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[ "\n\n'''Alfonso IV''', called '''the Kind''' (also ''the Gentle'' or ''the Nice'', ) (2 November 1299 – 24 January 1336) was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona (as Alfonso III) from 1327 to his death. He was born in Naples, the second son of James II and Blanche of Anjou. His reign saw the incorporation of the County of Urgell, Duchy of Athens, and Duchy of Neopatria into the Crown of Aragon.\n\nDuring the reign of his father, he was the procurator general of the Crown. He married Teresa d'Entença y Cabrera, heiress of Urgell, in 1314 in the Cathedral of Lerida. He is reputed to have been so liberal in the expenses during the wedding, that the local counsels imposed restrictions on how much he could spend. In 1323–1324, he undertook the conquest of Sardinia. He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. In 1329, he began a long war with the Republic of Genoa. The city of Sassari surrendered in 1323, but rebelled three more times and was contested by Genoa.\n\nAfter being widowed in 1327, Alfonso married in February 1329 Eleanor of Castile (1308–1359), who was betrothed to his brother James, who had refused to consummate the marriage. She was the sister of Alfonso XI of Castile. Because of some favoritism he showed towards his second wife, the last years of his life, he had to contend with the son of his first marriage, the future Peter IV.\n", "Artistic presentation of Alfonso IV, painted by Manuel Aguirre y Monsalbe (1822–1856)\nBy Teresa d'Entença:\n* Alfonso (1315–1317)\n* Constance (1318–1346), married in 1336 to James III of Majorca.\n* Peter IV (1319–1387), successor.\n* James I, Count of Urgell (1321–1347), also inherited Entença and Antillon.\n* Elizabeth (1323–1327).\n* Frederick (1325-died young).\n* Sancho (1327), lived only a few days.\n\nBy Eleanor of Castile:\n* Ferdinand (1329–1363), Marquis of Tortosa and Lord of Albarracín and Fraga; married Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa.\n* John (1331–1358), Lord of Elche, Biel and Bolsa, married in 1355 to Isabel Núñez de Lara (daughter of Juan Núñez III de Lara) and was killed by order of his cousin Pedro of Castile.\n", "\n", "\n", "* Diccionario universal de historia y de geografía, p. 152. By Lucas Alamán, Manuel Orozco y Berra\n* ''Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia'', Ed. E. Michael Gerli, Samuel G. Armistead, Routledge, 2003.\n* O'Callaghan, Joseph F., ''A History of Medieval Spain'', Cornell University Press, 1975.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Children", "Ancestors", "Notes", "Sources" ]	Alfonso IV of Aragon
[ "\n'''Amasis II''' () or '''Ahmose II''' was a pharaoh (reigned 570 BCE526 BCE) of the Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, the successor of Apries at Sais. He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest.\n", "Most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins. He was originally an officer in the Egyptian army. His birthplace was Siuph at Saïs. He took part in a general campaign of Pharaoh Psamtik II in 592 BC in Nubia.\n\nA revolt which broke out among native Egyptian soldiers gave him his opportunity to seize the throne. These troops, returning home from a disastrous military expedition to Cyrene in Libya, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his Greek mercenaries; many Egyptians fully sympathized with them. General Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels instead, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated. Apries fled to the Babylonians and was killed mounting an invasion of his native homeland in 567 BCE with the aid of a Babylonian army. An inscription confirms the struggle between the native Egyptian and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the third year of Amasis ( BCE). Amasis then married Chedebnitjerbone II, one of the daughters of his predecessor Apries, in order to legitimise his kingship.\n\nSome information is known about the family origins of Amasis: his mother was a certain Tashereniset, as a bust of her, today located in the British Museum, shows. A stone block from Mehallet el-Kubra also establishes that his maternal grandmother—Tashereniset's mother—was a certain Tjenmutetj.\n\nHis court is relatively well known. The head of the gate guard Ahmose-sa-Neith appears on numerous monuments, including the location of his sarcophagus. He was referenced on monuments of the 30th dynasty and apparently had a special significance in his time. Wahibre was 'Leader of the southern foreigners' and 'Head of the doors of foreigners', so he was the highest official for border security. Under Amasis the career of the doctor Udjahorresnet began, who was of particular importance to the Persians. Several \"heads of the fleet\" are known. Psamtek Meryneit and Pasherientaihet / Padineith are the only known viziers.\n\nHerodotus describes how Amasis II would eventually cause a confrontation with the Persian armies. According to Herodotus, Amasis was asked by Cambyses II or Cyrus the Great for an Egyptian ophthalmologist on good terms. Amasis seems to have complied by forcing an Egyptian physician into mandatory labor, causing him to leave his family behind in Egypt and move to Persia in forced exile. In an attempt to exact revenge for this, the physician grew very close to Cambyses and suggested that Cambyses should ask Amasis for a daughter in marriage in order to solidify his bonds with the Egyptians. Cambyses complied and requested a daughter of Amasis for marriage.\n\nAmasis, worrying that his daughter would be a concubine to the Persian king, refused to give up his offspring; Amasis also was not willing to take on the Persian empire, so he concocted a deception in which he forced the daughter of the ex-pharaoh Apries, whom Herodotus explicitly confirms to have been killed by Amasis, to go to Persia instead of his own offspring.\n\nThis daughter of Apries was none other than Nitetis, who was, as per Herodotus's account, \"tall and beautiful.\" Nitetis naturally betrayed Amasis and upon being greeted by the Persian king explained Amasis's trickery and her true origins. This infuriated Cambyses and he vowed to take revenge for it. Amasis died before Cambyses reached him, but his heir and son Psamtik III was defeated by the Persians.\n\nFirst, Cambyses signed alliance agreements with the Lydian King Croesus and Nabonidus the Babylonian king in 542 BC. The actual aim of the agreements was to prevent aid between Egypt and her allies. With both now deprived of Egyptian support, the Persians conquered, first, Croesus's empire in 541 BCE, and, then, the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BCE.\n\nHerodotus also describes that just like his predecessor, Amasis relied on Greek mercenaries and councilmen. One such figure was Phanes of Halicarnassus, who would later on leave Amasis, for reasons Herodotus does not clearly know but suspects were personal between the two figures. Amasis sent one of his eunuchs to capture Phanes, but the eunuch was bested by the wise councilman and Phanes fled to Persia, meeting up with Cambyses and providing advice in his invasion of Egypt. Egypt was finally lost to the Persians during the battle of Pelusium in 525 BC.\n", "This head probably came from a temple statue of Amasis II. He wears the traditional royal nemes head cloth, with a protective uraeus serpent at the brow. Circa 560 BCE. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.\nAlthough Amasis appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration, Egypt reached a new level of wealth; Amasis adorned the temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by existing remains). For example, a temple built by him was excavated at Tell Nebesha.\n\nAmasis assigned the commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile to the Greeks, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt, he contributed 1,000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named Ladice daughter of King Battus III and made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia.\n\nUnder Amasis, Egypt's agricultural based economy reached its zenith. Herodotus, who visited Egypt less than a century after Amasis II's death, writes that:\n\n\nHis kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence was great in Cyrene. In his fourth year ( BCE), Amasis was able to defeat an invasion of Egypt by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II; henceforth, the Babylonians experienced sufficient difficulties controlling their empire that they were forced to abandon future attacks against Amasis. However, Amasis was later faced with a more formidable enemy with the rise of Persia under Cyrus who ascended to the throne in 559 BCE; his final years were preoccupied by the threat of the impending Persian onslaught against Egypt. With great strategic skill, Cyrus had destroyed Lydia in 546 BCE and finally defeated the Babylonians in 538 BCE which left Amasis with no major Near Eastern allies to counter Persia's increasing military might. Amasis reacted by cultivating closer ties with the Greek states to counter the future Persian invasion into Egypt but was fortunate to have died in 526 BCE shortly before the Persians attacked. The final assault instead fell upon his son Psamtik III, whom the Persians defeated in 525 BCE after a reign of only six months.\n", "Amasis II died in 526 BC. He was buried at the royal necropolis of Sais, and while his tomb was never discovered, Herodotus describes it for us:\n\n\n\nHerodotus also relates the desecration of Ahmose II/Amasis' mummy when the Persian king Cambyses conquered Egypt and thus ended the 26th Saite dynasty:\n\n", "\nFrom the fifth century BCE, there is evidence of stories circulating about Amasis, in Egyptian sources (including a demotic papyrus of the third century BCE), Herodotus, Hellanikos, and Plutarch's ''Convivium Septem Sapientium''. 'In those tales Amasis was presented as a non-conventional Pharaoh, behaving in ways unbecoming to a king but gifted with practical wisdom and cunning, a trickster on the trone or a kind of comic Egyptian Solomon'.\n", "\nImage:Karnak Amasis.jpg\|Relief showing Amasis from the Karnak temple\nImage:Louvres-antiquites-egyptiennes-img 2713.jpg\|Papyrus, written in demotic script in the 35th year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre\nImage:Louvres-antiquites-egyptiennes-img 2711.jpg\|Grant of a parcel of land by an individual to a temple. Dated to the first year of Amasis II, on display at the Louvre\nImage:Louvre 122006 008.jpg\|A stele dating to the 23rd regnal year of Amasis, on display at the Louvre\n\n", "* Rhodopis\n", "\n", "* \n* Leo Depuydt: ''Saite and Persian Egypt, 664 BC–332 BC (Dyns. 26–31, Psammetichus I to Alexander's Conquest of Egypt).'' In: Erik Hornung, Rolf Krauss, David A. Warburton (Hrsg.): ''Ancient Egyptian Chronology'' (= ''Handbook of Oriental studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East.'' Band 83). Brill, Leiden/Boston 2006, , S. 265–283 ( Online).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Egypt's wealth", "Tomb and desecration", "Later reputation", "Gallery of images", "See also", "References", " Further reading " ]	Amasis II
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alfonso the Magnanimous''' KG (also '''Alphonso'''; ; 1396 – 27 June 1458) was the King of Aragon (as '''Alfonso V'''), Valencia (as '''Alfonso III'''), Majorca, Sardinia and Corsica (as '''Alfonso II'''), Sicily (as '''Alfonso I''') and Count of Barcelona (as '''Alfonso IV''') from 1416, and King of Naples (as '''Alfonso I''') from 1442 until his death. He was one of the most prominent figures of the early Renaissance and a knight of the Order of the Dragon.\n", "Born at Medina del Campo, he was the son of Ferdinand I of Aragon and Eleanor of Alburquerque. He represented the old line of the counts of Barcelona through the female line, and was on his father's side descended from the House of Trastamara, the reigning House of Castile. By hereditary right he was king of Sicily and claimed the island of Sardinia for himself, though it was then in the possession of Genoa. Alfonso was also in possession of much of Corsica by the 1420s.\n\nIn 1421 the childless Queen Joanna II of Naples adopted and named him as heir to the Kingdom of Naples, and Alfonso went to Naples. Here he hired the condottiero Braccio da Montone with the task of reducing the resistance of his rival claimant, Louis III of Anjou, and his forces led by Muzio Attendolo Sforza. With Pope Martin V supporting Sforza, Alfonso switched his religious allegiance to the Aragonese antipope Benedict XIII. When Sforza abandoned Louis' cause, Alfonso seemed to have all his problems solved; however, his relationship with Joanna suddenly worsened, and in May 1423 he had her lover, Gianni Caracciolo, a powerful figure in the Neapolitan court, arrested.\n\nAfter an attempt to arrest the queen herself had failed, Joan called on Sforza who defeated the Aragonese militias near Castel Capuano in Naples. Alfonso fled to Castel Nuovo, but the help of a fleet of 22 galleys led by Giovanni da Cardona improved his situation. Sforza and Joanna ransomed Caracciolo and retreated to the fortress of Aversa. Here she repudiated her earlier adoption of Alfonso and, with the backing of Martin V, named Louis III as her heir instead.\n\nThe Duke of Milan, Filippo Maria Visconti, joined the anti-Aragonese coalition. Alfonso requested support from Braccio da Montone, who was besieging Joanna's troops in L'Aquila, but had to set sail for Spain, where a war had broken out between his brothers and the Kingdom of Castile. On his way towards Barcelona, Alfonso destroyed Marseille, a possession of Louis III.\n\nManuscript detail of Alfonso V of Aragon.\n\nIn late 1423 the Genoese fleet of Filippo Maria Visconti moved in the southern Tyrrhenian Sea, rapidly conquering Gaeta, Procida, Castellammare and Sorrento. Naples, which was held by Alfonso's brother, Pedro de Aragon, was besieged in 1424 by the Genoese ships and Joanna's troops, now led by Francesco Sforza, the son of Muzio Sforza (who had met his death at L'Aquila). The city fell in April 1424. Pedro, after a short resistance in Castel Nuovo, fled to Sicily in August. Joanna II and Louis III again took possession of the realm, although the true power was in the hands of Gianni Caracciolo.\n\nAn opportunity for Alfonso to reconquer Naples occurred in 1432, when Caracciolo was killed in a conspiracy. Alfonso tried to regain the favour of the queen, but failed, and had to wait for the death of both Louis (at Cosenza in 1434) and Joanna herself (February 1435). In her will, she bequeathed her realm to René of Anjou, Louis III's younger brother. This solution was opposed by the new pope, Eugene IV, who nominally was the feudal lord of the King of Naples. The Neapolitans having called in the French, Alfonso decided to intervene and, with the support of several barons of the kingdom, captured Capua and besieged the important sea fortress of Gaeta. His fleet of 25 galleys was met by the Genoese ships sent by Visconti, led by Biagio Assereto. In the battle of Ponza that ensued, Alfonso was defeated and taken prisoner.\n\nIn Milan, however, he impressed his captor with his cultured demeanor and persuaded him to let him go by making it plain that it was not in Milan's interest to prevent the victory of the Aragonese party in Naples. Helped by a Sicilian fleet, Alfonso recaptured Capua and set his base in Gaeta in February 1436. Meanwhile, papal troops had invaded the Neapolitan kingdom, but Alfonso bribed their commander, Cardinal Giovanni Vitelleschi, and their successes waned.\n\n\n\nIn the meantime, René had managed to reach Naples on 19 May 1438. Alfonso tried to besiege the city in the following September, but failed. His brother Pedro was killed during the battle. Castel Nuovo, where an Aragonese garrison resisted, fell to the Angevine mercenaries in August 1439. After the death of his condottiero Jacopo Caldora, however, René's fortune started to decline: Alfonso could easily capture Aversa, Salerno, Benevento, Manfredonia and Bitonto. René, whose possession included now only part of the Abruzzi and Naples, obtained 10,000 men from the pope, but the cardinal leading them signed a truce with Alfonso. Giovanni Sforza came with a reduced corps, as troops sent by Eugene IV had halted his father Francesco in the Marche.\n\nAlfonso, provided with the most impressive artillery of the times, again besieged Naples. The siege began on 10 November 1441, ending on 2 June the following year. After the return of René to Provence, Alfonso easily reduced the remaining resistance and made his triumphal entrance in Naples on 26 February 1443, as the monarch of a pacified kingdom. In 1446 he also conquered Sardinia.\n\nAlfonso, by formally submitting his reign to the Papacy, obtained the consent of Pope Eugene IV that the Kingdom of Naples would go to his illegitimate son Ferdinand. He died in Castel dell'Ovo in 1458, while he was planning the conquest of Genoa. At the time, Alfonso was at odds with Callixtus III, who died shortly afterwards.\n\nHis Spanish possessions were ruled for him by his brother John, later king John II of Aragon. Sicily and Sardinia were also inherited by his brother.\n\nAlfonso was also a powerful and faithful supporter of Skanderbeg, whom he decided to take under his protection as a vassal in 1451, shortly after the latter had scored his second victory against Murad II. In addition to financial assistance, he supplied the Albanian leader with troops, military equipment, and sanctuary for himself and his family if such a need should arise. This was because in 1448, while Skanderbeg was victoriously fighting off the Turkish invasions, three military columns, commanded by Demetrio Reres along with his sons Giorgio and Basilio, had been dispatched to help Alfonso V defeat the barons of Naples who had rebelled against him.\n", "\nAlfonso had been betrothed to Maria of Castile (1401–1458; sister of John II of Castile) in Valladolid in 1408; the marriage was celebrated in Valencia on 12 June 1415. They failed to produce children. Alfonso had been in love with a woman of noble family named Lucrezia d'Alagno, who served as a ''de facto'' queen at the Neapolitan court as well as an inspiring muse.\n\nGenealogical records in the Old Occitan Chronicle of Montpellier in ''Le petit Thalamus de Montpellier'' indicate that Alphonso's relationship with his mistress, Giraldona Carlino, produced three children:\n\n* His successor in Naples, King Ferdinand I of Naples, (b. 1423; reigned 1458–1494).\n* Maria d'Aragona (died 1449, aged around 15 or 16). She had married in 1444 Leonello d'Este, deceased 1450.\n* Leonora d'Aragona, who married circa 1443, Mariano Marzano, Duke of Squillace, Prince of Rossano. Her daughter Francesca married Leonardo III Tocco.\n\nGiraldona was the daughter of Enrique Carlino and his wife, Isabel.\n", "Like many Renaissance rulers, Alfonso V was a patron of the arts. He founded the Academy of Naples under Giovanni Pontano, and for his entrance into the city in 1443 had a magnificent triumphal arch added to the main gate of Castel Nuovo. The edifice was designed by Francesco Laurana.\n\nThe triumphal arch entrance of Castel Nuovo.\n\nAlfonso was particularly attracted to classical literature. He reportedly brought copies of the works of Livy and Julius Caesar on his campaigns; the poet Antonio Beccadelli even claimed that Alfonso was cured of a disease by the reading of a few pages from Quintus Curtius Rufus' history of Alexander the Great. Although this reputed erudition attracted scholars to his court, Alfonso apparently enjoyed pitting them against each other in spectacles of bawdy Latin rhetoric.\n\nAfter his conquest of Naples in 1442, Alfonso ruled primarily through his mercenaries and political lackeys. In his Italian kingdom, he maintained the former political and administrative institutions. His holdings in Spain were governed by his brother John.\n\nA unified General Chancellorship for the whole Aragonese realm was set up in Naples, although the main functionaries were of Aragonese nationality. Apart from financial, administrative and artistic improvements, his other accomplishments in the Sicilian kingdom include the restoration of the aqueducts, the drainage of marshy areas, and the paving of streets.\n", "Alfonso was the object of diplomatic contacts from the empire of Ethiopia. In 1428, he received a letter from Yeshaq I of Ethiopia, borne by two dignitaries, which proposed an alliance against the Muslims and would be sealed by a dual marriage that would require the Infante Peter to bring a group of artisans to Ethiopia where he would marry Yeshaq's daughter.\n\nIn return, Alfonso sent a party of 13 craftsmen, all of whom perished on the way to Ethiopia. He later sent a letter to Yeshaq's successor Zara Yaqob in 1450, in which he wrote that he would be happy to send artisans to Ethiopia if their safe arrival could be guaranteed, but it probably never reached the Emperor.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Family", "Art and administration", "Connection with Ethiopia", "Ancestors", "References" ]	Alfonso V of Aragon
[ "\n:''Not to be confused with Amathus, Transjordan''\n\n\n'''Amathus''' or '''Amathous''' () was an ancient city and one of the ancient royal cities of Cyprus until about 300 BC. Some of its impressive remains can be seen today on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol. Its ancient cult sanctuary of Aphrodite was the second most important in Cyprus, her homeland, after Paphos.\n\nArchaeological work has recently been continued at the site and many finds are exhibited in the Limassol Museum.\n", "===Pre-history and ancient era===\nAncient kingdoms of Cyprus\nThe pre-history of Amathus mixes myth and archaeology. Archaeology has detected human activity from the earliest Iron Age, BC. \nThe city's legendary founder was Cinyras, linked with the birth of Adonis, who called the city after his mother Amathous. According to a version of the Ariadne legend noted by Plutarch, Theseus abandoned Ariadne at Amathousa, where she died giving birth to her child and was buried in a sacred tomb. According to Plutarch's source, Amathousians called the sacred grove where her shrine was situated the Wood of Aphrodite Ariadne. More purely Hellenic myth would have Amathus settled instead by one of the sons of Heracles, thus accounting for the fact that he was worshiped there.\n \nIt was said in antiquity that the people of Amathus were autochthonous, or \"Pelasgian\". Their non-Greek language is confirmed on the site by Eteocypriot inscriptions in the Cypriot syllabary which alone in the Aegean world survived the Bronze Age collapse and continued to be used down to the 4th century BC.\n \nAmathus was built on the coastal cliffs with a natural harbour and flourished at an early date, soon requiring several cemeteries. Greeks from Euboea left their pottery at Amathus from the 10th century BC. During the post-Phoenician era of the 8th century BC, a palace was erected and a port was also constructed, which served the trade with the Greeks and the Levantines. A special burial ground for infants, a ''tophet'' served the culture of the Phoenicians. For the Hellenes, high on the cliff a temple was built, which became a worship site devoted to Aphrodite, in her particular local presence as ''Aphrodite Amathusia'' along with a bearded male Aphrodite called ''Aphroditos''. The excavators discovered the final stage of the Temple of Aphrodite, also known as Aphrodisias, which dates approximately to the 1st century BC. According to the legend, it was where festive Adonia took place, in which athletes competed in hunting wild boars during sport competitions; they also competed in dancing and singing, all to the honour of Adonis.\nFish, polychromic terracotta, 5th century BCE, found in Amathus\n\nThe earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco-Phoenician influences (1000-600 BC). Amathus is identified with ''Kartihadasti'' (Phoenician \"New-Town\") in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 BC). It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the philhellene league of Onesilos of Salamis which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Achaemenid Persia in 500-494 BC, when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilos. Herodotus reports\n:\"Because he had besieged them, the Amathusians cut off Onesilos’ head and brought it to Amathous, where they hung it above the gates. As it hung there empty, a swarm of bees entered it and filled it with honeycomb. When they sought advice about this event, an oracle told them to take the head down and bury it, and to make annual sacrifice to Onesilos as a hero, saying that it would be better for them if they did this. The Amathusians did as they were told and still perform these rites in my day.\" (''Histories'' 5.114)\n\nAmathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture (grain and sheep) and copper mines situated very close to the northeast Kalavasos.\n\n===Hellenistic Era===\nAbout 385-380 BC, the philhellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus, allied with Citium and Soli; and even after Alexander the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus. Its political importance was now ended but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite Amathusia remained famous in Roman times. The epithet ''Amathusia'' in Roman poetry often means little more than \"Cypriote,\" but attesting to the fame of the city.\n\nFrom the 4th century BC the pedestals of two sculptures donated by the last Basileus of Amathous, Androkles, representing his two sons, Orestheus and Andragoras, have survived. Their inscriptions are in both Eteozypric and Greek languages.\n\nThe decline of Amathous is often measured by the Ptolemaic gifts to Argos, where Amathous donated only 40 drachmas in 170-160 BC, but Kition and Salamis gave 208, Kourion 172, and Paphos 100. However, this figure contradicts the archaeologic evidence of new buildings in this period including a balneion, a bath, a gymnasium, as well as fortifications of the Acropolis, including a new tower. However, the port of Paphos lost traffic compared to Amathous in the Ptolemaic period, an indication that Paphos as the capital of the island perhaps offered fewer drachmas than the other cities for different reasons, like Amathous.\n\n===Roman Era===\n\nIn the Roman era Amathus became the capital of one of the four administrative regions of Cyprus.\n\nA Roman temple was built in the 1st century AD on top of the Hellenistic predecessor. The temple facilities remained so important in Roman times that 'Amathusia' was used as a synonym for 'Cypriot'.\n\n===Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages===\nLater, in the 4th century AD, Amasus became the see of a Christian bishop and continued to flourish until the Byzantine period. Of its bishops, Heliodorus was at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 and Alexander at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. In the late 6th century, Saint Ioannis Eleimonas (John the Charitable), protector of the Knights of St. John, was born in Amathus and after 614 sent Theodorus, bishop of Amathus, to Jerusalem to ransom some slaves.\n\nToday, Amathus is a see of the Church of Cyprus and is also listed (under the name \"Amathus in Cypro\", to distinguish it from \"Amathus in Transjordan\") as a titular see by the Catholic Church, which however, in line with the practice adopted after the Second Vatican Council, has made no appointments to the bishopric since the death of the last Latin titular bishop in 1984.\n\nAnastasius Sinaita, the famous 7th-century prolific monk of Saint Catherine's Monastery, was born here. It is thought that he left Cyprus after the 649 Arab conquest of the island, setting out for the Holy Land, and eventually becoming a monk on Sinai.\n\nAmathus declined and was already almost deserted when Richard Plantagenet won Cyprus by a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in 1869, a great number of blocks of stone from Amathus were used for the construction of the Suez Canal. A ruined Byzantine church marks its site.\n\n===In modern times===\nA new settlement close to Amathus but further inland, Agios Tychonas, is named after the bishop Saint Tychon of Amathus. The site of the ruins is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins: it is speculated that some of the hotels are on top of the Amathus necropolis.\n", "\nThe city had vanished, except for fragments of wall and of a great stone urn on the acropolis, dating from the 6th century BC of which a similar vessel was taken to the Musée du Louvre in 1867. It is tall and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single piece of stone and has four curved handles carved with bulls. In the 1870s, Luigi Palma di Cesnola excavated the necropolis of Amathus, as elsewhere in Cyprus, enriching the early collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art; some objects went to the British Museum. More modern archaeological joint Cypriote-French excavations started in 1980 and still continue. The Acropolis, the Temple of Aphrodite, the agora, the city’s walls, the basilica and the port have all been excavated.\n\nFurther archaeological objects found during the excavations are preserved at both the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia and the Limassol District Archaeological Museum.\n \nIn the agora there are marble columns decorated with spirals and a huge paved squares. On the coastal side of the city there is an Early Christian basilica with mosaic floors decorated with semi-precious stones. Further, near the terraced road leading to the Temple, situated on the top of the cliff, several houses built in a row dating to the Hellenistic period have been discovered. At the east and west extremes of the city the two acropoleis are situated where a number of tombs have been found, many of which are intact.\n\nTwo small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the location of the great shrines of Adonis and Aphrodite have not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, ''Kypros,'' i. ch.1).\n", "\nFile:Amphora from Amathus at the British Museum.jpg\|Amphora from tomb 52, Amathus, 6th century BC, British Museum\nFile:Αρχαιότητες της Αμαθούντας 2.jpg\|in-situ copy of massive stone vase (original in the Louvre)\n\n", "\n", "* Richard Stillwell, ed. ''Princeton Encyclopaedia of Classical Sites'', 1976: \"Amathous, Cyprus\"\n* Municipality of Limassol\n", "\n* http://www.mcw.gov.cy/mcw/DA/DA.nsf/0/D20ED526826AB796C225719B00374A92?OpenDocument\n* Agias Tychonas: Amathus (English)\n* http://www.anastasiosofsinai.org/index.html (English)\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "The Site and Archaeology", "Gallery", "Notes", "References", " External links " ]	Amathus
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alphons''' (Latinized ''Alphonsus, Adelphonsus, Adefonsus'') is a male given name recorded from the 8th century (Alfonso I of Asturias, r. 739-757) in the Christian successor states of the Visigothic kingdom in the Iberian peninsula. In the later medieval period it became a standard name in the Hispanic and Portuguese royal families.\n\nIt is derived from a Gothic name, or a conflation of several Gothic names; from ''Aþalfuns'', composed of the elements ''aþal'' \"noble\" and ''funs'' \"eager, brave, ready\", and perhaps influenced by names such as ''Alafuns'', ''Adefuns'' and ''Hildefuns''.\nIt is recorded as ''Adefonsus'' in the 9th and 10th century, \nand as ''Adelfonsus'', ''Adelphonsus'' in the 10th to 11th. The reduced form ''Alfonso'' is recorded in the late 9th century, and the Portuguese form ''Afonso'' from the early 11th.\n \n\n\nVariants of the name include: ''Alfonso'' (Spanish and Italian), ''Alfons'' (Dutch, German, Catalan, Polish and Scandinavian), ''Afonso'' (Portuguese), ''Alphonse'', ''Alfonse'' (Italian, French and English), etc.\n", "\n===Iberian royal families===\n;Asturias/Leon/Castile/Spain\nAlfonso I of Asturias - (739-757)\nAlfonso II of Asturias - (791-842)\nAlfonso III of León - (866-910)\nAlfonso Fróilaz of Galicia - (925-926)\nAlfonso IV of León - (925-931)\nAlfonso V of León - (999-1028)\nAlfonso VI of León - (1065–1109)\nAlfonso VII of León - (1126–1157)\nAlfonso VIII of Castile - (1158–1214)\nAlfonso IX of León - (1188–1230)\nAlfonso X of Castile - (1252–1284)\nAlfonso XI of Castile - (1312–1350)\nAlfonso XII of Spain - (1874–1885)\nAlfonso XIII of Spain - (1902–1941)\n;Aragon & Naples\nAlfonso I of Aragon (\"the Battler\", ''el Batallador'') - (1104–1134)\nAlfonso II of Aragon -- (1162–1196)\nAlfonso III of Aragon - (1285–1291)\nAlfonso IV of Aragon - (1327–1336)\nAlfonso V of Aragon - (1416–1458), also king of Naples and Sicily\nAlfonso II of Naples - (1448–1495)\n;Portugal\nAfonso I of Portugal - (1109–1185)\nAfonso II of Portugal - (1185–1223)\nAfonso III of Portugal - (1210–1279)\nAfonso IV of Portugal - (1291–1357)\nAfonso V of Portugal - (1432–1481)\nAfonso VI of Portugal - (1643–1683)\n\n===Other===\nAlfonso Jordan (1103–1148) \nAlphonse, Count of Poitiers (1220–1271)\nAlfonso of Valladolid - (ca. 1270 – ca. 1347), Jewish convert to Christianity, philosopher, and mathematician\nAlphonso, Earl of Chester, first son of Edward I of England, named after his godfather Alfonso X of Castile; died in childhood.\nJuan Alfonso de Baena (ca. 1375 – ca. 1434), Castilian troubadour.\n", "Afonso de Albuquerque, a Portuguese naval officer.\nAlfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara during the time of the War of the League of Cambrai.\nAfonso VI of Portugal - (1656–1683)\nNzinga Mbemba, also known as \"Afonso I of Kongo\" (1505–1543)\nAfonso II of Kongo - (1561)\nAlphonse de Tonty, Baron de Paludy (ca. 1659 – 1727)\nAfonso III of Kongo - (1666–1667)\nAfonso, 1st Duke of Braganza, son of John I of Portugal.\nAfonso, Prince of Portugal, son of John II of Portugal.\nAfonso, Duke of Porto, son of Louis I of Portugal.\nAfonso of Portugal, Lord of Portalegre, son of Afonso III of Portugal.\nAraribóia, baptismal name Martim Afonso, leader of the Temiminó tribe in Brazil in the 16th century.\nCardinal Afonso of Portugal, son of Manuel I of Portugal.\nJoão Afonso de Aveiro, Portuguese explorer.\nJorge Afonso, Portuguese Renaissance painter.\nMadragana, baptismal name Mor Afonso, mistress to Afonso III of Portugal.\nAlfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara from 1559 to 1597.\nAlfonso II, Count of Provence, second son of Alfonso II of Aragon.\nAlfonso III d'Este, Duke of Modena and Reggio (1628–44).\nAlfonso of Castile, Prince of Asturias, figurehead of rebelling magnates against his brother King Henry IV of Castile.\nAlfonso of Hauteville, Prince of Capua.\nAlphonsus Liguori, Roman Catholic theologian (1696–1787)\nJoseph-Alphonse Esménard (1770–1811)\n", "\n===Iberian/Sicilian nobility===\nPrince Alfonso, Count of Caserta (1841–1934), duke of Calabria and head of the royal house of the Two Sicilies\nAlfonso XII of Spain (1857–1885) (ordinal numbering continues from the kings of Castile)\nAlfonso XIII of Spain (1886–1931)\nInfante Alfonso, Duke of Calabria, claimant to the title of the head of House of Bourbon Two Sicilies.\nAlfonso of Spain, Prince of Asturias, heir-apparent of the throne of Spain 1907-31.\nElvira Alfonso of Castile, Queen of Sicily.\nPrince Alfonso of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (1924–2003), Spanish playboy and businessman.\nInfante Alfonso of Spain, younger brother of former King Juan Carlos of Spain.\nFadrique Alfonso of Castile, fifth illegitimate child of Alfonso XI of Castile.\nAfonso VII of Portugal, future regnal name of the heir apparent to the current pretender\nInfante Afonso, Prince of Beira, 2nd claimant in line to the Portuguese throne.\n\n===Alfons===\nAlfons van Blaaderen (born 1963), Dutch physicist\nAlfons Goppel (1905–1991), German politician\nAlfons Gorbach (1898–1972), Austrian politician\nAlfons Jēgers (1919–1999), Latvian football and hockey player\nAlfons Karpiński (1875–1961), Polish painter\nAlfons Rebane (1908–1976), Estonian military commander\n\n===Alphonse===\nAlphonse Gabriel Capone (1899-1947), Perhaps the best-known gangster of all time, Al \"Scarface\" Capone was the most powerful mob boss of his era.\n\n\n===Alfonso ===\nAlfonso Soriano, a current Major League Baseball outfielder playing for the New York Yankees\nAlfonso Lizarazo, Colombian host and political\nAlfonso Mejia-Arias, Mexican musician, writer, social activist and politician of Roma origin (Gitano).\nAlfonso Ribeiro, Caribbean-American actor.\nAlfonso John Romero, American video-game designer, programmer, and developer.\nAlfonso Pérez Muñoz, Spanish football (soccer) striker.\nAlfonso Oiterong, Palauan statesman, former Palau vice president 1981-1985\nGiovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist.\nJosé Alfonso Belloso y Sánchez, former Archbishop of San Salvador, El Salvador.\nMiguel Alfonso Pérez Aracil, Spanish football (soccer) midfielder.\nAlfonso Trujillo Illingworth Gran ingeniero y pensador ecuatoriano (1963-)\nAlfonso Trujillo Cárdenas Hijo de un gran ingeniero y pensador ecuatoriano, abogado, ex presidente de Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos .\n\n===Afonso===\nAfonso Alves, Brazilian footballer\nNadir Afonso Rodrigues (1920-2013), Portuguese painter.\nZeca Afonso, real name José Manuel Cerqueira Afonso dos Santos, Portuguese folk and political musician.\nAlexandre Afonso da Silva, Brazilian footballer.\nPaulo Afonso Evangelista Vieira, Brazilian politician.\n\n===Alfonse===\nAlfonse D'Amato, a United States Senator from New York\nAbraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin, a Swiss-American politician\n", "\n''Alphonse'', ''Alphonso'', ''Alfonso'' is occasionally seen as a surname derived from the given name, the latter descending from Asturias and Cantabria.\nCelestino Alfonso (1916-1944), Spanish republican and volunteer fighter in the French resistance during World War II.\nRoland Alphonso (1931–1998), Jamaican saxophonist.\nKristian Alfonso (b. 1963), Puerto Rican American soap opera actress.\nMichael Alfonso (1965-2007), ring name ''Mike Awesome'', American wrestler.\nEquis Alfonso, known as X-Alfonso, Cuban hip-hop and afro-rock musician.\nOzzie Alfonso, Cuban-American TV director and producer.\nAndrey Nazário Afonso, Brazilian Football Goalkeeper.\nAmila Aponso, Sri Lankan Sinhala cricketer who plays for Ragama Cricket Club\nFlavian Aponso, Sri Lankan Sinhala Dutch cricketer\nJ. Aponso, Sri Lankan Sinhala cricketer\nJayasekara Aponso, Sri Lankan Sinhala artist, actor, director, scriptwriter\nSadda Vidda Rajapakse Palanga Pathira Ambakumarage Ranjan Leo Sylvester Alphonsu, Sri Lankan Sinhala politician, actor, singer, writer\n", "Bill \"Fonzie\" Alfonso, ring name of William Matthew \"Bill\" Sierra, former Wrestling referee & manager\n", "''Alfons'' is the stage name of Emmanuel Peterfalvi, a French comedian.\n", "Alphonso, protagonist in ''Alfonso und Estrella'', an opera by Franz Schubert.\n''Don Alfonso'', character in Mozart's opera ''Così fan tutte''\nAlphonso MacKenzie, fictional character in the Marvel Universe\nAlfie Atkins, known as ''Alfons Åberg'' in Swedish, character created by Gunilla Bergström from Sweden\nAlfonzo Dominico Jones, a dog in the Australian television series ''SeaChange''\nAlphonse \"Big Boy\" Caprice, character in the comic strip ''Dick Tracy''\n''Alphonse and Gaston'', French duo in a comic strip created by Frederick Burr Opper\nAlphonse Elric from ''Fullmetal Alchemist''\nAlphonse Mephisto, fictional character in the animated television series ''South Park''\nAlfons Heiderich from ''Fullmetal Alchemist the Movie: Conqueror of Shamballa''\nAlphonso Ali, minor character in ''Bloom County''\nMonsieur Alfonse, character in the BBC sitcom ''Allo 'Allo!'' played by the actor Kenneth Connor\nThe name of a number of pets and the Patlabor of Noa Izumi from the anime ''Patlabor''.\nOren Pierre Alfonso from ''Kamen Rider Gaim''\n", "Ildefonso (disambiguation)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Middle Ages", "Early modern period", "Modern period", "As a surname", "Pseudonym", "Stage name", "Fictional characters", "See also", "References" ]	Alphons
[ "'''Alfonso I''' may refer to:\n\nAlfonso I of Asturias (739–757), called the Catholic (el Católico), was the King of Asturias\nAfonso I of Portugal (1094–1195) (Afonso Henriques), the son of Henry of Burgundy\nAlfonso I of Aragon (1104–1134), known as Alfonso the Battler\nAlfonso V of Aragon (1396–1458), King of Naples as Alfonso I\nAfonso I of Kongo (1456–1543) the first Christian king of the Kingdom of Kongo\nAlfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara (1476–1534)\n*Alfonso XIII of Spain (1886–1941), known to French Legitimists as \"Alphonse I\"\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Alfonso I
[ "\n'''Amati''' is the last name of a family of Italian violin makers, who lived at Cremona from about 1538 to 1740. Their importance is considered equal to those of the Bergonzi, Guarneri and Stradivari families. Today, violins created by Nicolò Amati are valued at around $600,000.\n", "\n===Andrea Amati===\n\n'''Andrea Amati''' () designed and created the violin, viola and cello known as the \"violin family\". He standardized the basic form, shape, size, materials and method of construction. Makers from nearby Brescia experimented, such as Gasparo da Salò, Micheli, Zanetto and Pellegrino, but it was Andrea Amati in Cremona, Italy, who gave the modern violin family their definitive profile.\n\nThe first violin was ordered by Lorenzo de' Medici in 1555. His letter to Amati stated the instrument was to be \"made of the highest quality materials like that of a lute, but simple to play\". The first violin was intended to be used by illiterate musicians, so the design was simple and it was easy to play. What became of this first violin is not known. A number of his instruments survived for some time, dating between 1538 (Amati made the first Cello called \"The King\" in 1538 1) and 1574. The largest number these are from 1560, a set for an entire orchestra of 38 ordered by Catherine de Médicis the regent queen of France and bore hand painted royal French decorations in gold including the motto and coat of arms of her son Charles IX of France. Of these 38 instruments ordered, Amati created violins of two sizes, violas of two sizes and large-sized cellos. They were in use until the French revolution of 1789 and only 14 of these instruments survived. His work is marked by selection of the finest materials, great elegance in execution, soft clear amber, soft translucent varnish, and an in depth use of acoustic and geometrical principles in design.\n\n\n===Antonio and Girolamo Amati===\nAndrea Amati was succeeded by his sons '''Antonio Amati''' (–1607) and '''Girolamo Amati''' (–1630). \"The Brothers Amati\", as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the f-holes. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of viola, in contrast to older tenor violas, but the widespread belief that they were the first ones to do so is incorrect given that Gasparo da Salo made violas ranging from altos of 39 cm to tenors of 44.7 cm.\n\n===Nicolo Amati===\n\n'''Nicolò Amati''' (December 3, 1596April 12, 1684) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His pattern was unusually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the \"Grand Amati\", which have become his most sought-after violins.\n\nOf his pupils, the most famous were Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri, the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers. (There is much controversy regarding the apprenticeship of Antonio Stradivari. While the label on Stradivari's first known violin states that he was a pupil of Amati, the validity of his statement is questioned.)\n\n===Girolamo Amati (Hieronymus II)===\nThe last maker of the family was Nicolò's son, '''Girolamo Amati''', known as '''Hieronymus II''' (February 26, 1649February 21, 1740). Although he improved on the arching of his father's instruments, by and large they are inferior and no match for the greatest maker of his day, Antonio Stradivari.\n", "===United Kingdom===\nInstruments in the UK include Andrea Amati violins from the set delivered to Charles IX of France in 1564.\n* Amati instruments at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.\n* Andrea Amati\n Violin, 1564 (ex–French royal collection)\n Viola\n* Amati instruments at the Royal Academy of Music Museum, London\n* Amati instrument at the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery, Carlisle\n* Andrea Amati\n** Violin, 1564 (ex French royal collection)\n\n===United States===\nThis violin, now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, may have been part of a set made for the marriage of Philip II of Spain to Elisabeth of Valois in 1559, which would make it one of the earliest known violins in existence.\n\n* Amati instruments at the National Music Museum (University of South Dakota):\n Andrea Amati:\n* \"The King\", circa 1545, the world's oldest extant cello\n* Viola, 1560\n* Violin, 1560\n* Violin, 1574\n Girolamo Amati:\n* Double bass, 1680\n* Violin, 1604\n* Violin, 7/8-size, 1609\n* Violino piccolo, 1613\n Nicolò Amati:\n* Violin, 1628\n\nAmati instruments at the (New York) Metropolitan Museum of Art\nAndrea Amati:\n Violin, \n Nicolò Amati:\n*** Violin, 1669\n", "* Patrick O'Brian's fictional British sea captain Jack Aubrey is described as owning a \"fiddle far above his station, an Amati no less\", in ''The Surgeon's Mate.'' In the ''Wine-Dark Sea'', book fifteen of the series, Stephen Maturin now has a Girolamo Amati and Aubrey a Guarneri.\n* In Satyajit Ray's short story ''Bosepukure Khoonkharapi'', the fictional detective Feluda deduces that a character was murdered because he owned an Amati violin.\n* In the manga and anime series Gunslinger Girl, Henrietta carries an Amati violin case. It contains a Fabrique Nationale P90 when on a mission, otherwise it contains a real violin.\n* On the radio show, ''Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar'', the January 1956 episode \"The Ricardo Amerigo Matter\" centered on a stolen Amati violin.\n", "* Antonio Stradivari\n* Amati Quartet\n* Dom Nicolò Amati (1662–1752), Italian luthier not part of this family but who adopted this surname\n* Luthier\n* San Maurizio, Venice\n", "\n", "Dilworth, John (1992), \"The Violin and Bow-Origins and Development\" in: ''The Cambridge Companion to the Violin'', ed. Robin Stowell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–29.\n", " Andrea Amati: Violin, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art\n* Instruments of the Amati family on the online database MIMO, website mimo-international.com.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Family members", "Extant Amati instruments", "In popular culture", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Amati
[ "'''Alfonso II''' may refer to:\nAlfonso II of Asturias (791–842)\nAlfonso II of Aragon (1162–1196)\nAlfonso II, Count of Provence (1174–1209)\nAfonso II of Portugal (1185–1223), \"the Fat\"\nAlfonso, Count of Poitou (1220–1271), jure uxoris Alfonso II, Count of Toulouse\nAlfonso II of Naples (1448–1495)\n*Alfonso II d'Este (1533–1597), duke of Ferrara from 1559 to 1597\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Alfonso II
[ "'''Alfonso III''' may refer to:\n\nAlfonso III of Leon (866–910) surnamed \"the Great\"\nAfonso III of Portugal (1210–1279)\nAlfonso III of Aragon (1285–1291)\nAlfonso III d'Este, Duke of Modena and Reggio (1628–1644)\n*Alfonso III of Kongo (1666–1667)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Alfonso III
[ "\nWounded Amazon of the Capitol, Rome\nAmazon preparing for a battle (Queen Antiop or Armed Venus), by Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert 1860 (National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.)\n\nIn Greek mythology, the '''Amazons''' (, '''', singular , '''') were a tribe of women warriors. Apollonius Rhodius, at Argonautica, mentions that Amazons were the daughters of Ares and Harmonia (a nymph of the Akmonian Wood). They were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war.\n\nHerodotus and Strabo place them on the banks of the Thermodon, while Diodorus giving the account of Dionysius of Mitylene, who, on his part, drew on Thymoetas, states that before the Amazons of the Thermodon there were, much earlier in time, the Amazons of Libya. These Amazons started from Libya passed through Egypt and Syria, and stopped at the Caïcus in Aeolis, near which they founded several cities. Later, he says, they established Mitylene a little way beyond the Caïcus. Aeschylus, at Prometheus Bound, places the original home of the Amazons in the country about Lake Maeotis and they later moved to Themiscyra on the Thermodon. Homer tells that the Amazons were sought and found somewhere near Lycia.\n\nNotable queens of the Amazons are Penthesilea, who participated in the Trojan War, and her sister Hippolyta, whose magical girdle, given to her by her father Ares, was the object of one of the labours of Heracles. Diodorus mentions that the Amazons traveled from Libya under Queen Myrina. Amazon warriors were often depicted in battle with Greek warriors in amazonomachies in classical art.\n\nThe Scythian women may have inspired the myth. From the early modern period, their name has become a term for female warriors in general. Amazons were said to have founded the cities and temples of Smyrna, Sinope, Cyme, Gryne, Ephesus, Pitania, Magnesia, Clete, Pygela, Latoreria and Amastris; according to legend, the Amazons also invented the cavalry.\n\nPalaephatus, who was trying to rationalize the Greek myths in his work ''On Unbelievable Tales'' or ''On Incredible Tales'' (), stated that the Amazons most probably were men mistaken for women by their enemies because they wore clothing which reached their feet, tied up their hair in headbands and shaved their beards, and also, since they did not exist during his time, most probably they did nοt exist in the past either.\n", "The origin of the word is uncertain. It may be derived from an Iranian ethnonym ''ha-mazan-'' \"warriors\", a word attested indirectly through a derivation, a denominal verb in Hesychius of Alexandria's gloss (\"'''': 'to make war' in Persian\"), where it appears together with the Indo-Iranian root ''kar-'' \"make\" (from which Sanskrit ''karma'' is also derived).\n\nIt may also be derived from '''' \"manless, without husbands\" (''a-'' privative and a derivation of ''man-'' also found in Slavic ''muzh'') has been proposed, an explanation deemed \"unlikely\" by Hjalmar Frisk. 19th century scholarship also connected the term to the ethnonym Amazigh. A further explanation proposes Iranian ''ama-janah'' \"virility-killing\" as source.\n\n\n\nAmong Classical Greeks, ''amazon'' was given a folk etymology as originating from '''' () and '''' (), \"without breast\", connected with an etiological tradition once claimed by Marcus Justinus who alleged that Amazons had their right breast cut off or burnt out. There is no indication of such a practice in ancient works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although one is frequently covered. Adrienne Mayor suggests the origin of this myth was due to the word's etymology.\n\nGreeks also used some epithets for them. Herodotus used the ''Androktones'' (, singular , '''') (\"killers of men\") and ''Androleteirai'' (, singular , '''') (\"destroyers of men, murderesses\"), in the Iliad they are also called ''Antianeirai'' (, singular , '''') (\"those who fight like men\") and Aeschylus in his work, Prometheus Bound, used the ''styganor'' () (\"those who loathe all men\").\n", "Ancient Greek Attic white-ground alabastron, 470 BC, British Museum, London.\n\nHerodotus and Strabo placed them on the banks of the Thermodon and Themiscyra. Herodotus also mentions that some Amazons lived at Scythia because after the Greeks defeated the Amazons in battle, they sailed away carrying in three ships as many Amazons as they had been able to take alive, but out at sea the Amazons attacked the crews and killed them, then these Amazons landed at Scythian lands. Strabo, mention that the original home of the Amazons were in Themiscyra and the plains about Thermodon and the mountains that lie above them, but later they were driven out of these places and during his time they are said to live in the mountains above Caucasian Albania (should not be confused with the modern Albania), but he also states that some others, among them Metrodorus of Scepsis and Hypsicrates, say that after Themiscyra, the Amazons traveled and lived on the borders of the Gargarians, in the northerly foothills of those parts of the Caucasian Mountains which are called Ceraunian.\nDiodorus giving the account of Dionysius of Mitylene, who, on his part, drew on Thymoetas states that before the Amazons of the Thermodon there were, much earlier in time, the Amazons of Libya. These Amazons started from Libya passed through Egypt and Syria, and stopped at the Caïcus in Aeolis, near which they founded several cities. Later, he says, they established Mitylene a little way beyond the Caïcus.\nAeschylus, at Prometheus Bound, places the original home of the Amazons in the country about Lake Maeotis and they later moved to Themiscyra on the Thermodon. \nAccording to Pseudo-Plutarch, the Amazons lived in and about the Tanais () river (modern Don river), formerly called the Amazonian or Amazon () river, because the Amazons bathed themselves therein. The Amazons later moved to Themiscyra (modern Terme) on the River Thermodon (the Terme river in northern Turkey).\nPlutarch, mentions that the campaign(s) of Heracles and Theseus against the Amazons was at Euxine Sea (modern Black Sea). \nHomer tells that the Amazons were sought and found somewhere near Lycia.\n\nThe Amazons were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them Smyrna, Ephesus, Cyme, Myrina, Sinope, Paphos, Mitylene. At Patmos there was a place called Amazonium. Also, on the island of Lemnos, there was another Myrina. The cities of Myrina had this name after the amazon Myrina.\n\nApollonius Rhodius, at Argonautica, mentions that at Thermodon the Amazons were not gathered together in one city, but scattered over the land, parted into three tribes. In one part dwelt the Themiscyreians (), in another the Lycastians (), and in another the Chadesians ().\n", "\nGreeks also used epithets for them. Herodotus used the ''Androktones'' (, singular , '''') (\"killers/slayers of men\") and ''Androleteirai'' (, singular , '''') (\"destroyers of men, murderesses\"), in the Iliad they are also called ''Antianeirai'' (, singular , '''') (\"those who fight like men\") and Aeschylus used the ''Steganor'' () (\"those who loathe all men\").\n\nHerodotus stated that in the Scythian language they were called ''Oiorpata'', oior means \"man\", and pata means \"to slay\".\n", "In some versions of the myth, no men were permitted to have sexual encounters or reside in Amazon country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the Gargareans, a neighbouring tribe.\n\nStrabo, giving credits to Metrodorus of Scepsis and Hypsicrates, mentions that at his time the Amazons were believed to live on the borders of the Gargareans. There were two special months in the spring in which they would go up into the neighboring mountain which separates them and the Gargareans. The Gargareans also, in accordance with an ancient custom, would go there to offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for the sake of begetting children. They did this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargareans at random with any Amazon, and after making them pregnant they would send them away. Any females that were born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the males would be taken to the Gargareans to be brought up; and each Gargareans to whom a child is brought would adopt the child as his own, regarding the child as his son because of his uncertainty. He also stated that the Gargarians went up from Themiscyra into this region with the Amazons, then, in company with some Thracians and Euboeans who had wandered thus far, waged war against them. They later ended the war against the Amazons and made a compact that they should have dealings with one another only in the matter of children, and that each people should live independent of the other.\nIn addition, he states that the right breasts of all Amazons are seared when they are infants, so that they can easily use their right arm for every needed purpose, and especially that of throwing the javelin and use the bow.\n\nHerodotus mentions that when Greeks defeated the Amazons at war, they sailed away carrying in three ships as many Amazons as they had been able to take alive, but out at sea the Amazons attacked the crews and killed them. But the Amazons knew nothing about ships so they were driven about by waves and winds and they were disembarked at the land of the Scythians, there they met first with a troop of horses feeding, they seized them and mounted upon these they plundered the property of the Scythians. The Scythians were not able to understand them because they did not know either their speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, and they thought that they were men. Scythians fought a battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were women. After the battle Scythians sent young men and told them to encamp near the Amazons and to do whatsoever they should do. If the women should come after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp. This plan was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children born from them. When the Amazons perceived that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: and the young men, like the Amazons, had nothing except their arms and their horses and got their living, as the Amazons did, by hunting and by taking booty. One day a Scythian and an Amazon came close. They could not speak to each other because they were speaking different languages but the Amazon made signs to him with her hand to come. Later the young Scythians and the Amazons joined their camps and lived together, each man having for his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first. The men were not able to learn the language of the Amazons, but the women learned Scythian.\n\nApollonius Rhodius, at Argonautica, mentions that Amazons were the daughters of Ares and Harmonia (a nymph of the Akmonian Wood). They were brutal and aggressive, and their main concern in life was war. According to him, the Amazons were not gathered together in one city, but scattered over the land, parted into three tribes. In one part dwelt the Themiscyreians (), in another the Lycastians (), and in another the Chadesians (). Also, he mention that on an island, the Queens of the Amazons, Otrere () and Antiope (), built a marble temple of Ares. On this desert island there were ravening birds, which in countless numbers haunt it. Argonauts passed by Themiscyra on their journey to Colchis. Zeus sent Boreas (the North Wind), and with his help the Argonauts stood out from the shore near Themiscyra where the Themiscyreian Amazons were arming for battle.\n\nThe King Iobates sent Bellerophon against Amazons, hoping that they would kill him, but Bellerophon killed them all.