, in 1881.\n",
"\n===Early life===\nAlfred Wallace was born in the Welsh village of Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire. He was the seventh of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. Mary Anne was English; Thomas Wallace was probably of Scottish ancestry. His family, like many Wallaces, claimed a connection to William Wallace, a leader of Scottish forces during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century. Thomas Wallace graduated in law, but never practised law. He owned some income-generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family's financial position. His mother was from a middle-class English family from Hertford, north of London. When Wallace was five years old, his family moved to Hertford. There he attended Hertford Grammar School until financial difficulties forced his family to withdraw him in 1836, when he was aged 14.\nA photograph from Wallace's autobiography shows the building Wallace and his brother John designed and built for the Neath Mechanics' Institute.\n\nWallace then moved to London to board with his older brother John, a 19-year-old apprentice builder. This was a stopgap measure until William, his oldest brother, was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor. While in London, Alfred attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics Institute. Here he was exposed to the radical political ideas of the Welsh social reformer Robert Owen and of Thomas Paine. He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years.\n\nAt the end of 1839, they moved to Kington, Hereford, near the Welsh border, before eventually settling at Neath in Glamorgan in Wales. Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace did land surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales. By the end of 1843, William's business had declined due to difficult economic conditions, and Wallace, at the age of 20, left in January.\n\nOne result of Wallace's early travels is a modern controversy about his nationality. Since Wallace was born in Monmouthshire, some sources have considered him to be Welsh. However, some historians have questioned this because neither of his parents was Welsh, his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire, the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English, and because Wallace himself consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh (even when writing about his time in Wales). One Wallace scholar has stated that the most reasonable interpretation is therefore that he was an Englishman born in Wales.\n\nAfter a brief period of unemployment, he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, mapmaking, and surveying. Wallace spent many hours at the library in Leicester: he read ''An Essay on the Principle of Population'' by Thomas Malthus, and one evening he met the entomologist Henry Bates. Bates was 19 years old, and in 1843 he had published a paper on beetles in the journal ''Zoologist''. He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects. William died in March 1845, and Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother's firm in Neath, but his brother John and he were unable to make the business work. After a few months, Wallace found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath.\n\nWallace's work on the survey involved spending a lot of time outdoors in the countryside, allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects. Wallace persuaded his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm, which carried out a number of projects, including the design of a building for the Neath Mechanics' Institute, founded in 1843. William Jevons, the founder of that institute, was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering. In the autumn of 1846, John and he purchased a cottage near Neath, where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny (his father had died in 1843).\n\nDuring this period, he read avidly, exchanging letters with Bates about Robert Chambers' anonymously published evolutionary treatise ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation'', Charles Darwin's ''The Voyage of the Beagle'', and Charles Lyell's ''Principles of Geology''.\n\n===Exploration and study of the natural world===\nA map from ''The Malay Archipelago'' shows the physical geography of the archipelago and Wallace's travels around the area. The thin black lines indicate where Wallace travelled, and the red lines indicate chains of volcanoes.\n\nInspired by the chronicles of earlier travelling naturalists, including Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin and especially William Henry Edwards, Wallace decided that he too wanted to travel abroad as a naturalist. In 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the ''Mischief''. Their intention was to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon Rainforest for their private collections, selling the duplicates to museums and collectors back in Britain in order to fund the trip. Wallace also hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species.\n\nWallace and Bates spent most of their first year collecting near Belém do Pará, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert. Herbert left soon thereafter (dying two years later from yellow fever), but Spruce, like Bates, would spend over ten years collecting in South America.\n\nWallace continued charting the Rio Negro for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, and fauna. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig ''Helen''. After 26 days at sea, the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, mostly collected during the last two, and most interesting, years of his trip, were lost. He managed to save a few notes and pencil sketches and little else.\n\nWallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig ''Jordeson'', which was sailing from Cuba to London. The ''Jordeson'''s provisions were strained by the unexpected passengers, but after a difficult passage on very short rations the ship finally reached its destination on 1 October 1852.\n\nAfter his return to the UK, Wallace spent 18 months in London living on the insurance payment for his lost collection and selling a few specimens that had been shipped back to Britain prior to his starting his exploration of the Rio Negro until the indian town of Jativa on Orinoco River basin and as far west as Micúru (Mitú) on the Uaupés River. He was deeply impressed by the grandeur of the virgin forest, by the variety and beauty of the butterflies and birds, and by his first encounter with Indians on the Uaupés River area, an experience he never forgot. During this period, despite having lost almost all of the notes from his South American expedition, he wrote six academic papers (which included \"On the Monkeys of the Amazon\") and two books; ''Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses'' and ''Travels on the Amazon''. He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists—most significantly, Darwin.\n\nAn illustration from ''The Malay Archipelago'' depicts the flying frog Wallace discovered.\n\nFrom 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study natural history. A set of 80 bird skeletons he collected in Indonesia and associated documentation can be found in the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace line.\n\nWallace collected more than 126,000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago (more than 80,000 beetles alone). Several thousand of them represented species new to science. One of his better-known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog ''Rhacophorus nigropalmatus'', known as Wallace's flying frog. While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year.\n\nAccounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as ''The Malay Archipelago'', which became one of the most popular books of scientific exploration of the 19th century, and has never been out of print. It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), and Charles Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his \"favorite bedside companion\" and used it as source of information for several of his novels, especially ''Lord Jim''.\n\n===Return to England, marriage and children===\nA photograph of A.R. Wallace taken in Singapore in 1862\n\nIn 1862, Wallace returned to England, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organised his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at Down House, and became friendly with both Charles Lyell and Herbert Spencer. During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He also corresponded with Darwin about a variety of topics, including sexual selection, warning colouration, and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridisation and the divergence of species. In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism.\n\nAfter a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L. Miss L. was the daughter of Lewis Leslie who played chess with Wallace. However, to Wallace's great dismay, she broke off the engagement. In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten. Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through the botanist Richard Spruce, who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was also a good friend of Annie Mitten's father, William Mitten, an expert on mosses. In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876. The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874), Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951).\n\n===Financial struggles===\nIn the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. However, on his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of ''The Malay Archipelago''.\n\nDespite assistance from his friends, he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as a curatorship in a museum. To remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works.\n\nIn 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of ''The Geographical Distribution of Animals'' to avoid having to sell some of his personal property. Darwin was very aware of Wallace's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science. When the £200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilise Wallace's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings.\n\n===Social activism===\nJohn Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticising English society that Wallace had included in ''The Malay Archipelago''. Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association, but the association dissolved after Mill's death in 1873. Wallace had written only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879 when, at the age of 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest. He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the largest number of people, thus breaking the often-abused power of wealthy landowners in British society.\n\nIn 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society. In the next year, he published a book, ''Land Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims'', on the subject. He criticised the UK's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working-class people. In 1889, Wallace read ''Looking Backward'' by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist, despite his earlier foray as a speculative investor. After reading ''Progress and Poverty'', the best selling book by the progressive land reformist Henry George, Wallace described it as \"Undoubtedly the most remarkable and important book of the present century.\"\n\nWallace opposed eugenics, an idea supported by other prominent 19th-century evolutionary thinkers, on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit. In the 1890 article \"Human Selection\" he wrote, \"Those who succeed in the race for wealth are by no means the best or the most intelligent ...\". In 1898, Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system, not backed by silver or gold, which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book ''Stabilizing the Dollar'' to Wallace.\n\nWallace wrote on other social and political topics including his support for women's suffrage, and repeatedly on the dangers and wastefulness of militarism. In an essay published in 1899 Wallace called for popular opinion to be rallied against warfare by showing people: \"...that all modern wars are dynastic; that they are caused by the ambition, the interests, the jealousies, and the insatiable greed of power of their rulers, or of the great mercantile and financial classes which have power and influence over their rulers; and that the results of war are never good for the people, who yet bear all its burthens\". In a letter published by the Daily Mail in 1909, with aviation in its infancy, he advocated an international treaty to ban the military use of aircraft, arguing against the idea \"...that this new horror is \"inevitable,\" and that all we can do is to be sure and be in the front rank of the aerial assassins—for surely no other term can so fitly describe the dropping of, say, ten thousand bombs at midnight into an enemy's capital from an invisible flight of airships.\"\n\nIn 1898, Wallace published a book entitled ''The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Its Failures'' about developments in the 19th century. The first part of the book covered the major scientific and technical advances of the century; the second part covered what Wallace considered to be its social failures including: the destruction and waste of wars and arms races, the rise of the urban poor and the dangerous conditions in which they lived and worked, a harsh criminal justice system that failed to reform criminals, abuses in a mental health system based on privately owned sanatoriums, the environmental damage caused by capitalism, and the evils of European colonialism. Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life, publishing the book ''The Revolt of Democracy'' just weeks before his death.\n\n===Further scientific work===\nWallace continued his scientific work in parallel with his social commentary. In 1880, he published ''Island Life'' as a sequel to ''The Geographic Distribution of Animals''. In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution through natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio-economic reform. During the trip, he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before. He also spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper \"English and American Flowers\". He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections. His 1889 book ''Darwinism'' used information he collected on his American trip, and information he had compiled for the lectures.\n\n===Death===\nWallace's grave in Broadstone Cemetery, Broadstone, Dorset, which was restored by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund in 2000. It features a tall fossil tree trunk from Portland mounted on a block of Purbeck limestone.\n\nOn 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier. He was 90 years old. His death was widely reported in the press. ''The New York Times'' called him \"the last of the giants belonging to that wonderful group of intellectuals that included, among others, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, and Owen, whose daring investigations revolutionised and evolutionised the thought of the century.\" Another commentator in the same edition said \"No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the 'Malay Archipelago'.\"\n\nSome of Wallace's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey, but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone, Dorset. Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster Abbey near where Darwin had been buried. The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915.\n",
"\n===Early evolutionary thinking===\nUnlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations.\n\nProminent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Charles Lyell attacked it vigorously. It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics, religion and science, and because he was unusually open to marginal, even fringe, ideas in science.\n\nHe was also profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers' work, ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation'', a highly controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844 that advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system, the earth, and living things. Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845:\n\nI have a rather more favourable opinion of the 'Vestiges' than you appear to have. I do not consider it a hasty generalization, but rather as an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies, but which remains to be proven by more facts and the additional light which more research may throw upon the problem. It furnishes a subject for every student of nature to attend to; every fact he observes will make either for or against it, and it thus serves both as an incitement to the collection of facts, and an object to which they can be applied when collected.\n\nIn 1847, he wrote to Bates:\nI should like to take some one family of beetles to study thoroughly, principally with a view to the theory of the origin of species. By that means I am strongly of opinion that some definite results might be arrived at.\n\nWallace deliberately planned some of his field work to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories. During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realise that geographical barriers—such as the Amazon and its major tributaries—often separated the ranges of closely allied species, and he included these observations in his 1853 paper \"On the Monkeys of the Amazon\". Near the end of the paper he asks the question, \"Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country?\"\n\nIn February 1855, while working in Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote \"On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species\", a paper which was published in the ''Annals and Magazine of Natural History'' in September 1855. In this paper, he discussed observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of both living and fossil species, what would become known as biogeography. His conclusion that \"Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species\" has come to be known as the \"Sarawak Law\". Wallace thus answered the question he had posed in his earlier paper on the monkeys of the Amazon river basin. Although it contained no mention of any possible mechanisms for evolution, this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later.\n\nThe paper shook Charles Lyell's belief that species were immutable. Although his friend Charles Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea. Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it \"Good! Upon the whole! ... Wallace has, I think put the matter well; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into ''species''.\" Despite this hint, Darwin mistook Wallace's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time and wrote that it was \"nothing very new ... Uses my simile of tree but it seems all creation with him.\" Lyell was more impressed, and opened a notebook on species, in which he grappled with the consequences, particularly for human ancestry. Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now, for the first time, he spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell. Although Lyell could not agree, he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. Darwin demurred at first, then began writing up a ''species sketch'' of his continuing work in May 1856. Browne ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'' pp. 537–46.\n\n===Natural selection and Darwin===\n\n\nBy February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago of the reality of evolution. As he later wrote in his autobiography:\n\nThe problem then was not only how and why do species change, but how and why do they change into new and well defined species, distinguished from each other in so many ways; why and how they become so exactly adapted to distinct modes of life; and why do all the intermediate grades die out (as geology shows they have died out) and leave only clearly defined and well marked species, genera, and higher groups of animals?\n\nAccording to his autobiography, it was while he was in bed with a fever that Wallace thought about Thomas Malthus's idea of positive checks on human population growth and came up with the idea of natural selection. Wallace said in his autobiography that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but historians have questioned this, saying that on the basis of the journal he kept at the time, he was on the island of Gilolo. From 1858 to 1861 he rented a house on Ternate from the Dutchman Maarten Dirk van Renesse van Duivenbode. He used this house as a base camp for expeditions to other islands such as Gilolo.\n\nWallace describes how he discovered natural selection as follows:\n\n''It then occurred to me that these causes or their equivalents are continually acting in the case of animals also; and as animals usually breed much more quickly than does mankind, the destruction every year from these causes must be enormous in order to keep down the numbers of each species, since evidently they do not increase regularly from year to year, as otherwise the world would long ago have been crowded with those that breed most quickly. Vaguely thinking over the enormous and constant destruction which this implied, it occurred to me to ask the question, why do some die and some live? And the answer was clearly, on the whole the best fitted live ... and considering the amount of individual variation that my experience as a collector had shown me to exist, then it followed that all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species to the changing conditions would be brought about ... In this way every part of an animals organization could be modified exactly as required, and in the very process of this modification the unmodified would die out, and thus the definite characters and the clear isolation of each new species would be explained.''\n\nThe Darwin–Wallace Medal was issued by the Linnean society on the 50th anniversary of the reading of Darwin and Wallace's papers on natural selection.\n\nWallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace's first letter to Darwin has been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received. In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper \"On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species\" of 1855, showed that they were both thinking alike and to some extent reaching similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time. The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that \"without speculation there is no good and original observation\" while commenting that \"I believe I go much further than you\". Wallace trusted Darwin's opinion on the matter and sent him his February 1858 essay, \"On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type\", with the request that Darwin would review it and pass it on to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile. Although Wallace had sent several articles for journal publication during his travels through the Malay archipelago, the Ternate essay was in a private letter. On 18 June 1858, Darwin received the essay from Wallace. While Wallace's essay obviously did not employ Darwin's term \"natural selection\", it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures. In this sense, it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish. Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying \"he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters ... he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal.\" Darwin, Francis, 1887, ''The life and letters of Charles Darwin'' p. 116 Distraught about the illness of his baby son, Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker, who decided to publish the essay in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin's priority. Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857.\n\nCommunication with Wallace in the far-off Malay Archipelago was impossible without months of delay, so he was not part of this rapid publication. Fortunately, Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, happy that he had been included at all, and never expressed public or private bitterness. Darwin's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that, without Darwin, Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken seriously. Lyell and Hooker's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co-discoverer, and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists. However, the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin. This, combined with Darwin's (as well as Hooker's and Lyell's) advocacy on his behalf, would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community. The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean Society remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries; but, with Darwin's publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' later in 1859, its significance became apparent. When Wallace returned to the UK, he met Darwin. Although some of Wallace's iconoclastic opinions in the ensuing years would test Darwin's patience, they remained on friendly terms for the rest of Darwin's life.\n\nOver the years, a few people have questioned this version of events. In the early 1980s, two books, one written by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, even suggested not only that there had been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory. These claims have been examined in detail by a number of scholars who have not found them to be convincing. Research into shipping schedules has shown that, contrary to these accusations, Wallace's letter could not have been delivered earlier than the date shown in Darwin's letter to Lyell.\n\n====Defence of Darwin and his ideas====\nAfter the publication of Darwin's ''On the Origin of Species'', Wallace became one of its staunchest defenders on his return to England in 1862. In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper \"Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species\" in order to rebut a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticised Darwin's comments in the ''Origin'' on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection.\n\nAn even lengthier defence of Darwin's work was \"Creation by Law\", a review Wallace wrote in 1867 for ''The Quarterly Journal of Science'' of the book ''The Reign of Law'', which had been written by George Campbell, the 8th Duke of Argyll, as a refutation of natural selection. After an 1870 meeting of the British Association, Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were \"no opponents left who know anything of natural history, so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have.\"\n\n====Differences between Darwin's and Wallace's ideas on natural selection====\nHistorians of science have noted that, while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace's paper to be essentially the same as his own, there were differences. Darwin emphasised competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, whereas Wallace emphasised environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local conditions, leading populations in different locations to diverge. Some historians, notably Peter J. Bowler, have suggested the possibility that in the paper he mailed to Darwin, Wallace was not discussing selection of individual variations at all but rather group selection. However, Malcolm Kottler has shown that this notion is incorrect and Wallace was indeed discussing individual variations.\n\nOthers have noted that another difference was that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism keeping species and varieties adapted to their environment. They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper:\n\nThe action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow.\n\nThe cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that, though writing it only as an example, Wallace had \"probably said the most powerful thing that'd been said in the 19th Century\". Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book ''Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity'', and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory.\n\n====Warning coloration and sexual selection====\n\n\nIn 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem he was having understanding how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes. Darwin had come to believe that sexual selection, an agency to which Wallace did not attribute the same importance as Darwin did, explained many conspicuous animal colour schemes. However, Darwin realised that this could not apply to caterpillars. Wallace responded that he and Henry Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste, and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable. \"Now, as the white moth is as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in the daylight\", Wallace wrote back to Darwin that it seemed likely that the conspicuous colour scheme served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection. Darwin was impressed by the idea. At a subsequent meeting of the Entomological Society, Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic. In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace's idea. Warning coloration was one of a number of contributions Wallace made in the area of the evolution of animal coloration in general and the concept of protective coloration in particular. It was also part of a lifelong disagreement Wallace had with Darwin over the importance of sexual selection. In his 1878 book ''Tropical Nature and Other Essays'', he wrote extensively on the coloration of animals and plants and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection. He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book ''Darwinism''. In 1890, he wrote a critical review in ''Nature'' of his friend Edward Bagnall Poulton's ''The Colours of Animals'' which supported Darwin on sexual selection, attacking especially Poulton's claims on the \"aesthetic preferences of the insect world\".\n\n====Wallace effect====\nIn 1889, Wallace wrote the book ''Darwinism'', which explained and defended natural selection. In it, he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridisation. Thus it might contribute to the development of new species. He suggested the following scenario. When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point, each adapted to particular conditions, hybrid offspring would be less well-adapted than either parent form and, at that point, natural selection will tend to eliminate the hybrids. Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridisation, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect, later referred to as reinforcement. Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridisation in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail. It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity.\n\n===Application of theory to humans, and role of teleology in evolution===\nAn illustration from the chapter on the application of natural selection to humans in Wallace's 1889 book ''Darwinism'' shows a chimpanzee.\n\nIn 1864, Wallace published a paper, \"The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection'\", applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature''. He explained the apparent stability of the human stock by pointing to the vast gap in cranial capacities between humans and the great apes. Unlike some other Darwinists, including Darwin himself, he did not \"regard modern primitives as almost filling the gap between man and ape\". He saw the evolution of humans in two stages: achieving a bipedal posture freeing the hands to carry out the dictates of the brain, and the \"recognition of the human brain as a totally new factor in the history of life. Wallace was apparently the first evolutionist to recognize clearly that ... with the emergence of that bodily specialization which constitutes the human brain, bodily specialization itself might be said to be outmoded.\" For this paper he won Darwin's praise.\n\nShortly afterwards, Wallace became a spiritualist. At about the same time, he began to maintain that natural selection cannot account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humour. He eventually said that something in \"the unseen universe of Spirit\" had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in humankind. He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. These views greatly disturbed Darwin, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that sexual selection could easily explain apparently non-adaptive mental phenomena. While some historians have concluded that Wallace's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism, other Wallace scholars have disagreed, and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas. Reaction to Wallace's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied. Charles Lyell endorsed Wallace's views on human evolution rather than Darwin's. Wallace's belief that human consciousness could not be entirely a product of purely material causes was shared by a number of prominent intellectuals in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However, many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were critical of Wallace. As the historian of science Michael Shermer has stated, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy, which were that evolution was not teleological (purpose driven) and that it was not anthropocentric (human-centred). Much later in his life Wallace returned to these themes, that evolution suggested that the universe might have a purpose and that certain aspects of living organisms might not be explainable in terms of purely materialistic processes, in a 1909 magazine article entitled ''The World of Life'', which he later expanded into a book of the same name; a work that Shermer said anticipated some ideas about design in nature and directed evolution that would arise from various religious traditions throughout the 20th century.\n\n===Assessment of Wallace's role in history of evolutionary theory===\n\n\nIn many accounts of the development of evolutionary theory, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the stimulus to the publication of Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's ''Descent of Man'', occasionally in strong disagreement.. \n\nBoth Darwin and Wallace agreed on the importance of natural selection, and some of the factors responsible for it: competition between species and geographical isolation. But Wallace believed that evolution had a purpose (\"teleology\") in maintaining species' fitness to their environment, whereas Darwin hesitated to attribute any purpose to a random natural process. Scientific discoveries since the 19th century support Darwin's viewpoint, by identifying several additional mechanisms and triggers:\n* Mutations in germ-line DNA (i.e., DNA of the sperm or egg, which manifest in the offspring). These occur spontaneously, or are triggered by environmental radiation or mutagenic chemicals. A recently discovered mechanism, which is likely to be more important than the others combined, is infections with viruses, which integrate their DNA into their hosts. . Organisms do not want to mutate: mutation just happens. Most of the mutations are harmful or lethal to the offspring, but a very small minority turn out to be advantageous, as novel proteins get produced that serve new functions.\n* Epigenetic mechanisms, where evolution can occur in the absence of change in DNA sequence, through various mechanisms including chemical modifications to the DNA bases.\n* Cataclysmic events (meteorite/asteroid impacts, volcanism) that cause mass extinctions of species that, until the event, were perfectly adapted to their environment, such as the dinosaurs. The dramatic reduction of competition among the surviving species makes newly evolved species more likely to survive.\n\nWallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles. In 1889, Wallace published the book ''Darwinism'' as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Of all Wallace's books, it is the most cited by scholarly publications.\n",
"\n===Biogeography and ecology===\nA map of the world from ''The Geographical Distribution of Animals'' shows Wallace's six biogeographical regions.\n\nIn 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. He was unable to make much progress initially, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux at the time. He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification. Extending the system developed by Sclater for birds—which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution—to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions still in use today. He discussed all of the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographical region. These included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges (such as the one currently connecting North America and South America) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation. He provided maps that displayed factors, such as elevation of mountains, depths of oceans, and the character of regional vegetation, that affected the distribution of animals. He also summarised all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions. The text was organised so that it would be easy for a traveller to learn what animals could be found in a particular location. The resulting two-volume work, ''The Geographical Distribution of Animals'', was published in 1876 and would serve as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years.\n\nIn this book Wallace did not confine himself to the biogeography of living species, but also included evidence from the fossil record to discuss the processes of evolution and migration that had led to the geographical distribution of modern animal species. For example, he discussed how fossil evidence showed that tapirs had originated in the Northern Hemisphere, migrating between North America and Eurasia and then, much more recently, to South America after which the northern species became extinct, leaving the modern distribution of two isolated groups of tapir species in South America and Southeast Asia. Wallace was very aware of, and interested in, the mass extinction of megafauna in the late Pleistocene. In ''The Geographical Distribution of Animals'' (1876) he wrote, \"We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared\". He added that he believed the most likely cause for the rapid extinctions to have been glaciation, but by the time he wrote ''World of Life'' (1911) he had come to believe those extinctions were \"due to man's agency\".\n\nIn 1880, Wallace published the book ''Island Life'' as a sequel to ''The Geographical Distribution of Animals''. It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands. Wallace classified islands into three different types. Oceanic islands, such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands (then known as the Sandwich Islands) formed in mid-ocean and never part of any large continent. Such islands were characterised by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians, and their inhabitants (with the exceptions of migratory birds and species introduced by human activity) were typically the result of accidental colonisation and subsequent evolution. He divided continental islands into two separate classes depending on whether they had recently been part of a continent (like Britain) or much less recently (like Madagascar) and discussed how that difference affected the flora and fauna. He talked about how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals, such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas. He extensively discussed how changes of climate, particularly periods of increased glaciation, may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands, and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages. ''Island Life'' was considered a very important work at the time of its publication. It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence.\n\n===Environmental issues===\nWallace's extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In ''Tropical Nature and Other Essays'' (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their eventual impoverishment due to soil erosion. In ''Island Life'', Wallace again mentioned deforestation and also the impact of invasive species. On the impact of European colonisation on the island of Saint Helena, he wrote:\n\n... yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of this change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused, in the first place, by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in the thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by the reckless waste of man. The East India Company took possession of the island in 1651, and about the year 1700 it began to be seen that the forests were fast diminishing, and required some protection. Two of the native trees, redwood and ebony, were good for tanning, and, to save trouble, the bark was wastefully stripped from the trunks only, the remainder being left to rot; while in 1709 a large quantity of the rapidly disappearing ebony was used to burn lime for building fortifications!\n\nWallace's comments on environment grew more strident later in his career. In ''The World of Life'' (1911) he wrote:\n\n These considerations should lead us to look upon all the works of nature, animate or inanimate, as invested with a certain sanctity, to be used by us but not abused, and never to be recklessly destroyed or defaced. To pollute a spring or a river, to exterminate a bird or beast, should be treated as moral offences and as social crimes; ... Yet during the past century, which has seen those great advances in the knowledge of Nature of which we are so proud, there has been no corresponding development of a love or reverence for her works; so that never before has there been such widespread ravage of the earth's surface by destruction of native vegetation and with it of much animal life, and such wholesale defacement of the earth by mineral workings and by pouring into our streams and rivers the refuse of manufactories and of cities; and this has been done by all the greatest nations claiming the first place for civilisation and religion!\n\n===Astrobiology===\nWallace's 1904 book ''Man's Place in the Universe'' was the first serious attempt by a biologist to evaluate the likelihood of life on other planets. He concluded that the Earth was the only planet in the solar system that could possibly support life, mainly because it was the only one in which water could exist in the liquid phase. More controversially he maintained that it was unlikely that other stars in the galaxy could have planets with the necessary properties (the existence of other galaxies not having been proved at the time).\n\nHis treatment of Mars in this book was brief, and in 1907, Wallace returned to the subject with a book ''Is Mars Habitable?'' to criticise the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions. Among other things, Wallace pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell's analysis of Mars's climate was seriously flawed and badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let alone a planet-girding irrigation system, impossible. Richard Milner comments: \"It was the brilliant and eccentric evolutionist Alfred Russel Wallace ... who effectively debunked Lowell's illusionary network of Martian canals.\" Wallace originally became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would likely be unique in the universe.\n",