\n\nThe Amazons appear in Greek art of the Archaic period and in connection with several Greek legends. The tomb of Myrine is mentioned in the ''Iliad''; later interpretation made of her an Amazon: according to Diodorus, \n\nAccording to Diodorus, the Amazons under the rule of Queen Myrina, invaded the lands of the Atlantians. Amazons defeated the army of the Atlantian city of Cerne, treated the captives savagely, killed all the men, led into slavery the children and women, and razed the city. When the terrible fate of the inhabitants of Cerne became known among the other Atlantians, they were struck with terror, surrendered their cities on terms of capitulation and announced that they would do whatever should be commanded them. Queen Myrina bearing herself honourably towards the Atlantians, established friendship with them and founded a city to bear her name in place of the city of Cerne which had been razed; and in it she settled both the captives and any native who so desired. Atlantians presented her with magnificent presents and by public decree voted to her notable honours, and she in return accepted their courtesy and in addition promised that she would show kindness to their nation. Diodorus also mentions that the Amazons of Queen Myrina used the skins of gigantic snakes, from Libya, to protect themselves at battle. Later Queen Myrine led her Amazons to victory against the Gorgons. After the battle against the Gorgons, Myrina accorded a funeral to her fallen comrades on three pyres and raised up three great heaps of earth as tombs, which are called \"Amazon Mounds\" ().\n\nOne of the tasks imposed upon Hercules by Eurystheus was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen Hippolyta. He was accompanied by his friend Theseus, who carried off the princess Antiope, sister of Hippolyta, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of Attica, in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus. In some versions, however, Theseus marries Hippolyta and in others, he marries Antiope and she does not die; by this marriage with the Amazon Theseus had a son Hippolytus. \nIn another version of this myth, Theseus made this voyage on his own account, after the time of Heracles.\nThe battle between the Athenians and Amazons is often commemorated in an entire genre of art, amazonomachy, in marble bas-reliefs such as from the Parthenon or the sculptures of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus.\nThalestris, Queen of the Amazons, visits Alexander (1696)\n\nPlutarch, in his work Parallel Lives-The Life of Theseus, mentions that Bion said that the Amazons, were naturally friendly to men, and did not fly from Theseus when he touched upon their coasts.\n\nAmazons attacked the Phrygians, who were assisted by Priam, then a young man. In his later years, however, towards the end of the Trojan War, his old opponents took his side against the Greeks under their queen Penthesilea \"of Thracian birth\", who was slain by Achilles.\n\nThe God Dionysus and his entourage fought the amazons at Ephesus, the amazons fled to Samos, but Dionysus pursued them and at Samos he killed a great number of them on a spot which was, from that occurrence, called Panaema (), which means blood-soaked field. In another myth Dionysus united with the Amazons to fight against Cronus and the Titans.\n\nThe Amazons are also said to have undertaken an expedition against the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the Danube, where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by Thetis. The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. Pompey is said to have found them in the army of Mithridates.\n\nThey are heard of in the time of Alexander, when some of the king's biographers make mention of Amazon Queen Thalestris visiting him and becoming a mother by him (the story is known from the ''Alexander Romance''). However, several other biographers of Alexander dispute the claim, including the highly regarded secondary source, Plutarch. In his writing he makes mention of a moment when Alexander's secondary naval commander, Onesicritus, was reading the Amazon passage of his Alexander history to King Lysimachus of Thrace who was on the original expedition: the king smiled at him and said \"And where was I, then?\"\n\nThe Roman writer Virgil's characterization of the Volscian warrior maiden Camilla in the ''Aeneid'' borrows heavily from the myth of the Amazons.\n\nJordanes' ''Getica'' (), purporting to give the earliest history of the Goths, relates that the Goths' ancestors, descendants of Magog, originally dwelt within Scythia, on the Sea of Azov between the Dnieper and Don Rivers. After a few centuries, following an incident where the Goths' women successfully fended off a raid by a neighboring tribe, while the menfolk were off campaigning against Pharaoh Vesosis, the women formed their own army under Marpesia and crossed the Don, invading Asia. Her sister Lampedo remained in Europe to guard the homeland. They procreated with men once a year. These Amazons conquered Armenia, Syria, and all of Asia Minor, even reaching Ionia and Aeolia, holding this vast territory for 100 years. Jordanes also mentions that they fought with Hercules, and in the Trojan War, and that a smaller contingent of them endured in the Caucasus Mountains until the time of Alexander. He mentions by name the Queens Menalippe, Hippolyta, and Penthesilea.\n\nIn the Grottaferrata Version of ''Digenes Akritas'', the twelfth century medieval epic of Basil, the Greek-Syrian knight of the Byzantine frontier, the hero battles with and kills the female warrior Maximo.\n\n* She was descended from some Amazons.\n* Taken by Alexander from the Brahmans.\n", "A helmeted Amazon with her sword and a shield bearing the Gorgon head image, Tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, 510–500 BC\nA Greek rider seizes a mounted Amazonian warrior (armed with a double-headed axe) by her Phrygian cap; Roman mosaic emblema (marble and limestone), 2nd half of the 4th century AD; from Daphne, a suburb of Antioch-on-the-Orontes (now Antakya in Turkey)\nThere are several (conflicting) lists of names of Amazons.\n* Quintus Smyrnaeus lists the attendant warriors of Penthesilea: \"Clonie was there, Polemusa, Derinoe, Evandre, and Antandre, and Bremusa, Hippothoe, dark-eyed Harmothoe, Alcibie, Derimacheia, Antibrote, and Thermodosa glorying with the spear.\"\n\n* Diodorus Siculus lists twelve Amazons who challenged Heracles to single combat during his quest for Hippolyta's girdle and died against him one by one: Aella, Philippis, Prothoe, Eriboea, Celaeno, Eurybia, Phoebe, Deianeira, Asteria, Marpe, Tecmessa, Alcippe. After Alcippe's death, a group attack followed. Diodorus also mentions Myrina as a queen of the Amazons.\n* Another list of Amazons' names is found in Hyginus' ''Fabulae''. Along with Hippolyta, Otrera, Antiope and Penthesilea, it attests the following names: Ocyale, Dioxippe, Iphinome, Xanthe, Hippothoe, Laomache, Glauce, Agave, Theseis, Clymene, Polydora.\n* Yet another different set of names is found in Valerius Flaccus' ''Argonautica'': he mentions Euryale, Harpe, Lyce, Menippe and Thoe. Of these Lyce also appears in a fragment preserved in the ''Latin Anthology'' where she is said to have killed the hero Clonus of Moesia, son of Doryclus, with her javelin.\n* John Tzetzes in ''Posthomerica'' enumerates the Amazons who fell at Troy: Hippothoe, Antianeira, Toxophone, Toxoanassa, Gortyessa, Iodoce, Pharetre, Andro, Ioxeia, Oïstrophe, Androdaïxa, Aspidocharme, Enchesimargos, Cnemis, Thorece, Chalcaor, Eurylophe, Hecate, Anchimache, Andromache the queen. Concerning Antianeira and Andromache, see below; for almost all the other names on the list, this is a unique attestation.\n* Stephanus of Byzantium provides an alternate list of the Amazons who fell against Heracles, describing them as \"the most prominent\" of their people: Tralla, Isocrateia, Thiba, Palla, Coea (Koia), Coenia (Koinia). Eustathius gives the same list minus the last two names. Both Stephanus and Eustathius write of these Amazons in connection with the placename Thibais, which they report to have been derived from Thiba's name.\n\nOther names of Amazons from various sources include:\n\n* Aegea, queen of the Amazons who was thought by some to have been the eponym of the Aegean Sea.\n* Ainia, presumably accompanied Penthesilea to the Trojan War, killed by Achilles; known only from an Attic terracotta relief fragment.\n* Ainippe, an Amazon who confronted Telamon in the battle against Heracles' troops.\n* Alce, who was said to have killed the young Oebalus of Arcadia, son of Ida (otherwise unknown), with her spear during the Parthian War.\n* Amastris, who was believed to be the eponym of the city previously known as Kromna, although the city was also thought to have been named after the historical Amastris.\n* Anaea, an Amazon whose tomb was shown at the island of Samos.\n* Andromache, an Amazon who fought Heracles and was defeated; only known from vase paintings. Not to be confused with Andromache, wife of Hector.\n* Antianeira, succeeded Penthesilea as Queen of the Amazons. She was best known for ordering her male servants to be crippled \"as the lame best perform the acts of love\".\n* Areto and Iphito, two little-known Amazons, whose names are only attested in inscriptions on artefacts.\n* Clete, one of the twelve followers of Penthesilea. After Penthesilea's death she, in accord with the former's will, sailed off and eventually landed in Italy, founding the city of Clete.\n* Cyme, who gave her name to the city of Cyme (Aeolis).\n* Cynna (?), one of the two possible eponyms (the other one being \"Cynnus, brother of Coeus\") of Cynna, a small town not far from Heraclea.\n* Ephesos, a Lydian Amazon, after whom the city of Ephesus was thought to have been named; she was also said to have been the first to honor Artemis and to have surnamed the goddess ''Ephesia''. Her daughter Amazo was thought of as the eponym of the Amazons.\n* Eurypyle, queen of the Amazons who was reported to have led an expedition against Ninus and Babylon around 1760 BC.\n* Gryne, an Amazon who was thought to be the eponym of the Gryneian grove in Asia Minor. She was loved by Apollo and consorted with him in said grove.\n* Helene, daughter of Tityrus. She fought Achilles and died after he gravely wounded her.\n* Hippo, an Amazon who took part in the introduction of religious rites in honor of the goddess Artemis. She was punished by the goddess for not having performed a ritual dance.\n* Lampedo, queen of the Amazons, co-ruler with Marpesia.\n* Latoreia, who had a small village near Ephesus named after her.\n* Lysippe, mother of Tanais by Berossos. Her son only venerated Ares and was fully devoted to war, neglecting love and marriage. Aphrodite cursed him with falling in love with his own mother. Preferring to die rather than give up his chastity, he threw himself into the river Amazonius, which was subsequently renamed Tanais.\n* Marpesia, queen of the Amazons, co-ruler with Lampedo.\n* Melanippe, sister of Hippolyta. Heracles captured her and demanded Hippolyta's girdle in exchange for her freedom. Hippolyta complied and Heracles let her go. According to some, however, she was killed by Telamon.\n* Molpadia, an Amazon who killed Antiope.\n* Myrleia, possible eponym of a city in Bithynia, which was later known as Apamea.\n* Myrto, in one source, mother of Myrtilus by Hermes (elsewhere his mother is called Theobule).\n* Mytilene, Myrina's sister and one of the possible eponyms for the city of Mytilene\n* Orithyia, daughter and successor of Marpesia, famous for her conquests.\n* Otrera, consort of Ares and mother of Hippolyta and Penthesilea.\n* Pantariste, who killed Timiades in the battle between the Amazons and Heracles' troops.\n* Pitane and Priene, two commanders in Myrina's army, after whom the cities of Pitane (Aeolis) and Priene were named.\n* Sanape, who fled to Pontus and married a local king. \"Sanape\" means \"from wine country\" in Circassian. According to a commentary, it was purported to mean \"drunkard\" in the local language.\n* Sinope, successor of Lampedo and Marpesia.\n* Sisyrbe, after whom a part of Ephesus was called Sisyrba, and its inhabitants the Sisyrbitae.\n* Smyrna, who obtained possession of Ephesus and gave her name to a quarter in this city, as well as to the city of Smyrna.\n* Themiscyra, the eponym of the Amazon capital.\n\n===Hero cults===\nAccording to ancient sources (Plutarch, Theseus, Pausanias), Amazon tombs could be found frequently throughout what was once known as the ancient Greek world. Some are found in Megara, Athens, Chaeronea, Chalcis, Thessaly at Skotousa, in Cynoscephalae, and statues of Amazons are all over Greece.\n\nAt both Chalcis and Athens, Plutarch tells us that there was an Amazoneum or shrine of Amazons that implied the presence of both tombs and cult. At the entrance of Athens there was a monument to the Amazon Antiope. On the day before the Thesea at Athens there were annual sacrifices to the Amazons. In historical times Greek maidens of Ephesus performed an annual circular dance with weapons and shields that had been established by Hippolyta and her Amazons. They had initially set up wooden statues of Artemis, a ''bretas'' (Pausanias, (fl.c.160): ''Description of Greece'', Book I: Attica).\n\n===In art===\nTwo female gladiators with their names ''Amazonia and Achillea''.\n\nIn works of art, battles between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as – and often associated with – battles of Greeks and centaurs. The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of natural beings. Amazons were therefore depicted in the manner of Scythian or Sarmatian horsemen. Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called ''pelta'', and in early art a helmet. The model in the Greek mind had apparently been the goddess Athena. In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly Persian – that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the ''kidaris''. They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot.\nThis depiction of Amazons demonstrates just how closely, in the Greek mind, the Amazons were linked to the Scythians. Their manner of dress has been noted to bear a striking similarity to the traditional dress of nomadic peoples from the Crimea to Mongolia. Amazons were described by Herodotus as wearing trousers and having tall stiff caps. The double-sided axe was the most emblematic of their weapons. Amazons can also be identified in vase paintings by the fact that they are wearing one earring. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons (Amazonomachy) is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, now in the British Museum), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at Athens it was represented on the shield of the statue of Athena Parthenos, on wall-paintings in the Theseum and in the ''Stoa Poikile''. There were also three standard Amazon statue types.\n\n''Battle of the Amazons'' by Peter Paul Rubens\nLater in the Renaissance, as Amazon myth evolved, artists started to depict warrior women in a new light. Queen Elizabeth was often thought of as an Amazon-like warrior during her reign and can be seen in many paintings as such. Though, as explained in ''Divinia Viagro'' by Winfried Schleiner, Celeste T. Wright \"has given a detailed account of the bad press Amazons had in the Renaissance (with respect to their unwomanly conduct and Scythian cruelty). She notes that she has not found any Elizabethans comparing the queen directly to an Amazon, and suggests that they might have hesitated to do so because of the association of Amazons with enfranchisement of women, which was considered contemptible.\"\n\nPeter Paul Ruben and Jan Brueghel depicted the Battle of the Amazons around 1598, showing many attributes of Renaissance-styled paintings. Amazons also appear in the Rococo period in another painting titled ''Battle of the Amazons'' by Johann Georg Platzer. As a part of the Romantic period revival, German artist Anselm Feuerbach painted the Amazons as well. His paintings “engendered all the aspirations of the Romantics: their desire to transcend the boundaries of the ego and of the known world; their interest in the occult in nature and in the soul; their search for a national identity, and the ensuing search for the mythic origins of the Germanic nation; finally, their wish to escape the harsh realities of the present through immersion in an idealized past.”\n", "Amazon in combat, infl. Polyclitus, Rome. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection\nHerodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians, and that their wives observed their ancient maternal customs, \"frequently hunting on horseback with their husbands; in war taking the field; and wearing the very same dress as the men\". Moreover, said Herodotus, \"No girl shall wed till she has killed a man in battle\". In the story related by Herodotus, a group of Amazons was blown across the Maeotian Lake (the Sea of Azov) into Scythia near the cliff region (today's southeastern Crimea). After learning the Scythian language, they agreed to marry Scythian men, on the condition that they not be required to follow the customs of Scythian women. According to Herodotus, this band moved toward the northeast, settling beyond the Tanais (Don) river, and became the ancestors of the Sauromatians. According to Herodotus, the Sarmatians fought with the Scythians against Darius the Great in the 5th century BC.\n\nHippocrates describes them as: \"They have no right breasts...for while they are yet babies their mothers make red-hot a bronze instrument constructed for this very purpose and apply it to the right breast and cauterize it, so that its growth is arrested, and all its strength and bulk are diverted to the right shoulder and right arm.\"\n\nAmazons came to play a role in Roman historiography. Caesar reminded the Senate of the conquest of large parts of Asia by Semiramis and the Amazons. Successful Amazon raids against Lycia and Cilicia contrasted with effective resistance by Lydian cavalry against the invaders (Strabo 5.504; Nicholas Damascenus). Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus pays particularly detailed attention to the Amazons. The story of the Amazons as deriving from a Cappadocian colony of two Scythian princes Ylinos and Scolopetos is due to him. Pliny the Elder records some surprising facts pointing to the valley of the Terme River as possibly being their home: a mountain named for them (the modern Mason Dagi), as well as a settlement Amazonium; Herodotus (VI.86) first mentions their capital Themiscyra, which Pliny locates near the Terme. Philostratus places the Amazons in the Taurus Mountains. Ammianus places them east of Tanais, as neighbouring the Alans. Procopius places them in the Caucasus. Diodorus Siculus (''Bibliotheca historica'' III, chapter 52) mentioned that besides Pontus Amazons existed much older race (at that time entirely disappeared) of Amazons from western Libya, and retells their mythological story which includes Atlantis and Greek mythology.\n\nAlthough Strabo shows skepticism as to their historicity, the Amazons in general continue to be taken as historical throughout Late Antiquity. Several Church Fathers speak of the Amazons as of a real people. Solinus embraces the account of Pliny. Under Aurelianus, captured Gothic women were identified as Amazons (Claudianus). The account of Justinus was influential, and was used as a source by Orosius who continued to be read during the European Middle Ages. Medieval authors thus continue the tradition of locating the Amazons in the North, Adam of Bremen placing them at the Baltic Sea and Paulus Diaconus in the heart of Germania.\n", "Dahomey Amazons were so named by Western observers due to their similarity to the semi-mythical Amazons\n\nAmazons continued to be discussed by authors of the European Renaissance, and with the Age of Exploration, they were located in ever more remote areas. In 1542, Francisco de Orellana reached the Amazon River (''Amazonas'' in Spanish), naming it after a tribe of warlike women he claimed to have encountered and fought on the Nhamundá River, a tributary of the Amazon. Afterwards the whole basin and region of the Amazon (''Amazônia'' in Portuguese, ''Amazonía'' in Spanish) were named after the river. Amazons also figure in the accounts of both Christopher Columbus and Walter Raleigh. Famous medieval traveller John Mandeville mentions them in his book:\n\n:\"Beside the land of Chaldea is the land of Amazonia, that is the land of Feminye. And in that realm is all woman and no man; not as some may say, that men may not live there, but for because that the women will not suffer no men amongst them to be their sovereigns.\"\n\nMedieval and Renaissance authors credit the Amazons with the invention of the battle-axe. This is probably related to the ''sagaris'', an axe-like weapon associated with both Amazons and Scythian tribes by Greek authors (see also Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo kurgan). Paulus Hector Mair expresses astonishment that such a \"manly weapon\" should have been invented by a \"tribe of women\", but he accepts the attribution out of respect for his authority, Johannes Aventinus.\n\nAriosto's ''Orlando Furioso'' contains a country of warrior women, ruled by Queen Orontea; the epic describes an origin much like that in Greek myth, in that the women, abandoned by a band of warriors and unfaithful lovers, rallied together to form a nation from which men were severely reduced, to prevent them from regaining power. The Amazons and Queen Hippolyta are also referenced in Geoffrey Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'' in \"The Knight's Tale\".\n", "Classicist Peter Walcot wrote, \"Wherever the Amazons are located by the Greeks, whether it is somewhere along the Black Sea in the distant north-east, or in Libya in the furthest south, it is always beyond the confines of the civilized world. The Amazons exist outside the range of normal human experience.\"\n\nNevertheless, there are various proposals for a historical nucleus of the Amazons of Greek historiography, the most obvious candidates being historical Scythia and Sarmatia in line with the account by Herodotus, but some authors prefer a comparison to cultures of Asia Minor or even Minoan Crete.\n", "===Scythians and Sarmatians===\nSpeculation that the idea of Amazons contains a core of reality is based on archaeological findings from burials, pointing to the possibility that some Sarmatian women may have participated in battle. These findings have led scholars to suggest that the Amazonian legend in Greek mythology may have been \"inspired by real warrior women\".\n\nEvidence of high-ranking warrior women comes from kurgans in southern Ukraine and Russia.\nDavid Anthony notes, \"About 20% of Scythian-Sarmatian 'warrior graves' on the lower Don and lower Volga contained women dressed for battle similar to how men dress, a phenomenon that probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons.\"\n\nMounted Amazon in Scythian costume, on an Attic red-figure vase, 420 BC\nUp to 25% of military burials were of armed Sarmatian women usually including bows. Russian archaeologist Vera Kovalevskaya points out that when Scythian men were away fighting or hunting, nomadic women would have to be able to defend themselves, their animals and pasture-grounds competently. During the time that the Scythians advanced into Asia and achieved near-hegemony in the Near East, there was a period of twenty-eight years when the men would have been away on campaigns for long periods. During this time the women would not only have had to defend themselves, but to reproduce, and this could well be the origin of the idea that Amazons mated once a year with their neighbours, if Herodotus actually based his accounts on fact.\n\nBefore modern archaeology uncovered some of the Scythian burials of warrior-maidens entombed under kurgans in the region of Altai Mountains and Sarmatia,\n giving concrete form at last to the Greek tales, the origin of the Amazon story had been the subject of speculation among classics scholars. In the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' speculation ranged along the following lines:\n\n\n\n===Minoan Crete===\n''Departure of the Amazons'', by Claude Deruet, 1620\n\nWhen Minoan archeology was still in its infancy, nevertheless, a theory raised in an essay regarding the Amazons contributed by Lewis Richard Farnell and John Myres to Robert Ranulph Marett's ''Anthropology and the Classics'' (1908), placed their possible origins in Minoan civilization, drawing attention to overlooked similarities between the two cultures. According to Myres, the tradition interpreted in the light of evidence furnished by supposed Amazon cults seems to have been very similar and may have even originated in Minoan culture. \n", "\nFrancisco de Orellana gave the Amazon river its name after reporting pitched battles with tribes of female warriors, whom he likened to the Amazons.\n\nThe city of Samsun in modern-day Turkey features a recently constructed \"Amazon Village\" museum, created to bring attention to the legacy of the Amazons and to generate both academic interest and popular tourism. A festival is also held every year in the Terme district of Samsun Province to celebrate the Amazons.\n\nIn Greece, female equestrians are also called \"Amazons\" ().\n\n===In literature and media===\n;Literature\n* Amazon Queen Hyppolyta appears in William Shakespeare's play ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' and also in ''The Two Noble Kinsmen'', which Shakespeare co-wrote with John Fletcher.\n* The Amazon queen Penthesilea, and her sexual frenzy, are at the center of the drama ''Penthesilea'' by Heinrich von Kleist in 1808.\n* William Moulton Marston created a fiction race of Amazon, whose members included the superheroine Wonder Woman \n* In Marvel Comics fictional universe Hippolyta and Delphyne Gorgon are Amazons.\n* In Rick Riordan's ''The Heroes of Olympus'', the Amazons appear in ''The Son of Neptune'' and ''The Blood of Olympus''\n* In Philip Armstrong's historical-fantasy series, ''The Chronicles of Tupiluliuma'', the Amazons appear as the Am'azzi. \n* In the Stig Larsson novel ''The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet's Nest'', the Amazons appear as the transitional topics between sections of the book.\n* Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo created the fictional queen Calafia, who ruled over a kingdom of black women living on the mythical Island of California.\n\n;Film and television\n* Franchises involving Tarzan have featured Amazon tribes:\n A tribe of Amazons were in the film ''Tarzan and the Amazons''.\n A tribe of Amazons appeared in the ''Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle'' episode \"Tarzan and the Amazon Princess.\" \n* In the television series ''Hercules: The Legendary Journeys'', ''Young Hercules'', and ''Xena: Warrior Princess'', several tribes of Amazons are featured, with numerous recurring characters including Gabrielle, Atalanta, and Amarice.\n* In the animated series ''Huntik: Secrets & Seekers'', Queen Hippolyta and the Amazons appear in the episode ''Ladies' Choice''.\n* In the 2014 ''Hercules'' movie, a character named Atalanta is depicted as an Amazonian archer and a member of Hercules' traveling band of mercenaries.\n* In the season 7 episode 'The Slice Girls' of ''Supernatural'', Amazons appear, as they kill their fathers. One of them seduces Dean Winchester and has a child, who quickly ages to a teenager and attempts to kill him, only to be shot by Sam.\n* The myth of the Amazon's features prominently in the 2017 hit DC film, Wonder Woman. \n\n;Games\n* In the ''Diablo'' video games, on the planet of Sanctuary, Askari people, also called Amazons, exist in the Queendom of the Skovos Isles.\n* In ''Heroes Unlimited'' and ''Aliens Unlimited'' text roleplaying games, there is a race called the Atorians who can be considered Amazons.\n\n===Military units===\nGrigory Potemkin, a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman and favourite of Catherine the Great created an Amazons Company in 1787. Wives and daughters of the soldiers of the Greek Battalion of Balaklava were enlisted and formed this unit.\nThe Dahomey Amazons were an all-female military regiment of the Kingdom of Dahomey in present day Benin - the nickname was given by western observers.\n\n===Movements===\nAmazon feminism is a branch of feminism that emphasizes female physical prowess as a means to achieve the goal of gender equality. \n\n During the period 1905–13, members of the militant Suffragette movement were frequently referred to as \"Amazons\" in books and newspaper articles.\n\nIn Ukraine Katerina Tarnovska leads a group called the Asgarda which claims to be a new tribe of Amazons. Tarnovska believes that the Amazons are the direct ancestors of Ukrainian women, and she has created an all-female martial art for her group, based on another form of fighting called Combat Hopak, but with a special emphasis on self-defense.\n", "\n\n Giantess\n* Liburnians (according to Pseudo-Scylax ruled by women)\n* Matriarchy\n* List of women warriors in folklore\n* Timeline of women in ancient warfare\n Shieldmaiden, female warrior in northern Europe\n Onna-bugeisha, female warrior in Japanese nobility\n Women in the military\n Women warriors in literature and culture\n\n\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* Adrienne Mayor, ''The Amazons: Lives and Legends of Warrior Women across the Ancient World'', Princeton University Press, 2014\nJoshua Rothman, '' The Real Amazons'', The New Yorker, October 17, 2014 \n D. von Bothmer, ''Amazons in Greek Art'' (1957)\n* F.G. Bergmann, ''Les Amazones dans l'histoire et dans la fable'' (1853) \n* Josine H. Blok (Peter Mason, tr.), ''The Early Amazons'': Modern and Ancient Perspectives on a Persistent Myth (1995)\n* Dietrich von Bothmer, ''Amazons in Greek Art'' (Oxford University Press, 1957)\n* George Grote, ''History of Greece'', pt. i, ch. 11.\n* \n* A. Klugmann, '' Die Amazonen in der attischen Literatur und Kunst'' (1875) \n* H.L. Krause, ''Die Amazonensage'' (1893) \n* P. Lacour, ''Les Amazones'' (1901) \n* ''Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae'', vol. I, ''s.v.'' \"Amazones\".\n* Andreas David Mordtmann, ''Die Amazonen'' (Hanover, 1862) \n* Pauly-Wissowa, ''Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft''\n* W. H. Roscher, ''Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie'' \n* Theobaldo Miranda Santos, ''Lendas e mitos do Brasil'' (Companhia Editora Nacional, 1979) \n* W. Stricker, ''Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte'' (1868) \n", "\n\n\n\n* \n* Wounded Amazon\n* Herodotus on the Amazons\n Herodotus via Gutenberg\n Perseus\n* Straight Dope: Amazons\n* Religious cults associated with the Amazons (Florence Mary Bennett, 1912)\n* Amazon women in Mongolian steppe\n* Amazon women mtDNA found in Mongolia\n* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 225 images of Amazons)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Origins", "Epithets", "Mythology", "Lists", "In historiography", "Medieval and Renaissance literature", "Historical background", "Archaeology", "Modern legacy", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Amazons
[ "\nAmbergris\nAmbergris from the North Sea\n'''Ambergris''' ( or , , ), ''ambergrease'' or ''grey amber'', is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour, produced in the digestive system of sperm whales.\n\nFreshly-produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odour. However, as it ages, it acquires a sweet, earthy scent, commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol, without the vaporous chemical astringency. Although ambergris used to be very highly valued by perfumers as a fixative (allowing the scent to last much longer), it has now largely been replaced by synthetic ambroxan.\n", "The word ambergris comes from the Old French \"ambre gris\" or \"grey amber\", which in turn derives from the Arabic word \"ʿanbar\", meaning ambergris. The word \"amber\" comes from the same source but since the late 13th century in Europe, it has been applied almost exclusively to fossilised tree resins from the Baltic region.\n", "Ambergris is formed from a secretion of the bile duct in the intestines of the sperm whale, and can be found floating on the sea or washed up on the coast. It is also sometimes found in the abdomens of dead sperm whales. Because the beaks of giant squids have been discovered within lumps of ambergris, scientists have theorized that the substance is produced by the whale's gastrointestinal tract to ease the passage of hard, sharp objects that it may have eaten. The sperm whale usually vomits these, but if one travels further down the gut, it will be covered in ambergris.\n\nAmbergris is usually passed in the fecal matter. It is speculated that an ambergris mass too large to be passed through the intestines is expelled via the mouth, leading to the reputation of ambergris as primarily coming from whale vomit. Ambergris takes years to form. Christopher Kemp, the author of ''Floating Gold: A Natural (and Unnatural) History of Ambergris'', says that it is only produced by sperm whales, and only by an estimated one percent of them. Ambergris is rare; once expelled by a whale, it often floats for years before making landfall. The very small chance of finding ambergris, and the legal ambiguity involved led perfume makers away from ambergris.\n\nAmbergris is primarily found in the Atlantic Ocean and on the coasts of South Africa, Brazil, Madagascar, the East Indies, The Maldives, China, Japan, India, Australia, New Zealand, and the Molucca Islands. Most commercially collected ambergris comes from the Bahamas in the Caribbean, particularly New Providence. Fossilised ambergris from 1.75 million years ago has also been found.\n\nA lump of ambergris, found on a beach at Anglesey, Wales, was sold to a French buyer for £11,000 at an auction in Macclesfield, England, on 25 September 2015. A piece of ambergris was found by two Omanis, washed up on a beach on the Fooshi shores of Sadah province in southern Oman, in November 2015.\n", "Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, usually weighing from 15 g (~½ oz) to 50 kg (110 pounds), sometimes more. When initially expelled by or removed from the whale, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour (sometimes streaked with black), soft, with a strong fecal smell. Following months to years of photodegradation and oxidation in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black colour, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odour that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been generally described as a vastly richer and smoother version of isopropanol without its stinging harshness. In this developed condition, ambergris has a specific gravity ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 °C to a fatty, yellow resinous liquid; and at it is volatilised into a white vapour. It is soluble in ether, and in volatile and fixed oils.\n", "Ambergris is relatively nonreactive to acid. White crystals of a terpene known as ambrein can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol, then allowing the resulting solution to cool. Breakdown of the relatively scentless ambrein through oxidation produces ambroxan and ambrinol, the main odor components of ambergris.\n\n\nFile:Ambrein.svg\|Ambrein\nFile:Ambrox.svg\|Ambroxan\nFile:Ambrinol.svg\|Ambrinol\n\n\nAmbroxan is now produced synthetically and used extensively in the perfume industry.\n", "Ambergris has been mostly known for its use in creating perfume and fragrance much like musk. Perfumes can still be found with ambergris around the world. It is collected from remains found at sea and on beaches, although its precursor originates from the sperm whale, which is a vulnerable species.\n\nAncient Egyptians burned ambergris as incense, while in modern Egypt ambergris is used for scenting cigarettes. The ancient Chinese called the substance \"dragon's spittle fragrance\". During the Black Death in Europe, people believed that carrying a ball of ambergris could help prevent them from getting the plague. This was because the fragrance covered the smell of the air which was believed to be a cause of plague.\n\nThis substance has also been used historically as a flavoring for food and is considered an aphrodisiac in some cultures. During the Middle Ages, Europeans used ambergris as a medication for headaches, colds, epilepsy, and other ailments.\n\n===Legality===\n\nFrom the 18th to the mid-19th century, the whaling industry prospered. By some reports, nearly 5,000 whales, including sperm whales, were killed each year. Due to studies showing that the whale populations were being threatened, the International Whaling Commission instituted a moratorium on commercial whaling in 1982. Although ambergris is not harvested from whales, many countries also ban the trade of ambergris as part of the more general ban on the hunting and exploitation of whales.\n\nUrine, faeces and ambergris (that has been naturally excreted by a sperm whale) are waste products not considered parts or derivatives of a CITES species and are therefore not covered by the provisions of the Convention.\n\n'''Illegal'''\nAustralia – Under federal law, the export and import of ambergris for commercial purposes is banned by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The various States and Territories have additional laws regarding ambergris.\nUnited States – The possession and trade of ambergris is prohibited by the Endangered Species Act of 1973.\n\n'''Legal'''\nUnited Kingdom\nFrance\nSwitzerland\nNew Zealand\n", "\n===Historical===\nA serving of eggs and ambergris was reportedly King Charles II of England's favorite dish.\n\n===In literature===\nIn chapter 91 of Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick'' (1851), Stubb, one of the mates of the ''Pequod,'' fools the captain of a French whaler (''Rose-bud'') into abandoning the corpse of a sperm whale found floating in the sea. His plan is to recover the corpse himself in hopes that it contains ambergris. His hope proves well founded, and the ''Pequod'''s crew recovers a valuable quantity of the substance. Melville devotes the following chapter to a discussion of ambergris, with special attention to the irony that \"fine ladies and gentlemen should regale themselves with an essence found in the inglorious bowels of a sick whale.\"\n\nIn \"A Romance of Perfume Lands or the Search for Capt. Jacob Cole\", F. S. Clifford, October 1881, the last chapter concerns one of the novel's characters discovering an area off of remote island which contains large amounts of ambergris. He hopes to use this knowledge to help make his fortune in the manufacture of perfumes.\n\nIn Chapter 17 of William Dampier's \"A New Voyage Around the World\" (1697), Dampier escapes to Nicobar Island for \"a prospect of advancing a profitable trade for ambergris...and of gaining a considerable fortune...\"\n\n===In film and TV===\nIn the 2001 film ''Hannibal'', Hannibal Lecter sends Clarice Starling a letter which he writes while intentionally wearing a hand lotion containing ambergris, correctly assuming that this would lead her to discover his location in Florence, Italy, due to lotion utilizing ambergris being legal in only a few countries.\n\nAmbergris plays a prominent role in the plot of the 2003 ''Futurama'' episode \"Three Hundred Big Boys.\" The episode guest-stars Roseanne Barr, who appears as a hologram of herself, reading the dictionary definition of \"ambergris.\"\n\nThe 1969 book ''The Lost Ones'' by Ian Cameron, later made into Disney's 1974 film ''The Island at the Top of the World'' depicts a dirigible trip to the 'Whale Graveyard' where they find so much ambergris that it becomes a point of contention.\n\nIn the 1956 episode \"Whale Gold\" of the British television series ''The Buccaneers'', a crew of eighteenth-century pirates led by Captain Dan Tempest (actor Robert Shaw) find large pieces of ambergris at sea and on a beach, discoveries that lead to quarrels and death due to \"whale gold fever.\"\n\nThe plot of ''The Avengers'' 1963 episode \"Killer Whale\" revolves around an ambergris smuggling operation.\n\nIn the 2014 episode \"Ambergris\" of the animated television program ''Bob's Burgers'', a lump of ambergris found on the beach plays an important role, as Louise, Tina, and Gene attempt to sell the ambergris illegally for $30,000.\n\nIn \"The Sixth Voyage of Sinbad the Sailor\" in \"The Arabian Nights\" by Sir Richard Burton, Sinbad finds vast quantities of Ambergris after being shipwrecked on an unknown island after setting sail from Bassorāh.\n\nIn The 2007 film adaption of \"Sweeney Todd\", Beadle Bamford claims he uses ambergris as a cologne.\n", "\n", "* http://montalvoeascinciasdonossotempo.blogspot.sg/2011/10/peter-borschberg-o-comercio-de-ambar.html (accessed 21 August 2015)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n Natural History Magazine Article (from 1933): Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris\n* Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography\n* On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Formation", "Physical properties", "Chemical properties", "Applications", "In popular culture", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ambergris
[ "\n\nStatue of Ambiorix in Tongeren, Belgium\n'''Ambiorix''' was, together with Cativolcus, prince of the Eburones, leader of a Belgic tribe of north-eastern Gaul (Gallia Belgica), where modern Belgium is located. In the nineteenth century Ambiorix became a Belgian national hero because of his resistance against Julius Caesar, as written in Caesar's ''Commentarii de Bello Gallico''.\n", "In 57 BC Julius Caesar conquered parts of Gaul and also Belgica (Belgium, modern-day Northern France, Luxembourg, part of present-day Netherlands below the Rhine River; and the north-western portion of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). There were several tribes in the country who fought against each other frequently. The Eburones were ruled by Ambiorix and Catuvolcus. In 54 BC Caesar's troops urgently needed more food, and so the local tribes were forced to give up part of their harvest, which had not been good that year. Understandably the starving Eburones were reluctant to do so and Caesar ordered that camps be built near the Eburones' villages. Each centurion was ordered to make sure the food supplies were delivered to the Roman soldiers. This created resentment among the Eburones.\n\nAlthough Julius Caesar had freed him from paying tribute to the Atuatuci, Ambiorix joined Catuvolcus in the winter of 54 BC in an uprising against the Roman forces under Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta.\n", "\nAmbiorix attacking Roman soldiers, relief at the Liège Provincial Palace\nBecause a drought had disrupted his grain supply, Caesar was forced to winter his legions among the rebellious Belgic tribes. Roman troops led by Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta were wintering among the Eburones when they were attacked by them, led by Ambiorix and Cativolcus. Ambiorix deceived the Romans, telling them the attack was made without his consent, and further advised them to flee as a large Germanic force was preparing to cross the Rhine. Trusting Ambiorix, Sabinus and Cotta's troops left the next morning. A short distance from their camp, the Roman troops were ambushed by the Eburones and massacred.\n\nElsewhere, another Roman force under Q. Tullius Cicero, brother of the orator Marcus, were wintering amongst the Nervii. Leading a coalition of rebellious Belgic tribes, Ambiorix surrounded Cicero's camp. After a long while, a Roman messenger was finally able to slip through the Belgic lines and get word of the uprising to Caesar. Mobilizing his legions, Caesar immediately marched to Cicero's aid. As they approached the besieged Roman camp, the Belgae moved to engage Caesar's troops. Vastly outnumbered, Caesar ordered his troops to appear confused and frightened, and they successfully lured the Belgae to attack them on ground favourable to the Romans. Caesar's forces launched a fierce counterattack, and soon put the Belgae to flight. Later, Caesar's troops entered Cicero's camp to find most of the men wounded.\n\nMeanwhile, Indutiomarus, a leader of the Treveri, began to harass Labienus's camp daily, eventually provoking Labienus to send out his cavalry with specific orders to kill Indutiomarus. They did so, and routed the remnants of Indutiomarus's army. Caesar personally remained in Gaul for the remainder of winter due to the renewed Gallic threat.\n", "When the Roman senate heard what had happened, Caesar swore to put down all the Belgic tribes. Ambiorix had killed a whole Roman legion and five cohorts. A Belgic attack on Q. Tullius Cicero, then stationed with a legion in the territory of the Nervii, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar. The Roman campaigns against the Belgae took a few years, but eventually the tribes were slaughtered or driven out and their fields burned. The Eburones disappeared from history after this genocidal event. According to the writer Florus, Ambiorix and his men succeeded in crossing the Rhine and disappeared without a trace.\n", "Caesar wrote about Ambiorix in his commentary about his battles against the Gauls, ''De Bello Gallico''. In this text he also wrote the famous line: \"Of these three regions, the Belgae are the bravest.\" (\"... ''Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae'' ...\").\n\nAmbiorix remained a relatively obscure figure until the nineteenth century. When Belgium became independent in 1830 the national government started searching through their historical archives for people who could serve as national heroes. In Caesar's ''De Bello Gallico'', Ambiorix and his deeds was rediscovered. In 1841 the Belgian poet Joannes Nolet de Brauwere Van Steeland wrote a lyrical epic about Ambiorix and on September 5, 1866 a statue of Ambiorix was erected on the main market square in Tongeren, Belgium, referred to by Caesar as Atuatuca, i.e. Atuatuca Tungrorum.\n\nToday, Ambiorix is one of the most famous characters in Belgian history. Many companies, bars and friteries have named themselves after him, and in many Belgian comics such as Suske en Wiske and Jommeke he plays a guest role. There was also a short-lived comic called ''Ambionix'', which featured a scientist teleporting a Belgic chief, loosely based on Ambiorix, to modern-day Belgium.\n\nIn the French comic Asterix, in the album ''Asterix in Belgium'', Asterix, Obelix, Dogmatix and Vitalstatistix go to Belgium because they are angry with Caesar about his remark that the Belgians are the bravest of all the Gauls.\n", "* List of people who disappeared mysteriously\n", "\n\n===Other sources===\n* Caesar, ''De Bello Gallico'' v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10.\n", "* Ambiorix\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early history", "Resisting the Romans", "Caesar's revenge", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ambiorix
[ "\nthumb\n'''August Wilhelm Ambros''' (17 November 181628 June 1876) was an Austrian composer and music historian of Czech descent.\n", "He was born at Mýto, Rokycany District, Bohemia. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of Raphael Georg Kiesewetter (1773–1850), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros studied at the University of Prague and was well-educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion. He was, however, destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being an avocation.\n\nFrom 1850 onwards he became well known as a critic and essay-writer, and in 1860 he began working on his magnum opus, his ''History of Music'', which was published at intervals from 1862 in five volumes, the last two (1878, 1882) being edited and completed by Otto Kade and Wilhelm Langhans.\n\nAmbros was professor of the history of music at Prague from 1869 to 1871. Also in Prague, he seated on the board of governors in the Prague Royal Conservatory. By 1872, he was living in Vienna and was employed by the Department of Justice as an officer and by Prince Rudolf's family as his tutor. Through his work in Vienna, he was given leave of absence for half the year in order to let him travel the world to collect musical information to include in his ''History of Music'' book. He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of Felix Mendelssohn.\n\nAmbros died at Vienna, Austria at the age of 59.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", "Notes" ]	August Wilhelm Ambros
[ "Alredus, or '''Alfred of Beverley''', (fl. 1143), English chronicler, was sacristan of the church of Beverley in the first half of the twelfth century.\n\nHe wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a chronicle entitled ''Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae'', which begins with Brutus and carries the history of England down to 1129. Geoffrey of Monmouth and Simeon of Durham are Alfred's chief sources.\n", "Alfred of Beverley, was a priest of Beverley, and is described in the preface to his book as \"treasurer of the church of Beverley\" and \"Master Alfred, sacrist of the church of Beverley\".\n\nAlfred of Beverley speaks of himself as contemporary with the removal of the Flemings from the north of England to Ross in Herefordshire in 1112, and writes that he compiled his chronicle \"when the church was silent, owing to the number of persons excommunicated under the decree of the council of London\", an apparent reference to the council held at Mid-Lent, 1143. His attention, by his own account, was first drawn to history by the publication (before 1139) of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, and he looked forward to following up the chronicle which bears his name, and which largely depends on Geoffrey's work, with a collection of excerpts from the credible portions of the Historia Regum Britanniae, but no trace of such a work is extant.\n\nAlfred of Beverley's chronicle is entitled ''Aluredi Beverlacensis Annales sive Historia de gestis Regum Britanniæ libris ix. ad annum 1129''. It is largely devoted to the fabulous history of Britain, and is mainly borrowed from Bede, Henry of Huntingdon, and Symeon of Durham, when Geoffrey of Monmouth is not laid under contribution. Alfred quotes occasionally from Suetonius, Orosius, and Nennius, and names many Roman authors whom he had consulted in vain for references to Britain. The chronicle is of no real use to the historical student, since it adds no new fact to the information to be found in well-known earlier authorities.\n\nAccording to Sidney Lee (1885) the best manuscript of Alfred's ''Annales'' was among the Hengwrt MSS. belonging to W. W. E. Wynne, Esq., of Peniarth, Merionethshire, and had not been printed. Hearne printed the ‘Annales’ in 1716 from an inferior Bodleian MS. (Rawl. B. 200).\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Works", "Notes", "References" ]	Alfred of Beverley
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 238 – Year of the Six Emperors: The Roman Senate outlaws emperor Maximinus Thrax for his bloodthirsty proscriptions in Rome and nominates two of its members, Pupienus and Balbinus, to the throne.\n1500 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral lands in Brazil.\n1519 – Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés establishes a settlement at Veracruz, Mexico.\n1529 – Treaty of Zaragoza divides the eastern hemisphere between Spain and Portugal along a line 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the Moluccas.\n1622 – The Capture of Ormuz by the East India Company ends Portuguese control of Hormuz Island.\n1809 – The second day of the Battle of Eckmühl: The Austrian army is defeated by the First French Empire army led by Napoleon and driven over the Danube in Regensburg.\n1836 – Texas Revolution: A day after the Battle of San Jacinto, forces under Texas General Sam Houston identify Mexican General Antonio López de Santa Anna among the captives of the battle when one of his fellow captives mistakenly gives away his identity.\n1864 – The U.S. Congress passes the Coinage Act of 1864 that mandates that the inscription ''In God We Trust'' be placed on all coins minted as United States currency.\n1876 – The first game in the history of the National League was played at the Jefferson Street Grounds in Philadelphia. This game is often pointed to as the beginning of the MLB.\n1889 – At noon, thousands rush to claim land in the Land Rush of 1889. Within hours the cities of Oklahoma City and Guthrie are formed with populations of at least 10,000.\n1898 – Spanish–American War: The captures a Spanish merchant ship.\n1906 – The 1906 Summer Olympics, not now recognized as part of the official Olympic Games, open in Athens.\n1915 – The use of poison gas in World War I escalates when chlorine gas is released as a chemical weapon in the Second Battle of Ypres.\n1930 – The United Kingdom, Japan and the United States sign the London Naval Treaty regulating submarine warfare and limiting shipbuilding.\n1944 – The 1st Air Commando Group using Sikorsky R-4 helicopters stage the first use of helicopters in combat with combat search and rescue operations in the China Burma India Theater.\n* 1944 – World War II: Operation Persecution is initiated: Allied forces land in the Hollandia (currently known as Jayapura) area of New Guinea.\n1945 – World War II: Prisoners at the Jasenovac concentration camp revolt. Five hundred twenty are killed and around eighty escape.\n 1945 – World War II: Führerbunker: After learning that Soviet forces have taken Eberswalde without a fight, Adolf Hitler admits defeat in his underground bunker and states that suicide is his only recourse.\n1948 – Arab–Israeli War: Haifa, a major port of Israel, is captured from Arab forces.\n1951 – Korean War: The Chinese People's Volunteer Army begin assaulting positions defended by the Royal Australian Regiment and the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry at the Battle of Kapyong.\n1954 – Red Scare: Witnesses begin testifying and live television coverage of the Army–McCarthy hearings begins.\n1969 – British yachtsman Sir Robin Knox-Johnston wins the ''Sunday Times'' Golden Globe Race and completes the first solo non-stop circumnavigation of the world.\n1970 – The first Earth Day is celebrated.\n1972 – Vietnam War: Increased American bombing in Vietnam prompts anti-war protests in Los Angeles, New York City, and San Francisco.\n1977 – Optical fiber is first used to carry live telephone traffic.\n1983 – The German magazine ''Stern'' claims the \"Hitler Diaries\" had been found in wreckage in East Germany; the diaries are subsequently revealed to be forgeries.\n1992 – In a series of explosions in Guadalajara, Mexico, 206 people are killed, nearly 500 injured and 15,000 left homeless.\n1993 – Eighteen-year-old Stephen Lawrence is murdered in a racially motivated attack while waiting for a bus in Well Hall, Eltham.\n1997 – Haouch Khemisti massacre in Algeria where 93 villagers are killed.\n2000 – In a pre-dawn raid, federal agents seize six-year-old Elián González from his relatives' home in Miami.\n2004 – Two fuel trains collide in Ryongchon, North Korea, killing up to 150 people.\n2005 – Japan's Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi apologizes for Japan's war record.\n2008 – The United States Air Force retires the remaining F-117 Nighthawk aircraft in service.\n2013 – The Royal Canadian Mounted Police arrest and charge two men with plotting to disrupt a Toronto area train service in a plot claimed to be backed by Al-Qaeda elements.\n2014 – More than 60 people are killed and 80 are seriously injured in a train crash in the Democratic Republic of the Congo's Katanga Province.\n2016 – The Paris Agreement is signed, an agreement to help fight global warming\n", "\n1444 – Elizabeth of York, Duchess of Suffolk (d. 1503)\n1451 – Isabella I of Castile (d. 1504)\n1518 – Antoine of Navarre (d. 1562)\n1592 – Wilhelm Schickard, German astronomer and mathematician (d. 1635)\n1610 – Pope Alexander VIII (d. 1691)\n1658 – Giuseppe Torelli, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1709)\n1690 – John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1763)\n1707 – Henry Fielding, English novelist and playwright (d. 1754)\n1711 – Paul II Anton, Prince Esterházy, Austrian soldier (d. 1762)\n1724 – Immanuel Kant, German anthropologist, philosopher, and academic (d. 1804)\n1732 – John Johnson, English architect and surveyor (d. 1814)\n1744 – James Sullivan, American lawyer and politician, 7th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1808)\n1757 – Alessandro Rolla, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1841)\n1766 – Germaine de Staël, French philosopher and author (d. 1817)\n1812 – Solomon Caesar Malan, Swiss-English orientalist (d. 1894)\n1816 – Charles-Denis Bourbaki, French general (d. 1897)\n1832 – Julius Sterling Morton, American journalist and politician, 3rd United States Secretary of Agriculture (d. 1902)\n1844 – Lewis Powell, American soldier, attempted assassin of William H. Seward (d. 1865)\n1852 – William IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (d. 1912)\n1854 – Henri La Fontaine, Belgian lawyer and author, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1943)\n1860 – Ada Rehan, Irish-American actress (d. 1916)\n1870 – Vladimir Lenin, German/Swedish-Russian lawyer and founder of the Soviet Union (d. 1924)\n1872 – Princess Margaret of Prussia (d. 1954)\n1873 – Ellen Glasgow, American author (d. 1945)\n1876 – Róbert Bárány, Austrian-Swedish otologist and physician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1936)\n 1876 – Georg Lurich, Estonian wrestler and strongman (d. 1920)\n1879 – Bernhard Gregory, Estonian-German chess player (d. 1939)\n1884 – Otto Rank, Austrian-American psychologist and academic (d. 1939)\n1886 – Izidor Cankar, Slovenian historian, author, and diplomat (d. 1958)\n1889 – Richard Glücks, German SS officer (d. 1945)\n1891 – Laura Gilpin, American photographer (d. 1979)\n 1891 – Vittorio Jano, Italian engineer (d. 1965)\n* 1891 – Harold Jeffreys, English mathematician, geophysicist, and astronomer (d. 1989)\n* 1891 – Nicola Sacco, Italian-American anarchist (d. 1927)\n1892 – Vernon Johns, African-American minister and activist (d. 1965)\n1899 – Vladimir Nabokov, Russian-born novelist and critic (d. 1977)\n1904 – J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and academic (d. 1967)\n1905 – Robert Choquette, American-Canadian author, poet, and diplomat (d. 1991)\n1906 – Eddie Albert, American actor (d. 2005)\n 1906 – Eric Fenby, English composer and educator (d. 1997)\n* 1906 – Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten (d. 1947)\n1908 – Ivan Yefremov, Russian paleontologist and author (d. 1972)\n1909 – Rita Levi-Montalcini, Sephardic Jewish-Italian neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012)\n* 1909 – Indro Montanelli, Italian journalist and historian (d. 2001)\n* 1909 – Spyros Markezinis, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2000)\n1910 – Norman Steenrod, American mathematician and academic (d. 1971)\n1912 – Kathleen Ferrier, English operatic singer (d. 1953)\n* 1912 – Kaneto Shindo, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)\n1914 – Baldev Raj Chopra, Indian director and producer (d. 2008)\n 1914 – Jan de Hartog, Dutch-American author and playwright (d. 2002)\n* 1914 – José Quiñones Gonzales, Peruvian soldier and pilot (d. 1941)\n* 1914 – Michael Wittmann, German SS officer (d. 1944)\n1916 – Hanfried Lenz, German mathematician and academic (d. 2013)\n 1916 – Yehudi Menuhin, American-Swiss violinist and conductor (d. 1999)\n1917 – Yvette Chauviré, French ballerina (d. 2016)\n 1917 – Sidney Nolan, Australian painter (d. 1992) \n1918 – William Jay Smith, American poet and academic (d. 2015)\n 1918 – Mickey Vernon, American baseball player and coach (d. 2008)\n1919 – Donald J. Cram, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)\n 1919 – Carl Lindner, Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (d. 2011)\n1922 – Richard Diebenkorn, American soldier and painter (d. 1993)\n 1922 – Charles Mingus, American bassist, composer, and bandleader (d. 1979)\n* 1922 – Wolf V. Vishniac, American microbiologist and academic (d. 1973)\n1923 – Peter Kane Dufault, American soldier, pilot, and poet (d. 2013)\n 1923 – Bettie Page, American model and actress (d. 2008)\n* 1923 – Aaron Spelling, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2006)\n1924 – Nam Duck-woo, South Korean politician, 12th Prime Minister of South Korea (d. 2013)\n1926 – Charlotte Rae, American actress and singer\n* 1926 – James Stirling, Scottish architect, designed the Staatsgalerie Stuttgart and Seeley Historical Library (d. 1992)\n1927 – Laurel Aitken, Cuban-Jamaican singer (d. 2005)\n1929 – Michael Atiyah, English-Lebanese mathematician and academic\n* 1929 – Robert Wade-Gery, English diplomat, British High Commissioner to India (d. 2015)\n1930 – Enno Penno, Estonian politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (d. 2016)\n1931 – John Buchanan, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Nova Scotia\n* 1931 – Ronald Hynd, English dancer and choreographer\n1933 – Anthony Llewellyn, Welsh-American chemist and astronaut (d. 2013)\n1935 – Christopher Ball, English linguist and academic\n* 1935 – Paul Chambers, African-American bassist and composer (d. 1969)\n* 1935 – Bhama Srinivasan, Indian-American mathematician and academic\n1936 – Glen Campbell, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 2017)\n 1936 – Pierre Hétu, Canadian pianist and conductor (d. 1998)\n1937 – Jack Nicholson, American actor and producer\n 1937 – Jack Nitzsche, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and conductor (d. 2000)\n1938 – Alan Bond, English-Australian businessman (d. 2015)\n 1938 – Gani Fawehinmi, Nigerian lawyer and activist (d. 2009)\n* 1938 – Issey Miyake, Japanese fashion designer\n* 1938 – Adam Raphael, English journalist and author\n1939 – Mel Carter. American singer and actor \n 1939 – John Foley, English general and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey\n* 1939 – Ray Guy, Canadian journalist and author (d. 2013)\n* 1939 – Jason Miller, American actor and playwright (d. 2001)\n* 1939 – Theodor Waigel, German lawyer and politician, German Federal Minister of Finance\n1941 – Greville Howard, Baron Howard of Rising, English politician\n1942 – Giorgio Agamben, Italian philosopher and academic\n* 1942 – Mary Prior, English politician, Lord Lieutenant of Bristol\n1943 – Keith Crisco, American businessman and politician (d. 2014)\n 1943 – Janet Evanovich, American author\n* 1943 – Louise Glück, American poet\n* 1943 – John Maples, Baron Maples, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Defence (d. 2012)\n* 1943 – Scott W. Williams, American mathematician and professor\n1944 – Steve Fossett, American businessman, pilot, and sailor (d. 2007)\n 1944 – Doug Jarrett, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2014)\n* 1944 – Joshua Rifkin, American conductor and musicologist\n1945 – Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Indian civil servant and politician, 22nd Governor of West Bengal\n 1945 – Demetrio Stratos, Egyptian-Italian singer-songwriter (d. 1979)\n1946 – Steven L. Bennett, American captain and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1972)\n 1946 – Paul Davies, English physicist and author\n* 1946 – Louise Harel, Canadian lawyer and politician\n* 1946 – Archy Kirkwood, Baron Kirkwood of Kirkhope, Scottish lawyer and politician\n* 1946 – Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford, English economist and academic\n* 1946 – John Waters, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1948 – John Pritchard, English bishop\n1950 – Peter Frampton, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1950 – Jancis Robinson, English journalist and critic\n1951 – Paul Carrack, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1951 – Aivars Kalējs, Latvian organist, composer, and pianist\n* 1951 – Ana María Shua, Argentinian author and poet\n1952 – François Berléand, French actor\n 1952 – Dave Loveridge, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1952 – Phil Smith, American basketball player (d. 2002)\n1953 – Valeri Bondarenko, Estonian footballer and coach\n 1953 – Richard Broadbent, English businessman\n1955 – David Collier, English businessman\n1957 – Donald Tusk, Polish journalist and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Poland\n1959 – Keith Boanas, English footballer and manager\n 1959 – Terry Francona, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n* 1959 – Catherine Mary Stewart, Canadian actress\n* 1959 – Ryan Stiles, American-Canadian actor and producer\n1960 – Lloyd Honeyghan, Jamaican-English boxer\n 1960 – Mart Laar, Estonian historian and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Estonia\n* 1960 – Randall L. Stephenson, American businessman\n1961 – Alo Mattiisen, Estonian composer (d. 1996)\n 1961 – Ann McKechin, Scottish lawyer and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland\n* 1961 – Dewey Nicks, American photographer and director\n1962 – Danièle Sauvageau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1963 – Rosalind Gill, English sociologist and academic\n* 1963 – Magnús Ver Magnússon, Icelandic weightlifter and strongman\n1964 – Paul Baxter, English footballer\n1965 – Miguel Leal, Portuguese footballer and manager\n* 1965 – Peter Zezel, Canadian ice hockey and soccer player (d. 2009)\n1966 – Mickey Morandini, American baseball player and manager\n 1966 – Jeffrey Dean Morgan, American actor\n1967 – David J. C. MacKay, English physicist, engineer, and academic\n 1967 – Sherri Shepherd, American actress and talk show panelist\n* 1967 – Harvey Williams, American football player\n1968 – Jo Angel, Australian cricketer \n 1968 – Bimbo Coles, American basketball player and coach\n* 1968 – Zarley Zalapski, Canadian-Swiss ice hockey player\n1969 – Dion Dublin, English footballer and sportscaster\n1970 – Erkki Bahovski, Estonian journalist\n1971 – Eric Mabius, American actor\n 1971 – Spencer Prior, English footballer\n1972 – Sabine Appelmans, Belgian tennis player\n 1972 – Owen Finegan, Australian rugby player and coach\n* 1972 – Milka Duno, Venezuelan race car driver and engineer\n* 1972 – Sergei Hohlov-Simson, Estonian footballer and manager\n* 1972 – Willie Robertson, American hunter and businessman \n1973 – Adem Poric, English-Australian footballer\n 1973 – Ofer Talker, Israeli footballer and manager\n1974 – Shavo Odadjian, Armenian-American bass player, songwriter, and producer \n1975 – Greg Moore, Canadian race car driver (d. 1999)\n* 1975 – Carlos Sastre, Spanish cyclist\n* 1975 – Anders Nyström, Swedish guitarist and songwriter \n1976 – Dan Cloutier, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n 1976 – Paul Henderson, Australian footballer\n* 1976 – Michał Żewłakow, Polish footballer\n1977 – Mark van Bommel, Dutch footballer\n1978 – Paul Malakwen Kosgei, Kenyan runner and coach\n* 1978 – David Masters, English cricketer\n* 1978 – Matt Orford, Australian rugby league player\n* 1978 – Jason Stollsteimer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1978 – Esteban Tuero, Argentinian race car driver\n1979 – Zoltán Gera, Hungarian footballer\n 1979 – Daniel Johns, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1980 – Igor Budan, Croatian footballer\n 1980 – Clarke Dermody, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1980 – Nicolas Douchez, French footballer\n* 1980 – Courtney Friel, American journalist\n* 1980 – Carlos Hernández, Venezuelan baseball player\n* 1980 – Quincy Timberlake, Kenyan-Australian activist, engineer, and politician\n1981 – Madis Kallas, Estonian decathlete and activist\n 1981 – Rafael Sperafico, Brazilian race car driver (d. 2007)\n* 1981 – Jonathan Trott, South African-English cricketer\n1982 – Kaká, Brazilian footballer\n 1982 – Cassidy Freeman, American actress and musician\n* 1982 – Joel Monaghan, Australian rugby league player\n* 1982 – David Purcey, American baseball player\n* 1982 – Aidas Reklys, Lithuanian figure skater\n* 1982 – Aleksander Saharov, Estonian footballer\n* 1982 – Noriko Shitaya, Japanese voice actress\n1983 – Remi Ayodele, American football player\n 1983 – Sam W. Heads, English-American entomologist and palaeontologist\n* 1983 – Jos Hooiveld, Dutch footballer\n* 1983 – Matt Jones, American football player\n* 1983 – Vangelis Mantzios, Greek footballer\n1984 – Amelle Berrabah, English singer-songwriter \n1986 – Amber Heard, American actress and producer\n* 1986 – Marshawn Lynch, American football player\n* 1986 – Dušan Šakota, Serbian-Greek basketball player\n1987 – David Luiz, Brazilian footballer\n 1987 – David Mateos, Spanish footballer\n1988 – Dee Gordon, American baseball player\n1989 – DeJuan Blair, American basketball player\n* 1989 – Jasper Cillessen, Dutch footballer\n1990 – Óscar González, Mexican boxer (d. 2014)\n 1991 – Jordi Murphy, Irish international rugby player\n1991 – Braydon Smith, Australian boxer (d. 2015)\n1992 – Kenny Stills, American football player\n* 1992 – Joonas Vaino, Estonian basketball player\n* 1992 – Dyro, Dutch DJ and EDM producer\n1993 – Anthony McDonald-Tipungwuti, Australian footballer\n 1993 – Ngani Laumape, New Zealand rugby player\n\n", "* 296 – Pope Caius\n* 536 – Pope Agapetus I\n* 591 – Peter III of Raqqa\n* 613 – Saint Theodore of Sykeon\n* 846 – Wuzong, Chinese emperor (b. 814)\n1208 – Philip of Poitou, Prince-Bishop of Durham\n1322 – Francis of Fabriano, Italian writer (b. 1251)\n1585 – Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, Prince-Bishop of Osnabrück and Paderborn (b. 1550)\n1616 – Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1547)\n1672 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish linguist and poet (b. 1598)\n1699 – Hans Erasmus Aßmann, German poet (b. 1646)\n1758 – Antoine de Jussieu, French botanist and physician (b. 1686)\n1806 – Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, French admiral (b. 1763)\n1821 – Gregory V of Constantinople, Greek patriarch and saint (b. 1746)\n1833 – Richard Trevithick, English engineer and explorer (b. 1771)\n1850 – Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Estonian philologist and physician (b. 1798)\n1854 – Nicolás Bravo, Mexican general and politician, 11th President of Mexico (b. 1786)\n1877 – James P. Kirkwood, Scottish-American engineer (b. 1807)\n1892 – Édouard Lalo, French violinist and composer (b. 1823)\n1893 – Chaim Aronson, Lithuanian businessman and author (b. 1825)\n1894 – Kostas Krystallis, Greek author and poet (b. 1868)\n1896 – Thomas Meik, English engineer, founded Halcrow Group (b. 1812)\n1908 – Henry Campbell-Bannerman, Scottish-English merchant and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1836)\n1925 – André Caplet, French composer and conductor (b. 1878)\n1929 – Henry Lerolle, French painter and art collector (b. 1848)\n1932 – Ferenc Oslay, Hungarian-Slovene historian and author (b. 1883)\n1933 – Henry Royce, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Rolls-Royce Limited (b. 1863)\n1944 – Nikolaos Roussen, Greek captain (b. 1913)\n1945 – Wilhelm Cauer, German mathematician and academic (b. 1900)\n* 1945 – Käthe Kollwitz, German painter and sculptor (b. 1867)\n1946 – Lionel Atwill, English-American actor (b. 1885)\n 1946 – Harlan F. Stone, American lawyer and jurist, 12th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1872)\n1949 – Charles Middleton, American actor (b. 1874)\n1950 – Charles Hamilton Houston, American lawyer and academic (b. 1895)\n1951 – Horace Donisthorpe, English myrmecologist and coleopterist (b. 1870)\n1956 – Walt Faulkner, American racing driver (b. 1918)\n1968 – Stephen H. Sholes, American record producer (b. 1911)\n1978 – Will Geer, American actor (b. 1902)\n1980 – Jane Froman, American actress and singer (b. 1907)\n 1980 – Fritz Strassmann, German chemist and physicist (b. 1902)\n1983 – Earl Hines, American pianist and bandleader (b. 1903)\n1984 – Ansel Adams, American photographer and environmentalist (b. 1902)\n1985 – Paul Hugh Emmett, American chemist and academic (b. 1900)\n 1985 – Jacques Ferron, Canadian physician and author (b. 1921)\n1986 – Mircea Eliade, Romanian historian and author (b. 1907)\n1987 – Erika Nõva, Estonian architect (b. 1905)\n1988 – Grigori Kuzmin, Russian-Estonian astronomer and academic (b. 1917)\n 1988 – Irene Rich, American actress (b. 1891)\n1989 – Emilio G. Segrè, Italian-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)\n1990 – Albert Salmi, American actor (b. 1928)\n1994 – Richard Nixon, American lieutenant, lawyer, and politician, 37th President of the United States (b. 1913)\n1995 – Jane Kenyon, American poet and author (b. 1947)\n1996 – Erma Bombeck, American journalist and author (b. 1927)\n 1996 – Jug McSpaden, American golfer and architect (b. 1908)\n1998 – Kitch Christie, South African rugby player and coach (b. 1940)\n1999 – Chan Canasta, Polish-English magician (b. 1920)\n* 1999 – Munir Ahmad Khan, Pakistani-Austrian physicist and engineer (b. 1926)\n2002 – Linda Lovelace, American porn actress and activist (b. 1949)\n2003 – Felice Bryant, American songwriter (b. 1925)\n* 2003 – James H. Critchfield, American CIA officer (b. 1917)\n* 2003 – Martha Griffiths, American lawyer, judge, and politician, 58th Lieutenant Governor of Michigan (b. 1912)\n* 2003 – Mike Larrabee, American runner (b. 1933)\n2004 – Jason Dunham, American soldier, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1981)\n 2004 – Pat Tillman, American football player and soldier (b. 1976)\n2005 – Erika Fuchs, German translator (b. 1906)\n 2005 – Philip Morrison, American physicist and academic (b. 1915)\n* 2005 – Eduardo Paolozzi, Scottish sculptor and artist (b. 1924)\n2006 – Henriette Avram, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1919)\n 2006 – D'Iberville Fortier, Canadian diplomat (b. 1926)\n* 2006 – Alida Valli, Italian actress (b. 1921)\n2007 – Juanita Millender-McDonald, American educator and politician (b. 1938)\n2008 – Cameron Argetsinger, American race car driver and lawyer (b. 1921)\n* 2008 – Ed Chynoweth, Canadian businessman (b. 1941)\n2009 – Jack Cardiff, British cinematographer, director and photographer (b. 1914)\n2010 – Richard Barrett, American lawyer and activist (b. 1943)\n* 2011 – Hazel Dickens, American singer-songwriter, bassist and guitarist (b. 1935)\n2012 – John Amabile, American football player and coach (b. 1939)\n 2012 – Bill Granger, American author (b. 1941)\n* 2012 – Buzz Potamkin, American director and producer (b. 1945)\n* 2012 – George Rathmann, American chemist, biologist, and businessman (b. 1927)\n2013 – Dave Gold, American businessman, founded 99 Cents Only Stores (b. 1932)\n 2013 – George Stanley Gordon, American businessman (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Richie Havens, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1941)\n* 2013 – Lalgudi Jayaraman, Indian violinist and composer (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Mike Smith, English footballer (b. 1935)\n* 2013 – Robert Suderburg, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – J. S. Verma, Indian judge, 27th Chief Justice of India (b. 1933)\n2014 – Allen Jacobs, American football player and coach (b. 1941)\n 2014 – Jovan Krkobabić, Serbian politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Serbia (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – Mohammad Naseem, Pakistani-English activist (b. 1924)\n* 2014 – Werner Potzernheim, German cyclist (b. 1927)\n* 2014 – Oswaldo Vigas, Venezuelan painter (b. 1926)\n2015 – Dick Balharry, Scottish environmentalist and photographer (b. 1937)\n 2015 – Gennadi Vengerov, Belarusian-Russian actor (b. 1954)\n2017 – Erin Moran, American actress (b. 1960)\n\n", " Christian feast day:\n Acepsimas of Hnaita and companions (Catholic Church)\n Arwald\n Epipodius and Alexander\n Hudson Stuck (Episcopal Church)\n John Muir (Episcopal Church)\n Opportuna of Montreuil\n Pope Caius\n Pope Soter\n Senorina\n April 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Discovery Day (Brazil)\n* Earth Day (International observance) and its related observance:\n** International Mother Earth Day \n* Holocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 22
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "1056 – After a sudden illness a few days previously, Byzantine Empress Theodora dies childless, thus ending the Macedonian dynasty.\n1057 – Abdication of Byzantine Emperor Michael VI Bringas after just one year.\n1218 – Al-Kamil becomes sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty.\n1314 – King Haakon V of Norway moves the capital from Bergen to Oslo.\n1422 – King Henry V of England dies of dysentery while in France. His son, Henry VI becomes King of England at the age of 9 months.\n1776 – William Livingston, the first Governor of New Jersey, begins serving his first term.\n1795 – War of the First Coalition: The British capture Trincomalee (present-day Sri Lanka) from the Dutch in order to keep it out of French hands.\n1798 – Irish Rebellion of 1798: Irish rebels, with French assistance, establish the short-lived Republic of Connacht.\n1813 – At the final stage of the Peninsular War, British-Portuguese troops capture the town of Donostia (now San Sebastián), resulting in a rampage and eventual destruction of the town. Elsewhere, Spanish troops repel a French attack in the Battle of San Marcial.\n1864 – During the American Civil War, Union forces led by General William T. Sherman launch an assault on Atlanta.\n1876 – Ottoman Sultan Murad V is deposed and succeeded by his brother Abdul Hamid II.\n1886 – The 7.0 Charleston earthquake affects southeastern South Carolina with a maximum Mercalli intensity of X (''Extreme''); 60 people killed with damage estimated at $5–6 million.\n1888 – Mary Ann Nichols is murdered. She is the first of Jack the Ripper's confirmed victims.\n1895 – German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin patents his ''navigable balloon''.\n1897 – Thomas Edison patents the Kinetoscope, the first movie projector.\n1907 – Count Alexander Izvolsky and Sir Arthur Nicolson sign the St. Petersburg Convention, which results in the Triple Entente alliance.\n1918 – World War I: Start of the Battle of Mont Saint-Quentin, a successful assault by the Australian Corps during the Hundred Days Offensive.\n1920 – Polish–Soviet War: A decisive Polish victory in the Battle of Komarów.\n* 1920 – The first radio news program is broadcast by 8MK in Detroit.\n1935 – In an attempt to stay out of the growing turmoil in Europe, the United States passes the first of its Neutrality Acts.\n1936 – Radio Prague, now the official international broadcasting station of the Czech Republic, goes on the air.\n1939 – Nazi Germany mounts a false flag attack on the Gleiwitz radio station, creating an excuse to attack Poland the following day, thus starting World War II in Europe.\n1940 – Pennsylvania Central Airlines Trip 19 crashes near Lovettsville, Virginia. The CAB investigation of the accident is the first investigation to be conducted under the Bureau of Air Commerce act of 1938.\n1941 – World War II: Serbian paramilitary forces defeat Germans in the Battle of Loznica.\n1943 – , the first U.S. Navy ship to be named after a black person, is commissioned.\n1949 – The retreat of the Democratic Army of Greece in Albania after its defeat on Gramos mountain marks the end of the Greek Civil War.\n1957 – The Federation of Malaya (now Malaysia) gains its independence from the United Kingdom.\n1958 – A parcel bomb sent by Ngô Đình Nhu, younger brother and chief adviser of South Vietnamese President Ngô Đình Diệm, fails to kill King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia.\n1962 – Trinidad and Tobago becomes independent.\n1963 – Crown Colony of North Borneo (now Sabah) achieves self governance.\n1986 – Aeroméxico Flight 498 collides with a Piper PA-28 Cherokee over Cerritos, California, killing 67 in the air and 15 on the ground.\n* 1986 – The Soviet passenger liner sinks in the Black Sea after colliding with the bulk carrier ''Pyotr Vasev'', killing 423.\n1987 – Thai Airways Flight 365 crashes into the ocean near Ko Phuket, Thailand, killing all 83 aboard.\n1991 – Kyrgyzstan declares its independence from the Soviet Union.\n1993 – Russia completes removing its troops from Lithuania.\n1996 – Saddam Hussein's troops seized Irbil after the Kurdish Masoud Barzani appealed for help to defeat his Kurdish rival PUK.\n1997 – Diana, Princess of Wales, her companion Dodi Fayed and driver Henri Paul die in a car crash in Paris.\n1999 – The first of a series of bombings in Moscow kills one person and wounds 40 others.\n* 1999 – A LAPA Boeing 737-200 crashes during takeoff from Jorge Newbury Airport in Buenos Aires, killing 65, including two on the ground.\n2005 – The 2005 Al-Aaimmah bridge stampede in Baghdad kills 953 people.\n2006 – Edvard Munch's famous painting ''The Scream'', stolen on August 22, 2004, is recovered in a raid by Norwegian police.\n2016 – Brazil's President Dilma Rousseff is impeached and removed from office.\n", "\n AD 12 – Caligula, Roman emperor (d. 41)\n* 161 – Commodus, Roman emperor (d. 192)\n1018 – Jeongjong II of Goryeo, Korean ruler (d. 1046)\n1168 – Emperor Zhangzong of Jin, (d. 1208)\n1542 – Isabella de' Medici, Italian princess (d. 1576)\n1569 – Jahangir, Mughal Emperor of India (d. 1627)\n1652 – Ferdinando Carlo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat (d. 1708)\n1663 – Guillaume Amontons, French physicist and instrument maker (d. 1705)\n1721 – George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1775)\n1741 – Jean-Paul-Égide Martini, French composer and educator (d. 1816)\n1748 – Jean-Étienne Despréaux, French ballet dancer, choreographer, composer, and playwright (d. 1820)\n1767 – Henry Joy McCracken, Irish businessman and activist, founded the Society of United Irishmen (d. 1798)\n1775 – Agnes Bulmer, English poet and author (d. 1836)\n1802 – Husein Gradaščević, Ottoman general (d. 1834)\n1821 – Hermann von Helmholtz, German physician and physicist (d. 1894)\n1822 – Galusha A. Grow, American lawyer and politician, 28th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1907)\n1834 – Amilcare Ponchielli, Italian composer and educator (d. 1886)\n1842 – Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, American journalist, publisher, and activist (d. 1924)\n1843 – Georg von Hertling, German academic and politician, 7th Chancellor of the German Empire (d. 1919)\n1870 – Maria Montessori, Italian physician and educator (d. 1952)\n1871 – James E. Ferguson, American banker and politician, 26th Governor of Texas (d. 1944)\n1878 – Frank Jarvis, American sprinter and lawyer (d. 1933)\n1879 – Alma Mahler, Austrian-American composer and author (d. 1964)\n 1879 – Emperor Taishō of Japan (d. 1926)\n1880 – Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (d. 1962)\n1884 – George Sarton, Belgian-American historian of science (d. 1956)\n1885 – DuBose Heyward, American author and playwright (d. 1940)\n1890 – August Alle, Estonian poet and author (d. 1952)\n1893 – Lily Laskine, French harp player (d. 1988)\n1894 – Albert Facey, Australian soldier and author (d. 1982)\n1896 – Brian Edmund Baker, English Air Marshal (d. 1979)\n 1896 – Félix-Antoine Savard, Canadian priest and author (d. 1982)\n1897 – Fredric March, American lieutenant, actor, and singer (d. 1975)\n1900 – Gino Lucetti, Italian anarchist, attempted assassin of Benito Mussolini (d. 1943)\n1902 – Géza Révész, Hungarian general and politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (d. 1977)\n1903 – Arthur Godfrey, American radio and television host (d. 1983)\n* 1903 – Vladimir Jankélévitch, French musicologist and philosopher (d. 1985)\n1905 – Robert Bacher, American physicist and academic (d. 2004)\n 1905 – Sanford Meisner, American actor and educator (d. 1997)\n1907 – Valter Biiber, Estonian footballer (d. 1977)\n 1907 – Augustus F. Hawkins, American lawyer and politician (d. 2007)\n* 1907 – Ramon Magsaysay, Filipino captain, engineer, and politician, 7th President of the Philippines (d. 1957)\n* 1907 – William Shawn, American journalist (d. 1992)\n* 1907 – Altiero Spinelli, Italian theorist and politician (d. 1986)\n1908 – William Saroyan, American novelist, playwright, and short story writer (d. 1981)\n1909 – Ferenc Fejtő, Hungarian-French journalist and political scientist (d. 2008)\n1911 – Edward Brongersma, Dutch journalist and politician (d. 1998)\n 1911 – Arsenio Rodríguez, Cuban-American tres player, composer, and bandleader (d. 1970)\n1913 – Helen Levitt, American photographer and cinematographer (d. 2009)\n 1913 – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (d. 2012)\n1914 – Richard Basehart, American actor (d. 1984)\n1915 – Pete Newell, American basketball player and coach (d. 2008)\n1916 – Danny Litwhiler, American baseball player and coach (d. 2011)\n 1916 – Daniel Schorr, American journalist and author (d. 2010)\n* 1916 – John S. Wold, American geologist and politician (d. 2017)\n1918 – Alan Jay Lerner, American songwriter and composer (d. 1986)\n1919 – Amrita Preetam, Indian poet and author (d. 2005)\n1921 – Otis G. Pike, American judge and politician (d. 2014)\n 1921 – Raymond Williams, Welsh author and academic (d. 1988)\n1924 – John Davidson, American physician and politician (d. 2012)\n 1924 – Buddy Hackett, American actor and singer (d. 2003)\n* 1924 – Herbert Wise, Austrian-English director and producer (d. 2015)\n1925 – Moran Campbell, English-Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (d. 2004)\n 1925 – Maurice Pialat, French actor and director (d. 2003)\n1928 – James Coburn, American actor (d. 2002)\n 1928 – Jaime Sin, Filipino cardinal (d. 2005)\n1930 – Big Tiny Little, American pianist (d. 2010)\n1931 – Jean Béliveau, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Noble Willingham, American actor (d. 2004)\n1932 – Allan Fotheringham, Canadian journalist\n 1932 – Roy Castle, English dancer, singer, comedian, actor, television presenter and musician (d. 1994)\n1935 – Eldridge Cleaver, American activist and author (d. 1998)\n 1935 – Bryan Organ, English painter\n* 1935 – Frank Robinson, American baseball player and manager\n1936 – Vladimir Orlov, Russian journalist and author (d. 2014)\n1937 – Warren Berlinger, American actor\n* 1937 – Bobby Parker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2013)\n1938 – Martin Bell, English journalist and politician\n1939 – Jerry Allison, American drummer and songwriter \n1940 – Robbie Basho, American guitarist, pianist, and composer (d. 1986)\n 1940 – Wilton Felder, American saxophonist and bass player (d. 2015)\n* 1940 – Larry Hankin, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1940 – Roger Newman, English-American actor and screenwriter (d. 2010)\n* 1940 – Jack Thompson, Australian actor \n1941 – William DeWitt, Jr., American businessman\n 1941 – Emmanuel Nunes, Portuguese-French composer and educator (d. 2012)\n1942 – Isao Aoki, Japanese golfer\n1943 – Leonid Ivashov, Russian general\n1944 – Roger Dean, English illustrator and publisher\n 1944 – Liz Forgan, English journalist\n* 1944 – Christine King, English historian and academic\n* 1944 – Clive Lloyd, Guyanese cricketer\n1945 – Van Morrison, Northern Irish singer-songwriter \n 1945 – Itzhak Perlman, Israeli-American violinist and conductor\n* 1945 – Bob Welch, American singer and guitarist (d. 2012)\n1946 – Ann Coffey, Scottish social worker and politician\n 1946 – Jerome Corsi, American theorist and author\n* 1946 – Tom Coughlin, American football player and coach\n1947 – Luca Cordero di Montezemolo, Italian businessman\n 1947 – Yumiko Ōshima, Japanese author and illustrator\n* 1947 – Somchai Wongsawat, Thai lawyer and politician, 26th Prime Minister of Thailand\n1948 – Harald Ertl, Austrian race car driver and journalist (d. 1982)\n 1948 – Lowell Ganz, American screenwriter and producer\n* 1948 – Ken McMullen, English director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1948 – Holger Osieck, German footballer and manager\n* 1948 – Rudolf Schenker, German guitarist and songwriter \n1949 – Richard Gere, American actor and producer\n 1949 – Hugh David Politzer, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1949 – Rick Roberts, American country-rock singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1951 – Grant Batty, New Zealand rugby player\n 1951 – Sirje Tamul, Estonian historian, author, and academic\n1952 – Kim Kashkashian, American viola player and educator\n 1952 – Herbert Reul, German politician\n1953 – Miguel Ángel Guerra, Argentinian race car driver\n 1953 – György Károly, Hungarian poet and author\n* 1953 – Pavel Vinogradov, Russian astronaut and engineer\n* 1954 – Julie Brown, American actress and screenwriter\n1955 – Aleksander Krupa, Polish-American actor\n 1955 – Julie Maxton, Scottish lawyer and academic\n* 1955 – Edwin Moses, American hurdler\n* 1955 – Anthony Thistlethwaite, English saxophonist and bass player \n* 1955 – Gary Webb, American journalist and author (d. 2004)\n1956 – Mária Balážová, Slovak painter and illustrator\n 1956 – Masashi Tashiro, Japanese singer, actor, and director \n1957 – Colm O'Rourke, Irish footballer and sportscaster\n 1957 – Gina Schock, American rock drummer (The Go-Go's)\n* 1957 – Glenn Tilbrook, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1958 – Serge Blanco, Venezuelan-French rugby player and businessman\n 1958 – Stephen Cottrell, English bishop\n1959 – Ralph Krueger, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n 1959 – Jessica Upshaw, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)\n1960 – Vali Ionescu, Romanian long jumper\n 1960 – Chris Whitley, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)\n* 1960 – Hassan Nasrallah, Lebanese politician, 3rd Secretary-General of Hezbollah\n1961 – Kieran Crowley, New Zealand rugby player\n 1961 – Magnus Ilmjärv, Estonian historian and author\n1962 – Dee Bradley Baker, American voice actor \n1963 – Reb Beach, American guitarist \n* 1963 – Rituparno Ghosh, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n* 1963 – Sonny Silooy, Dutch footballer and manager\n1964 – Raymond P. Hammond, American poet and critic\n1965 – Zsolt Borkai, Hungarian gymnast and politician\n* 1965 – Susan Gritton, English soprano and actress\n1967 – Gene Hoglan, American drummer \n 1967 – Anita Moen, Norwegian skier\n1968 – Valdon Dowiyogo, Nauruan politician \n 1968 – Hideo Nomo, Japanese-American baseball player\n* 1968 – Jolene Watanabe, American tennis player\n1969 – Nathalie Bouvier, French skier\n 1969 – Jonathan LaPaglia, Australian actor and physician\n* 1969 – Javagal Srinath, Indian cricketer and referee\n1970 – Debbie Gibson, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress\n 1970 – Nikola Gruevski, Macedonian economist and politician, 6th Prime Minister of the Republic of Macedonia\n* 1970 – Greg Mulholland, English politician\n* 1970 – Queen Rania of Jordan\n* 1970 – Arie van Lent, Dutch-German footballer and manager\n* 1970 – Zack Ward, Canadian actor and producer\n1971 – Pádraig Harrington, Irish golfer\n 1971 – Vadim Repin, Belgian-Russian violinist \n* 1971 – Chris Tucker, American comedian and actor\n1973 – Scott Niedermayer, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1974 – Andriy Medvedev, Ukrainian-Monacan tennis player\n1975 – Craig Cumming, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster\n 1975 – John Grahame, American ice hockey player and coach\n1976 – Vincent Delerm, French singer-songwriter and pianist\n 1976 – Roque Júnior, Brazilian footballer and manager\n* 1976 – Radek Martínek, Czech ice hockey player\n1977 – Jeff Hardy, American wrestler and singer \n 1977 – Ian Harte, Irish footballer\n* 1977 – Craig Nicholls, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1978 – Philippe Christanval, French footballer\n 1978 – Ido Pariente, Israeli mixed martial artist and trainer\n* 1978 – Craig Stapleton, Australian rugby league player\n* 1978 – Sandis Valters, Latvian basketball player\n* 1978 – Morten Qvenild, Norwegian pianist and composer \n1979 – Clay Hensley, American baseball player\n 1979 – Mark Johnston, Canadian swimmer\n* 1979 – Simon Neil, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1979 – Yuvan Shankar Raja, Indian singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1979 – Ramón Santiago, Dominican baseball player\n* 1979 – Mickie James, American wrestler\n1980 – Joe Budden, American rapper\n1981 – Ahmad Al Harthy, Omani race car driver\n* 1981 – Dwayne Peel, Welsh rugby player\n* 1981 – Steve Saviano, American ice hockey player\n1982 – Ian Crocker, American swimmer\n 1982 – Chris Duhon, American basketball player\n* 1982 – Lien Huyghebaert, Belgian sprinter\n* 1982 – Christopher Katongo, Zambian footballer\n* 1982 – Josh Kroeger, American baseball player\n* 1982 – Alexei Mikhnov, Ukrainian-Russian ice hockey player\n* 1982 – Pepe Reina, Spanish footballer\n* 1982 – Michele Rugolo, Italian race car driver\n* 1982 – G. Willow Wilson, American journalist and author\n1983 – Deniz Aydoğdu, German-Turkish footballer\n 1983 – Milan Biševac, Serbian footballer\n* 1983 – Larry Fitzgerald, American football player\n1984 – Matti Breschel, Danish cyclist \n 1984 – Ted Ligety, American skier\n* 1984 – Charl Schwartzel, South African golfer\n1985 – Rolando, Portuguese footballer\n 1985 – Andrew Foster, Australian footballer\n1987 – Xavi Annunziata, Spanish footballer\n 1987 – Petros Kravaritis, Greek footballer\n* 1987 – Ondřej Pavelec, Czech ice hockey player\n1988 – Trent Hodkinson, Australian rugby league player\n 1988 – David Ospina, Colombian footballer\n1989 – Dezmon Briscoe, American football player\n1990 – Tadeja Majerič, Slovenian tennis player\n1991 – António Félix da Costa, Portuguese race car driver\n1991 – Cédric Soares, Portuguese footballer\n1992 – Tyler Randell, Australian rugby league player\n1993 – Pablo Marí, Spanish football player\n* 1993 – Ilnur Alshin, Russian football player\n* 1993 – Anna Karnaukh, Russian water polo player\n1994 – Alex Harris, Scottish footballer\n\n", " 318 – Liu Cong, emperor of the Xiongnu state\n* 577 – John Scholasticus, Byzantine patriarch and saint\n* 651 – Aidan of Lindisfarne, Irish bishop and saint\n* 731 – Ōtomo no Tabito, Japanese poet (b. 665)\n* 894 – Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Ta'i, Muslim governor\n1054 – Kunigunde of Altdorf, Frankish noblewoman (b. c. 1020)\n1056 – Theodora, Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire (b. 981)\n1158 – Sancho III of Castile (b. 1134)\n1234 – Emperor Go-Horikawa of Japan (b. 1212)\n1287 – Konrad von Würzburg, German poet\n1324 – Henry II of Jerusalem (b. 1271)\n1372 – Ralph de Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford, English soldier (b. 1301)\n1422 – Henry V of England (b. 1386)\n1450 – Isabella of Navarre, Countess of Armagnac (b. 1395)\n1502 – Thomas Wode, Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas\n1528 – Matthias Grünewald, German artist (b. 1470)\n1645 – Francesco Bracciolini, Italian poet (b. 1566)\n1654 – Ole Worm, Danish physician and historian (b. 1588)\n1688 – John Bunyan, English preacher, theologian, and author (b. 1628)\n1730 – Gottfried Finger, Czech-German viol player and composer (b. 1660)\n1741 – Johann Gottlieb Heineccius, German academic and jurist (b. 1681)\n1772 – William Borlase, English geologist and historian (b. 1695)\n1795 – François-André Danican Philidor, French-English chess player and composer (b. 1726)\n1799 – Nicolas-Henri Jardin, French architect and academic, designed the Bernstorff Palace and Marienlyst Castle (b. 1720)\n1811 – Louis Antoine de Bougainville, French admiral and explorer (b. 1729)\n1814 – Arthur Phillip, English admiral and politician, 1st Governor of New South Wales (b. 1738)\n1817 – Sir John Duckworth, 1st Baronet, English admiral and politician, 39th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1747)\n1867 – Charles Baudelaire, French poet and critic (b. 1821)\n1869 – Mary Ward, Irish astronomer and entomologist (b. 1827)\n1884 – Robert Torrens, Irish-Australian politician, 3rd Premier of South Australia (b. 1814) \n1908 – Leslie Green, English architect (b. 1875)\n1910 – Emīls Dārziņš, Latvian composer, conductor, and music critic (b. 1875)\n1912 – Jean, duc Decazes, French sailor (b. 1864)\n1920 – Wilhelm Wundt, German physician, psychologist, and philosopher (b. 1832)\n1924 – Todor Aleksandrov, Bulgarian soldier (b. 1881)\n1927 – Andranik, Armenian general (b. 1865)\n1940 – Georges Gauthier, Canadian archbishop (b. 1871)\n1941 – Thomas Bavin, New Zealand-Australian politician, 24th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1874)\n 1941 – Marina Tsvetaeva, Russian poet and author (b. 1892)\n1948 – Andrei Zhdanov, Russian civil servant and politician (b. 1896)\n1951 – Paul Demel, Czech actor (b. 1903)\n1952 – Henri Bourassa, Canadian publisher and politician (b. 1868)\n1954 – Elsa Barker, American author and poet (b. 1869)\n1963 – Georges Braque, French painter and sculptor (b. 1882)\n1965 – E. E. Smith, American engineer and author (b. 1890)\n1967 – Ilya Ehrenburg, Russian journalist and author (b. 1891)\n1968 – John Hartle, English motorcycle racer (b. 1933)\n1969 – Rocky Marciano, American boxer (b. 1923)\n1973 – John Ford, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1894)\n1974 – William Pershing Benedict, American soldier and pilot (b. 1928)\n 1974 – Norman Kirk, New Zealand engineer and politician, 29th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1923)\n1978 – John Wrathall, Rhodesian accountant and politician, 2nd President of Rhodesia (b. 1913)\n1979 – Sally Rand, American actress and dancer (b. 1904)\n* 1979 – Tiger Smith, English cricketer and coach (b. 1886)\n1984 – Audrey Wagner, American baseball player, obstetrician, and gynecologist (b. 1927)\n1985 – Frank Macfarlane Burnet, Australian virologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)\n1986 – Elizabeth Coatsworth, American author and poet (b. 1893)\n 1986 – Urho Kekkonen, Finnish journalist, lawyer, and politician, 8th President of Finland (b. 1900)\n* 1986 – Henry Moore, English sculptor and illustrator (b. 1898)\n1990 – Nathaniel Clifton, American basketball player and coach (b. 1922)\n1991 – Cliff Lumsdon, Canadian swimmer and coach (b. 1931)\n1997 – Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (b. 1955)\n 1997 – Diana, Princess of Wales (b. 1961)\n2000 – Lucille Fletcher, American screenwriter (b. 1912)\n 2000 – Dolores Moore, American baseball player and educator (b. 1932)\n2002 – Lionel Hampton, American pianist, composer, and bandleader (b. 1908)\n 2002 – Farhad Mehrad, Persian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and pianist (b. 1944)\n* 2002 – George Porter, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)\n2005 – Joseph Rotblat, Polish-English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)\n2006 – Mohamed Abdelwahab, Egyptian footballer (b. 1983)\n* 2006 – Tom Delaney, English race car driver and businessman (b. 1911)\n2007 – Gay Brewer, American golfer (b. 1932)\n 2007 – Jean Jacques Paradis Canadian general (b. 1928)\n* 2007 – Sulev Vahtre, Estonian historian and academic (b. 1926)\n2008 – Ken Campbell, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1941)\n 2008 – Ike Pappas, American journalist (b. 1933)\n* 2008 – Victor Yates, New Zealand rugby player (b. 1939)\n2010 – Laurent Fignon, French cyclist (b. 1960)\n2011 – Wade Belak, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1976)\n2012 – Max Bygraves, English actor (b. 1922)\n 2012 – Joe Lewis, American martial artist and actor (b. 1944)\n* 2012 – Carlo Maria Martini, Italian cardinal (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – Kashiram Rana, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1938)\n* 2012 – John C. Shabaz, American judge and politician (b. 1931)\n* 2012 – Sergey Sokolov, Russian commander and politician, 6th Minister of Defence for The Soviet Union (b. 1911)\n2013 – Alan Carrington, English chemist and academic (b. 1934)\n 2013 – David Frost, English journalist and game show host (b. 1939)\n* 2013 – Jimmy Greenhalgh, English footballer and manager (b. 1923)\n* 2013 – Jan Camiel Willems, Belgian mathematician and theorist (b. 1939)\n2014 – Bapu, Indian director and screenwriter (b. 1933)\n 2014 – Ștefan Andrei, Romanian politician, 87th Romanian Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1931)\n* 2014 – Stan Goldberg, American illustrator (b. 1932)\n* 2014 – Carol Vadnais, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1945)\n2015 – Edward Douglas-Scott-Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu, English politician, founded the National Motor Museum (b. 1926)\n 2015 – Tom Scott, American football player (b. 1930)\n\n", "* Baloch-Pakhtun Unity Day (Balochs and Pashtuns, International observance)\n* Christian feast day:\n Aidan of Lindisfarne\n Aristides of Athens\n Cuthburh\n Paulinus of Trier\n Raymond Nonnatus\n Wala of Corbie\n Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria\n August 31 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Day of Solidarity and Freedom (Poland)\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Kyrgyzstan from the Soviet Union in 1991.\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Malaya from the United Kingdom in 1957.\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Trinidad and Tobago from the United Kingdom in 1962.\n* National Language Day (Moldova)\nNational Trail Mix Day (United States)\nNorth Borneo Self-government Day (Sabah, Borneo)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 31
[ "'''Autpert Ambrose (Ambroise)''' () (ca. 730 – 784) was a Frankish Benedictine monk.\n\nHe became abbot of San Vincenzo al Volturno in South Italy in the time of Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Autpert's election as abbot caused internal dissent at St. Vicenzo, and both Pope Stephen III and Charlemagne intervened. The disagreement was based both on objections to Autpert's personality and to his Frankish origin.\n\nHe wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the Apocalypse, on the Psalms, and on the Song of Solomon; ''Lives of Saints Paldo, Tuto and Vaso''; ''Assumption of the Virgin''; and a ''Combat between the Virtues and the Vices''.\n\nIn 2009, Pope Benedict XVI gave a homily about him in Saint Peter's square. In this homily, Autpert's death date is given as 784 (older scholarship had given a date between 778 and 779).\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Autpert Ambrose
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Abū Bakr aṣ-Ṣiddīq ‘Abdallāh bin Abī Quḥāfah''' (; 573 CE22 August 634 CE) popularly known as '''Abu Bakr''' (), was a senior companion (''Sahabi'') and—through his daughter Aisha—the father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Abu Bakr became the first openly declared Muslim outside Muhammad's family. Abu Bakr served as a trusted advisor to Muhammad. During Muhammad's lifetime, he was involved in several campaigns and treaties.\n\nHe ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632 to 634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death. As caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad. He was commonly known as '''The Truthful''' (, ''''). Abu Bakr's reign lasted for 2 years, 2 months and 14 days ending with his death after an illness.\n", "Abū Bakr as-Șiddīq\nRashidun Caliphate during the reign of Abu Bakr.\n\n\nAbu Bakr's full name was Abū Bakr aṣ-Ṣiddīq Abd Allah ibn 'Uthman ibn Aamir ibn Amr ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taym (from whom the at-Taymi al-Quraishi) ibn Murrah ibn Ka'ab ibn Lu'ai ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr al-Quraishi.\n\nThe lineage of Abu Bakr joined that of Muhammad in the eighth degree in their common ancestor Murrah ibn Ka'b. The patrilineal lineage of Abu Bakr was: Abu Bakr; the son of Uthman Abu Quhafa; the son of Amar; the son of Umru; the son of Kaab; the son of Saad; the son of Taym; the son of Murrah. The lineage of Muhammad was: Muhammad; the son of Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib; the son of Abdul Muttalib; the son of Hashim ibn 'Abd Manaf; the son of Abd Manaf ibn Qusai; the son of Qusai ibn Kilab; the son of Kilab ibn Murrah; the son of Murrah.\n\nIn Arabic, the name ''Abd Allah'' means \"servant of Allah\". One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, was ''atiqe'', \"the saved one\". Muhammad later reaffirmed this title when he said that Abu Bakr is the \"atiqe\" (the one saved from hell fire by God). He was called ''Al-Siddiq'' (the truthful) by Muhammad after he believed him in the event of Isra and Mi'raj when other people didn't, and Ali confirmed that title several times.\n\nThere is a dispute over his name being Abdullah. Ibn Hajar in ''Al-Isaabah'', vol. 4, p. 146 and many other narrations, narrates from Qasim Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abi Bakr, \"I asked Ayesha the name of Abu Bakr. She said Abdullah. I said people are saying Ateeq. She said Abu Quhafa had three children, one was Ateeq, second Mu’taq and third, Otaiq. All three names are similar and derived from the same root.\"\n\nHe was mentioned in the Quran as the \"second of the two who lay in the cave\" in reference to the event of hijra, where with Muhammad he hid in the cave in Jabal Thawr from the Meccan search party that was sent after them, thus being one of few who were given direct mention in the Quran.\n\nImam Jafar al Sadiq famously narrated how the title ''Siddiq'' was given to Abu Bakr from Muhammad. Jafar was a direct descendant of Abu Bakr from his maternal side, as well as being a descendant of Ali from his father's side. Jafar al-Sadiq was also the successor of the Naqshbandi Sufi order believed to be originating from Abu Bakr himself. Imam Muhammad al Baqir, the father of Imam Jafar Sadiq, also called Abu Bakr with the title Siddiq.\n\nMuch of the available knowledge about Muhammad comes through Abu Bakr's daughter, Aisha. After the death of Abu Bakr, her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was raised by Ali. After Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Umayyads, Aisha raised and taught her nephew al-Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. Aisha also taught another nephew Urwah ibn Zubayr. He then taught his son Hisham ibn Urwah, who was the main teacher of Malik ibn Anas whose views many Sunni follow.\n\nQasim's mother was of ‘Ali's family and his daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim, who married Muhammad al-Baqir, was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore al-Qasim was the grandson of the first caliph Abu Bakr and the grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq.\n\nAnother of Abu Bakr's grandsons, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, was very close to Husayn bin Ali. After Hussein ibn Ali was betrayed by the people of Kufa and killed by the army of Yazid I, the Umayyad ruler, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr confronted Yazid and expelled him from Iraq, southern Arabia and the greater part of Syria, and parts of Egypt. Following a lengthy campaign, on his last hour Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr asked his mother Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the daughter of the first caliph, for advice. Asma' bint Abu Bakr replied to her son: \"You know better in your own self, that if you are upon the truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth, for people more honourable than you have been killed and if you are not upon the truth, then what an evil son you are and you have destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If you say, that if you are upon the truth and you will be killed at the hands of others, then you will not truly be free\". Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr left and was later also killed and crucified by the Syrian Army now under the control of the Umayyads.\n", "Abu Bakr was born in Mecca some time in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Taym clan of the Quraysh tribe. Abu Bakr's father's name was Uthman Abu Quhafa (nicknamed ''Abu Quhafa'') and his mother was Salma bint Sakhar (nicknamed ''Umm-ul-Khair'').\n\nHe spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time among the Bedouins who called themselves ''Ahl-i-Ba'eer''- the people of the camel, and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname \"''Abu Bakr''\", the father of the camel's calf.\n\nWhen Abu Bakr was 10 years old, he went to Syria along with his father with the merchants' caravan. Muhammad, who was 12 years old at the time, was also with the caravan. In 591 at the age of 18, Abu Bakr went into trade and adopted the profession of cloth merchant, which was the family's business. In the coming years Abu Bakr traveled extensively with caravans. Business trips took him to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. These travels brought him wealth and added to his experience. His business flourished and he rose in the scale of social importance. Though his father, Uthman Abu Quhafa, was still alive, he came to be recognized as chief of his tribe.\n\nLike other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory and had a good knowledge of the genealogy of the Arab tribes, their stories and their politics.\n\nA story is preserved that once when he was a child, his father took him to the Kaaba, and asked him to pray before the idols. His father went away to attend to some other business, and Abu Bakr was left alone with the idols. Addressing an idol, Abu Bakr said \"O my God, I am in need of beautiful clothes; bestow them on me\". The idol remained indifferent. Then he addressed another idol saying \"O God, give me some delicious food. See that I am so hungry\". The idol remained cold. That exhausted the patience of young Abu Bakr. He lifted a stone, and addressing an idol said \"Here I am aiming a stone; if you are a god protect yourself\". Abu Bakr hurled the stone at the idol and left the Kaaba. Thereafter, he never went to the Kaaba to pray to the idols.\n\nAbu Bakr was a thin man with white skin. Tabari relates (Suyuti also relates the same through Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's report) from Aisha her description of Abu Bakr:\n\n\nHe was a man with fair skin, thin, emaciated, with a sparse beard, a slightly hunched frame, sunken eyes and protruding forehead, and the bases of his fingers were hairless.\n\n===Acceptance of Islam===\nOn his return from a business trip from Yemen, he was informed by friends that in his absence Muhammad had declared himself the Messenger of God, and proclaimed a new religion. Tabari, the most famous Muslim historian, in his Ta'rikh quotes from Muhammad Bin Sa'ad Bin Abi Waqqas, who said: \n\n\nOther Sunni and all Shi'a Muslims maintain that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija.\n\nIbn Kathir in his Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah disregards the above. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zaid bin Haarithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. And Ali ibn abi talib was the first child to embrace Islam for he has not even reached the age of puberty at the time. And Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam.\n\n===Life after accepting Islam===\n\nHis wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children except Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr separated from his son Abdu'l-Rahman.\n\nHis conversion brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert to Islam. and presented Islam to others in such a way that many of his friends accepted Islam.\n\nThose who converted to Islam at the insistence of Abu Bakr were:\n* Uthman Ibn Affan (who would become the 3rd Caliph)\n* Al-Zubayr (played a part in the Muslim conquest of Egypt)\n* Talha Ibn Ubayd-Allah\n* Abdur Rahman bin Awf (who would remain an important part of the Rashidun Caliphate)\n* Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (played a part in the Islamic conquest of Persia)\n* Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who remained commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Syria )\n* Abu Salama (Abdullah bin Abdul Asad)\n* Khalid ibn Sa`id\n* Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah\n\nAbu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight slaves (four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom.\n\nThe men were\n* Bilal ibn Ribah\n* Abu Fakih\n* Ammar ibn Yasir\n* Abu Fuhayra\nThe women were:\n* Lubaynah\n* Al-Nahdiah\n* Umm Ubays\n* Harithah bint al-Muammil\n\nMost of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men. The father of Abu Bakr asked him why he doesn't liberate strong and young slaves who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of God, and not for his own sake. According to Sunni tradition the following verses of the Qur'an were revealed due to this:\n\n\nAs for him who gives and is godfearing and confirms the reward most fair, We shall surely ease him to the Easing. {92:5–7}.\n\n\n\n...he who gives his wealth to purify himself and confers no favour on any man for recompense, only seeking the Face of his Lord the Most High; and he shall surely be satisfied. {92:18–21}.\n\n\nShias maintain these verses were revealed about Ali.\n\n===Persecution by the Quraysh, 613===\n\nFor three years after the birth of Islam, Muslims kept secret their faith, and prayed in secret. In 613 Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr, and beat him mercilessly till he lost consciousness. Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Abu Bakr's beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, but not by the entire Quraysh tribe.\n", "In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr.\n\nIn 620 Muhammad's wife and uncle died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was engaged to Muhammad, however it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (Night Journey).\n", "\n\n\nIn 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh led by Ikrima attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad in his migration for Medina. Due to the danger of the Quraysh, they did not take the road to Medina. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr some five miles south of Mecca. `Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and talks of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to sight them. Due to this, Qur'an verse was revealed. Aisha, Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri and Abdullah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that Abu Bakr was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave.\n\nAfter staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina. While Sunni sources portray Abu Bakr in an exalted light in the cave, Shia sources however generally tend to portray the incident in the cave as a Quranic condemnation of Abu Bakr for cowardice and fear.\n\n===Life in Medina===\nIn Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. Muslims constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site and Abu Bakr also took part in construction. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with Khaarjah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah.\n\nKhaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari used to live at Sunh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina he bought another house near Muhammad's.\n\nThe climate of Mecca was dry, but the climate of Medina was damp and this adversely affected the health of the immigrants, so that on arrival most of them fell sick. Abu Bakr also suffered from fever for several days and during this time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. At Mecca, Abu Bakr was a trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He was a wholesaler, and had his store at Sunh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished at Medina. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already engaged to Muhammad, was handed over to Muhammad in a simple marriage ceremony, and this further strengthened the relation between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.\n", "\n\n===Battle of Badr and Uhud===\n\nIn 624 Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as the Battle of Badr, but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In 625 he participated in the Battle of Uhud which ended in a rout by the majority of the Muslims. Before the battle begun, Abu Bakr's son Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr, who was still non-Muslim and was fighting from the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. His son later converted to Islam and gained fame during the Muslim conquest of Syria as a fierce warrior. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid’s cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. Many Muslim warriors fled from the battlefield due to fear or to plunder the spoils of war. So did Abu Bakr, however, he was among the first to return according to few Sunni Hadith. Ali Ibn Abi Talib, Talhah and a few other Muslims remained guarding Muhammad from the attacks of the Quraysh soldiers, majority of Shia and many Sunni Hadith agree to this. Criticisms of his lacklustre military achievements in comparison with the extremely accomplished Ali should be put into context: Abu Bakr was a middle aged man during these battles, was not a soldier but a merchant by trade, and had never seen battle before – it may thus be unfair to directly compare him with Ali in this regard.\n\nHowever it is related that once Ali asked his associates as to who they thought was the bravest among men. Everyone replied that Ali was the bravest of all men. Thereupon Ali said:\n\n\n\nIn Sunni accounts during one such attack, two discs from Abu Bakr's shield penetrated into Muhammad's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. In these stories subsequently Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety.\n\n===Conflict with Jewish tribes===\n\nLater in the year Abu Bakr was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir.\n\n===Battle of the Trench===\nIn 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza. In this battle, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted to guard each sector. One of such contingents was under the command of Abu Bakr. The enemy made frequent assaults in the attempt to cross the ditch. All such assaults were repulsed. Abu Bakr showed great courage in guarding the belt of the trench in his sector. To commemorate this event a mosque was later constructed at the site where Abu Bakr had heroically repulsed the charges of the enemy. The mosque was later known as 'Masjid-i-Siddiq'.\n\nIn 628 he participated in Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact.\n\nIn 628 he was a part of the Muslim campaign to Khaybar.\n\n====Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad====\n\n\nIn 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcements and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah. Commanding an army under him were Abu Bakr and Umar and they attacked and defeated the enemy.\n\nIn 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca, Abu Bakr was a part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Uthman Abu Quhafa converted to Islam.\n\n===Battle of Hunayn and Ta'if===\nIn 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. In the Battle of Hunayn as the Muslim army passed through the valley of Hunayn some eleven miles north east of Mecca a rain of arrows fell on it let loose by a group of archers of the hostile tribes that lay hid in the mountain pass. Taken unaware the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in the attempt to seek cover. Muhammad stood firm. There were only nine companions around him including Abu Bakr. All the rest had fled. Under the instructions of Muhammad, Abbas shouted at the top of his voice \"O Muslims come to the Prophet of Allah\". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslim had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas.\n\nMuhammad posted a contingent to guard the Hunayn pass and led the main army to Autas. In the confrontation at Autas the tribes could not withstand the Muslim onslaught. Finding the resistance useless the tribes broke the camp and retired to Ta'if.