"\n===Spiritualism===\nIn a letter to his brother-in-law in 1861, Wallace wrote:\n\n... I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths. I will pass over as utterly contemptible the oft-repeated accusation that sceptics shut out evidence because they will not be governed by the morality of Christianity ... I am thankful I can see much to admire in all religions. To the mass of mankind religion of some kind is a necessity. But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth, or believe that those will be better off in a future state who have lived in the belief of doctrines inculcated from childhood, and which are to them rather a matter of blind faith than intelligent conviction.\n\nWallace was an enthusiast of phrenology. Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. When he began his experiments with mesmerism, the topic was very controversial and early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticised by the medical and scientific establishment. Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and his later investigations into spiritualism. In 1893, he wrote:\n\nI thus learnt my first great lesson in the inquiry into these obscure fields of knowledge, never to accept the disbelief of great men or their accusations of imposture or of imbecility, as of any weight when opposed to the repeated observation of facts by other men, admittedly sane and honest. The whole history of science shows us that whenever the educated and scientific men of any age have denied the facts of other investigators on a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility, the deniers have always been wrong.\nFrederick Hudson of Wallace and his mother.\nWallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims, who had been involved with it for some time. After reviewing the literature on the topic and attempting to test the phenomena he witnessed at séances, he came to accept that the belief was connected to a natural reality. For the rest of his life, he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine, no matter how many accusations of fraud sceptics made or how much evidence of trickery was produced. Historians and biographers have disagreed about which factors most influenced his adoption of spiritualism. It has been suggested by one biographer that the emotional shock he had received a few months earlier, when his first fiancée broke their engagement, contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism. Other scholars have preferred to emphasise instead Wallace's desire to find rational and scientific explanations for all phenomena, both material and non-material, of the natural world and of human society.\n\nSpiritualism appealed to many educated Victorians who no longer found traditional religious doctrine, such as that of the Church of England, acceptable yet were unsatisfied with the completely materialistic and mechanical view of the world that was increasingly emerging from 19th-century science. However, several scholars who have researched Wallace's views in depth have emphasised that, for him, spiritualism was a matter of science and philosophy rather than religious belief. Among other prominent 19th-century intellectuals involved with spiritualism were the social reformer Robert Owen, who was one of Wallace's early idols, the physicists William Crookes and Lord Rayleigh, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan, and the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers.\n\nDuring the 1860s the stage magician John Nevil Maskelyne exposed the trickery of the Davenport brothers. Wallace was unable to accept that he had replicated their feats utilizing natural methods, and stated that Maskelyne possessed supernatural powers. However, in one of his writings Wallace dismissed Maskelyne, referring to a lecture exposing his tricks.\n\nIn 1874, Wallace visited the spirit photographer Frederick Hudson. A photograph of him with his deceased mother was produced and Wallace declared the photograph genuine, declaring \"even if he had by some means obtained possession of all the photographs ever taken of my mother, they would not have been of the slightest use to him in the manufacture of these pictures. I see no escape from the conclusion that some spiritual being, acquainted with my mother's various aspects during life, produced these recognisable impressions on the plate.\" However, Hudson's photographs had previously been exposed as fraudulent in 1872.\n\nWallace's very public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation. It strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates, Thomas Huxley, and even Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Others, such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became openly and publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism, notably William Crookes, were subject to much criticism from the press, with ''The Lancet'' as the leading English medical journal of the time being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public perception of Wallace's work for the rest of his career. When, in 1879, Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace, Joseph Hooker responded:\n\nWallace has lost caste considerably, not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism, but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association, brought about a discussion on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings ... This he is said to have done in an underhanded manner, and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council.\n\nHooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request.\n\n===Flat Earth wager===\n\nIn 1870, a Flat-Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £500 wager (equivalent to about £ in present-day terms) in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a six-mile (10 km) stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above the water, and he mounted a telescope on a bridge at the same height above the water as well. When seen through the telescope, one object appeared higher than the other, showing the curvature of the earth.\n\nThe judge for the wager, the editor of ''Field'' magazine, declared Wallace the winner, but Hampden refused to accept the result. He sued Wallace and launched a campaign, which persisted for several years, of writing letters to various publications and to organisations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief. Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden, but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager and the controversy frustrated him for years.\n\n===Anti-vaccination campaign===\nIn the early 1880s, Wallace was drawn into the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination. Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying some of the statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was very new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. When Wallace did some research, he discovered instances where supporters of vaccination had used questionable, in a few cases completely phony, statistics to support their arguments. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination, and became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were, in fact, due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation.\n\nAnother factor in Wallace's thinking was his belief that, because of the action of natural selection, organisms were in a state of balance with their environment, and that everything in nature, even disease-causing organisms, served a useful purpose in the natural order of things; he feared vaccination might upset that natural balance with unfortunate results. Wallace and other anti-vaccinationists pointed out that vaccination, which at the time was often done in a sloppy and unsanitary manner, could be dangerous.\n\nIn 1890, Wallace gave evidence before a Royal Commission investigating the controversy. When the commission examined the material he had submitted to support his testimony, they found errors, including some questionable statistics. ''The Lancet'' averred that Wallace and the other anti-vaccination activists were being selective in their choice of statistics, ignoring large quantities of data inconsistent with their position. The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory, though they did recommend some changes in procedures to improve safety, and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe. Years later, in 1898, Wallace wrote a pamphlet, ''Vaccination a Delusion; Its Penal Enforcement a Crime'', attacking the commission's findings. It, in turn, was attacked by ''The Lancet'', which stated that it contained many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission.\n",
"Wallace and his signature on the frontispiece of ''Darwinism'' (1889)\nAs a result of his writing, at the time of his death Wallace had been for many years a well-known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist. He was often sought out by journalists and others for his views on a variety of topics. He received honorary doctorates and a number of professional honours, such the Royal Society's Royal Medal and Darwin Medal in 1868 and 1890 respectively, and the Order of Merit in 1908. Above all, his role as the co-discoverer of natural selection and his work on zoogeography marked him out as an exceptional figure.\n\nHe was undoubtedly one of the greatest natural history explorers of the 19th century. Despite this, his fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science. A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of attention, including his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas.\n\nRecently, he has become a less obscure figure with the publication of several book-length biographies on him, as well as anthologies of his writings. In 2007 a literary critic for ''New Yorker'' magazine observed that five such biographies and two such anthologies had been published since 2000. There has also been a web page created that is dedicated to Wallace scholarship.\nIn a 2010 book, the environmentalist Tim Flannery claimed that Wallace was 'the first modern scientist to comprehend how essential cooperation is to our survival,' and suggested that Wallace's understanding of natural selection and his later work on the atmosphere be seen as a forerunner to modern ecological thinking.\nAnthony Smith's statue of Wallace, looking up at a bronze model of a Wallace's golden birdwing butterfly. Natural History Museum, London, unveiled 7 November 2013\nThe Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinated commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the 'Wallace100' project in 2013. On 24 January, his portrait was unveiled in the Main Hall of the museum by Bill Bailey, a fervent admirer. On the BBC Two programme \"Bill Bailey's Jungle Hero\", first broadcast on 21 April 2013, Bailey revealed how Wallace cracked evolution by revisiting places where Wallace discovered exotic species. Episode one featured orangutans and flying frogs in Bailey's journey through Borneo. Episode two featured birds of paradise. On 7 November 2013, the 100th anniversary of Wallace's death, Sir David Attenborough unveiled a statue of Wallace at the museum. The statue was donated by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund, and was sculpted by Anthony Smith. It depicts Wallace as a young man, collecting in the jungle. November 2013 also marked the debut of ''The Animated Life of A. R. Wallace'', a paper-puppet animation film dedicated to Wallace's centennial.\n",
"* Served as president of the anthropology section of the British Association in 1866.\n* Became president of the Entomological Society of London in 1870.\n* Elected head of the biology section of the British Association in 1876.\n* Elected to the Royal Society in 1893.\n* Asked to chair the International Congress of Spiritualists (meeting in London) in 1898.\n* In 1928, a house at Richard Hale School (then called Hertford Grammar School) was named after Wallace. Wallace attended Richard Hale as a student from 1828 to 1836.\n* Lecture theatres at Swansea and Cardiff universities are named after Wallace, and a building at the University of South Wales.\n* Craters on Mars and the Moon are named after him.\n* In 1986 the Royal Entomological Society of London mounted a year-long expedition to the Dumoga-Bone National Park in North Sulawesi named Project Wallace.\n* A group of Indonesian islands is known as the Wallacea biogeographical region in Wallace's honour, and Operation Wallacea, named after the region, awards \"Alfred Russel Wallace Grants\" to undergraduate ecology students.\n* A species of gecko, ''Cyrtodactylus wallacei'', is named after him.\n",
"Alfred Russel Wallace, attributed to John William Beaufort (1864–1943), hangs in the Central Hall of the Natural History Museum, London\nWallace was a prolific author. In 2002, a historian of science published a quantitative analysis of Wallace's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full-length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in ''Nature''). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects as follows. 29% were on biogeography and natural history, 27% were on evolutionary theory, 25% were social commentary, 12% were on Anthropology, and 7% were on spiritualism and phrenology. An online bibliography of Wallace's writings has more than 750 entries.\n\n===Selected books===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Selected papers===\n* 1853: On the Monkeys of the Amazon. Speculates on the effect of rivers and other geographical barriers on the distribution of closely allied species.\n* 1855: On the Law Which Has Regulated the Introduction of New Species. Wallace's thoughts on the laws governing the geographic distribution of closely allied species, including the Sarawak Law, and the implications of those laws for the transmutation of species.\n* 1857: On the Natural History of the Aru Islands. First methodical biogeographic study.\n* 1858: On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type. Paper on natural selection sent by Wallace to Darwin.\n* 1859: On the Zoological Geography of the Malay Archipelago. Contains first description of the Wallace Line.\n* 1863: Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species. Wallace's defence of the ''Origin'' on the topic of evolution of the hexagonal bee cell.\n* 1863: On the Physical Geography of the Malay Archipelago. Paper on the geography and possible geographic history of Indonesia with concluding remarks on importance of biogeography and biodiversity that are frequently cited in modern conservation circles.\n* 1864: On the phenomena of variation and geographical distribution as illustrated by the Papilionidae of the Malayan region. Monograph on Indonesian butterfly family with discussion of different kinds of variability including individual variation, polymorphic forms, geographical races, variation influenced by local conditions, and closely allied species.\n* 1889: Forty-five years of Registration Statistics, proving Vaccination to be both useless and dangerous.\n* 1891: English and American Flowers. Contains speculation on how glaciation may have affected distribution of mountain flora in North America and Eurasia.\n\nA more comprehensive list of Wallace's publications that are available online, as well as a full bibliography of all of Wallace's writings, has been compiled by the historian Charles H. Smith at The Alfred Russel Wallace Page.\n",
"\n\nFile:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.101725 - Corvus enca celebensis Stresemann, 1936 - Corvidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Corvus enca celebensis, Sula Islands, registered in 1861 at a forerunner of Naturalis Biodiversity Center\nFile:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.133615 2 - Toxorhamphus novaeguineae novaeguineae (Lesson, 1827) - Meliphagidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Yellow-bellied longbill novaeguineae, Misool, Raja Ampat Islands, 1865\nFile:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.130620 1 - Pitohui ferrugineus leucorhynchus (Gray, 1862) - Pachycephalidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Pitohui ferrugineus leucorhynchus, Waigeo, West-Papua, no year\nFile:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.134843 2 - Nectarinia jugularis clementiae (Lesson, 1827) - Nectariniidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Nectarinia jugularis clementiae, Seram Island, 1865\nFile:Naturalis Biodiversity Center - RMNH.AVES.144722 2 - Mino anais anais (Lesson, 1839) - Sturnidae - bird skin specimen.jpeg|Mino anais anais, South West Papua, 1863\n\n",
"\n* Fauna of Indonesia\n* Flora of Indonesia\n* History of biology\n* List of independent discoveries\n* Wallacea\n",
"\n\n;Sources\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Vol. 1, Vol. 2.\n* \n* \n",
"* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Vol.2\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n",
"\n\n\n* The Alfred Russel Wallace Page\n* The Alfred Russel Wallace Website\n* The A. R. Wallace Correspondence Project website\n* The Wallace Memorial Fund's gallery of Wallace-related images\n* Wallace at the Natural History Museum, London\n* Wallace at 100 Welsh Heroes\n* Wallace Online. The first complete online edition of the writings of Alfred Russel Wallace\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Theory of evolution",
"Other scientific contributions",
"Controversies",
"Legacy and historical perception",
"Awards, honours, and memorials",
"Writings by Wallace",
"Bird specimens collected by Wallace",
"See also",
"References",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Alfred Russel Wallace |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 684 – Battle of Marj Rahit: Umayyad partisans defeat the supporters of Ibn al-Zubayr and cement Umayyad control of Syria.\n*1304 – The Battle of Mons-en-Pévèle is fought to a draw between the French army and the Flemish militias.\n*1487 – The Siege of Málaga ends with the taking of the city by Castilian and Aragonese forces.\n*1572 – Marriage in Paris, France, of the Huguenot King Henry III of Navarre to Margaret of Valois, in a supposed attempt to reconcile Protestants and Catholics.\n*1587 – Virginia Dare, granddaughter of Governor John White of the Colony of Roanoke, becomes the first English child born in the Americas.\n*1590 – John White, the governor of the Roanoke Colony, returns from a supply trip to England and finds his settlement deserted.\n*1612 – The trial of the Pendle witches, one of England's most famous witch trials, begins at Lancaster Assizes.\n*1634 – Urbain Grandier, accused and convicted of sorcery, is burned alive in Loudun, France.\n*1783 – A huge fireball meteor is seen across Great Britain as it passes over the east coast.\n*1838 – The Wilkes Expedition, which would explore the Puget Sound and Antarctica, weighs anchor at Hampton Roads.\n*1848 – Camila O'Gorman and Ladislao Gutierrez are executed on the orders of Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas.\n*1864 – American Civil War: Battle of Globe Tavern: Union forces try to cut a vital Confederate supply-line into Petersburg, Virginia, by attacking the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad.\n*1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.\n*1870 – Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Gravelotte is fought.\n*1891 – Major hurricane strikes Martinique, leaving 700 dead.\n*1903 – German engineer Karl Jatho allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding airplane four months before the first flight of the Wright brothers.\n*1917 – A Great Fire in Thessaloniki, Greece destroys 32% of the city leaving 70,000 individuals homeless.\n*1920 – The Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, guaranteeing women's suffrage.\n*1938 – The Thousand Islands Bridge, connecting New York, United States with Ontario, Canada over the Saint Lawrence River, is dedicated by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n*1940 – World War II: The Hardest Day air battle, part of the Battle of Britain. At that point, the largest aerial engagement in history with heavy losses sustained on both sides.\n*1945 – Sukarno takes office as the first president of Indonesia, following the country's declaration of independence the previous day.\n*1950 – Julien Lahaut, the chairman of the Communist Party of Belgium is assassinated by far-right elements.\n*1958 – Vladimir Nabokov's controversial novel ''Lolita'' is published in the United States.\n* 1958 – Brojen Das from Bangladesh swims across the English Channel in a competition, as the first Bengali and the first Asian to do so. He came first among 39 competitors.\n*1963 – Civil Rights Movement: James Meredith becomes the first African American to graduate from the University of Mississippi.\n*1965 – Vietnam War: Operation Starlite begins: United States Marines destroy a Viet Cong stronghold on the Van Tuong peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war.\n*1966 – Vietnam War: The Battle of Long Tan ensues after a patrol from the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment clashes with a Viet Cong force in Phước Tuy Province.\n*1971 – Vietnam War: Australia and New Zealand decide to withdraw their troops from Vietnam.\n*1976 – In the Korean Demilitarized Zone at Panmunjom, the Axe murder incident results in the death of two US soldiers.\n*1977 – Steve Biko is arrested at a police roadblock under the Terrorism Act No. 83 of 1967 in King William's Town, South Africa. He later dies from injuries sustained during this arrest bringing attention to South Africa's apartheid policies.\n*1983 – Hurricane Alicia hits the Texas coast, killing 22 people and causing over US$1 billion in damage (1983 dollars).\n*1989 – Leading presidential hopeful Luis Carlos Galán is assassinated near Bogotá in Colombia.\n*2003 – One year old Zachary Tuner is murdered in Newfoundland by his mother who was awarded custody despite facing trial for the murder of Zachary's father. The case led to reform of Canada's bail laws.\n*2005 – A massive power blackout hits the Indonesian island of Java, affecting almost 100 million people, one of the largest and most widespread power outages in history.\n*2008 – President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf resigns under threat of impeachment.\n* 2008 – War of Afghanistan: Uzbin Valley ambush occurs.\n",
"\n*1305 – Ashikaga Takauji, Japanese Shogun (d. 1358)\n*1450 – Marko Marulić, Croatian poet and author (d. 1524)\n*1458 – Lorenzo Pucci, Catholic cardinal (d. 1531)\n*1497 – Francesco Canova da Milano, Italian composer (d. 1543)\n*1542 – Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland (d. 1601)\n*1579 – Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (d. 1640)\n*1587 – Virginia Dare, Virginia colony settler\n*1596 – Jean Bolland, Flemish priest and hagiographer (d. 1665)\n*1605 – Henry Hammond, English churchman and theologian (d. 1660)\n*1606 – Maria Anna of Spain (d. 1646)\n*1629 – Agneta Horn, Swedish writer (d. 1672)\n*1657 – Ferdinando Galli-Bibiena, Italian architect and painter (d. 1743)\n*1685 – Brook Taylor, English mathematician and theorist (d. 1731)\n*1692 – Louis Henri, Duke of Bourbon (d. 1740)\n*1700 – Baji Rao I, Indian emperor (d. 1740)\n*1720 – Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers, English politician (d. 1760)\n*1750 – Antonio Salieri, Italian composer and conductor (d. 1825)\n*1754 – François, marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat, French general and engineer (d. 1833)\n*1774 – Meriwether Lewis, American soldier, explorer, and politician (d. 1809)\n*1792 – John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1878)\n*1803 – Nathan Clifford, American lawyer, jurist, and politician, 19th United States Attorney General (d. 1881)\n*1807 – B. T. Finniss, Australian politician, 1st Premier of South Australia (d. 1893)\n*1819 – Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1876)\n*1822 – Isaac P. Rodman, American general and politician (d. 1862)\n*1830 – Franz Joseph I of Austria (d. 1916)\n*1831 – Ernest Noel, Scottish businessman and politician (d. 1931)\n*1834 – Marshall Field, American businessman, founded Marshall Field's (d. 1906)\n*1841 – William Halford, English-American lieutenant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1919)\n*1855 – Alfred Wallis, English painter and illustrator (d. 1942)\n*1857 – Libert H. Boeynaems, Belgian-American bishop and missionary (d. 1926)\n*1869 – Carl Rungius, German-American painter and educator (d. 1959)\n*1870 – Lavr Kornilov, Russian general and explorer (d. 1918)\n*1879 – Alexander Rodzyanko, Russian general (d. 1970)\n*1883 – Sidney Hatch, American runner and soldier (d. 1966)\n*1885 – Nettie Palmer, Australian poet and critic (d. 1964)\n*1887 – John Anthony Sydney Ritson, English rugby player, mines inspector, engineer and professor of mining (d. 1957)\n*1890 – Walther Funk, German economist and politician, Reich Minister of Economics (d. 1960)\n*1893 – Burleigh Grimes, American baseball player and manager (d. 1985)\n* 1893 – Ernest MacMillan, Canadian conductor and composer (d. 1973)\n*1896 – Jack Pickford, Canadian-American actor and director (d. 1933)\n*1898 – Clemente Biondetti, Italian race car driver (d. 1955)\n*1902 – Adamson-Eric, Estonian painter (d. 1968)\n* 1902 – Margaret Murie, American environmentalist and author (d. 2003)\n*1903 – Lucienne Boyer, French singer (d. 1983)\n*1904 – Max Factor, Jr., American businessman (d. 1996)\n*1905 – Enoch Light, American bandleader, violinist, and recording engineer (d. 1978)\n*1906 – Marcel Carné, French director and screenwriter (d. 1996)\n* 1906 – Curtis Jones, American blues pianist and singer (d. 1971)\n*1908 – Edgar Faure, French historian and politician, 139th Prime Minister of France (d. 1988)\n* 1908 – Olav H. Hauge, Norwegian poet and gardener (d. 1994)\n* 1908 – Bill Merritt, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1977)\n*1909 – Gérard Filion, Canadian businessman and journalist (d. 2005)\n*1910 – Herman Berlinski, Polish-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2001)\n* 1910 – Robert Winters, Canadian colonel, engineer, and politician, 26th Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 1969)\n*1911 – Amelia Boynton Robinson, American activist (d. 2015)\n* 1911 – Klara Dan von Neumann, Hungarian computer scientist and programmer (d. 1963)\n*1912 – Otto Ernst Remer, German general (d. 1997)\n*1913 – Romain Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1983)\n*1914 – Lucy Ozarin, United States Navy lieutenant commander and psychiatrist \n*1915 – Max Lanier, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)\n*1916 – Neagu Djuvara, Romanian historian, journalist, and diplomat\n* 1916 – Moura Lympany, English pianist (d. 2005)\n*1917 – Caspar Weinberger, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 15th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2006)\n*1918 – Cisco Houston, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1961)\n*1919 – Wally Hickel, American businessman and politician, 2nd Governor of Alaska (d. 2010)\n*1920 – Godfrey Evans, English cricketer (d. 1999)\n* 1920 – Bob Kennedy, American baseball player and manager (d. 2005)\n* 1920 – Shelley Winters, American actress (d. 2006)\n*1921 – Lydia Litvyak, Russian lieutenant and pilot (d. 1943)\n* 1921 – Zdzisław Żygulski, Polish historian and academic (d. 2015)\n*1922 – Alain Robbe-Grillet, French director, screenwriter, and novelist (d. 2008)\n*1925 – Brian Aldiss, English author and critic\n* 1925 – Pierre Grondin, Canadian surgeon and academic (d. 2006)\n* 1925 – Anis Mansour, Egyptian journalist and author (d. 2011)\n*1928 – Marge Schott, American businesswoman (d. 2004)\n* 1928 – Sonny Til, American R&B singer (The Orioles) (d. 1981)\n*1929 – Hugues Aufray, French singer-songwriter\n*1930 – Liviu Librescu, Romanian-American engineer and academic (d. 2007)\n* 1930 – Rafael Pineda Ponce, Honduran academic and politician (d. 2014)\n*1931 – Bramwell Tillsley, Canadian 14th General of The Salvation Army\n* 1931 – Hans van Mierlo, Dutch journalist and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2010)\n*1932 – Luc Montagnier, French virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n*1933 – Just Fontaine, Moroccan-French footballer and manager\n* 1933 – Roman Polanski, French-Polish director, producer, screenwriter, and actor\n*1934 – Vincent Bugliosi, American lawyer and author (d. 2015)\n* 1934 – Roberto Clemente, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and soldier (d. 1972)\n* 1934 – Gulzar, Indian poet, lyricist and film director\n* 1934 – Michael May, German-Swiss race car driver and engineer\n*1935 – Gail Fisher, American actress (d. 2000)\n* 1935 – Hifikepunye Pohamba, Namibian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Namibia\n*1936 – Robert Redford, American actor, director, and producer\n*1937 – Sheila Cassidy, English physician and author\n*1939 – Maxine Brown, American soul/R&B singer-songwriter \n* 1939 – Robert Horton, English businessman (d. 2011)\n* 1939 – Johnny Preston, American pop singer (d. 2011)\n*1940 – Adam Makowicz, Polish-Canadian pianist and composer\n* 1940 – Gil Whitney, American journalist (d. 1982)\n*1943 – Martin Mull, American actor and comedian\n* 1943 – Gianni Rivera, Italian footballer and politician\n* 1943 – Carl Wayne, English singer and actor (d. 2004)\n*1944 – Paula Danziger, American author (d. 2004)\n* 1944 – Robert Hitchcock, Australian sculptor and illustrator\n*1945 – Sarah Dash, American singer-songwriter and actress\n* 1945 – Värner Lootsmann, Estonian lawyer and politician\n* 1945 – Lewis Burwell Puller, Jr., American soldier, lawyer, and author (d. 1994)\n*1948 – James Jones, English bishop\n* 1948 – John Scarlett, English intelligence officer\n*1949 – Nigel Griggs, English bass player, songwriter, and producer \n*1950 – Dennis Elliott, English drummer and sculptor \n*1952 – Elayne Boosler, American actress, director, and screenwriter\n* 1952 – Patrick Swayze, American actor and dancer (d. 2009)\n* 1952 – Ricardo Villa, Argentinian footballer and coach\n*1953 – Louie Gohmert, American captain, lawyer, and politician\n* 1953 – Marvin Isley, American R&B bass player and songwriter (d. 2010)\n*1954 – Umberto Guidoni, Italian astrophysicist, astronaut, and politician\n*1955 – Bruce Benedict, American baseball player and coach\n* 1955 – Taher Elgamal, Egyptian-American cryptographer\n* 1955 – Tan Dun, Chinese composer\n*1956 – John Debney, American composer and conductor\n* 1956 – Sandeep Patil, Indian cricketer and coach\n* 1956 – Jon Schwartz, American drummer and producer\n* 1956 – Kelly Willard, American singer-songwriter\n* 1956 – Rainer Woelki, German cardinal\n*1957 – Denis Leary, American comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1957 – Ron Strykert, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n*1958 – Didier Auriol, French race car driver\n* 1958 – Madeleine Stowe, American actress\n*1959 – Tom Prichard, American wrestler and trainer\n*1960 – Mike LaValliere, American baseball player \n* 1960 – Fat Lever, American basketball player and sportscaster\n*1961 – Huw Edwards, Welsh-English journalist and author\n* 1961 – Timothy Geithner, American banker and politician, 75th United States Secretary of the Treasury\n* 1961 – Bob Woodruff, American journalist and author\n*1962 – Felipe Calderón, Mexican lawyer and politician, 56th President of Mexico\n* 1962 – Geoff Courtnall, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n*1964 – Andi Deris, German singer and songwriter\n*1964 – Mark Sargent, Australian rugby league player\n* 1964 – Kenny Walker, American basketball player and sportscaster\n*1965 – Ikue Ōtani, Japanese voice actress\n*1966 – Gustavo Charif, Argentinian director and producer\n*1967 – Brian Michael Bendis, American author and illustrator\n*1969 – Everlast, American rapper, singer-songwriter, and guitarist \n* 1969 – Mark Kuhlmann, German rugby player and coach\n* 1969 – Edward Norton, American actor\n* 1969 – Christian Slater, American actor and producer\n*1970 – Jason Furman, American economist and politician\n* 1970 – Malcolm-Jamal Warner, American actor and producer\n*1971 – Tom Middleton, English DJ and producer \n*1972 – Victoria Coren Mitchell, English journalist and poker player\n*1974 – Nicole Krauss, American novelist and critic\n*1977 – Paraskevas Antzas, Greek footballer\n* 1977 – Even Kruse Skatrud, Norwegian trombonist, composer, and educator \n*1978 – Andy Samberg, American actor and comedian\n*1979 – Stuart Dew, Australian footballer\n*1980 – Esteban Cambiasso, Argentinian footballer\n* 1980 – Rob Nguyen, Australian race car driver\n* 1980 – Ryan O'Hara, Australian rugby league player\n* 1980 – Bart Scott, American football player\n* 1980 – Jeremy Shockey, American football player\n*1981 – César Delgado, Argentinian footballer\n* 1981 – Dimitris Salpingidis, Greek footballer\n*1983 – Cameron White, Australian cricketer\n*1984 – Sigourney Bandjar, Dutch footballer\n* 1984 – Robert Huth, German footballer\n*1985 – Inge Dekker, Dutch swimmer\n* 1985 – Bryan Ruiz, Costa Rican footballer\n*1986 – Evan Gattis, American baseball player\n* 1986 – Ross McCormack, Scottish footballer\n* 1986 – Andreas Weise, Swedish singer-songwriter\n*1987 – Joanna Jędrzejczyk, Polish mixed martial artist\n*1988 – Jack Hobbs, English footballer\n* 1988 – Eggert Jónsson, Icelandic footballer\n* 1988 – G-Dragon, South Korean rapper, singer-songwriter and record producer\n*1990 – Elliot Justham, English footballer\n*1992 – Elizabeth Beisel, American swimmer\n*1993 – Jung Eun-ji, South Korean singer-songwriter\n* 1993 – Maia Mitchell, Australian actress and singer\n*1994 – Morgan Sanson, French footballer\n*1995 – Alīna Fjodorova, Latvian figure skater\n*1997 – Renato Sanches, Portuguese footballer\n\n",
"* 353 – Decentius, Roman usurper\n* 440 – Pope Sixtus III\n* 472 – Ricimer, Roman general and politician (b. 405)\n* 670 – Fiacre, Irish hermit \n* 673 – Kim Yu-shin, general of Silla (b. 595)\n* 849 – Walafrid Strabo, German monk and theologian (b. 808)\n*1095 – King Olaf I of Denmark\n*1211 – Narapatisithu, king of Burma (b. 1150)\n*1227 – Genghis Khan, Mongolian emperor (b. 1162)\n*1258 – Theodore II Laskaris, emperor of Nicea (Byzantine emperor in exile)\n*1276 – Pope Adrian V (b. 1220)\n*1318 – Clare of Montefalco, Italian nun and saint (b. 1268)\n*1430 – Thomas de Ros, 8th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (b. 1406)\n*1500 – Alfonso of Aragon, Spanish prince (b. 1481)\n*1502 – Knut Alvsson, Norwegian nobleman and politician (b. 1455)\n*1503 – Pope Alexander VI (b. 1431)\n*1550 – Antonio Ferramolino, Italian architect and military engineer\n*1559 – Pope Paul IV (b. 1476)\n*1563 – Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and philosopher (b. 1530)\n*1600 – Sebastiano Montelupi, Italian businessman (b. 1516)\n*1613 – Giovanni Artusi, Italian composer and theorist (b. 1540)\n*1620 – Wanli Emperor of China (b. 1563)\n*1625 – Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche, English diplomat (b. 1556)\n*1634 – Urbain Grandier, French priest (b. 1590)\n*1642 – Guido Reni, Italian painter and educator (b. 1575)\n*1648 – Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1615)\n*1683 – Charles Hart, English actor (b. 1625)\n*1707 – William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Derbyshire (b. 1640)\n*1712 – Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers, English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Essex (b. 1660)\n*1765 – Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1708)\n*1809 – Matthew Boulton, English businessman and engineer, co-founded Boulton and Watt (b. 1728)\n*1815 – Chauncey Goodrich, American lawyer and politician, 8th Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut (b. 1759)\n*1842 – Louis de Freycinet, French explorer and navigator (b. 1779)\n*1850 – Honoré de Balzac, French novelist and playwright (b. 1799)\n*1886 – Eli Whitney Blake, American inventor, invented the Mortise lock (b. 1795)\n*1919 – Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company (b. 1841)\n*1940 – Walter Chrysler, American businessman, founded Chrysler (b. 1875)\n*1943 – Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Azerbaijani general (b. 1865)\n*1944 – Ernst Thälmann, German soldier and politician (b. 1886)\n*1945 – Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian activist and politician (b. 1897)\n*1949 – Paul Mares, American trumpet player and bandleader (New Orleans Rhythm Kings) (b. 1900)\n*1950 – Julien Lahaut, Belgian soldier and politician (b. 1884)\n*1952 – Alberto Hurtado, Chilean priest, lawyer, and saint (b. 1901)\n*1964 – Hildegard Trabant, Berlin Wall victim (b. 1927)\n*1968 – Arthur Marshall, American pianist and composer (b. 1881)\n*1979 – Vasantrao Naik, Indian politician (b. 1913)\n*1981 – Anita Loos, American author and screenwriter (b. 1889)\n*1983 – Nikolaus Pevsner, German-English historian and scholar (b. 1902)\n*1990 – B. F. Skinner, American psychologist and philosopher, invented the Skinner box (b. 1904)\n*1994 – Francis Raymond Shea, American bishop (b. 1913)\n*2001 – David Peakall, English chemist and toxicologist (b. 1931)\n*2002 – Dean Riesner, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1918)\n*2003 – Tony Jackson, English singer and bass player (b. 1938)\n*2004 – Elmer Bernstein, American composer and conductor (b. 1922)\n* 2004 – Hiram Fong, American soldier and politician (b. 1906)\n*2005 – Chri$ Ca$h, American wrestler (b. 1982)\n*2006 – Ken Kearney, Australian rugby player (b. 1924)\n*2007 – Michael Deaver, American soldier and politician, White House Deputy Chief of Staff (b. 1938)\n* 2007 – Magdalen Nabb, English author (b. 1947)\n*2009 – Kim Dae-jung, South Korean lieutenant and politician, 15th President of South Korea, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)\n* 2009 – Rose Friedman, Ukrainian-American economist and author (b. 1910)\n* 2009 – Robert Novak, American journalist and author (b. 1931)\n*2010 – Hal Connolly, American hammer thrower and coach (b. 1931)\n* 2010 – Benjamin Kaplan, American scholar and jurist (b. 1911)\n*2012 – Harrison Begay, American painter (b. 1917)\n* 2012 – John Kovatch, American football player (b. 1920)\n* 2012 – Scott McKenzie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1939)\n* 2012 – Ra. Ki. Rangarajan, Indian journalist and author (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – Jesse Robredo, Filipino public servant and politician, 23rd Filipino Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (b. 1958)\n*2013 – Josephine D'Angelo, American baseball player (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Jean Kahn, French lawyer and activist (b. 1929)\n* 2013 – Albert Murray, American author and critic (b. 1916)\n*2014 – Gordon Faber, American soldier and politician, 39th Mayor of Hillsboro, Oregon (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – Jim Jeffords, American captain, lawyer, and politician (b. 1934)\n* 2014 – Levente Lengyel, Hungarian chess player (b. 1933)\n* 2014 – Don Pardo, American radio and television announcer (b. 1918)\n*2015 – Khaled al-Asaad, Syrian archaeologist and author (b. 1932)\n* 2015 – Roger Smalley, English-Australian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1943)\n* 2015 – Louis Stokes, American lawyer and politician (b. 1925)\n* 2015 – Bud Yorkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n*2016 – Ernst Nolte, German historian (b. 1923)\n*2017 – Bruce Forsyth, English television presenter and entertainer (b. 1928)\n* 2017 – Zoe Laskari, Greek beauty pageant winner and actress (b. 1944) \n\n\n",