\n\nAbu Bakr was commissioned by Muhammad to lead the attack against Ta'if. From Autas the Muslim forces set out for Ta'if. The tribes shut themselves in the fort and refused to come out in the open. The Muslim employed catapults to throw stones in the town, but this did not lead to any tangible results. The Muslim tried the testudo device whereunder a group of soldiers shielded by a cover of cowhide advanced to set fire to the gate. The enemy threw red hot scraps of iron on the testudo which made it ineffective.\n\nThe siege dragged on for two weeks, and still there was no sign of the fall of the fort. Muhammad held a council of war. Abu Bakr advised that the siege might be raised and that God would Himself make arrangements for the fall of the fort. The advice was accepted, and in February 630, the siege of Ta'if was raised and the Muslim army returned to Mecca. A few days later Malik bin Auf the commander, came to Mecca and became a Muslim. Thus the forecast of Abu Bakr came to be fulfilled, and the God Himself arranged for the surrender of Ta'if.\n\n===Expedition of Tabuk===\nIn 630 AD Muhammad decided to lead an expedition to Tabuk on the Syrian border. In order to finance the expedition Muhammad invited contributions and donations from his followers. Uthman provided ten thousand camels. Umar made a liberal contribution. When Muhammad asked him how much he had left for himself and his family he said that he has given one half of his wealth for the cause of God and had left one half for himself and his dependents. Then Abu Bakr came loaded with his contribution and Muhammad put him the same question as to how much wealth he had for himself and his family. Abu Bakr said \"I have brought all that I had. I have left Allah and His Prophet for myself and my family\". This episode has formed the theme of one of the poems of Allama Iqbal. The last verse of this poem reads:\n\n\n\nThe call to arms was given at a very critical period. The weather was burning hot. Crops were ripe and ready for harvesting. The journey was long and arduous. Many persons preferred to stay back. In spite of these obstacles and difficulties, an army of thirty thousand persons was raised. The army assembled at Al Jorf outside Medina. Muhammad remained at Medina for some time to attend to other affairs, and at Al Jorf Abu Bakr deputised for Muhammad and led the prayers.\n\nThe Muslim army reached Tabuk after a weary march. At Tabuk the standard of the army was entrusted to Abu Bakr. There were no Byzantine forces to meet the Muslims. On coming to know of the advance of the Muslim army the Byzantines had withdrawn their army well within Syria. The Muslim achieved their object without fighting a shot. The Byzantines who had at one time threatened to invade Arabia were no longer in the mood to measure swords with the Muslims.\n\n===Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj===\nIn 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way. Abu Bakr was appointed as the leader of the delegates. Abu Bakr had thus the honour of being the first Amir-ul-Hajj in the history of Islam.\n\nSome time after Abu Bakr and his party had left for Hajj, Muhammad received a revelation about the regulation of the Hajj, and the ordering of relationships with the infidels. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim the revelation.\n\nMuhammad summoned Ali, and asked him to proclaim the revealed verses to the people on the day of sacrifice when they assembled at Mina. Ali went forth on Muhammad's slit-eared camel, and overtook Abu Bakr. When Ali joined the party, Abu Bakr wanted to know whether he had come to give orders or to convey them. Ali said that he had not come to replace Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj, and that his only mission was to convey a special message to the people on behalf of Muhammad.\n\nAt Mecca, Abu Bakr presided at the Hajj ceremony, and Ali read the proclamation on behalf of Muhammad. The main points of the proclamation were:\n\n#Henceforward the non-Muslims were not to be allowed to visit the Kaaba or perform the pilgrimage.\n#No one should circumambulate the Kaaba naked.\n#Polytheism was not to be tolerated. Where the Muslims had any agreement with the polytheists such agreements would be honoured for the stipulated periods. Where there were no agreements a grace period of four months was provided and thereafter no quarter was to be given to the polytheists.\n\nFrom the day this proclamation was made a new era dawned in Arabia. Henceforward Islam alone was to be supreme in Arabia.\n\nIn some quarters an argument is advanced that as on this occasion the proclamation was read by Ali on behalf of Muhammad, this establishes the precedence of Ali over Abu Bakr, and that therefore when after the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr became the Caliph in disregard of the claims of Ali, he was a usurper.\n\nOn this occasion Ali did not replace Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj. Ali was merely assigned a special mission to read the proclamation as according to Muhammad only a man from his own house could communate the revelation. We can thus say that on this occasion Abu Bakr represented the temporal side, while Ali represented the spiritual side. After the death of Muhammad there was no longer the question of any spiritual representation; the issue was only temporal representation, and for this Abu Bakr was the best choice as he had thus represented Muhammad even in his lifetime.\n\n====Military campaigns as commander====\n\nAbu Bakr also led one military campaign as commander, known as Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, which took place in Nejd, in July 628 AD (3rd Month 7AH in the Islamic calendar). Abu Bakr led a large platoon in Nejd on the order of Muhammad. Many were killed and taken as prisoner. The Sunni Hadith collection ''Sunan Abu Dawud'' mentions the event\n", "\nA short time after returning from the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad became ill. In his fatal illness, Muhammad came out with a piece of cloth tied around his head and sat on the pulpit. After thanking and praising God he said: \"\" (\"God has given one of His slaves the choice between this world and that which is with Him, and this slave has chosen that which is with God.\")\n\nAbu Bakr wept profusely and said, \"Our fathers and mothers be sacrificed for you.\" The companions were astonished by this (they wondered why Abu Bakr wept), and the people said, \"Look at this old man! Allah's Apostle talks about a Slave of Allah to whom He has given the option to choose either the splendor of this worldly life or the good which is with Him, while he says \"our fathers and mothers be sacrificed for you\". It turned out Muhammad himself was that servant, as Abu Bakr later told the companions.\n\nMuhammad continued:\n\nNo doubt, I am indebted to Abu Bakr more than to anybody else regarding both his companionship and his wealth. And if I had to take a Khalil from my followers, I would certainly have taken Abu Bakr, but the fraternity of Islam is sufficient. Let no Door of the Mosque remain open, except the door of Abu Bakr\n\nThe good referred in the first part means the good in the hereafter. Khalil means intimate friend. The door referred to here is the door to the mosque of Muhammad. When the fever developed he directed Abu Bakr to go to the war following Usama who was 18. When Muhammad died Muslims gathered in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and there were suppressed sobs and sighs. Abu Bakr came from his house at As-Sunh (a village) on a horse where he had been with his new wife. He dismounted and entered the Prophet's Mosque, but did not speak to anyone until he entered upon 'Aa'isha. He went straight to Muhammad who was covered with Hibra cloth (a kind of Yemenite cloth). He then uncovered Muhammad's face and bowed over him and kissed him and wept, saying, \"Let my father and mother be sacrificed for you. By Allah, Allah will never cause you to die twice. As for the death which was written for you, has come upon you.\" 'Umar was making a sermon to the people saying, \"By Allah, he is not dead but has gone to his Lord as Musa ibn Imran went and remained hidden from his people for forty days. Musa returned after it was said that he had died. By Allah, the Messenger of Allah will come back and he will cut off the hands and legs of those who claim his death.\"\n\nAbu Bakr arrived and said, \"Sit down, O 'Umar!\" But 'Umar refused to sit down. So the people came to Abu Bakr and left Umar. Abu Bakr said,\n\"To proceed, if anyone amongst you used to worship Muhammad, then Muhammad has passed away, but if (anyone of) you used to worship Allah, then Allah is Alive and shall never die. Allah said, \"And Muhammad is but a messenger; the messengers have come before him; if then he dies or is killed will you turn back upon your heels? And whoever turns back upon his heels, he will by no means do harm to Allah in the least and Allah will reward the grateful.\" (3.144)\n\n'Umar said, \"By Allah, when I heard Abu Bakr reciting it, my legs could not support me and I fell down at the very moment of hearing him reciting it, declaring that Muhammad had passed away.\"\n", "Caliph Abu Bakr's empire at its peak in August 634.\n\nAfter Muhammad's death, previously dormant tensions between the Meccan immigrants, the Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to break out and split the Ummah. Other Arabic tribes also wished to revert to local leadership and split from Medina's control. In some places, people claiming prophethood started to establish leaderships to oppose Medina, e.g. Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Musaylimah. All of which are events that led to splitting the Muslim community. The Ansar, the leaders of the tribes of Medina, met in a hall or house called saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed of the meeting, he, Umar, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and a few others rushed to prevent the Ansar from making a premature decision. Accounts of this meeting vary greatly. All agree that during the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, and thus Abu Bakr became the first Muslim caliph, and the first Muslim given the title ''Khalifa-tul-Rasul'' (''Successor of messenger of Allah''), a title accepted by Sunni Muslims.\n\nSunnis believe that Abu Bakr is the rightful Caliph. The Twelver Shia and the Ismaili Shia believe that Ali should have been the first Caliph. Their main argument is based on their interpretation of Hadith of the pond of Khumm. However, later a minority, took this concept one step further and also started thinking, what if history took a different course and these ideas were later adopted by some Twelver Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids in the 1500s. For the first time in the history of Islam, the Safavids also established a hierarchical organization of the Shiite clergy and funded this hierarchy through the collection of waqf and Khums. Because of the relative insecurity of property ownership in Persia, many private landowners secured their lands by donating them to the clergy as so called ''vaqf''. They would thus retain the official ownership and secure their land from being confiscated by royal commissioners or local governors, as long as a percentage of the revenues from the land went to the ulama the quasi-religious organizations run by dervishes (''futuvva''). Increasingly, members of the religious class, particularly the mujtahids and the seyyeds, gained full ownership of these lands, and, according to contemporary historian Iskandar Munshi, Persia started to witness the emergence of a new and significant group of landowners. From then on many seyyeds also further propagated the idea that Ali should have been the first caliph and that by becoming the first caliph, Abu Bakr had broken the link that proved that they should have more rights. Before that point Jafar al-Sadiq disapproved of people who disapproved of his great grand father Abu Bakr the first caliph.\n", "After assuming the office of Caliphate Abu Bakr's first address was as follows:\n\n.\n\nAbu Bakr's Caliphate lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout the Arabian Peninsula in the successful Ridda Wars. In the last months of his rule, he sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid on conquests against the Sassanid Empire in Mesopotamia and against the Byzantine Empire in Syria. This would set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later on by Umar and Uthman ibn Affan) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah he agreed to have a salary from state treasury and abolish his cloth trade.\n\n===Preservation of the Qur'an===\n\nCalligraphic representation of ''Abu Bakr'' in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.\nAccording to Sunni Islam, Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the ''Qur'an'' in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama fought in 632, Umar (the later Caliph Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the ''Qur'an'' ( about 300 to 700) had died in battle. Fearing that the Qur'an may be lost or corrupted, Umar requested the Caliph Abu Bakr to authorize the compilation and preservation of the scriptures in written format. After initial hesitation, Abu Bakr made a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit which included the memorizers of the ''Qur'an'' and Umar and to collect all verses of the book. After collecting all Qur'anic verses from texts in the possession of various sahaba, Zayd ibn Thabit and members of his committee verified the reading by comparing with those who had memorized the ''Qur'an''. After they were satisfied that they had not missed out any verse or made any mistakes in reading or writing it down, the text was written down as one single manuscript and presented in codex form to the Caliph Abu Bakr. It is believed that this process happened within one year of the death of Muhammad when most of his sahaba (Companions) were still alive.\n\nPrior to his death, Abu Bakr gave this authorized copy of the ''Qur'an'' to Umar – his successor as caliph. It remained with him throughout his tenure as caliph (10 years). Prior to his death, Umar gave this book to his daughter Hafsa bint Umar, who was one of the wives of Muhammad. Umar did not nominate his successor on his deathbed, and thus preferred to leave this copy with Hafsa so as not to indicate his personal preference of who would be the next caliph. Later on, it became the basis of Uthman Ibn Affan's definitive text of the ''Qur'an'' which was published far and wide merely 18 years after the death of Muhammad. Later historians give Uthman Ibn Affan the principal credit for re-verification and publishing the ''Qur'an''. Twelver Shi'ites reject the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the ''Qur'an''.\n", "\nOn 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and did not recover due to his old age.\n\nAbu Bakr developed high fever and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realizing his death was near, he sent for Ali and requested him to perform his ghusl since Ali had also done it for Muhammad.\n\nAbu Bakr felt that he should nominate his successor so that the issue should not be a cause of dissension among the Muslims after his death, though there was already controversy over Ali not having been appointed.\n\nHe appointed Umar as his successor after discussing with some companions. Some of them favored the nomination and others disliked it, due to the tough nature of Umar.\n\nAbu Bakr thus dictated his last testament to Uthman Ibn Affan as follows:\n\n\n\nAbu Bakr next asked Aisha as to how many pieces of cloth were used for Muhammad's shroud. Aisha said that three pieces had been used. Abu Bakr thereupon desired the same number for his own shroud. On Monday 23 August 634( hijri : 7th of Jamadi-ui- Akhir of the 13th AH), Abu Bakr died. The funeral prayer was led by Umar. He was buried the same night by the side of Muhammad's grave in Aisha's house near Al-Masjid al-Nabawi\n", "\n\nToday there are many families which are the descendants of Abu Bakr. Most of them are known by the name Siddiqui and al-Bakri Or al-Sideeqi (Al-Bakri) ((In Arabic)). But they are also known by some other names in different localities. For example, in East Ethiopia, Siddiqis are usually called Qallu, which means ''people of the religion'', as they were the first to bring Islam to this area. In Somalia, they are commonly known as Sheekhaal and they are well respected by other Somali clans. In Bangladesh, they are known by the name of Qureshi. There are also Al-Sedeki or Sedeki families in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Iraq and other places in the Arabia Peninsula. All the descendants of Abu Bakr, their ancestors are: Abdurahman Ibn Abu Bakr and Muhammad Ibn Abu Bakr. The Al-Bakri Family in Egypt are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr while the sheekhaal or Fiqi Umar Family found in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya and the Aala bakeri Families found in the Arabia Peninsula are the descendants of Abdurahman Ibn Abu Bakr.\n", "Abu Bakr became the Caliph on 8 June 632 and he died on 23 August 634. He is considered by sunnis as the greatest of all the companions of Muhammad. Jubayr ibn Mut'im reported that a woman came and spoke to Muhammad about a matter. He asked her to come back later some time. She said, \"Tell me if I come later and do not find you?\" Jubayr ibn Mut'im said that it seemed that she meant he may not be alive when she came back. He said, \"If you do not find me then go to Abu Bakr.\"\n\nThis particular hadith is used by Sunnis and scholars of hadith to demonstrate the superiority of Abu Bakr over all other companions of Muhammad and his rightful succession to Muhammad.\n\nThough the period of his caliphate covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire.\n\nAbu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate.\n\nHe is revered for being the first Muslim ruler to establish:\n* Bayt al-mal\n* The Crown Pasture\n\nHe has the distinction of purchasing the land for Al-Masjid al-Nabawi.\n\nAbu Bakr had given up drinking wine even in the time before Islam. He was the foremost genealogist of the Quraysh and was well accomplished at interpreting dreams according to Ibn Sirin.\n\n===Sunni view===\nSunni Muslims also consider Abu Bakr as one of The Ten Promised Paradise (''al-‘Ashara al-Mubashshara'') whom Muhammad had testified were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as the \"Successor of Allah's Messenger\" (''Khalifa Rasulullah''), and first of the Rightly Guided Caliphs – i.e. Rashidun and being the rightful successor to Muhammad. Abu Bakr had always been the closest friend and confidant of Muhammad throughout his life. He was always there beside Muhammad at every major event. It was Abu Bakr's wisdom that Muhammad always honored. Abu Bakr is regarded to be among best persons from the followers of Muhammad, as Umar ibn Khattab stated that \"If the faith of Abu Bakr was weighed against the faith of the people of the earth, the faith of Abu Bakr would outweigh the others.\"\n\n===Shia view===\n \n\nThe Twelver Shia (as the main branch of Shia Islam, with 85% of all Shias) believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was supposed to assume the Caliphate, and that he had been publicly and unambiguously appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. It is also believed that Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death, in a coup d'état against Ali. The Twelver Shi'a do not view Abu Bakr's being with Muhammad in the cave when the two fled Mecca as a meritorious act and indeed find significant criticism of Abu Bakr in the Qur'anic verse of the cave.\n\nMost of Twelver Shia criticize Abu Bakr because, after Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr refused to grant Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, the lands of the village of Fadak which she claimed her father had given to her as a gift before his death. He refused to accept the testimony of her witnesses, so she claimed the land would still belong to her as inheritance from her deceased father. However, Abu Bakr replied by saying that Muhammad had told him that the prophets of God do not leave as inheritance any worldly possessions and on this basis he refused to give her the lands of Fadak. However, as Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy notes in his book ''A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims'', Muhammad inherited a maid servant, five camels, and ten sheep. This proves that prophets can receive inheritance, and can pass on inheritance to others as well.\n\nThe Twelver Shia accuse him of participating in the burning of the house of Ali and Fatima.\n\nThe Twelver Shia believe that Abu Bakr sent Khalid ibn Walid to crush those who were in favour of Ali's caliphate (''see Ridda Wars''). The Twelver Shia strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar were instrumental in the collection or preservation of the ''Qur'an'', claiming that they should have accepted the copy of the book in the possession of Ali.\n\nAfter the death of Abu Bakr, Ali raised Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. The Twelver Shia view Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as one of the companions of Ali. When Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was killed by the Ummayads, Aisha, the wife of Muhammad and also a renowned scholar of her time, raised and taught her nephew Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr's mother was from Ali's family and Qasim's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was married to Muhammad al-Baqir and was the mother of Jafar al-Sadiq. Therefore, Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was the grand son of Abu Bakr the first caliph and the grand father of Jafar al-Sadiq. Jafar al-Sadiq disapproved of people who said anything bad about his great grand father Abu Bakr the first caliph. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty and currently the second largest group (although its population is only about 5% of all Shia Muslims), believe that on the last hour of Zayd ibn Ali (the uncle of Jafar al-Sadiq), he was betrayed by the people in Kufa who said to him: \"May God have mercy on you! What do you have to say on the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab?\" Zayd ibn Ali said, \"I have not heard anyone in my family renouncing them both nor saying anything but good about them...when they were entrusted with government they behaved justly with the people and acted according to the Qur'an and the Sunnah\".\n", "\n\n* Bodla\n* List of Sahaba\n* Sunni view of the Sahaba\n* Muadh ibn Jabal\n* Sermon of Fadak\n", "\n", "\n* Walker, Adam, Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, in ''Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God'' (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014.\n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* Muslim:\n QuilliamPress.com: Abu Bakr\n AbuBakr.com\n Virtues of Hazrat Abu Bakr\n Detailed Life of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq\n Abu Bakr's life\n Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order biography of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq\n Greatness of Abu Bakr\n Biography of Abu Bakr as-Siddiq by Adam Walker \nUrdu Audio\n Virtues of Abu Bakr Urdu Audio\n Abu Bakr appearing in Narrations/Hadith recorded by Imam Bukhari – www.SearchTruth.com\n Abu bakr's appointment as Khalifah\n Searchable Family tree of Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq by Happy Books\n* Non-Muslim:\n** Abu Bakr\n* Unclassified:\n Abu Bakr\n Abu Bakr from Islamonline\n** Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1 by Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.\n* Shia:\n Incident of the cave\n Abu Bakr\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Lineage and title", "Early life", "Last years in Mecca", "Migration to Medina", "Military campaigns under Muhammad", "Death of Muhammad", "Election of Abu Bakr to Caliphate", "Reign as a Caliph", "Death", "Descendants", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Abu Bakr
[ "\n'''Ambrose Traversari''', O.S.B. Cam., also referred to as '''Ambrose of Camaldoli''' (138620 October 1439), was an Italian monk and theologian, who was a prime supporter of the papal cause in the 15th century. He is honored as a saint by the Camaldolese Order.\n", "Traversari was born near Forlì, at the village of Portico di Romagna in 1386. At the age of fourteen he entered the Camaldolese Order in the Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In his study of Greek literature his master was Emmanuel Chrysoloras. He worked primarily as a scholar until he became Prior General of the Order in 1431.\n\nAmbrose emerged as a leading advocate of the primacy of the Roman Pontiff. This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the Council of Basel as legate of Pope Eugene IV, and defended the primacy of the Roman Pontiff and adjured the council not to \"rend asunder Christ's seamless robe\". He was next sent by the Pope to the Emperor Sigismund to ask his aid in the pope's efforts to end this Council, which for five years had been encroaching on papal prerogatives. The Pope transferred the Council from Basel to Ferrara on 18 September 1437.\n\nSo strong was Ambrose's hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western Babylon. He likewise supported the pope at Ferrara and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches. But in this Council, and later, in that of Florence, Ambrose, by his efforts and charity toward some poor Greek bishops, greatly helped to bring about a union of the two Churches, the decree for which, 6 July 1439, he was called on to draw up.\n\nHe died soon after. His feastday is celebrated by the Camaldolese Order on 20 November.\n", "According to the author of his biography in the Eleventh edition of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'': \"Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as Cosimo de' Medici, he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors\".\n", "His works include a treatise on the Holy Eucharist, one on the Procession of the Holy Spirit, many lives of saints, as well as a history of his term as Prior General of the Camaldolese. He also translated from Greek into Latin a life of Saint John Chrysostom (Venice, 1533); the Spiritual Wisdom of John Moschus; ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent'' of Saint John Climacus (Venice, 1531), P.G., LXXXVIII. Between 1424 and 1433 he worked on the translation of the ''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'' by Diogenes Laërtius, which came to be widely circulated in manuscript form and was published at Rome in 1472 (the first printed edition of the ''Lives''; the Greek text was printed only in 1533). He also translated four books against the errors of the Greeks, by Manuel Kalekas, Patriarch of Constantinople, a Dominican friar (Ingolstadt, 1608), P.G., CLII, col. 13-661, a work known only through Ambrose's translation.\n\nHe also translated many homilies of Saint John Chrysostom; the treatise of the Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite on the celestial hierarchy; St. Basil's treatise on virginity; thirty nine discourses of St. Ephrem the Syrian, and many other works of the Fathers and writers of the Greek Church. Dom Mabillon's ''Letters and Orations of St. Ambrose of Camaldoli'' was published at Florence, 1759.\n\nSelected works:\n''Hodoeporicon'', diary of a journey visiting the monasteries of Italy\n''Epistolarium'', correspondence\ntranslations of\nPalladius, ''Life of Chrysostom;''\nEphraem Syrus, ''Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus''\n* St Basil, ''On Virginity.''\nDiogenes Laërtius, ''Vitae philosophorum'' (''Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers'')\nPseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (1436)\n\nA number of his manuscripts remain in the library of St Mark at Venice.\n", "Traversari\n''The Baptism of Christ'' (Piero della Francesca)\n", "\n;Attribution\n\n\n", "\n\n\n", "\n Letters – a few letters in the original Latin and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied.\n* Contains short biography\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Character", "Works", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ambrose Traversari
[ "'''Ambrosians''' are members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the 14th century have sprung up in and around Milan and also a 16th-century sect of Anabaptist Ambrosians.\n", "Late Antique Mosaic of Saint Ambrose (~337-397) in Sant'Ambrogio church, Milan, Lombardy, Italy, possibly an actual portrait made in his lifetime\n\nOnly the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of Pope Gregory XI addressed to the monks of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan.\n\nSaint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milan, as Saint Augustine recounts in his ''Confessions''. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permanent institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: ''De virginibus'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'', ''De institutione virginis'', ''De exhortatione virginitatis'', and ''De lapsu virginis consecratae''. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of communities which later became formal monasteries of women.\n\nIt is against this background that two religious orders or congregations—one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the 13th and 15th centuries—took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name.\n\n===Order of St Ambrose===\nThe first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some priests. In 1375 Pope Gregory XI gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name \"Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus\" and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the Ambrosian Rite. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In 1441 Pope Eugene IV merged them into one congregation called \"Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus\", made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two \"visitors\".\n\nSaint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in 1579. In 1589 Pope Sixtus V united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the \"Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life\" (or \"Apostolini\" or \"Brothers of St. Barnabas\"), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the 15th century. The union was confirmed by Pope Paul V in 1606, at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi and Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by Pope Innocent X in 1650.\n\n===Nuns===\nThe Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the Ambrosian Rite, but were independent in government. Pope Sixtus IV gave the nuns canonical status in 1474. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life. Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo.\n\nAnother group of cloistered \"Nuns of St Ambrose\", also called the Annunciatae (Italian: ''Annunziate'') of Lombardy or \"Sisters of St Marcellina\", were founded in 1408 by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on September 14, 1510.\n\n===Oblates of St. Ambrose and of St. Charles===\nIn some sense also \"Ambrosians\" are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of \"Priests of Peace\". In August 1578 the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of \"Oblates of St. Ambrose.\" They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in 1584. These Oblates were dispersed by Napoleon I in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of \"Oblates of St. Charles\" and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the 19th century similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the \"Oblates of St Charles\", established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman.\n\nToday, the Oblates of St. Ambrose and of St. Charles is divided into four \"families\" or groups:\n\nThe '''Missionary Oblates of Rho''' (Obl. Rho), founded in 1714 by Giorgio Maria Martinelli and dedicated to preaching retreats, spiritual exercises, and popular missions.\nThe '''Oblates Vicars''' was founded in 1875 and tasked with advising and assisting in the management of parishes and diocesan shrines.\nThe '''Oblates Diocesan''' consists of priests engaged in pastoral work, parishes, schools. \nThe '''Oblats Laics''' a lay order founded in 1932 by Archbishop Schuster. They follow temporary vows of chastity and obedience with a focus on service tasks (administrative, nursing, technical, etc.) and missionary work.\n\nIn 1980 there were 17 missionaries Rho, 24 vicars, 160 diocesan and 60 laymen, all in the archdiocese of Milan.\n", "Ambrosian Rite\nSt. Ambrose\n*St. Ambrose University\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Orders", "See also", "References" ]	Ambrosians
[ "__NOTOC__\n'''Ambrosiaster''' is the name given to the writer of a commentary on St Paul's epistles, \"brief in words but weighty in matter,\" and valuable for the criticism of the Latin text of the New Testament. The commentary itself was written during the papacy of Pope Damasus I, that is, between 366 and 384, and is considered an important document of the Latin text of Paul before the Vulgate of Jerome, and of the interpretation of Paul prior to Augustine of Hippo.\n\nThis commentary was erroneously attributed for a long time to St Ambrose. In 1527, though, Erasmus threw doubt on the accuracy of ascribing the authorship of this document to Ambrose. Erasmus is generally falsely credited for having coined the name \"Ambrosiaster\" (literally in Latin: \"would be-Ambrose\") to describe its author. The credit for this nickname should go to the Maurists, as René Hoven has shown. The name has remained with the unknown author. Attempts to identify this Ambrosiaster with known authors has continued, but with no success. Because Augustine cites Ambrosiaster's commentary on Romans 5.12 under the name of \"Hilary\", many critics have attempted to identify Ambroasiaster with one of the many writers named \"Hilary\" active in the period. In 1899, Germain Morin suggested that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew and writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to Spain in 378-380 and then relapsed to Judaism; but he afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius, proconsul of Africa in 377. Alternatively, Paolo Angelo Ballerini attempted to sustain the traditional attribution of the work to Ambrose, in his complete edition of that Father's work. This is extremely problematic, though, since it would require Ambrose to have written the book before he became a bishop, and then added to it in later years, incorporating later remarks of Hilary of Poitiers on Romans. No identifications, therefore, have acquired lasting popularity with scholars, and his identity remains a mystery.\n\nSeveral other minor works have been attributed to this same author, along with a lengthy collection of exegetical and polemical tractates, the ''Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti,'' which manuscripts have traditionally ascribed to Augustine. In 1905, Alexander Souter established that this work should also be attributed to Ambrosiaster. Fragments of several other works have been ascribed with some certainty to Ambrosiaster: a commentary on Matthew 24, a discussion of the parable of the three measures of flour into which a woman placed yeast, and a treatment of Peter's denial and the arrest of Jesus in Gethsemane. The attribution of other fragments to Ambrosiaster, though, is more tentative.\n\nDespite the elusive identity of Ambrosiaster, several facts about him can be established. Internal evidence suggests he was active at Rome during the reign of Pope Damasus (366–384), and almost certainly a member of the Roman clergy. There are strong indications he objected to Jerome's efforts to revise the Old Latin versions of the Gospels, and that he was critical of Jerome's activity among ascetic women at Rome. Ambrosiaster shows a deep interest in Judaism and often notes that Christian practices derive from Jewish tradition.\n", "\n", "\n===Texts===\n* Heinrich Joseph Vogels, Vinzenz Bulhart, and Rudolf Hanslik. 1966. ''Ambrosiastri qui dicitur Commentarius in Epistulas Paulinas.'' Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum vol. 81, pt. 1-3. Vindobonae: Hoelder-Pichler-Tempsky.\n* Alexander Souter, ed., Pseudo-Augustini Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti CXXVII. CSEL 50 (Vienna: F. Tempsky; Leipzig: J. Freytag, 1908).\n* Isaac Judaeus, ''Isacis Judaei Quae supersunt'', ed. A. Hoste, CCL 9 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1957), pp. 331–48. These brief works of Isaac the Jew are highly dissimilar to the Pauline Commentaries and Quaestiones of Ambrosiaster in both style and content.\n* also see links below\n\n===Studies===\n* Bussières, Marie-Pierre. “L’esprit de Dieu et l’Esprit Saint dans les ‘Questions sur l'Ancien et le Nouveau Testament’ de l'Ambrosiaster.” In: REAug 56 (2010) 25–44.\n* Bussières, Marie-Pierre. “Les quaestiones 114 et 115 de l’Ambrosiaster ont–elles été influences par l’apologétique de Tertullian?” REAug 48 (2002): 101–130.\n* Bussières, Marie-Pierre. “L’influence du synode tenu à Rome en 382 sur l’exégèse de l’Ambrosiaster.” Sacris Erudiri 45 (2006): 107–124.\n* Bussières, Marie-Pierre. Ambrosiaster. Contre les Païens. Sur le destin. Texte, traduction et commentaire. Paris, Éditions du Cerfs (Sources chrétiennes 512), 2007. \n* Cain, Andrew, “In Ambriosiaster’s Shadow: A Critical Reevaluation of the Last Surviving Letter Exchange between Pope Damasus and Jerome.” REAug 51 (2005): 257–277.\n* Cooper, Stephen and David G. Hunter, “Ambrosiaster redactor sui: The Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles (Excluding Romans).” 'RÉAug'56 (2010): 69–91.\n* De Bruyn, Theodore S. “Ambrosiaster's interpretations of Romans 1:26-27.” VChr 65 (2011) 463–483.\n* De Bruyn, Theodore S.“Ambrosiaster's revisions of his ‘Commentary on Romans’ and Roman synodal statements about the Holy Spirit.” REAug 56 (2010) 45–68.\n* Hoven, René, “Notes sur Érasme et les auteurs anciens,” in L’antiquité classique 38 (1969): 172-74. \n* Hunter, David, \"The Significance of Ambrosiaster,\" Journal of Early Christian Studies 17:1, 1–26 © 2009\n* Lunn-Rockliffe, Sophie, Ambrosiaster’s Political Theology. Oxford, 2007.\n* Moreschini, Claudio, and Enrico Norelli. 2005 \"Ambrosiaster,\" in ''Early Christian Greek and Latin Literature: A Literary History''. Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson Publishers. vol. 2, p. 296-98.\n* Mundle, Wilhelm. 1919. ''Die Exegese der paulinischen Briefe im Kommentar des Ambrosiaster.''\n* Queis, Dietrich Traugott von, and Augustine. 1972. ''Ambrosiaster: Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti. Quaestio 115: De fato''. Basel.\n* Souter, Alexander. 1905. ''A study of Ambrosiaster''. Cambridge Eng.: The University Press.\n* Souter, Alexander. 1927. ''The earliest Latin commentaries on the Epistles of St. Paul; a study''. Oxford: Clarendon Press.\n", "\n* The text of Ambrosiaster's ''Commentary on the Epistles of Paul,'' taken from Migne's Patrologia Latina vol 17, and attributed to Ambrose, is available here.\n* A less readable but printable PDF version of the Migne \"Commentaries\" is available from Google books.\n* A facsimile of Souter's 1908 edition of the Quaestiones is available from Google books.\n* The text of Ambrosiaster's ''Quaestiones'', taken from Migne's Patrologia Latina vol. 35 and attributed to Augustine, is available here.\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Notes", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Ambrosiaster
[ "\n\n\n'''Ambrosius Aurelianus''' (; Anglicised as '''Ambrose Aurelian''' and called '''Aurelius Ambrosius''' in the ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' and elsewhere) was a war leader of the Romano-British who won an important battle against the Anglo-Saxons in the 5th century, according to Gildas. He also appeared independently in the legends of the Britons, beginning with the 9th-century ''Historia Brittonum''. Eventually he was transformed into the uncle of King Arthur, the brother of Arthur's father Uther Pendragon, and predeceases them both.\n\nDue to Gildas' description of him, Ambrosius is one of the figures called the Last of the Romans.\n", "Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people that Gildas identifies by name in his sermon ''De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae'', and the only one named from the 5th century. ''De Excidio'' is considered the oldest extant British document about the so-called Arthurian period of Sub-Roman Britain. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as:\n\n:\"... a gentleman who, perhaps alone of the Romans, had survived the shock of this notable storm. Certainly his parents, who had worn the purple, were slain in it. His descendants in our day have become greatly inferior to their grandfather's ''avita'' excellence. Under him our people regained their strength, and challenged the victors to battle. The Lord assented, and the battle went their way. \" \n\nSome basic information on Ambrosius can be deduced from the brief passage: Ambrosius was possibly of high birth and very likely a Christian (Gildas says that he won his battles \"with God's help\"). Ambrosius' parents were slain by the Saxons and he was among the few survivors of their initial invasion.\n\nAccording to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: \"Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens meaning the Romano-British inhabitants were victorious.\"\n\n===Two Questions===\nTwo points in Gildas' description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' family \"had worn the purple\". Roman emperors and male Patricians wore clothes with a purple band to denote their class so the reference to purple may be to an aristocratic heritage. Roman military tribunes (''tribuni militum''), senior officers in Roman legions, wore a similar purple band so the reference may be to a family background of military leadership. The tradition was old as the togas and pallia of already ancient senators and tribunes were trimmed with the purple band. In the church \"the purple\" is a euphemism for blood and therefore \"wearing the purple\" may be a reference to martyrdom or a bishop's robe. In addition, in the later Roman Empire both Roman consuls and governors of consular rank also wore clothes with a purple fringe. The ''Notitia Dignitatum'', a Roman catalogue of official posts, lists four or five provincial governors in Roman Britain and two of them were of consular rank. One was the governor of Maxima Caesariensis and the other that of Valentia. The parent who wore the purple may well have been one of these governors, whose names were not recorded.\n\nIt has been suggested by historian Alex Woolf that Ambrosius may have been related to the 5th century Romano-British usurpers Marcus or Gratian – Woolf expresses a preference based on nomenclature for Marcus. Frank D. Reno, an Arthurian scholar, has instead argued that the name \"Aurelianus\" indicates the possible descent of Ambrosius from the Roman emperor Lucius Domitius Aurelianus (Aurelian, reigned 270-275). Aurelian's military campaigns included the conquest of the Gallic Empire. N. J. Higham suggests that Ambrosius may have been distantly related to imperial families of the late Roman Empire, such as the Theodosian dynasty. Branches of this particular dynasty were known to be active in western Roman provinces like Hispania.\n\nMike Ashley instead focuses on the name \"Ambrosius\". In his view, it seems to suggest connection to Saint Ambrosius, a fourth-century Bishop of Milan, who also served as consular governor in areas of Roman Italy. The father of the Bishop is sometimes claimed to be a fourth century Praetorian prefect of Gaul named Aurelius Ambrosius, whose areas included Britain, though some modern scholars doubt that Saint Ambrosius was related to this man (instead identifying his father with an official named Uranius mentioned in an extract from the Theodosian Code). Ashley suggests that Ambrosius Aurelianus was related to the two Aurelii Ambrosii. Tim Venning points out that the name \"Aurelianus\" could be the result of a Roman adoption. When a boy was adopted into a new gens (clan), he received the family names of his new family, plus an additional cognomen indicating his descent from his original gens/family. The additional cognomen often had the form \"-anus\". When Gaius Octavius from gens Octavia was adopted into the Julii Caesares family, his new name became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus. In this case, Ambrosius may have been a member of gens Aurelia who was adopted by another gens/family. His original name Aurelius became Aurelianus.\n\nThe second question is the meaning of the word ''avita'': Gildas could have meant \"ancestors\", or intended it to mean more specifically \"grandfather\" – thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of Badon. Lack of information prevents sure answers to these questions.\n\n===Gildas' Motives===\nN. J. Higham wrote a book on Gildas and the literary tropes that he used. He has suggested that Gildas may have had considerable motives for placing attention to Ambrosius. He was not attempting to write a historical biography of the man, according to Higham, but setting him as an example to his contemporaries. It was essential to the philosophy of Gildas that Briton leaders who achieved victory over the barbarians were only able to do so because of divine aid. And only those who had superior Christian virtues were deserving of this aid. Ambrosius Aurelianus was apparently known for at least one such victory over the barbarians. In order to fit him in his worldview, Gildas was almost required to feature the former warrior as a man of exceptional virtues and obedience to God. He was made to fit Gildas' version of a model leader.\n\nHigham also suggests that the Roman lineage of Ambrosius was highlighted for a reason. Gildas was apparently intentionally connecting him with the legitimate authority and military virtues of the Romans. He was also contrasting him with the subsequent Briton rulers whose reigns lacked in such legitimacy.\n\n===Identifying Historical Figures===\nGildas is a primary source for the Battle of Badon, yet he never mentions the names of the combatants. Therefore, we cannot know if Ambrosius Aurelianus or his successors took part in the battle. The names of the Saxon leaders in the battle are also not recorded.\n\nThe identities of Ambrosius' descendants are unknown, since Gildas never identifies them by name. It is safe to assume that they were Gildas' contemporaries and known to the author. Higham suggests that they were prominent figures of the time. Their lineage and identities were probably sufficiently familiar to his intended audience that they did not have to be named. The work portrays Ambrosius' descendants as inferior to their ancestor as part of his criticism on rulers of his time, according to Higham. Those criticized were likely aware that the vitriol was intended for them, but probably would not challenge a work offering such a glowing report of their illustrious ancestor.\n\nMike Ashley suggests that the descendants of Ambrosius could include other people named by Gildas. He favors the inclusion in this category of one Aurelius Caninus (\"Aurelius the little dog\" or \"Aurelius the whelp\"), whom Gildas accuses of parricide, fornication, adultery, and warmongering. His name \"Aurelius\" suggests Romano-British descent. The insulting nickname \"Caninus\" was probably invented by Gildas himself, who similarly insults other contemporary rulers. Due to the name used by Gildas, there are theories that this ruler was actually named Conan/Cynan/Kenan. Some identify him with Cynan Garwyn, a 6th-century King of Powys, though it is uncertain if he was a contemporary of Gildas or lived one or two generations following him. Another theory is that this ruler did not reign in Britain but in Brittany. Caninus, in this view, might be Conomor (\"Great Dog\"). Conomor is considered a likelier contemporary of Gildas. Conomor was likely from Domnonée, an area of Brittany controlled by British immigrants from Dumnonia. He might be remembered in British legend as Mark of Cornwall.\n\nGildas primarily features the Saxons as barbarian raiders; their invasions involved a slow and difficult process of military conquest. By AD 500, possibly the time described by Gildas, Anglo-Saxons controlled the Isle of Wight, Kent, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and coastal areas of Northumberland and Yorkshire. The rest of the former Roman Britain was still under the control of the local Britons. Gildas also mentions depopulation of cities and this probably reflects historical facts. Londinium, once a major city, was completely abandoned during the 5th century.\n", "Bede follows Gildas' account of Ambrosius in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'', but in his ''Chronica Majora'' he dates Ambrosius' victory to the reign of the Emperor Zeno (474–491).\n\nBede's treatment of the 5th century history of Great Britain is not particularly valuable as a source. Until about the year 418, Bede could choose between several historical sources and often followed the writings of Orosius. Following the end of Orosius' history, Bede apparently lacked other available sources and relied extensively on Gildas. Entries from this period tend to be close paraphrases of Gildas' account with mostly stylistic changes. Bede's account of Ambrosius Aurelianus has been translated as following:\n\n:\"When the army of the enemy had exterminated or scattered the native peoples, they returned home and the Britons slowly began to recover strength and courage. They emerged from their hiding-places and with one accord they prayed for the help of God that they might not be completely annihilated. Their leader at that time was a certain Ambrosius Aurelianus, a discreet man, who was, as it happened, the sole member of the Roman race who had survived this storm in which his parents, who bore a royal and famous name, had perished. Under his leadership the Britons regained their strength, challenged their victors to battle, and, with God's help, won the day.\" \n\nBede does not mention the descendants of Ambrosius Aurelianus, nor their supposed degeneracy.\n", "The ''Historia Brittonum'', attributed to Nennius, preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. Despite the traditional attribution, the authorship of the work and the period of its writing are open questions for modern historians. There are several extant manuscript versions of the work, varying in details. The most important ones have been dated to between the 9th and the 11th century. Some modern scholars think it unlikely that the work was composed by a single writer or compiler, suggesting that it may have taken centuries to reach its final form, though this theory is not conclusive.\n\nIn Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius. This is the first mention of Ambrosius in the work. According to Frank D. Reno, this would indicate that Ambrosius' influence was formidable, since Vortigern considered him more of a threat than northern invaders and attempts to restore Roman rule in Britain. The chapter relates events following the end of Roman rule in Britain and preceding Vortigern's alliance with the Saxons.\n\nThe most significant appearance of Ambrosius is the story about Ambrosius, Vortigern, and the two dragons beneath Dinas Emrys, \"Fortress of Ambrosius\" in Chapters 40–42. In this account, Ambrosius is still an adolescent but has supernatural powers. He intimidates Vortigern and the royal magicians. When it is revealed that Ambrosius is the son of a Roman consul, Vortigern is convinced to cede to the younger man the castle of Dinas Emrys and all the kingdoms in the western part of Britain. Vortigern then retreats to the north, in an area called Gwynessi. This story was later retold with more detail by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his fictionalized ''Historia Regum Britanniae'', conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of Myrddin the visionary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native Celtic inhabitants of Britain over the Saxons and the Normans. Geoffrey also introduces him into the ''Historia'' under the name Aurelius Ambrosius as one of three sons of Constantine III, along with Constans II and Uther Pendragon.\n\nIn Chapter 48, Ambrosius Aurelianus is described as \"king among all the kings of the British nation\". The chapter records that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the regions of Buellt and Gwrtheyrnion by Ambrosius. Finally, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a Battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, ESE of Amesbury near Salisbury), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus. The author dates this battle as taking place 12 years from the reign of Vortigern.\n\nIt is not clear how these various traditions about Ambrosius relate to each other, or whether they come from the same tradition; it is very possible that these references are to different men with the same name. Frank D. Reno points out that the works call all these men \"Ambrosius\"/\"Emrys\". The cognomen \"Aurelianus\" is never used. The ''Historia Brittonum'' dates the battle of Guoloph to \"the twelfth year of Vortigern\", by which the year 437 seems to be meant. This is perhaps a generation before the battle that Gildas says was commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus.\n\nThe text never identifies who Ambrosius's father is, just gives his title as a Roman consul. When an adolescent Ambrosius speaks of his father, there is no suggestion that this father is deceased. The boy is not identified as an orphan. The exact age of Ambrosius is not given in his one encounter with Vortigern. Frank D. Reno suggests that he might be as young as 13 years old, barely a teenager.\n\nIt is impossible to know to what degree Ambrosius actually wielded political power, and over what area. Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown as being in conflict in the ''Historia Brittonum'', and some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius and the other by Vortigern. J. N. L. Myres built upon this suspicion and speculated that belief in Pelagianism reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Subsequent historians accepted Myers' speculation as fact, creating a narrative of events in 5th century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of the conflict between these two figures is that the ''Historia Brittonum'' is preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in Powys. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the ''Historia Brittonum'', which include his alleged practice of incest.\n\nThe identity is somewhat obscure of Ambrosius' last mentioned enemy Vitalinus. Various manuscripts of the ''Historia'' and translations render his name \"Guitolin\", \"Guitolini\", \"Guitholini\", and \"Vitalinus\". He is mentioned in chapter 49 as one of four sons of Gloiu and co-founder of the city of Gloucester. No other background information is given. There are theories that Gloiu is also the father of Vortigern, but the genealogy is obscure and no supporting primary text can be found. There have been further attempts to identify Vitalinus with a pro-Vortigern or anti-Roman faction in Britain, opposed to the rise of the Romano-British Ambrosius. However, this is rendered problematic since Vitalinus seems to also have a Romano-British name. The traditional view of pro-Roman and pro-Briton factions active in this period might oversimplify a more complex situation.\n", "\nAmbrosius appears briefly in the ''Gesta Regum Anglorum'' (\"Deeds of the Kings of the English\") by William of Malmesbury. Despite its name, the work attempted to reconstruct British history in general by drawing together the varying accounts of Gildas, Bede, Nennius, and various chroniclers. The work features Ambrosius as the apparent employer of Arthur. The relative passage has been translated as following:\n\n:\"On the death of Vortimer, the strength of the Britons grew faint, their diminished hopes went backwards; and straight-way they would have come to ruin, had not Ambrosius, the sole survivor of the Romans, who was monarch of the realm after Vortigern, repressed the overweening barbarians through the distinguished achievements of the warlike Arthur.\" \n\nWilliam swiftly shifts attention from Ambrosius to Arthur, and proceeds to narrate Arthur's supposed victory in the Battle of Badon. The narrative is probably the first to connect Ambrosius and Arthur. William had to reconcile the accounts of Gildas and Bede who implied that Ambrosius was connected to the battle, and that of Nennius which clearly stated that it was Arthur who was connected to the battle. He solved the apparent discrepancy by connecting both of them to it. Ambrosius as the king of the Britons and Arthur as his most prominent general and true victor of the battle.\n", "\nAmbrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' with the slightly garbled name ''Aurelius Ambrosius'', now presented as son of a King Constantine. King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, and the two remaining sons (Ambrosius and Uther, still very young) are quickly hustled into exile in Brittany. (This does not fit with Gildas' account, in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, the two brothers return from exile with a large army when Vortigern's power has faded. They destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. They go on to defeat the Saxon leader Hengist in two battles at Maisbeli (probably Ballifield, near Sheffield) and Cunengeburg. Hengist is executed and Ambrosius becomes king of Britain. However, he is poisoned by his enemies, and Uther succeeds him. The text identifies the poisoner as Eopa.\n\nJudgements tend to vary wildly of the value of Geoffrey as both a historian and a literary storyteller. He has been praised for giving us detailed information about an otherwise obscure period and possibly preserving information from lost sources, and condemned for an excessive use of artistic license and possibly inventing stories wholecloth. \n According to Frank D. Reno, whenever Geoffrey uses extant sources, the details in the text tend to be accurate. Assuming that he was also using sources lost to us, it may be difficult to decide which details are truthful and which fraudulent. Reno suggests that \"individual judgements\" have to be made about various elements of his narrative.\n\nGeoffrey changed the word \"Aurelianus\" to \"Aurelius\", which is the name of a Roman gens. Geoffrey retains the story of Emrys and the dragons from Nennius, but identifies the figure with Merlin. Merlin is Geoffrey's version of a historical figure known as Myrddin Wyllt. Myrddin is only mentioned once in the ''Annales Cambriae'', at an entry dated to 573. The name of Merlin is given in Latin as Ambrosius Merlinus. \"Merlinus\" may have been intended as the agnomen of a Roman or Romano-British individual like Ambrosius.\n\nElements of Ambrosius Aurelianus, the traditional warrior king, are used by Geoffrey for other characters. Ambrosius' supposed supernatural powers are passed to Merlin. Geoffrey's Aurelius Ambrosius rises to the throne but dies early, passing the throne to a previously unknown brother called Uther Pendragon. The role of warrior king is shared by Uther and his son Arthur.\n\nGeoffrey also uses the character Gloiu, father of Vitalinus/Vitolinus, derived from Nennius. He names this character as a son of Claudius and appointed by his father as Duke of the Welsh. His predecessor as Duke is called Arvirargus. Assuming that Claudius and Arvirargus are supposed to be contemporaries, then this Claudius is the Roman emperor Claudius I (reigned 41–54). It seems unlikely that Claudius would have living grandsons in the 5th century, four centuries following his death. Reno suggests that Claudius II (reigned 268–270) would be a more likely \"Claudius\" to have living descendants in the 5th century.\n\nGeoffrey for the first time gives a genealogy of Ambrosius. He is supposedly a paternal nephew of Aldroenus, King of Brittany, son of Constantine and an unnamed Briton noblewoman, adoptive grandson (on his mother's side) of Guthelinus/Vitalinus, Bishop of London, younger brother of Constans and older brother of Uther Pendragon. Ambrosius and Uther are supposedly raised by their adoptive maternal grandfather Guthelinus/Vitalinus. It is not explicitly covered in Geoffrey's narrative, but this genealogy makes Constantine and his children descendants of Conan Meriadoc, legendary founder of the line of Kings of Brittany. Conan is also featured in the ''Historia Regum Britanniae'', where he is appointed king by Roman emperor Magnus Maximus (reigned 383-388).\n\nConstantine's reign is placed by Geoffrey as following the Groans of the Britons mentioned by Gildas. Constantine is reported killed by a Pict and his reign is followed by a brief succession crisis. Candidates for the throne included all three sons of Constantine, but there were problems for their eventual rise to the throne. Constans was a monk, and Ambrosius and Uther were underage and still in their cradle. The crisis is resolved when Vortigern places Constans on the throne, and then serves as his chief adviser and power behind the throne. When Constans is killed by the Picts serving as bodyguards of Vortigern, Vortigern feigns anguish and has the killers executed. Ambrosius is still underage and Vortigern rises to the throne.\n\nThe chronology offered by Geoffrey for the early life of Ambrosius contradicts Gildas and Nennius, and is also internally inconsistent. The Groans of the Britons involves an appeal by the Britons to Roman consul \"Agitius\". This person has been identified with Flavius Aetius (d. 454), magister militum (\"master of soldiers\") of the Western Roman Empire and consul of the year 446. The Groans are generally dated to the 440s and 450s, preceding the death of Aetius. If Geoffrey's Constantine rose to the throne immediately following the Groans, this would place his reign in this period. Geoffrey gives a 10-year-reign for Constantine and his marriage lasts just as long. However the eldest son Constans is clearly older than 10-years-old by the time his father dies. He is already an adult candidate of the throne and has had time to follow a monastic career. Even assuming there is a time gap between the death of Constantine and the adulthood of Constans, his younger brothers \nhave not aged at all in the narrative.\nGeoffrey's narrative has an underage Ambrosius, if not a literal infant, in the 460s. Accounts deriving from Gildas and Nennius place Ambrosius in the prime of his life in the same decade. Most telling is that Geoffrey has Vortigern rising to the throne in the 460s. Nennius places the rise of Vortigern in the year 425, and Vortigern is entirely absent in chronologies of the 460s. Suggesting that he was deceased by that time.\n\nGeoffrey's narrative includes as a major character Hengist, as leader of the Saxons. He is also featured as the father of Queen Rowena and father-in-law of Vortigern. Other Saxon characters in the narrative tend to receive less attention by the writer, but their names tend to correspond to Anglo-Saxons known from other sources. Henginst's supposed son Octa is apparently Octa of Kent, a 6th-century ruler variously connected to Hengist as a son or descendant. The other son, Ebissa, is more difficult to identify. He might correspond to kinsmen of Hengist variously identified as \"Ossa\", \"Oisc\", and \"Aesc\". A minor Saxon character called \"Cherdic\" is probably Cerdic of Wessex, though elsewhere Geoffrey calls the same king \"Cheldric\". He actually may appear under three different names in the narrative, since Geoffrey elsewhere calls the interpreter of Hengist \"Ceretic\", a variant of the same name.\n\nGeoffrey, in the last chapters featuring Vortigern, has the king served by magicians. This detail derives from Nennius, though Nennius was talking about Vortigern's \"wise men\". They may not have been magic users but advisers. Vortigern's encounter with Emrys/Merlin takes place in this part of the narrative. Merlin warns Vortigern that Ambrosius and Uther have already sailed for Britain and are soon to arrive, apparently to claim his throne. Ambrosius soon arrives at the head of the army and is crowned king. He besieges Vortigern at the castle of \"Genoreu\", which is identified with Nennius' ''Cair Guorthigirn'' (\"Fort Vortigern\") and the hillfort at Little Doward. Ambrosius burns the castle down and Vortigern dies with it.\n\nHaving killed Vortigern, Ambrosius next turns his attention to Hengist. Despite the fact that no earlier military actions of Ambrosius are recorded, the Saxons have already heard of his bravery and battle prowess. They immediately retreat beyond the Humber. Hengist soon amasses a massive army to face Ambrosius. His army counts 200,000 men and Ambrosius' only 10,000 men. He marches south and the first battle between the two armies takes place in Maisbeli, where Ambrosius emerges the victor. It is unclear what location Geoffrey had in mind. Maisbeli translates to \"the field of Beli\", and could be related to the Beli Mawr of Welsh legend and/or the Celtic god Belenus. Alternatively it could be a field where the Beltane festival was celebrated. Geoffrey could derive the name from a similar-sounding toponym. For example, Meicen of the Hen Ogledd (\"Old North\"), traditionally identified with Hatfield.\n\nFollowing his defeat, Hengist retreats towards Cunungeburg. Geoffrey probably had in mind Conisbrough, not far from Hatfield. Ambrosius leads his army against the new position of the Saxons. The second battle is more evenly fought, and Hengist has a chance to achieve victory. However, Ambrosius receives reinforcements from Brittany and the tide of the battle turns in favor of the Britons. Hengist himself is captured by his old enemy Eldol, Consul of Gloucester and decapitated. Soon after the battle, the surviving Saxon leaders Octa and Eosa submit themselves to Ambrosius' rule. He pardons them and grants them an area near Scotland. The area is not named, but Geoffrey could be basing this on Bernicia, a real Ango-Saxon kingdom covering areas in the modern borders of Scotland and England.\n\nGeoffrey closely connects the deaths of Vortigern and Hengist, which are elsewhere poorly recorded. Vortigern historically died in the 450s, and various dates for the death of Hengist have been proposed, between the 450s and the 480s. Octa of Kent, the supposed son and heir of Hengist, was still alive in the 6th century and seems to belong to a later historical era than his father. The ruling family of the Kingdom of Kent were called the Oiscingas, a term identifying them as descendants of Oisc of Kent, not of Hengist. In effect, none of them was likely a literal son of Hengist and their relation to Hengist may have been a later invention. Geoffrey did not invent the connection, but his sources here were likely legendary in nature.\n\nFollowing his victories and the end of the wars, Ambrosius organizes the burial of killed nobles at Kaercaradduc. Geoffrey identifies this otherwise unknown location with Caer-Caradog (Salisbury). Ambrosius wants a permanent memorial for the slain and assigns the task to Merlin. The result is the so-called Giants' Ring. Its location in the vicinity of Salisbury has led to its identification with Stonehenge, though Geoffrey never uses that term. Stonehenge is closer to Amesbury than Salisbury. The ring formation of the monument could equally apply to Avebury, the largest stone circle in Europe.\n", "\nIn Welsh legend and texts, Ambrosius appears as ''Emrys Wledig'' (Emperor Ambrose). The term \"Wledig\" is a title used by senior royal and military commanders who have achieved notable success. The term is mostly used for famous figures such as Cunedda, though a few obscure figures have been given the title.\n\nIn Robert de Boron's ''Merlin'' he is called simply ''Pendragon'' and his younger brother is named ''Uter'', which he changes to ''Uterpendragon'' after the death of the elder sibling. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from Wace's ''Roman de Brut''. Wace usually only refers to ''li roi'' (\"the king\") without naming him, and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet ''Pendragon'' as the name of his brother.\n", "\n===Arthur===\n\nPeter Korrel supports the view that Ambrosius Aurelianus and King Arthur might be the same person, a theory also supported by others debating the historicity of King Arthur. He points that all accounts about Ambrosius can be traced back to Gildas and all accounts about Arthur can be traced back to Nennius, with the two figures being very similar.\n\nBoth figures have been connected to the Battle of Badon and have been portrayed as its sole hero. Their identity as kings is a later addition; they are originally depicted as leaders of the Britons in their wars with the Saxons. The Latin term dux bellorum can be applied to both of them. Both figures are of Roman descent. With Ambrosius, this is featured in both his name and stated background. With Arthur, this is implied, since the name seems to be derived from Artorius, the name of a minor Roman gens.\n\nBoth figures are known for their valour. Ambrosius is featured as the one who manages to re-assemble the desperate Britons, encourage them to fight once again, and make a stand against the seemingly superior enemy. This would require personal courage. Arthur is reported to have single-handedly faced numerically superior enemies. Both figures are devout Christians whose victories are attributed to divine protection. In both cases, the Battle of Badon seems to be the final victory of a long war. Bedas states that Ambrosius started the war against the Saxons and both factions had victories and losses until the war concluded in the Battle of Badon. In Arthurian narratives, Arthur is said to have led the Britons in 12 victories, with the Battle of Badon being the last of them.\n\nKorrel admits that there is a significant difference. Ambrosius both won and lost battles, while Arthur reportedly never lost a battle. But this is probably the difference between a historical figure and one featured in epics.\n\n===Riothamus===\nLéon Fleuriot has suggested Ambrosius is identical to Riothamus, a Brythonic leader who fought a major battle against the Goths in France around the year 470. Fleuriot argues that Ambrosius led the Britons in the battle, in which he was defeated and forced to retreat to Burgundy. He then returned to Britain to continue the war against the Saxons.\n\n===Vortimer===\nFrank D. Reno suggests a connection or identification of Ambrosius with Vortimer. This enigmatic character appears historically only in ''Historia Brittonum'' of Nennius. He is not mentioned at all by Gildas, Bede, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', and the ''Annales Cambriae''. Vortimer does appear in ''Historia Regum Britanniae'' by Geoffrey of Monmouth, but in a manner suggesting that Geoffrey used Nennius as a source.\n\nThe ''Historia Brittonum'' features detailed information about Vortimer as a warrior king. Robert Huntingdon Fletcher was the first to note the similarities between Gilas' Ambrosius and Nennius' Vortimer. He suggested that Vortimer practically replaces Ambrosius in Nennius' account. Ambrosius is also featured by Nennius as a powerful leader, but he receives only a few minor notices in the text. Fletcher theorized that Gildas' text represented a Roman faction in Britain, while Nennius drew from an oral and literary legend tradition of a Briton faction.\n\nThe difference in names between the two figures may be deceptive. Vortimer might be not a proper name but an epithet or a title. Etymologically the name of \"Vortigern\", Vortimer's father, seems to derive from \"vor\" (over) and a term for \"chieftain\" or \"king\". The meaning would be \"overking\". Similarly \"Vortimer\" may derive from the older Celtic \"Vortamorix\". In this case \"vor\" means \"over\", \"tamo\" is a superlative suffix, and rix means \"king\". \"Rix\" is a cognate to Latin \"rex\" which has the same meaning. The meaning of \"Vortimer\" would be \"over-most king\" or \"highest king\", a synonym for \"high king\".\n\nReno agrees with his predecessor scholars that Vortimer is an epithet or title of a king mentioned by other names. He rejects, however, a proposed identification of Vortigern and Vortimer. He points that Vortigern is last mentioned in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' c. 455 as fighting against his former ally Hengist. The outcome is not mentioned but the Saxon campaigns then continue for decades. Reno views Vortigern as a probable early casualty in the war. He suggests that Vortimer was an epithet of the succeeding king, Ambrosius Aurelianus.\n", "It has been suggested that the place-name Amesbury in Wiltshire might preserve the name of Ambrosius, and that perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century. Scholars such as Shimon Applebaum have found a number of place names through the Midland dialect regions of Britain that incorporate the ''ambre-'' element; examples include Ombersley in Worcestershire, Ambrosden in Oxfordshire, Amberley in Herefordshire, Amberley in Gloucestershire, and Amberley in West Sussex. These scholars have claimed that this element represents an Old English word ''amor'', the name of a woodland bird. However, Amesbury in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names. It may be tempting to connect Ambrosius with Amesbury if this etymology is combined with the tradition reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth, stating that Ambrosius Aurelianus ordered the building of Stonehenge – which is located within the parish of Amesbury (and where Ambrosius was supposedly buried) – and with the presence of an Iron Age hill fort also in that parish.\n", "The novel ''Coalescent'' by Stephen Baxter depicts Aurelianus as a general to Artorius, Briton and basis for the legend of King Arthur. In Baxter's novel, Aurelianus is a minor character who interacts with the book's main Roman-era protagonist, Regina, founder of an (literally) underground matriarchal society. In the text, he is credited with winning the battle of Mount Badon.\n\nIn Marion Zimmer Bradley's ''The Mists of Avalon'', Aurelianus is depicted as the aging High King of Britain, a \"too-ambitious\" son of a Western Roman Emperor. His sister's son is Uther Pendragon, but Uther is described as not having any Roman blood. Aurelianus is unable to gather the leadership of the native Celts, who refuse to follow any but their own race.\n\nIn Alfred Duggan's ''Conscience of the King'', a historical novel about Cerdic, founder of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, Ambrosius Aurelianus is a Romano-British general who rose independently to military power, forming alliances with various British kings and setting out to drive the invading Saxons from Britain. Cerdic, who is of both Germanic and British descent and raised as a Roman citizen, served in his army as a young man. In the novel Ambrosius is a separate character from Arthur, or Artorius, who appears much later as a foe of Cerdic.\n\nIn Stephen R. Lawhead's ''Pendragon Cycle'', Aurelianus (most often referred to as \"Aurelius\") figures prominently, along with his brother Uther, in the second book of the series, ''Merlin''. He is poisoned soon after becoming High King of Britain, and Uther succeeds him. Lawhead alters the standard Arthurian story somewhat, in that he has Aurelius marry Igraine and become the true father of King Arthur (Uther does marry his brother's widow, though).\n\nIn Valerio Massimo Manfredi's ''The Last Legion'', Aurelianus (here called \"Aurelianus Ambrosius Ventidius\") is a major character and is shown as one of the last loyal Romans, going to enormous lengths for his boy emperor Romulus Augustus, whose power has been wrested by the barbarian Odoacer. In this story, Romulus Augustus marries Igraine, and King Arthur is their son, and the sword of Julius Caesar becomes the legendary Excalibur in Britain. In the 2007 film version of the novel, he is played by Colin Firth and his name becomes \"Aurelianus Caius Antonius\". In both he is called \"Aurelius\" for short.\n\nMary Stewart's ''The Crystal Cave'' follows Geoffrey of Monmouth in calling him Aurelius Ambrosius and portrays him as the father of Merlin, the elder brother of Uther (hence uncle of Arthur), an initiate of Mithras, and generally admired by everyone except the Saxons. Much of the book is set at his court in Brittany or during the campaign to retake his throne from Vortigern. Later books in the series show that Merlin's attitude toward Arthur is influenced by his belief that Arthur is a reincarnation of Ambrosius, who is seen through Merlin's eyes as a model of good kingship.\n\nIn Rosemary Sutcliff's ''The Lantern Bearers'' Prince Ambrosius Aurelianus of Arfon drives out the Saxons by training his British army with Roman techniques and making effective use of cavalry. By the end of the novel, the elite cavalry wing is led by a dashing young warrior prince named Artos, whom Sutcliff postulates to be the real Arthur.\n\nIn Parke Godwin's ''Firelord'', Ambrosius is the elderly tribune of the diminished, dispirited and politically fractured Legio VI Victrix garrisoning Hadrian's Wall. Near his death, he names Artorius Pendragon (Arthur) as his successor, encourages him to convert the legion to alae (heavy cavalry) and allows the legionnaires to renounce their loyalty to Rome and take personal oaths of fealty to Artorius in order to help unify Brittania politically and to create a military force with the ability to quickly redeploy to meet differing threats.\n\nIn Jack Whyte's ''Camulod Chronicles'', Ambrosius Aurelianus is the half-brother of Caius Merlyn Britannicus (Merlin) and helps him lead the people of Camulod (Camelot).\n\nIn ''Stargate SG-1'', Ambrosius and Arthur are one and the same. Merlin was an Ancient, fleeing from Atlantis and later Ascends, then comes back in order build the Sangraal, or Holy Grail, to defeat the Ori. Daniel Jackson also comments that it would mean that Ambrosius was 74 at the Battle of Mount Badon.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "According to Gildas", "According to Bede", "According to Nennius", "According to William of Malmesbury", "According to Geoffrey of Monmouth", "In other texts", "Possible identification with other figures", "Place-name evidence", "Modern fictional treatments", "Notes", "Sources", "References" ]	Ambrosius Aurelianus
[ "\n\n\nAn Ammonite watch tower at Rujm Al-Malfouf in Amman\nQasr Al Adb was built by the governor of Ammon in 200 BC\nDavid punishing the Ammonites, by Gustave Doré\n\n'''Ammon''' (; ) was an Iron Age Semitic-speaking nation occupying the east of the Jordan River, between the torrent valleys of Arnon and Jabbok, in present-day Jordan. The chief city of the country was ''Rabbah'' or ''Rabbath Ammon'', site of the modern city of Amman, Jordan's capital. Milcom and Molech (who may be one and the same) are named in the Hebrew Bible as the gods of Ammon. The people of this kingdom are called \"'''Children of Ammon'''\" or \"'''Ammonites'''\".\n", "\n\nThe Ammonites occupied the northern Central Trans-Jordanian Plateau from the latter part of the second millennium B.C. to the middle of the first millennium B.C.\n\nAmmon maintained its independence from the Assyrian empire through tribute to the Assyrian king, at a time when nearby kingdoms were being raided or conquered. Inscriptions describe the Ammonite king Baasha ben Ruhubi's army fighting alongside Ahab of Israel and Syrian allies against Shalmaneser III at the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC, possibly as vassals of Hadadezer, the Aramaean king of Damascus. In 734 BC the Ammonite king Sanipu was a vassal of Tiglath-Pileser III, and Sanipu's successor Pudu-ilu held the same position under Sennacherib and Esarhaddon. An Assyrian tribute-list exists from this period, showing that Ammon paid one-fifth as much tribute as Judah did.\n\nSomewhat later, the Ammonite king Amminadab I was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the great Arabian campaign of Assurbanipal. Other kings attested to in contemporary sources are Barachel (attested to in several contemporary seals) and Hissalel, the latter of whom reigned about 620 BCE. Hissalel is mentioned in an inscription on a bottle found at Tel Siran, Jordan along with his son, King Amminadab II, who reigned around 600 BCE.\n\nArchaeology and history indicate that Ammon flourished during the Neo-Babylonian Empire period. This contradicts the view, dominant for decades, that Transjordan was either destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II, or suffered a rapid decline following Judah's destruction by that king. Newer evidence suggests that Ammon enjoyed continuity from the Neo-Babylonian to the Persian period.\n\nLittle mention is made of the Ammonites through the Persian and early Hellenistic periods. Their name appears, however, during the time of the Maccabees. The Ammonites, with some of the neighboring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival of the Jewish power under Judas Maccabaeus. The Hasmonean dynast Hyrcanus founded Qasr Al Abd, and was a descendant of the Seleucid Tobiad dynasty of Tobiah, who is mentioned by Nehemiah as an Ammonite (ii. 19) from the east-Jordanian district.\n\nThe last notice of the Ammonites is in Justin Martyr's ''Dialogue with Trypho'' (§ 119), in the second century, where it is affirmed that they were still a numerous people.\n", "The first mention of the Ammonites in the Bible is in . It is stated there that they descended from Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot through incest with his younger daughter. Bén'ámmî, literally means \"''son of my people''\". After the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, the daughters of Lot had sexual relations with their father, resulting in Ammon and his half brother, Moab, being conceived and born. This narrative has traditionally been considered literal fact, but is now generally interpreted as recording a gross popular irony by which the Israelites expressed their loathing of the Moabites and Ammonites, although it is doubtful that the Israelites would have directed such irony to Lot himself.\n\nThe Ammonites settled to the east of the Jordan, invading the Rephaim lands east of Jordan, between the Jabbok and Arnon, dispossessing them and dwelling in their place. Their territory originally comprising all from the Jordan to the wilderness, and from the River Jabbok south to the River Arnon. It was accounted a land of giants; and that giants formerly dwelt in it, whom the Ammonites called \"Zomzommims\".\n\nShortly before the Israelite Exodus, the Amorites west of Jordan, under King Sihon, invaded and occupied a large portion of the territory of Moab and Ammon. The Ammonites were driven from the rich lands near the Jordan and retreated to the mountains and valleys to the east. The invasion of the Amorites created a wedge and separated the two kingdoms of Ammon and Moab.\n\nThroughout the Bible, the Ammonites and Israelites are portrayed as mutual antagonists. During the Exodus, the Israelites were prohibited by the Ammonites from passing through their lands. The Ammonites soon allied themselves with Eglon of Moab in attacking Israel.\n\nThe Ammonites maintained their claim to part of Transjordan, after it was occupied by the Israelites who obtained it from Sihon. During the days of Jephthah, the Ammonites occupied the lands east of the River Jordan and started to invade Israelite lands west of the river. Jephthah became the leader in resisting these incursions.\n\nThe constant harassment of the Israelite communities east of the Jordan by the Ammonites was the impetus behind the unification of the tribes under Saul. King Nahash of Ammon (990 BC) lay siege to Jabesh-Gilead. Eventually this led to an alliance with Saul and The Israelites, led by Saul relieved the siege and defeated the Ammonite king, eventually resulting in the formation of the Israelite Kingdom.\n\nDuring the reign of King David, the Ammonites humiliated David's messengers, and hired the Aramean armies to attack Israel. This eventually ended in a war and a year-long siege of Rabbah, the capital of Ammon. The war ended with all the Ammonite cities being conquered and plundered, and the inhabitants being killed or put to forced labor at David's command.\n\nWhen the Arameans of Damascus city-state deprived the Kingdom of Israel of their possessions east of the Jordan, the Ammonites became allies of Ben-hadad, and a contingent of 1,000 of them served as allies of Syria in the great battle of the Arameans and Assyrians at Qarqar in 854 BC in the reign of Shalmaneser III.\n\nThe Ammonites, Moabites and Meunim formed a coalition against Jehoshaphat of Judah. The coalition later was thrown to confusion, with the armies slaughtering one another. They were subdued and paid tribute to Jotham.\n\nAfter submitting to Tiglath-pileser they were generally tributary to Assyria, but have joined in the general uprising that took place under Sennacherib; but they submitted and they became tributary in the reign of Esar-haddon. Their hostility to Judah is shown in their joining the Chaldeans to destroy it ( 2 Kings 24:2). Their cruelty is denounced by the prophet Amos\n( Amos 1:13), and their destruction (with their return in the future) by Jeremiah ( Jeremiah 49:1– 6); Ezekiel ( Ezekiel 21:28– 32); and Zechariah ( Zechariah 2:8, 9). Their murder of Gedaliah ( 2 Kings 25:22– 26; Jeremiah 40:14) was a dastardly act. They may have regained their old territory when Tiglath-pileser carried off the Israelites East of the Jordan into captivity ( 2 Kings 15:29; 1 Chronicles 5:26).\n\nTobiah the Ammonite united with Sanballat to oppose Nehemiah ( Nehemiah 4), and their opposition to the Jews did not cease with the establishment of the latter in Judea.\n\nThey also joined the Syrians in their wars with the Maccabees and were defeated by Judas.\n\nAccording to both and , Naamah was an Ammonite. She was the only wife of King Solomon to be mentioned by name in the Tanakh as having borne a child. She was the mother of Solomon's successor, Rehoboam.\n\nThe Ammonites presented a serious problem to the Pharisees because many marriages between Israelite men and Ammonite (and Moabite) women had taken place in the days of Nehemiah. The men had married women of the various nations without conversion, which made the children not Jewish. The legitimacy of David's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite.\n", "\nThe few Ammonite names that have been preserved also include Nahash and Hanun, both from the Bible. The Ammonites' language is believed to be in the Canaanite family, closely related to Hebrew and Moabite. Ammonite may have incorporated certain Aramaic influences, including the use of ''‘bd'', instead of commoner Biblical Hebrew ''‘śh'', for \"work\". The only other notable difference with Biblical Hebrew is the sporadic retention of feminine singular ''-t'' (e.g., ''’šħt'' \"cistern\", but ''‘lyh'' \"high (fem.)\".)\n", "The economy, for the most part, was based on agriculture and herding. Most people lived in small villages surrounded by farms and pastures. Like its sister-kingdom of Moab, Ammon was the source of numerous natural resources, including sandstone and limestone. It had a productive agricultural sector and occupied a vital place along the King's Highway, the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with Mesopotamia, Syria, and Asia Minor. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave them considerable revenue. Circa 950 BCE Ammon showed rising prosperity, due to agriculture and trade, and built a series of fortresses. Its capital was located in what is now the Citadel of Amman.\n", "\n===Inscription===\nIn 1972, during the excavations of a site called Tell Siran in north-west Amman, an inscription on a bronze bottle of about 10 cm tall was found. Scientific investigation has showed that the inscription dates back to 600 BC, and later concluded that it was a lyric poem written in Ammonite language. The poem talks about a drinking song, roughly translated to:\nGate of Ammon in Amman Citadel \n\n", "\n* List of rulers of Ammon\n* Abel-cheramim\n* Ammon as a name used in the Book of Mormon\n Ammon (Book of Mormon explorer)\n Ammon (Book of Mormon missionary)\n", "\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n\n* \n* \n", "* Hertz J.H. (1936) ''The Pentateuch and Haftoras''. \"Deuteronomy.\" Oxford University Press, London.\n* Ammon on Bruce Gordon's Regnal Chronologies (also at )\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Biblical narrative", "Language", "Economy", "Archaeology", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ammon
[ "'''Ammonius Hermiae''' (; ; AD) was a Greek philosopher, and the son of the Neoplatonist philosophers Hermias and Aedesia. He was a pupil of Proclus in Athens, and taught at Alexandria for most of his life, writing commentaries on Plato, Aristotle, and other philosophers.\n", "Ammonius' father, Hermias, died when he was a child, and his mother, Aedesia, raised him and his brother, Heliodorus, in Alexandria. When they reached adulthood, Aedesia accompanied her sons to Athens where they studied under Proclus. Eventually, they returned to Alexandria, where Ammonius, as head of the Neoplatonist school in Alexandria, lectured on Plato and Aristotle for the rest of his life. According to Damascius, during the persecution of the pagans at Alexandria in the late 480's, Ammonius made concessions to the Christian authorities so that he could continue his lectures. Damascius, who scolds Ammonius for the agreement that he made, does not say what the concessions were, but it may have involved limitations on the doctrines he could teach or promote. He was still teaching in 515; Olympiodorus heard him lecture on Plato's ''Gorgias'' in that year. He also taught Asclepius of Tralles, John Philoponus, Damascius and Simplicius.\nHe was also an accomplished astronomer; he lectured on Ptolemy and is known to have written a treatise on the astrolabe.\n", "First page of the first edition of the ''Isagoge'' commentary, Venice 1500\nOf his reputedly numerous writings, only his commentary on Aristotle's ''De Interpretatione'' survives intact. A commentary on Porphyry's ''Isagoge'' may also be his, but it is somewhat corrupt and contains later interpolations.\n\nIn ''De Interpretatione,'' Ammonius contends that divine foreknowledge makes void the contingent. Like\nBoëthius in his second ''Commentary'' and ''The Consolation of Philosophy,'' this argument maintains the effectiveness of prayer. Ammonius cites Iamblichus who said \"knowledge is intermediate between the knower and the known, since it is the activity of the knower concerning the known.\"\n\nIn addition, there are some notes of Ammonius' lectures written by various students which also survive:\n\nOn Aristotle's ''Categories'' (anonymous writer)\nOn Aristotle's ''Prior Analytics I'' (anonymous writer)\nOn Aristotle's ''Metaphysics 1–7'' (written by Asclepius)\nOn Nicomachus' ''Introduction to Arithmetic'' (written by Asclepius)\nOn Aristotle's ''Prior Analytics'' (written by John Philoponus)\nOn Aristotle's ''Posterior Analytics'' (written by John Philoponus)\nOn Aristotle's ''On Generation and Corruption'' (written by John Philoponus)\nOn Aristotle's ''On the Soul'' (written by John Philoponus)\n\nThere is Greek-language work called ''Life of Aristotle'', which is usually ascribed to Ammonius, but \"is more probable that it is the work of Joannes Philoponus, the pupil of Ammonius, to whom it is ascribed in some MSS.\"\n", "''Ammonius: On Aristotle Categories'', translated by S. M. Cohen and G. B. Matthews. London and Ithaca 1992.\n''Ammonius: On Aristotle's On Interpretation 1–8'', translated by D. Blank. London and Ithaca 1996.\n''Ammonius: On Aristotle's On Interpretation 9, with Boethius: On Aristotle's On Interpretation 9'', translated by D. Blank (Ammonius) and N. Kretzmann (Boethius). London and Ithaca 1998\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On Coming-to-be and Perishing 1.1–5'', translated by C. J. F. Williams. London and Ithaca 1999\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On Coming-to-be and Perishing 1.6–2.4'', translated by C. J. F. Williams. London and Ithaca 1999.\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On the Soul 2.1–6'', translated by W. Charlton. London and Ithaca 2005\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On the Soul 2.7–12'', translated by W. Charlton. London and Ithaca 2005\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On the Soul 3.1–8'', translated by W. Charlton. London and Ithaca 2000\n''John Philoponus: On Aristotle On the Intellect (de Anima 3.4–8)'', translated by W. Charlton. London and Ithaca 1991.\n", "\n", " Andron, Cosmin. \"Ammonios of Alexandria\", ''The Routledge Encyclopedia of Ancient Natural Scientists'', eds. Georgia Irby-Massie and Paul Keyser, New York: Routledge, 2008.\n* Jones, A., Martindale, J., Morris, J. ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pages 71–72. \n* Karamanolis, George E. ''Plato and Aristotle in agreement? : Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry'', New York : Oxford University Press, 2006.\n* \n* Seel, Gerhard (ed.), ''Ammonius and the Seabattle. Texts, Commentary, and Essays'', in collaboration with Jean-Pierre Schneider and Daniel Schulthess ; Ammonius on Aristotle: De interpretatione 9 (and 7, 1-17) Greek text established by A. Busse, philosophical commentary by Gerhard Seel; essays by Mario Mignucci and Gerhard Seel, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2001.\n* Sorabji, Richard. ''The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD. A Sourcebook'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005.\n* Verrycken, Koenraad. ''The Metaphysics of Ammonius son of Hermias'', in Richard Sorabji (ed.), ''Aristotle Transformed. The Ancient Commentators and their Influence'', Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990, p. 199-231.\n", "\n''Commentaria in Aristotelem Graeca'', Vol. 4 parts 2–6, Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin, Edita consilio et auctoritate Academiae litterarum regiae borussicae (1882).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Writings", "English translations", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Ammonius Hermiae
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Ammonius Saccas''' (; ; fl. 3rd century AD) was a Greek philosopher from Alexandria who was often referred to as one of the founders of Neoplatonism. He is mainly known as the teacher of Plotinus, whom he taught for eleven years from 232 to 243. He was undoubtedly the biggest influence on Plotinus in his development of Neoplatonism, although little is known about his own philosophical views. Later Christian writers stated that Ammonius was a Christian, but it is now generally assumed that there was a different Ammonius of Alexandria who wrote biblical texts.\n", "Not much is known about the life of Ammonius Saccas. \n\nHis cognomen \"Sakkas\" has been interpreted to indicate that he was a porter in his youth. This seems to be a misreading of \"Sakkas\" for \"sakkophoros\" (porter) which is grammatically incorrect. However Erich Seeberg argued that the cognomen refers to the \"Śākyas\" of India, the ruling clan to which Gautama Buddha also belonged. The \"Śākyas\" (related to Iranian Saka, Scythians and Indo-Scythians) were known in antiquity. The cognomen \"Sakkas\" therefore referred to India as a marker of ethnic identity. This is, according to this interpretation, supported by the fact that Ammianus Marcellinus refers to him as \"Saccas Ammonius\", thus as the \"Sacian Ammonius\", which makes any reading as denoting \"sakkos\" impossible. This interpretation of the name, which has subsequently been contested, would corroborate Porphyry's report that Plotinus, Ammonius' foremost student, acquired his high esteem for Indian philosophy and his eager desire to travel to India from Ammonius. \n\nThe interpretation that \"Saccas\" denotes ethnic northern Indian origin, rather than alluding to Gautama Buddha, supports the possibility that Ammonius may have been raised a Christian, who reverted to paganism, as reported by Eusebius, drawing on Porphyry's Contra Christianos. In this case Ammonius may have been a second-generation Indian who remained in contact with the philosophy of his ancestral country. The intensity of commerce of goods and ideas between Alexandria and India makes this a wholly possible option. \n\nThe link to India however is not only consistent with Plotinus' passion for India, but also helps to explain the often noted substantial agreements and shared ideas between Vedanta and Neoplatonism which are increasingly attributed to direct Indian influence.\n\nMost details of his life come from the fragments left from Porphyry's writings. The most famous pupil of Ammonius Saccas was Plotinus who studied under Ammonius for eleven years. According to Porphyry, in 232, at the age of 28, Plotinus went to Alexandria to study philosophy:\nIn his twenty-eighth year he Plotinus felt the impulse to study philosophy and was recommended to the teachers in Alexandria who then had the highest reputation; but he came away from their lectures so depressed and full of sadness that he told his trouble to one of his friends. The friend, understanding the desire of his heart, sent him to Ammonius, whom he had not so far tried. He went and heard him, and said to his friend, \"This is the man I was looking for.\" From that day he stayed continually with Ammonius and acquired so complete a training in philosophy that he became eager to make acquaintance with the Persian philosophical discipline and that prevailing among the Indians.\n\nAccording to Porphyry, the parents of Ammonius were Christians, but upon learning Greek philosophy, Ammonius rejected his parents' religion for paganism. This conversion is contested by the Christian writers Jerome and Eusebius, who state that Ammonius remained a Christian throughout his lifetime:\n\nPorphyry plainly utters a falsehood (for what will not an opposer of Christians do?) when he says that ... Ammonius fell from a life of piety into heathen customs. ... Ammonius held the divine philosophy unshaken and unadulterated to the end of his life. His works yet extant show this, as he is celebrated among many for the writings which he has left.\n\nHowever, we are told by Longinus that Ammonius wrote nothing, and if Ammonius was the principal influence on Plotinus, then it is unlikely that Ammonius would have been a Christian. One way to explain much of the confusion concerning Ammonius is to assume that there were two people called Ammonius: Ammonius Saccas who taught Plotinus, and an Ammonius the Christian who wrote biblical texts. Another explanation might be that there was only one Ammonius but that Origen, who found the Neo-Platonist views of his teacher essential to his own beliefs about the essential nature of Christianity, chose to suppress Ammonius' choice of Paganism over Christianity. The insistence of Eusebius, Origen's pupil, and Jerome, all of whom were recognized Fathers of the Christian Church, that Ammonius Saccas had not rejected his Christian roots would be easier for Christians to accept than the assertion of Prophyry, who was a Pagan, that Ammonius had chosen Paganism over Christianity.\n\nTo add to the confusion, it seems that Ammonius had two pupils called Origen: Origen the Christian, and Origen the Pagan. It is quite possible that Ammonius Saccas taught both Origens. And since there were two Origens who were accepted as contemporaries it was easy for later Christians to accept that there were two individuals named Ammonius, one a Christian and one a Pagan. Among Ammonius' other pupils there were Herennius and Cassius Longinus.\n", "Hierocles, writing in the 5th century, states that Ammonius' fundamental doctrine was that Plato and Aristotle were in full agreement with each other:\nHe was the first who had a godly zeal for the truth in philosophy and despised the views of the majority, which were a disgrace to philosophy. He apprehended well the views of each of the two philosophers Plato and Aristotle and brought them under one and the same ''nous'' and transmitted philosophy without conflicts to all of his disciples, and especially to the best of those acquainted with him, Plotinus, Origen, and their successors.\n\nAccording to Nemesius, a bishop and Neoplatonist c. 400, Ammonius held that the soul was immaterial.\n\nLittle is known about Ammonius's role in the development of Neoplatonism. Porphyry seems to suggest that Ammonius was instrumental in helping Plotinus think about philosophy in new ways:\nBut he Plotinus did not just speak straight out of these books but took a distinctive personal line in his consideration, and brought the mind of Ammonius' to bear on the investigation in hand.\nTwo of Ammonius's students - Origen the Pagan, and Longinus - seem to have held philosophical positions which were closer to Middle Platonism than Neoplatonism, which perhaps suggests that Ammonius's doctrines were also closer to those of Middle Platonism than the Neoplatonism developed by Plotinus (see the Enneads), but Plotinus does not seem to have thought that he was departing in any significant way from that of his master.\n", "Enneads\nNeoplatonism\nOrigen\nOrigen the Pagan\nPlotinus\nPorphyry\nTheodidaktos\n", "\n", "Armstrong, A., (1967), ''The Cambridge History of Later Greek and Early Medieval Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, pp. 196–200.\nKaramanolis, G., (2006), ''Plato and Aristotle in Agreement?: Platonists on Aristotle from Antiochus to Porphyry'', Oxford University Press, pp. 191–215.\nReale, G., (1990), ''A History of Ancient Philosophy IV: The Schools of the Imperial Age'', SUNY Press, pp. 297–303.\n", "* ''Porphyry, Against the Christians (2004). Fragments.''\n* ''The Reaction to the Bible in Paganism''\n* ''Origen'' - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Philosophy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Ammonius Saccas
[ "\n\nThe '''Book of Amos ''' is the third of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and the second in the Greek Septuagint tradition. Amos, an older contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah, was active c. 750 BCE during the reign of Jeroboam II (788–747 BCE), making the Book of Amos the first biblical prophetic book written. Amos lived in the kingdom of Judah but preached in the northern kingdom of Israel. His major themes of social justice, God's omnipotence, and divine judgment became staples of prophecy.\n", "Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 846: Amos 2 (LXX)\n(Michael D. Coogan, ''A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament'', 2009, p. 256.)\nOracles against the nations (1.3–2.6)\nAddresses to groups in Israel\nWomen of Samaria (4.1–3)\nRich persons in Samaria (6.1–7)\n*Rich persons in Jerusalem (8.4–8)\nFive symbolic visions of God's judgment on Israel, interrupted by a confrontation between Amos and his listeners at Bethel (7.10–17):\nLocusts (7.1–3)\nFire (7.4–6)\nA plumb line (7.7–9)\nA basket of fruit (8.1–3)\n*God beside the altar (9.1–8a)\nEpilogue 9:8b–15\n", "The book opens with a historical note about the prophet, then a short oracle announcing Yahweh's (i.e., God)'s judgement (repeated in the Book of Joel. The prophet denounces the crimes against humanity committed by the gentile nations, tells Israel that even they have sinned and are guilty of the same crimes, and report five symbolic visions prophesying the destruction of Israel. Included in this, with no apparent order, are an oracle on the nature of prophecy, snippets of hymns, oracles of woe, a third-person prose narrative concerning the prophet, and an oracle promising restoration of the House of David, which had not yet fallen in Amos's lifetime.\n", "Amos prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam II, King of Israel, and of Uzziah of Judah, which places him in the first half of the 8th century BCE. According to the book's superscription (Amos 1:1) he was from Tekoa, a town in Judah south of Jerusalem, but his prophetic mission was in the northern kingdom. He is called a \"shepherd\" and a \"dresser of sycamore trees\", but the book's literary qualities suggest a man of education rather than a poor farmer.\n\nScholars have long recognized that Amos utilized an ancient hymn within his prophecy, verses of which are found at 4.13; 5.8–9; 8.8; 9.5–6. This hymn is best understood as praising YHWH for His judgment, demonstrated in His destructive power, rather than praise for creation. Scholarship has also identified 'Sumerian City Lament' (SCL) motifs within Amos and particularly the hymn, offering the possibility that Amos used SCL as a literary template for his prophecy of Jerusalem's destruction. The Amos hymn has also been discussed in terms of a 'covenant curse' which was used to warn Israel of the consequences of breaking the covenant, and in particular a 'Flood covenant-curse' motif, first identified by D.R. Hillers. Recent scholarship has shown Amos' hymn is an ancient narrative text, has identified a new verse at 7.4; and has compared the hymn to the Genesis Flood account and Job 9:5–10.\n", "The central idea of the book of Amos is that God puts his people on the same level as the surrounding nations – God expects the same purity of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of God, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of God because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents YHWH must be made pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of God. God's name must be exalted.\n\nAmos is the first prophet to use the term \"the Day of the Lord. This phrase becomes important within future prophetic and apocalyptic literature. For the people of Israel \"the day of the \" is the day when God will fight against his and their enemies, and it will be a day of victory for Israel. However, Amos and other prophets include Israel as an enemy of God, as Israel is guilty of injustice toward the innocent, poor, and young women. To Amos \"the day of the Lord\" will be a day of doom.\n\nOther major ideas in the book of Amos include: social justice and concern for the disadvantaged; the idea that Israel's covenant with God did not exempt them from accountability for sin; God is God of all nations; God is judge of all nations; God is God of moral righteousness; God made all people; God elected Israel and then liberated Israel so that He would be known throughout the world; election by God means that those elected are responsible to live according to the purposes clearly outlined to them in the covenant; if God destroys the unjust, a remnant will remain; and God is free to judge whether to redeem Israel.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n* Bulkeley, Tim ''Amos: Hypertext Bible Commentary''. Auckland: Hypertext Bible, 2005. Amos: Hypertext Bible Commentary\n* , focus on historiography\n* \n* \n* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\nOnline translations of ''Book of Amos'':\n\nJewish translations:\n* Amos (Judaica Press) translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org\nChristian translations:\n* ''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org (English Standard Version)\n*''Amos'' at Wikisource (Authorised King James Version)\n Nicholas Whyte on Amos\n* New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, Amos\n* Forward Movement, ''Amos'' an Introduction\n* Various versions\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Structure", "Summary", "Composition", " Themes ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Book of Amos
[ "\n'''Amphipolis''' ( - ''Amfipoli''; , ''Amphípolis'') \nis best known for the magnificent ancient Greek city (polis), and later Roman city, whose impressive remains can still be seen.\n\nIt is famous in history for events such as the battle between the Spartans and Athenians in 422 BC, and also as the place where Alexander the Great prepared for campaigns leading to his invasion of Asia. Alexander's three finest admirals, Nearchus, Androsthenes and Laomedon, resided in this city and it is also the place where, after Alexander's death, his wife Roxane and their small son Alexander IV were exiled and later murdered.\n\nExcavations in and around the city have revealed important buildings, ancient walls and tombs. At the nearby vast Kasta burial mound, an important ancient Macedonian tomb has recently been revealed. The unique and beautiful \"Lion of Amphipolis\" monument nearby is a popular destination for visitors.\n\nIt is today a municipality in the Serres regional unit of Greece. The seat of the municipality is Rodolivos.\nAmphipolis location map\n", "\n===Origins===\nThroughout the 5th century BC, Athens sought to consolidate its control over Thrace, which was strategically important because of its primary materials (the gold and silver of the Pangaion hills and the dense forests essential for naval construction), and the sea routes vital for Athens' supply of grain from Scythia. After a first unsuccessful attempt at colonisation in 497 BC by the Milesian Tyrant Histiaeus, the Athenians founded a first colony at Ennea-Hodoi (‘Nine Ways’) in 465, but these first ten thousand colonists were massacred by the Thracians. A second attempt took place in 437 BC on the same site under the guidance of Hagnon, son of Nicias, which was successful. The city and its first walls date from this time.\nMap of Amphipolis.\n\nThe new settlement took the name of Amphipolis (literally, \"around the city\"), a name which is the subject of much debate about its etymology. Thucydides claims the name comes from the fact that the Strymon flows \"around the city\" on two sides; however a note in the Suda (also given in the lexicon of Photius) offers a different explanation apparently given by Marsyas, son of Periander: that a large proportion of the population lived \"around the city\". However, a more probable explanation is the one given by Julius Pollux: that the name indicates the vicinity of an isthmus.\n\nAmphipolis became the main power base of the Athenians in Thrace and, consequently, a target of choice for their Spartan adversaries. The Athenian population remained very much in the minority in the city. For this reason Amphipolis remained an independent city and an ally of the Athenians, rather than a colony or member of the confederacy. However, in 424 BC the Spartan general Brasidas easily took control of the city.\n\nA rescue expedition led by the Athenian general, and later historian, Thucydides had to settle for securing Eion and could not retake Amphipolis, a failure for which Thucydides was sentenced to exile. A new Athenian force under the command of Cleon failed once more in 422 BC during the Battle of Amphipolis at which both Cleon and Brasidas lost their lives. Brasidas survived long enough to hear of the defeat of the Athenians and was buried at Amphipolis with impressive pomp. From then on he was regarded as the founder of the city\nand honoured with yearly games and sacrifices.\n\n===Macedonian rule===\nFortifications and bridge of Amphipolis.\n\nThe city itself kept its independence until the reign of king Philip II (r. 359–336 BC) despite several Athenian attacks, notably because of the government of Callistratus of Aphidnae. In 357 BC, Philip succeeded where the Athenians had failed and conquered the city, thereby removing the obstacle which Amphipolis presented to Macedonian control over Thrace. According to the historian Theopompus, this conquest came to be the object of a secret accord between Athens and Philip II, who would return the city in exchange for the fortified town of Pydna, but the Macedonian king betrayed the accord, refusing to cede Amphipolis and laying siege to Pydna as well.\n\nThe city was not immediately incorporated into the Macedonian kingdom, and for some time preserved its institutions and a certain degree of autonomy. The border of Macedonia was not moved further east; however, Philip sent a number of Macedonian governors to Amphipolis, and in many respects the city was effectively \"Macedonianized\". Nomenclature, the calendar and the currency (the gold stater, created by Philip to capitalise on the gold reserves of the Pangaion hills, replaced the Amphipolitan drachma) were all replaced by Macedonian equivalents. In the reign of Alexander the Great, Amphipolis was an important naval base, and the birthplace of three of the most famous Macedonian admirals: Nearchus, Androsthenes and Laomedon, whose burial place is most likely marked by the famous lion of Amphipolis.\nAmphipolis lion\".\n\nThe importance of the city in this period is shown by Alexander the Great's decision that it was one of the six cities at which large luxurious temples costing 1500 talents were built. Alexander prepared for campaigns here against Thrace in 335BC and the his army and fleet assembled near the port before the invasion of Asia. The port was also used as naval base during his campaigns in Asia. After Alexander's death, his wife Roxane and their small son Alexander IV were exiled by Cassander and later murdered here.\n\nThroughout Macedonian sovereignty Amphipolis was a strong fortress of great strategic and economic importance, as shown by inscriptions. Amphipolis became one of the main stops on the Macedonian royal road (as testified by a border stone found between Philippi and Amphipolis giving the distance to the latter), and later on the ''Via Egnatia'', the principal Roman road which crossed the southern Balkans. Apart from the ramparts of the lower town, the gymnasium and a set of well-preserved frescoes from a wealthy villa are the only artifacts from this period that remain visible. Though little is known of the layout of the town, modern knowledge of its institutions is in considerably better shape thanks to a rich epigraphic documentation, including a military ordinance of Philip V and an ephebarchic law from the gymnasium.\n\n===Conquest by the Romans===\nAfter the final victory of Rome over Macedonia in a battle in 168 BC, Amphipolis became the capital one of the four mini-republics, or ''merides'', which were created by the Romans out of the kingdom of the Antigonids which succeeded Alexander’s empire in Macedon. These ''merides'' were gradually incorporated into the Roman client state, and later province, of Thracia. According to the Acts of the Apostles, the apostles Paul and Silas passed through Amphipolis in the early 50s AD, on their journey between Philippi and Thessalonica; where hence they proselytized to the Greeks, including Epicurean and Stoic philosophers.\n\n===Revival in Late Antiquity===\nDuring the period of Late Antiquity, Amphipolis benefited from the increasing economic prosperity of Macedonia, as is evidenced by the large number of Christian churches that were built. Significantly however, these churches were built within a restricted area of the town, sheltered by the walls of the acropolis. This has been taken as evidence that the large fortified perimeter of the ancient town was no longer defendable, and that the population of the city had considerably diminished.\n\nNevertheless, the number, size and quality of the churches constructed between the fifth and sixth centuries are impressive. Four basilicas adorned with rich mosaic floors and elaborate architectural sculptures (such as the ram-headed column capitals - see picture) have been excavated, as well as a church with a hexagonal central plan which evokes that of the basilica of St. Vitalis in Ravenna. It is difficult to find reasons for such municipal extravagance in such a small town. One possible explanation provided by the historian André Boulanger is that an increasing ‘willingness’ on the part of the wealthy upper classes in the late Roman period to spend money on local gentrification projects (which he terms ''euergetism'', from the Greek verb εύεργετέω, (meaning 'I do good') was exploited by the local church to its advantage, which led to a mass gentrification of the urban centre and of the agricultural riches of the city’s territory. Amphipolis was also a diocese under the metropolitan see of Thessalonica - the Bishop of Amphipolis is first mentioned in 533. The bishopric is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.\n\n===Final decline of the city===\nThe Slavic invasions of the late 6th century gradually encroached on the back-country Amphipolitan lifestyle and led to the decline of the town, during which period its inhabitants retreated to the area around the acropolis. The ramparts were maintained to a certain extent, thanks to materials plundered from the monuments of the lower city, and the large unused cisterns of the upper city were occupied by small houses and the workshops of artisans. Around the middle of the 7th century AD, a further reduction of the inhabited area of the city was followed by an increase in the fortification of the town, with the construction of a new rampart with pentagonal towers cutting through the middle of the remaining monuments. The acropolis, the Roman baths, and especially the episcopal basilica were crossed by this wall.\n\nThe city was probably abandoned in the eighth century, as the last bishop was attested in 787. Its inhabitants probably moved to the neighbouring site of ancient Eion, port of Amphipolis, which had been rebuilt and refortified in the Byzantine period under the name “Chrysopolis”. This small port continued to enjoy some prosperity, before being abandoned during the Ottoman period. The last recorded sign of activity in the region of Amphipolis was the construction of a fortified tower to the north in 1367 by the ''megas primikerios'' John and the ''stratopedarches'' Alexios to protect the land that they had given to the monastery of Pantokrator on Mount Athos.\n", "Fresco from a house (Hellenistic period).\n\nThe site was discovered and described by many travellers and archaeologists during the 19th century, including E. Cousinéry (1831) (engraver), Leon Heuzey (1861), and P. Perdrizet (1894–1899). However, excavations did not truly begin until after the Second World War. The Greek Archaeological Society under D. Lazaridis excavated in 1972 and 1985, uncovering a necropolis, the city wall (see photograph), the basilicas, and the acropolis. Further excavations have since uncovered the river bridge, the gymnasium, Greek and Roman villas and numerous tombs etc.\n\nParts of the lion monument and tombs were discovered during World War I by Bulgarian and British troops whilst digging trenches in the area. In 1934, M. Feyel, of the École française d'Athènes (EfA), led an epigraphical mission to the site and uncovered further remains of the lion monument (a reconstruction was given in the ''Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique'', a publication of the EfA which is available on line).\n\nThe silver ossuary containing the cremated remains of Brasidas and a gold crown (see image) was found in a tomb in pride of place under the Agora.\nSilver ossuary and gold crown of Brasidas\n\n===The Tomb of Amphipolis===\n\nThe Abduction of Persephone by Pluto, Amphipolis\nIn 2012 Greek archaeologists unearthed a large tomb within the Kasta Hill, the biggest burial mound in Greece, northeast of Amphipolis. The large size of the tumulus indicates the prominence of the burials made there. The perimeter wall of the tumulus is 497 meters long, and is made of limestone covered with marble.\n\nThe tomb comprises three chambers separated by walls. There are two sphinxes just outside the entrance to the tomb. Two of the columns supporting the roof in the first section are in the form of Caryatids, in the 4th century BC style. The excavation revealed a pebble mosaic showing the abduction of Persephone by Hades directly behind the Caryatids and in front of the Macedonian marble door leading to the \"third\" chamber. Hades' chariot is drawn by two white horses and led to the underworld by Hermes. The mosaic verifies the Macedonian character of the tomb. As the head of one of the sphinxes was found inside the tomb behind the broken door, it is clear that there were intruders, probably in antiquity.\n\nThe identity of the burial remains unknown and the excavation is continuing. Dr. Katerina Peristeri, the archaeologist heading the excavation of the tomb, dates the tomb to the 4th Century BC, the period after the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC).\n", "Demetrius of Amphipolis, student of Plato's\nZoilus (400 BC-320 BC), grammarian, cynic philosopher\nPamphilus (painter), head of Sicyonian school and teacher of Apelles\nAetion, sculptor\nPhilippus of Amphipolis, historian\nNearchus, admiral\nErigyius, general\nDamasias of Amphipolis 320 BC Stadion Olympics\nHermagoras of Amphipolis ( BC), stoic philosopher, follower of Persaeus\nApollodorus of Amphipolis, appointed joint military governor of Babylon and the other satrapies as far as Cilicia by Alexander the Great\n", "The municipality Amfipoli was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 4 former municipalities, that became municipal units:\nAmfipoli\nKormista\nProti\nRodolivos\n\nThe municipality has an area of 411.773 km2, the municipal unit 152.088 km2.\n", "The fictional character Xena, of the TV series ''Xena: Warrior Princess'', was depicted as being from the city of Amphipolis.\n", "\nFile:Amfipolis+.jpg\|Coins from Amphipolis.\nFile:Amphipolis capitol.jpg\|Ram-headed capital of a column from a pre-Christian temple.\nFile:Amphipolis skulls 1916 British Shropshire Light Infantry.jpg\|British soldiers of the 2nd King's Shropshire Light Infantry with skulls excavated during the construction of trenches and dugouts at site of Amphipolis during World War I, 1916.\nFile:Lion of Amphipolis early excavations.jpg\|Amphipolis Lion - early excavations.\nFile:Macedonian Museums-25-Arx Amphipolis-126.jpg\|Amphipolis archaeological museum.\n\n", "Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis\n", "\n", "\n\n Official site about Amphipolis\n* Demographic Information from Greek Travel Pages\n* Livius.org: Amphipolis\n* The tomb of Amphipolis\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Archaeology", "Amphipolitans", "Municipality", "In popular culture", "Gallery", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Amphipolis