"*Christian feast day:\n**Agapitus of Palestrina\n**Alberto Hurtado\n**Daig of Inniskeen\n**Evan (or Inan)\n**Fiacre\n**Florus and Laurus\n**Helena of Constantinople (Roman Catholic Church)\n**William Porcher DuBose (Episcopal Church) \n**August 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Arbor Day (Pakistan)\n*Armed Forces Day (Macedonia)\n*Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)\n*Constitution Day (Indonesia)\n*Long Tan Day, also called Vietnam Veterans' Day (Australia)\n*National Science Day (Thailand)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 18 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"*295 BC – The first temple to Venus, the Roman goddess of love, beauty and fertility, is dedicated by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges during the Third Samnite War.\n*43 BC – Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, later known as Augustus, compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul.\n*947 – Abu Yazid, a Kharijite rebel leader, is defeated and killed in the Hodna Mountains in modern-day Algeria by Fatimid forces.\n*1153 – Baldwin III of Jerusalem takes control of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from his mother Melisende, and also captures Ascalon.\n* 1459- Pope Pius II becomes the 211th Pope.\n*1504 – In Ireland, the Hiberno-Norman de Burghs (Burkes) and Anglo-Norman Fitzgeralds fight in the Battle of Knockdoe.\n*1561 – Mary, Queen of Scots, who was 18 years old, returns to Scotland after spending 13 years in France.\n*1612 – The \"Samlesbury witches\", three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury, England, are put on trial, accused of practicing witchcraft, one of the most famous witch trials in British history.\n*1666 – Second Anglo-Dutch War: Rear Admiral Robert Holmes leads a raid on the Dutch island of Terschelling, destroying 150 merchant ships, an act later known as \"Holmes's Bonfire\".\n*1692 – Salem witch trials: In Salem, Province of Massachusetts Bay, five people, one woman and four men, including a clergyman, are executed after being convicted of witchcraft.\n*1745 – Prince Charles Edward Stuart raises his standard in Glenfinnan: The start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion, known as \"the 45\".\n* 1745 – Ottoman–Persian War: In the Battle of Kars, the Ottoman army is routed by Persian forces led by Nader Shah.\n*1759 – Battle of Lagos Naval battle during the Seven Years' War between Great Britain and France.\n*1772 – Gustav III of Sweden stages a coup d'état, in which he assumes power and enacts a new constitution that divides power between the Riksdag and the King.\n*1782 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Blue Licks: The last major engagement of the war, almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander Charles Cornwallis following the Siege of Yorktown.\n*1812 – War of 1812: American frigate defeats the British frigate off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada earning the nickname \"Old Ironsides\".\n*1813 – Gervasio Antonio de Posadas joins Argentina's Second Triumvirate.\n*1839 – The French government announces that Louis Daguerre's photographic process is a gift \"free to the world\".\n*1848 – California Gold Rush: The ''New York Herald'' breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States of the gold rush in California (although the rush started in January).\n*1854 – The First Sioux War begins when United States Army soldiers kill Lakota chief Conquering Bear and in return are massacred.\n*1861 – First ascent of Weisshorn, fifth highest summit in the Alps.\n*1862 – American Indian Wars: During an uprising in Minnesota, Lakota warriors decide not to attack heavily defended Fort Ridgely and instead turn to the settlement of New Ulm, killing white settlers along the way.\n*1909 – The first automobile race at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.\n*1919 – Afghanistan gains full independence from the United Kingdom.\n*1927 – Patriarch Sergius of Moscow proclaims the declaration of loyalty of the Russian Orthodox Church to the Soviet Union.\n*1934 – The first All-American Soap Box Derby is held in Dayton, Ohio.\n* 1934 – The German referendum of 1934 approves Hitler's appointment as head of state with the title of Führer.\n*1940 – First flight of the B-25 Mitchell medium bomber.\n*1942 – World War II: Operation Jubilee: The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division leads an amphibious assault by allied forces on Dieppe, France and fails, many Canadians are killed or captured. The operation was intended to develop and try new amphibious landing tactics for the coming full invasion in Normandy.\n*1944 – World War II: Liberation of Paris: Paris, France rises against German occupation with the help of Allied troops.\n*1945 – August Revolution: Viet Minh led by Ho Chi Minh take power in Hanoi, Vietnam.\n*1953 – Cold War: The CIA and MI6 help to overthrow the government of Mohammad Mosaddegh in Iran and reinstate the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.\n*1955 – In the Northeast United States, severe flooding caused by Hurricane Diane, claims 200 lives.\n*1960 – Cold War: In Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union, downed American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Soviet Union for espionage.\n* 1960 – Sputnik program: ''Korabl-Sputnik 2'': The Soviet Union launches the satellite with the dogs Belka and Strelka, 40 mice, two rats and a variety of plants.\n* 1964 – Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite, was launched.\n*1965 – Japanese prime minister Eisaku Satō becomes the first post-World War II sitting prime minister to visit Okinawa Prefecture.\n*1978 – In Iran, Cinema Rex fire caused more than 400 deaths.\n*1980 – Saudia Flight 163, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar burns after making an emergency landing at King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, killing 301 people.\n*1981 – Gulf of Sidra Incident: United States fighters intercept and shoot down two Libyan Sukhoi Su-22 fighter jets over the Gulf of Sidra.\n*1987 – Hungerford massacre: In the United Kingdom, Michael Ryan kills sixteen people with a semi-automatic rifle and then commits suicide.\n*1989 – Polish president Wojciech Jaruzelski nominates Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to be the first non-communist prime minister in 42 years.\n* 1989 – Several hundred East Germans cross the frontier between Hungary and Austria during the Pan-European Picnic, part of the events that began the process of the Fall of the Berlin Wall.\n*1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union, August Coup: Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev is placed under house arrest while on holiday in the town of Foros, Ukraine.\n*1999 – In Belgrade, Yugoslavia, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President Slobodan Milošević.\n*2002 – Khankala Mi-26 crash: A Russian Mil Mi-26 helicopter carrying troops is hit by a Chechen missile outside Grozny, killing 118 soldiers.\n*2003 – A car-bomb attack on United Nations headquarters in Iraq kills the agency's top envoy Sérgio Vieira de Mello and 21 other employees.\n* 2003 – A suicide attack on a bus in Jerusalem, Israel, planned by Hamas, kills 23 Israelis, seven of them children, in the Shmuel HaNavi bus bombing.\n*2005 – The first-ever joint military exercise between Russia and China, called Peace Mission 2005 begins.\n*2009 – A series of bombings in Baghdad, Iraq, kills 101 and injures 565 others.\n*2010 – Operation Iraqi Freedom ends, with the last of the United States brigade combat teams crossing the border to Kuwait.\n*2013 – The Dhamara Ghat train accident kills at least 37 people in the Indian state of Bihar.\n",
"* 232 – Marcus Aurelius Probus, Roman emperor (d. 282)\n*1342 – Catherine of Bohemia (d. 1395)\n*1398 – Íñigo López de Mendoza, 1st Marquis of Santillana, Spanish poet and politician (d. 1458)\n*1557 – Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1608)\n*1570 – Salamone Rossi, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1630)\n*1583 – Daišan, Manchu politician (d. 1648)\n*1590 – Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire (d. 1649)\n*1596 – Elizabeth Stuart, Queen of Bohemia (d. 1662)\n*1621 – Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, Dutch painter, etcher, and poet (d. 1674)\n*1631 – John Dryden, English writer (d. 1700)\n*1646 – John Flamsteed, English astronomer and academic (d. 1719)\n*1686 – Eustace Budgell, English journalist and politician (d. 1737)\n*1689 – Samuel Richardson, English author and publisher (d. 1761)\n*1711 – Edward Boscawen, English admiral and politician (d. 1761)\n*1719 – Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1791)\n*1743 – Madame du Barry, French mistress of Louis XV of France (d. 1793)\n*1777 – Francis I of the Two Sicilies (d. 1830)\n*1819 – Julius van Zuylen van Nijevelt, Luxembourger-Dutch politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1894)\n*1835 – Tom Wills, Australian cricketer and pioneer of Australian rules football (d. 1880)\n*1843 – C. I. Scofield, American minister and theologian (d. 1921)\n*1846 – Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1906)\n*1848 – Gustave Caillebotte, French painter and engineer (d. 1894)\n*1849 – Joaquim Nabuco, Brazilian politician and diplomat (d. 1910)\n*1853 – Aleksei Brusilov, Russian general (d. 1926)\n*1870 – Bernard Baruch, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1965)\n*1871 – Orville Wright, American engineer and pilot, co-founded the Wright Company (d. 1948)\n*1872 – Albert C. Campbell, American popular music singer (d. 1947)\n*1873 – Fred Stone, American actor and producer (d. 1959)\n*1878 – Manuel L. Quezon, Filipino soldier, lawyer, and politician, 2nd President of the Philippines (d. 1944)\n*1881 – George Enescu, Romanian violinist, pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1955)\n*1881 – George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd (d. 1954)\n*1883 – Coco Chanel, French fashion designer, founded the Chanel Company (d. 1971)\n* 1883 – José Mendes Cabeçadas, Portuguese admiral and politician, 9th President of Portugal (d. 1965)\n*1887 – S. Satyamurti, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1943)\n*1895 – C. Suntharalingam, Sri Lankan lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1985)\n*1899 – Colleen Moore, American actress (d. 1988)\n*1900 – Gontran de Poncins, French author and adventurer (d. 1962)\n* 1900 – Gilbert Ryle, English philosopher, author, and academic (d. 1976)\n*1902 – Ogden Nash, American poet (d. 1971)\n*1903 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (d. 1978)\n*1904 – Maurice Wilks, English engineer and businessman (d. 1963)\n*1906 – Philo Farnsworth, American inventor, invented the Fusor (d. 1971)\n*1907 – Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Indian historian, author, and scholar (d. 1979)\n* 1907 – Thruston Ballard Morton, American soldier and politician (d. 1982)\n*1909 – Ronald King, New Zealand rugby player (d. 1988)\n*1910 – Quentin Bell, English historian and author (d. 1996)\n*1911 – Anna Terruwe, Dutch psychiatrist and author (d. 2004)\n*1913 – John Argyris, Greek engineer and academic (d. 2004)\n* 1913 – Peter Kemp, Indian-English soldier and author (d. 1993)\n* 1913 – Richard Simmons, American actor (d. 2003)\n*1914 – Lajos Baróti, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2005)\n* 1914 – Fumio Hayasaka, Japanese composer (d. 1955)\n*1915 – Ring Lardner, Jr., American journalist and screenwriter (d. 2000)\n* 1915 – Alfred Rouleau, Canadian businessman (d. 1985)\n*1916 – Dennis Poore, English race car driver and businessman (d. 1987)\n*1918 – Jimmy Rowles, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1996)\n*1919 – Malcolm Forbes, American publisher and politician (d. 1990)\n*1921 – Gene Roddenberry, American screenwriter and producer (d. 1991)\n*1924 – Willard Boyle, Canadian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)\n*1925 – Claude Gauvreau, Canadian poet and playwright (d. 1971)\n*1926 – Angus Scrimm, American actor and author (d. 2016)\n*1928 – Bernard Levin, English journalist, author, and broadcaster (d. 2004)\n*1929 – Bill Foster, American basketball player and coach (d. 2016)\n* 1929 – Ion N. Petrovici, Romanian-German neurologist and academic\n*1930 – Frank McCourt, American author and educator (d. 2009)\n*1931 – Bill Shoemaker, American jockey and author (d. 2003)\n*1932 – Thomas P. Salmon, American lawyer and politician, 75th Governor of Vermont\n* 1932 – Banharn Silpa-archa, Thai politician, Prime Minister (1995–1996) (d. 2016)\n*1933 – Bettina Cirone, American model and photographer\n* 1933 – David Hopwood, English microbiologist and geneticist\n* 1933 – Debra Paget, American actress \n*1934 – David Durenberger, American soldier, lawyer, and politician\n* 1934 – Renée Richards, American tennis player and ophthalmologist\n*1935 – Bobby Richardson, American baseball player and coach\n*1936 – Richard McBrien, American priest, theologian, and academic (d. 2015)\n*1937 – Richard Ingrams, English journalist, founded ''The Oldie''\n* 1937 – William Motzing, American composer and conductor (d. 2014)\n*1938 – Diana Muldaur, American actress\n*1939 – Ginger Baker, English drummer and songwriter\n*1940 – Roger Cook, English songwriter, singer, and producer\n* 1940 – Johnny Nash, American singer-songwriter\n* 1940 – Jill St. John, American model and actress\n*1941 – Mihalis Papagiannakis, Greek educator and politician (d. 2009)\n*1942 – Fred Thompson, American actor, lawyer, and politician (d. 2015)\n*1943 – Don Fardon, English pop singer\n* 1943 – Sid Going, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1943 – Billy J. Kramer, English pop singer\n*1944 – Jack Canfield, American author\n* 1944 – Bodil Malmsten, Swedish author and poet\n* 1944 – Eddy Raven, American country music singer-songwriter\n* 1944 – Charles Wang, Chinese-American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Computer Associates International\n*1945 – Dennis Eichhorn, American author and illustrator (d. 2015)\n* 1945 – Charles Wellesley, 9th Duke of Wellington, English politician\n* 1945 – Ian Gillan, English singer-songwriter (Deep Purple and Black Sabbath)\n*1946 – Charles Bolden, American general and astronaut\n* 1946 – Bill Clinton, American lawyer and politician, 42nd President of the United States\n* 1946 – Dawn Steel, American film producer (d. 1997)\n*1947 – Dave Dutton, English actor and screenwriter\n* 1947 – Terry Hoeppner, American football player and coach (d. 2007)\n* 1947 – Gerard Schwarz, American conductor and director\n* 1947 – Anuška Ferligoj, Slovenian mathematician\n*1948 – Robert Hughes, Australian actor\n* 1948 – Elliot Lurie, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1948 – Gerald McRaney, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1948 – Christy O'Connor Jnr, Irish golfer and architect (d. 2016)\n*1949 – Michael Nazir-Ali, Pakistani-English bishop\n*1950 – Graeme Beard, Australian cricketer\n* 1950 – Jennie Bond, English journalist and author\n*1951 – John Deacon, English bass player and songwriter \n* 1951 – Gustavo Santaolalla, Argentinian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n*1952 – Jonathan Frakes, American actor and director\n*1953 – Mary Matalin, American political consultant\n*1954 – Oscar Larrauri, Argentinian race car driver\n*1955 – Mary-Anne Fahey, Australian actress\n* 1955 – Peter Gallagher, American actor\n* 1955 – Patricia Scotland, Baroness Scotland of Asthal, Dominica-born English lawyer and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales\n* 1955 – Ned Yost, American baseball player and manager\n*1956 – Adam Arkin, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1956 – José Rubén Zamora, Guatemalan journalist\n*1957 – Paul-Jan Bakker, Dutch cricketer\n* 1957 – Gary Chapman, American contemporary Christian music singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1957 – Martin Donovan, American actor and director\n* 1957 – Ian Gould, English cricketer and umpire\n* 1957 – Christine Soetewey, Belgian high jumper\n* 1957 – Gerda Verburg, Dutch trade union leader and politician, Dutch Minister of Agriculture\n*1958 – Gary Gaetti, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n* 1958 – Anthony Muñoz, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1958 – Brendan Nelson, Australian physician and politician, 47th Minister for Defence for Australia\n* 1958 – Rick Snyder, American politician and businessman, 48th Governor of Michigan\n* 1958 – Darryl Sutter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n*1959 – Ricky Pierce, American basketball player\n*1960 – Morten Andersen, Danish-American football player\n* 1960 – Ron Darling, American baseball player and sportscaster\n*1961 – Jonathan Coe, English author and academic\n*1963 – John Stamos, American actor\n* 1963 – Joey Tempest, Swedish rock singer-songwriter and musician (Europe)\n*1965 – Kevin Dillon, American actor\n* 1965 – Kyra Sedgwick, American actress and producer\n*1966 – Lee Ann Womack, American singer-songwriter\n* 1967 – Khandro Rinpoche, Indian spiritual leader\n*1969 – Nate Dogg, American rapper (d. 2011)\n* 1969 – Matthew Perry, American actor, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1969 – Kazuyoshi Tatsunami, Japanese baseball player and coach\n* 1969 – Clay Walker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*1970 – Jeff Tam, American baseball player\n*1971 – Mary Joe Fernández, Dominican-American tennis player and coach\n* 1971 – João Vieira Pinto, Portuguese footballer\n*1972 – Roberto Abbondanzieri, Argentinian footballer and manager\n* 1972 – Chihiro Yonekura, Japanese singer-songwriter\n*1973 – Carl Bulfin, New Zealand cricketer\n* 1973 – Marco Materazzi, Italian footballer and manager\n*1974 – Anja Knippel, German runner\n* 1974 – Andy Neate, English racing driver \n*1975 – Chynna Clugston, American illustrator\n*1976 – Régine Chassagne, Canadian singer-songwriter \n* 1976 – Stephan Schmidt, German footballer and manager\n*1977 – Iban Mayo, Spanish cyclist\n*1978 – Chris Capuano, American baseball player\n*1978 – Qais Al Khonji, Omani entrepreneur\n*1979 – Dave Douglas, American singer-songwriter and drummer \n* 1979 – Oumar Kondé, Swiss footballer\n*1980 – Darius Campbell, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n* 1980 – Jun Jin, South Korean singer \n* 1980 – Paul Parry, Welsh footballer\n* 1980 – Michael Todd, American bass player \n*1981 – Nick Kennedy, English rugby player\n* 1981 – Percy Watson, American football player and wrestler\n*1982 – J. J. Hardy, American baseball player\n* 1982 – Kevin Rans, Belgian pole vaulter\n*1983 – Mike Conway, English race car driver\n* 1983 – Missy Higgins, Australian singer-songwriter\n* 1983 – John McCargo, American football player\n*1984 – Simon Bird, English actor and screenwriter\n* 1984 – Alessandro Matri, Italian footballer\n* 1984 – Ryan Taylor, English footballer\n*1985 – David A. Gregory, American actor\n* 1985 – Gavin Cooper, Australian rugby league player\n* 1985 – Lindsey Jacobellis, American snowboarder\n*1986 – Sotiris Balafas, Greek footballer\n* 1986 – Saori Kimura, Japanese volleyball player\n*1987 – Nick Driebergen, Dutch swimmer\n* 1987 – Nico Hülkenberg, German race car driver\n* 1987 – Anaïs Lameche, French-Swedish singer \n* 1987 – Richard Stearman, English footballer\n*1988 – Hoodie Allen, American rapper\n* 1988 – Kirk Cousins, American football player\n* 1988 – Veronica Roth, American author\n* 1989 – Romeo Miller, American basketball player, rapper, actor\n*1990 – Danny Galbraith, Scottish footballer\n*1994 – Guadalupe Pérez Rojas, Argentinian tennis player\n* 1994 – Nafissatou Thiam, Belgian pentathlete\n*1995 – Dylan Phythian, Australian rugby league player\n*1996 – Hsu Ching-wen, Taiwanese tennis player\n\n",
"* AD 14 – Augustus, Roman emperor (b. 63 BC)\n* 780 – Credan, English abbot and saint\n* 911 – Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya, Arab religious and political leader (b. 859)\n* 947 – Abu Yazid, Kharijite rebel leader (b. 873)\n* 998 – Fujiwara no Sukemasa, Japanese noble, statesman and calligrapher (b. 944)\n*1072 – Hawise, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1037)\n*1085 – Al-Juwayni , Muslim scholar and imam (b. 1028)\n*1186 – Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1158)\n*1245 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence (b. 1195)\n*1284 – Alphonso, Earl of Chester (b. 1273)\n*1297 – Louis of Toulouse, French bishop and saint (b. 1274)\n*1457 – Andrea del Castagno, Italian painter (b. 1421)\n*1470 – Richard Olivier de Longueil, French cardinal (b. 1406)\n*1493 – Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1415)\n*1506 – King Alexander Jagiellon of Poland (b. 1461)\n*1580 – Andrea Palladio, Italian architect, designed the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore and Il Redentore (b. 1508)\n*1646 – Alexander Henderson, Scottish theologian and academic (b. 1583)\n*1654 – Yom-Tov Lipmann Heller, Bohemian rabbi (b. 1579)\n*1662 – Blaise Pascal, French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. 1623)\n*1680 – Jean Eudes, French priest, founded the Congregation of Jesus and Mary (b. 1601)\n*1691 – Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha, Ottoman commander and politician, 117th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1637)\n*1702 – Anthony Grey, 11th Earl of Kent, English politician (b. 1645)\n*1753 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German engineer and architect, designed Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers (b. 1687)\n*1808 – Fredrik Henrik af Chapman, Swedish admiral and shipbuilder (b. 1721)\n*1822 – Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre, French mathematician and astronomer (b. 1749)\n*1883 – Jeremiah S. Black, American lawyer and politician, 24th United States Attorney General (b. 1810)\n*1889 – Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam, French author, poet, and playwright (b. 1838)\n*1900 – Jean-Baptiste Accolay, Belgian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1833)\n*1914 – Franz Xavier Wernz, German religious leader, 25th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1844)\n*1915 – Tevfik Fikret, Turkish poet and educator (b. 1867)\n*1923 – Vilfredo Pareto, Italian sociologist and economist (b. 1845)\n*1928 – Stephanos Skouloudis, Greek banker and diplomat, 97th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1838)\n*1929 – Sergei Diaghilev, Russian critic and producer, founded Ballets Russes (b. 1872)\n*1932 – Louis Anquetin, French painter (b. 1861)\n*1936 – Federico García Lorca, Spanish poet, playwright, and director (b. 1898)\n*1942 – Harald Kaarmann, Estonian footballer (b. 1901)\n*1945 – Tomás Burgos, Chilean philanthropist (b. 1875)\n*1950 – Giovanni Giorgi, Italian physicist and engineer (b. 1871)\n*1954 – Alcide De Gasperi, Italian journalist and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1881)\n*1957 – David Bomberg, English soldier and painter (b. 1890)\n*1967 – Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born American author and publisher (b. 1884)\n* 1967 – Isaac Deutscher, Polish-English journalist and historian (b. 1907)\n*1968 – George Gamow, Ukrainian-American physicist and cosmologist (b. 1904)\n*1970 – Paweł Jasienica, Polish soldier and historian (b. 1909)\n*1975 – Mark Donohue, American race car driver and engineer (b. 1937)\n*1976 – Alastair Sim, Scottish-English actor (b. 1900)\n* 1976 – Ken Wadsworth, New Zealand cricketer (b. 1946)\n*1977 – Aleksander Kreek, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (b. 1914)\n* 1977 – Groucho Marx, American comedian and actor (b. 1890)\n*1980 – Otto Frank, German-Swiss businessman, father of Anne Frank (b. 1889)\n*1981 – Jessie Matthews, English actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1907)\n*1982 – August Neo, Estonian wrestler (b. 1908)\n*1986 – Hermione Baddeley, English actress (b. 1906)\n*1993 – Utpal Dutt, Bangladeshi actor, director, and playwright (b. 1929)\n*1994 – Linus Pauling, American chemist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)\n*1995 – Pierre Schaeffer, French composer and musicologist (b. 1910)\n*2000 – Bineshwar Brahma, Indian poet, author, and educator (b. 1948)\n* 2000 – Theodore Trautwein, American lawyer and judge (b. 1920)\n*2001 – Donald Woods, South African journalist and activist (b. 1933)\n*2003 – Carlos Roberto Reina, Honduran lawyer and politician, President of Honduras (b. 1926)\n* 2003 – Sérgio Vieira de Mello, Brazilian diplomat (b. 1948)\n*2005 – Mo Mowlam, English academic and politician, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1949)\n*2008 – Levy Mwanawasa, Zambian lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Zambia (b. 1948)\n*2009 – Don Hewitt, American television producer, created ''60 Minutes'' (b. 1922)\n*2011 – Raúl Ruiz, Chilean director and producer (b. 1941)\n*2012 – Donal Henahan, American journalist and critic (b. 1921)\n* 2012 – Ivar Iversen, Norwegian canoe racer (b. 1914)\n* 2012 – Tony Scott, English-American director and producer (b. 1944)\n* 2012 – Edmund Skellings, American poet and academic (b. 1932)\n*2013 – Musa'id bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Saudi Arabian prince (b. 1923)\n* 2013 – Russell S. Doughten, American director and producer (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – Abdul Rahim Hatif, Afghan politician, 8th President of Afghanistan (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Donna Hightower, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926)\n*2014 – Samih al-Qasim, Palestinian poet and journalist (b. 1939)\n* 2014 – Simin Behbahani, Iranian poet and activist (b. 1927)\n* 2014 – James Foley, American photographer and journalist (b. 1973)\n* 2014 – Candida Lycett Green, Anglo-Irish journalist and author (b. 1942)\n*2015 – George Houser, American minister and activist (b. 1916)\n* 2015 – Sanat Mehta, Indian activist and politician (b. 1935)\n*2016 – Jack Riley, American actor and voice artist (b. 1935)\n\n",
"*Afghan Independence Day, commemorates the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919, granting independence from Britain (Afghanistan)\n*August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)\n*Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)\n*Christian Feast Day:\n**Bernardo Tolomei\n**Ezequiél Moreno y Díaz\n**Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:\n***Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)\n***Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the \"Apples Feast\" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)\n**Jean-Eudes de Mézeray\n**Louis of Toulouse\n**Magnus of Anagni\n**Magnus of Avignon\n**Sebaldus\n**August 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n*Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in the Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon)\n*National Aviation Day (United States)\n*World Humanitarian Day\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 19 |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 959 - Eraclus becomes the 25th bishop of Liège.\n*1140 – Song dynasty general Yue Fei defeats an army led by Jin dynasty general Wuzhu at the Battle of Yancheng during the Jin–Song Wars.\n*1192 – Minamoto no Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the ''de facto'' ruler of Japan. (Traditional Japanese date: July 12, 1192)\n*1331 – King Stefan Uroš III, after months of anarchy, surrenders to his son and rival Stefan Dušan, who succeeds as King of Serbia.\n*1415 – Henry the Navigator leads Portuguese forces to victory over the Marinids at the Battle of Ceuta.\n*1680 – Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from the Spanish during the Pueblo Revolt.\n*1689 – The Battle of Dunkeld in Scotland.\n*1770 – James Cook formally claims eastern Australia for Great Britain, naming it New South Wales.\n*1772 – King Gustav III completes his coup d'état by adopting a new Constitution, ending half a century of parliamentary rule in Sweden and installing himself as an enlightened despot.\n*1778 – American Revolutionary War: British forces begin besieging the French outpost at Pondichéry.\n*1791 – A Vodou ceremony, led by Dutty Boukman, turns into a violent slave rebellion, beginning the Haitian Revolution.\n*1808 – Battle of Vimeiro: British and Portuguese forces led by General Arthur Wellesley defeat French force under Major-General Jean-Andoche Junot near the village of Vimeiro, Portugal, the first Anglo-Portuguese victory of the Peninsular War.\n*1810 – Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France, is elected Crown Prince of Sweden by the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates.\n*1821 – Jarvis Island is discovered by the crew of the ship, ''Eliza Frances''.\n*1831 – Nat Turner leads black slaves and free blacks in a rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia, which will claim the lives of 55 to 65 whites.\n*1852 – Tlingit Indians destroy Fort Selkirk, Yukon Territory.\n*1863 – Lawrence, Kansas is destroyed by pro-Confederate guerrillas known as Quantrill's Raiders.\n*1883 – An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic.\n*1888 – The first successful adding machine in the United States is patented by William Seward Burroughs.\n*1897 – Oldsmobile, a brand of American automobiles, is founded.\n*1901 – Six hundred American school teachers, Thomasites, arrived in Manila on the USAT Thomas.\n*1911 – The ''Mona Lisa'' is stolen by Vincenzo Perugia, a Louvre employee.\n*1914 – World War I: The Battle of Charleroi, a successful German attack across the River Sambre that pre-empted a French offensive in the same area.\n*1918 – World War I: The Second Battle of the Somme begins.\n*1942 – World War II: The flag of Nazi Germany is planted atop Mount Elbrus, the highest peak of the Caucasus mountain range.\n* 1942 – World War II: The Guadalcanal Campaign: American forces defeat an attack by Imperial Japanese Army soldiers in the Battle of the Tenaru.\n*1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conference, prelude to the United Nations, begins.\n* 1944 – World War II: Canadian and Polish units capture the strategically important town of Falaise, Calvados, France.\n*1945 – Physicist Harry Daghlian is fatally irradiated in a criticality accident during an experiment with the Demon core at Los Alamos National Laboratory.\n*1957 – The Soviet Union successfully conducts a long-range test flight of the R-7 Semyorka, the first intercontinental ballistic missile.\n*1959 – United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs an executive order proclaiming Hawaii the 50th state of the union. Hawaii's admission is currently commemorated by Hawaii Admission Day\n*1961 – American country music singer Patsy Cline returns to record producer Owen Bradley's studio in Nashville, Tennessee to record her vocals to Willie Nelson's \"Crazy\", which would become her signature song.\n* 1961 – Motown releases what would be its first #1 hit, \"Please Mr. Postman\" by The Marvelettes.\n*1963 – Xá Lợi Pagoda raids: The Army of the Republic of Vietnam Special Forces loyal to Ngô Đình Nhu, brother of President Ngo Dinh Diem, vandalizes Buddhist pagodas across the country, arresting thousands and leaving an estimated hundreds dead.\n*1968 – Nicolae Ceaușescu, leader of Communist Romania, publicly condemns the Soviet led Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals.\n* 1968 – James Anderson, Jr. posthumously receives the first Medal of Honor to be awarded to an African American U.S. Marine.\n*1971 – A bomb exploded in the Liberal Party campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, Manila, Philippines with several anti-Marcos political candidates injured.\n*1982 – Lebanese Civil War: The first troops of a multinational force lands in Beirut to oversee the Palestine Liberation Organization's withdrawal from Lebanon.\n*1983 – Philippine opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. is assassinated at the Manila International Airport (now renamed ''Ninoy Aquino International Airport'' in his honor).\n*1986 – Carbon dioxide gas erupts from volcanic Lake Nyos in Cameroon, killing up to 1,800 people within a 20-kilometer range.\n*1988 – The 6.9 Nepal earthquake shakes the Nepal–India border with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe''), leaving 709–1,450 people killed and thousands injured.\n*1991 – Latvia declares renewal of its full independence after the occupation of Soviet Union.\n* 1991 – Coup attempt against Mikhail Gorbachev collapses.\n*1993 – NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft.\n*2000 - Tiger Woods, American professional golfer, wins the 82nd PGA Championship and becomes the first golfer since Ben Hogan in 1953 to win 3 majors in a calendar year.\n*2013 – Hundreds of people are reported killed by chemical attacks in the Ghouta region of Syria.\n*2017 – An eclipse traverses the continental United States.\n",
"*1165 – Philip II of France (d. 1223)\n*1481 – Jorge de Lencastre, Duke of Coimbra (d. 1550)\n*1535 – Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese general (d. 1619)\n*1552 – Muhammad Qadiri, Founder of the Naushahia branch of the Qadri order (d. 1654)\n*1567 – Francis de Sales, Swiss bishop and saint (d. 1622)\n*1579 – Henri, Duke of Rohan (d. 1638)\n*1597 – Roger Twysden, English historian and politician (d. 1672)\n*1625 – John Claypole, English politician (d. 1688)\n*1643 – Afonso VI of Portugal (d. 1683)\n*1660 – Hubert Gautier, French mathematician and engineer (d. 1737)\n*1665 – Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer and mathematician (d. 1729)\n*1670 – James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire (d. 1734)\n*1725 – Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter and educator (d. 1805)\n*1754 – William Murdoch, Scottish engineer and inventor, created gas lighting (d. 1839)\n* 1754 – Banastre Tarleton, English general and politician (d. 1833)\n*1765 – William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837)\n*1789 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, French mathematician and academic (d. 1857)\n*1798 – Jules Michelet, French historian and philosopher (d. 1874)\n*1800 – Hiram Walden, American general and politician (d. 1880)\n*1801 – Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Dutch historian and politician (d. 1876)\n*1813 – Jean Stas, Belgian chemist and physician (d. 1891)\n*1816 – Charles Frédéric Gerhardt, French chemist and academic (d. 1856)\n*1823 – Nathaniel Everett Green, English painter and astronomer (d. 1899)\n*1826 – Karl Gegenbaur, German anatomist and academic (d. 1903)\n*1840 – Ferdinand Hamer, Dutch bishop and missionary (d. 1900)\n*1862 – Emilio Salgari, Italian journalist and author (d. 1911)\n*1869 – William Henry Ogilvie, Scottish-Australian poet and author (d. 1963)\n*1872 – Aubrey Beardsley, English author and illustrator (d. 1898)\n*1878 – Richard Girulatis, German footballer and manager (d. 1963)\n*1879 – Claude Grahame-White, English pilot and engineer (d. 1959)\n*1884 – Chandler Egan, American golfer and architect (d. 1936)\n*1885 – Édouard Fabre, Canadian runner (d. 1939)\n*1886 – Ruth Manning-Sanders, Welsh-English author and poet (d. 1988)\n*1887 – James Paul Moody, English sailor (d. 1912)\n*1891 – Emiliano Mercado del Toro, Puerto Rican-American soldier (d. 2007)\n*1892 – Charles Vanel, French actor and director (d. 1989)\n*1894 – Christian Schad, German painter (d. 1982)\n*1897 – Keith Arbuthnott, 15th Viscount of Arbuthnott, Scottish soldier and peer (d. 1966)\n*1902 – Angel Karaliychev, Bulgarian author (d. 1972)\n*1903 – Kostas Giannidis, Greek pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1984)\n*1904 – Count Basie, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1984)\n*1905 – Bipin Gupta, Indian actor and producer (d. 1981)\n*1906 – Friz Freleng, American animator, director, and producer (d. 1995)\n*1907 – P. Jeevanandham, Indian lawyer and politician (d. 1963)\n*1909 – Nikolay Bogolyubov, Russian mathematician and physicist (d. 1992)\n*1912 – Toe Blake, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 1995)\n*1914 – Doug Wright, English cricketer and coach (d. 1998)\n*1916 – Bill Lee, American actor and singer (d. 1980)\n* 1916 – Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican pianist and songwriter (d. 2005)\n*1917 – Leonid Hurwicz, Russian economist and mathematician (d. 2008)\n*1918 – Billy Reay, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2004)\n*1921 – Reuven Feuerstein, Romanian-Israeli psychologist and academic (d. 2014)\n*1922 – Albert Irvin, English soldier and painter (d. 2015)\n*1923 – Keith Allen, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2014)\n*1924 – Jack Buck, American sportscaster (d. 2002)\n* 1924 – Jack Weston, American actor (d. 1996)\n*1926 – Can Yücel, Turkish poet and translator (d. 1999)\n*1927 – Thomas S. Monson, American religious leader, 16th President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints\n*1928 – Addison Farmer, American bassist (d. 1963)\n* 1928 – Art Farmer, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1999)\n* 1928 – Bud McFadin, American football player (d. 2006)\n*1929 – Herman Badillo, Puerto Rican-American lawyer and politician (d. 2014)\n* 1929 – X. J. Kennedy, American poet, translator, anthologist, editor\n*1930 – Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (d. 2002)\n* 1930 – Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1995)\n*1932 – Menashe Kadishman, Israeli sculptor and painter (d. 2015)\n* 1932 – Melvin Van Peebles, American actor, director, and screenwriter\n*1933 – Janet Baker, English soprano and educator\n* 1933 – Michael Dacher, German mountaineer (d. 1994)\n* 1933 – Barry Norman, English author and critic (d. 2017)\n* 1933 – Erik Paaske, Danish actor and singer (d. 1992)\n*1934 – Sudhakarrao Naik, Indian lawyer and politician, 13th Chief Minister of Maharashtra (d. 2001)\n* 1934 – Paul Panhuysen, Dutch composer (d. 2015)\n*1936 – Wilt Chamberlain, American basketball player and coach (d. 1999)\n* 1936 – Radish Tordia, Georgian painter and educator\n*1937 – Donald Dewar, Scottish lawyer and politician, 1st First Minister of Scotland (d. 2000)\n* 1937 – Gustavo Noboa, Ecuadorian academic and politician, 51st President of Ecuador\n* 1937 – Robert Stone, American novelist and short story writer (d. 2015)\n*1938 – Kenny Rogers, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor \n* 1938 – Mike Weston, English rugby player\n*1939 – James Burton, American Hall of Fame guitarist \n* 1939 – Festus Mogae, Botswana economist and politician, 3rd President of Botswana\n* 1939 – Clarence Williams III, American actor\n*1940 – Dominick Harrod, English journalist, historian, and author (d. 2013)\n* 1940 – Endre Szemerédi, Hungarian-American mathematician and computer scientist\n*1943 – Patrick Demarchelier, French photographer\n* 1943 – Jonathan Schell, American journalist and author (d. 2014)\n* 1943 – Lucius Shepard, American author and critic (d. 2014)\n* 1943 – Hugh Wilson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1944 – Perry Christie, Bahamian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of the Bahamas\n* 1944 – Jackie DeShannon, American singer-songwriter\n* 1944 – Peter Weir, Australian director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1945 – Celia Brayfield, English journalist and author\n* 1945 – Jerry DaVanon, American baseball player\n* 1945 – Willie Lanier, American football player\n* 1945 – Patty McCormack, American actress \n*1947 – Carl Giammarese, American singer-songwriter and musician (The Buckinghams) \n*1949 – Loretta Devine, American actress and singer\n* 1949 – Daniel Sivan, Israeli scholar and academic\n*1950 – Patrick Juvet, Swiss singer-songwriter and model\n*1951 – Eric Goles, Chilean mathematician and computer scientist\n* 1951 – Chesley V. Morton, American businessman and politician\n*1952 – Keith Hart, Canadian firefighter, wrestler, and trainer\n* 1952 – Glenn Hughes, English singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer \n* 1952 – Jiří Paroubek, Czech soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Czech Republic\n* 1952 – Bernadette Porter, English nun and educator \n* 1952 – Joe Strummer, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)\n*1953 – Ivan Stang, American author, publisher, and director\n*1954 – Archie Griffin, American football player\n* 1954 – Steve Smith, American drummer (Journey)\n* 1954 – Mark Williams, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter\n*1956 – Kim Cattrall, English-Canadian actress \n* 1956 – Jon Tester, American farmer and politician\n*1957 – Frank Pastore, American baseball player and radio host (d. 2012)\n*1958 – Mark Williams, Australian footballer and coach\n*1959 – Anne Hobbs, English tennis player and coach\n* 1959 – Jim McMahon, American football player and coach\n*1961 – Gerardo Barbero, Argentinian chess player and coach (d. 2001)\n* 1961 – V. B. Chandrasekhar, Indian cricketer and coach\n* 1961 – Stephen Hillenburg, American marine biologist, cartoonist, and animator\n*1962 – John Korfas, Greek-American basketball player and coach\n*1963 – Mohammed VI of Morocco, King of Morocco\n* 1963 – Nigel Pearson, English footballer and manager\n*1964 – Gary Elkerton, Australian surfer\n*1965 – Jim Bullinger, American baseball player\n*1966 – John Wetteland, American baseball player and coach\n*1967 – Darren Bewick, Australian footballer\n* 1967 – Charb, French journalist and cartoonist (d. 2015)\n* 1967 – Carrie-Anne Moss, Canadian actress\n* 1967 – Serj Tankian, Lebanese-born Armenian-American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and record producer \n*1968 – Dina Carroll, English singer-songwriter\n* 1968 – Goran Ćurko, Serbian footballer\n* 1968 – Laura Trevelyan, English journalist and author\n*1969 – Bruce Anstey, New Zealand motorcycle racer\n* 1969 – Josée Chouinard, Canadian figure skater\n*1970 – Craig Counsell, American baseball player and coach\n* 1970 – Erik Dekker, Dutch cyclist and manager\n* 1970 – Cathy Weseluck, Canadian actress\n*1971 – Mamadou Diallo, Senegalese footballer\n* 1971 – Robert Harvey, Australian footballer and coach\n* 1971 – Liam Howlett, English keyboard player, DJ, and producer \n*1973 – Sergey Brin, Russian-American computer scientist and businessman, co-founded Google\n* 1973 – Steve McKenna, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n*1974 – Martin Andanar, Filipino journalist and radio host\n* 1974 – Paul Mellor, Australian rugby league player and referee\n*1975 – Simon Katich, Australian cricketer and manager\n*1976 – Alex Brooks, American ice hockey player and scout\n* 1976 – Jeff Cunningham, Jamaican-American soccer player\n* 1976 – Robert Miles, Australian rugby league player\n* 1976 – Ramón Vázquez, Puerto Rican-American baseball player and coach\n*1978 – Peter Buxton, English rugby player and manager\n* 1978 – Reuben Droughns, American football player and coach\n* 1978 – Lee Gronkiewicz, American baseball player and coach\n* 1978 – Alan Lee, Irish footballer and coach\n* 1978 – Jason Marquis, American baseball player\n*1979 – Kelis, American singer-songwriter, producer, chef and author\n*1980 – Burney Lamar, American race car driver\n* 1980 – Paul Menard, American race car driver\n* 1980 – Jasmin Wöhr, German tennis player\n*1981 – Jarrod Lyle, Australian golfer\n* 1981 – Cameron Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU\n* 1981 – Tyler Winklevoss, American rower and businessman, co-founded ConnectU\n*1982 – Jason Eaton, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1982 – Omar Sachedina, Canadian television journalist, correspondent, and news anchor\n*1983 – Scott McDonald, Australian footballer\n*1984 – Neil Dexter, South African cricketer\n* 1984 – Melvin Upton, Jr., American baseball player\n*1985 – Nicolás Almagro, Spanish tennis player\n* 1985 – Aleksandra Kiryashova, Russian pole vaulter\n*1986 – Usain Bolt, Jamaican sprinter\n* 1986 – Wout Brama, Dutch footballer\n* 1986 – Koki Sakamoto, Japanese gymnast\n*1988 – Robert Lewandowski, Polish footballer\n* 1988 – Kacey Musgraves, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*1989 – Charlison Benschop, Dutch footballer\n* 1989 – James Davey, English rugby league player\n* 1989 – Matteo Gentili, Italian footballer\n* 1989 – Hayden Panettiere, American actress\n* 1989 – Aleix Vidal, Spanish footballer\n*1991 – Leandro Bacuna, Dutch footballer\n\n",