[ "\n\n\nIn the Book of Exodus, '''Amram''' ( ; ) is the husband of Jochebed and father of Aaron, Moses and Miriam.\n", "\nIn addition to being married to Jochebed, Amram is also described in the Bible as having been related to Jochebed prior to the marriage, although the exact relationship is uncertain; some Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Septuagint state that Jochebed was Amram's father's cousin, and others state that Amram was Jochebed's cousin, but the Masoretic Text states that she was his father's sister. He is praised for his faith in the Epistle to the Hebrews.\n\nTextual scholars attribute the biblical genealogy to the Book of Generations, a hypothetically reconstructed document theorized to originate from a similar religiopolitical group and date to the priestly source. According to critical scholars, the Torah's genealogy for Levi's descendants, is actually an aetiological myth reflecting the fact that there were four different groups among the Levites – the Gershonites, Kohathites, Merarites, and Aaronids; Aaron – the eponymous ancestor of the Aaronids – could not be portrayed as a brother to Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, as the narrative about the birth of Moses (brother of Aaron), which textual scholars attribute to the earlier Elohist source, mentions only that ''both'' his parents were Levites (without identifying their names). Critical scholars suspect that the Elohist account offers both matrilineal and patrilineal descent from Levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of Moses.\n", "\n'''Amram''' is Arabicized to '''Imran''' (). Commentators of the Quran have linked two individuals to the name Imran. They are unanimous in asserting that Imran in verse is clearly the father of Mary, mother of Jesus, whose genealogy, according to al-Tabari, traces back to David. But they disagreed whether the Imran mentioned in verse was the father of Moses and Aaron, or Mary. \n\nIn a hadith found in Sahih Muslim, the name of Moses is given as ''Musa bin Imran''.\n", "\nAccording to the Septuagint, Amram's family tree would be as follows:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAccording to the Masoretic Text, Amram's family tree would be:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAccording to The Book of Jasher, Amram's family tree would be:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Amram married his aunt, Jochebed, the sister of his father Kehath.\n", "\nIn the Apocryphal ''Testament of Levi'', it is stated that Amram was born, as a grandson of Levi, when Levi was 64 years old. The Exodus Rabbah argues that when the Pharaoh instructed midwives to throw male children into the Nile, Amram divorced Jochebed, who was three months pregnant with Moses at the time, arguing that there was no justification for the Israelite men to father children if they were just to be killed; however, the text goes on to state that Miriam, his daughter, chided him for his lack of care for his wife's feelings, persuading him to recant and marry Jochebed again. According to the Talmud, Amram promulgated the laws of marriage and divorce amongst the Jews in Egypt; the Talmud also argues that Amram had extreme longevity, which he used to ensure that doctrines were preserved through several generations.\n\nDespite the legend of his divorce and remarriage, Amram was also held to have been entirely sinless throughout his life, and was rewarded for this by his corpse remaining without any signs of decay. The other three ancient Israelites who died without sin, being Benjamin, Jesse and Chileab.\n\nAccording to the Book of Jubilees, Amram was among the Israelites who took the bones of Jacob's sons (excluding those of Joseph) to Canaan for burial in the cave of Machpelah. Most of the Israelites then returned to Egypt but some remained in Canaan, including Amram who only returned somewhere up to forty years later.\n\nOne of the Dead Sea Scrolls (4Q535, Manuscript B) is written from Amram's point of view, and hence has been dubbed the ''Visions of Amram''. The document is dated to the 2nd century BC and, in the form of a vision, briefly discusses dualism and the Watchers:\n\n", "* Aale Imran\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " In the Bible ", " In the Quran and Islamic tradition ", " Family tree ", " In rabbinical and apocryphal literature ", " See also ", " References " ]	Amram
[ "\n'''Amyntas I''' (Greek: Ἀμύντας Aʹ; 498 BC) was a king of Macedon. He was a son of Alcetas I of Macedon. He married Eurydice and they had a son Alexander.\n\nAmyntas was a vassal of Darius I, king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, since 512/511 BC.\nThe history of Macedonia may be said to begin with Amyntas' reign. He was the first of its rulers to have diplomatic relations with other states. \nIn particular, he entered into an alliance with Hippias of Athens, and when Hippias was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of Anthemus on the Thermaic Gulf with the object of taking advantage of the feuds between the Greeks. \nHippias refused the offer and also rejected the offer of Iolcos, as Amyntas probably did not control Anthemous at that time, but was merely suggesting a plan of joint occupation to Hippias.\n", "\n;Attribution\n\n", "Herodotus v. 17, 94\nJustin vii. 2\nThucydides ii. 100\n*Pausanias ix. 40\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " References ", "Sources" ]	Amyntas I of Macedon
[ "\n\n'''Amyntas III''' (Greek: Ἀμύντας Γ΄; died 370 BC) was king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon in 393 BC, and again from 392 to 370 BC. He was the son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas, one of the sons of Alexander I. His most famous son is Philip II, father of Alexander the Great. He is historically considered the founder of the unified Macedonian state.\n", "He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of Archelaus I. But he had many enemies at home; in 393 he was driven out by the Illyrians, but in the following year, with the aid of the Thessalians, he recovered his kingdom. Medius, head of the house of the Aleuadae of Larissa, is believed to have provided aid to Amyntas in recovering his throne. The mutual relationship between the Argeadae and the Aleuadae dates to the time of Archelaus.\n\nTo shore up his country against the threat of the Illyrians, Amyntas established an alliance with the Chalkidian League led by Olynthus. In exchange for this support, Amyntas granted them rights to Macedonian timber, which was sent back to Athens to help fortify their fleet. With money flowing into Olynthus from these exports, their power grew. In response, Amyntas sought additional allies. He established connections with Kotys, chief of the Odrysians. Kotys had already married his daughter to the Athenian general Iphicrates. Prevented from marrying into Kotys' family, Amyntas soon adopted Iphicrates as his son.\n\nAfter the King's Peace 387 BC, Sparta was anxious to re-establish its presence in northern Greece. In 385 BC, Bardylis and his Illyrians attacked Epirus instigated and aided by Dionysius I of Syracuse, in an attempt to restore the Molossian king Alcetas I of Epirus to the throne. When Amyntas sought Spartan aid against the growing threat of Olynthus, the Spartans eagerly responded. That Olynthus was backed by Athens and Thebes, rivals to Sparta for the control of Greece, provided them with an additional incentive to break up this growing power in the north. Amyntas thus concluded a treaty with the Spartans, who assisted him to reduce Olynthus (379). He also entered into a league with Jason of Pherae, and assiduously cultivated the friendship of Athens. In 371 BC at a Panhellenic congress of the Lacedaemonian allies, he voted in support of the Athenians' claim and joined other Greeks in voting to help Athens to recover possession of Amphipolis.\n\nWith Olynthus defeated, Amyntas was now able to conclude a treaty with Athens and keep the timber revenues for himself. Amyntas shipped the timber to the house of the Athenian Timotheus, in Piraeus.\n", "\nAmyntas married Eurydice, daughter of Sirras of Lynkestis, circa 390. By her, Amyntas had three sons, all of whom became kings of Macedonia one after the other, and a daughter:\nAlexander II\nPerdiccas III\nPhilip II, father of Alexander the Great. \nEurynoe: According to Roman historian Justin, Eurynoe prevented Amyntas' assassination by her mother and her husband (thought to be Ptolemy of Aloros), who was also her mother's lover, by revealing the plan to her father. She is not referred again by any other source.\n\nJustin also mentions that Amyntas had three sons by another wife, Gygaea (probably an Argead): Archelaus, Arrhidaeus and Menelaus. The fact that they did not try to take the throne before the 350s suggests that they were younger than Amyntas' children by Eurydice. They were ultimately eliminated by their half-brother Philip II because they had a claim to the throne.\n\nAmyntas died at an advanced age, leaving his throne to his eldest son, Alexander II.\n", "Treaties between Amyntas III and the Chalcidians\n", "\n", " Duane A. March, \"The Kings of Makedon: 399-369 BC,\" Historia (Franz Steiner Verlag) vol. 44, No. 3 (1995), 257-282\n", "'' Coins of Amyntas III''\n Atheno-Macedonian Alliance-'' Translation of Epigraphy''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Reign ", " Family ", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Amyntas III of Macedon
[ "\n18th-century portrait, based on an ancient engraved gem.\n'''Anacharsis''' (; , ) was a Scythian philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the Black Sea to Athens in the early 6th century BC and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken \"barbarian\". Reputedly a forerunner of the Cynics, none of his works has survived.\n", "Anacharsis the son of Gnurus, a Scythian chief, was half Greek and from a mixed Hellenic culture, apparently in the region of the Cimmerian Bosporus. He left his native country to travel in pursuit of knowledge, and came to Athens about 589 BC, at a time when Solon was occupied with his legislative measures.\n\nAccording to the story recounted by Hermippus, Anacharsis arrived at the house of Solon and said, \"I have traveled here from afar to make you my friend.\" Solon replied, \"It's better to make friends at home.\" Thereupon the Scythian replied, \"Then it is necessary for you, being at home, to make friends with me.\" Solon laughed and accepted him as his friend.\n\nAnacharsis cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. For example, Plutarch remarks that he \"expressed his wonder at the fact that in Greece wise men spoke and fools decided.\" His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a sage and philosopher. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'.\n\nAnacharsis was the first foreigner (metic) who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned by some ancient authors as one of the Seven Sages of Greece, and it is said that he was initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek.\n\nAccording to Herodotus, when Anacharsis returned to the Scythians he was killed by his own brother for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess Cybele, whose cult was unwelcome among the Scythians.\n", "Anacharsis, depicted as a medieval scholar in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle''\nNone of the works ascribed to him in ancient times, if indeed they were written by him, have survived. He was said to have written a book comparing the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks, as well as work on the art of war. All that remains of his thought is what later tradition ascribes to him. He became famous for the simplicity of his way of living and his acute observations on the institutions and customs of the Greeks. He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness; the third, disgust. So he became a kind of emblem to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.'\n\nThere are ten extant letters ascribed to him, one of which is also quoted by Cicero:\nGreetings from Anacharsis to Hanno: My clothing is a Scythian cloak, my shoes are the hard soles of my feet, my bed is the earth, my food is only seasoned by hunger - and I eat nothing but milk and cheese and meat. Come and visit me, and you will find me at peace. You want to give me something. But give it to your fellow-citizens instead, or let the immortal gods have it.\n \nAll of the letters are spurious. The first nine probably date from the 3rd century BC, they are usually included among the ''Cynic epistles'', and reflect how the Cynic philosophers viewed him as prefiguring many of their ideas; the tenth letter is quoted by Diogenes Laertius, it is addressed to Croesus, the proverbially rich king of Lydia, it too is fictitious: \nAnacharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours.\n\nStrabo makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the anchor with two flukes, and others made him the inventor of the potter's wheel.\n\nHaving been informed that Solon was employed to draw up a code of laws for the Athenians, Anacharsis described his occupation, saying:\n:''\"Laws are spider-webs, which catch the little flies, but cannot hold the big ones.\"''\n", "Sacrifice cup - attributed to Anacharsis\nIn 1788 Jean Jacques Barthelemy (1716–95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published ''The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece,'' about a young Scythian descended from Anacharsis. The 4-volume work was an imaginary travel journal, one of the first historical novels, which Klemperer called \"the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique\" in the late 18th century. It affected the growth of philhellenism in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek struggle for independence and spawned sequels and imitations through the 19th century.\n", "''\"A vine bears three grapes, the first of pleasure, the second of drunkenness, and the third of repentance\"'' —Diogenes Laertius, of Anacharsis.\n''\"He also said that he marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skilful in a thing contend together; but those who have no such skill act as judges of the contest.\"'' —Diogenes Laertius, of Anacharsis.\n", "\n", "Herodotus iv. 46, 76-7; Lucian, ''Scytha''; Cicero, ''Tusc. Disp.'' v. 32; Diogenes Laertius i. 101-5; Athenaeus, iv. 159, x. 428, 437, xiv. 613; Aelian, ''Varia Historia'', v. 7.\n", "Charlotte Schubert, \"Anacharsis der Weise\" (Narr Verlag, Tübingen, 2010).\n", "\n\n Jean Jacques Barthelemy's The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece (French)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Ideas", "Revival in the 18th century", "Quotes", "Notes", "Classical references", "Modern studies", "External links" ]	Anacharsis
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTibetan Illustration of Ven. Ananda.\n\n'''Ānanda''' was a first cousin of Gautama Buddha and one of his ten principal disciples. Amongst the Buddha's many disciples, Ānanda stood out for having the most retentive memory. Most of the sutras of the ''Sutta Pitaka'' are attributed to his recollection of the Buddha's teachings during the First Buddhist council. For that reason, he was known as the ''Guardian of the Dharma''.\n", "According to Buddhist tradition, every Buddha in the past and to come will have two chief disciples and one attendant during his ministry. In the case of Gautama Buddha, the pair of disciples were Sariputta and Maudgalyayana and the attendant was Ānanda.\n\nThe word 'Ānanda' means 'bliss' in Pali, Sanskrit as well as other Indian languages. It is a popular name in India and south-east Asia, especially Indonesia.\n\nIn the Kannakatthala Sutta (MN 90), Ananda is identified with the meaning of his name:\n:Then King Pasenadi Kosala said to the Blessed One, \"Lord, what is the name of this monk?\"\n:\"His name is Ananda, great king.\"\n:\"What a joy he is! What a true joy!...\"\n\nĀnanda was the first cousin of the Buddha by their fathers, and was devoted to him. In the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry, he became the Buddha's personal attendant, accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutor in many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric delivered by the Buddha just before the Buddha's parinibbana (the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16)); it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful toward others.\n\nIn the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara Nikaya (i. xiv.), where each of them is declared to be Prime in some quality, Ānanda is mentioned five times (more often than any other). He was named Prime in conduct, in service to others, and in power of memory. The Buddha sometimes asked Ānanda to substitute for him as teacher and then later stated that he himself would not have presented the teachings in any other way.\n\nThe Buddhist canon attributes the inclusion of women in the early Sangha (monastic order) to Ānanda. The Buddha conceded and permitted his step-mother Mahapajapati to be ordained as a bhikkhuni only after Ananda prevailed upon the Buddha to publicly recognize women as being equal to men in possessing the potential for awakening. Following the death of the Buddha, Ananda was criticized by the members of the Sangha for having enabled women to join the monastic order.\n", "Because he attended the Buddha personally and often traveled with him, Ānanda overheard and memorized many of the discourses the Buddha delivered to various audiences. Therefore, he is often referred to as the disciple of the Buddha who \"heard much\". At the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after the Buddha died, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon.\n\nDespite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda was only a stream-winner prior to the Buddha’s death. However, Buddha said that the purity of his heart was so great that, \"Should Ananda die without being fully liberated, he would be king of the Gods seven times because of the purity of his heart, or be king of the Indian subcontinent seven times. But....Ananda will experience final liberation in this very life.\" (AN 3.80)\n\nPrior to the First Buddhist Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an arahant. According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of nibbana and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the convening of the conclave.\n\nIn contrast to most of the figures depicted in the Pāli Canon, Ananda is presented as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure. He mourns the deaths of both Sariputta, with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the Buddha. A verse of the Theragatha reveals his loneliness and isolation following the parinirvana (salvation/demise) of the Buddha.\n\nIn the Zen tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch. He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside Mahakashyapa, the first Indian patriarch.\n\nAnanda attains parinirvana (salvation) in midair over the river Ganga. His body gets auto-cremated and his relics divide into four portions for the people of Rajargrha, the people of Vaisali, the Nagas and the Gods.\n", "* Mahākāśyapa\n* Upali\n* First Buddhist Council\n* Second Buddhist Council\n", "\n", "* Bigandet, Paul Ambrose (1858). The life or legend of Gaudama, the Budha of the Burmese, with annotations, Rangoon: Pegu Press vol. 1, vol. 2\n* Inoue, Hirofumi (2006). The Excuse of Ananda, 井上博文 - Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies 54 (3), 69-74\n", "* Entry on '''Ananda''' in the Buddhist Dictionary of Pali Proper Names\n* Biographical account of Ananda\n* Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID \"guest\")\n* Ananda: Guardian of the Dhamma by Hellmuth Hecker\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Role in the Pali Canon ", "The First Council", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ananda
[ "\n\n'''Anaxagoras''' (; , ''Anaxagoras'', \"lord of the assembly\"; BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in the Persian Empire (modern-day Urla, Turkey) Anaxagoras was the first to bring philosophy to Athens. According to Diogenes Laertius and Plutarch, in later life he was charged with impiety and went into exile in Lampsacus; the charges may have been political, owing to his association with Pericles, if they were not fabricated by later ancient biographers.\n\nResponding to the claims of Parmenides on the impossibility of change, Anaxagoras described the world as a mixture of primary imperishable ingredients, where material variation was never caused by an absolute presence of a particular ingredient, but rather by its relative preponderance over the other ingredients; in his words, \"each one is... most manifestly those things of which there are the most in it\". He introduced the concept of ''Nous'' (Mind) as an ordering force, which moved and separated out the original mixture, which was homogeneous, or nearly so.\n\nHe also gave a number of novel scientific accounts of natural phenomena. He produced a correct explanation for eclipses and described the sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, as well as attempting to explain rainbows and meteors.\n", "Anaxagoras is believed to have enjoyed some wealth and political influence in his native town of Clazomenae, in Asia Minor. However, he supposedly surrendered this out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. The Roman author Valerius Maximus preserves a different tradition: Anaxagoras, coming home from a long voyage, found his property in ruin, and said: \"If this had not perished, I would have\"—a sentence described by Valerius as being \"possessed of sought-after wisdom!\" Although a Greek, he may have been a soldier of the Persian army when Clazomenae was suppressed during the Ionian Revolt.\n\nIn early manhood (461 BC) he went to Athens, which was rapidly becoming the centre of Greek culture. There he is said to have remained for thirty years. Pericles learned to love and admire him, and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity.\n\nAnaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from Ionia to Athens. His observations of the celestial bodies and the fall of meteorites led him to form new theories of the universal order, and to a putative prediction of the impact of a meteorite in 467 BC. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the Peloponnese. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. He explained that, though both sun and the stars were fiery stones, we do not feel the heat of the stars because of their enormous distance from earth. He was the first to explain that the moon shines by reflecting the sun's light. He thought that the earth is flat and floats supported by 'strong' air under it and disturbances in this air sometimes causes earthquakes. These speculations made him vulnerable in Athens to a charge of impiety. Diogenes Laertius reports the story that he was prosecuted by Cleon for impiety, but Plutarch says that Pericles sent his former tutor, Anaxagoras, to Lampsacus for his own safety after the Athenians began to blame him for the Peloponnesian war.\n\nAccording to Laertius, Pericles spoke in defense of Anaxagoras at his trial, BC. Even so, Anaxagoras was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Troad (433 BC). He died there in around the year 428 BC. Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years.\n\nAnaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived, through preservation in work of Simplicius of Cilicia in the 6th century AD.\n", "Anaxagoras, depicted as a medieval scholar in the ''Nuremberg Chronicle''\nAccording to Anaxagoras all things have existed in some way from the beginning, but originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined throughout the universe. All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form. There was an infinite number of homogeneous parts () as well as heterogeneous ones.\n\nThe work of arrangement, the segregation of like from unlike and the summation of the whole into totals of the same name, was the work of Mind or Reason (). Mind is no less unlimited than the chaotic mass, but it stood pure and independent, a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. Its first appearance, and the only manifestation of it which Anaxagoras describes, is Motion. It gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts.\n\nDecease and growth represent a new aggregation () and disruption (). However, the original intermixture of things is never wholly overcome. Each thing contains in itself parts of other things or heterogeneous elements, and is what it is, only on account of the preponderance of certain homogeneous parts which constitute its character. Out of this process arises the things we see in this world.\n", "In a quote chosen to begin Nathanael West's first book \"The Dream Life of Balso Snell\", Marcel Proust's character Bergotte says, \"After all, my dear fellow, life, Anaxagoras has said, is a journey.\"\n\nAnaxagoras appears as a character in ''Faust, Part II'' by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.\n\nAnaxagoras appears as a character in ''The Ionia Sanction'', by Gary Corby.\n\nAnaxagoras is referred to and admired by Cyrus Spitama, the hero and narrator of ''Creation'', by Gore Vidal. The book contains this passage, explaining how Anaxagoras became influential:\n\n:According to Anaxagoras One of the largest things is a hot stone that we call the sun. When Anaxagoras was very young, he predicted that sooner or later a piece of the sun would break off and fall to earth. Twenty years ago, he was proved right. The whole world saw a fragment of the sun fall in a fiery arc through the sky, landing near Aegospotami in Thrace. When the fiery fragment cooled, it proved to be nothing more than a chunk of brown rock. Overnight Anaxagoras was famous. Today his book is read everywhere. You can buy a secondhand copy in the Agora for a drachma.\n\nWilliam H. Gass begins his novel, ''The Tunnel'' (1995), with a quote from Anaxagoras: \"The descent to hell is the same from every place.\"\n\nAnaxagoras is mentioned by Socrates during his trial in Plato's \"Apology\".\n\nDante Alighieri places Anaxagoras in the First Circle of Hell (Limbo) in his ''Divine Comedy'' (''Inferno'', Canto IV, line 118).\n", "Anaxagoras (crater) on the Moon\nSquaring the circle\n", "\n", "\n===Editions of the Fragments===\n* Curd, Patricia (ed.), ''Anaxagoras of Clazomenae. Fragments and Testimonia: A Text and Translation with Notes and Essays'', Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007.\n* Sider, David (ed.), ''The Fragments of Anaxagoras'', with introduction, text, and commentary, Sankt Augustin: Academia Verlag, 2005.\nKirk G. S.; Raven, J. E. and Schofield, M. (1983) ''The Presocratic Philosophers: a critical history with a selection of texts'' (2nd ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ; originally authored by Kirk and Raven and published in 1957 \n\n===Studies===\nBakalis Nikolaos (2005). ''Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments'', Trafford Publishing, Victoria, BC., \nBarnes J. (1979). ''The Presocratic Philosophers'', Routledge, London, , and editions of 1982, 1996 and 2006\nBurnet J. (1892). ''Early Greek Philosophy'' A. & C. Black, London, , and subsequent editions, 2003 edition published by Kessinger, Whitefish, Montana, \nCleve, Felix M. (1949). ''The Philosophy of Anaxagoras: An attempt at reconstruction'' King's Crown Press, New York ; republished in 1973 by Nijhoff, The Hague, as ''The Philosophy of Anaxagoras: As reconstructed'' \n\nFilonik, Jakub. (2013). \"Athenian impiety trials: a reappraisal\". ''Dike: rivista di storia del diritto greco ed ellenistico'' 16. \nGershenson, Daniel E. and Greenberg, Daniel A. (1964) ''Anaxagoras and the birth of physics'', Blaisdell Publishing Co., New York, \nGraham, Daniel W. (1999). \"Empedocles and Anaxagoras: Responses to Parmenides\" Chapter 8 of Long, A. A. (1999) ''The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 159–180, \nGuthrie, W. K. C. (1965). \"The Presocratic tradition from Parmenides to Democritus\" volume 2 of ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ; 1978 edition \n\n \n\n\n\n\nTaylor, C. C. W. (ed.) (1997). ''Routledge History of Philosophy: From the Beginning to Plato'', Vol. I, pp. 192 – 225, \nTeodorsson, Sven-Tage (1982). ''Anaxagoras' Theory of Matter''. Acta Universitatis Gothoburgensis, Göteborg, Sweden, \n* Torrijos-Castrillejo, David (2014) '' Anaxágoras y su recepción en Aristóteles''. Romae: EDUSC, \n\nZeller, A. (1881). ''A History of Greek Philosophy: From the Earliest Period to the Time of Socrates'', Vol. II, translated by S. F. Alleyne, pp. 321 – 394\n", "\n\n\n\n\n Anaxagoras entry by Michael Patzia in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n\n\n* Translation and Commentary from John Burnet's ''Early Greek Philosophy''.\n* Anaxagoras: Fragments from ''Early Greek Philosophy'' by John Burnet, 3rd edition (1920). \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Philosophy", "Literary references", "See also", "Notes", "Bibliography", " External links " ]	Anaxagoras
[ "'''Anaxarchus''' (; ; c. 380 – c. 320 BC) was a Greek philosopher of the school of Democritus. Together with Pyrrho, he accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia. The reports of his philosophical views suggest that he was a forerunner of Pyrrhonism.\n", "Anaxarchus was born at Abdera in Thrace. He was the companion and friend of Alexander the Great in his Asiatic campaigns. According to Diogenes Laertius, in response to Alexander's claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, \"See the blood of a mortal, not ichor, such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods.\"\n\nPlutarch tells a story that at Bactra, in 327 BC in a debate with Callisthenes, he advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian Cleon.\n\nWhen Alexander was trying to show that he is divine so that the Greeks and Macedonians would perform proskynesis to him, Anaxarchus said that Alexander could \"more justly be considered a god than Dionysus or Heracles\" (Arrian, 104)\n\nDiogenes Laertius says that Nicocreon, the tyrant of Cyprus, commanded him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude and Cicero relates the same story.\n", "Very little is known about his philosophical views. It is thought that he represents a link between the atomism of Democritus, and the skepticism of Pyrrho.\n\nAnaxarchus is said to have studied under Diogenes of Smyrna, who in turn studied under Metrodorus of Chios, who used to declare that he knew nothing, not even the fact that he knew nothing. According to Sextus Empiricus, Anaxarchus \"compared existing things to a scene-painting and supposed them to resemble the impressions experienced in sleep or madness.\" Anaxarchus's student Pyrrho is said to have adopted \"a most noble philosophy, . . . taking the form of agnosticism and suspension of judgement.\" Anaxarchus is said to have praised Pyrrho's \"indifference and sang-froid.\" Anaxarchus is said to have possessed \"fortitude and contentment in life,\" which earned him the epithet ''eudaimonikos'' (\"fortunate\"), which may imply that he held the end of life to be ''eudaimonia.''\n\nPlutarch reports that he told Alexander the Great that there was an infinite number of worlds, causing the latter to become dejected because he had not yet conquered even one.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Philosophy", "References", "External links" ]	Anaxarchus
[ "\n\n'''''Ancyra''''' is a genus of southeast Asian planthoppers. Members of the genus are well known for having a pair of prolonged filaments at the tips of the forewings that arise near a pair of small glossy spots; this creates the impression of a pair of antennae, with corresponding \"eyes\" (a remarkable case of automimicry). The \"false head\" effect is further reinforced by the bugs' habit of walking backwards when it detects movement nearby, so as to misdirect predators to strike at its rear, rather than at its actual head.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Ancyra (genus)
[ "'''Anastasius I''' or '''Anastasios I''' may refer to:\nAnastasius I Dicorus (b. 430 – 518), Roman Emperor\nAnastasius I of Antioch (d. 599), Patriarch of Antioch\n*Pope Anastasius I (died 401), Pope of Rome\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Anastasius I
[ "'''Anaximenes of Lampsacus''' () (320 BC) was a Greek rhetorician and historian.\n", "Anaximenes was a pupil of Zoilus and, like his teacher, wrote a work on Homer. As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and his school. He is generally regarded as the author of the ''Rhetoric to Alexander'', an ''Art of Rhetoric'' included in the traditional corpus of Aristotle's works. Quintilian seems to refer to this work under Anaximenes' name in ''Institutio Oratoria'' 3.4.9, as the Italian Renaissance philologist Piero Vettori first recognized. This attribution has, however, been disputed by some scholars.\n\nThe hypothesis to Isocrates' ''Helen'' mentions that Anaximenes, too, had written a ''Helen'', \"though it is more a defense speech (''apologia'') than an encomium,\" and concludes that he was \"the man who has written about Helen\" to whom Isocrates refers (Isoc. ''Helen'' 14). Jebb entertained the possibility that this work survives in the form of the ''Encomium of Helen'' ascribed to Gorgias: \"It appears not improbable that Anaximenes may have been the real author of the work ascribed to Gorgias.\"\n\nAccording to Pausanias ( 6.18.6), Anaximenes was \"the first who practised the art of speaking extemporaneously.\" He also worked as a logographer, having written the speech prosecuting Phryne according to Diodorus Periegetes (quoted by Athenaeus XIII.591e). The \"ethical\" fragments preserved in Stobaeus' ''Florilegium'' may represent \"some philosophical book.\"\n", "Anaximenes wrote a history of Greece in twelve books, stretching from the gods' origins to the death of Epaminondas at the Battle of Mantinea (''Hellenica'', ), and a history of Philip of Macedon (''Philippica''). He was a favorite of Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns, and wrote a third historical work on Alexander (however, Pausanias 6.18.6 expresses doubt about his authorship of an epic poem on Alexander). He was one of the eight exemplary historiographers included in the Alexandrian canon.\n\nDidymus reports that the work transmitted as speech 11 of Demosthenes (''Against the Letter of Philip'') could be found in almost identical form in Book 7 of Anaximenes' ''Philippica'', and many scholars regard the work as a historiographic composition by Anaximenes. The ''Letter of Philip'' (speech 12) to which speech 11 seems to respond may also be by Anaximenes, or it may be an authentic letter by Philip, perhaps written with the aid of his advisers. The more ambitious theory of Wilhelm Nitsche, which assigned to Anaximenes a larger part of the Demosthenic corpus (speeches 10-13 and 25, letters 1-4, proems), can be rejected.\n\nAnaximenes was hostile to Theopompus, whom he sought to discredit with a libelous parody, ''Trikaranos'', published in Theopompus' style and under his name, attacking Athens, Sparta, and Thebes.\n\nPlutarch criticizes Anaximenes, together with Theopompus and Ephorus, for the \"rhetorical effects and grand periods\" these historians implausibly gave to men in the midst of urgent battlefield circumstances (''Praecepta gerendae reipublicae'' 803b).\n", "\n", "* \n", "* ''Art of Rhetoric''\n edited by Immanuel Bekker, Oxford 1837 ( online)\n '' Anaximenis ars rhetorica'', L. Spengel (ed.), Leipzig, Vergsbureau, 1847.\n ''Rhetores Graeci'', L. Spengel (ed.), Lipsiae, sumptibus et typis B. G. Teubneri, 1853, vol. 1 pp. 169-242.\n edited by Manfred Fuhrmann, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, 1966, 2nd ed. 2000, \n edited by Pierre Chiron, Collection Budé, with French translation, Paris, 2002, \n anonymous translation, London, 1686 ( online)\n** translated by E.S. Forster, Oxford, 1924 ( online, beginning on p. 231)\nFragments\n* Karl Müller, appendix to 1846 Didot edition of Arrian, ''Anabasis et Indica'' ( online)\n Felix Jacoby, ''Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker'', no. 72, with commentary in German\n Ludwig Radermacher, ''Artium Scriptores'', Vienna, 1951, pp. 200–202 (rhetorical fragments only, adding Philodemus' ''Rhetorica'', which accounts for three of the nine fragments printed)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Rhetorical works", "Historical works", "Notes", "References", "Editions and translations" ]	Anaximenes of Lampsacus
[ "\n\n'''Anastasius''' (Latinized) or '''Anastasios''' () is derived from the Greek ἀνάστασις (''anastasis'') meaning \"resurrection\". Its female form is ''Anastasia'' (). A diminutive form of ''Anastasios'' is ''Tasos'' ().\n", "\n=== Byzantine emperors ===\n* Anastasius I Dicorus – Byzantine emperor 491–518\n* Anastasios II (died 718) – Byzantine emperor 713–715\n\n=== Popes of Rome ===\n* Pope Anastasius I – Pope 399–401\n* Pope Anastasius II – Pope 496–498\n* Pope Anastasius III – Pope 911–913\n* Pope Anastasius IV – Pope 1153 to 1154\n\n=== Other Christian Saints and clergy ===\n* Saint Anastasius – a martyr under Nero\n* Saint Anastasius the Fuller – martyr (d. 304)\n* Pope Anastasius of Alexandria – Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria 605–616\n* Anastasius of Antioch (disambiguation), multiple people\n* Anastasius (Graeco-Roman jurist) – fl. 6th century\n* Saint Anastasius of Persia – Persian martyr (d. 628)\n* Saint Anastasius of Pavia– bishop of Pavia (d. 628)\n* Anastasius of Armenia – Catholicos of Armenia from 661 to 667\n* Saint Anastasius Sinaita (of Sinai) – theologian, Father of the Eastern Orthodox Church, monk, priest, and abbot of the monastery at Mt. Sinai (fl. 7th century)\n* Anastasius (abbot of Euthymius) – fl. 7th or 8th century\n* Anastasius Bibliothecarius (c. 810–878) – librarian of the Church of Rome, scholar and statesman, sometimes identified as an Antipope\n* Astrik or Saint Anastasius of Pannonhalma – ambassador of Stephen I of Hungary (d. 1030)\n* Anastasius of Hungary (954-1044), Apostle to Hungary\n* Saint Anastasius of Lleida\n* St. Anastasius Cornicularius\n* Anastasius of Suppentonia – abbot (died 570)\n* Patriarch Anastasius of Constantinople (I) – Patriarch of Constantinople 730–754\n* Anastasius Germonius – Archbishop of Tarantaise and canon lawyer (1551–1627)\n* Anastasius the Melodist (Hymnographer) – believed to be a name of three or more melodists, one of whom is believed to have been a contemporary of Rhomanos\n* Anastasios (born 1929), Greek Orthodox Archbishop of Tirana, Durrës and All Albania\n\n=== Other politicians and military ===\n* Anastasios Balkos (1916-1995), Greek politician\n* Anastasios Charalambis (1862-1949), Greek officer and interim Prime Minister of Greece \n* Anastasios Dalipis (1896-1949), Greek Army officer and politician\n* Anastasios Karatasos (1764-1830), Greek military commander during the Greek War of Independence\n* Anastasios Nerantzis (b. 1944), Greek politician\n* Anastasios Papaligouras (b. 1948), Greek politician\n* Anastasios Papoulas (1857-1935), Greek general\n* Anastasios Peponis (1924-2011), Greek politician\n* Anastasios Polyzoidis (1802-1873), Greek politician and judicial official\n* Anastasios Tsamados (1774 – 1825), Greek admiral of the Greek War of Independence\n\n=== Sportsmen and Other commoners ===\n* Anastasios Bountouris (b. 1955), Greek Olympic medalist in sailing\n* Anastasios Dimitriadis (b. 1997), Greek footballer\n* Anastasios Lagos (b. 1992) Greek footballer\n* Anastasios Metaxas (1862-1937), Greek architect\n* Anastasios Orlandos (1887–1979), Greek archeologist and architect\n* Anastasios Rousakis (b. 1985), Greek footballer\n* Anastasios Schizas (b. 1977), Greek water polo player\n* Anastasios Triantafyllou (b. 1987), Greek weightlifter\n\n=== Anastasio ===\n* Anastasio Somoza García, Nicaraguan dictator (ruled 1936–1956)\n* Anastasio Somoza Debayle (1925–1980), Nicaraguan dictator (ruled 1967–1979)\n* Anastasio Somoza Portocarrero (born 1951), son of Somoza Debayle\n\n=== Pseudonym ===\n* Anton Alexander Graf von Auersperg (1806–1876), Austrian poet who wrote under the pseudonym of Anastasius Grün.\n", "* ''Anastasius'', a novel by Thomas Hope in the early 19th century.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Proper name ", " Other " ]	Anastasius
[ "\n'''Anaximenes of Miletus''' (; ; c. 585 – c. 528 BCE) was an Ancient Greek Pre-Socratic philosopher active in the latter half of the 6th century BC. One of the three Milesian philosophers, he is identified as a younger friend or student of Anaximander. Anaximenes, like others in his school of thought, practiced material monism. This tendency to identify one specific underlying reality made up of a material thing is what Anaximenes is principally known for today.\n", "While his predecessors Thales and Anaximander proposed that the ''archai'' (singular: ''arche'', meaning the underlying material of the world) were water and the ambiguous substance ''apeiron'', respectively, Anaximenes asserted that air was this primary substance of which all other things are made. The choice of air may seem arbitrary, but Anaximenes based his conclusion on naturally observable phenomena in the processes of rarefaction and condensation. When air condenses it becomes visible, as mist and then rain and other forms of precipitation. As the condensed air cools Anaximenes supposed that it went on to form earth and ultimately stones. In contrast, water evaporates into air, which ignites and produces flame when further rarefied. While other philosophers also recognized such transitions in states of matter, Anaximenes was the first to associate the quality pairs hot/dry and cold/wet with the density of a single material and add a quantitative dimension to the Milesian monistic system.\n", "Having concluded that everything in the world is composed of air, Anaximenes used his theory to devise a scheme that explains the origins and nature of the earth and the surrounding celestial bodies. Air felted to create the flat disk of the earth, which he said was table-like and behaved like a leaf floating on air. In keeping with the prevailing view of celestial bodies as balls of fire in the sky, Anaximenes proposed that the earth let out an exhalation of air that rarefied, ignited and became the stars. While the sun is similarly described as being aflame, it is not composed of rarefied air like the stars, but rather of earth like the moon; its burning comes not from its composition but rather from its rapid motion. Similarly, he considered the moon and sun to be flat and floating on streams of air. In his theory, when the sun sets it does not pass under the earth, but is merely obscured by higher parts of the earth as it circles around and becomes more distant. Anaximenes likens the motion of the sun and the other celestial bodies around the earth to the way that a cap may be turned around the head.\n", "Anaximenes used his observations and reasoning to provide causes for other natural phenomena on the earth as well. Earthquakes, he asserted, were the result either of lack of moisture, which causes the earth to break apart because of how parched it is, or of superabundance of water, which also causes cracks in the earth. In either case the earth becomes weakened by its cracks, so that hills collapse and cause earthquakes. Lightning is similarly caused by the violent separation of clouds by the wind, creating a bright, fire-like flash. Rainbows, on the other hand, are formed when densely compressed air is touched by the rays of the sun. These examples show how Anaximenes, like the other Milesian philosophers, looked for the broader picture in nature. They sought unifying causes for diversely occurring events, rather than treating each one on a case-by-case basis, or attributing them to gods or to a personified nature.\n", "The Anaximenes crater on the Moon is named in his honor.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n* \n* Anaximenes at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n* \n* Anaximenes Fragments\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Anaximenes and the Arche", "The origin of the Cosmos", "Other phenomena", "Legacy", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Anaximenes of Miletus
[ "\n\n'''Ancus Marcius''' (–617 BC ; reigned 642–617 BC) was the legendary fourth king of Rome. He was the son of Marcius (whose father, also named Marcius, had been a close friend of Numa Pompilius), who may be identified with Numa Marcius, and Pompilia (daughter of Numa Pompilius). According to Festus, Marcius had the surname of ''Ancus'' from his ''crooked'' arm. Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who elected the new king.\n\nAncus Marcius was believed by the Romans to have been the namesake of the Marcii, a Plebeian family.\n\n", "According to Livy, his first act as king was to order the Pontifex Maximus to copy the text concerning the performance of public ceremonies of religion from the commentaries of Numa Pompilius to be displayed to the public, so that the rites of religion should no longer be neglected or improperly performed.\n", "He waged war successfully against the Latins, and a number of them were settled on the Aventine Hill. According to Livy the war was commenced by the Latins who anticipated Ancus would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins initially made an incursion on Roman lands. When a Roman embassy sought restitution for the damage, the Latins gave a contemptuous reply. Ancus accordingly declared war on the Latins. The declaration is notable since, according to Livy, it was the first time that the Romans had declared war by means of the rites of the fetials.\n\nAncus Marcius marched from Rome with a newly levied army and took the Latin town of Politorium (situated near the town of Lanuvium) by storm. Its residents were removed to settle on the Aventine Hill in Rome as new citizens, following the Roman traditions from wars with the Sabines and Albans. When the other Latins subsequently occupied the empty town of Politorium, Ancus took the town again and demolished it. The Latin villages of Tellenae and Ficana were also sacked and demolished.\n\nThe war then focused on the Latin town of Medullia. The town had a strong garrison and was well fortified. Several engagements took place outside the town and the Romans were eventually victorious. Ancus returned to Rome with much booty. More Latins were brought to Rome as citizens and were settled at the foot of the Aventine near the Palatine Hill, by the temple of Murcia. \nAncus Marcius incorporated the Janiculum into the city, fortifying it with a wall and connecting it with the city by a wooden bridge across the Tiber, the Pons Sublicius. \nOn the land side of the city he constructed the Fossa Quiritium, a ditch fortification. He also built Rome's first prison, the Mamertine prison.\n\nHe extended Roman territory to the sea, founding the port of Ostia, establishing salt-works around the port, and taking the Silva Maesia, an area of coastal forest north of the Tiber, from the Veientes. \nHe expanded the temple of Jupiter Feretrius to reflect these territorial successes. \nAccording to a reconstruction of the Fasti Triumphales, Ancus Marcius celebrated at least one triumph, over the Sabines and Veientes.\n", "Ancus Marcius was succeeded by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus who would later be executed by the sons of Ancus Marcius. Patrician Marcius Rex -family is descended from Ancus Marcius and remained prominent during the republic and empire.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "First acts as King", "War", "Successor", "References" ]	Ancus Marcius