"* 672 – Emperor Kōbun of Japan (b. 648)\n* 784 – Alberic, archbishop of Utrecht\n* 913 – Tang Daoxi, Chinese general \n*1131 – King Baldwin II of Jerusalem\n*1148 – William II, Count of Nevers (b. c. 1089)\n*1157 – Alfonso VII of León and Castile (b. 1105)\n*1245 – Alexander of Hales, English theologian\n*1271 – Alphonse, Count of Poitiers (b. 1220)\n*1534 – Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, 44th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1464)\n*1568 – Jean Parisot de Valette, 49th Grandmaster of the Knights Hospitaller (b. 1495)\n*1614 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian countess and serial killer (b. 1560)\n*1622 – Juan de Tassis, 2nd Count of Villamediana, Spanish poet and politician (b. 1582)\n*1627 – Jacques Mauduit, French composer and academic (b. 1557)\n*1673 – Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, English soldier (b. 1599)\n*1689 – William Cleland, Scottish poet and soldier (b. 1661)\n*1762 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English author, poet, and playwright (b. 1689)\n*1763 – Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1710)\n*1775 – Zahir al-Umar, Arabian ruler (b. 1690)\n*1796 – John McKinly, American physician and politician, 1st Governor of Delaware (b. 1721)\n*1814 – Benjamin Thompson, American-English physicist and colonel (b. 1753)\n*1835 – John MacCulloch, Scottish geologist and academic (b. 1773)\n*1836 – Claude-Louis Navier, French physicist and engineer (b. 1785)\n*1838 – Adelbert von Chamisso, German botanist and poet (b. 1781)\n*1853 – Charles Tristan, marquis de Montholon, French general (b. 1783)\n*1854 – Thomas Clayton, American lawyer and politician (b. 1777)\n*1870 – Ma Xinyi, Chinese general and politician, Viceroy of Liangjiang (b. 1821)\n*1888 – James Farnell, Australian politician, 8th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1825)\n*1905 – Alexander von Oettingen, Estonian theologian and statistician (b. 1827)\n*1910 – Bertalan Székely, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1835)\n*1919 – Laurence Doherty, English tennis player (b. 1875)\n*1935 – John Hartley, English tennis player (b. 1849)\n*1940 – Hermann Obrecht, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1882)\n* 1940 – Ernest Thayer, American poet and author (b. 1863)\n* 1940 – Leon Trotsky, Russian theorist and politician, founded the Red Army (b. 1879)\n*1943 – Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1857)\n*1947 – Ettore Bugatti, Italian-French engineer and businessman, founded Bugatti (b. 1881)\n*1951 – Constant Lambert, English composer and conductor (b. 1905)\n*1957 – Mait Metsanurk, Estonian author and playwright (b. 1879)\n* 1957 – Nels Stewart, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1902)\n* 1957 – Harald Sverdrup, Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. 1888)\n*1960 – David B. Steinman, American engineer, designed the Mackinac Bridge (b. 1886)\n*1964 – Palmiro Togliatti, Italian journalist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1893)\n*1971 – George Jackson, American activist and author, co-founded the Black Guerrilla Family (b. 1941)\n*1974 – Buford Pusser, American police officer (b. 1937)\n*1978 – Charles Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1907)\n*1979 – Giuseppe Meazza, Italian footballer and manager (b. 1910)\n*1983 – Benigno Aquino, Jr., Filipino journalist and politician (b. 1932)\n*1988 – Teodoro de Villa Diaz, Filipino guitarist and songwriter (b. 1963)\n* 1988 – Ray Eames, American architect, co-designed the Eames House (b. 1912)\n*1989 – Raul Seixas, Brazilian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1945)\n*1993 – Tatiana Troyanos, American soprano and actress (b. 1938)\n*1995 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-American astrophysicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)\n* 1995 – Chuck Stevenson, American racing driver (b. 1919)\n*2000 – Tomata du Plenty, American singer-songwriter and playwright (b. 1948)\n* 2000 – Daniel Lisulo, Zambian politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Zambia (b. 1930)\n* 2000 – Andrzej Zawada, Polish mountaineer and author (b. 1928)\n*2001 – Calum MacKay, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1927)\n*2003 – John Coplans, British artist (b. 1920)\n* 2003 – Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher and academic (b. 1946)\n*2004 – Sachidananda Routray, Indian Oriya-language poet (b. 1916)\n*2005 – Martin Dillon, American tenor and educator (b. 1957)\n* 2005 – Robert Moog, American businessman, founded Moog Music (b. 1934)\n* 2005 – Dahlia Ravikovitch, Israeli poet and translator (b. 1936)\n* 2005 – Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer (b. 1925)\n*2006 – Paul Fentener van Vlissingen, Dutch businessman and philanthropist (b. 1941)\n*2007 – Siobhan Dowd, British author (b. 1960)\n* 2007 – Elizabeth P. Hoisington, American general (b. 1918)\n*2008 – Jerry Finn, American engineer and producer (b. 1969)\n*2009 – Rex Shelley, Singaporean engineer and author (b. 1930)\n*2010 – Rodolfo Enrique Fogwill, Argentinean sociologist and author (b. 1941)\n*2012 – Georg Leber, German soldier and politician, Federal Minister of Defence for Germany (b. 1920)\n* 2012 – J. Frank Raley Jr., American soldier and politician (b. 1926)\n* 2012 – Don Raleigh, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1926)\n* 2012 – Guy Spitaels, Belgian academic and politician, 7th Minister-President of Wallonia (b. 1931)\n* 2012 – William Thurston, American mathematician and academic (b. 1946)\n*2013 – Jean Berkey, American lawyer and politician (b. 1938)\n* 2013 – Sid Bernstein, American record producer (b. 1918)\n* 2013 – C. Gordon Fullerton, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – Fred Martin, Scottish footballer (b. 1929)\n* 2013 – Enos Nkala, Zimbabwean politician, Zimbabwean Minister of Defence (b. 1932)\n*2014 – Gerry Anderson, Irish radio and television host (b. 1944)\n* 2014 – Helen Bamber, English psychotherapist and academic (b. 1925)\n* 2014 – Steven R. Nagel, American colonel, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1946)\n* 2014 – Jean Redpath, Scottish singer-songwriter (b. 1937)\n* 2014 – Albert Reynolds, Irish businessman and politician, 9th Taoiseach of Ireland (b. 1932)\n*2015 – Colin Beyer, New Zealand lawyer and businessman (b. 1938)\n* 2015 – Wang Dongxing, Chinese commander and politician (b. 1916)\n* 2015 – Jimmy Evert, American tennis player and coach (b. 1924)\n* 2017 – Bajram Rexhepi, First Kosovan Prime Ministers of UN mission administration in Kosovo . (b. 1954)\n\n",
"* Christian Feast Day:\n** Abraham of Smolensk (Eastern Orthodox Church)\n** Euprepius of Verona\n** Maximilian of Antioch\n** Our Lady of Knock\n** Pope Pius X\n** Sidonius Apollinaris\n** August 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)\n* Youth Day (Morocco)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 21 |
[
"\n\n\n'''The Dodo''' is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' by Lewis Carroll (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). The Dodo is a caricature of the author. A popular but unsubstantiated belief is that Dodgson chose the particular animal to represent himself because of his stammer, and thus would accidentally introduce himself as \"Do-do-dodgson\". Historically, the Dodo was a non-flying bird that lived on the island of Mauritius in the Indian Ocean. It faced extinction after the colonisation of the island by the Dutch.\n",
"Depiction by Arthur Rackham, 1907 \nIn this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to the original boating expedition of 4 July 1862 during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as herself, and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Dodgson, and the Duck was Rev. Robinson Duckworth. In order to get dry after a swim, the Dodo proposes that everyone run a Caucus race — where the participants run in patterns of any shape, starting and leaving off whenever they like, so that everyone wins. At the end of the race, Alice distributes comfits from her pocket to all as prizes. However this leaves no prize for herself. The Dodo inquires what else she has in her pocket. As she has only a thimble, the Dodo requests it from her and then awards it to Alice as her prize. The Caucus Race as depicted by Carroll is a satire on the political caucus system, mocking its lack of clarity and decisiveness.\n",
"\n===Disney animated film version===\n\n\nIn the Disney film, the Dodo plays a much greater role in the story. He is merged with the character of Pat the Gardener, which leads to him sometimes being nicknamed Pat the Dodo, but this name is never mentioned in the film. The Dodo is also the leader of the caucus race, a role originally held by the Mouse. He has the appearance and personality of a sea captain. The Dodo is voiced by Bill Thompson and animated by Milt Kahl.\n\nDodo is first seen as Alice is floating on the sea in a bottle. Dodo is seen singing, but when Alice asks him for help, he does not notice her. On shore, Dodo is seen on a rock, organizing a caucus race. This race involves running around until one gets dry, but the attempts are hampered by incoming waves.\nDodo is later summoned by the White Rabbit, when the rabbit believes a monster, actually Alice having magically grown to a giant size, is inside his home. Dodo brings Bill the Lizard, and attempts to get him to go down the chimney. Bill refuses at first, but Dodo is able to convince him otherwise. However, the soot causes Alice to sneeze, sending Bill high up into the sky. Dodo then decides to burn the house down, much to the chagrin of the White Rabbit. He begins gathering wood, such as the furniture, for this purpose. However, Alice is soon able to return to a smaller size and exit the house.\n\nThe White Rabbit soon leaves, while Dodo asks for matches, not realizing that the situation has been resolved. He then asks Alice for a match, but when she doesn't have any, Dodo complains about the lack of cooperation and uses his pipe to light the fire.\n\nThe Dodo later appears briefly at the end of the film, conducting another Caucus Race.\n\n\n===Tim Burton's ''Alice in Wonderland'' version===\n\n\nIn Tim Burton's adaptation of Alice in Wonderland, the Dodo's appearance retains the subtle apparent nature from John Tenniel's illustration. He bears a down of brilliant blue and wears a blue coat and white spats along with glasses and a cane. He is one of Alice's good-willed advisers, taking first note of her abilities as the true Alice. He is also one of the oldest inhabitants. His name is '''Uilleam''', and he is portrayed by Michael Gough. He goes with the White Rabbit, Tweedledee and Tweedledum, and Dormouse to take Alice to Caterpillar to decide whether Alice is the real one. He is later captured by the Red Queen's forces. When Alice came to the Red Queen's castle, he was seen at the Red Queen's castle yard as a caddy for the Queen's croquet game. After the Red Queen orders the release of the Jubjub bird, he is then seen briefly running from it when the Tweedles went to hide from it and escaped.\n\nHis name may be based on a lecture on William the Conqueror from Chapter Three of the original novel. The character is voiced by Michael Gough in his final feature film role before his death in 2011. Gough came out of retirement to appear in the film but the character only speaks three lines, so Gough managed to record in one day. Unlike most of the other creatures, Uilleam doesn’t appear in the end battle scene.\n",
"In the anime and manga series ''Pandora Hearts'' Dodo is the chain of Rufus Barma one of the four dukedoms.\n\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''",
"Interpretations",
"Pandora Hearts",
"References"
] | Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland) |
[
"\nA '''Lory''' is any of a number of small to medium-sized species of arboreal parrots\n'''Lory''' may also refer to:\n\n*Lory (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland), a parrot character in ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' by Lewis Carroll\n*Lory Lake, a lake in Minnesota\n*Lory State Park, near Fort Collins, Colorado, United States\n\n'''People with the surname'''\n* Al De Lory (1930–2012), an American record producer, arranger, conductor and session musician\n* Donna De Lory (born 1964), an American singer, dancer and songwriter\n* Milo B. Lory (1903–1974), an American sound editor\n",
"*\n*Lorry (disambiguation)\n*Lori (disambiguation)\n*Loris (disambiguation)\n*Loris, strepsirrhine primates\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"See also"
] | Lory (disambiguation) |
[
"'''Albert''' may refer to:\n* Albert (surname), a family name (and people with that name)\n* Albert (given name)\n* Albertet, an Occitan diminutive of Alber\n\n",
"* Albert (suspiria), a minor character in Dario Argento's 1977 film ''Suspiria''\n* Albert (Discworld), a character in Terry Pratchett's ''Discworld'' series\n* Albert, supporting character in ''Josie'' (later ''Josie and the Pussycats'' (comics))\n* Albert Hinkey, a character in the film ''Cars''\n* Albert Ramsbottom, subject of a number of humorous monologues by Stanley Holloway\n* ''Albert the Fifth Musketeer''\n",
"* Albert (electoral district), a federal electoral district in New Brunswick, Canada from 1867 to 1903\n* Albert (1846-1973 electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick, Canada from 1846 to 1973\n* Albert (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district in New Brunswick, Canada\n* Albert County, New Brunswick\n* Albert (Belize House constituency), a Belize City-based electoral constituency\n* Albert, Kansas\n* Albert, Somme a French Commune, site of three battles during the First World War\n** Battle of Albert (1914)\n** Battle of Albert (1916)\n** Battle of Albert (1918)\n* Albert, Texas, a ghost town\n* Albert, New South Wales, a town in Australia\n* Rural Municipality of Albert, Manitoba, Canada\n* Albert County, New Brunswick \n* Albert Township, Michigan\n* Electoral district of Albert, Queensland, Australia\n",
":''Not to be confused with Albertsons, grocery store chain in the U.S.''\n* Albert Heijn, the largest supermarket chain in the Netherlands\n* Albert (supermarket), a supermarket chain in the Czech Republic owned by Ahold Czech Republic\n* Albert Market, a street market in The Gambia\n",
"* 719 Albert, Amor asteroid\n* Albert E. Gator, the costumed male mascot of the University of Florida Gators athletics teams\n* Albert Productions, a record label\n* Albert (automobile), an early 1920s British automobile\n* The chain on a pocket watch, with a bar at one end.\n* Albert (short story), a short story by Leo Tolstoy\n* Congregation Albert, a Reform synagogue in Albuquerque, New Mexico.\n",
"* \n* Adalbert (given name)\n* Alberta, Canada\n* Alberte\n* Albertet\n* Alberta (disambiguation) for other uses\n* Albertina (disambiguation)\n* Albret\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Fictional characters",
"Geography",
"Store chains",
"Other",
" See also "
] | Albert |
[
"'''Albert I''' may refer to:\n\n*Albert I of Belgium (1875–1934), King of the Belgians\n*Albert I of Brandenburg (c. 1100–1170), first Margrave of Brandenburg\n*Albert I, Count of Namur (c. 950–1011), a Belgian count\n*Albert I, Count of Vermandois (917–987), Count of Vermandois\n*Albert I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (1236–1279) second Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg\n*Albert I, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (d. 1316)\n*Albert I, Duke of Bavaria (1336-1404), Duke of Bavaria-Straubing, Count of Holland, Hainault and Zealand;\n*Albert I, Duke of Prussia (1490–1568), first Duke of Prussia\n*Albert I of Germany (1255–1308), King of Germany and Archduke of Austria\n*Albert I of Käfernburg (died 1232), Archbishop of Magdeburg\n*Albert I, Prince of Monaco (1848–1922)\n*Albert I Kalonji Ditunga (born 1919 or 1929)\n*Albert I (monkey), see monkeys and apes in space, the first monkey in outer space (1948)\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Albert I |
[
"'''Albert II''' may refer to:\n\n* Albert II, Margrave of Meissen (1240–1314), Margrave of Meissen\n* Albert II of Austria (1298–1358), Duke of Austria\n* Albert II, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (d. 1362)\n* Albert II, Duke of Mecklenburg (1318–1379), Duke of Mecklenburg\n* Albert II, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing (1368–1397), Duke of Bavaria-Straubing\n* Albert II of Germany (1397–1439), King of Germany, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia, Duke of Austria\n* Albert II of Belgium (born 1934), King of the Belgians\n* Albert II, Prince of Monaco (born 1958), ruler of the principality of Monaco\n* Albert II, Prince of Thurn and Taxis (born 1983), Prince of Thurn und Taxis, German prince\n* Albert II, second monkey in space, died on impact following V2 flight June 14, 1949.\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Albert II |
[
"'''Albert III''' may refer to:\n\n*Albert III, Count of Namur (1048–1102)\n*Albert III, Count of Habsburg (...-1199)\n*Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg-Salzwedel (c. 1250–1300)\n*Albert III, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst (d. 1359)\n*Albert III of Austria (1349–1395)\n*Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg (1375/1380–1422)\n*Albert III, Duke of Bavaria (1438–1460)\n*Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg (1414–1486)\n*Albert, Duke of Saxony (1443–1500), sometimes called \"Albert III\"\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction"
] | Albert III |
[
"\n\n'''Albert II''' (; 28 March 15228 January 1557) was the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (Brandenburg-Bayreuth) from 1527 to 1553.\nHe was a member of the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern.\nBecause of his bellicose nature, Albert during his lifetime was given the cognomen ''Bellator'' (\"the Warlike\"). \nPosthumously, he became known as ''Alcibiades''.\n",
"Albert was born in Ansbach and, having lost his father Casimir in 1527, he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, a strong adherent of Protestantism.\nIn 1541, he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, but, as the chief town of his principality was Kulmbach, he is sometimes referred to as the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.\nHis restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected a small band of soldiers, he assisted Emperor Charles V in his war with France in 1543.\n\nThe Peace of Crépy in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the Schmalkaldic League, he took pains to win Albert's assistance.\n\nSharing in the attack on the Electorate of Saxony, Albert was taken prisoner at Rochlitz in March 1547 by Elector John Frederick of Saxony, but was released as a result of the Emperor's victory at the Battle of Mühlberg in the succeeding April.\n\nHe then followed the fortunes of his friend Elector Maurice of Saxony, deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the Emperor by an alliance with King Henry II of France.\n\nHe took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the Peace of Passau was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in Franconia, which led to the Second Margrave War.\n\nHaving extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of Nuremberg, he quarrelled with his supporter, the French King, and offered his services to the Emperor.\nCharles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of Würzburg and Bamberg; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the Emperor on the retreat from the Siege of Metz in January 1553.\n\nWhen Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia. These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade.\nThe rival forces met at Sievershausen on 9 July 1553, and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight. Henry, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France.\nHe there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain his lands when he died at Pforzheim on 8 January 1557.\n\nHe is defined by Thomas Carlyle as \"a failure of a Fritz,\" with \"features\" of a Frederick the Great in him, \"but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent\". He had early two children: Frederick and Anna. He was to be buried Heilsbronn Münster.\n",
"\n\n\n\n",
"\n",
"* Endnote: See J. Voigt, ''Markgraf Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach'' (Berlin, 1852).\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biography",
"Ancestors",
"Notes",
"References"
] | Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Albert the Bear''' (; ; 1100 – 18 November 1170) was the first Margrave of Brandenburg (as Albert I) from 1157 to his death and was briefly Duke of Saxony between 1138 and 1142.\n",
"Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony. He inherited the valuable estates in northern Saxony of his father in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia against the upstart, Soběslav I, Duke of Bohemia in 1126 at the Battle of Kulm, where he suffered a short imprisonment.\n\nAlbert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, Margrave of the Nordmark, who controlled a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo V, Count of Stade, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. Udo, however, was said to have been assassinated by servants of Albert on 15 March 1130 near Aschersleben. In spite of this, he went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler.\n\nThe seal of Albert the Bear.\n\nIn 1138 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern march by a combined force of Henry and Jaxa of Köpenick, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany. When peace was made with Henry in 1142, Albert renounced the Saxon duchy and received the counties of Weimar and Orlamünde. It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Archchamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a prince-elector.\n\nOnce he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. For three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part. Albert was a part of the army that besieged Demmin. And at the end of the war, recovered Havelberg, which had been lost since 983. Diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title \"Margrave in Brandenburg\", he pressed the \"crusade\" against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320.\n\nIn 1158 a feud with Henry's son, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. On his return in 1160, he, with the consent of his sons; Siegfried not being mentioned, donated land to the Knights of Saint John in memory of his wife, Sofia, at Werben at the Elbe. In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan.\n\nIn 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 13 November 1170, possibly in Stendal, and was buried at Ballenstedt.\n",
"Foundation of the memorial to Albert at Spandau Citadel.\nAlbert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of ''the Bear,'' \"not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since,\" says Carlyle, who called Albert \"a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man.\" He is also called by later writers \"the Handsome.\"\n",
"Albert was married in 1124 to Sophie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children:\n# Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg (1126/1128–7 March 1184)\n# Count Hermann I of Orlamünde (died 1176)\n# Siegfried (died 24 October 1184), Bishop of Brandenburg from 1173–1180, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, the first ranked prince, from 1180–1184\n# Heinrich (died 1185), a canon in Magdeburg\n# Count Albert of Ballenstedt (died after 6 December 1172)\n# Count Dietrich of Werben (died after 5 September 1183)\n# Count Bernhard of Anhalt (1134–9 February 1212), Duke of Saxony from 1180-1212 as Bernard III\n# Hedwig (d. 1203), married to Otto II, Margrave of Meissen\n# Daughter, married c. 1152 to Vladislav of Bohemia\n# Adelheid (died 1162), a nun in Lamspringe\n# Gertrude, married in 1155 to Duke Diepold of Moravia\n# Sybille (died c. 1170), Abbess of Quedlinburg\n# Eilika\n",
"\n\n\n",
";Citations\n\n;Primary sources\n\n*Chronica Slavorum\n\n;Bibliography\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n",
"\n* Thomas Carlyle, ''History of Friedrich ii'' Chapter iv: Albert the Bear\n*The History Files: Rulers of Brandenburg\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Life",
"Cognomen",
"Family and children",
"Ancestry",
"References",
"External links"
] | Albert the Bear |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Albert of Prussia''' (German: '''Albrecht von Preussen''', 17 May 149020 March 1568) was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, who after converting to Lutheranism, became the first ruler of the Duchy of Prussia, the secularized state that emerged from the former Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights. Albert was the first European ruler to establish Lutheranism, and thus Protestantism, as the official state religion of his lands. He proved instrumental in the political spread of Protestantism in its early stage, ruling the Prussian lands for nearly six decades (1510–1568).\n\nA member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern, Albert became Grand Master, where his skill in political administration and leadership ultimately succeeded in reversing the decline of the Teutonic Order. But Albert, who was sympathetic to the demands of Martin Luther, rebelled against the Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire by converting the Teutonic state into a Protestant and hereditary realm, the Duchy of Prussia, for which he paid homage to his uncle, the King of Poland, Sigismund I. That arrangement was confirmed by the Treaty of Kraków in 1525. Albert pledged a personal oath to the King and in return was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs.\n\nAlbert's rule in Prussia was fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the confiscation of the lands and treasures of the Catholic Church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and provide for the expenses of the newly established Prussian court. He was active in imperial politics, joining the League of Torgau in 1526, and acted in unison with the Protestants in plotting to overthrow Emperor Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. Albert established schools in every town and founded Königsberg University in 1544. He promoted culture and arts, patronising the works of Erasmus Reinhold and Caspar Hennenberger. During the final years of his rule, Albert was forced to raise taxes instead of further confiscating now-depleted church lands, causing peasant rebellion. The intrigues of the court favourites Johann Funck and Paul Skalić also led to various religious and political disputes. Albert spent his final years virtually deprived of power and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568. His son, Albert Frederick, succeeded him as Duke of Prussia.\n\nAlbert's dissolution of the Teutonic State caused the founding of the Duchy of Prussia, paving the way for the rise of the House of Hohenzollern. He is therefore often seen as the father of the Prussian nation, and even as indirectly responsible for the unification of Germany.\n",
"Albert was born in Ansbach in Franconia as the third son of Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. His mother was Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, and his wife Elisabeth of Austria. He was raised for a career in the Church and spent some time at the court of Hermann IV of Hesse, Elector of Cologne, who appointed him canon of the Cologne Cathedral.\nNot only was he quite religious; he was also interested in mathematics and science and sometimes is claimed to have contradicted the teachings of the Church in favour of scientific theories. His career was forwarded by the Church, however, and institutions of the Catholic clerics supported his early advancement.\n\nTurning to a more active life, Albert accompanied Emperor Maximilian I to Italy in 1508 and after his return spent some time in the Kingdom of Hungary.\n",
"As Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Statue by Rudolf Siemering\nDuke Frederick of Saxony, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, died in December 1510. Albert was chosen as his successor early in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle, Sigismund I the Old, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over eastern Prussia, which had been held by the order under Polish suzerainty since the Second Peace of Thorn (1466).\n\nThe new Grand Master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland. As war over the order's existence appeared inevitable, Albert made strenuous efforts to secure allies and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a war which began in December 1519 and devastated Prussia. Albert was granted a four-year truce early in 1521.\n\nThe dispute was referred to Emperor Charles V and other princes, but as no settlement was reached Albert continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the Reformer Andreas Osiander, by whose influence Albert was won over to Protestantism.\n\nThe Grand Master then journeyed to Wittenberg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to abandon the rules of his order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured Pope Adrian VI that he was anxious to reform the order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, Margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle, Sigismund I the Old of Poland.\n",
"Prussian Homage'': Albert and his brothers receive the Duchy of Prussia as a fief from Polish King Sigismund I the Old, 1525. Painting by Matejko, 1882.\nAfter some delay Sigismund assented to the offer, with the provision that Prussia should be treated as a Polish fiefdom; and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at Kraków, Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on 10 February 1525.\n\nThe Estates of the land then met at Königsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the order elected a new Grand Master, Walter von Cronberg, who received Prussia as a fief at the imperial Diet of Augsburg. As the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the German Peasants' War, and the wars against the Ottoman Turks, they did not enforce the ban on the duke, and agitation against him soon died away.\n\nIn imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the League of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded and plotted together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period.\nOne Groschen coin, 1534, ''Iustus ex fide vivit — The Just lives on Faith''\n\nThe early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded Königsberg University, where he appointed his friend Andreas Osiander to a professorship in 1549. Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical \"Prutenic Tables\" compiled by Erasmus Reinhold and the first maps of Prussia by Caspar Hennenberger.\n\nOsiander's appointment was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Philip Melanchthon, who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular.\n\nAfter Osiander's death in 1552, Albert favoured a preacher named Johann Funck, who, with an adventurer named Paul Skalić, exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a regent, as his only son, Albert Frederick was still a mere youth. The duke was forced to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the Estates appealed to King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland, Albert's cousin, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Skalić saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted and declared binding on all teachers and preachers.\nPortrait of Pavao Skalić, an encyclopedist, Renaissance humanist and adventurer from Croatia, who strongly influenced the Duke in the closing years of his reign\n\nVirtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two more years, and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568 of the plague, along with his wife. Cornelis Floris de Vriendt designed his tomb within Königsberg Cathedral.\n\nAlbert was a voluminous letter writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time.\n",
"\nTomb of Albert by Cornelis Floris de Vriendt in Königsberg Cathedral\n\"Albertus\" with sword from the Silberbibliothek\nAlthough Albert has received relatively little recognition in German history, his dissolution of the Teutonic State caused the founding of the Duchy of Prussia, which would eventually become arguably the most powerful German state and instrumental in uniting the whole of Germany. Albert is therefore often seen as the father of the Prussian nation, and even as indirectly responsible for the unification of Germany. He was a skilled political administrator and leader, and effectively reversed the decline of the Teutonic Order, until he betrayed it by transforming the order's lands into his own duchy, secularizing it in the process.\n\nAlbert was the first German noble to support Luther's ideas and in 1544 founded the University of Königsberg, the Albertina, as a rival to the Roman Catholic Cracow Academy. It was the second Lutheran university in the German states, after the University of Marburg.\n\nA relief of Albert over the Renaissance-era portal of Königsberg Castle's southern wing was created by Andreas Hess in 1551 according to plans by Christoph Römer. Another relief by an unknown artist was included in the wall of the Albertina's original campus. This depiction, which showed the duke with his sword over his shoulder, was the popular \"Albertus\", the symbol of the university. The original was moved to Königsberg Public Library to protect it from the elements, while the sculptor Paul Kimritz created a duplicate for the wall. Another version of the \"Albertus\" by Lothar Sauer was included at the entrance of the Königsberg State and Royal Library.\n\nIn 1880 Friedrich Reusch created a sandstone bust of Albert at the Regierungsgebäude, the administrative building for Regierungsbezirk Königsberg. On 19 May 1891 Reusch premiered a famous statue of Albert at Königsberg Castle with the inscription: \"Albert of Brandenburg, Last Grand Master, First Duke in Prussia\". Albert Wolff also designed an equestrian statue of Albert located at the new campus of the Albertina. King's Gate contains a statue of Albert.\n\nAlbert was oft-honored in the quarter Maraunenhof in northern Königsberg. Its main street was named Herzog-Albrecht-Allee in 1906. Its town square, König-Ottokar-Platz, was renamed Herzog-Albrecht-Platz in 1934 to match its church, the Herzog-Albrecht-Gedächtniskirche.\n",
"Dorothea of Denmark, Duchess of Prussia by Cornelis Floris de Vriendt\nAlbert married first, to Princess Dorothea (1 August 150411 April 1547), daughter of King Frederick I of Denmark, in 1526. They had six children:\n\n*Anna Sophia (11 June 15276 February 1591), married John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. \n*Katharina (b. and d. 24 February 1528).\n*Frederick Albert (5 December 15291 January 1530).\n*Lucia Dorothea (8 April 15311 February 1532).\n*Lucia (3 February 1537May 1539).\n*Albert (b. and d. March 1539).\n\nHe married secondly to Anna Maria (1532–20 March 1568), daughter of Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, in 1550. The couple had two children:\n\n*Elisabeth (20 May 155119 February 1596).\n*Albert Frederick (29 April 155318 August 1618), Duke of Prussia.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n",
"*\n*\n",
"\n* \n* William Urban on the situation in Prussia\n* K. P. Faber: Briefe Luthers an Herzog Albrecht (1811) letters of Martin Luther to Albrecht \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Grand Master",
"Duke in Prussia",
"Legacy",
"Spouse and issue",
"Ancestors",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Albert, Duke of Prussia |
[
"\n\n\n\n\n",
"* 357 – Battle of Strasbourg: Julian, ''Caesar'' (deputy emperor) and supreme commander of the Roman army in Gaul, wins an important victory against the Alemanni at Strasbourg (Argentoratum).\n* 766 – Emperor Constantine V humiliates nineteen high-ranking officials, after discovering a plot against him. He executes the leaders, Constantine Podopagouros and his brother Strategios.\n*1248 – The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III, the Archbishop of Utrecht.\n*1258 – Regent George Mouzalon and his brothers are killed during a coup headed by the aristocratic faction under, paving the way for its leader, Michael VIII Palaiologos, to ultimately usurp the throne of the Empire of Nicaea.\n*1270 – King Louis IX of France dies in Tunis while on the Eighth Crusade.\n*1537 – The Honourable Artillery Company, the oldest surviving regiment in the British Army, and the second most senior, is formed.\n*1543 – António Mota and a few companions become the first Europeans to visit Japan. \n*1580 – Battle of Alcântara. Spain defeats Portugal.\n*1609 – Galileo Galilei demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers.\n*1630 – Portuguese forces are defeated by the Kingdom of Kandy at the Battle of Randeniwela in Sri Lanka.\n*1758 – Seven Years' War: Frederick II of Prussia defeats the Russian army at the Battle of Zorndorf.\n*1814 – War of 1812: On the second day of the Burning of Washington, British troops torch the Library of Congress, United States Treasury, Department of War, and other public buildings.\n* 1823 – American fur trapper Hugh Glass is mauled by a grizzly bear while on an expedition in South Dakota.\n*1825 – Uruguay declares its independence from Brazil.\n*1830 – The Belgian Revolution begins.\n*1835 – The first Great Moon Hoax article is published in The New York Sun, announcing the discovery of life and civilization on the Moon.\n*1875 – Captain Matthew Webb became the first person to swim across the English Channel, traveling from Dover, England, to Calais, France, in 22 hours.\n*1883 – France and Viet Nam sign the Treaty of Huế, recognizing a French protectorate over Annam and Tonkin. \n*1894 – Kitasato Shibasaburō discovers the infectious agent of the bubonic plague and publishes his findings in ''The Lancet''.\n*1898 – Seven hundred Greek civilians, 17 British guards and the British Consul of Crete are killed by a Turkish mob in Heraklion, Greece.\n*1914 – World War I: The library of the Catholic University of Leuven is deliberately destroyed by the German Army. Hundreds of thousands of irreplaceable volumes and Gothic and Renaissance manuscripts are lost.\n*1916 – The United States National Park Service is created.\n*1920 – Polish–Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw, which began on August 13, ends with the Red Army's defeat.\n*1933 – The Diexi earthquake strikes Mao County, Sichuan, China and kills 9,000 people.\n*1939 – The United Kingdom and Poland form a military alliance in which the UK promises to defend Poland in case of invasion by a foreign power.\n*1940 – World War II: The first Bombing of Berlin by the British Royal Air Force.\n*1942 – World War II: Second day of the Battle of the Eastern Solomons; a Japanese naval transport convoy headed towards Guadalcanal is turned back by an Allied air attack.\n*1944 – World War II: Paris is liberated by the Allies.\n*1945 – Ten days after World War II ends with Japan announcing its surrender, armed supporters of the Chinese Communist Party kill U.S. intelligence officer John Birch, regarded by some of the American right as the first victim of the Cold War.\n*1948 – The House Un-American Activities Committee holds first-ever televised congressional hearing: \"Confrontation Day\" between Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss.\n*1950 – President Harry Truman orders the U.S. Army to seize control of the nation's railroads to avert a strike.\n*1961 – President Jânio Quadros of Brazil resigns after just seven months in power, initiating a political crisis that culminates in a military coup in 1964.\n*1967 – George Lincoln Rockwell, founder of the American Nazi Party, is assassinated by a former member of his group.\n*1980 – Zimbabwe joins the United Nations.\n*1981 – Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Saturn.\n*1989 – Voyager 2 spacecraft makes its closest approach to Neptune, the second to last planet in the Solar System at the time.\n*1991 – Belarus gains its independence from the Soviet Union.\n* 1991 – The Battle of Vukovar begins. An 87-day siege of Vukovar by the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), supported by various Serb paramilitary forces, between August and November 1991 (during the Croatian War of Independence).\n* 1991 – Linus Torvalds announces the first version of what will become Linux.\n*1997 – Egon Krenz, the former East German leader, is convicted of a shoot-to-kill policy at the Berlin Wall.\n*2001 – American singer Aaliyah and several members of her record company are killed as their overloaded aircraft crashes shortly after takeoff from Marsh Harbour Airport, Bahamas.\n*2006 – Former Prime Minister of Ukraine Pavlo Lazarenko is sentenced to nine years imprisonment for money laundering, wire fraud, and extortion.\n*2012 – Voyager 1 spacecraft enters interstellar space becoming the first man-made object to do so.\n*2017 – Hurricane Harvey makes landfall in Texas as a powerful Category 4 hurricane, the strongest hurricane to make landfall in the United States since 2004. The storm causes catastrophic flooding throughout much of eastern Texas, killing 82 people and causing $70–200 billion in damage.\n",