[ "\n\n\nDetailed map of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands\n\nThe '''Andaman Islands''' form an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal between India, to the west, and Myanmar, to the north and east. Most are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India, while a small number in the north of the archipelago, including the Coco Islands, belong to Myanmar.\n\nThe Andaman Islands are home to the Sentinelese, who have had little contact with any other people.\n", "Comparative distributions of Andamanese indigenous peoples, pre-18C vs present-day\n\n===Etymology===\n\nThe name of the Andaman Islands is ancient.. A theory that became prevalent in the late 19th century is that it derives from Andoman, a form of Hanuman, the Sanskrit name of the Indian monkey god. Another Italian traveller, Niccolò de' Conti (), mentioned the islands and said that the name means \"Island of Gold\".\n\n===Early inhabitants===\nThe Andaman islands have been inhabited for several thousand years, at the very least. The earliest archaeological evidence yet documented goes back some 2,200 years; however, the indications from genetic, cultural and isolation studies suggest that the islands may have been inhabited as early as the Middle Paleolithic. The indigenous Andamanese people appear to have lived on the islands in substantial isolation from that time until the 18th century CE.\n\nThe Andamans are theorised to be a key stepping stone in a great coastal migration of humans from Africa via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and towards Southeast Asia, Japan and Oceania.\nThe Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal were said to be inhabited by wolf-headed people, who were depicted in a \"book of wonders\" produced in Paris in the early 15th century.\n\n===Chola empire===\nFrom 800 to 1200 CE, the Tamil Chola dynasty created an empire that eventually extended from southeastern peninsular India to parts of Malaysia. Rajendra Chola I (1014 to 1042 CE) took over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and maintained them as a strategic naval base to launch a naval expedition against the Srivijaya empire (a Buddhist-Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia).\n\n=== British colonisation and penal colony ===\nIn 1789, the Bengal Presidency established a naval base and penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman. The settlement is now known as Port Blair (after the Bombay Marine lieutenant Archibald Blair who founded it). After two years, the colony was moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis. However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony and the government ceased operating it in May 1796.\n\nIn 1824, Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Burmese War. In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives and the islands had a reputation for cannibalism. The loss of the ''Runnymede'' and the ''Briton'' in 1844 during the same storm, while transporting goods and passengers between India and Australia, and the continuous attacks launched by the natives, which the survivors fought off, alarmed the British government. In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, because the rebellion gave the British so many prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison urgently necessary. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair using inmates' labour, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp that seemed to have been the source of many of the earlier problems at Port Cornwallis.\n\n17 May 1859 was another major day for Andaman. The \"Battle of Aberdeen\" was fought between the Great Andamanese Tribe and the British. Today, a memorial stands in Andaman Water sports complex as a tribute to the people who lost their lives. Fearing foreign invasion and with help from an escaped convict from Cellular Jail, the great Andamanese tribe stormed the British post, but they were outnumbered and soon suffered heavy loss of life. Later, it was identified that an escaped convict named Doodnath had changed sides and informed the British about the tribe's plans. Today, the tribe has been reduced to some 50 people, with less than 50% of them adults. The government of Andaman Islands is making efforts to increase the headcount of this tribe.\n\n\nIn 1867, the ship ''Nineveh'' wrecked on the reef of North Sentinel Island. The 86 survivors reached the beach in the ship's boats. On the third day, they were attacked with iron-tipped spears by naked islanders. One person from the ship escaped in a boat and the others were later rescued by a British Royal Navy ship.\n\nFor some time, sickness and mortality were high, but swamp reclamation and extensive forest clearance continued. The Andaman colony became notorious with the murder of the Viceroy Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo, on a visit to the settlement (8 February 1872), by a Muslim convict, a Pathan from Afghanistan, Sher Ali. In the same year, the two island groups Andaman and Nicobar, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.\n\nThe Ross Island prison headquarters, 1872\nFrom the time of its development in 1858 under the direction of James Pattison Walker, and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The Cellular Jail at Port Blair when completed in 1910 included 698 cells designed for solitary confinement; each cell measured with a single ventilation window above the floor. A notable prisoner there was Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.\n\nThe Indians imprisoned here referred to the Island and its prison as ''Kala Pani'' (\"black water\"); a 1996 film set on the island took that term as its title ''Kaalapani''. The number of prisoners who died in this camp is estimated to be in the thousands. Many more died of harsh treatment and the harsh living and working conditions in this camp.\n\nThe Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century, it became a convenient place to house prominent members of India's independence movement.\n\n====Japanese occupation====\nRoss Island in 2004\nAndaman Islands\nThe Andaman and Nicobar islands were occupied by Japan during World War II. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (Provisional Government of Free India) headed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). On 30 December 1943, during the Japanese occupation, Bose, who was allied with the Japanese, first raised the flag of Indian independence. General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army, was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. According to Werner Gruhl: \"Before leaving the islands, the Japanese rounded up and executed 750 innocents.\" After the end of the war the islands returned to British control before becoming part of the newly independent state of India.\n\nAt the close of World War II, the British government announced its intention to abolish the penal settlement. The government proposed to employ former inmates in an initiative to develop the island's fisheries, timber, and agricultural resources. In exchange, inmates would be granted return passage to the Indian mainland, or the right to settle on the islands. The penal colony was eventually closed on 15 August 1947 when India gained independence. It has since served as a museum to the independence movement.\n\n===Recent history===\nIn April 1998, American photographer John S Callahan organised the first surfing project in the Andamans, starting from Phuket in Thailand with the assistance of Southeast Asia Liveaboards (SEAL), a UK owned dive charter company. With a crew of international professional surfers, they crossed the Andaman Sea on the yacht ''Crescent'' and cleared formalities in Port Blair. The group proceeded to Little Andaman Island, where they spent ten days surfing several spots for the first time, including Jarawa Point near Hut Bay and the long right reef point at the southwest tip of the island, named Kumari Point. The resulting article in ''Surfer Magazine'', \"Quest for Fire\" by journalist Sam George, put the Andaman Islands on the surfing map for the first time. Footage of the waves of the Andaman Islands also appeared in the film ''Thicker than Water'', shot by documentary filmmaker Jack Johnson, who later achieved worldwide fame as a popular musician. Callahan went on to make several more surfing projects in the Andamans, including a trip to the Nicobar Islands in 1999.\n\nOn 26 December 2004, the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which is the longest recorded earthquake, lasting for between 500 and 600 seconds. Strong oral traditions in the area warned of the importance of moving inland after a quake and is credited with saving many lives. In the aftermath, more than 2,000 people were confirmed dead and more than 4,000 children were orphaned or had lost one parent. At least 40,000 residents were rendered homeless and were moved to relief camps. On 11 August 2009, a magnitude 7 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands, causing a tsunami warning to go into effect. On 30 March 2010, a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands.\n", "Sunset Point, Andaman\nBeach no.3 at Haveleck in the Andaman Islands.\nChidiya Tapu, Andaman\n\nThe Andaman Archipelago is an oceanic continuation of the Burmese Arakan Yoma range in the North and of the Indonesian Archipelago in the South. It has 325 islands which cover an area of , with the Andaman Sea to the east between the islands and the coast of Burma. North Andaman Island is south of Burma, although a few smaller Burmese islands are closer, including the three Coco Islands.\n\nThe Ten Degree Channel separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands to the south. The highest point is located in North Andaman Island (Saddle Peak at ).\n\nThe subsoil of the Andaman islands consists essentially of Late Jurassic to Early Eocene ophiolites and sedimentary rocks (argillaceous and algal limestones), deformed by numerous deep faults and thrusts with ultramafic igneous intrusions. There are at least 11 mud volcanoes on the islands.\n\nThe climate is typical of tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes. Rainfall is irregular, usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west, monsoons.\n", "The Middle Andamans harbour mostly moist deciduous forests. North Andamans is characterised by the wet evergreen type, with plenty of woody climbers.\n\nThe natural vegetation of the Andamans is tropical forest, with mangroves on the coast. The rainforests are similar in composition to those of the west coast of Burma. Most of the forests are evergreen, but there are areas of deciduous forest on North Andaman, Middle Andaman, Baratang and parts of South Andaman Island. The South Andaman forests have a profuse growth of epiphytic vegetation, mostly ferns and orchids.\n\nThe Andaman forests are largely unspoiled, despite logging and the demands of the fast-growing population driven by immigration from the Indian mainland. There are protected areas on Little Andaman, Narcondam, North Andaman and South Andaman, but these are mainly aimed at preserving the coast and the marine wildlife rather than the rainforests. Threats to wildlife come from introduced species including rats, dogs, cats and the elephants of Interview Island and North Andaman.\n\n===Timber===\nthumb\nAndaman forests contain 200 or more timber producing species of trees, out of which about 30 varieties are considered to be commercial. Major commercial timber species are Gurjan (''Dipterocarpus'' spp.) and Padauk (''Pterocarpus dalbergioides''). The following ornamental woods are noted for their pronounced grain formation:\n\n* Marble Wood (''Diospyros marmorata'')\n* Padauk (''Pterocarpus dalbergioides'')\n* Silver Grey (a special formation of wood in white utkarsh)\n* Chooi (''Sageraea elliptica'')\n* Kokko (''Albizzia lebbeck'')\n\nPadauk wood is sturdier than teak and is widely used for furniture making.\n\nThere are burr wood and buttress root formations in Andaman Padauk. The largest piece of buttress known from Andaman was a dining table of . The largest piece of burr wood was again a dining table for eight.\n\nThe holy Rudraksha (''Elaeocarps sphaericus'') and aromatic Dhoop resin trees also are found here.\n", "The coral reef at Havelock in Andaman\n\nThe Andaman Islands are home to a number of animals, many of them endemic.\n\n===Mammals===\nThe island's endemic mammals include\n* Andaman spiny shrew (''Crocidura hispida'')\n* Andaman shrew (''Crocidura andamanensis'')\n* Jenkins' shrew (''Crocidura jenkinsi'')\n* Andaman horseshoe bat (''Rhinolophus cognatus'')\n* Andaman rat (''Rattus stoicus'')\n\nThe banded pig (''Sus scrofa vittatus''), also known as the Andaman wild boar and once thought to be an endemic subspecies, is protected by the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 (Sch I). The spotted deer (''Axis axis''), the Indian muntjac (''Muntiacus muntjak'') and the sambar (''Rusa unicolor'') were all introduced to the Andaman islands, though the sambar did not survive.\n\nInterview Island (the largest wildlife sanctuary in the territory) in Middle Andaman holds a population of feral elephants, which were brought in for forest work by a timber company and released when the company went bankrupt. This population has been subject to research studies.\n\n===Birds===\nEndemic or near endemic birds include\n* ''Spilornis elgini'', a serpent-eagle\n* ''Rallina canningi'', a crake (endemic; data-deficient per IUCN 2000)\n* ''Columba palumboides'', a wood-pigeon\n* ''Macropygia rufipennis'', a cuckoo dove\n* ''Centropus andamanensis'', a subspecies of brown coucal (endemic)\n* ''Otus balli'', the scops owl\n* ''Ninox affinis'', a hawk-owl\n* ''Rhyticeros narcondami'', the Narcondam hornbill\n* ''Dryocopus hodgei'', a woodpecker\n* ''Dicrurus andamanensis'', a drongo\n* ''Dendrocitta bayleyii'', a treepie\n* ''Sturnus erythropygius'', the white-headed starling\n* ''Collocalia affinis'', the plume-toed swiftlet\n* ''Aerodramus fuciphagus'', the edible-nest swiftlet\nThe islands' many caves, such as those at Chalis Ek are nesting grounds for the edible-nest swiftlet, whose nests are prized in China for bird's nest soup.\n\n===Reptiles and amphibians===\nThe islands also have a number of endemic reptiles, toads and frogs, such as the South Andaman krait (''Bungarus andamanensis'') and Andaman water monitor (''Varanus salvator andamanensis'').\n\nThere is a sanctuary from Havelock Island for saltwater crocodiles. Over the past 25 years there have been 24 crocodile attacks with four fatalities, including the death of American tourist Lauren Failla. The government has been criticised for failing to inform tourists of the crocodile sanctuary and danger, while simultaneously promoting tourism. Crocodiles are not only found within the sanctuary, but throughout the island chain in varying densities. They are habitat restricted, so the population is stable but not large. Populations occur throughout available mangrove habitat on all major islands, including a few creeks on Havelock. The species uses the ocean as a means of travel between different rivers and estuaries, thus they are not as commonly observed in open ocean. It is best to avoid swimming near mangrove areas or the mouths of creeks; swimming in the open ocean should be safe, but it is best to have a spotter around.\n", "Most of the tribal people in Andaman and Nicobar Islands believe in a religion that can be described as a form of monotheistic Animism. The tribal people of these islands believe that Paluga is the only deity and is responsible for everything happening on Earth.\nThe faith of the Andamanese teaches that Paluga resides on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands' Saddle Peak (Andaman Islands). People try to avoid any action that might displease Paluga. People belonging to this religion believe in the presence of souls, ghosts, and spirits.\nInterestingly, people of this religion put a lot of emphasis on dreams. They let dreams decide different courses of action in their lives.\n\nOther religions practiced in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are, in order of size, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and Baha'i Faith. \n", "A young Onge mother with her child\n, the population of the Andaman was 343,125, having grown from 50,000 in 1960. The bulk of the population originates from immigrants who came to the island since the colonial times, mainly of Bengali, Hindustani and Tamil backgrounds.\n\n===Indigenous Andamanese===\n\n\nOf the people who live in the Andaman Islands, a small minority of about 1,000 are the so-called Andamanese, the aboriginal inhabitants (adivasi) of the islands. By the 1850s when they first came into sustained contact by outside groups, there were estimated 7,000 Andamanese, divided into the following major groups:\n* Great Andamanese\n* Jarawa\n* Jangil (or ''Rutland Jarawa'')\n* Onge\n* Sentinelese\n\nAs the numbers of settlers from the mainland increased (at first mostly prisoners and involuntary indentured labourers, later purposely recruited farmers), these indigenous people lost territory and numbers in the face of punitive expeditions by British troops, land encroachment and various epidemic diseases. Presently, there remain only approximately 400–450 indigenous Andamanese. The Jangil were soon extinct. The Great Andamanese were originally 10 distinct tribes with 5,000 people in total; most of the tribes are extinct, and the survivors, now just 52, speak mostly Hindi. The Onge are reduced to less than 100 people. Only the Jarawa and Sentinelese still maintain a steadfast independence and refuse most attempts at contact; their numbers are uncertain but estimated to be in the low hundreds.\nTribes of Andaman\n", "Port Blair is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative centre of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single administrative district within the Union Territory, the Andaman district (the Nicobar Islands were separated and established as the new Nicobar district in 1974).\n", "The islands are prominently featured in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes mystery, ''The Sign of the Four,'' as well as in M. M. Kaye's ''Death in the Andamans''. The magistrate in Lady Gregory's play ''Spreading the News'' had formerly served in the islands. Marianne Wiggins' novel, John Dollar (1989), is set on one of the islands; the characters begin an expedition from Burma to celebrate King George's birthday and after an earthquake and tsunami it becomes a grim survival story. A principal character in the book ''Six Suspects'' by Vikas Swarup is from the Andaman Islands. ''Kaalapani'' (Malayalam) and ''Sirai Chaalai'' (Tamil), a 1996 Indian film by Priyadarshan, depicts the Indian freedom struggle and the lives of prisoners in the Cellular Jail in Port Blair. ''Island's End'' is a 2011 novel by Padma Venkatraman about the training of an indigenous shaman.\n", "The only commercial airport in the islands is Veer Savarkar International Airport in Port Blair, which has scheduled services to Kolkata, Chennai, New Delhi, Bangalore, Visakhapatnam and Bhubaneswar. The airport is under the control of the Indian Navy. Previously, only daylight operations were allowed, but since the beginning of 2016 night flights have also operated. A small airstrip of approximately 1000 metres is located near the Eastern shore of North Andaman near Diglipur.\n\nDue to the length of the routes and the small number of airlines flying to the islands, fares have traditionally been relatively expensive, although cheaper for locals than visitors. Fares are high during the peak seasons of spring and winter, although fares have decreased over time due to the expansion of the civil aviation industry in India.\n", "\n* Endemic birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands\n* List of trees of the Andaman Islands\n* Lists of islands\n* Nicobar Islands\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Sources'''\n\n History & Culture. The Andaman Islands with destination quide\nIndia Home Department. The Andaman Islands: with notes on Barren Island. C.B. Lewis, Baptist Mission Press, 1859 read online or download\n", "\n\n Official Andaman and Nicobar Tourism Website\n* Andaman District (official site)\n* Sorenson, E. Richard, \"Sensuality and Consciousness: Psychosexual Transformation in the Eastern Andaman,\" '' Anthropology of Consciousness'' (Vol 4, No. 4: Dec. 1993) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Flora", "Fauna", "Religion", "Demographics", "Government", "Cultural references", "Transportation", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Andaman Islands
[ "\n''Supplementum Apollonii redivivi'', 1612\n\n'''Alexander Anderson''' (, Aberdeen – , Paris) was a Scottish mathematician.\n", "He was born in Aberdeen, possibly in 1582, according to a print which suggests he was aged 35 in 1617. It is unknown where he was educated, but it is likely that he initially studied writing and philosophy (the \"belles lettres\") in his home city of Aberdeen.\n\nHe then went to the continent, and was a professor of mathematics in Paris by the start of the seventeenth century. There he published or edited, between the years 1612 and 1619, various geometric and algebraic tracts. He described himself as having \"more wisdom than riches\" in the dedication of ''Vindiciae Archimedis'' (1616).\n\nHe was first cousin of David Anderson of Finshaugh, a celebrated mathematician, and David Anderson's daughter was the mother of mathematician James Gregory.\n", "He was selected by the executors of François Viète to revise and edit Viète's manuscript works. Viète died in 1603, and it is unclear if Anderson knew him, but his eminence was sufficient to attract the attention of the dead man's executors. Anderson corrected and expanded upon Viète's manuscripts, which extended known geometry to the new algebra, which used general symbols to represent quantities.\n\n===Publications===\nThe known works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in 1619, it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown. He wrote other works that have since been lost. From his last work it appears he wrote another piece, \"A Treatise on the Mensuration of Solids,\" and copies of two other works, ''Ex. Math.'' and ''Stereometria Triangulorum Sphæricorum'', were in the possession of Sir Alexander Hume until the after the middle of the seventeenth century.\n\n1612: ''Supplementum Apollonii Redivivi''\n1615: ''Ad Angularum Sectionem Analytica Theoremata F. Vieta''\n1615: ''Pro Zetetico Apolloniani''\n1615: ''Francisci Vietae Fontenaeensis''\n1616: ''Vindiciae Archimedis''\n1619: ''Alexandri Andersoni Exercitationum Mathematicarum Decas Prima''\n", "* Marin Getaldić\n* Denis Henrion\n* Frans van Schooten\n", "\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n\n", " \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Work", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Alexander Anderson (mathematician)
[ "'''Andocides''' (; , ''Andokides''; c. 440 – c. 390 BC) was a logographer (speech writer) in Ancient Greece. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the \"Alexandrian Canon\" compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace in the third century BC.\n", "Andocides was the son of Leogoras, and was born in Athens around 440 BC. He belonged to the ancient Eupatrid family of the Kerykes, who traced their lineage up to Odysseus and the god Hermes.\n\nIn his youth, he seems to have been employed on various occasions as ambassador to Thessaly, Macedonia, Molossia, Thesprotia, Italy, and Sicily. And although he was frequently attacked for his political opinions, he maintained his ground until, in 415 BC, when he became involved in the charge brought against Alcibiades for having profaned the mysteries and mutilated the Herms on the eve of the departure of the Athenian expedition against Sicily. It appeared particularly likely that Andocides was an accomplice in the latter of these crimes, which was believed to be a preliminary step towards overthrowing the democratic constitution, since the Herm standing close to his house in the phyle Aegeis was among the very few which had not been injured.\n\nAndocides was accordingly seized and thrown into prison, but after some time recovered his freedom by a promise that he would turn informer and reveal the names of the real perpetrators of the crime; and on the suggestion of one Charmides or Timaeus, he mentioned four, all of whom were put to death. He is said to have also denounced his own father on the charge of profaning the mysteries, but to have rescued him again in the hour of danger - a charge he strenuously denied. But as Andocides was unable to clear himself from the charge, he was deprived of his rights as a citizen, and left Athens.\n\nHe now traveled about in various parts of Greece, and was chiefly engaged in commercial enterprise and in forming connections with powerful people. The means he employed to gain the friendship of powerful men were sometimes of the most disreputable kind; among which a service he rendered to a prince in Cyprus is mentioned in particular.\n\nIn 411 BC, Andocides returned to Athens on the establishment of the oligarchic government of the Four Hundred, hoping that a certain service he had rendered the Athenian ships at Samos would secure him a welcome reception. But no sooner were the oligarchs informed of the return of Andocides, than their leader Peisander had him seized, and accused him of having supported the party opposed to them at Samos. During his trial, Andocides, who perceived the exasperation prevailing against him, leaped to the altar which stood in the court, and there assumed the attitude of a supplicant. This saved his life, but he was imprisoned. Soon afterwards, however, he was set free, or escaped from prison.\n\nAndocides now went to Cyprus, where for a time he enjoyed the friendship of Evagoras; but, by some circumstance or other, he exasperated his friend, and was consigned to prison. Here again he escaped, and after the restoration of democracy in Athens and the abolition of the Four Hundred, he ventured once more to return to Athens; but as he was still suffering under a sentence of civil disenfranchisement, he endeavored by means of bribes to persuade the prytaneis to allow him to attend the assembly of the people. The latter, however, expelled him from the city. It was on this occasion, 411 BC, that Andocides delivered the speech still extant \"On his return\", on which he petitioned for permission to reside at Athens, but in vain. In his third exile, Andocides went to reside in Elis, and during the time of his absence from his native city, his house there was occupied by Cleophon, the leading demagogue.\n\nAndocides remained in exile until after the overthrow of the tyranny of the Thirty by Thrasybulus, when the general amnesty then proclaimed made him hope that its benefit would be extended to him also. He himself says that he returned to Athens from Cyprus, where he claimed to have great influence and considerable property. Because of the general amnesty, he was allowed to remain at Athens, enjoyed peace for the next three years, and soon recovered an influential position. According to Lysias, it was scarcely ten days after his return that he brought an accusation against Archippus or Aristippus, which, however, he dropped on receiving a sum of money. During this period Andocides became a member of the boule, in which he appears to have possessed a great influence, as well as in the popular assembly. He was gymnasiarch at the Hephaestaea, was sent as architheorus to the Isthmian Games and Olympic Games, and was even entrusted with the office of keeper of the sacred treasury.\n\nBut in 400 BC, Callias, supported by Cephisius, Agyrrhius, Meletus, and Epichares, urged the necessity of preventing Andocides from attending the assembly, as he had never been formally freed from the civil disenfranchisement. Callias also charged him with violating the laws respecting the temple at Eleusis. The orator pleaded his case in the oration still extant \"on the Mysteries\" (περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων), in which he argued that he had not been involved in the profanation of the mysteries or the mutilation of the herms, that he had not violated the laws of the temple at Eleusis, that anyway he had received his citizenship back as a result of the amnesty, and that Callias was really motivated by a private dispute with Andocides over inheritance. He was acquitted. After this, he again enjoyed peace until 394 BC, he was sent as ambassador to Sparta respecting the peace to be concluded in consequence of Conon's victory off Cnidus. On his return he was accused of illegal conduct during his embassy. The speech \"On the peace with the Lacedaemons\" (περὶ τῆς πρὸς Λακεδαιμονίους εἰρήνης), which is still extant, refers to this affair. It was delivered in 393 BC (though some scholars place it in 391 BC). Andocides was found guilty, and sent into exile for the fourth time. He never returned afterwards, and seems to have died soon after this blow.\n\nAndocides appears to have fathered no children, since he is described at the age of 70 as being childless, although the scholiast on Aristophanes mentions Antiphon as a son of Andocides. The large fortune which he had inherited from his father, or acquired in his commercial undertakings, was greatly diminished in the latter years of his life.\n", "As an orator Andocides does not appear to have been held in very high esteem by the ancients, as he is seldom mentioned, though Valerius Theon is said to have written a commentary on his orations. We do not hear of his having been trained in any of the sophistical schools of the time, and he had probably developed his talents in the practical school of the popular assembly. Hence his orations have no mannerism in them, and are really, as Plutarch says, simple and free from all rhetorical pomp and ornament.\n\nSometimes, however, his style is diffuse, and becomes tedious and obscure. The best among his orations is that on the Mysteries; but, for the history of the time, all are of the highest importance.\n\nBesides the three orations already mentioned, which are undoubtedly genuine, there is a fourth against Alcibiades (κατὰ Ἀλκιβιάδου), said to have been delivered by Andocides during the ostracism of 415 BC; but it is probably spurious, though it appears to contain genuine historical matter. Some scholars ascribed it to Phaeax, who took part in the ostracism, according to Plutarch. But it is more likely that it is a rhetorical exercise from the early fourth century BC, since formal speeches were not delivered during ostracisms and the accusation or defence of Alcibiades was a standing rhetorical theme. Besides these four orations we possess only a few fragments and some very vague allusions to other orations.\n", "# On the Mysteries ( \"''De Mysteriis''\"). Andocides' defense against the charge of impiety in the profanation of the Eleusinian Mysteries and the mutilation of the Hermae.\n# On His Return ( \"''De Reditu''\"). Andocides' plea for his return and removal of civil disabilities.\n# On the Peace with Sparta ( \"''De Pace''\"). An argument for peace with Sparta.\n# Against Alcibiades ( \"''Contra Alcibiadem''\"). ''Generally considered spurious.''\n", "\n\n;Attribution\n\n\n", "\n Andocides Orations\n*Andocides. ( Speeches at the Perseus Project.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Oratory", "List of extant speeches", "Notes", "External links" ]	Andocides
[ "''Triumphus Caesari'', by Andreani, after a painting by Mantegna\n\n'''Andrea Andreani''' (1540–1623) was an Italian engraver on wood, who was among the first printmakers in Italy to use chiaroscuro, which required multiple colours.\n \nBorn and generally active in Mantua about 1540 (Brulliot says 1560) and died at Rome in 1623. His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of Mantegna, Albrecht Dürer, Parmigianino and Titian. The most remarkable of his works are ''Mercury and Ignorance'', the ''Deluge'', ''Pharaoh's Host Drowned in the Red Sea'' (after Titian), the ''Triumph of Caesar'' (after Mantegna), and ''Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate'' after a relief by Giambologna. He was active 1584–1610 in Florence.\n", "\n\"Andrea Andreani\" in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 9th Edition, Vol. II, p. 20.\n Getty ULAN entry.\n", "\n\n artnet\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "Further reading" ]	Andrea Andreani
[ "\n\n\n'''Andrew II''' (, , , ; 117721 September 1235), also known as '''Andrew of Jerusalem''', was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1205 and 1235. He ruled the Principality of Halych from 1188 until 1189/1190, and again between 1208/1209 and 1210. He was the younger son of Béla III of Hungary, who entrusted him with the administration of the newly conquered Principality of Halych in 1188. Andrew's rule was unpopular, and the boyars expelled him. Béla III willed property and money to Andrew, obliging him to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. Instead, Andrew forced his elder brother, King Emeric of Hungary, to cede Croatia and Dalmatia as an appanage to him in 1197. The following year, Andrew occupied Hum.\n\nDespite the fact that Andrew did not stop conspiring against Emeric, the dying king made Andrew guardian of his son, Ladislaus III, in 1204. After the premature death of Ladislaus, Andrew ascended the throne in 1205. According to historian László Kontler, \"it was amindst the socio-political turmoil during Andrew's reign that the relations, arrangements, institutional framework and social categories that arose under Stephen I, started to disintegrate in the higher echelons of society\" in Hungary. Andrew introduced a new grants policy, the so-called \"new institutions\", giving away money and royal estates to his partisans despite the loss of royal revenues. He was the first Hungarian monarch to adopt the title of \"King of Halych and Lodomeria\". He waged at least a dozen wars to seize the two Rus' principalities, but the local boyars and neighboring princes prevented him from conquering the principalities. He participated in the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217–1218, but the crusade was a failure.\n\nWhen the ''servientes regis'', or \"royal servants\", rose up, Andrew was forced to issue the Golden Bull of 1222, confirming their privileges. This led to the rise of the nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary. His ''Diploma Andreanum'' of 1224 listed the liberties of the Transylvanian Saxon community. The employment of Jews and Muslims to administer the royal revenues led him into conflict with the Holy See and the Hungarian prelates. Andrew pledged to respect the privileges of the clergymen and to dismiss his non-Christian officials in 1233, but he never fulfilled the latter promise.\n\nAndrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was murdered in 1213, because her blatant favoritism towards her German kinsmen and courtiers stirred up discontent among the native lords. The veneration of their daughter, Elizabeth of Hungary, was confirmed by the Holy See during Andrew's lifetime. After Andrew's death, his sons, Béla and Coloman, accused his third wife, Beatrice d'Este, of adultery and never considered her son, Stephen, to be a legitimate son of Andrew.\n", "\n===Childhood and youth ( 1177–1197)===\n\nAndrew was the second son of King Béla III and Béla's first wife, Agnes of Antioch. The year of Andrew's birth is not known, but modern historians agree that he was born around 1177. Andrew was first mentioned in connection to his father's invasion of the Principality of Halych in 1188. That year, Béla III invaded Halych upon the request of its former prince, Vladimir II Yaroslavich, who had been expelled by his subjects. Béla forced the new prince, Roman Mstislavich, to flee. After conquering Halych, he granted it to Andrew. Béla also captured Vladimir Yaroslavich and imprisoned him in Hungary.\n\nAfter Béla's withdrawal from Halych, Roman Mstislavich returned with the assistance of Rurik Rostislavich, Prince of Belgorod Kievsky. They tried to expel Andrew and his Hungarian retinue, but the Hungarians routed the united forces of Mstislavich and Rostislavich. A group of local boyars offered the throne to Rostislav Ivanovich, a distant cousin of the imprisoned Vladimir Yaroslavich. Béla III sent reinforcements to Halych, enabling Andrew's troops to repel the attacks. Andrew's reign remained unpopular in Halych, because the Hungarian soldiers insulted local women and did not respect Orthodox churches. Consequently, the local boyars allied with their former prince, Vladimir Yaroslavich, who had escaped from captivity and returned to Halych. Duke Casimir II of Poland also supported Vladimir Yaroslavich, and they expelled Andrew and his retinue from the principality in August 1189 or 1190. Andrew returned to Hungary after his defeat. He did not receive a separate duchy from his father, who only gave him estates and money. On his deathbed, Béla III, who had pledged to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, ordered Andrew to fulfill his vow. Andrew's father died on 23 April 1196, and Andrew's older brother, Emeric, succeeded him.\n\n===Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia (1197–1204)===\n\nAndrew used the funds that he inherited from his father to recruit supporters among the Hungarian lords. He also formed an alliance with Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, and they plotted against Emeric. Their united troops routed the royal army at Mački, Slavonia, in December 1197. Under duress, King Emeric gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew as an appanage. In practice, Andrew administered Croatia and Dalmatia as an independent monarch. He minted coins, granted land and confirmed privileges. He cooperated with the Frankopans, Babonići, and other local lords. The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre settled in the province during his rule. Taking advantage of Miroslav of Hum's death, Andrew invaded Hum and occupied at least the land between the Cetina and Neretva rivers. He styled himself, \"By the grace of God, Duke of Zadar and of all Dalmatia, Croatia and Hum\" in his charters.\n\nPope Innocent III urged Andrew to lead a crusade the Holy Land, but Andrew hatched a new conspiracy against Emeric with the help of John, Abbot of Pannonhalma, Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, and many other prelates and lords. The Pope threatened him with excommunication if he failed to fulfill his father's vow, but Andrew did not yield. The conspiracy was uncovered on 10 March 1199, when King Emeric seized letters written by Andrew's partisans to Bishop Boleslaus. That summer, royal troops routed Andrew's army near Lake Balaton, and Andrew fled to Austria. A papal legate mediated a reconciliation between Andrew and Emeric, who allowed Andrew to return to Croatia and Dalmatia in 1200. Andrew married Gertrude of Merania; her father, Berthold, Duke of Merania, owned extensive domains in the Holy Roman Empire along the borders of Andrew's duchy.\n\nThe \"Árpád stripes\" (four Argent (silver) and four Gules (red) stripes) on Andrew's personal coat-of-arms\n\nWhen Emeric's son, Ladislaus, was born around 1200, Andrew's hopes to succeed his brother as king were shattered. Pope Innocent confirmed the child's position as heir to the crown, declaring that Andrew's future sons would only inherit Andrew's duchy. Andrew planned a new rebellion against his brother, but King Emeric captured him without resistance near Varaždin in October 1203.\n\n\n\nAndrew was first imprisoned in the fort of Gornji Kneginec, then in Esztergom. Alexander of the Hont-Pázmány clan freed him in early 1204. Having fallen ill, King Emeric had his son, Ladislaus, crowned king on 26 August. Andrew reconciled with his dying brother, who entrusted him with \"the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority\", according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon.\n\n===His nephew's guardian (1204–1205)===\n\nKing Emeric died on 30 November 1204. Andrew governed the kingdom as Ladislaus's regent, but he counted his regnal years from the time of his brother's death, showing that he already regarded himself as the lawful monarch during Ladislaus III's reign. Pope Innocent told Andrew that he should remain loyal to Ladislaus. Instead, Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited for Ladislaus in Pilis Abbey. Ladislaus's mother, Constance of Aragon, fled from Hungary, taking her son to Austria. Andrew prepared to war against Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, but Ladislaus suddenly died in Vienna on 7 May 1205.\n", "\n===\"New institutions\" and campaigns in Halych (1205–1217)===\nIlluminated Chronicle''\nJohn, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 29 May 1205. Andrew introduced a new policy for royal grants, which he called \"new institutions\" in one of his charters. He distributed large portions of the royal domainroyal castles and all estates attached to themas inheritable grants to his supporters, declaring that \"the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable.\" His \"new institutions\" altered the relations between the monarchs and the Hungarian lords. During the previous two centuries, a lord's status primarily depended on the income he received for his services to the monarch; after the introduction of the \"new institutions\", their inheritable estates yielded sufficient revenues. This policy also diminished the funds upon which the authority of the ''ispáns'', or heads, of the countieswho were appointed by the monarchshad been based.\n\nDuring his reign, Andrew was intensely interested in the internal affairs of his former principality of Halych. He launched his first campaign to recapture Halych in 1205 or 1206. Upon the boyars' request, he intervened against Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov, and his allies on behalf of Daniel Romanovich, the child-prince of Halych, and Lodomeria. Svyatoslavich and his allies were forced to withdraw. Andrew adopted the title of \"King of Galicia and Lodomeria\", demonstrating his claim to suzerainty in the two principalities. \nAfter Andrew returned to Hungary, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich's distant cousin, Vladimir Igorevich, seized both Halych and Lodomeria, expelling Daniel Romanovich and his mother. They fled to Leszek I of Poland, who suggested that they visit Andrew. However, Vladimir Igorevich \"sent many gifts\" to both Andrew and Leszek, dissuading \"them from attacking him\" on behalf of Romanovich, according to the ''Galician–Volhynian Chronicle''. Vladimir Igorevich's rebellious brother, Roman Igorevich, soon came to Hungary, seeking Andrew's assistance. Roman returned to Halych and expelled Vladimir Igorevich with the help of Hungarian auxiliary troops.\n\nAndrew confirmed the liberties of two Dalmatian townsSplit and Omišand issued a new charter listing the privileges of the archbishops of Split in 1207. Taking advantage of a conflict between Roman Igorevich and his boyars, Andrew sent troops to Halych under the command of Benedict, son of Korlát. Benedict captured Roman Igorevich and occupied the principality in 1208 or 1209. Instead of appointing a new prince, Andrew made Benedict governor of Halych. Benedict \"tortured boyars and was addicted to lechery\", according to the ''Galician–Volhynian Chronicle''. The boyars offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, Prince of Zvenigorod, if he could overthrow Benedict. Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych, but he could not defeat Benedict.\n\nGertrude of Merania and Andrew depicted in the 13th-century ''Landgrafenpsalter'' from the Landgraviate of Thuringia\n\nQueen Gertrude's two brothers, Ekbert, Bishop of Bamberg, and Henry II, Margrave of Istria, fled to Hungary in 1208 after they were accused of participating in the murder of Philip, King of the Germans. Andrew granted large domains to Bishop Ekbert in the Szepesség region (now Spiš, Slovakia). Gertrude's youngest brother, Berthold, had been Archbishop of Kalocsa since 1206; he was made Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1209. Andrew's generosity towards his wife's German relatives and courtiers discontented the local lords. According to historian Gyula Kristó, the anonymous author of ''The Deeds of the Hungarians'' referred to the Germans from the Holy Roman Empire when he sarcastically mentioned that \" the Romans gaze on the goods of Hungary.\" In 1209, Zadar, which had been lost to the Venetians, was liberated by one of Andrew's Dalmatian vassals, Domald of Sidraga, but the Venetians recaptured the town a year later.\n\nRoman Igorevich reconciled with his brother, Vladimir Igorevich, in early 1209 or 1210. Their united forces vanquished Benedict's army, expelling the Hungarians from Halych. Vladimir Igorevich sent one of his sons, Vsevolod Vladimirovich, \"bearing gifts to the king in Hungary\" to appease Andrew, according to the ''Galician–Volhynian Chronicle''. A group of discontented Hungarian lords offered the crown to Andrew's cousins, the sons of Andrew's uncle, Géza; they lived in \"Greek land\". However, the cousins' envoys were captured in Split in 1210. In the early 1210s, Andrew sent \"an army of Saxons, Vlachs, Székelys and Pechenegs\" commanded by Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt, (now Sibiu, Romania) to assist Boril of Bulgaria's fight against three rebellious Cuman chieftains. Around the same time, Hungarian troops occupied Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo, Serbia), which had been lost to Bulgaria under Emeric. Andrew's army defeated the Cumans at Vidin. Andrew granted the Barcaság (now Țara Bârsei, Romania) to the Teutonic Knights. The Knights were to defend the easternmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Cumans and encourage their conversion to Catholicism.\n\nA group of boyars, who were alarmed by the despotic acts of Vladimir Igorevich, asked Andrew to restore Daniel Romanovich as ruler of Halych in 1210 or 1211. Andrew and his alliesLeszek I of Poland and at least five Rus' princessent their armies to Halych and restored Daniel Romanovich. Local boyars expelled Daniel Romanovich's mother in 1212. She persuaded Andrew to personally lead his army to Halych. He captured Volodislav Kormilchich, the most influential boyar, and took him to Hungary. After Andrew withdrew from Halych, the boyars again offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, who expelled Daniel Romanovich and his mother from the principality. Andrew departed for a new campaign against Halych in summer 1213. During his absence, Hungarian lords who were aggrieved at Queen Gertrude's favoritism towards her German entourage captured and murdered her and many of her courtiers in the Pilis Hills on 28 September. When he heard of her murder, Andrew returned to Hungary and ordered the execution of the murderer, Peter, son of Töre. However, Peter's accomplices, including Palatine Bánk Bár-Kalán, did not receive severe punishments. A group of Hungarian lords, whom Andrew called \"perverts\" in one of his letters, was plotting to dethrone Andrew and crown his eldest son, the eight-year-old Béla, but they failed to dethrone him and could only force Andrew to consent to Béla's coronation in 1214.\n\nAndrew and Leszek of Poland signed a treaty of alliance, which obliged Andrew's second son, Coloman, to marry Leszek of Poland's daughter, Salomea. Andrew and Leszek jointly invaded Halych in 1214, and Coloman was made prince. He agreed to cede Przemyśl to Leszek of Poland. The following year, Andrew returned to Halych and captured Przemyśl. Leszek of Poland soon reconciled with Mstislav Mstislavich; they jointly invaded Halych and forced Coloman to flee to Hungary. A new officer of state, the treasurer, was responsible for the administration of the royal chamber from around 1214 onwards. However, royal revenues had significantly diminished. Upon the advice of the treasurer, Denis, son of Ampud, Andrew imposed new taxes and farmed out royal income from minting, salt trade and custom duties. The yearly exchange of coins also produced more revenue for the royal chamber. However, these measures provoked discontent in Hungary.\n\nAndrew signed a new treaty of alliance with Leszek of Poland in the summer of 1216. Leszek and Andrew's son, Coloman, invaded Halych and expelled Mstislav Mstislavich and Daniel Romanovich, after which Coloman was restored. That same year, Andrew met Stephen Nemanjić, Grand Prince of Serbia, in Ravno (now Ćuprija, Serbia). He persuaded Stephen Nemanjić to negotiate with Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who was the uncle of Andrew's second wife, Yolanda de Courtenay. Stephen Nemanjić was crowned king of Serbia in 1217. Andrew planned to invade Serbia, but Stephen Nemanjić's brother, Sava, dissuaded him, according to both versions of the ''Life of Sava''.\n\n===Andrew's crusade (1217–1218)===\ncrusader army (from the ''Illuminated Chronicle'')\nIn July 1216, the newly elected Pope Honorius III once again called upon Andrew to fulfill his father's vow to lead a crusade. Andrew, who had postponed the crusade at least three times (in 1201, 1209 and 1213), finally agreed. Steven Runciman, Tibor Almási and other modern historians say that Andrew hoped that his decision would increase his likelihood of being elected as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, because his wife's uncle, Emperor Henry, had died in June. According to a letter written by Pope Honorius in 1217, envoys from the Latin Empire had actually informed Andrew that they planned to elect either him or his father-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, as emperor. The barons of the Latin Empire elected Peter of Courtenay in the summer of 1216.\n\nAndrew sold and mortgaged royal estates to finance his campaign, which became part of the wider Fifth Crusade. He renounced his claim to Zadar in favor of the Republic of Venice so that he could secure shipping for his army. He entrusted Hungary to Archbishop John of Esztergom, and gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Pontius de Cruce, the Templar Prior of Vrana. In July 1217, Andrew departed from Zagreb, accompanied by Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I, Duke of Merania. His army was so largeat least 10,000 mounted soldiers and uncountable infantrymenthat most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later. The ships transported them to Acre, where they landed in October.\n\nThe leaders of the crusade included John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Leopold of Austria, the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers, the Templars and the Teutonic Knights. They held a war council in Acre, with Andrew leading the meeting. In early November, the crusaders launched a campaign for the Jordan River, forcing Al-Adil I, Sultan of Egypt, to withdraw without fighting; the crusaders then pillaged Beisan. After the crusaders returned to Acre, Andrew did not participate in any other military actions. Instead, he was collecting relics, including a water jug allegedly used at the marriage at Cana, the heads of Saint Stephen and Margaret the Virgin, the right hands of the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew and a part of Aaron's rod. If Thomas the Archdeacon's report of certain \"evil and audacious men\" in Acre who \"treacherously passed him a poisoned drink\" is reliable, Andrew's inactivity was because of illness.\n\nAndrew decided to return home at the very beginning of 1218, even though Raoul of Merencourt, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, threatened him with excommunication. Andrew first visited Tripoli and participated in the marriage of Bohemond IV of Antioch and Melisende of Lusignan on 10 January. From Tripoli, he travelled to Cilicia, where he and Leo I of Armenia betrothed Andrew's youngest son, Andrew, and Leo's daughter, Isabella. Andrew proceeded through the Seldjuk Sultanate of Rum before arriving in Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey). His cousins (the sons of his uncle, Géza) attacked him when he was in Nicaea. He arranged the marriage of his oldest son, Béla, to Maria Laskarina, a daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris. When he arrived in Bulgaria, Andrew was detained until he \"gave full surety that his daughter would be united in marriage\" to Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, according to Thomas the Archdeacon. Andrew returned to Hungary in late 1218. Andrew's \"crusade had achieved nothing and brought him no honor\", according to historian Thomas C. Van Cleve. Oliver of Padernborn, James of Vitry and other 13th-century authors blamed Andrew for the failure of crusade.\n\n===Golden Bull (1218–1222)===\nThe Golden Bull of 1222\nWhen he returned to Hungary, Andrew complained to Pope Honorius that his kingdom was \"in a miserable and destroyed state, deprived of all of its revenues.\" A group of barons had even expelled Archbishop John from Hungary. Andrew was in massive debt because of his crusade, which forced him to impose extraordinarily high taxes and debase coinage. In 1218 or 1219, Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych and captured Andrew's son, Coloman. Andrew compromised with Mstislavich. Coloman was released, and Andrew's youngest son and namesake was betrothed to Mstislavich's daughter. In 1220, a group of lords persuaded Andrew to make his eldest son, Béla, the Duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia.\n\nAndrew employed Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues, which caused a discord between Andrew and the Holy See starting in the early 1220s. Pope Honorius urged Andrew and Queen Yolanda to prohibit Muslims from employing Christians. Andrew confirmed the privileges of clergymen, including their exemption from taxes and their right to be exclusively judged by church courts, but also prohibited the consecration of ''udvornici'', castle folk and other serfs in early 1222. However, a new conflict emerged between Andrew and the Holy See after he persuaded Béla to separate from his wife, Maria Laskarina. An \"immense crowd\" approached Andrew around June 1222, demanding \"grave and unjust things\", according to a letter of Pope Honorius. Actually, the royal servantswho were landowners directly subject to the monarch's power and obliged to fight in the royal armyassembled, forcing Andrew to dismiss Julius Kán and his other officials. Andrew was also forced issue a royal charter, the Golden Bull of 1222. The charter summarized the liberties of the royal servants, including their exemption from taxes and the jurisdiction of the ''ispáns''. The last clause of the Golden Bull authorized \"the bishops as well as the other barons and nobles of the realm, singularly and in common\" to resist the monarch if he did not honor the provisions of the charter. The Golden Bull clearly distinguished the royal servants from the king's other subjects, which led to the rise of the Hungarian nobility. The Golden Bull is commonly compared with England's ''Magna Carta'' — a similar charter which was sealed a few years earlier in 1215. A significant difference between them is that, in England, the settlement strengthened the position of all the royal subjects but, in Hungary, the aristocracy came to dominate both the crown and the lower orders.\n\n===Conflicts with his son and the Church (1222–1234)===\n\nAndrew discharged Palatine Theodore Csanád and restored Julius Kán in the second half of 1222. The following year, Pope Honorius urged Andrew to launch a new crusade. If the report of the ''Continuatio Claustroneuburgensis'' is reliable, Andrew took the cross to show that he intended launch a new crusade, but no other sources mention this event. Andrew planned to arrange a new marriage for his eldest son, Béla, but Pope Honorius mediated a reconciliation between Béla and his wife in the autumn of 1223. This angered Andrew, and Béla fled to Austria. He returned in 1224, after the bishops persuaded Andrew to forgive him.\n\nIn his ''Diploma Andreanum'' of 1224, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the \"Saxons\" who inhabited the region of Hermannstadt in southern Transylvania (now Sibiu, Romania). The following year, he launched a campaign against the Teutonic Knights, who had attempted to eliminate his suzerainty. The Knights were forced to leave Barcaság and the neighboring lands. Andrew's envoys and Leopold VI of Austria signed a treaty on 6 June, which ended the armed conflicts along the Hungarian-Austrian border. As part of the treaty, Leopold VI paid an indemnification for the damages that his troops had caused in Hungary. Andrew made his oldest son, Béla, Duke of Transylvania. Béla's former duchy was given to Andrew's second son, Coloman, in 1226. Duke Béla started expanding his suzerainty over the Cumans, who inhabited the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains. Andrew launched a campaign against Mstislav Mstislavich in 1226, because the latter refused to grant Halych to Andrew's youngest son despite a previous compromise. Andrew besieged and captured Przemyśl, Terebovl, and other fortresses in Halych. However, his troops were routed at Kremenets and Zvenigorod, forcing him to withdraw. Despite his victories, Mstislavich ceded Halych to Andrew's son in early 1227.\n\nHeroes' Square in Budapest\n\nIn 1228, Andrew authorized his son, Béla, to revise his previous land grants. Pope Honorius also supported Béla's efforts. Béla confiscated the domains of two noblemen, Simon Kacsics and Bánk Bár-Kalán, who had taken part in the conspiracy to murder Queen Gertrude. In 1229, upon Béla's proposal, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the Cuman chieftains who had subjected themselves to Béla. Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom, made a complaint about Andrew to the Holy See, because Andrew continued to employ Jews and Muslims. Pope Gregory IX authorized the archbishop to perform acts of religious censure to persuade Andrew to dismiss his non-Christian officials. Under duress, Andrew issued a new Golden Bull in 1231, which confirmed that Muslims were banned from employment, and empowered the Archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the king if he failed to honor the provisions of the new Golden Bull. In the second half of the year, Andrew invaded Halych and restored his youngest son, Andrew, to the throne.\n\nArchbishop Robert excommunicated Palatine Denis and put Hungary under an interdict on 25 February 1232, because the employment of Jews and Muslims continued despite the Golden Bull of 1231. Since the archbishop accused the Muslims of persuading Andrew to seize church property, Andrew restored properties to the archbishop, who soon suspended the interdict. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Giacomo Pecoraria as his legate to Hungary and promised that nobody would be excommunicated without the pope's special authorization. Although Andrew departed for Halych to support his youngest son in a fight against Daniel Romanivich, he continued his negotiations with the papal legate. On 20 August 1233, in the forests of Bereg, he vowed that he would not employ Jews and Muslims to administrate royal revenues, and would pay 10,000 marks as compensation for usurped Church revenues. Andrew repeated his oath in Esztergom in September.\n\nAndrew and Frederick II, Duke of Austria, signed a peace treaty in late 1233. Andrew, who had been widowed, married the 23-year-old Beatrice D'Este on 14 May 1234, even though his sons were sharply opposed to his third marriage. John, Bishop of Bosnia, put Hungary under a new interdict in the first half of 1234, because Andrew had not dismissed his non-Christian officials despite his oath of Bereg. Andrew and Archbishop Robert of Esztergom protested against the bishop's act at the Holy See.\n\n===Last years (1234–1235)===\n\nDanilo Romanovich laid siege to Halych, and Andrew's youngest son died during the siege in the autumn of 1234. However, Andrew stormed Austria in the summer of 1235, forcing Duke Frederick to pay an indemnification for damages that his troops had caused while raiding Hungary. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory declared on 31 August that Andrew and his sons could only be excommunicated by the authorization of the Holy See. Andrew died on 21 September, and was buried in Egres Abbey.\n", "\n\n\n\n With Gertrude of Merania (b. ±1185):\n \n Mary (b. 1203/1204), married Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria\n Bela IV (b. 1206)\n Elisabeth (b. 1207, d. 1231), married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia\n Coloman (b. ±1210)\n \n With Yolanda de Courtenay (b. ±1198)\n \n Yolanda (b. ±1219) married James I of Aragon\n \n With Beatrice d'Este (23 years old at the time of marriage in 1234)\n \n Stephen\n \n\nAndrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was born around 1185, according to historian Gyula Kristó. Their first child, Mary, was born in 1203 or 1204. She became the wife of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. Andrew's eldest son, Béla, was born in 1206. He later succeeded his father as king. Béla's younger sister, Elisabeth, was born in 1207. She married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia. She died in 1231 and was canonized during Andrew's life. Andrew's second son, Coloman, was born in 1208. His third son, Andrew, was born around 1210. Coloman and Andrew each ruled the Principality of Halych for a short period.\n\nTwo years after his first wife was murdered, Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay, who was born around 1198. Their only child, Yolanda, was born around 1219 and married James I of Aragon. Andrew's third wife, Beatrice D'Este, was about twenty-three when they married in 1234. She gave birth to a son, Stephen, after Andrew's death. However, Andrew's two older sons, Béla and Coloman, accused her of adultery and considered her child to be a bastard. Her grandson, Andrew, became the last monarch of the House of Árpád.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n===Primary sources===\n\n''Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); ''Anonymus and Master Roger''; CEU Press; .\n''Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split'' (Latin text by Olga Perić, edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. .\n''The Hypatian Codex II: The Galician-Volynian Chronicle'' (An annotated translation by George A. Perfecky) (1973). Wilhelm Fink Verlag. LCCN 72-79463.\n\n\n===Secondary sources===\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Reign", "Family", "Notes", "References", "Sources" ]	Andrew II of Hungary