"*1467 – Francisco Fernández de la Cueva, 2nd Duke of Alburquerque, Spanish duke (d. 1526)\n*1491 – Innocenzo Cybo, Catholic cardinal (d. 1550)\n*1509 – Ippolito II d'Este, Italian cardinal and statesman (d. 1572)\n*1530 – Ivan the Terrible, Russian ruler (d. 1584)\n*1540 – Lady Catherine Grey, English noblewoman (d. 1568)\n*1561 – Philippe van Lansberge, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (d. 1632)\n*1605 – Philipp Moritz, Count of Hanau-Münzenberg, German noble (d. 1638)\n*1624 – François de la Chaise, French priest (d. 1709)\n*1662 – John Leverett the Younger, American lawyer, academic, and politician (d. 1724)\n*1707 – Louis I of Spain (d. 1724)\n*1719 – Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo, French painter (d. 1795)\n*1724 – George Stubbs, English painter and academic (d. 1806)\n*1741 – Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and author (d. 1792)\n*1744 – Johann Gottfried Herder, German poet, philosopher, and critic (d. 1803)\n*1758 – Franz Teyber, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1810)\n*1767 – Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, French soldier and politician (d. 1794)\n*1776 – Thomas Bladen Capel, English admiral (d. 1853)\n*1786 – Ludwig I of Bavaria (d. 1868)\n*1796 – James Lick, American carpenter and piano builder (d. 1876)\n*1802 – Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (d. 1850)\n*1803 – Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias (d. 1880)\n*1812 – Nikolay Zinin, Russian organic chemist (d. 1880)\n*1817 – Marie-Eugénie de Jésus, French nun and saint, founded the Religious of the Assumption (d. 1898)\n*1819 – Allan Pinkerton, Scottish-American detective and spy (d. 1884)\n*1829 – Carlo Acton, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1909)\n*1836 – Bret Harte, American short story writer and poet (d. 1902)\n*1840 – George C. Magoun, American businessman (d. 1893)\n*1841 – Emil Theodor Kocher, Swiss physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1917)\n*1845 – Ludwig II of Bavaria (d. 1886)\n*1850 – Charles Richet, French physiologist and occultist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1935)\n*1867 – James W. Gerard, American lawyer and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Germany (d. 1951)\n*1869 – Tom Kiely, British-Irish decathlete (d. 1951)\n*1877 – Joshua Lionel Cowen, American businessman, co-founded the Lionel Corporation (d. 1965)\n*1878 – Ted Birnie, English footballer and manager (d. 1935)\n*1882 – Seán T. O'Kelly, Irish journalist and politician, 2nd President of Ireland (d. 1966)\n*1889 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1969)\n*1891 – David Shimoni, Belarusian-Israeli poet and translator (d. 1956)\n*1893 – Henry Trendley Dean, American dentist (d. 1962)\n*1898 – Helmut Hasse, German mathematician and academic (d. 1975)\n* 1898 – Arthur Wood, English cricketer (d. 1973)\n*1899 – Paul Herman Buck, American historian and author (d. 1978)\n*1900 – Hans Adolf Krebs, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)\n*1902 – Stefan Wolpe, German-American composer and educator (d. 1972)\n*1903 – Arpad Elo, Hungarian-American chess player, created the Elo rating system (d. 1992)\n*1905 – Faustina Kowalska, Polish nun and saint (d. 1938)\n*1906 – Jim Smith, English cricketer (d. 1979)\n*1909 – Ruby Keeler, Canadian-American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 1993)\n* 1909 – Michael Rennie, English actor and producer (d. 1971)\n*1910 – George Cisar, American baseball player (d. 2010)\n* 1910 – Dorothea Tanning, American painter, sculptor, and poet (d. 2012)\n*1911 – Võ Nguyên Giáp, Vietnamese general and politician, 3rd Minister of Defence for Vietnam (d. 2013)\n*1912 – Erich Honecker, German soldier and politician (d. 1994)\n*1913 – Don DeFore, American actor (d. 1993)\n* 1913 – Walt Kelly, American illustrator and animator (d. 1973)\n*1916 – Van Johnson, American actor (d. 2008)\n* 1916 – Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2003)\n* 1916 – Saburō Sakai, Japanese lieutenant and pilot (d. 2000)\n*1917 – Mel Ferrer, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008)\n*1918 – Leonard Bernstein, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1990)\n* 1918 – Richard Greene, English actor (d. 1985)\n*1919 – William P. Foster, American bandleader and educator (d. 2010)\n* 1919 – George Wallace, American sergeant, lawyer, and politician, 45th Governor of Alabama (d. 1998)\n* 1919 – Jaap Rijks, Dutch Olympic medalist (d. 2017)\n*1921 – Monty Hall, Canadian-American television personality and game show host (d. 2017)\n* 1921 – Bryce Mackasey, Canadian businessman and politician, 20th Canadian Minister of Labour (d. 1999)\n* 1921 – Brian Moore, Northern Irish-Canadian author and screenwriter (d. 1999)\n*1923 – Álvaro Mutis, Colombian-Mexican author and poet (d. 2013)\n* 1923 – Allyre Sirois, Canadian lawyer and judge (d. 2012)\n*1924 – Zsuzsa Körmöczy, Hungarian tennis player and coach (d. 2006)\n*1925 – Thea Astley, Australian journalist and author (d. 2004)\n* 1925 – Stepas Butautas, Lithuanian basketball player and coach (d. 2001)\n*1927 – Althea Gibson, American tennis player and golfer (d. 2003)\n* 1927 – Des Renford, Australian swimmer (d. 1999)\n*1928 – John \"Kayo\" Dottley, American football player\n* 1928 – Darrell Johnson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 2004)\n* 1928 – Karl Korte, American composer and academic\n* 1928 – Herbert Kroemer, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n*1930 – Sean Connery, Scottish actor and producer\n* 1930 – György Enyedi, Hungarian economist and geographer (d. 2012)\n* 1930 – Graham Jarvis, Canadian actor (d. 2003)\n* 1930 – Crispin Tickell, English academic and diplomat, British Permanent Representative to the United Nations\n*1931 – Regis Philbin, American actor and television host\n*1933 – Patrick F. McManus, American journalist and author\n* 1933 – Wayne Shorter, American saxophonist and composer \n* 1933 – Tom Skerritt, American actor \n*1934 – Lise Bacon, Canadian judge and politician, Deputy Premier of Quebec\n* 1934 – Eddie Ilarde, Filipino journalist and politician\n*1935 – Charles Wright, American poet \n*1936 – Giridharilal Kedia, Indian businessman, founded the Image Institute of Technology & Management (d. 2009)\n*1937 – Jimmy Hannan, Australian television host and singer\n* 1937 – Virginia Euwer Wolff, American author\n*1938 – David Canary, American actor (d. 2015)\n* 1938 – Frederick Forsyth, English journalist and author\n*1939 – John Badham, English-American actor, director, and producer\n*1940 – Wilhelm von Homburg, German boxer and actor (d. 2004)\n*1941 – Marshall Brickman, Brazilian-American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1941 – Mario Corso, Italian footballer and coach\n* 1941 – Ludwig Müller, German footballer\n*1942 – Nathan Deal, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 82nd Governor of Georgia\n*1944 – Conrad Black, Canadian historian and author\n* 1944 – Jacques Demers, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and politician\n* 1944 – Anthony Heald, American actor\n* 1944 – Andrew Longmore, British lawyer and judge\n*1945 – Daniel Hulet, Belgian cartoonist (d. 2011)\n* 1945 – Hannah Louise Shearer, American screenwriter and producer\n*1946 – Rollie Fingers, American baseball player\n* 1946 – Charles Ghigna, American poet and author\n* 1946 – Charlie Sanders, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2015)\n*1947 – Michael Kaluta, American author and illustrator\n* 1947 – Keith Tippett, British jazz pianist and composer\n*1948 – Ledward Kaapana, American singer and guitarist\n* 1948 – Nicholas A. Peppas, Greek chemist and biologist\n*1949 – Martin Amis, British novelist\n* 1949 – Rijkman Groenink, Dutch banker and academic\n* 1949 – John Savage, American actor and producer\n* 1949 – Gene Simmons, Israeli-American singer-songwriter, producer, and actor \n*1950 – Willy DeVille, American singer and songwriter (d. 2009)\n* 1950 – Charles Fambrough, American bassist, composer, and producer (d. 2011)\n*1951 – Rob Halford, English heavy metal singer-songwriter (Judas Priest)\n* 1951 – Bill Handel, Brazilian-American lawyer and radio host\n*1952 – Geoff Downes, English keyboard player, songwriter, and producer \n* 1952 – Duleep Mendis, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach\n*1954 – Elvis Costello, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n* 1954 – Jim Wallace, Baron Wallace of Tankerness, Scottish lawyer and politician, First Minister of Scotland\n*1955 – John McGeoch, Scottish guitarist (d. 2004)\n* 1955 – Gerd Müller, German businessman and politician\n*1956 – Matt Aitken, English songwriter and record producer (Stock Aitken Waterman)\n* 1956 – Takeshi Okada, Japanese footballer, coach, and manager\n* 1956 – Henri Toivonen, Finnish race car driver (d. 1986)\n*1957 – Sikander Bakht, Pakistani cricketer and sportscaster\n* 1957 – Simon McBurney, English actor and director\n* 1957 – Frank Serratore, American ice hockey player and coach\n*1958 – Tim Burton, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1959 – Ian Falconer, American author and illustrator\n* 1959 – Steve Levy, American lawyer and politician\n* 1959 – Lane Smith, American author and illustrator\n* 1959 – Ruth Ann Swenson, American soprano and actress\n*1960 – Georg Zellhofer, Austrian footballer and manager\n*1961 – Billy Ray Cyrus, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n*1962 – Theresa Andrews, American former competition swimmer and Olympic champion\n* 1962 – Vivian Campbell, Northern Irish rock guitarist and songwriter \n*1963 – Miro Cerar, Slovenian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Slovenia\n* 1963 – Shock G, American rapper and producer\n* 1963 – Tiina Intelmann, Estonian lawyer and diplomat\n*1964 – Azmin Ali, Malaysian mathematician and politician\n* 1964 – Maxim Kontsevich, Russian-American mathematician and academic\n* 1964 – Blair Underwood, American actor\n* 1964 – Joanne Whalley, English actress\n*1965 – Cornelius Bennett, American football player\n* 1965 – Sanjeev Sharma, Indian cricketer and coach\n*1966 – Albert Belle, American baseball player\n* 1966 – Derek Sherinian, American keyboard player, songwriter, and producer \n* 1966 – Terminator X, American hip-hop DJ (Public Enemy)\n*1967 – Jeff Tweedy, American singer-songwriter, musician, and producer \n*1968 – Yuri Mitsui, Japanese actress, model, and race car driver\n* 1968 – Stuart Murdoch, Scottish singer-songwriter \n* 1968 – Spider One, American singer-songwriter and producer \n* 1968 – Rachael Ray, American chef, author, and television host\n* 1968 – Takeshi Ueda, Japanese singer-songwriter and bass player \n*1969 – Olga Konkova, Norwegian-Russian pianist and composer\n* 1969 – Cameron Mathison, Canadian actor and television personality\n* 1969 – Catriona Matthew, Scottish golfer\n* 1969 – Vivek Razdan, Indian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster\n*1970 – Doug Glanville, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1970 – Debbie Graham, American tennis player\n* 1970 – Robert Horry, American basketball player and sportscaster\n* 1970 – Adrian Lam, Papua New Guinean-Australian rugby league player and coach\n* 1970 – Jo Dee Messina, American singer-songwriter\n* 1970 – Claudia Schiffer, German model and fashion designer\n*1973 – Fatih Akın, German director, producer, and screenwriter\n*1974 – Pablo Ozuna, Dominican baseball player\n*1975 – Brad Drew, Australian rugby league player\n* 1975 – Petria Thomas, Australian swimmer and coach\n*1976 – Damon Jones, American basketball player and coach\n* 1976 – Javed Qadeer, Pakistani cricketer and coach\n* 1976 – Alexander Skarsgård, Swedish actor\n*1977 – Masumi Asano, Japanese voice actress and producer\n* 1977 – Andy McDonald, Canadian ice hockey player\n*1978 – Kel Mitchell, American actor, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1978 – Robert Mohr, German rugby player\n*1979 – Marlon Harewood, English footballer\n* 1979 – Philipp Mißfelder, German historian and politician (d. 2015)\n* 1979 – Deanna Nolan, American basketball player\n*1981 – Rachel Bilson, American actress\n* 1981 – Jan-Berrie Burger, Namibian cricketer\n* 1981 – Camille Pin, French tennis player\n*1982 – Jung Jung-suk, South Korean footballer (d. 2011)\n*1983 – James Rossiter, English race car driver\n*1984 – Florian Mohr, German footballer\n*1986 – Rodney Ferguson, American footballer\n*1987 – Stacey Farber, Canadian actress\n* 1987 – Ollie Hancock, English race car driver\n* 1987 – Velimir Jovanović, Serbian footballer\n* 1987 – Blake Lively, American model and actress\n* 1987 – Amy Macdonald, Scottish singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1987 – Justin Upton, American baseball player\n* 1987 – Adam Warren, American baseball player\n* 1987 – James Wesolowski, Australian footballer\n*1988 – Angela Park, Brazilian-American golfer\n*1989 – Hiram Mier, Mexican footballer\n*1992 – Miyabi Natsuyaki, Japanese singer and actress \n* 1992 – Ricardo Rodriguez, Swiss footballer\n*1994 – Edmunds Augstkalns, Latvian ice hockey player\n* 1994 – Kajol Aikat, Indian writer & novelist\n*1998 – China Anne McClain, American actress and singer\n\n",
"* AD 79 – Pliny the Elder, Roman commander and philosopher (b. 23)\n* 306 – Saint Maginus, Christian hermit and martyr from Tarragona\n* 383 – Gratian, Roman emperor (b. 359)\n* 471 – Gennadius I, patriarch of Constantinople\n* 766 – Constantine Podopagouros, Byzantine official\n* 766 – Strategios Podopagouros, Byzantine general\n*1091 – Sisnando Davides, military leader\n*1192 – Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1142)\n*1258 – George Mouzalon, regent of the Empire of Nicaea\n*1270 – Louis IX of France (b. 1214)\n* 1270 – Alphonso of Brienne (b. c. 1225)\n*1271 – Joan, Countess of Toulouse (b. 1220)\n*1282 – Thomas de Cantilupe, English bishop and saint (b. 1218)\n*1327 – Demasq Kaja, Chobanid\n*1322 – Beatrice of Silesia, queen consort of Germany (b. c. 1292)\n*1330 – Sir James Douglas, Scottish guerilla leader (b. 1286)\n*1339 – Henry de Cobham, 1st Baron Cobham (b. 1260)\n*1368 – Andrea Orcagna, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect\n*1482 – Margaret of Anjou (b. 1429)\n*1485 – William Catesby, supporter of Richard III (b. 1450)\n*1554 – Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and politician, Lord High Treasurer (b. 1473)\n*1592 – William IV, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel (b. 1532)\n*1603 – Ahmad al-Mansur, Sultan of the Saadi dynasty (b. 1549)\n*1631 – Nicholas Hyde, Lord Chief Justice of England (b.c. 1572)\n*1632 – Thomas Dekker, English author and playwright (b. 1572)\n*1688 – Henry Morgan, Welsh admiral and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica (b. 1635)\n*1699 – Christian V of Denmark (b. 1646)\n*1711 – Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (b. 1656)\n*1742 – Carlos Seixas, Portuguese organist and composer (b. 1704)\n*1774 – Niccolò Jommelli, Italian composer and educator (b. 1714)\n*1776 – David Hume, Scottish economist, historian, and philosopher (b. 1711)\n*1794 – Florimond Claude, Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Belgian-Austrian diplomat (b. 1727)\n*1797 – Thomas Chittenden, Governor of the Vermont Republic (later 1st Governor of the State of Vermont) (b. 1730)\n*1819 – James Watt, Scottish-English engineer and instrument maker (b. 1736)\n*1822 – William Herschel, German-English astronomer and composer (b. 1738)\n*1867 – Michael Faraday, English physicist and chemist (b. 1791)\n*1882 – Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, Estonian physician and author (b. 1803)\n*1886 – Zinovios Valvis, Greek lawyer and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1791)\n*1892 – William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (b. 1808)\n*1900 – Friedrich Nietzsche, German philologist, philosopher, and critic (b. 1844)\n*1904 – Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter and lithographer (b. 1836)\n*1908 – Henri Becquerel, French physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)\n*1916 – Mary Tappan Wright, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1851)\n*1921 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (b. 1886)\n*1924 – Mariano Álvarez, Filipino general and politician (b. 1818)\n* 1924 – Velma Caldwell Melville, American editor, and writer of prose and poetry (b. 1858)\n*1925 – Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, Austrian field marshal (b. 1852)\n*1930 – Frankie Campbell, American boxer (b. 1904)\n*1931 – Dorothea Fairbridge, South African author and co-founder of Guild of Loyal Women (b. 1862)\n*1938 – Aleksandr Kuprin, Russian pilot, explorer, and author (b. 1870)\n*1939 – Babe Siebert, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1904)\n*1940 – Prince Jean, Duke of Guise (b. 1874)\n*1942 – Prince George, Duke of Kent (b. 1902)\n*1945 – John Birch, American soldier and missionary (b. 1918)\n*1956 – Alfred Kinsey, American biologist and academic (b. 1894)\n*1965 – Moonlight Graham, American baseball player and physician (b. 1879)\n*1967 – Stanley Bruce, Australian lawyer and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1883)\n* 1967 – Oscar Cabalén, Argentine racing driver (b. 1928)\n* 1967 – Paul Muni, Ukrainian-born American actor (b. 1895)\n* 1967 – George Lincoln Rockwell, American commander, politician, and activist, founded the American Nazi Party (b. 1918)\n*1968 – Stan McCabe, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1910)\n*1969 – Robert Cosgrove, Australian politician, 30th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1884)\n*1970 – Tachū Naitō, Japanese architect and engineer, designed the Tokyo Tower (b. 1886)\n*1971 – Ted Lewis, American singer and clarinet player (b. 1890)\n*1973 – Dezső Pattantyús-Ábrahám, Hungarian lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1875)\n*1976 – Eyvind Johnson, Swedish novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1900)\n*1977 – Károly Kós, Hungarian architect, ethnologist, and politician (b. 1883)\n*1979 – Stan Kenton, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1911)\n*1980 – Gower Champion, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1919)\n*1981 – Nassos Kedrakas, Greek actor and cinematographer (b. 1915)\n*1984 – Truman Capote, American novelist, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1924)\n* 1984 – Viktor Chukarin, Ukrainian gymnast and coach (b. 1921)\n* 1984 – Waite Hoyt, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1899)\n*1988 – Art Rooney, American businessman, founded the Pittsburgh Steelers (b. 1901)\n*1990 – Morley Callaghan, Canadian author and playwright (b. 1903)\n*1995 – Doug Stegmeyer, American bass player and producer (b. 1951)\n*1998 – Lewis F. Powell, Jr., American lawyer and Supreme Court justice (b. 1907)\n*1999 – Rob Fisher, English keyboard player and songwriter (b. 1956)\n*2000 – Carl Barks, American author and illustrator (b. 1901)\n* 2000 – Frederick C. Bock, American soldier and pilot (b. 1918)\n* 2000 – Jack Nitzsche, American pianist, composer, and producer (b. 1937)\n* 2000 – Allen Woody, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1955)\n*2001 – Aaliyah, American singer and actress (b. 1979)\n* 2001 – Carl Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1938)\n* 2001 – Üzeyir Garih, Turkish engineer and businessman, co-founded Alarko Holding (b. 1929)\n* 2001 – Ken Tyrrell, English race car driver and businessman, founded Tyrrell Racing (b. 1924)\n*2002 – Dorothy Hewett, Australian author and poet (b. 1923)\n*2003 – Tom Feelings, American author and illustrator (b. 1933)\n*2005 – Peter Glotz, Czech-German academic and politician (b. 1939)\n*2006 – Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian-Tobagonian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1918)\n*2007 – Benjamin Aaron, American lawyer and scholar (b. 1915)\n* 2007 – Ray Jones, English footballer (b. 1988)\n*2008 – Ahmad Faraz, Pakistani poet (b. 1931)\n* 2008 – Kevin Duckworth, American basketball player (b. 1964)\n*2009 – Ted Kennedy, American politician (b. 1932)\n* 2009 – Mandé Sidibé, Malian economist and politician, Prime Minister of Mali (b. 1940)\n*2011 – Lazar Mojsov, Macedonian politician (b. 1920)\n*2012 – Florencio Amarilla, Paraguayan footballer, coach, and actor (b. 1935)\n* 2012 – Neil Armstrong, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – Roberto González Barrera, Mexican banker and businessman (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – Donald Gorrie, Scottish educator and politician (b. 1933)\n*2013 – Ciril Bergles, Slovene poet and translator (b. 1934)\n* 2013 – António Borges, Portuguese economist and banker (b. 1949)\n* 2013 – William Froug, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1922)\n* 2013 – Liu Fuzhi, Chinese academic and politician, 3rd Minister of Justice for China (b. 1917)\n* 2013 – Raghunath Panigrahi, Indian singer-songwriter (b. 1932)\n* 2013 – Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (b. 1930)\n*2014 – William Greaves, American director and producer (b. 1926)\n* 2014 – Marcel Masse, Canadian educator and politician, 29th Canadian Minister of National Defence (b. 1936)\n* 2014 – Nico M. M. Nibbering, Dutch chemist and academic (b. 1938)\n* 2014 – Uziah Thompson, Jamaican-American drummer and producer (b. 1936)\n* 2014 – Enrique Zileri, Peruvian journalist and publisher (b. 1931)\n*2015 – José María Benegas, Spanish lawyer and politician (b. 1948)\n* 2015 – Francis Sejersted, Norwegian historian and academic (b. 1936)\n*2016 – Marvin Kaplan, American actor (b. 1927)\n*2017 – Rich Piana, American bodybuilder (b. 1971)\n\n",
"* Christian feast day:\n** Æbbe of Coldingham\n** Aredius\n** Genesius of Arles\n** Genesius of Rome\n** Ginés de la Jara (or Genesius of Cartagena)\n** Gregory of Utrecht\n** Joseph Calasanz\n** Louis IX of France\n** Blessed Ludovicus Baba\n** Blessed Ludovicus Sasada\n** Blessed Luis Sotelo\n** Menas of Constantinople\n** Blessed Miguel de Carvalho\n** Patricia of Naples\n** Blessed Pedro Vásquez\n** Thomas de Cantilupe (or of Hereford)\n* Day of Songun (North Korea)\n* Earliest day on which Father's Day can fall, while August 31 is the latest; celebrated on the last Monday in August. (South Sudan)\n*Earliest day on which La Tomatina can fall, while August 31 is the latest; celebrated on the last Wednesday in August. (Buñol)\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Uruguay from Brazil in 1825.\n* Liberation Day (France)\n* Soldier's Day (Brazil)\n",
"\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Events",
"Births",
"Deaths",
"Holidays and observances",
"External links"
] | August 25 |
[
"\n\n\n'''Agate''' is a cryptocrystalline variety of silica, chiefly chalcedony, characterised by its fineness of grain and brightness of color. Although agates may be found in various kinds of rock, they are classically associated with volcanic rocks and can be common in certain metamorphic rocks.\n",
"The stone was given its name by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and naturalist, who discovered the stone along the shore line of the river Achates () in present-day Sicily, sometime between the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Colorful agates and other chalcedonies were obtained over 3,000 years ago from the Achates River, now called Dirillo.\n\n===Ancient use===\nAgate is one of the most common materials used in the art of hardstone carving, and has been recovered at a number of ancient sites, indicating its widespread use in the ancient world; for example, archaeological recovery at the Knossos site on Crete illustrates its role in Bronze Age Minoan culture.\n",
"Botswana agate\nMost agates occur as nodules in volcanic rocks or ancient lavas, in former cavities produced by volatiles in the original molten mass, which were then filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Agate has also been known to fill veins or cracks in volcanic or altered rock underlain by granitic intrusive masses. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the section. Such stones are known as ''banded agate'', ''riband agate'' and ''striped agate''.\n\nIn the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that waters containing silica in solution—derived, perhaps, from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself—percolated through the rock and deposited a siliceous gel in the interior of the vesicles. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposition may cause a corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline quartz. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the rock is still viscous, and thus form a large cavity which may become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a Brazilian geode lined with amethyst and weighing 35 tons was exhibited at the Düsseldorf Exhibition of 1902. Perhaps the most comprehensive review of agate chemistry is a recent text by Moxon cited below.\n\nThe first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the \"skin\" of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, like celadonite, delessite or \"green earth\", which are rich in iron probably derived from the decomposition of the augite in the enclosing volcanic rock. This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown iron oxide (limonite), producing a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity has been called the \"priming\", and upon this base, zeolitic minerals may be deposited.\n\nMany agates are hollow, since deposition has not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last deposit commonly consists of drusy quartz, sometimes amethystine, having the apices of the crystals directed towards the free space so as to form a crystal-lined cavity or geode.\n\nWhen the matrix in which the agates are embedded disintegrates, they are set free. The agates are extremely resistant to weathering and remain as nodules in the soil, or are deposited as gravel in streams and along shorelines.\n",
"\nA Mexican agate, showing only a single eye, has received the name of ''cyclops agate.'' Included matter of a green, golden, red, black or other color or combinations embedded in the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to dendritic or moss agate. ''Dendritic'' agates have fern like patterns in them formed due to the presence of manganese and iron oxides. Other types of included matter deposited during agate-building include sagenitic growths (radial mineral crystals) and chunks of entrapped detritus (such as sand, ash, or mud). Occasionally agate fills a void left by decomposed vegetative material such as a tree limb or root and is called limb cast agate due to its appearance. Enhydro agate contains tiny inclusions of water, sometimes with air bubbles.\n\n''Turritella agate'' is formed from silicified fossil ''Elimia tenera'' (erroneously considered ''Turritella'') shells. ''E. tenera'' are spiral freshwater gastropods having elongated, spiral shells composed of many whorls. Similarly, coral, petrified wood and other organic remains or porous rocks can also become agatized. Agatized coral is often referred to as Petoskey stone or agate.\n\n''Greek agate'' is a name given to pale white to tan colored agate found in Sicily back to 400 BC. The Greeks used it for making jewelry and beads. Even though the stone had been around centuries and was known to both the Sumerians and the Egyptians, both who used the gem for decoration and for playing important parts in their religious ceremonies, any agate of this color from Sicily, once an ancient Greek colony, is called Greek agate.\n\n''Brazilian agate'' is found as sizable geodes of layered nodules. These occur in brownish tones interlayered with white and gray. Quartz forms within these nodules, creating a striking specimen when cut opposite the layered growth axis. It is often dyed in various colors for ornamental purposes.\n\nCertain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum due to the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are termed ''rainbow agates''. Often agate coexists with layers or masses of opal, jasper or crystalline quartz due to ambient variations during the formation process.\n\n''Lace agate'' is a variety that exhibits a lace-like pattern with forms such as eyes, swirls, bands or zigzags (if these predominate, it is called ''lattice agate''). ''Crazy lace agate'', found in Mexico, is often brightly colored and complexly patterned. ''Blue lace agate'' is found in Africa and is especially hard.\n\n''Polyhedroid agate'' is agate which has grown in a flat-sided shape similar to a polyhedron. When sliced, it often shows a characteristic layering of concentric polygons. Polyhedroid agate is thought to be found only in Paraíba State, Brazil. It has been suggested that growth is not crystallographically controlled but is due to the filling-in of spaces between pre-existing crystals which have since dissolved.\n\nOther forms of agate include Holley blue agate (also spelled \"Holly blue agate\"), a rare dark blue ribbon agate only found near Holley, Oregon; Lake Superior agate; carnelian agate (has reddish hues); Botswana agate; plume agate; condor agate, tube agate (with visible flow channels or pinhole-sized \"tubes\"); fortification agate (with contrasting concentric banding reminiscent of defensive ditches and walls around ancient forts); Binghamite, a variety found only in Montana; fire agate (showing internal flash or \"fire\", the result of a layer of clear agate over a layer of hydrothermally deposited hematite); and Patuxent River stone, a red and yellow form of agate only found in Maryland, where it is the state gem.\n\nFossil agatized coral Florida.JPG|alt=A piece of translucent pink agatized coral, with a \"ruffled\" appearance along the top edge|Agatized coral\nDendritic agate.jpg|Dendritic agate\nElimia fossils Wyoming.jpg|alt=An irregular dark stone with a flat polished front; many white fragments of elongated, spiral, \"corkscrew\" shells seem to float in the dark stone|\"Turritella agate\" (''Elimia tenera'')\nCrazy Lace Agate - Macro Panorama.jpg|Crazy lace agate\n\n",
"Industrial uses of agate exploit its hardness, ability to retain a highly polished surface finish and resistance to chemical attack. It has traditionally been used to make knife-edge bearings for laboratory balances and precision pendulums, and sometimes to make mortars and pestles to crush and mix chemicals. It has also been used for centuries for leather burnishing tools.\n\nThe decorative arts use it to make ornaments such as pins, brooches or other types of jewellery, paper knives, inkstands, marbles and seals. Agate is also still used today for decorative displays, cabochons, beads, carvings and Intarsia art as well as face-polished and tumble-polished specimens of varying size and origin. Idar-Oberstein was one of the centers which made use of agate on an industrial scale. Where in the beginning locally found agates were used to make all types of objects for the European market, this became a globalized business around the turn of the 20th century: Idar-Oberstein imported large quantities of agate from Brazil, as ship's ballast. Making use of a variety of proprietary chemical processes, they produced colored beads that were sold around the globe. Agates have long been used in arts and crafts. The sanctuary of a Presbyterian church in Yachats, Oregon, has six windows with panes made of agates collected from the local beaches.\n\nTumbled agate and jasper.jpg|A barrel full of tumble-polished agate and jasper\nByzantine - The \"Rubens Vase\" - Walters 42562.jpg|The \"Rubens Vase\" (Byzantine Empire). Carved in high relief from a single piece of agate, most likely created in an imperial workshop for a Byzantine emperor\nThe_Holy_Grail_of_Valencia.png|The ''Holy Grail of Valencia'', the cup made from agate carved during the time of Christ\nVictorian banded agate ear rings.jpg|Victorian banded agate ear rings\n\n",
"Respiratory diseases such as silicosis and higher incidence of tuberculosis among workers involved in the agate industry has been reported from India and China.\n",
"* List of minerals\n\n",
"\n",
"* ''The Nomenclature of Silica'' by Gilbert Hart, American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pages 383-395, 1927\n* International Colored Gemstone Association\n* Mindat data\n* Schumann, Walter. ''Gemstones of the World''. 3rd edition. New York: Sterling, 2006.\n* Moxon, Terry. ''Agate: Microstructure and Possible Origin''. Doncaster, S. Yorks, UK, Terra Publications, 1996.\n* Pabian, Roger, et al. ''Agates: Treasures of the Earth''. Buffalo, New York, Firefly Books, 2006.\n* Cross, Brad L. and Zeitner, June Culp. ''Geodes: Nature's Treasures''. Bardwin Park, California, Gem Guides Book Co. 2005.\n",
"* \n* \"Agates\", School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln (retrieved 27 December 2014).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Etymology and history",
"Formation and characteristics",
"Types of agate",
"Uses in industry and art",
"Health impact",
"See also",
"Notes",
"References",
"External links"
] | Agate |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Aspirin''', also known as '''acetylsalicylic acid''' ('''ASA'''), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation. Specific inflammatory conditions in which aspirin is used include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever. Aspirin given shortly after a heart attack decreases the risk of death. Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots, in people at high risk. Aspirin may also decrease the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and works similar to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.\n\n\nCommon side effects include an upset stomach. More significant side effects include stomach ulcers, stomach bleeding, and worsening asthma. Bleeding risk is greater among those who are older, drink alcohol, take other NSAIDs, or are on blood thinners. Aspirin is not recommended in the last part of pregnancy. It is not generally recommended in children with infections because of the risk of Reye's syndrome. High doses may result in ringing in the ears.\n\n\nAspirin, in the form of leaves from the willow tree, has been used for its health effects for at least 2,400 years. In 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time. In the second half of the nineteenth century, other chemists established the chemical structure and came up with more efficient methods to make it. In 1897, scientists at Bayer began studying acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for common salicylate medicines. By 1899, Bayer had named the drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The word ''Aspirin'' was Bayer's brand name; however, their rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century leading to competition between many brands and formulations.\n\n\nAspirin is one of the most widely used medications globally with an estimated 40,000 tonnes (50 to 120 billion pills) being consumed each year. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Aspirin is available as a generic medication. The wholesale cost in the developing world as of 2014 is 0.002 to 0.025 USD per dose. As of 2015 the cost for a typical month of medication in the United States is less than US$25.\n\n",
"Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in some circumstances. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear. In the United States low dose aspirin is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a more than 10% risk of cardiovascular disease and are not at an increased risk of bleeding who are otherwise healthy.\n\n===Pain===\nAspirin 325 mg / 5 grains for pain\ntablets, consisting of about 90% acetylsalicylic acid, along with a minor amount of inert fillers and binders\nAspirin is an effective analgesic for acute pain, but is generally considered inferior to ibuprofen for the alleviation of pain because aspirin is more likely to cause gastrointestinal bleeding. Aspirin is generally ineffective for those pains caused by muscle cramps, bloating, gastric distension, or acute skin irritation. As with other NSAIDs, combinations of aspirin and caffeine provide slightly greater pain relief than aspirin alone. Effervescent formulations of aspirin, such as Alka-Seltzer or Blowfish, relieve pain faster than aspirin in tablets, which makes them useful for the treatment of migraines. Topical aspirin may be effective for treating some types of neuropathic pain.\n\n====Headache====\nAspirin, either by itself or in a combined formulation, effectively treats certain types of a headache, but its efficacy may be questionable for others. Secondary headaches, meaning those caused by another disorder or trauma, should be promptly treated by a medical provider.\n\nAmong primary headaches, the International Classification of Headache Disorders distinguishes between tension headache (the most common), migraine, and cluster headache. Aspirin or other over-the-counter analgesics are widely recognized as effective for the treatment of tension headache.\n\nAspirin, especially as a component of an aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine combination, is considered a first-line therapy in the treatment of migraine, and comparable to lower doses of sumatriptan. It is most effective at stopping migraines when they are first beginning.\n\n===Fever===\nLike its ability to control pain, aspirin's ability to control fever is due to its action on the prostaglandin system through its irreversible inhibition of COX. Although aspirin's use as an antipyretic in adults is well-established, many medical societies and regulatory agencies (including the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)) strongly advise against using aspirin for treatment of fever in children because of the risk of Reye's syndrome, a rare but often fatal illness associated with the use of aspirin or other salicylates in children during episodes of viral or bacterial infection. Because of the risk of Reye's syndrome in children, in 1986, the FDA required labeling on all aspirin-containing medications advising against its use in children and teenagers.\n\n===Inflammation===\nAspirin is used as an anti-inflammatory agent for both acute and long-term inflammation, as well as for treatment of inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis.\n\n===Heart attacks and strokes===\nAspirin is an important part of the treatment of those who have had a myocardial infarction (heart attack). One trial found that among those likely having an ST-segment elevation MI, aspirin saves the life of 1 in 42 by reducing the 30-day death rate from 11.8% to 9.4%. There was no difference in major bleeding, but there was a small increase in minor bleeding amounting to roughly 1 in every 167 people given aspirin.\n\n====High risk====\nFor people who have already had a heart attack or stroke, taking aspirin daily for two years prevented 1 in 50 from having a cardiovascular problem (heart attack, stroke, or death), but also caused non-fatal bleeding problems to occur in 1 of 400 people.\n\n====Lower risk====\nStudies have not found an overall benefit in the general population of healthy people, although it is possible that there are small benefits for those at especially high risk, despite never having had a heart attack or stroke in the past. One study found that among those who have never had a heart attack or stroke, taking aspirin daily for 1 year prevents 1 in 1,667 from having a non-fatal heart attack or stroke, but caused 1 in 3,333 to have a non-fatal bleeding event. However, the study population were at relatively higher risk than those who had never had a heart attack or stroke.\n\nAspirin appears to offer little benefit to those at lower risk of heart attack or stroke—for instance, those without a history of these events or with pre-existing disease. Some studies recommend aspirin on a case-by-case basis, while others have suggested the risks of other events, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, were enough to outweigh any potential benefit, and recommended against using aspirin for primary prevention entirely. Aspirin has also been suggested as a component of a polypill for prevention of cardiovascular disease.\n\nComplicating the use of aspirin for prevention is the phenomenon of aspirin resistance. For people who are resistant, aspirin's efficacy is reduced. Some authors have suggested testing regimens to identify people who are resistant to aspirin.\n\n====After surgery====\nAfter percutaneous coronary interventions (PCIs), such as the placement of a coronary artery stent, a U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality guideline recommends that aspirin be taken indefinitely. Frequently, aspirin is combined with an ADP receptor inhibitor, such as clopidogrel, prasugrel, or ticagrelor to prevent blood clots. This is called dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT). United States and European Union guidelines disagree somewhat about how long, and for what indications this combined therapy should be continued after surgery. U.S. guidelines recommend DAPT for at least 12 months, while EU guidelines recommend DAPT for 6–12 months after a drug-eluting stent placement. However, they agree that aspirin be continued indefinitely after DAPT is complete.\n\n===Cancer prevention===\nAspirin is thought to reduce the overall risk of both getting cancer and dying from cancer. This effect is particularly beneficial for colorectal cancer (CRC). It may also slightly reduce the risk of endometrial cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer.\n\nSome conclude the benefits are greater than the risks due to bleeding in those at average risk. Others are unclear if the benefits are greater than the risk. Given this uncertainty, the 2007 United States Preventive Services Task Force guidelines on this topic recommended against the use of aspirin for prevention of CRC in people with average risk.\n\n===Other uses===\nAspirin is a first-line treatment for the fever and joint-pain symptoms of acute rheumatic fever. The therapy often lasts for one to two weeks, and is rarely indicated for longer periods. After fever and pain have subsided, the aspirin is no longer necessary, since it does not decrease the incidence of heart complications and residual rheumatic heart disease. Naproxen has been shown to be as effective as aspirin and less toxic, but due to the limited clinical experience, naproxen is recommended only as a second-line treatment.\n\nAlong with rheumatic fever, Kawasaki disease remains one of the few indications for aspirin use in children in spite of a lack of high quality evidence for its effectiveness.\n\nLow-dose aspirin supplementation has moderate benefits when used for prevention of pre-eclampsia. This benefit is greater when started in early pregnancy.\n\n===Resistance===\nFor some people, aspirin does not have as strong an effect on platelets as for others, an effect known as aspirin-resistance or insensitivity. One study has suggested women are more likely to be resistant than men, and a different, aggregate study of 2,930 people found 28% were resistant.\nA study in 100 Italian people, though, found, of the apparent 31% aspirin-resistant subjects, only 5% were truly resistant, and the others were noncompliant.\nAnother study of 400 healthy volunteers found no subjects who were truly resistant, but some had \"pseudoresistance, reflecting delayed and reduced drug absorption\".\n\n\n\n===Dosage===\nCoated 325 mg (5-grain) aspirin tablets\nThe 5-grain aspirin. The usage guidance label on a bottle of aspirin indicates that the dosage is \"325 mg (5 gr)\".\nAdult aspirin tablets are produced in standardised sizes, which vary slightly from country to country, for example 300 mg in Britain and 325 mg (or 5 grains) in the United States. Smaller doses are based on these standards, ''e.g.'', 75 mg and 81 mg tablets. The 81 mg (1-grain) tablets are commonly called \"baby aspirin\" or \"baby-strength\", because they were originally—but no longer—intended to be administered to infants and children. No medical significance occurs due to the slight difference in dosage between the 75 mg and the 81 mg tablets.\n\nIn general, for adults, doses are taken four times a day for fever or arthritis, with doses near the maximal daily dose used historically for the treatment of rheumatic fever. For the prevention of myocardial infarction (MI) in someone with documented or suspected coronary artery disease, much lower doses are taken once daily.\n\nMarch 2009 recommendations from the USPSTF on the use of aspirin for the primary prevention of coronary heart disease encourage men aged 45–79 and women aged 55–79 to use aspirin when the potential benefit of a reduction in MI for men or stroke for women outweighs the potential harm of an increase in gastrointestinal hemorrhage. The WHI study said regular low dose (75 or 81 mg) aspirin female users had a 25% lower risk of death from cardiovascular disease and a 14% lower risk of death from any cause. Low-dose aspirin use was also associated with a trend toward lower risk of cardiovascular events, and lower aspirin doses (75 or 81 mg/day) may optimize efficacy and safety for people requiring aspirin for long-term prevention.\n\nIn children with Kawasaki disease, aspirin is taken at dosages based on body weight, initially four times a day for up to two weeks and then at a lower dose once daily for a further six to eight weeks.\n",
"\n===Contraindications===\n\nAspirin should not be taken by people who are allergic to ibuprofen or naproxen, or who have salicylate intolerance or a more generalized drug intolerance to NSAIDs, and caution should be exercised in those with asthma or NSAID-precipitated bronchospasm. Owing to its effect on the stomach lining, manufacturers recommend people with peptic ulcers, mild diabetes, or gastritis seek medical advice before using aspirin. Even if none of these conditions is present, the risk of stomach bleeding is still increased when aspirin is taken with alcohol or warfarin. People with hemophilia or other bleeding tendencies should not take aspirin or other salicylates. Aspirin is known to cause hemolytic anemia in people who have the genetic disease glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, particularly in large doses and depending on the severity of the disease. Use of aspirin during dengue fever is not recommended owing to increased bleeding tendency. People with kidney disease, hyperuricemia, or gout should not take aspirin because it inhibits the kidneys' ability to excrete uric acid, thus may exacerbate these conditions. Aspirin should not be given to children or adolescents to control cold or influenza symptoms, as this has been linked with Reye's syndrome.\n\n===Gastrointestinal===\nAspirin use has been shown to increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. Although some enteric-coated formulations of aspirin are advertised as being \"gentle to the stomach\", in one study, enteric coating did not seem to reduce this risk. Combining aspirin with other NSAIDs has also been shown to further increase this risk. Using aspirin in combination with clopidogrel or warfarin also increases the risk of upper gastrointestinal bleeding.\n\nBlockade of COX-1 by aspirin apparently results in the upregulation of COX-2 as part of a gastric defense and that taking COX-2 inhibitors concurrently with aspirin increases the gastric mucosal erosion. Therefore, caution should be exercised if combining aspirin with any \"natural\" supplements with COX-2-inhibiting properties, such as garlic extracts, curcumin, bilberry, pine bark, ginkgo, fish oil, resveratrol, genistein, quercetin, resorcinol, and others.\n\nIn addition to enteric coating, \"buffering\" is the other main method companies have used to try to mitigate the problem of gastrointestinal bleeding. Buffering agents are intended to work by preventing the aspirin from concentrating in the walls of the stomach, although the benefits of buffered aspirin are disputed. Almost any buffering agent used in antacids can be used; Bufferin, for example, uses magnesium oxide. Other preparations use calcium carbonate.\n\nTaking it with vitamin C is a more recently investigated method of protecting the stomach lining. Taking equal doses of vitamin C and aspirin may decrease the amount of stomach damage that occurs compared to taking aspirin alone.\n\n===Central effects===\nLarge doses of salicylate, a metabolite of aspirin, cause temporary tinnitus (ringing in the ears) based on experiments in rats, via the action on arachidonic acid and NMDA receptors cascade.\n\n===Reye's syndrome===\n\nReye's syndrome, a rare but severe illness characterized by acute encephalopathy and fatty liver, can occur when children or adolescents are given aspirin for a fever or other illness or infection. From 1981 through 1997, 1207 cases of Reye's syndrome in people younger than 18 were reported to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Of these, 93% reported being ill in the three weeks preceding the onset of Reye's syndrome, most commonly with a respiratory infection, chickenpox, or diarrhea. Salicylates were detectable in 81.9% of children for whom test results were reported. After the association between Reye's syndrome and aspirin was reported, and safety measures to prevent it (including a Surgeon General's warning, and changes to the labeling of aspirin-containing drugs) were implemented, aspirin taken by children declined considerably in the United States, as did the number of reported cases of Reye's syndrome; a similar decline was found in the United Kingdom after warnings against pediatric aspirin use were issued. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration now recommends aspirin (or aspirin-containing products) should not be given to anyone under the age of 12 who has a fever, and the British Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency recommends children who are under 16 years of age should not take aspirin, unless it is on the advice of a doctor.\n\n===Skin===\nFor a small number of people, taking aspirin can result in symptoms resembling an allergic reaction, including hives, swelling, and headache. The reaction is caused by salicylate intolerance and is not a true allergy, but rather an inability to metabolize even small amounts of aspirin, resulting in an overdose.\n\nAspirin and other NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, may delay the healing of skin wounds. Aspirin may however help heal venous leg ulcers that have not healed following usual treatment.\n\n===Other adverse effects===\nAspirin can induce swelling of skin tissues in some people. In one study, angioedema appeared one to six hours after ingesting aspirin in some of the people. However, when the aspirin was taken alone, it did not cause angioedema in these people; the aspirin had been taken in combination with another NSAID-induced drug when angioedema appeared.\n\nAspirin causes an increased risk of cerebral microbleeds having the appearance on MRI scans of 5 to 10 mm or smaller, hypointense (dark holes) patches. Such cerebral microbleeds are important, since they often occur prior to ischemic stroke or intracerebral hemorrhage, Binswanger disease, and Alzheimer's disease.\n\nA study of a group with a mean dosage of aspirin of 270 mg per day estimated an average absolute risk increase in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) of 12 events per 10,000 persons. In comparison, the estimated absolute risk reduction in myocardial infarction was 137 events per 10,000 persons, and a reduction of 39 events per 10,000 persons in ischemic stroke. In cases where ICH already has occurred, aspirin use results in higher mortality, with a dose of about 250 mg per day resulting in a relative risk of death within three months after the ICH around 2.5 (95% confidence interval 1.3 to 4.6).\n\nAspirin and other NSAIDs can cause abnormally high blood levels of potassium by inducing a hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronic state via inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis; however, these agents do not typically cause hyperkalemia by themselves in the setting of normal renal function and euvolemic state.\n\nAspirin can cause prolonged bleeding after operations for up to 10 days. In one study, 30 of 6499 people having elective surgery required reoperations to control bleeding. Twenty had diffuse bleeding and 10 had bleeding from a site. Diffuse, but not discrete, bleeding was associated with the preoperative use of aspirin alone or in combination with other NSAIDS in 19 of the 20 diffuse bleeding people.\n\nOn 9 July 2015, the FDA toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). Aspirin is an NSAID but is not affected by the new warnings.\n\n===Overdose===\n\nAspirin overdose can be acute or chronic. In acute poisoning, a single large dose is taken; in chronic poisoning, higher than normal doses are taken over a period of time. Acute overdose has a mortality rate of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal, with a mortality rate of 25%; chronic overdose may be especially severe in children. Toxicity is managed with a number of potential treatments, including activated charcoal, intravenous dextrose and normal saline, sodium bicarbonate, and dialysis. The diagnosis of poisoning usually involves measurement of plasma salicylate, the active metabolite of aspirin, by automated spectrophotometric methods. Plasma salicylate levels in general range from 30–100 mg/l after usual therapeutic doses, 50–300 mg/l in people taking high doses and 700–1400 mg/l following acute overdose. Salicylate is also produced as a result of exposure to bismuth subsalicylate, methyl salicylate, and sodium salicylate.\n\n===Interactions===\nAspirin is known to interact with other drugs. For example, acetazolamide and ammonium chloride are known to enhance the intoxicating effect of salicylates, and alcohol also increases the gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these types of drugs. Aspirin is known to displace a number of drugs from protein-binding sites in the blood, including the antidiabetic drugs tolbutamide and chlorpropamide, warfarin, methotrexate, phenytoin, probenecid, valproic acid (as well as interfering with beta oxidation, an important part of valproate metabolism), and other NSAIDs. Corticosteroids may also reduce the concentration of aspirin. Ibuprofen can negate the antiplatelet effect of aspirin used for cardioprotection and stroke prevention. The pharmacological activity of spironolactone may be reduced by taking aspirin, and it is known to compete with penicillin G for renal tubular secretion. Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C.\n",
"Aspirin decomposes rapidly in solutions of ammonium acetate or the acetates, carbonates, citrates, or hydroxides of the alkali metals. It is stable in dry air, but gradually hydrolyses in contact with moisture to acetic and salicylic acids. In solution with alkalis, the hydrolysis proceeds rapidly and the clear solutions formed may consist entirely of acetate and salicylate.\n\nLike flour mills, factories that make aspirin tablets must pay attention to how much of the powder gets into the air inside the building, because the powder-air mixture can be explosive. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit in the United States of 5 mg/m3 (time-weighted average). In 1989, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) set a legal permissible exposure limit for aspirin of 5 mg/m3, but this was vacated by the AFL-CIO v. OSHA decision in 1993.\n\n===Synthesis===\nThe synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic anhydride, an acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid's hydroxyl group into an ester group (R-OH → R-OCOCH3). This process yields aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered a byproduct of this reaction. Small amounts of sulfuric acid (and occasionally phosphoric acid) are almost always used as a catalyst. This method is commonly employed in undergraduate teaching labs.\n\n:490px\n\n;Reaction mechanism\n:800px\n\nFormulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell like vinegar because aspirin can decompose through hydrolysis in moist conditions, yielding salicylic and acetic acids.\n",
"Aspirin, an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance, with a melting point of , and a boiling point of . Its acid dissociation constant (pKa) is 3.5 at .\n\n===Polymorphism===\nPolymorphism, or the ability of a substance to form more than one crystal structure, is important in the development of pharmaceutical ingredients. Many drugs are receiving regulatory approval for only a single crystal form or polymorph. For a long time, only one crystal structure for aspirin was known. That aspirin might have a second crystalline form was suspected since the 1960s. The elusive second polymorph was first discovered by Vishweshwar and coworkers in 2005, and fine structural details were given by Bond ''et al.'' A new crystal type was found after attempted cocrystallization of aspirin and levetiracetam from hot acetonitrile. The form II is only stable at 100K and reverts to form I at ambient temperature. In the (unambiguous) form I, two salicylic molecules form centrosymmetric dimers through the acetyl groups with the (acidic) methyl proton to carbonyl hydrogen bonds, and in the newly claimed form II, each salicylic molecule forms the same hydrogen bonds with two neighboring molecules instead of one. With respect to the hydrogen bonds formed by the carboxylic acid groups, both polymorphs form identical dimer structures.\n",
"\n\n\n===Discovery of the mechanism===\nIn 1971, British pharmacologist John Robert Vane, then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed aspirin suppressed the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes. For this discovery he was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, jointly with Sune Bergström and Bengt Ingemar Samuelsson. In 1984, he was made a Knight Bachelor.\n\n===Prostaglandins and thromboxanes===\nAspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase (COX; officially known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase, PTGS) enzyme required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the PTGS enzyme. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors (Suicide inhibition).\n\nLow-dose aspirin use irreversibly blocks the formation of thromboxane A2 in platelets, producing an inhibitory effect on platelet aggregation during the lifetime of the affected platelet (8–9 days). This antithrombotic property makes aspirin useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks in people who have had a heart attack, unstable angina, ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack. 40 mg of aspirin a day is able to inhibit a large proportion of maximum thromboxane A2 release provoked acutely, with the prostaglandin I2 synthesis being little affected; however, higher doses of aspirin are required to attain further inhibition.\n\nProstaglandins, local hormones produced in the body, have diverse effects, including the transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the hypothalamic thermostat, and inflammation. Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of platelets that form blood clots. Heart attacks are caused primarily by blood clots, and low doses of aspirin are seen as an effective medical intervention for acute myocardial infarction.\n\n===COX-1 and COX-2 inhibition===\nAt least two different types of cyclooxygenases, COX-1 and COX-2, are acted on by aspirin. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits COX-1 and modifies the enzymatic activity of COX-2. COX-2 normally produces prostanoids, most of which are proinflammatory. Aspirin-modified PTGS2 produces lipoxins, most of which are anti-inflammatory. Newer NSAID drugs, COX-2 inhibitors (coxibs), have been developed to inhibit only PTGS2, with the intent to reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal side effects.\n\nHowever, several of the new COX-2 inhibitors, such as rofecoxib (Vioxx), have been withdrawn in the last decade, after evidence emerged that PTGS2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack and stroke. Endothelial cells lining the microvasculature in the body are proposed to express PTGS2, and, by selectively inhibiting PTGS2, prostaglandin production (specifically, PGI2; prostacyclin) is downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as PTGS1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anticoagulative effect of PGI2 is removed, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new PTGS once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, an important difference with reversible inhibitors.\n\nFurthermore, aspirin, while inhibiting the ability of COX-2 to form pro-inflammatory products such as the prostaglandins, converts this enzyme's activity from a prostaglandin-forming cyclooxygenase to a lipoxygenase-like enzyme: aspirin-treated COX-2 metabolizes a variety of polyunsaturated fatty acids to hydroperoxy products which are then further metabolized to specialized proresolving mediators such as the aspirin-triggered lipoxins, aspirin-triggered resolvins, and aspirin-triggered maresins. These mediators possess potent anti-inflammatory activity. It is proposed that this aspirin-triggered transition of COX-2 from cyclooxygenase to lipoxygenase activity and the consequential formation of specialized proresolving mediators contributes to the anti-inflammatory effects of aspirin.\n\n===Additional mechanisms===\nAspirin has been shown to have at least three additional modes of action. It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria, by diffusing from the inner membrane space as a proton carrier back into the mitochondrial matrix, where it ionizes once again to release protons. Aspirin buffers and transports the protons. When high doses are given, it may actually cause fever, owing to the heat released from the electron transport chain, as opposed to the antipyretic action of aspirin seen with lower doses. In addition, aspirin induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body, which have been shown in mice to have an independent mechanism of reducing inflammation. This reduced leukocyte adhesion is an important step in the immune response to infection; however, evidence is insufficient to show aspirin helps to fight infection. More recent data also suggest salicylic acid and its derivatives modulate signaling through NF-κB. NF-κB, a transcription factor complex, plays a central role in many biological processes, including inflammation.\n\nAspirin is readily broken down in the body to salicylic acid, which itself has anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgesic effects. In 2012, salicylic acid was found to activate AMP-activated protein kinase, which has been suggested as a possible explanation for some of the effects of both salicylic acid and aspirin. The acetyl portion of the aspirin molecule has its own targets. Acetylation of cellular proteins is a well-established phenomenon in the regulation of protein function at the post-translational level. Aspirin is able to acetylate several other targets in addition to COX isoenzymes. These acetylation reactions may explain many hitherto unexplained effects of aspirin.\n",
"Acetylsalicylic acid is a weak acid, and very little of it is ionized in the stomach after oral administration. Acetylsalicylic acid is quickly absorbed through the cell membrane in the acidic conditions of the stomach. The increased pH and larger surface area of the small intestine causes aspirin to be absorbed more slowly there, as more of it is ionised. Owing to the formation of concretions, aspirin is absorbed much more slowly during overdose, and plasma concentrations can continue to rise for up to 24 hours after ingestion.\n\nAbout 50–80% of salicylate in the blood is bound to albumin protein, while the rest remains in the active, ionized state; protein binding is concentration-dependent. Saturation of binding sites leads to more free salicylate and increased toxicity. The volume of distribution is 0.1–0.2 L/kg. Acidosis increases the volume of distribution because of enhancement of tissue penetration of salicylates.\n\nAs much as 80% of therapeutic doses of salicylic acid is metabolized in the liver. Conjugation with glycine forms salicyluric acid, and with glucuronic acid to form two different glucuronide esters. The conjugate with the acetyl group intact is referred to as the ''acyl glucuronide''; the deacetylated conjugate is the ''phenolic glucuronide''. These metabolic pathways have only a limited capacity. Small amounts of salicylic acid are also hydroxylated to gentisic acid. With large salicylate doses, the kinetics switch from first-order to zero-order, as metabolic pathways become saturated and renal excretion becomes increasingly important.\n\nSalicylates are excreted mainly by the kidneys as salicyluric acid (75%), free salicylic acid (10%), salicylic phenol (10%), and acyl glucuronides (5%), gentisic acid (< 1%), and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid. When small doses (less than 250 mg in an adult) are ingested, all pathways proceed by first-order kinetics, with an elimination half-life of about 2.0 h to 4.5 h. When higher doses of salicylate are ingested (more than 4 g), the half-life becomes much longer (15 h to 30 h), because the biotransformation pathways concerned with the formation of salicyluric acid and salicyl phenolic glucuronide become saturated. Renal excretion of salicylic acid becomes increasingly important as the metabolic pathways become saturated, because it is extremely sensitive to changes in urinary pH. A 10- to 20-fold increase in renal clearance occurs when urine pH is increased from 5 to 8. The use of urinary alkalinization exploits this particular aspect of salicylate elimination.\n",
"\n1923 advertisement\n\nMedicines made from willow and other salicylate-rich plants appear in clay tablets from ancient Sumer as well as the Ebers Papyrus from ancient Egypt. Hippocrates referred to their use of salicylic tea to reduce fevers around 400 BC, and were part of the pharmacopoeia of Western medicine in classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Willow bark extract became recognized for its specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century. By the nineteenth century pharmacists were experimenting with and prescribing a variety of chemicals related to salicylic acid, the active component of willow extract.\n\nIn 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated acetyl chloride with sodium salicylate to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time; in the second half of the nineteenth century, other academic chemists established the compound's chemical structure and devised more efficient methods of synthesis. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines, and identified a new way to synthesize it. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The word ''Aspirin'' was Bayer's brand name, rather than the generic name of the drug; however, Bayer's rights to the trademark were lost or sold in many countries. Aspirin's popularity grew over the first half of the twentieth century leading to fierce competition with the proliferation of aspirin brands and products.\n\nAspirin's popularity declined after the development of acetaminophen/paracetamol in 1956 and ibuprofen in 1962. In the 1960s and 1970s, John Vane and others discovered the basic mechanism of aspirin's effects, while clinical trials and other studies from the 1960s to the 1980s established aspirin's efficacy as an anti-clotting agent that reduces the risk of clotting diseases. The initial large studies on the use of low-dose aspirin to prevent heart attacks that were published in the 1970s and 1980s helped spur reform in clinical research ethics and guidelines for human subject research and US federal law, and are often cited as examples of clinical trials that included only men, but from which people drew general conclusions that did not hold true for women.\n\nAspirin sales revived considerably in the last decades of the twentieth century, and remain strong in the twenty-first with widespread use as a preventive treatment for heart attacks and strokes.\n\n===Trademark===\nDue to allowing the use of \"Aspirin\" for years by other manufacturing chemists, despite the trademark-infringing nature of the use, and its own failure to use the name for its own product when it began selling direct, Bayer lost its trademark in the United States in 1918, affirmed by court appeal in 1921. Today, aspirin is a generic word in Australia, France, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, Jamaica, Colombia, the Philippines, South Africa, Ghana, the United Kingdom and the United States. Aspirin, with a capital \"A\", remains a registered trademark of Bayer in Germany, Canada, Mexico, and in over 80 other countries, where the trademark is owned by Bayer, using acetylsalicylic acid in all markets, but using different packaging and physical aspects for each.\n\n===Compendial status===\n* United States Pharmacopeia\n* British Pharmacopoeia\n",
"Aspirin is sometimes used for pain relief or as an anticoagulant in veterinary medicine, primarily in dogs and sometimes horses, although newer medications with fewer side effects are generally used instead.\n\nBoth dogs and horses are susceptible to the gastrointestinal side effects associated with salicylates, but it is a convenient treatment for arthritis in older dogs, and has shown some promise in cases of laminitis in horses. It is no longer commonly used for cases of laminitis, as it could be counterproductive for treatment. Aspirin should be used in animals only under the direct supervision of a veterinarian; in particular, cats lack the glucuronide conjugates that aid in the excretion of aspirin, making it potentially toxic. No clinical signs of toxicosis occurred when cats were given 25 mg/kg of aspirin every 48 hours for 4 weeks.\nThe dose recommended in cats for relief of pain and fever is 10 mg/kg every 48 hours.\n",
"\n\n'''Notes'''\n* \n* \n",
"\n\n*\n* U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal – Aspirin\n* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Acetyl salicylic Acid\n* Take two: Aspirin, New uses and new dangers are still being discovered as aspirin enters its 2nd century. Shauna Roberts, American Chemical Society\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Medical use",
"Adverse effects",
"Chemical properties",
"Physical properties",
"Mechanism of action",
"Pharmacokinetics",
"History",
" Veterinary medicine ",
"References",
" External links "
] | Aspirin |
[
"\nIllustration from the Morgan Bible of Abner (in green) taking Michal away from Paltiel.\nIn the first and second Books of Samuel, '''Abner''' (Hebrew אֲבִינֵר ''’Avinêr'' meaning \"Father's Light\") was cousin to Saul and commander-in-chief of his army (1 Samuel 14:50, 20:25). He is often referred to as Avner Ben Ner, meaning, the son of Ner.\n",
"Abner is initially mentioned incidentally in Saul's history (1 Samuel 14:50, 17:55, 26:5), first appearing as the son of Ner, Saul's uncle, and the commander of Saul's army. He then comes to the story again as the commander who introduced David to Saul following David's killing of Goliath. He is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous battle of Gilboa when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, Ish-bosheth, Abner set him up as king over Israel at Mahanaim, east of the Jordan. David, who was accepted as king by Judah alone, was meanwhile reigning at Hebron, and for some time war was carried on between the two parties.\n\nThe only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at Gibeon between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (2 Samuel 2:12). In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by Asahel, brother of Joab, who is said to have been \"light of foot as a wild roe\" (2 Samuel 2:18). As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a deadly feud between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood. However, according to Josephus, in Antiquities, Book 7, Chapter 1, Joab had forgiven Abner for the death of his brother, Asahel, the reason being that Abner had slain Asahel honorably in combat after he had first warned Asahel and had no other choice but to kill him out of self-defense. This battle was part of a civil war between David and Ish-bosheth, the son of Saul. After this battle Abner switched to the side of David and granted him control over the tribe of Benjamin. This act put Abner in David's favor. The real reason that Joab killed Abner was that he became a threat to his rank of general. He then justifies it later by mentioning his brother.\n\nFor some time afterward the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length, Ish-bosheth lost the main prop of his tottering cause by accusing Abner of sleeping with Rizpah (cf. 2 Samuel 3:7), one of Saul's concubines, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, would imply pretensions to the throne (cf. 2 Samuel 16:21ff.).\n\nAbner was indignant at the rebuke, and immediately opened negotiations with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife Michal should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the assassination was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators (2 Samuel 3:31-39; cf. 1 Kings 2:31ff.).\nDavid and the tomb of Abner. Artist unknown. 19th century.\nDavid had Abner buried in Hebron, as it states in 2 Samuel 3:31-32, \"And David said to all the people who were with him, 'Rend your clothes and gird yourselves with sackcloth, and wail before Abner.' And King David went after the bier. And they buried Abner in Hebron, and the king raised his voice and wept on Abner's grave, and all the people wept.\"\n\nShortly after Abner's death, Ish-bosheth was assassinated as he slept (2 Samuel 4), and David became king of the reunited kingdoms (2 Samuel 5).\n",
"The site known as the Tomb of Abner is located not far from the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron and receives visitors throughout the year. Many travelers have recorded visiting the tomb over the centuries.\n\nBenjamin of Tudela, who began his journeys in 1165, wrote in the journal, \"The valley of Eshkhol is north of the mountain upon which Hebron stood, and the cave of Makhpela is east thereof. A bow-shot west of the cave is the sepulchre of Abner the son of Ner.\"\n\nA rabbi in the 12th century records visiting the tomb as reprinted in Elkan Nathan Adler's book ''Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages: 19 Firsthand Accounts''. The account states, \"I, Jacob, the son of R. Nathaniel ha Cohen, journeyed with much difficulty, but God helped me to enter the Holy Land, and I saw the graves of our righteous Patriarchs in Hebron and the grave of Abner the son of Ner.\" Adler postulates that the visit must have occurred prior to Saladin's capture of Jerusalem in 1187.\n\nRabbi Moses Basola records visiting the tomb in 1522. He states, \"Abner's grave is in the middle of Hebron; the Muslims built a mosque over it.\" Another visitor in the 1500s states that \"at the entrance to the market in Hebron, at the top of the hill against the wall, Abner ben Ner is buried, in a church, in a cave.\" This visit was recorded in Sefer Yihus ha-Tzaddiqim (Book of Genealogy of the Righteous), a collection of travelogues from 1561. Abraham Moshe Lunz reprinted the book in 1896.\n\nMenahem Mendel of Kamenitz, considered the first hotelier in the Land of Israel, wrote about the Tomb of Abner is his 1839 book ''Korot Ha-Itim'', which was translated into English as ''The Book of the Occurrences of the Times to Jeshurun in the Land of Israel.'' He states'', \"''Here I write of the graves of the righteous to which I paid my respects. Hebron – Described above is the character and order of behavior of those coming to pray at the Cave of ha-Machpelah. I went there, between the stores, over the grave of Avner ben Ner and was required to pay a Yishmaeli – the grave was in his courtyard – to allow me to enter.\" \n\nThe author and traveler J. J. Benjamin mentioned visiting the tomb in his book ''Eight Years in Asia and Africa'' (1859, Hanover). He states, \"On leaving the Sepulchre of the Patriarchs, and proceeding on the road leading to the Jewish quarter, to the left of the courtyard, is seen a Turkish dwelling house, by the side of which is a small grotto, to which there is a descent of several steps. This is the tomb of Abner, captain of King Saul. It is held in much esteem by the Arabs, and the proprietor of it takes care that it is always kept in the best order. He requires from those who visit it a small gratuity.\" \n\nThe British scholar Israel Abrahams wrote in his 1912 book ''The Book of Delight and Other Papers'', \"Hebron was the seat of David’s rule over Judea. Abner was slain here by Joab, and was buried here – they still show Abner’s tomb in the garden of a large house within the city. By the pool at Hebron were slain the murderers of Ishbosheth...\" \nTomb of Abner\nOver the years the tomb fell into disrepair and neglect. It was closed to the public in 1994. In 1996, a group of 12 Israeli women filed a petition with the Supreme Court requesting the government to reopen the Tomb of Abner. More requests were made over the years and eventually arrangements were made to have the site open to the general public on ten days throughout the year corresponding to the ten days that the Isaac Hall of the Cave of the Patriarchs is open. In early 2007 new mezuzot were affixed to the entrance of the site.\n",
"*1960, ''David and Goliath'' (film) – Abner portrayed by Massimo Serato. In this version, Abner tries to murder David (Ivica Pajer) when he returns in triumph after killing Goliath. However, here Abner is slain by King Saul (Orson Welles). \n*1961, ''A Story of David'' (film) – Abner portrayed by Welsh actor David Davies. \n*1976, ''The Story of David'' (television series) – Younger version of Abner portrayed by Israeli actor Yehuda Efroni. Older version of Abner portrayed by British actor Brian Blessed. \n*1985, ''King David'' (film) – Abner portrayed by English actor John Castle. King David portrayed by Richard Gere. \n*1997, ''King David'' (musical) – written by Tim Rice and Alan Menken. Abner portrayed by American actor Timothy Shew. \n*1997, ''David'' (television drama) – Abner portrayed by Richard Ashcroft.\n*2009, ''Kings'' (television series) – Abner portrayed by Wes Studi as General Linus Abner. The series is set in a multi-ethnic Western culture similar to that in the present-day United States, but with characters drawn from the Bible.\n*2012, ''Rei Davi'' (Brazilian television series) – Abner portrayed by Iran Malfitano.\n",
"\n",
"\n",
"*\n* Pictures of Avner ben Ner's Tomb in Hebron\n* Tomb of Abner page on Hebron.com website.\n* David, Abraham (ed.) (1999). ''In Zion and Jerusalem: The Itinerary of Rabbi Moses Basola (1521–1523)'' C. G. Foundation Jerusalem Project Publications of the Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies of Bar-Ilan University . Reference is made to visiting the tomb of Abner. ( p. 77).\n* Photo of prayer at the Tomb of Abner from Imagekind. \n* Photo of prayer at the Tomb of Abner from PicJew.\n* Photos of Tomb of Abner Ben Ner from the book ''Sites in Hebron'' by David Wilder. ASIN: B00ALHB89Y. \n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Biblical narrative",
"Tomb of Abner",
"In popular culture",
"Notes",
"References",
" External links "
] | Abner |
[
"\n\n\n\n'''Ahmed I''' ( ''''; ; 18 April 1590 – 22 November 1617) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 until his death in 1617. Ahmed's reign is noteworthy for marking the end of the Ottoman tradition of royal fratricide; henceforth Ottoman rulers would no longer execute their brothers upon accession to the throne. He is also well known for his construction of the Blue Mosque, one of the most famous mosques in Turkey.\n",
"Ahmed was born on 18 April 1590 at the Manisa Palace, Manisa, when his father Şehzade Mehmed was still a prince and the governor of the Sanjak of Manisa. His mother was Handan Sultan. After his grandfather Murad III's death in 1595, his father came to Constantinople and ascended the throne as Sultan Mehmed III. His father ordered the execution of nineteen of his brothers and half brothers. His elder brother Şehzade Mahmud was also executed by his own father on 7 June 1603, just before his own death on 22 December 1603. Mahmud was buried along with his mother in a separate mausoleum built by Ahmed in Şehzade Mosque, Constantinople.\n",
"Ahmed ascended the throne after his father's death in 1603, at the age of thirteen, when his powerful grandmother Safiye Sultan was still alive. A far lost uncle of Ahmed, Yahya, resented his accession to the throne and spent his life scheming to become Sultan. Ahmed broke with the traditional fratricide following previous enthronements and did not order the execution of his brother Mustafa. Instead Mustafa was sent to live at the old palace at Bayezit along with their grandmother Safiye Sultan. This was most likely due to Ahmed's young age - he had not yet demonstrated his ability to sire children, and Mustafa was then the only other candidate for the Ottoman throne. His brother's execution would have endangered the dynasty, and thus he was spared.\n\nIn the earlier part of his reign Ahmed I showed decision and vigor, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars in Hungary and Persia, which attended his accession, terminated unfavourably for the empire. Its prestige was further tarnished in the Treaty of Zsitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Following the crushing defeat in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18) against the neighbouring rivals Safavid Empire, led by Shah Abbas the Great, Georgia, Azerbaijan and other vast territories in the Caucasus were ceded back to Persia per the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha in 1612, territories that had been temporarily conquered in the Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90). The new borders were drawn per the same line as confirmed in the Peace of Amasya of 1555.\n\n=== Ottoman-Safavid War: 1604–06 ===\nAhmed in 1603, just after his accession to the throne\n\nUpon ascending the throne, Ahmed I appointed Cigalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha as the commander of the eastern army. The army marched from Constantinople on 15 June 1604, which was too late, and by the time it had arrived on the eastern front on 8 November 1604, the Safavid army had captured Yerevan and entered the Kars Eyalet, and could only be stopped in Akhaltsikhe. Despite the conditions being favourable, Sinan Pasha decided to stay for the winter in Van, but then marched to Erzurum to stop an incoming Safavid attack. This caused unrest within the army and the year was practically wasted for the Ottomans.\n\nIn 1605, Sinan Pasha marched to take Tabriz, but the army was undermined by Köse Sefer Pasha, the Beylerbey of Erzurum, marching independently from Sinan Pasha and consequently being captured as a POW by the Safavids. The Ottoman army was routed Urmia and had to flee firstly to Van and then to Diyarbekir. Here, Sinan Pasha sparked a rebellion by executing the Beylerbey of Aleppo, Canbulatoğlu Hüseyin Pasha, who had come to provide help, upon the pretext that he had arrived too late. He soon died himself and the Safavid army was able to capture Ganja, Shirvan and Shamakhi in Azerbaijan.\n\n=== War with the Habsburgs: 1604–06 ===\nGrand Vizier Malkoç Ali Pasha marched to the western front from Constantinople on 3 June 1604 and arrived in Belgrade, but died there, so Lala Mehmed Pasha was appointed as the Grand Vizier and the commander of the western army. Under Mehmed Pasha, the western army recaptured Pest and Vác, but failed to capture Esztergom as the siege was lifted due to unfavourable weather and the objections of the soldiers. Meanwhile, the Prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, who struggled for the region's independence and had formerly supported the Habsburgs, sent a messenger to the Porte asking for help. Upon the promise of help, his forces also joined the Ottoman forces in Belgrade. With this help, the Ottoman army besieged Esztergom and captured it on 4 November 1605. Bocskai, with Ottoman help, captured Nové Zámky (Uyvar) and forces under Tiryaki Hasan Pasha took Veszprém and Palota. Sarhoş İbrahim Pasha, the Beylerbey of Nagykanizsa (Kanije), attacked the Austrian region of Istria.\n\nHowever, with Jelali revolts in Anatolia more dangerous than ever and a defeat in the eastern front, Mehmed Pasha was called to Constantinople. Mehmed Pasha suddenly died there, whilst preparing to leave for the east. Kuyucu Murad Pasha then negotiated the Peace of Zsitvatorok, which abolished the tribute of 30,000 ducats paid by Austria and addressed the Habsburg emperor as the equal of the Ottoman sultan. The Jelali revolts were a strong factor in the Ottomans' acceptance of the terms. This signaled the end of Ottoman growth in Europe.\n\n=== Jelali revolts ===\nResentment over the war with the Habsburgs and heavy taxation, along with the weakness of the Ottoman military response, combined to make the reign of Ahmed I the zenith of the Jelali revolts. Tavil Ahmed launched a revolt soon after the coronation of Ahmed I and defeated Nasuh Pasha and the Beylerbey of Anatolia, Kecdehan Ali Pasha. In 1605, Tavil Ahmed was offered the position of the Beylerbey of Shahrizor to stop his rebellion, but soon afterwards he went on to capture Harput. His son, Mehmed, obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a fake firman and defeated the forces of Nasuh Pasha sent to defeat him.\n\nMeanwhile, Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha united his forces with the Druze Sheikh Ma'noğlu Fahreddin to defeat the Amir of Tripoli Seyfoğlu Yusuf. He went on to take control of the Adana area, forming an army and issuing coins. His forces routed the army of the newly appointed Beylerbey of Aleppo, Hüseyin Pasha. Grand Vizier Boşnak Dervish Mehmed Pasha was executed for the weakness he showed against the Jelalis. He was replaced by Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who marched to Syria with his forces to defeat the 30,000-strong rebel army with great difficulty, albeit with a decisive result, on 24 October 1607. Meanwhile, he pretended to forgive the rebels in Anatolia and appointed the rebel Kalenderoğlu, who was active in Manisa and Bursa, as the sanjakbey of Ankara. Baghdad was recaptured in 1607 as well. Canbulatoğlu Ali Pasha fled to Constantinople and asked for forgiveness from Ahmed I, who appointed him to Timişoara and later Belgrade, but then executed him due to his misrule there. Meanwhile, Kalenderoğlu was not allowed in the city by the people of Ankara and rebelled again, only to be crushed by Murad Pasha's forces. Kalenderoğlu ended up fleeing to Persia. Murad Pasha then suppressed some smaller revolts in Central Anatolia and suppressed other Jelali chiefs by inviting them to join the army.\n\nDue to the widespread violence of the Jelali revolts, a great number of people had fled their villages and a lot of villages were destroyed. Some military chiefs had claimed these abandoned villages as their property. This deprived the Porte of tax income and on 30 September 1609, Ahmed I issued a letter guaranteeing the rights of the villagers. He then worked on the resettlement of abandoned villages.\n\n=== Ottoman-Safavid War: Peace and continuation ===\nFranco-Ottoman Capitulations between Ahmed I and Henry IV of France, published by François Savary de Brèves in 1615\n\nThe new Grand Vizier, Nasuh Pasha, did not want to fight with the Safavids. The Safavid Shah also sent a letter saying that he was willing to sign a peace, with which he would have to send 200 loads of silk every year to Constantinople. On 20 November 1612, the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha was signed, which ceded all the lands the Ottoman Empire had gained in the war of 1578–90 back to Persia and reinstated the 1555 boundaries.\n\nHowever, the peace ended in 1615 when the Shah did not send the 200 loads of silk. On 22 May 1615, Grand Vizier Öküz Mehmed Pasha was assigned to organize an attack on Persia. Mehmed Pasha delayed the attack till the next year, until when the Safavids made their preparations and attacked Ganja. In April 1616, Mehmed Pasha left Aleppo with a large army and marched to Yerevan, where he failed to take the city and withdrew to Erzurum. He was removed from his post and replaced by Damat Halil Pasha. Halil Pasha went for the winter to Diyarbekir, while the Khan of Crimea, Canibek Giray, attacked the areas of Ganja, Nakhichevan and Julfa.\n\n=== Capitulations and trade treaties ===\nAhmed I renewed trade treaties with England, France and Venice. In July 1612, the first ever trade treaty with the Dutch Republic was signed. He expanded the capitulations given to France, specifying that merchants from Spain, Ragusa, Genoa, Ancona and Florence could trade under the French flag.\n\n=== Architect and Service to Islam ===\n\n\nSultan Ahmed constructed the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, the magnum opus of the Ottoman architecture, across from the Ayasofya mosque. The Sultan attended the breaking of the ground with a golden pickaxe to begin the construction of the mosque complex. An incident nearly broke out after the Sultan discovered that the Blue Mosque contained the same number of minarets as the grand mosque of Mecca. Sultan Ahmed became furious at this fault and became remorseful until the Shaykh-ul-Islam recommended that he should erect another Minaret at the grand mosque of Mecca and the matter was solved.\n\nThe Sultan Ahmed Mosque\n\nSultan Ahmed became delightedly involved in the eleventh comprehensive renovations of the Kaaba, which had just been damaged by flooding. He sent craftsmen from Constantinople, and the golden rain gutter that kept rain from collecting on the roof of the Ka’ba was successfully renewed. It was again during the era of Sultan Ahmed that an iron web was placed inside the Zamzam Well in Mecca. The placement of this web about three feet below the water level was a response to lunatics who jumped into the well, imagining a promise of a heroic death.\n\nIn Medina, the city of the Prophet Muhammad, a new pulpit made of white marble and shipped from Istanbul arrived in the mosque of the Prophet and substituted the old, worn out pulpit. It is also known that Sultan Ahmed erected two more mosques in Uskudar on the Asian side of Istanbul; however neither of them have survived.\n\nThe Sultan had a crest carved with the footprint of the Prophet Muhammad that he would wear on Fridays and festive days and illustrated one of the most significant examples of affection to the prophet in Ottoman History. Engraved inside the crest was a poem he composed:\n\n\n",
"Sultan Ahmed was known for his skills in fencing, poetry, horseback riding, and fluency in several languages.\n\nAhmed was a poet who wrote a number of political and lyrical works under the name Bahti. But while supportive of poetry, he displayed an aversion to artistry and continued his father's neglect of miniature painting. This was connected to a devout religiosity that declared depiction of living things in art an immoral rivalry to Allah's creation. Accordingly, Ahmed patronized scholars, calligraphers, and pious men. Hence he commissioned a book entitled ''The Quintessence of Histories'' to be worked upon by calligraphers. He also attempted to enforce conformance to Islamic laws and traditions, restoring the old regulations that prohibited alcohol and he attempted to enforce attendance at Friday prayers and paying alms to the poor in the proper way.\n\nHe was responsible for the destruction of the musical clock organ that Elizabeth I of England sent to the court during the reign of his father. The reason for this may have been Ahmed's religious objection to figurative art.\n",
"Ahmed I's türbe\n\nAhmed I died of typhus and gastric bleeding on 22 November 1617 at the Topkapı Palace, Constantinople. He was buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque. He was succeeded by his younger brother Şehzade Mustafa as Sultan Mustafa I. Later three of Ahmed's sons ascended to the throne: Osman II (r. 1618–22), Murad IV (r. 1623–40) and Ibrahim (r. 1640–48).\n",
"===Consorts===\n* Mahfiruz Hatun\n* Kösem Sultan\n\n===Sons===\n*Sultan Osman II (3 November 1604, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – murdered by janissaries and by Kara Davud Pasha, 20 May 1622, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Mahfiruz, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire;\n* Şehzade Mehmed (8 March 1605, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace – murdered by Osman II, 12 January 1621, Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque); probably with Kösem;\n* Şehzade Orhan (1609, Constantinople– 1612, Constantinople);\n* Şehzade Cihangir (1609, Constantinople- 1609, Constantinople);\n* Şehzade Selim (27 June 1611, Constantinople, Davudpaşa Palace – 27 July 1611, Constantinople);\n* Sultan Murad IV (27 July 1612, Constantinople – 8 February 1640, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Kösem, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire;\n* Şehzade Bayezid (November 1612 – murdered by Murad IV, 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Mahfiruz;\n* Şehzade Süleyman (1613, Istanbul – murdered by Murad IV, 27 July 1635, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Mahfiruz or Kösem;\n* Şehzade Hasan (25 November 1612, Constantinople – 1615, Constantinople);\n* Şehzade Hüseyin (November 1613, Constantinople – after 1622, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Mehmed III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque);\n* Şehzade Kasım (1614, Constantinople – murdered by Murad IV, 17 February 1638, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Murad III Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque), with Kösem;\n* Sultan Ibrahim (5 November 1615, Constantinople – murdered by janissaries, 18 August 1648, Constantinople, Topkapı Palace, buried in Mustafa I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque), with Kösem, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.\n\n===Daughters===\n*Gevherhan Sultan (1605 –1631, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Kösem;\n*Ayşe Sultan (1605/08 – 1656/57, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Kösem, \n*Fatma Sultan (1606 – 1667, Constantinople, buried in Ahmed I Mausoleum, Sultan Ahmed Mosque), with Kösem;\n*Hatice Sultan (1608 – 1610).\n*Hanzade Sultan (1609 – Constantinople, 21 September 1650, Constantinople, buried in Mustafa I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque), with Kösem,\n*Esma Sultan (1612 – 1612).\n*Zahide Sultan (1613 – 1620);\n*Burnaz Atike Sultan (1614 – 1674, Constantinople, buried in Mustafa I Mausoleum, Hagia Sophia Mosque), with Kösem, married firstly in 1633, Damad Hoca Sofu Kenan Pasha, sometime gentleman-in-waiting to the Sultan and Vezir, married secondly 1653, Damad Yusuf Pasha, Lord High Falconer, Vizier 1652 and Cdt. of Tuna fortress 1664-1666;\n*Zeynep Sultan (1617 – 1619);\n*Übeyde Sultan (1617 – 1675). Married 1642, Damad Küçük Musa Pasha, Vizier in 1640, and later Governor of Rumelia and Baghdad.\n",
"Today, Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque), one of the masterpieces of Islamic architecture. The area in Fatih around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He died at Topkapı Palace in Constantinople and is buried in a mausoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque.\n",
"In the 2015 TV series ''Muhteşem Yüzyıl: Kösem'', Ahmed I is portrayed by Turkish actor Ekin Koç.\n",
"*Transformation of the Ottoman Empire\n* Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n\naged 27\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"Early life",
"Reign",
"Character",
"Death",
"Family",
"Legacy",
"In popular culture",
"See also",
"References",
"External links"
] | Ahmed I |
[
"\n\n'''Ahmed II''' (Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثانى ''Aḥmed-i sānī'') (25 February 1643 – 6 February 1695) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1691 to 1695. Ahmed II was born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, the son of Sultan Ibrahim (1640–48) by Muazzez Sultan, and succeeded his brother Suleiman II (1687–91) in 1691.\n",
"Ahmed II was born on 25 February 1643, the son of Sultan Ibrahim and Muazzez Sultan. During the reigns of his older brothers, Ahmed was imprisoned in Kafes, and he stayed there almost 43 years.\n",
"\nDuring his short reign, Sultan Ahmed II devoted most of his attention to the wars against the Habsburgs and related foreign policy, governmental and economic issues. Of these, the most important were the tax reforms and the introduction of the lifelong tax farm system (malikane) (see tax farming). Following the recovery of Belgrade under his predecessor, Suleiman II, the military frontier reached a rough stalemate on the Danube, with the Habsburgs no longer able to advance south of it, and the Ottomans attempting, ultimately unsuccessfully, to regain the initiative north of it.\n\nAmong the most important features of Ahmed’s reign was his reliance on Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha. Following his accession to the throne, Sultan Ahmed II confirmed Köprülüzade Fazıl Mustafa Pasha in his office as grand vizier. In office from 1689, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha was from the famous Köprülü family of grand viziers, and like most of his Köprülü predecessors in the same office, was an able administrator and military commander. Like his father Köprülü Mehmed Pasha (grand vizier 1656–61) before him, he ordered the removal and execution of dozens of corrupt state officials of the previous regime and replaced them with men loyal to himself. He overhauled the tax system by adjusting it to the capabilities of the taxpayers affected by the latest wars. He also reformed troop mobilization and increased the pool of conscripts available for the army by drafting tribesmen in the Balkans and Anatolia. In October 1690 he recaptured Belgrade (northern Serbia), a key fortress that commanded the confluence of the rivers Danube and Sava; in Ottoman hands since 1521, the fortress had been conquered by the Habsburgs in 1688.\n\nFazıl Mustafa Pasha’s victory at Belgrade was a major military achievement that gave the Ottomans hope that the military debacles of the 1680s—which had led to the loss of Hungary and Transylvania, an Ottoman vassal principality ruled by pro-Istanbul Hungarian princes— could be reversed. However, Ottoman success proved ephemeral. On 19 August 1691, Fazıl Mustafa Pasha suffered a devastating defeat at Slankamen (northwest of Belgrade) at the hands of Ludwig Wilhelm von Baden, the Habsburg commander in chief in Hungary, fittingly nicknamed “Türkenlouis” (Louis the Turk) for his splendid victories against the Ottomans. In the confrontation, recognized by contemporaries as “the bloodiest battle of the century,” the Ottomans suffered heavy losses: 20,000 men, including the grand vizier. With him, the sultan lost his most capable military commander and the last member of the Köprülü family, who for the previous half century had been instrumental in strengthening the Ottoman military.\n\nUnder Fazıl Mustafa Pasha’s successors, the Ottomans suffered further defeats. In June 1692 the Habsburgs conquered Várad (Oradea, Romania), the seat of an Ottoman governor (beylerbeyi) since 1660. In 1694 they attempted to recapture Várad, but to no avail. On 12 January 1695, they surrendered the fortress of Gyula, the center of an Ottoman sancak or subprovince since 1566. With the fall of Gyula, the only territory still in Ottoman hands in Hungary was to the east of the River Tisza and to the south of the river Maros, with its center at Temesvár. Three weeks later, on 6 February 1695, Ahmed II died in Edirne Palace.\n",
";Consorts\n*Rabia Sultan;\n*Şayeste Kadın.\n\n;Sons\n*Şehzade Ibrahim (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 6 October 1692 – Topkapı Palace, Istanbul, 4 May 1714, buried in Turhan Hatice Sultan Mausoleum, New Mosque), with Rabia Sultan, twin with Selim, became Crown Prince on 22 August 1703;\n*Şehzade Selim (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 6 October 1692 – Edirne Palace, Edirne, 15 May 1693), with Rabia Sultan, twin with Ibrahim.\n\n;Daughters\n*Asiye Sultan (Edirne Palace, Edirne, 24 December 1693 – Eski Palace, Bayezid, Istanbul, 9 December 1695, buried in Suleiman I Mausoleum, Süleymaniye Mosque), with Rabia;\n*Hatice Sultan (died Eski Palace, Bayezid, Istanbul, 1694, buried in Hürrem Sultan Mausoleum, Süleymaniye Mosque).\n*Atike Sultan (born and died 21 October 1694).\n",
"*\n*Michael Hochendlinger, Austria’s Wars of Emergence: War, State and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy, 1683–1797 (London: Longman, 2003), 157–64.\n",
"\n",
"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Early life ",
"Reign",
"Family",
"Further reading",
" References ",
" External links "
] | Ahmed II |
[
"\n'''Ahmed III''' (Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثالث, ''Aḥmed-i sālis'') (30/31 December 16731 July 1736) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648–87). His mother was Emetullah Rabia Gülnuş Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek. He was born at Hacıoğlu Pazarcık, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703). Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and the Sultan's daughter, Fatma Sultan (wife of the former) directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the ''Tulip Era''.\n",
"Ahmed III cultivated good relations with France, doubtless in view of Russia's menacing attitude. He afforded refuge in Ottoman territory to Charles XII of Sweden (1682–1718) after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia (1672–1725) in the Battle of Poltava of 1709. In 1710 Charles XII convinced Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Pasha won a major victory at the Battle of Prut. In the aftermath, Russia returned Azov back to the Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering in the affairs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.\n\nForced against his will into war with Russia, Ahmed III came nearer than any Ottoman sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whose armies his grand vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha succeeded in completely surrounding at the Pruth River Campaign in 1711. The subsequent Ottoman victories against Russia enabled the Ottoman Empire to advance to Moscow, had the Sultan wished. However, this was halted as a report reached Istanbul that the Safavids were invading the Ottoman Empire, causing a period of panic, turning the Sultan's attention away from Russia.\n\nSultan Ahmed III had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; on September 20, 1730, a mutinous riot of seventeen Janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Halil, was aided by the citizens as well as the military until it swelled into an insurrection in front of which the Sultan was forced to give up the throne.\n\nAhmed voluntarily led his nephew Mahmud I (1730–54) to the seat of sovereignty and paid allegiance to him as Sultan of the Empire. He then retired to the Kafes previously occupied by Mahmud and died at Topkapı Palace after six years of confinement.\n",
"\nSultan Ahmed III receives French ambassador Vicomte d'Andrezel at Topkapı Palace.\nFrench ambassador Marquis de Bonnac being received by Sultan Ahmed III.\nSultan Ahmed III at a reception, painted in 1720\nThe reign of Ahmed III lasted for twenty-seven years and was not unsuccessful. The recovery of Azov and the Morea, and the conquest of part of Persia, managed to counterbalance the Balkan territory ceded to the Habsburg Monarchy through the Treaty of Passarowitz, after the Ottoman Empire was defeated in Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18. In 1716, he sent an army of 33,000 men to capture Corfu from the Republic of Venice but that expedition eventually failed,\n\nAhmed III left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had remarkably been obtained without excessive taxation or extortion procedures. He was a cultivated patron of literature and art, and it was in his time that the first printing press authorized to use the Arabic or Turkish languages was set up in Istanbul, operated by Ibrahim Muteferrika (while the printing press had been introduced to Constantinople in 1480, all works published before 1729 were in Greek, Armenian, or Hebrew).\nminiature of Sultan Ahmed III by Levni\nIt was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principalities was introduced: previously, the Porte had appointed Hospodars, usually native Moldavian and Wallachian boyars, to administer those provinces; after the Russian campaign of 1711, during which Peter the Great found an ally in Moldavia Prince Dimitrie Cantemir, the Porte began overtly deputizing Phanariote Greeks in that region, and extended the system to Wallachia after Prince Stefan Cantacuzino established links with Eugene of Savoy. The Phanariotes constituted a kind of ''Dhimmi'' nobility, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state.\n",
"\n===Jahandar Shah===\nIn the year 1712, the Mughal Emperor Jahandar Shah, a grandson of Aurangzeb sent gifts to the Ottoman Sultan Ahmad III and referred to himself as the Ottoman Sultan's devoted admirer.\n\n===Farrukhsiyar===\nThe Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar a grandson of Aurangzeb, is also known to have sent a letter to the Ottomans but this time it was received by the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha providing a graphic description of the efforts of the Mughal commander Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha against the Rajput and Maratha rebellion.\n",
"=== Consorts ===\n#Emetullah Kadın (d. 1732)\n#Mihrişah Kadın, mother of Mustafa III\n#Şermi Kadın, mother of Abdul Hamid I\n#Ümmügülsüm Kadın (d. 1768)\n#Hatem Kadın \n#Hüsnüşah Kadın (d. 1733)\n#Hatice Kadın (d. 1712)\n#Zeynep Kadın (d. 1757)\n#Şahin Kadın (d. 1723)\n#Şayeste Kadın \n#Ayşe Behri Kadın \n#Fatıma Hümaşah Kadın (d. 1732)\n#Muslihe Kadın (d. 1750)\n#Gülşen Kadın (d. 1731)\n#Hürrem Kadın\n#Meyli Kadın \n#Rukiye Kadın (d. 1738)\n#Nazife Kadın \n#Nejat Kadın \n#Sadık Kadın\n#Hanife Kadın\n\n\n\n=== Sons ===\n• Şehzade Musa (5 January 1696 - 26 May 1730):\n* Şehzade Mehmed (1 March 1697June 1703).\n* Şehzade İbrahim (1704bef. 1720).\n* Şehzade Alaeddin (25 November 170520 June 1706).\n* Şehzade Murad (January 17065 April 1708).\n* Şehzade İsa (23 February 170625 May 1706), son of Hürrem Kadın\n* Şehzade Ali (18 June 170612 September 1706).\n* Şehzade Yahya (6 September 17074 May 1708), son of Hürrem Kadın\n* Şehzade Alemşah (17 November 1707died young).\n* Şehzade Abdurrahman (4 February 17081 April 1708).\n* Şehzade Abdülmecid (12 December 17098 March 1710), twin with Abdülmelik.\n* Şehzade Abdülmelik (12 December 17097 March 1711), twin with Abdülmecid.\n* Şehzade Bilal (born 1710died young).\n* Şehzade Süleyman (25 August 171011 December 1732), son of Mihrişah Kadın\n* Şehzade Osman (17 October 171215 July 1713), son of Hürrem Kadın\n* Şehzade Cihangir (171211 July 1715).\n* Şehzade Mahmud (17 October 171322 December 1756).\n* Şehzade Selim (20 April 1715February 1718), twin with Saliha Sultan; son of Hatem Kadın\n* Şehzade Ishak (1 December 1715died young).\n* Şehzade Hamza (1 January 1717murdered 22 December 1756), Crown Prince since 13 December 1754.\n* Mustafa III (28 January 171721 January 1774), son of Mihrişah Kadın\n* Şehzade Bayezid (4 October 171825 January 1771), Crown Prince since 30 January 1757; son of Mihrişah Kadın\n* Şehzade Hasan 28 August 1719, 29 September 1721;\n* Şehzade Orhan (6 December 1718died young).\n* Şehzade Yonus (September 171912 December 1719).\n* Şehzade Abdullah (18 December 171919 December 1719), son of Hürrem Kadın\n* Şehzade İsmail (9 January 17215 April 1721).\n* Şehzade Davud (born and died 4 April 1721).\n* Şehzade Yosuf (born and died 20 August 1722).\n* Şehzade Ömer (born 1722died young), son of Hürrem Kadın\n* Şehzade Numan (22 February 172329 December 1764), Second Crown Prince since 30 January 1757.\n* Şehzade Korkut (1723 died aft. 1774).\n* Abdul Hamid I (20 March 17257 April 1789), son of Şermi Kadın\n* Şehzade Seyfeddin (3 February 17281732).\n* Şehzade Ahmed (8 March 17281728).\n• Şehzade suleiman\n\n=== Daughters ===\n\n* Fatma Sultan (22 October 17043 January 1733), daughter of Emetullah Kadın. \n* Ayşe Sultan (1705–1706).\n* Hatice Sultan (22 December 170621 January 1708), daughter of Rukiye Kadın. \n* Rukiye Sultan (2 May 17074 May 1708).\n* Zeynep Sultan (7 February 170814 November 1708), twin with Ümmügülsüm Sultan; daughter of Mihrişah Kadın. \n* Ümmügülsüm Sultan (7 February 1708November 1732), twin with Zeynep Sultan; daughter of Mihrişah Kadın. \n* Kosem Sultan (5 January 17101 August 1710).\n* Hurem Sultan (8 February 1710died young).\n* Mihiriban Sultan (28 September 17101738).\n* Atike Sultan (28 February 17121737). \n* Akile Sultan (7 March 17121 October 1714).\n* Nurbanu Sultan (8 April 171425 March 1774), daughter of Şermi Kadın;\n* Saliha Sultan (20 April 171511 October 1778), twin with Şehzade Selim; daughter of Hatem Kadin\n* Ayşe Sultan (11 October 17159 July 1775). \n* Ferdane Sultan (1718died young).\n* Ümmüselma Sultan (born and died 26 December 1718).\n* Ümmüselma Sultan (born and died 1719).\n* Nazife Sultan (1719–1721).\n* Rabia Sultan (19 November 17191721).\n* Hatice Sultan (20 November 17191738).\n* Reyhan Sultan (born and died 12 December 1719).\n* Beyhan Sultan (born and died 1720).\n* Emine Sultan (1720–1723).\n* Rukiye Sultan (born and died 30 January 1720).\n* Emetullah Sultan (23 December 17195 February 1720).\n* Naile Sultan (172210 December 1726).\n* Rabia Sultan (1722–1729).\n* Emetullah Sultan (17 September 172328 January 1724)\n* Ümmüselma Sultan (1725–1732).\n* Musta Sultan (May 172529 December 1764 \n* Sabiha Sultan (26 November 17263 December 1726 \n* Zübeyde Sultan (29 March 17284 June 1756), daughter of Hatem Kadın. \n* Ümmühabibe Sultan (1729–1730).\n* Akile Sultan (1730–1737).\n",
"In Voltaire's ''Candide'', the eponymous main character meets the deposed Ahmed III on a ship from Venice to Constantinople. The Sultan is in the company of five other deposed European monarchs, and he tells Candide, who initially doubts his credentials:\n\nI am not jesting, my name is Achmet III. For several years I was Sultan; I dethroned my brother; my nephew dethroned me; they cut off the heads of my viziers; I am ending my days in the old seraglio; my nephew, Sultan Mahmoud, sometimes allows me to travel for my health, and I have come to spend the Carnival at Venice.\" \n\nThis episode was taken up by the modern Turkish writer Nedim Gürsel as the setting of his 2001 novel ''Le voyage de Candide à Istanbul''.\n\nIn fact, there is no evidence of the deposed Sultan being allowed to make such foreign travels, nor did Voltaire (or Gürsel) assert that it had any actual historical foundation.\n",
"* Fountain of Ahmed III\n* Fountain of Ahmed III (Üsküdar)\n* Ibrahim Muteferrika\n* Esma Sultan, daughter of Ahmed III\n",
"\n",
"* This article incorporates text from the ''History of Ottoman Turks'' (1878)\n* \n",
"+\n\n\n\n\naged 62\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
" Biography ",
" Ahmed III's rule ",
"Relations with the Mughal Empire",
" Marriages and issue ",
"In fiction",
" See also ",
" References ",
"Sources",
" External links "
] | Ahmed III |
[
"\n\n\n\nThe '''Ainu''' or the '''Aynu''' (Ainu アィヌ ''Aynu''; Japanese: ''Ainu''; Russian: ''Ajny''), in the historical Japanese texts '''Ezo''' () or '''Ainu''' (), are an indigenous people of Japan (Hokkaido, and formerly northeastern Honshu) and Russia (Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and formerly the Kamchatka Peninsula).\n\nThe official number of the Ainu is 25,000, but unofficially is estimated at 200,000 due to many Ainu having been completely assimilated into Japanese society and, as a result, having no knowledge of their ancestry.\n",
"A group of Ainu people, c. 1870\n\n===Pre-modern===\nRecent research suggests that Ainu culture originated from a merger of the Okhotsk and Satsumon cultures. In 1264, Ainu invaded the land of Nivkh people controlled by the Yuan Dynasty of Mongolia, resulting in battles between Ainu and the Chinese. Active contact between the Wajin (the ethnically Japanese) and the Ainu of Ezochi (now known as Hokkaido) began in the 13th century. The Ainu formed a society of hunter-gatherers, surviving mainly by hunting and fishing. They followed a religion which was based on natural phenomena.\n\nDuring the Muromachi period (1336–1573), the disputes between the Japanese and Ainu developed into a war. Takeda Nobuhiro killed the Ainu leader, Koshamain. Many Ainu were subject to Japanese rule which led to a violent Ainu revolt such as Koshamain's Revolt (:ja:コシャマインの戦い) in 1456.\n\nDuring the Edo period (1601–1868) the Ainu, who controlled the northern island which is now named Hokkaido, became increasingly involved in trade with the Japanese who controlled the southern portion of the island. The Tokugawa bakufu (feudal government) granted the Matsumae clan exclusive rights to trade with the Ainu in the northern part of the island. Later, the Matsumae began to lease out trading rights to Japanese merchants, and contact between Japanese and Ainu became more extensive. Throughout this period the Ainu became increasingly dependent on goods imported by the Japanese, and were suffering from epidemic diseases such as smallpox.\nAlthough the increased contact created by the trade between the Japanese and the Ainu contributed to increased mutual understanding, it also led to conflict which occasionally intensified into violent Ainu revolts. The most important was Shakushain's Revolt (1669–1672), an Ainu rebellion against Japanese authority. Another large-scale revolt by Ainu against Japanese rule was the Menashi-Kunashir Battle in 1789.\n\n===Meiji Restoration and later===\nIn the 18th century, there were 80,000 Ainu. In 1868, there were about 15,000 Ainu in Hokkaido, 2000 in Sakhalin and around 100 in the Kuril islands.\n\n''Metropolitan'' magazine reported, \"Many Ainu were forced to work, essentially as slaves, for Wajin (ethnic Japanese), resulting in the breakup of families and the introduction of smallpox, measles, cholera, and tuberculosis into their community. In 1869, the new Meiji government renamed Ezo as Hokkaido and unilaterally incorporated it into Japan. It banned the Ainu language, took Ainu land away, and prohibited salmon fishing and deer hunting.\"\n\nThe beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868 proved a turning point for Ainu culture. The Japanese government introduced a variety of social, political, and economic reforms in hope of modernizing the country in the Western style. One innovation involved the annexation of Hokkaido. Sjöberg quotes Baba's (1980) account of the Japanese government's reasoning:\n\n\n\" … The development of Japan's large northern island had several objectives: First, it was seen as a means to defend Japan from a rapidly developing and expansionist Russia. Second … it offered a solution to the unemployment for the former samurai class … Finally, development promised to yield the needed natural resources for a growing capitalist economy.\"\n\n\nIn 1899, the Japanese government passed an act labelling the Ainu as \"former aborigines\", with the idea they would assimilate—this resulted in the Japanese government taking the land where the Ainu people lived and placing it from then on under Japanese control. Also at this time, the Ainu were granted automatic Japanese citizenship, effectively denying them the status of an indigenous group.\n\nAinu bear sacrifice. Japanese scroll painting, .\nThe Ainu were becoming increasingly marginalized on their own land—over a period of only 36 years, the Ainu went from being a relatively isolated group of people to having their land, language, religion and customs assimilated into those of the Japanese. In addition to this, the land the Ainu lived on was distributed to the Wajin who had decided to move to Hokkaido, encouraged by the Japanese government of the Meiji era to take advantage of the island's abundant natural resources, and to create and maintain farms in the model of Western industrial agriculture. While at the time, the process was openly referred to as colonization (\"takushoku\" 拓殖), the notion was later reframed by Japanese elites to the currently common usage \"kaitaku\" (開拓), which instead conveys a sense of opening up or reclamation of the Ainu lands. As well as this, factories such as flour mills, beer breweries and mining practices resulted in the creation of infrastructure such as roads and railway lines, during a development period that lasted until 1904. During this time, the Ainu were forced to learn Japanese, required to adopt Japanese names, and ordered to cease religious practices such as animal sacrifice and the custom of tattooing.\n\nThe 1899 act mentioned above was replaced in 1997—until then the government had stated there were no ethnic minority groups. It was not until June 6, 2008, that Japan formally recognised the Ainu as an indigenous group (see Official Recognition, below).\n\nOki, in Germany in 2007\n\nThe vast majority of these Wajin men are believed to have compelled Ainu women into partnering with them as local wives. Intermarriage between Japanese and Ainu was actively promoted by the Ainu to lessen the chances of discrimination against their offspring. As a result, many Ainu are indistinguishable from their Japanese neighbors, but some Ainu-Japanese are interested in traditional Ainu culture. For example, Oki, born as a child of an Ainu father and a Japanese mother, became a musician who plays the traditional Ainu instrument ''tonkori''. There are also many small towns in the southeastern or Hidaka region where ethnic Ainu live such as in Nibutani (Ainu: ''Niputay''). Many live in Sambutsu especially, on the eastern coast. In 1966 the number of \"pure\" Ainu was about 300.\n\nTheir most widely known ethnonym is derived from the word ''ainu'', which means \"human\" (particularly as opposed to ''kamui'', divine beings), basically neither ethnicity nor the name of a race, in the Hokkaido dialects of the Ainu language. Ainu is the word Ainu identify themselves as from their first male ancestor Aioina; Ainu means ''human'' in the Ainu language. Ainu also identify themselves as ''Utari'' (''comrade'' in the Ainu language). Official documents use both names.\n\n===Official recognition in Japan===\nMap of Ainu in Hokkaido\n\nOn June 6, 2008, the Japanese Diet passed a bipartisan, non-binding resolution calling upon the government to recognize the Ainu people as indigenous to Japan, and urging an end to discrimination against the group. The resolution recognised the Ainu people as \"an indigenous people with a distinct language, religion and culture\". The government immediately followed with a statement acknowledging its recognition, stating, \"The government would like to solemnly accept the historical fact that many Ainu were discriminated against and forced into poverty with the advancement of modernization, despite being legally equal to (Japanese) people.\"\n\n\n===Official recognition in Russia===\n\nAs a result of the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875), the Kuril Islands – along with their Ainu inhabitants – came under Japanese administration. A total of 83 North Kuril Ainu arrived in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on September 18, 1877, after they decided to remain under Russian rule. They refused the offer by Russian officials to move to new reservations in the Commander Islands. Finally a deal was reached in 1881 and the Ainu decided to settle in the village of Yavin. In March 1881, the group left Petropavlovsk and started the journey towards Yavin on foot. Four months later they arrived at their new homes. Another village, Golygino, was founded later. Under Soviet rule, both the villages were forced to disband and residents were moved to the Russian-dominated Zaporozhye rural settlement in Ust-Bolsheretsky Raion. As a result of intermarriage, the three ethnic groups assimilated to form the Kamchadal community. In 1953, K. Omelchenko, the minister for the protection of military and state secrets in the USSR, banned the press from publishing any more information on the Ainu living in the USSR. This order was revoked after two decades.\n\nAinu hunters, 19th century\n, the North Kuril Ainu of Zaporozhye form the largest Ainu subgroup in Russia. The Nakamura clan (South Kuril Ainu on their paternal side), the smallest group, numbers just six people residing in Petropavlovsk. On Sakhalin island, a few dozen people identify themselves as Sakhalin Ainu, but many more with partial Ainu ancestry do not acknowledge it. Most of the 888 Japanese people living in Russia (2010 Census) are of mixed Japanese-Ainu ancestry, although they do not acknowledge it (full Japanese ancestry gives them the right of visa-free entry to Japan.) Similarly, no one identifies themselves as Amur Valley Ainu, although people with partial descent live in Khabarovsk. There is no evidence of living descendants of the Kamchatka Ainu.\n\nIn the 2010 Census of Russia, close to 100 people tried to register themselves as ethnic Ainu in the village, but the governing council of Kamchatka Krai rejected their claim and enrolled them as ethnic Kamchadal. In 2011, the leader of the Ainu community in Kamchatka, Alexei Vladimirovich Nakamura, requested that Vladimir Ilyukhin (Governor of Kamchatka) and Boris Nevzorov (Chairman of the State Duma) include the Ainu in the central list of the Indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East. This request was also turned down.\n\nEthnic Ainu living in Sakhalin Oblast and Khabarovsk Krai are not organized politically. According to Alexei Nakamura, only 205 Ainu live in Russia (up from just 12 people who self-identified as Ainu in 2008) and they along with the Kurile Kamchadals (Itelmen of Kuril islands) are fighting for official recognition. Since the Ainu are not recognized in the official list of the peoples living in Russia, they are counted as people without nationality or as ethnic Russians or Kamchadal.\n\nThe Ainu have emphasized that they were the natives of the Kuril islands and that the Japanese and Russians were both invaders. In 2004, the small Ainu community living in Russia in Kamchatka Krai wrote a letter to Vladimir Putin, urging him to reconsider any move to award the Southern Kuril Islands to Japan. In the letter they blamed the Japanese, the Tsarist Russians and the Soviets for crimes against the Ainu such as killings and assimilation, and also urged him to recognize the Japanese genocide against the Ainu people, which was turned down by Putin.\n\n both the Kurile Ainu and Kurile Kamchadal ethnic groups lack the fishing and hunting rights which the Russian government grants to the indigenous tribal communities of the far north.\n",
"Distribution of sinodonts and sundadonts in Asia, shown by yellow and red. Also shown are Australoids, indicated by A, and Negritos, indicated by N.\nAinu man, circa 1880.\nJohn Batchelor took a picture of this Ainu man who Batchelor said had body hair completely covering his body.\nThe Ainu have often been considered to descend from the Jōmon people, who lived in Japan from the Jōmon period. One of their ''Yukar Upopo'', or legends, tells that \"The Ainu lived in this place a hundred thousand years before the Children of the Sun came\".\n\nRecent research suggests that the historical Ainu culture originated in a merger of the Okhotsk culture with the Satsumon, one of the ancient archaeological cultures that are considered to have derived from the Jōmon period cultures of the Japanese Archipelago. Their economy was based on farming, as well as hunting, fishing and gathering.\n\nFull-blooded Ainu, compared to people of Yamato descent, often have lighter skin and more body hair. Many early investigators proposed a Caucasian ancestry, although recent DNA tests have not shown any genetic similarity with modern Europeans. Cavalli-Sforza places the Ainu in his \"Northeast and East Asian\" genetic cluster.\n\nAnthropologist Joseph Powell of the University of New Mexico wrote \"...we follow Brace and Hunt (1990) and Turner (1990) in viewing the Ainu as a southeast Asian population derived from early Jomon peoples of Japan, who have their closest biological affinity with south Asians rather than western Eurasia peoples\".\n\nAinu men often have heavy beards.\nAinu woman with mouth tattoos and live bear.\nMark J. Hudson, Professor of Anthropology at Nishikyushu University, Kanzaki, Saga, Japan, said Japan was settled by a \"Proto-Mongoloid\" population in the Pleistocene who became the Jōmon and their features can be seen in the Ainu and Okinawan people.\n\nIn 1893, anthropologist Arnold Henry Savage Landor described the Ainu as having deep-set eyes and an eye shape typical of Europeans, with a large and prominent browridge, large ears, hairy and prone to baldness, slightly flattened hook nose with large and broad nostrils, prominent cheek bones, large mouth and thick lips and a long region from nose to mouth and small chin region.\n\nOmoto has also shown that the Ainu are Mongoloid, and not Caucasoid, on the basis of fingerprints and dental morphology.\n\nTurner found remains of Jōmon people of Japan to belong to Sundadont pattern similar with the Southern Mongoloid living populations of Taiwanese aborigines, Filipinos, Vietnamese, Indonesians, Thais, Borneans, Laotians, and Malaysians. A recreation of a map made by William W. Howells, professor of anthropology at Harvard University, the shaded are the remnants and populations of non-Mongoloid people, appearing as N (Negrito) or A (Australoids of Wallacea, Melanesia and Australia). The latter peoples comprise the present aboriginals of Australia and Melanesia, as shown; the interest here is their presence and remnants. 'Sundadonts' comprise Southeast Asiatics and offshore peoples from northern Japan (Ainu) down to Taiwan and Indonesia. 'Sinodont' comprises the East Asian populations from Korea, Japan, China, Mongolia and Siberia.\n\nAinu men have abundant wavy hair and often have long beards. The book of ''Ainu Life and Legends'' by author Kyōsuke Kindaichi (published by the Japanese Tourist Board in 1942) contains the physical description of Ainu: \"Many have wavy hair, but some straight black hair. Very few of them have wavy brownish hair. Their skins are generally reported to be light brown. But this is due to the fact that they labor on the sea and in briny winds all day. Old people who have long desisted from their outdoor work are often found to be as white as western men. The Ainu have broad faces, beetling eyebrows, and large sunken eyes, which are generally horizontal and of the so-called European type. Eyes of the Mongolian type are hardly found among them.\"\n\n=== Genetics ===\n1843 illustration of Ainu\n\nGenetic testing has shown them to belong mainly to Y-haplogroup D-M55. Y-DNA haplogroup D1b is found frequently throughout the Japanese Archipelago including Okinawa. The only places outside Japan in which Y-haplogroup D is common are Tibet in China and the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean.\n\nNivkh couple (right)\nIn a study by Tajima ''et al.'' (2004), two out of a sample of sixteen (or 12.5%) Ainu men have been found to belong to Haplogroup C-M217, which is the most common Y-chromosome haplogroup among the indigenous populations of Siberia and Mongolia. Hammer ''et al.'' (2006) have tested a sample of four Ainu men and have found that one of them belongs to haplogroup C-M217. Some researchers have speculated that this minority of Haplogroup C-M217 carriers among the Ainu may reflect a certain degree of unidirectional genetic influence from the Nivkhs, a traditionally nomadic people of northern Sakhalin and the adjacent mainland, with whom the Ainu have long-standing cultural interactions.\n\nBased on analysis of one sample of 51 modern Ainus, their mtDNA lineages have been reported to consist mainly of haplogroup Y (11/51 = 21.6% according to Tanaka ''et al.'' 2004, or 10/51 = 19.6% according to Adachi ''et al.'' 2009, who have cited Tajima ''et al.'' 2004), haplogroup D (9/51 = 17.6%, particularly D4(xD1)), haplogroup M7a (8/51 = 15.7%), and haplogroup G1 (8/51 = 15.7%). Other mtDNA haplogroups detected in this sample include A (2/51), M7b2 (2/51), N9b (1/51), B4f (1/51), F1b (1/51), and M9a (1/51). Most of the remaining individuals in this sample have been classified definitively only as belonging to macro-haplogroup M. According to Sato ''et al.'' (2009), who have studied the mtDNA of the same sample of modern Ainus (n=51), the major haplogroups of the Ainu are N9 (14/51 = 27.5%, including 10/51 Y and 4/51 N9(xY)), D (12/51 = 23.5%, including 8/51 D(xD5) and 4/51 D5), M7 (10/51 = 19.6%), and G (10/51 = 19.6%, including 8/51 G1 and 2/51 G2); the minor haplogroups are A (2/51), B (1/51), F (1/51), and M(xM7, M8, CZ, D, G) (1/51). Studies published in 2004 and 2007 show the combined frequency of M7a and N9b were observed in Jomons and which are believed by some to be Jomon maternal contribution at 28% in Okinawans (7/50 M7a1, 6/50 M7a(xM7a1), 1/50 N9b), 17.6% in Ainus (8/51 M7a(xM7a1), 1/51 N9b), and from 10% (97/1312 M7a(xM7a1), 1/1312 M7a1, 28/1312 N9b) to 17% (15/100 M7a1, 2/100 M7a(xM7a1)) in mainstream Japanese.\n\nA recent reevaluation of cranial traits suggests that the Ainu resemble the Okhotsk more than they do the Jōmon. This agrees with the reference to the Ainu being a merger of Okhotsk and Satsumon referenced above. A recent genetic study by Choongwon Jeong, Shigeki Nakagome, and Anna Di Rienzo, published in 2015, has revealed that the Ainu's closest human relatives are the Itelmen, Chukchi, Koryak, Yakut, and Nivkh peoples of Northeast Siberia who live around the lands surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk.\n",
"Historical expanse of Ainu\n\nThe Ainu were distributed in the northern and central islands of Japan, from Sakhalin island in the north to the Kuril Islands and the island of Hokkaido and Northern Honshū, although some investigators place their former range as throughout Honshū. Others place them as far north as the southern tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula in what is now Cape Lopatka. The island of Hokkaido was known to the Ainu as Ainu Moshir, and was formally annexed by the Japanese at the late date of 1868, partly as a means of preventing the intrusion of the Russians, and partly for imperialist reasons.\n\nA group of Sakhalin Ainu, c. 1903\nAccording to the Russian Empire Census of 1897, 1,446 persons in the Russian Empire reported Ainu language as their mother tongue, 1,434 of them in Sakhalin Island.\n\nThe southern half of Sakhalin was acquired by Japan as a result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, but at the end of World War II in 1945, the Soviets declared war on Japan and took possession of the Kuril islands and southern Sakhalin. The Ainu population, as previously Japanese subjects, were \"repatriated\" to Japan.\n\nDuring Tsarist times, the Ainu living in Russia were forbidden from identifying themselves as such, since Imperial Japanese officials claimed that all the regions inhabited by the Ainu in the past or present belonged to Japan. The terms \"Kurile\", \"Kamchatka Kurile\", etc., were used to identify the ethnic group. During Soviet times, people with Ainu surnames were sent to gulags and labor camps, as they were often mistaken for Japanese. As a result, large numbers of Ainu changed their surnames to Slavic ones. After World War II, most of the Ainu living in Sakhalin were deported to Japan. Of the 1,159 Ainu, only around 100 remained in Russia. Of those who remained, only the elderly were full-blooded Ainu. Others were either mixed race or married to ethnic Russians. The last of the Ainu households disappeared in the late 1960s, when Yamanaka Kitaro killed himself after the death of his wife. The couple was childless. To eradicate Ainu identity, Soviet authorities removed the ethnic group from the list of nationalities which could be mentioned in a Soviet passport. Due to this, children born after 1945 were not able to identify themselves as Ainu. The last known deportation of Ainu to Japan occurred in 1982, when Keizo Nakamura, a full blooded Northern Kuril Ainu, was deported to Hokkaido after serving 15 years' hard labor in the province of Magadan. His wife, Tamara Timofeevna Pikhteevoi, was of mixed Sakhalin Ainu and Gilyak ancestry. After the arrest of Keizo in 1967, Tamara and her son Alexei Nakamura were expelled from Kamchatka Krai and sent to the island of Sakhalin, to live in the city of Tomari. \nMatsumae border customs, 18th century\nUnlike the other Ainu clans currently living in Russia, there is considerable doubt whether the Nakamura clan of Kamchatka should be identified as Northern Kuril Ainu, Southern Kuril Ainu or as Kamchatka Ainu. This is due to the fact that the clan originally immigrated to Kamchatka from Kunashir in 1789. The Ainu of Kunashir are South Kuril Ainu. They settled down near Kurile Lake, which was inhabited by the Kamchatka Ainu and North Kuril Ainu. In 1929 the Ainu of Kurile Lake fled to the island of Paramushir after an armed conflict with the Soviet authorities. At that time, Paramushir was under Japanese rule. During the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, Akira Nakamura (b. 1897) was captured by the Soviet army and his elder son Takeshi Nakamura (1925–45) was killed in the battle. Akira's only surviving son, Keizo (b. 1927), was taken prisoner and joined the Soviet Army after his capture. After the war, Keizo went to Korsakov to work in the local harbor. In 1963 he married Tamara Pikhtivoi, a member of the Sakhalin Ainu tribe. Their only child Alexei was born in 1964. The descendants of Tamara and Alexei are found in Kamchatka and Sakhalin.\n\nIn 1979 the USSR removed the term \"Ainu\" from the list of ''living'' ethnic groups of Russia, an act by which the government proclaimed that the Ainu as an ethnic group were extinct in its territory. According to the 2002 Russian Federation census, no respondents gave the ethnonym Ainu in boxes 7 or 9.2 in the K-1 form of the census, though some still might exist. During the 2010 Census of Russia, the authorities rejected the claim from a group of mostly mixed race Ainu living in Kamchatka that they were not extinct.\n\nThe only Ainu speakers remaining (besides perhaps a few partial speakers) live solely in Japan. There, they are concentrated primarily on the southern and eastern coasts of the island of Hokkaido.\n\nDue to intermarriage with the Japanese and ongoing absorption into the predominant culture, there are no truly Ainu settlements existing in Japan today. The town of Nibutani (Ainu: ''Niputay'') in Hidaka area (Hokkaido prefecture) has a number of Ainu households and a visit to some of the Ainu owned craft shops close to the Ainu museums (there are two of them in Nibutani) is an opportunity to interact with the Ainu people. Many \"authentic Ainu villages\" advertised in Hokkaido such as Akan and Shiraoi are tourist attractions and provide an opportunity to see and meet Ainu people.\n",
"\nToday, it is estimated that fewer than 100 speakers of the language remain, while other research places the number at fewer than 15 speakers. The language has been classified as \"endangered\". As a result of this the study of the Ainu language is limited and is based largely on historical research.\n\nAlthough there have been attempts to show that the Ainu language and the Japanese language are related, modern scholars have rejected that the relationship goes beyond contact, such as the mutual borrowing of words between Japanese and Ainu. In fact, no attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and Ainu is currently considered to be a language isolate.\n\nWords used as prepositions in English (such as ''to'', ''from'', ''by'', ''in'', and ''at'') are postpositional in Ainu; they come after the word that they modify. A single sentence in Ainu can be made up of many added or agglutinated sounds or affixes that represent nouns or ideas.\n\nThe Ainu language has had no system of writing, and has historically been transliterated by the Japanese kana or Russian Cyrillic. Today, it is typically written in either katakana or Latin alphabet. The unwieldy nature of the Japanese kana with its inability to accurately represent coda consonants has contributed to the degradation of the original Ainu. For example, some words, such as ''Kor'' (meaning \"to hold\"), are now pronounced with a terminal vowel sound, as in ''Koro''.\n\nMany of the Ainu dialects, even from one end of Hokkaido to the other, were not mutually intelligible; however, the classic Ainu language of the Yukar, or Ainu epic stories, was understood by all. Without a writing system, the Ainu were masters of narration, with the Yukar and other forms of narration such as the Uepeker (Uwepeker) tales, being committed to memory and related at gatherings, often lasting many hours or even days.\n",
"\n\n\nWoman playing a tonkori.\nAinu ceremonial dress, British Museum.\nTraditional Ainu culture was quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full beards and moustaches. Men and women alike cut their hair level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, trimmed semicircularly behind. The women tattooed their mouths, and sometimes the forearms. The mouth tattoos were started at a young age with a small spot on the upper lip, gradually increasing with size. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for colour. Their traditional dress was a robe spun from the inner bark of the elm tree, called ''attusi'' or ''attush''. Various styles were made, and consisted generally of a simple short robe with straight sleeves, which was folded around the body, and tied with a band about the waist. The sleeves ended at the wrist or forearm and the length generally was to the calves. Women also wore an undergarment of Japanese cloth.\n\nModern craftswomen weave and embroider traditional garments that command very high prices. In winter the skins of animals were worn, with leggings of deerskin and in Sakhalin, boots were made from the skin of dogs or salmon. Ainu culture considers earrings, traditionally made from grapevines, to be gender neutral. Women also wear a beaded necklace called a tamasay.\n\nTheir traditional cuisine consists of the flesh of bear, fox, wolf, badger, ox, or horse, as well as fish, fowl, millet, vegetables, herbs, and roots. They never ate raw fish or flesh; it was always boiled or roasted.\n\nTheir traditional habitations were reed-thatched huts, the largest square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the center. There was no chimney, only a hole at the angle of the roof; there was one window on the eastern side and there were two doors. The house of the village head was used as a public meeting place when one was needed.\n\nInstead of using furniture, they sat on the floor, which was covered with two layers of mats, one of rush, the other of a water plant with long sword shaped leaves (''Iris pseudacorus''; and for beds they spread planks, hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. The men used chopsticks when eating; the women had wooden spoons. Ainu cuisine is not commonly eaten outside Ainu communities; there are only a few Ainu-run restaurants in Japan, all located in Tokyo or Hokkaido, serving primarily Japanese fare.\n\nThe functions of judgeship were not entrusted to chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat in judgment upon its criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor did the community resort to imprisonment. Beating was considered a sufficient and final penalty. However, in the case of murder, the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off or the tendons of his feet severed.\n\n===Hunting===\nBear hunting, 19th century.\nThe Ainu hunted from late autumn to early summer. The reasons for this were, among others, that in late autumn, plant gathering, salmon fishing and other activities of securing food came to an end, and hunters readily found game in fields and mountains in which plants had withered.\n\nA village possessed a hunting ground of its own or several villages used a joint hunting territory (iwor). Heavy penalties were imposed on any outsiders trespassing on such hunting grounds or joint hunting territory.\n\nThe Ainu hunted bear, Ezo deer (a subspecies of sika deer), rabbit, fox, raccoon dog, and other animals. Ezo deer were a particularly important food resource for the Ainu, as were salmon. They also hunted sea eagles such as white-tailed sea eagles, raven and other birds. The Ainu hunted eagles to obtain their tail feathers, which they used in trade with the Japanese.\n\nThe Ainu hunted with arrows and spears with poison-coated points. They obtained the poison, called ''surku'', from the roots and stalks of aconites. The recipe for this poison was a household secret that differed from family to family. They enhanced the poison with mixtures of roots and stalks of dog's bane, boiled juice of Mekuragumo, Matsumomushi, tobacco and other ingredients. They also used stingray stingers or skin covering stingers.\n\nThey hunted in groups with dogs. Before the Ainu went hunting, for animals like bear in particular, they prayed to the god of fire and the house guardian god to convey their wishes for a large catch, and safe hunting to the god of mountains.\n\nThe Ainu usually hunted bear during the time of the spring thaw. At that time, bears were weak because they had not fed at all during long hibernation. Ainu hunters caught hibernating bears or bears that had just left hibernation dens. When they hunted bear in summer, they used a spring trap loaded with an arrow, called an ''amappo''. The Ainu usually used arrows to hunt deer. Also, they drove deer into a river or sea and shot them with arrows. For a large catch, a whole village would drive a herd of deer off a cliff and club them to death.\n\n===Ornaments===\nMen wore a crown called ''sapanpe'' for important ceremonies. ''Sapanpe'' was made from wood fibre with bundles of partially shaved wood. This crown had wooden figures of animal gods and other ornaments on its centre. Men carried an ''emush'' (ceremonial sword) secured by an ''emush at'' strap to their shoulders.\n\nWomen wore ''matanpushi'', embroidered headbands, and ''ninkari'', earrings. ''Ninkari'' was a metal ring with a ball. Women wore it through a hole in the ear. ''Matanpushi'' and ''ninkari'' were originally worn by men. However, women wear them now. Furthermore, aprons called ''maidari'' now are a part of women's formal clothes. However, some old documents say that men wore ''maidari''. Women sometimes wore a bracelet called ''tekunkani''.\n\nWomen wore a necklace called ''rektunpe'', a long, narrow strip of cloth with metal plaques. They wore a necklace that reached the breast called a ''tamasay'' or ''shitoki'', usually made from glass balls. Some glass balls came from trade with the Asian continent. The Ainu also obtained glass balls secretly made by the Matsumae clan.\n\n===Housing===\n\nA village is called a ''kotan'' in the Ainu language. Kotan were located in river basins and seashores where food was readily available, particularly in the basins of rivers through which salmon went upstream. A village consisted basically of a paternal clan. The average number of families was four to seven, rarely reaching more than ten. In the early modern times, the Ainu people were forced to labor at the fishing grounds of the Japanese. Ainu kotan were also forced to move near fishing grounds so that the Japanese could secure a labor force. When the Japanese moved to other fishing grounds, Ainu kotan were also forced to accompany them. As a result, the traditional kotan disappeared and large villages of several dozen families were formed around the fishing grounds.\n\n''Cise'' or ''cisey'' (houses) in a kotan were made of cogon grasses, bamboo grass, barks, etc. The length lay east to west or parallel to a river. A house was about seven meters by five with an entrance at the west end that also served as a storeroom. The house had three windows, including the \"rorun-puyar,\" a window located on the side facing the entrance (at the east side), through which gods entered and left and ceremonial tools were taken in and out. The Ainu have regarded this window as sacred and have been told never to look in through it. A house had a fireplace near the entrance. The husband and wife sat on the fireplace's left side (called ''shiso'') . Children and guests sat facing them on the fireplace's right side (called ''harkiso''). The house had a platform for valuables called ''iyoykir'' behind the shiso. The Ainu placed ''sintoko'' (hokai) and ''ikayop'' (quivers) there.\n\nOutbuildings included separate lavatories for men called ''ashinru'' and for women called ''menokoru'', a ''pu'' (storehouse) for food, a \"heper set\" (cage for young bear), and drying-racks for fish and wild plants. An altar (''nusasan'') faced the east side of the house (''rorunpuyar''). The Ainu held such ceremonies there as ''Iyomante'', a ceremony to send the spirit of a bear to the gods.\n\nPSM V33 D514 Ainu houses.jpg|Ainu houses (from ''Popular Science Monthly Volume 33'', 1888)\nPSM V33 D517 Plan of an ainu house.jpg|Plan of an Ainu house\nAinu traditional house\"cise\"3.jpg|The family would gather around the fireplace\nFile:National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka - Interior of the house of Ainu - Saru River basin, Hokkaidô.jpg|Interior of the house of Ainu - Saru River basin\n\n\n===Traditions===\nThe Ainu people had various types of marriage. A child was promised in marriage by arrangement between his or her parents and the parents of his or her betrothed or by a go-between. When the betrothed reached a marriageable age, they were told who their spouse was to be. There were also marriages based on mutual consent of both sexes. In some areas, when a daughter reached a marriageable age, her parents let her live in a small room called ''tunpu'' annexed to the southern wall of her house. The parents chose her spouse from men who visited her.\n\nThe age of marriage was 17 to 18 years of age for men and 15 to 16 years of age for women, who were tattooed. At these ages, both sexes were regarded as adults.\n\nWhen a man proposed to a woman, he visited her house, ate half a full bowl of rice handed to him by her, and returned the rest to her. If the woman ate the rest, she accepted his proposal. If she did not and put it beside her, she rejected his proposal. When a man became engaged to a woman or they learned that their engagement had been arranged, they exchanged gifts. He sent her a small engraved knife, a workbox, a spool, and other gifts. She sent him embroidered clothes, coverings for the back of the hand, leggings and other handmade clothes. According to some books, many ''yomeiri'' marriages, in which a bride went to the house of a bridegroom with her belongings to become a member of his family, were conducted in the old days.\n\nFor a ''yomeiri'' marriage, a man and his father would bring betrothal gifts to the house of a woman, including a sword, a treasured sword, an ornamental quiver, a sword guard, and a woven basket (''hokai''). If the man and woman agreed to marry, the man and his father would bring her to their house or the man would stay at her house for a while and then bring her to his house. At the wedding ceremony, participants prayed to the god of fire. Bride and bridegroom respectively ate half of the rice served in a bowl, and other participants were entertained.\n\nThe worn-out fabric of old clothing was used for baby clothes because soft cloth was good for the skin of babies and worn-out material protected babies from gods of illness and demons due to these gods' abhorrence of dirty things. Before a baby was breast-fed, he/she was given a decoction of the endodermis of alder and the roots of butterburs to discharge impurities. Children were raised almost naked until about the ages of four to five. Even when they wore clothes, they did not wear belts and left the front of their clothes open. Subsequently, they wore bark clothes without patterns, such as ''attush'', until coming of age.\n\nNewborn babies were named ''ayay'' (a baby's crying), ''shipo'', ''poyshi'' (small excrement), ''shion'' (old excrement). Children were called by these \"temporary\" names until the ages of two to three. They were not given permanent names when they were born. Their tentative names had a portion meaning \"excrement\" or \"old things\" to ward off the demon of ill-health. Some children were named based on their behaviour or habits. Other children were named after impressive events or after parents' wishes for the future of the children. When children were named, they were never given the same names as others.\n\nMen wore loincloths and had their hair dressed properly for the first time at age 15–16. Women were also considered adults at the age of 15–16. They wore underclothes called ''mour'' and had their hair dressed properly and wound waistcloths called ''raunkut'' and ''ponkut'' around their bodies. When women reached age 12–13, the lips, hands and arms were tattooed. When they reached age 15–16, their tattoos were completed. Thus were they qualified for marriage.\n",
"\n\n\nAinu traditional ceremony, c. 1930\nThe Ainu are traditionally animists, believing that everything in nature has a ''kamuy'' (spirit or god) on the inside. The most important include Kamuy Fuchi, goddess of the hearth, Kim-un Kamuy, god of bears and mountains, and Repun Kamuy, god of the sea, fishing, and marine animals.\n\nThe Ainu have no priests by profession; instead the village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary. Ceremonies are confined to making libations of sake, uttering prayers, and offering willow sticks with wooden shavings attached to them. These sticks are called ''inaw'' (singular) and ''nusa'' (plural).\n\nThey are placed on an altar used to \"send back\" the spirits of killed animals. Ainu ceremonies for sending back bears are called ''Iyomante''. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in time of sickness. They believe their spirits are immortal, and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to ''kamuy mosir'' (Land of the Gods).\n\nThe Ainu are part of a larger collective of indigenous people who practice \"arctolatry\" or bear worship. The Ainu believe the bear is very special because they think the bear is Kim-un Kamuy's way of delivering the gift of bear hide and meat to humans.\n\nAinu assimilated into mainstream Japanese society have adopted Buddhism and Shinto, while some northern Ainu are members of the Russian Orthodox Church.\n",
"Ainu cultural promotion centre and museum, in Sapporo (Sapporo Pirka Kotan)\n\nMost Hokkaido Ainu and some other Ainu are members of an umbrella group called the Hokkaido Utari Association. It was originally controlled by the government to speed Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state. It now is run exclusively by Ainu and operates mostly independently of the government.\n\nOther key institutions include ''The Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (FRPAC)'', set up by the Japanese government after enactment of the Ainu Culture Law in 1997, the Hokkaido University Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies established in 2007, as well as museums and cultural centers. Ainu people living in Tokyo have also developed a vibrant political and cultural community.\n",
"\n===Litigation===\nOn March 27, 1997, the Sapporo District Court decided a landmark case that, for the first time in Japanese history, recognized the right of the Ainu people to enjoy their distinct culture and traditions. The case arose because of a 1978 government plan to build two dams in the Saru River watershed in southern Hokkaido. The dams were part of a series of development projects under the Second National Development Plan that were intended to industrialize the north of Japan. The planned location for one of the dams was across the valley floor close to Nibutani village, the home of a large community of Ainu people and an important center of Ainu culture and history. In the early 1980s when the government commenced construction on the dam, two Ainu landowners refused to agree to the expropriation of their land. These landowners were Kaizawa Tadashi and Kayano Shigeru—well-known and important leaders in the Ainu community. After Kaizawa and Kayano declined to sell their land, the Hokkaido Development Bureau applied for and was subsequently granted a Project Authorization, which required the men to vacate their land. When their appeal of the Authorization was denied, Kayano and Kaizawa's son Koichii (Kaizawa died in 1992), filed suit against the Hokkaido Development Bureau.\n\nThe final decision denied the relief sought by the plaintiffs for pragmatic reasons—the dam was already standing—but the decision was nonetheless heralded as a landmark victory for the Ainu people. In short, nearly all of the plaintiffs' claims were recognized. Moreover, the decision marked the first time Japanese case law acknowledged the Ainu as an indigenous people and contemplated the responsibility of the Japanese nation to the indigenous people within its borders. The decision included broad fact-finding that underscored the long history of the oppression of the Ainu people by Japan's majority, referred to as Wajin in the case and discussions about the case. The legal roots of the decision can be found in Article 13 of Japan's Constitution, which protects the rights of the individual, and in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The decision was issued on March 27, 1997, and because of the broad implications for Ainu rights, the plaintiffs decided not to appeal the decision, which became final two weeks later. After the decision was issued, on May 8, 1997, the Diet passed the Ainu Culture Law and repealed the Ainu Protection Act—the 1899 law that had been the vehicle of Ainu oppression for almost one hundred years.The law's original Japanese text is available at Wikisource. While the Ainu Culture Law has been widely criticized for its shortcomings, the shift that it represents in Japan's view of the Ainu people is a testament to the importance of the Nibutani decision. In 2007 the 'Cultural Landscape along the Sarugawa River resulting from Ainu Tradition and Modern Settlement' was designated an Important Cultural Landscape. A later action seeking restoration of Ainu assets held in trust by the Japanese Government was dismissed in 2008.\n\n===Governmental advisory boards===\nMuch national policy in Japan has been developed out of the action of governmental advisory boards, known as in Japanese. One such committee operated in the late 1990s, and its work resulted in the 1997 Ainu Culture Law. This panel's circumstances were criticized for including not even a single Ainu person among its members.\n\nMore recently, a panel was established in 2006, which notably was the first time an Ainu person was included. It completed its work in 2008 issuing a major report that included an extensive historical record and called for substantial government policy changes towards the Ainu.\n\n===Formation of Ainu political party===\nThe was founded on January 21, 2012, after a group of Ainu activists in Hokkaido announced the formation of a political party for the Ainu on October 30, 2011. The Ainu Association of Hokkaido reported that Kayano Shiro, the son of the former Ainu leader Kayano Shigeru, will head the party. Their aim is to contribute to the realization of a multicultural and multiethnic society in Japan, along with rights for the Ainu.\n\n=== Standard of living ===\nThe Ainu have historically suffered from economic and social discrimination throughout Japan that continues to this day. The Japanese Government as well as people since contact with the Ainu, have in large part regarded them as a dirty, backwards and a primitive people. The majority of Ainu were forced to be petty laborers during the Meji Restoration, which saw the introduction of Hokkaido into the Japanese Empire and the privatization of traditional Ainu lands. The Japanese government during the 19th and 20th centuries denied the rights of the Ainu to their traditional cultural practices, most notably the right to speak their language, as well as their right to hunt and gather. These policies were designed to fully integrate the Ainu into Japanese society with the cost of erasing Ainu culture and identity. The Ainu's position as manual laborers and their forced integration into larger Japanese society have led to discriminatory practices by the Japanese government that can still be felt today. This discrimination and negative stereotypes assigned to the Ainu have manifested in the Ainu's lower levels of education, income levels and participation in the economy as compared to their ethnically Japanese counterparts. The Ainu community in Hokkaido in 1993 received welfare payments at a 2.3 times higher rate, had a 8.9% lower enrollment rate from junior high school to high school and a 15.7% lower enrollment into college from high school than that of Hokkaido as a whole. The Japanese government has been lobbied by activists to research the Ainu's standard of living nationwide due to this noticeable and growing gap. The Japanese government will provide ¥7 million beginning in 2015, to conduct surveys nationwide on this matter.\n",
"\nPeople wearing traditional Ainu clothes in Hokkaido\nSakhalin Ainu men, photographed by Bronisław Piłsudski\nKuril Ainu people in front of the traditional dwelling\n\n* Hokkaido Ainu (the predominant community of Ainu in the world today): A Japanese census in 1916 returned 13,557 pure-blooded Ainu in addition to 4,550 multiracial individuals.\n* Tokyo Ainu (a modern age migration of Hokkaido Ainu highlighted in a documentary film released in 2010)\n* Tohoku Ainu (from Honshū, no officially acknowledged population exists): Forty-three Ainu households scattered throughout the Tohoku region were reported during the 17th century. There are people who consider themselves descendants of Shimokita Ainu on the Shimokita Peninsula, while the people on the Tsugaru Peninsula are generally considered Yamato but may be descendants of Tsugaru Ainu after cultural assimilation.\n* Sakhalin Ainu: Pure-blooded individuals may be surviving in Hokkaido. From both Northern and Southern Sakhalin, a total of 841 Ainu were relocated to Hokkaido in 1875 by Japan. Only a few in remote interior areas remained, as the island was turned over to Russia. Even when Japan was granted Southern Sakhalin in 1905, only a handful returned. The Japanese census of 1905 counted only 120 Sakhalin Ainu (down from 841 in 1875, 93 in Karafuto and 27 in Hokkaido). The Soviet census of 1926 counted 5 Ainu, while several of their multiracial children were recorded as ethnic Nivkh, Slav or Uilta.\n** North Sakhalin: Only five pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Soviet Census in Northern Sakhalin. Most of the Sakhalin Ainu (mainly from coastal areas) were relocated to Hokkaido in 1875 by Japan. The few that remained (mainly in the remote interior) were mostly married to Russians as can be seen from the works of Bronisław Piłsudski.\n** Southern Sakhalin (Karafuto): Japanese rule until 1945. Japan evacuated almost all the Ainu to Hokkaido after World War II. Isolated individuals might have remained on Sakhalin. In 1949, there were about 100 Ainu living on Soviet Sakhalin.\n* Northern Kuril Ainu (no known living population in Japan, existence not recognized by Russian government in Kamchatka Krai): Also known as Kurile in Russian records. Were under Russian rule until 1875. First came under Japanese rule after the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875). Major population was on the island of Shumshu, with a few others on islands like Paramushir. Altogether they numbered 221 in 1860. They had Russian names, spoke Russian fluently and were Russian Orthodox in religion. As the islands were given to the Japanese, more than a hundred Ainu fled to Kamchatka along with their Russian employers (where they were assimilated into the Kamchadal population). Only about half remained under Japanese rule. In order to derussify the Kurile, the entire population of 97 individuals was relocated to Shikotan in 1884, given Japanese names, and the children were enrolled in Japanese schools. Unlike the other Ainu groups, the Kurile failed to adjust to their new surroundings and by 1933 only 10 individuals were alive (plus another 34 multiracial individuals). The last group of 20 individuals (including a few pure-bloods) were evacuated to Hokkaido in 1941, where they vanished as a separate ethnic group soon after.\n* Southern Kuril Ainu (no known living population): Numbered almost 2,000 people (mainly in Kunashir, Iturup and Urup) during the 18th century. In 1884, their population had decreased to 500. Around 50 individuals (mostly multiracial) who remained in 1941 were evacuated to Hokkaido by the Japanese soon after World War II. The last full-blooded Southern Kuril Ainu was Suyama Nisaku, who died in 1956. The last of the tribe (partial ancestry), Tanaka Kinu, died on Hokkaido in 1973.\n* Kamchatka Ainu (no known living population): Known as Kamchatka Kurile in Russian records. Ceased to exist as a separate ethnic group after their defeat in 1706 by the Russians. Individuals were assimilated into the Kurile and Kamchadal ethnic groups. Last recorded in the 18th century by Russian explorers.\n* Amur Valley Ainu (probably none remain): A few individuals married to ethnic Russians and ethnic Ulchi reported by Bronisław Piłsudski in the early 20th century. Only 26 pure-blooded individuals were recorded during the 1926 Russian Census in Nikolaevski Okrug (present-day Николаевский район Nikolaevskij Region/District). Probably assimilated into the Slavic rural population. Although no one identifies as Ainu nowadays in Khabarovsk Krai, there are a large number of ethnic Ulch with partial Ainu ancestry.\n",
"\n\n* Ainu-ken\n* Akira Ifukube\n* Bibliography of the Ainu\n* Bronisław Piłsudski\n* Constitution of Japan\n* Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples\n* Emishi\n** Aterui\n* Ethnocide\n* Hiram M. Hiller, Jr.\n* Indigenous peoples\n* Shigeru Kayano\n* Nibutani Dam\n\n===Ainu culture===\n* Yukar\n* Matagi\n* Ikupasuy\n* Ainu music\n\n===Ethnic groups in Japan===\n* Ethnic issues in Japan\n** Human rights in Japan\n* Burakumin\n* Ryukyuan people\n** Ryūkyū independence movement\n* Nivkhs\n* Yamato people\n",
"\n",
"* Japan Times. Ainu Plan Group for Upper House Run, October 31, 2011\n* \n* \n",
"\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Hitchingham, Masako Yoshida (trans.), Act for the Promotion of Ainu Culture & Dissemination of Knowledge Regarding Ainu Traditions, Asian-Pacific Law & Policy Journal, vol. 1, no. 1 (2000).\n* Kayano, Shigeru (1994). ''Our Land Was A Forest: An Ainu Memoir''. Westview Press. . .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Article on the Ainu in ''Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity''.\n* (Harvard University)(Digitized Jan 24, 2006)\n* \n* \n* (Indiana University)(Digitized Sep 3, 2009)\n* Original from Harvard University Digitized Jan 30, 2008 YOKOHAMA : R. MEIKLEJOHN & CO., NO 49.\n\n",
"\n* Rare Japanese Video Featuring Ainu. YWCA ''c''. 1919\n* The Ainu: The First Peoples of Japan. Old videos and photographs arranged by Rawn Joseph\n* \"The Despised Ainu People.\" The Ainus' Tense Relationship with Japan. 1994. Journeyman.tv \n* The Ainu Museum at Shiraoi\n* Smithsonian Institution\n* Hokkaido Utari Kyokai\n* Sapporo Pirka Kotan Ainu Cultural Center\n* Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Ainu in Samani, Hokkaido\n* Ainu-North American cultural similarities\n* Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture (centers located in Sapporo and Tokyo)\n* Hokkaido University Center for Ainu and Indigenous Studies\n* Ainu Lineage\n* The Boone Collection\n* Nibutani Ainu Cultural Museum (in Japanese)\n* Ainu Komonjo (18th & 19th century records) – Ohnuki Collection\n* Article in ''The Christian Science Monitor'', June 9, 2008\n* ''Aino Folk-Tales'', Chamberlain, B. H. Folk-Lore Society, 1888. (Members edition, without expurgation)\n* Columbia_river_basin, June 8, 2016\n* bracelet called tekunkani, Added June 8, 2016\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n"
] | [
"Introduction",
"History",
"Origins",
"Geography",
"Language",
"Culture",
"Religion",
"Institutions",
"Status",
"Subgroups",
"See also",
"References",
"Sources",
"Further reading",
"External links"
] | Ainu people |
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