[ "\n\nAllan Ramsay (1766)\n'''''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''''' is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in English in 1748. It was a revision of an earlier effort, Hume's ''A Treatise of Human Nature'', published anonymously in London in 1739–40. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the ''Treatise'', which \"fell dead-born from the press,\" as he put it, and so tried again to disseminate his more developed ideas to the public by writing a shorter and more polemical work.\n\nThe end product of his labours was the ''Enquiry''. The ''Enquiry'' dispensed with much of the material from the ''Treatise'', in favor of clarifying and emphasizing its most important aspects. For example, Hume's views on personal identity do not appear. However, more vital propositions, such as Hume's argument for the role of habit in a theory of knowledge, are retained.\n\nThis book has proven highly influential, both in the years that would immediately follow and today. Immanuel Kant points to it as the book which woke him from his self-described \"dogmatic slumber\". The ''Enquiry'' is widely regarded as a classic in modern philosophical literature.\n", "The argument of the ''Enquiry'' proceeds by a series of incremental steps, separated into chapters which logically succeed one another. After expounding his epistemology, Hume explains how to apply his principles to specific topics.\n\n===Empirical epistemology===\n\n====1. ''Of the different species of philosophy''====\n\nIn the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural philosophy and the philosophy of human nature (or, as he calls it, \"moral philosophy\"). The latter investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those whose conclusions more intuitively match popular opinion. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds, including the craft of philosophy.\n\n====2. ''Of the origin of ideas''====\n\nNext, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By \"impressions\", he means sensations, while by \"ideas\", he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less ''vivacious'' than impressions. For example, the idea of the taste of an orange is far inferior to the impression (or sensation) of actually eating one. Writing within the tradition of empiricism, he argues that impressions are the source of all ideas.\n\nHume accepts that ideas may be either the product of mere sensation, or of the imagination working in conjunction with sensation. According to Hume, the creative faculty makes use of (at least) four mental operations which produce imaginings out of sense-impressions. These operations are ''compounding'' (or the addition of one idea onto another, such as a horn on a horse to create a unicorn); ''transposing'' (or the substitution of one part of a thing with the part from another, such as with the body of a man upon a horse to make a centaur); ''augmenting'' (as with the case of a giant, whose size has been augmented); and ''diminishing'' (as with Lilliputians, whose size has been diminished). (Hume 1974:317) In a later chapter, he also mentions the operations of ''mixing'', ''separating'', and ''dividing''. (Hume 1974:340) Fig. 1. The Missing Shade of Blue\n\nHowever, Hume admits that there is one objection to his account: the problem of ''\"The Missing Shade of Blue\"''. In this thought-experiment, he asks us to imagine a man who has experienced every shade of blue except for one (see Fig. 1). He predicts that this man will be able to divine the color of this particular shade of blue, despite the fact that he has never experienced it. This seems to pose a serious problem for the empirical account, though Hume brushes it aside as an exceptional case by stating that one may experience a novel idea that itself is derived from combinations of previous impressions. (Hume 1974:319)\n\n====3. ''Of the association of ideas''====\n\nIn this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: ''resemblance'', ''contiguity'' in space-time, and ''cause-and-effect''. He argues that there must be some ''universal principle'' that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas. However, he does not immediately show what this principle might be. (Hume 1974:320-321)\n\n====4. ''Sceptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts)''====\n\nIn the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either \"relations of ideas\" or \"matters of fact\", which is roughly the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions. The former, he tells the reader, are proved by demonstration, while the latter are given through experience. (Hume 1974:322) In explaining how matters of fact are entirely a product of experience, he dismisses the notion that they may be arrived at through ''a priori'' reasoning. For Hume, every effect only follows its cause arbitrarily—they are entirely distinct from one another. (Hume 1974:324)\n\nIn part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world:\n\n::\"When it is asked, ''What is the nature of all our reasonings concerning matter of fact?'' the proper answer seems to be, that they are founded on the relation of cause and effect. When again it is asked, ''What is the foundation of all our reasonings and conclusions concerning that relation?'' it may be replied in one word, ''experience''. But if we still carry on our sifting humor, and ask, ''What is the foundation of all conclusions from experience?'' this implies a new question, which may be of more difficult solution and explication.\" (Hume 1974:328)\n\nHe shows how a satisfying argument for the validity of experience can be based neither on demonstration (since \"it implies no contradiction that the course of nature may change\") nor experience (since that would be a circular argument). (Hume 1974:330-332) Here he is describing what would become known as the problem of induction.\n\n====5. ''Sceptical solution of these doubts (in two parts)''====\n\nFor Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of ''habit or custom'', which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the \"principle\" that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the ''Inquiry'' was on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. In a later chapter, he wrote:\n\n::''\"The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals.\"'' (Hume 1974:425)\n\nIn the second part, he provides an account of beliefs. He explains that the difference between belief and fiction is that the former produces a certain feeling of confidence which the latter doesn't. (Hume 1974:340)\n\n====6. ''Of probability''====\n\nThis short chapter begins with the notions of probability and chance. For him, \"probability\" means a ''higher chance'' of occurring, and brings about a higher degree of subjective expectation in the viewer. By \"chance\", he means all those particular comprehensible events which the viewer considers possible in accord with their experience. However, further experience takes these equal chances, and forces the imagination to observe that certain chances arise more frequently than others. These gentle forces upon the imagination cause the viewer to have strong beliefs in outcomes. This effect may be understood as another case of ''custom or habit'' taking past experience and using it to predict the future. (Hume 1974:346-348)\n\n===Applied epistemology===\n\n====7. ''Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts)''====\n\nNicolas Malebranche, one of Hume's philosophical opponents\n\nBy \"necessary connection\", Hume means the power or force which necessarily ties one idea to another. He rejects the notion that any sensible qualities are necessarily conjoined, since that would mean we could know something prior to experience. Unlike his predecessors, Berkeley and Locke, Hume rejects the idea that volitions or impulses of the will may be inferred to necessarily connect to the actions they produce by way of some sense of the power of the will. He reasons that, 1. if we knew the nature of this power, then the mind-body divide would seem totally unmysterious to us; 2. if we had immediate knowledge of this mysterious power, then we would be able to intuitively explain why it is that we can control some parts of our bodies (e.g., our hands or tongues), and not others (e.g., the liver or heart); 3. we have no immediate knowledge of the powers which allow an impulse of volition to create an action (e.g., of the \"muscles, and nerves, and animal spirits\" which are the immediate cause of an action). (Hume 1974:353-354) He produces like arguments against the notion that we have knowledge of these powers as they affect the mind alone. (Hume 1974:355-356) He also argues in brief against the idea that causes are mere occasions of the will of some god(s), a view associated with the philosopher Nicolas Malebranche. (Hume 1974:356-359)\n\nHaving dispensed with these alternative explanations, he identifies the source of our knowledge of necessary connections as arising out of ''observation of constant conjunction of certain impressions across many instances''. In this way, people know of necessity through rigorous custom or habit, and not from any immediate knowledge of the powers of the will. (Hume 1974:361)\n\n====8. ''Of liberty and necessity (in two parts)''====\n\nHere Hume tackles the problem of how liberty may be reconciled with metaphysical necessity (otherwise known as a compatibilist formulation of free will). Hume believes that all disputes on the subject have been merely verbal arguments—that is to say, arguments which are based on a lack of prior agreement on definitions. He first shows that it is clear that most events are deterministic, but human actions are more controversial. However, he thinks that these too occur out of necessity since an outside observer can see the same regularity that he would in a purely physical system. To show the compatibility of necessity and liberty, Hume defines liberty as the ability to act on the basis of one's will e.g. the capacity to will one's actions but not to will one's will. He then shows (quite briefly) how determinism and free will are compatible notions, and have no bad consequences on ethics or moral life.\n\n====9. ''Of the reason of animals (comparable to man)''====\n\nHume insists that the conclusions of the Enquiry will be very powerful if they can be shown to apply to animals and not just humans. He believed that animals were able to infer the relation between cause and effect in the same way that humans do: through learned expectations. (Hume 1974:384) He also notes that this \"inferential\" ability that animals have is not through reason, but custom alone. Hume concludes that there is an innate faculty of instincts which both beasts and humans share, namely, the ability to reason experimentally (through custom). Nevertheless, he admits, humans and animals differ in mental faculties in a number of ways, including: differences in memory and attention, inferential abilities, ability to make deductions in a long chain, ability to grasp ideas more or less clearly, the human capacity to worry about conflating unrelated circumstances, a sagely prudence which arrests generalizations, a capacity for a greater inner library of analogies to reason with, an ability to detach oneself and scrap one's own biases, and an ability to converse through language (and thus gain from the experience of others' testimonies). (Hume 1974:385, footnote 17.)\n\n====10. ''Of miracles (in two parts)''====\n\nThe next topic which Hume strives to give treatment is that of the reliability of human testimony, and of the role that testimony plays a part in epistemology. This was not an idle concern for Hume. Depending on its outcome, the entire treatment would give the epistemologist a degree of certitude in the treatment of miracles.\n\nTrue to his empirical thesis, Hume tells the reader that, though testimony does have some force, it is never quite as powerful as the direct evidence of the senses. That said, he provides some reasons why we may have a basis for trust in the testimony of persons: because a) human memory can be relatively tenacious; and b) because people are inclined to tell the truth, and ashamed of telling falsities. Needless to say, these reasons are only to be trusted to the extent that they conform to experience. (Hume 1974:389)\n\nAnd there are a number of reasons to be skeptical of human testimony, also based on experience. If a) testimonies conflict one another, b) there are a small number of witnesses, c) the speaker has no integrity, d) the speaker is overly hesitant or bold, or e) the speaker is known to have motives for lying, then the epistemologist has reason to be skeptical of the speaker's claims. (Hume 1974:390)\n\nThere is one final criterion that Hume thinks gives us warrant to doubt any given testimony, and that is f) if the propositions being communicated are miraculous. Hume understands a miracle to be any event which contradicts the laws of nature. He argues that the laws of nature have an overwhelming body of evidence behind them, and are so well demonstrated to everyone's experience, that any deviation from those laws necessarily flies in the face of all evidence. (Hume 1974:391-392)\n\nMoreover, he stresses that talk of the miraculous has no surface validity, for four reasons. First, he explains that in all of history there has never been a miracle which was attested to by a wide body of disinterested experts. Second, he notes that human beings delight in a sense of wonder, and this provides a villain with an opportunity to manipulate others. Third, he thinks that those who hold onto the miraculous have tended towards barbarism. Finally, since testimonies tend to conflict with one another when it comes to the miraculous—that is, one man's religious miracle may be contradicted by another man's miracle—any testimony relating to the fantastic is self-denunciating. (Hume 1974:393-398)\n\nStill, Hume takes care to warn that historians are generally to be trusted with confidence, so long as their reports on facts are extensive and uniform. However, he seems to suggest that historians are as fallible at interpreting the facts as the rest of humanity. Thus, if every historian were to claim that there was a solar eclipse in the year 1600, then though we might at first naively regard that as in violation of natural laws, we'd come to accept it as a fact. But if every historian were to assert that Queen Elizabeth was observed walking around happy and healthy after her funeral, and then interpreted that to mean that they had risen from the dead, then we'd have reason to appeal to natural laws in order to dispute their interpretation. (Hume 1974:400-402)\n\n====11. ''Of a particular providence and of a future state''====\n\nHume continues his application of epistemology to theology by an extended discussion on heaven and hell. The brunt of this chapter allegedly narrates the opinions, not of Hume, but of one of Hume's anonymous friends, who again presents them in an imagined speech by the philosopher Epicurus. His friend argues that, though it is possible to trace a cause from an effect, it is not possible to infer unseen effects from a cause thus traced. The friend insists, then, that even though we might postulate that there is a first cause behind all things—God—we can't infer anything about the afterlife, because we don't know anything of the afterlife from experience, and we can't infer it from the existence of God. (Hume 1974:408)\n\nHume offers his friend an objection: if we see an unfinished building, then can't we infer that it has been created by humans with certain intentions, and that it will be finished in the future? His friend concurs, but indicates that there is a relevant disanalogy that we can't pretend to know the contents of the mind of God, while we can know the designs of other humans. Hume seems essentially persuaded by his friend's reasoning. (Hume 1974:412-414)\n\n====12. ''Of the academical or skeptical philosophy (in three parts)''====\n\nThe first section of the last chapter is well organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, \"light\" skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while they ultimately are philosophically justifiable - may only be combated through the non-philosophical adherence to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.\n\nIn the second section he returns to the topic of hard skepticism by sharply denouncing it.\n\n::\"For here is the chief and most confounding objection to ''excessive'' skepticism, that no durable good can ever result from it; while it remains in its full force and vigor. We need only ask such a skeptic, ''What his meaning is? And what he proposes by all these curious researches?'' He is immediately at a loss, and knows not what to answer... a Pyrrhonian cannot expect, that his philosophy will have any constant influence on the mind: or if it had, that its influence would be beneficial to society. On the contrary, he must acknowledge, if he will acknowledge anything, that all human life must perish, were his principles universally and steadily to prevail.\" (Hume 1974:426)\n\nHe concludes the volume by setting out the limits of knowledge once and for all. \"''When we run over libraries, persuaded of these principles, what havoc must we make? If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, ''Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number?'' No. ''Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence?'' No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.''\"\n", "The criteria Hume lists in his examination of the validity of human testimony are roughly upheld in modern social psychology, under the rubric of the communication-persuasion paradigm. Supporting literature includes: the work of social impact theory, which discusses persuasion in part through the number of persons engaging in influence; as well as studies made on the relative influence of communicator credibility in different kinds of persuasion; and examinations of the trustworthiness of the speaker.\n\nThe \"custom\" view of learning can in many ways be likened to associationist psychology. This point of view has been subject to severe criticism in the research of the 20th century. Still, testing on the subject has been somewhat divided. Testing on certain animals like cats have concluded that they do not possess any faculty which allow their minds to grasp an insight into cause and effect. However, it has been shown that some animals, like chimpanzees, were able to generate creative plans of action to achieve their goals, and thus would seem to have a causal insight which transcends mere custom.\n", "\n", "\n\n* ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'': Mirrored at eBooks@Adelaide\n* \n* \n* A version of this work, slightly edited for easier reading\n* ''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding'' The ''Enquiry'' hosted at infidels.org\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Summary", "Critiques and rejoinders", "References", "External links" ]	An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding
[ "'''André de Longjumeau''' (also known as '''Andrew of Longjumeau''' in English) was a 13th-century Dominican missionary and diplomat and one of the most active Occidental diplomats in the East in the 13th century. He led two embassies to the Mongols: the first carried letters from Pope Innocent IV and the second bore gifts and letters from Louis IX of France to Güyük Khan. Well acquainted with the Middle-East, he spoke Arabic and \"Chaldean\" (thought to be either Syriac or Persian).\n", "Andrew went to Constantinople to obtain the Crown of Thorns bought by Louis IX to Baldwin II. It is preserved today in a 19th-century reliquary, in Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris.\nAndrew's first mission to the East was when he was asked by the French king Louis IX to go and fetch the Crown of Thorns which had been sold to him by the Latin Emperor of Constantinople Baldwin II in 1238, who was anxious to obtain support for his tottering empire. Andrew was accompanied on this mission by brother Jacques.\n", "Andrew of Longjumeau led one of four missions dispatched to the Mongols by Pope Innocent IV. He left Lyon in the spring of 1245 for the Levant. \nHe visited Muslim principalities in Syria and representatives of the Nestorian and Jacobite churches in Persia, finally delivering the papal correspondence to a Mongol general near Tabriz. In Tabriz, André de Longjumeau met with a monk from the Far East, named Simeon Rabban Ata, who had been put in charge by the Khan of protecting the Christians in the Middle-East.\n", "\nAt the Mongol camp near Kars Andrew had met a certain David, who in December 1248 appeared at the court of King Louis IX of France in Cyprus. Andrew, who was now with Saint Louis, interpreted David's message to the King, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general Eljigidei, and a proposal of a joint attack upon the Islamic powers of Syria. In reply to this the French sovereign dispatched Andrew as his ambassador to Güyük Khan; with Longjumeau went his brother William (also a Dominican) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert \"Le Sommelier,\" Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of Poissy.\n\nThe party set out on 27 January 1249, with letters from King Louis and the papal legate, and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures. From Cyprus they went to the port of Antioch in Syria, and thence traveled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day. Their route led them through Persia, along the southern and eastern shores of the Caspian Sea, and certainly through Talas, north-east of Tashkent.\n\nOn arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the Imyl river (near Lake Alakol and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the Altai), or more probably at or near Karakorum itself, south-west of Lake Baikal — Andrew found Güyük Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by Batu Khan's agents. The regent-mother Oghul Qaimish (the \"Camus\" of William of Rubruck) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a dismissive letter for Louis IX. But it is certain that before the friar had quit \"Tartary\" Möngke, Güyük's successor, had been elected.\n\nAndrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in 1251 at Caesarea in Palestine, appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader Genghis Khan with Prester John; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the Mongols' homeland, close to the prison of Gog and Magog. On the other hand, the envoy's account of Mongol customs is fairly accurate, and his statements about Mongol Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact.\n\nMounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail. He found Christian prisoners from Germany in the heart of \"Tartary\" (at Talas), and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission. This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says Joinville, \"''se repenti fort''\" (\"felt very sorry\").\n", "Andrew died some time after 1253, while he was active as a missionary in Palestine. The Franciscan missionary, William of Rubruck, in his work on Asian customs, declared that everything he had heard from Andrew on the subject was fully borne out by his own personal observations.\n\nWe only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially William of Rubruck's in ''Recueil de voyages'', iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; William of Nangis in ''Recueil des historiens des Gaules'', xx. 359–367; Rémusat, ''Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols'' (1822, etc.), p. 52.\n", "Giovanni da Pian del Carpine\nLawrence of Portugal\nAscelin of Lombardia\nSimon of St Quentin\nExploration of Asia\nFranco-Mongol alliance\n", "\n", "\nRoux, Jean-Paul, ''Les explorateurs au Moyen-Age'', Fayard 1985, \n*Richard, Jean, ''Histoire des Croisades'', Fayard, \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Mission for the Holy Crown of Thorns", "Papal Mission to the Mongols (1245–1247)", "Second Mission to the Mongols (1249–1251)", "Death", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	André de Longjumeau
[ "\nCoin of Andriscus. Greek inscription reads ''ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΦΙΛΙΠΠΟΥ'' (King Philip).\n'''Andriscus''' (, ''Andrískos''), also often referenced as '''Pseudo-Philip''', was the last King of Macedon ( 149–148 BC). A pretender, who claimed to be the son of Perseus of Macedon, he was a fuller from Adramyttium in Aeolis in western Anatolia. His reign lasted just one year.\n", "Death of the \"false Philip\" in a 15th century miniature.\nIn 168 BC, the Romans invaded Macedonia and overthrew king Perseus in the First Battle of Pydna.\n\nIn 149 BC, Andriskos, claiming to be Perseus' son, announced his intention to retake Macedonia from the Romans.\n\nAs his first attempt, he travelled to Syria to request military help from Demetrius Soter of Syria. Demetrius instead handed him over to the Romans but Andriskos managed to escape from Roman captivity, and raised a Thracian army. With this army, he invaded Macedonia and defeated the Roman praetor Publius Juventius in 149 BC. Andriskos then declared himself King '''Philip VI of Macedonia'''.\n\nIn 148 BC, Andriskos conquered Thessaly and made an alliance with Carthage, thus bringing the Roman wrath on him. \nLater that year, in what the Romans called the Fourth Macedonian War, he was defeated by the Roman praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus at the Second Battle of Pydna, and fled to Thrace, whose prince gave him up to Rome, thus marking the end to Andriskos' reign of Macedonia.\n\nAndriscus' brief reign over Macedonia was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this, Macedonia was formally reduced to a Roman province.\n", "\n", "\nVelleius Paterculus i. 11; Florus ii. 14;\nLivy, ''Epit.'' 49, 50, 52; Diod. Sic. xxxii. 9.\n\n'''Attribution:'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "References", "Sources" ]	Andriscus
[ "\n\n'''Andronikos III Palaiologos''' (; 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341), commonly Latinized as '''Andronicus III Palaeologus''', was Byzantine emperor from 1328 to 1341. Born '''Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos''' (), he was the son of Michael IX Palaiologos and Rita of Armenia. He was proclaimed co-emperor in his youth, before 1313, and in April 1321 he rebelled in opposition to his grandfather, Andronikos II Palaiologos. He was formally crowned co-emperor in February 1325, before ousting his grandfather outright and becoming sole emperor on 24 May 1328.\n\nHis reign included the last failed attempts to hold back the Ottoman Turks in Bithynia and the defeat at Rusokastro against the Bulgarians, but also the successful recovery of Chios, Lesbos, Phocaea, Thessaly, and Epirus. His early death left a power vacuum that resulted in the disastrous civil war between his Empress-dowager, Anna of Savoy, and his closest friend and supporter, John VI Kantakouzenos.\n", "Andronikos was born in Constantinople on 25 March 1297, the 38th birthday of his paternal grandfather, Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. His father, Michael IX Palaiologos, began reigning in full imperial style as co-emperor circa 1295.\n\nIn March 1318, Andronikos married Irene of Brunswick, daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen. In circa 1321 she gave birth to a son, who died in infancy.\n\nIn 1320, Andronikos accidentally caused the death of his brother Manuel, after which their father, co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos, died in his grief. The homicide and the general dissolute behavior of Andronikos III and his coterie, mostly the young scions of the great aristocratic clans of the Empire, resulted in a deep rift in the relations between young Andronikos and his grandfather, still reigning as Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos.\n\nEmperor Andronikos II disowned his grandson Andronikos, who then fled the capital and rallied his supporters in Thrace and began to reign as rival emperor in 1321. Andronikos then waged the intermittent Byzantine civil war of 1321–28 against his reigning grandfather, who granted him to reign as co-emperor Andronikos III.\n\nEmpress Irene died on 16/17 August 1324 with no surviving child. Theodora Palaiologina, sister of Andronikos III, married the new tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria in 1324. Andronikos III, then a widower, married Anna of Savoy in October 1326. In 1327 she gave birth to Maria (renamed Irene) Palaiologina.\n\nAndronikos III concluded the Treaty of Chernomen of 1327, an alliance with tsar Michael Shishman of Bulgaria against Stephen Uroš III Dečanski of Serbia. The Byzantine civil war flared again and ultimately led to the deposition in 1328 of Emperor Andronikos II, who retired to a monastery.\n", "\n===Military history===\nOttoman Turks besieged Nicaea in Asia Minor, historically the provisional capital of the Byzantine Empire from the Fourth Crusade until the Byzantine recapture of Constantinople. Andronikos III launched a relief attempt, which Ottoman sultan Orhan defeated at the Battle of Pelekanon on 10 or 15 June 1329. Nevertheless, Andronikos III effected the recovery of Lordship of Chios (including Lesbos) from Martino Zaccaria in a naval battle, also in 1329.\n\nAn alliance with Bulgaria failed to secure any gains for the Byzantine empire. On 28 July 1330, the Serbians decisively defeated the Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbazhd (modern Kyustendil, Bulgaria) without significant Byzantine participation. The Ottomans continued to advance in 1331, finally taking Nicaea (renamed İznik). Andronikos III wanted Nicomedia and the other few Byzantine forts in Anatolia not to suffer the same fate and sought to pay off the Ottomans with tribute.\n\nAndronikos III reorganized and attempted to strengthen the weakened Byzantine navy, which comprised only 10 ships by 1332; in emergencies, he still could muster a hundred extra merchant ships.\n\nTo overcome his failure to secure gains against the Serbians, Andronikos III attempted to annex Bulgarian Thrace, but the new tsar Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria defeated Byzantine forces at Battle of Rusokastro on 18 July 1332. Territorial concessions and a diplomatic marriage between the son of the Bulgarian emperor, the future Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria, and Maria (renamed Irene) Palaiologina, daughter of Andronikos III Palaiologos, secured peace with Bulgaria.\n\nThe Muslim traveler Ibn Battuta visited Constantinople towards the end of 1332 and mentions meeting Andronikos III in his memoirs. Byzantine sources do not attest to the meeting.\n\nStephen Gabrielopoulos, ruler over Thessaly, died circa 1333; taking advantage of the secession crisis, Andronikos III extended Byzantine control over the region.\n\nSyrgiannes Palaiologos, entrusted with the governorship of Thessalonica, deserted to the side of king Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia and aided their advance in Macedonia. He led the Serbians to take Kastoria, Ohrid, Prilep, Strumica, and possibly Edessa circa 1334 and advanced as far as Thessalonica. Byzantine general Sphrantzes Palaiologos, posing as a deserter, entered the Serbian camp and killed Syrgiannes Palaiologos, ending his advance and bringing the Serbian army into disarray. In August 1334, the king of Serbia made peace with Andronikos III and allowed his forces to retake control of captured parts of Macedonia.\n\nAndronikos III meanwhile effected the recovery of Phocaea in 1334 from the last Genoese governor, Domenico Cattaneo. However, this victory failed to stem significantly the Ottoman advance in Asia Minor. Byzantine rule gradually vanished from Anatolia as tribute failed to appease Ottoman sultan Orhan, who took Nicomedia (renamed İzmit) in 1337, leaving only Philadelpheia and a handful of ports under Byzantine control.\n\nDespite these troubles, Andronikos III took advantage of a secession crisis in Despotate of Epirus to seize Byzantine control from Nikephoros II Orsini in 1337.\n\n===Domestic policy===\nJohn Kantakouzenos, ''megas domestikos'' of Andronikos III and later emperor, wielded effective administrative authority during the reign, while the Emperor personally enjoyed hunting and waging war.\n\nAndronikos III also reformed the judiciary through his creation of a panel of four judges, designated \"Universal Justices of the Romans\" (''katholikoi kritai ton Rhomaion'').\n", "Andronikos III was first married in 1318 with Irene of Brunswick, daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg; she died in 1324. They had an unnamed son, who died shortly after birth in 1321.\n\nIn 1326, Andronikos III married as his second wife Anna of Savoy, daughter of Count Amadeus V, Count of Savoy and of his second wife Marie of Brabant, Countess of Savoy. Their marriage produced several children, including:\n\n* Maria (renamed Eirene) Palaiologina, who married Michael Asen IV of Bulgaria\n* John V Palaiologos (born 18 June 1332)\n* Michael Palaiologos, ''despotes'' (designated successor)\n* Eirene (renamed Maria) Palaiologina, who married Francesco I Gattilusio.\n\nAccording to Byzantine historian Nicephorus Gregoras, Andronikos also had an illegitimate daughter, Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond, who married emperor Basil of Trebizond and took over the throne of the Empire of Trebizond from 1340 to 1341.\n\nIn his ''Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople'' (1983), Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza mentions a second illegitimate daughter of Andronikos, who converted (likely under duress) to Islam under the name Bayalun as one among several wives of Öz Beg Khan of the Golden Horde. This daughter is also earlier mentioned in the 14th century traveller Ibn Battuta's work '''''The Travels''''' , in which Ibn Battuta claimed that he had accompanied Bayalun traveling from Khan's court to Constantinople. Mihail-Dimitri Sturdza, ''Dictionnaire historique et Généalogique des grandes familles de Grèce, d'Albanie et de Constantinople'' (1983), page 373 Detlev Schwennicke does not include this daughter in ''Europäische Stammtafeln: Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten'' (1978), and the theory of her existence may reflect theories of Sturdza.\n", "Andronikos III died at Constantinople, aged 44, on 15 June 1341, possibly due to chronic malaria. Historians contend that his reign ended with the Byzantine Empire in a still-tenable situation and generally do not implicate deficiencies in his leadership in its later demise. John V Palaiologos succeeded his father as Byzantine emperor, but at only 9 years of age, he required a regent.\n\nThe energetic campaigns of emperor Andronikos III simply lacked sufficient strength to defeat the imperial enemies and led to several significant Byzantine reverses at the hands of Bulgarians, Serbians, and Ottomans. Andronikos III nevertheless provided active leadership and cooperated with able administrators. The empire came closest to regaining a position of power in the Balkans and Greek peninsula after the Fourth Crusade. The loss of a few imperial territories in Anatolia, however, left the Ottoman Turks poised to expand into Europe.\n\nWithin a few months after the death of Andronikos III, controversy over the right to exercise the regency over the new emperor John V Palaiologos and the position of John Kantakouzenos as all-powerful chief minister and friend of Andronikos led to the outbreak of the destructive Byzantine civil war of 1341–47, which consumed the resources of the empire and left it in an untenable position. The weakened Byzantine Empire failed to prevent the formation of the Serbian Empire or, more ominously, the Ottoman invasion of Europe.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\n", "\n", " \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Reign", "Family", "Succession and Legacy", "Ancestry", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Andronikos III Palaiologos
[ "\n\n\n'''Andronikos II Palaiologos''' (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), usually Latinized as '''Andronicus II Palaeologus''', was Byzantine emperor from 11 December 1282 to 23 or 24 May 1328.\n", "Andronikos II was born Andronikos Doukas Angelos Komnenos Palaiologos () at Nicaea. He was the eldest surviving son of Michael VIII Palaiologos and Theodora Palaiologina, grandniece of John III Doukas Vatatzes.\n\nAndronikos was acclaimed co-emperor in 1261, after his father Michael VIII recovered Constantinople from the Latin Empire, but he was not crowned until 1272. Sole emperor from 1282, Andronikos II immediately repudiated his father's unpopular Church union with the Papacy, which he had been forced to support while his father was still alive, but he was unable to resolve the related schism within the Orthodox clergy until 1310.\n\nAndronikos II was also plagued by economic difficulties. During his reign the value of the Byzantine ''hyperpyron'' depreciated precipitously, while the state treasury accumulated less than one seventh the revenue (in nominal coins) that it had previously. Seeking to increase revenue and reduce expenses, Andronikos II raised taxes, reduced tax exemptions, and dismantled the Byzantine fleet (80 ships) in 1285, thereby making the Empire increasingly dependent on the rival republics of Venice and Genoa. In 1291, he hired 50–60 Genoese ships, but the Byzantine weakness resulting from the lack of a navy became painfully apparent in the two wars with Venice in 1296–1302 and 1306–10. Later, in 1320, he tried to resurrect the navy by constructing 20 galleys, but failed.\n\nAndronikos II Palaiologos sought to resolve some of the problems facing the Byzantine Empire through diplomacy. After the death of his first wife Anne of Hungary, he married Yolanda (renamed Irene) of Montferrat, putting an end to the Montferrat claim to the Kingdom of Thessalonica. Andronikos II also attempted to marry off his son and co-emperor Michael IX Palaiologos to the Latin Empress Catherine I of Courtenay, thus seeking to eliminate Western agitation for a restoration of the Latin Empire. Another marriage alliance attempted to resolve the potential conflict with Serbia in Macedonia, as Andronikos II married off his five-year-old daughter Simonis to King Stefan Milutin in 1298.\n\nAndronikos II and Michael IX Palaeologus (Silver basilikon)\n\nIn spite of the resolution of problems in Europe, Andronikos II was faced with the collapse of the Byzantine frontier in Asia Minor, despite the successful, but short, governorships of Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes. The successful military victories in Asia Minor by Alexios Philanthropenos and John Tarchaneiotes against the Turks were largely dependent on a considerable military contingent of Cretan escapees, or exiles from Venetian-occupied Crete, headed by Hortatzis, whom Michael VIII had repatriated to Byzantium through a treaty agreement with the Venetians ratified in 1277. Andronikos II had resettled those Cretans in the region of Meander river, the southeastern Asia Minor frontier of Byzantium with the Turks.\n\nAfter the failure of the co-emperor Michael IX to stem the Turkish advance in Asia Minor in 1302 and the disastrous Battle of Bapheus, the Byzantine government hired the Catalan Company of Almogavars (adventurers from Catalonia) led by Roger de Flor to clear Byzantine Asia Minor of the enemy. In spite of some successes, the Catalans were unable to secure lasting gains. Being more ruthless and savage than the enemy they intended to subdue they quarreled with Michael IX, and eventually openly turned on their Byzantine employers after the murder of Roger de Flor in 1305; together with a party of willing Turks they devastated Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly on their road to Latin occupied southern Greece. There they conquered the Duchy of Athens and Thebes. The Turks continued to penetrate the Byzantine possessions, and Prusa fell in 1326. By the end of Andronikos II's reign, much of Bithynia was in the hands of the Ottoman Turks of Osman I and his son and heir Orhan. Also, Karasids conquered Mysia-region with Paleokastron after 1296, Germiyan conquered Simav in 1328, Saruhan captured Magnesia in 1313, and Aydinids captured Smyrna in 1310.\n\nGold hyperpyron of Andronikos II, kneeling before Christ.\n\nThe Empire's problems were exploited by Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria, who defeated Michael IX and conquered much of northeastern Thrace in . The conflict ended with yet another dynastic marriage, between Michael IX's daughter Theodora and the Bulgarian emperor. The dissolute behavior of Michael IX's son Andronikos III Palaiologos led to a rift in the family, and after Michael IX's death in 1320, Andronikos II disowned his grandson, prompting a civil war that raged, with interruptions, until 1328. The conflict precipitated Bulgarian involvement, and Michael Asen III of Bulgaria attempted to capture Andronikos II under the guise of sending him military support. In 1328 Andronikos III entered Constantinople in triumph and Andronikos II was forced to abdicate.\n\nAndronikos II died as a monk at Constantinople in 1332.\n", "On 8 November 1273 Andronikos II married as his first wife Anna of Hungary, daughter of Stephen V of Hungary and Elizabeth the Cuman, with whom he had two sons:\n* Michael IX Palaiologos (17 April 127712 October 1320).\n* Constantine Palaiologos, ''despotes'' (1335). Constantine was forced to become a monk by his nephew Andronikos III Palaiologos.\n\nAnna died in 1281, and in 1284 Andronikos married Yolanda (renamed Irene), a daughter of William VII of Montferrat, with whom he had:\n* John Palaiologos (–1308), ''despotes''.\n* Bartholomaios Palaiologos (born 1289), died young.\n* Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat (1291–1338).\n* Simonis Palaiologina (1294–after 1336), who married King Stefan Milutin of Serbia.\n* Theodora Palaiologina (born 1295), died young.\n* Demetrios Palaiologos (1297–1343), ''despotēs''.\n* Isaakios Palaiologos (born 1299), died young.\n\nAndronikos II also had at least two illegitimate daughters:\n* Irene, who married John II Doukas, ruler of Thessaly\n* Maria, who married Toqta, Khan of the Golden Horde\n", "\n\n\n\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\nRabban Bar Sauma\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Family", "Ancestry", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Andronikos II Palaiologos
[ "\n\n'''Andronikos I Komnenos''' (; – 12 September 1185), usually Latinized as '''Andronicus I Comnenus''', was Byzantine Emperor from 1183 to 1185. He was the son of Isaac Komnenos and the grandson of the emperor Alexios I.\n\n", "\n===Early years===\nAndronikos Komnenos was born around 1118. He was handsome and eloquent, active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician, but also licentious. His early years were spent alternately in pleasure and in military service.\n\nIn 1141 he was taken captive by the Seljuq Turks and remained in their hands for a year. On being ransomed, he went to Constantinople, where he was held at the court of his cousin, the Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, to whom he was a great favourite. Here the charms of his niece, Eudoxia, attracted him and she became his mistress. In 1152, accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in Cilicia. Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon Mopsuestia, he returned but was again appointed to the command of a province. This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in Constantinople and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia.\n\n===Exile===\nAbout 1153, a conspiracy against the Emperor in which Andronikos participated was discovered, and he was thrown in prison. After repeated unsuccessful attempts, he escaped in 1165. After passing through many dangers, including captivity in Vlach territory, he reached Kiev, where his cousin Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia held court. While under the protection of Yaroslav, Andronikos formed an alliance with the Emperor Manuel I, and with a Galician army he joined Manuel in the invasion of Hungary, assisting at the siege of Semlin. The campaign was successful, and Andronikos returned to Constantinople with Manuel I in 1168; a year later, however, Andronikos refused to take the oath of allegiance to the future king Béla III of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor. Andronikos was removed from court but received the province of Cilicia.\n\nStill under the displeasure of the Emperor, Andronikos fled to the court of Raymond, Prince of Antioch. While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the Prince, Philippa, sister of the Empress Maria. The Emperor was again angered by this dishonour, and Andronikos was compelled to flee. He took refuge with King Amalric I of Jerusalem, whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the Lordship of Beirut. In Jerusalem he saw Theodora Komnene, the beautiful widow of King Baldwin III and niece of the Emperor Manuel. Although Andronikos was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction. To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronikos to the court of Nur ad-Din, the Sultan of Damascus. Feeling unsafe there, they continued their perilous journey through the Caucasus and Anatolia. They were well received by King George III of Georgia, whose anonymous sister had probably been the first wife of Andronikos.\n\nAndronikos was granted estates in Kakhetia, in the east of Georgia. In 1173 or 1174, he accompanied the Georgian army on an expedition to Shirvan up to the Caspian shores, where George recaptured the fortress of Shabaran from the invaders from Darband for his cousin, the Shirvanshah Akhsitan I. Finally, Andronikos and Theodora settled in the ancestral lands of the Komnenoi at Oinaion, on the shores of the Black Sea, between Trebizond and Sinope. While Andronikos was on one of his incursions into Trebizond, his castle was surprised by the governor of that province, and Theodora and her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople. To obtain their release Andronikos in early 1180 made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, besought pardon. This he obtained, and he was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion.\n\n===Emperor===\nIn 1180 the Emperor Manuel died and was succeeded by his ten-year-old son Alexios II, who was under the guardianship of his mother, Empress Maria. Her Latin origins and culture led to creeping resentment from her Greek subjects. They had felt insulted by the Western tastes of Manuel, and being ruled by his Western wife built tensions to an explosion of rioting that almost became a full civil war. This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that (according to non-Byzantine sources) included Muslim contingents. The defection of the commander of the Byzantine navy, ''megas doux'' Andronikos Kontostephanos, and the general Andronikos Angelos, played a key role in allowing the rebellious forces to enter Constantinople.\n\nThe arrival of Andronikos Komnenos was soon followed by a massacre of the city's Latin inhabitants, who virtually controlled its economy, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Westerners. He was believed to have arranged the poisoning of Alexios II's elder sister Maria the Porphyrogenita and her husband Renier of Montferrat, although Maria herself had encouraged him to intervene; the poisoner was said to be the eunuch Pterygeonites. Soon afterwards Andronikos had the Empress Maria imprisoned and then killed — forcing a signature from the child Emperor Alexios to put his mother to death — by Pterygeonites and the ''hetaireiarches'' Constantine Tripsychos. Alexios II was compelled to acknowledge Andronikos as colleague in the empire in front of the crowd on the terrace of the Church of Christ of the Chalkè and was then quickly put to death in turn; the killing was carried out by Tripsychos, Theodore Dadibrenos, and Stephen Hagiochristophorites.\n\nIn 1183, sixty-five year old Andronikos married twelve-year-old Agnes of France, daughter of King Louis VII of France and his third wife Adèle of Champagne — Agnes had been betrothed to Alexios II. By November 1183, Andronikos had associated his younger legitimate son John Komnenos on the throne. In 1184, a Venetian embassy visited Constantinople, and an agreement was reached that compensation of 1,500 gold pieces would be paid for the losses incurred in 1171.\n\nThe reign of Andronikos was characterized by his harsh measures. He resolved to suppress many abuses but above all things to check feudalism and limit the power of the nobles, who were rivals for his throne. The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors, who had grown corrupt under the safety and opulence of Manuel I's rule. Andronikos became increasingly paranoid and violent, however, and the Empire descended into a terror state.. In September 1185, he ordered the execution of all prisoners, exiles, and their families for collusion with the invaders. The aristocrats in turn were infuriated against him, and there were several revolts.\n\nThe stories of chaos led to an invasion by King William of the Norman Sicilians. William landed in Epirus with a strong force of 200 ships and 80,000 men, including 5,000 knights, and marched as far as Thessalonica, which he took and pillaged ruthlessly (7,000 Greeks died). Andronikos hastily assembled five different armies to stop the Sicilian army from reaching Constantinople, but his forces failed to stand and retreated to the outlying hills. Andronikos also assembled a fleet of 100 ships to stop the Norman fleet from entering the Sea of Marmara. The invaders were finally driven out in 1186 by his successor, Isaac Angelos.\n\n===Death===\nA medieval depiction of the death of Andronikos. Original in the Bibliothèque Nationale, France.\n\nAndronikos seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly successful. But on September 11, 1185, during his absence from the capital Stephen Hagiochristophorites, his lieutenant, moved to arrest Isaac Angelos, whose loyalty was suspect. Isaac killed Hagiochristophorites and took refuge in the church of Hagia Sophia. He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose that spread rapidly over the whole city.\n\nWhen Andronikos arrived he found that Isaac had been proclaimed Emperor. The deposed Emperor attempted to escape in a boat with his wife Agnes and his mistress, but they were captured (though some claim that Andronikos survived and managed to escape to the then-self-proclaimed Kingdom of Cyprus). Isaac handed him over to the city mob and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment, remaining for that period tied to a post and beaten. His right hand was cut off, his teeth and hair were pulled out, one of his eyes was gouged out, and, among many other sufferings, boiling water was thrown in his face, punishment probably associated with his handsomeness and life of licentiousness. At last he was led to the Hippodrome of Constantinople and hung by his feet between two pillars. Two Latin soldiers competed as to whose sword would penetrate his body more deeply, and he was, according to the representation of his death, torn apart. He died on September 12, 1185. At the news of the emperor's death, his son and co-emperor John was murdered by his own troops in Thrace.\nAndronikos I was the last of the Komnenoi to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons Alexios and David founded the Empire of Trebizond in 1204. Their branch of the dynasty was known as the \"Great Komnenoi\" (''Megaskomnenoi'').\n", "Andronikos I Komnenos was married twice and had numerous mistresses. By his first wife, whose name is not known, he had three children:\n* Manuel Komnenos (born 1145), the father of Alexios I and David Komnenos, the founders of the Empire of Trebizond\n* John Komnenos (apparently born 1159 or 1160), who was co-emperor with his father from 1183 to 1185 and was killed in that year\n* Maria Komnene\nBy his mistress Theodora Komnene, Andronikos I had the following children:\n* Alexios Komnenos (c. 1170–1199), an alleged forefather of the Georgian noble family of Andronikashvili.\n* Eirene Komnene (born c. 1169), who was briefly married to Alexios Komnenos, a son of Emperor Manuel I Komnenos by Theodora Batatzina.\n", "\nAndronikos is the main protagonist in Michael Arnold's ''Against the Fall of Night'' (Garden City, New York: Doubleday 1975), as well as Ange Vlachos' ''Their Most Serene Majesties'' (Vanguard Press, 1964).\n\nHe is mentioned in the Louis L'Amour medieval historical novel, ''The Walking Drum'', with his gruesome death foreseen by the protagonist in a vision.\n\nHe is among the main characters of the historical novel ''Agnes of France'' (1980) by Greek writer Kostas Kyriazis (b. 1920). The novel describes the events of the reigns of Manuel I, Alexios II and Andronikos I through the eyes of Agnes. The novel ends with the death of Andronikos.\n\nAndronikos was portrayed in the novel ''Baudolino'' by Umberto Eco, with much detail being given to his grisly end.\n", "\nList of Byzantine emperors\n", "\n", " \n\n \n* \n* \n* \n\n'''Attribution'''\n* \n", "\n* .\n* Gibbon, Edward. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', Chapter 48.\n* Grünbart, Michael, 'Die Macht des Historiographen – Andronikos (I.) Komnenos und sein Bild', in ''Zbornik Radova Vizantinoloskog Instituta'' 48, 2011, pp. 75–85\n* Harris, Jonathan, ''Byzantium and the Crusades'', Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014. \n* Harris, Jonathan, 'Collusion with the infidel as a pretext for military action against Byzantium', in ''Clash of Cultures: the Languages of Love and Hate'', ed. Sarah Lambert and Helen Nicholson, Brepols, 2012, pp. 99–117. \n* ''The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium'', Oxford University Press, 1991.\n* Mihai Tiuliumeanu, ''Andronic I Comnenul'', Iași, 2000. \n* Treadgold, Warren, ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Stanford University Press, 1997\n* K. Varzos, ''Ē genealogia tōn Komnēnōn'' (Thessalonica, 1984) vol. 1 pp. 493–638.\n* Eustathios of Thessaloniki 'The Capture of Thessaloniki' (Byzantina Australiensia 8), Canberra 1988.\n* The full text of a lecture by John Melville-Jones on the life of this emperor is located at: . It is accompanied by an extensive bibliography.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Family", " In popular culture ", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading" ]	Andronikos I Komnenos
[ "The Tower of Winds\n'''Andronicus of Cyrrhus''' or '''Andronicus Cyrrhestes''' (, ''Andrónikos Kyrrhēstou''), son of Hermias, was a Macedonian astronomer who flourished about 100 BC.\n", "He built a ''horologion'' at Athens, the so-called Tower of the Winds, a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, representing the eight principal winds. In antiquity a bronze figure of Triton on the summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples.\n", "\n", "* \n", "*Tenos island - Epigraphical Database - IG XII,5 891\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Andronicus of Cyrrhus
[ "'''Andronicus of Rhodes''' (, ''Andrónikos ho Rhódios''; ; BC) was a Greek philosopher from Rhodes who was also the scholarch (head) of the Peripatetic school. He is most famous for publishing a new edition of the works of Aristotle that forms the basis of the texts that survive today.\n\n\n", "Little is known about his life. He is reported to have been the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetic school. He taught in Rome, about 58 BC, and was the teacher of Boethus of Sidon, with whom Strabo studied.\n", "Andronicus is of special interest in the history of philosophy, from the statement of Plutarch, that he published a new edition of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly belonged to the library of Apellicon, and were brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apellicon's library in 84 BC. Tyrannion commenced this task, but apparently did not do much towards it. The arrangement which Andronicus made of Aristotle's writings seems to be the one which forms the basis of our present editions and we are probably indebted to him for the preservation of a large number of Aristotle's works.\n", "Andronicus wrote a work upon Aristotle, the fifth book of which contained a complete list of the philosopher's writings, and he also wrote commentaries upon the ''Physics'', ''Ethics'', and ''Categories''. None of these works is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to him, one ''On Emotions'', the other a commentary on Aristotle's ''Ethics'' (really by Constantine Palaeocapa in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).\n", "\n", "\n\n'''Attribution'''\n\n", "\n\n", "* The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum with an annotated bibliography\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Works of Aristotle", "Writings", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Andronicus of Rhodes
[ "'''Andronicus''' or '''Andronikos''' () is a classical Greek name. The name has the sense of \"male victor, warrior\". The female is '''Andronike''' (Ἀνδρονίκη). Notable bearers of the name include:\n\nAndronicus of Olynthus, Greek general under Demetrius in the 4th century BC\nLivius Andronicus (c. 284–204 BC), introduced drama to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin in c.240 BC\nAndronicus ben Meshullam, a Jewish scholar of the 2nd century BC\nAndronicus of Pergamum, a 2nd-century BC diplomat\nAndronicus of Macedonia, governor of Ephesus in 2nd century BC\nAndronicus of Cyrrhus (c. 100 BC), Greek astronomer\nAndronicus of Rhodes (c. 70 BC), Greek philosopher\nAndronicus of Pannonia (Saint Andronicus), an Apostle of the Seventy mentioned in Romans 16:7\nAndronicus (physician), a Greek physician of the 2nd century\nAndronicus (poet), a writer of the 4th century\nAndronicus, Probus, and Tarachus (Saint Andronicus), a 4th-century martyr\nAndronicus of Alexandria, a soldier, martyr, saint, and companion of Faustus, Abibus and Dionysius of Alexandria\nCoptic Pope Andronicus of Alexandria (reigned 616–622)\nFive Byzantine emperors:\nAndronikos I Komnenos (1118–1185)\nAndronikos II Palaiologos (1258–1332)\nAndronikos III Palaiologos (1297–1341)\nAndronikos IV Palaiologos (1348–1385)\n*Andronikos V Palaiologos (c. 1400 – c. 1407), co-emperor with his father John VII Palaiologos\nAndronikos Palaiologos, Lord of Thessalonike (1403–1429)\nThree emperors of Trebizond:\nAndronikos I of Trebizond (died 1235)\nAndronikos II of Trebizond (c. 1240–1266)\nAndronikos III of Trebizond (c. 1310–1332)\n In fiction:\n''Titus Andronicus'', a play by William Shakespeare, possibly inspired by one of the above-listed emperors\n''Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician'', a 1646 satire by Thomas Fuller\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction" ]	Andronicus
[ "\n\n'''Ammianus Marcellinus''' (born 330, died 400) was a Roman soldier and historian who wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity (preceding Procopius). His work, known as the '''''Res Gestae''''', chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from the accession of the emperor Nerva in 96 to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378, although only the sections covering the period 353–378 survive.\n", "A bust of Emperor Constantius II from Syria.Ammianus was born between 325 and 330 in the Greek-speaking East, possibly in Syria or Phoenicia. His native language was most likely Greek; he learned Latin as a second language, and was probably familiar with Syriac as well. The surviving books of his history cover the years 353 to 378.\n\nAmmianus served as a soldier in the army of Constantius II and Julian in Gaul and Persia. He professes to have been \"a former soldier and a Greek\" (''miles quondam et graecus''), and his enrollment among the elite ''protectores domestici'' (household guards) shows that he was of middle class or higher birth. Consensus is that Ammianus probably came from a curial family, but it is also possible that he was the son of a ''comes Orientis'' of the same family name. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and ''magister militum''.\n\nHe returned with Ursicinus to Italy when Ursicinus was recalled by Constantius to begin an expedition against Claudius Silvanus. Silvanus had been forced by the allegedly false accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in Gaul. Ammianus campaigned in the East twice under Ursicinus. On one occasion he was separated from the officer's entourage and took refuge in Amida during the siege of the city by the Sassanids of shah Shapur II; he reportedly barely escaped with his life.\n\nWhen Ursicinus was dismissed from his military post by Constantinus, Ammianus too seems to have retired from the military; however, reevaluation of his participation in Julian's Persian campaigns has led modern scholarship to suggest that he continued his service but did not for some reason include the period in his history.\nHe accompanied Julian, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the Alamanni and the Sassanids. \nAfter Julian's death, Ammianus accompanied retreat of the new emperor Jovian as far as Antioch. \nHe was residing in Antioch in 372 when a certain Theodorus was thought to have been identified the successor to the emperor Valens by divination. \nSpeaking as an alleged eyewitness, Marcellinus recounts how Theodorus and several others were made to confess their deceit through the use of torture, and cruelly punished.\n\nJulian on a bronze coin of Antioch \nHe eventually settled in Rome and began the ''Res Gestae''. The precise year of his death is unknown, but scholarly consensus places it somewhere between 392 and 400 at the latest.\n\nModern scholarship generally describes Ammianus as a pagan who was tolerant of Christianity. Marcellinus writes of Christianity as being a pure and simple religion that demands only what is just and mild, and when he condemns the actions of Christians, he does not do so on the basis of their Christianity as such. His lifetime was marked by lengthy outbreaks of sectarian and dogmatic strife within the new state-backed faith, often with violent consequences (especially the Arian controversy) and these conflicts sometimes appeared unworthy to him, though it was territory where he could not risk going very far in criticism, due to the growing and volatile political connections between the church and imperial power.\n\nHe was not blind to the faults of Christians or of pagans; he observed in his ''Res Gestae'' that \"no wild beasts are so deadly to humans as most Christians are to each other.\" and he condemns his hero Julian for excessive attachment to (pagan) sacrifice, and for his edict effectively barring Christians from teaching posts.\n", "The walls of Amida, built by Constantius II before the Siege of Amida of 359\nWhile living in Rome in the 380s, Ammianus wrote a Latin history of the Roman empire from the accession of Nerva (96) to the death of Valens at the Battle of Adrianople (378), in effect writing a continuation of the history of Tacitus. He presumably completed the work before 391, as at 22.16.12 he praises the Serapeum in Egypt as the glory of the empire; it was in that same year the Emperor granted the temple grounds to a Christian bishop, provoking pagans into barricading themselves in the temple, plundering its contents, and torturing Christians, ultimately destroying the temple. The ''Res Gestae'' (''Rerum gestarum Libri XXXI'') was originally composed of thirty-one books, but the first thirteen have been lost (historian T.D. Barnes argues that the original was actually thirty-six books, which if correct would mean that eighteen books have been lost). The surviving eighteen books cover the period from 353 to 378. As a whole it is extremely valuable, constituting the foundation of modern understanding of the history of the fourth century Roman Empire. It is lauded as a clear, comprehensive, and generally impartial account of events by a contemporary; like many ancient historians, however, Ammianus was in fact not impartial, although he expresses an intention to be so, and had strong moral and religious prejudices. Although criticised as lacking literary merit by his early biographers, he was in fact quite skilled in rhetoric, which significantly has brought the veracity of some of the ''Res Gestae'' into question.\n\nHis work has suffered terribly from manuscript transmission. Aside from the loss of the first thirteen books, the remaining eighteen are in many places corrupt and lacunose. The sole surviving manuscript from which almost every other is derived is a ninth-century Carolingian text, Vatican lat. 1873 (''V''), produced in Fulda from an insular exemplar. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in Fragmenta Marbugensia (''M''), another ninth-century Frankish codex which was taken apart to provide covers for account-books during the fifteenth century. Only six leaves of ''M'' survive; however, before this manuscript was dismantled the Abbot of Hersfeld lent the manuscript to Sigismund Gelenius, who used it in preparing the text of the second Froben edition (''G''). The dates and relationship of V and M were long disputed until 1936 when R. P. Robinson demonstrated persuasively that V was copied from M. As L.D. Reynolds summarizes, \"M is thus a fragment of the archetype; symptoms of an insular pre-archetype are evident.\"\n\nHis handling from his earliest printers was little better. The ''editio princeps'' was printed in 1474 in Rome by Georg Sachsel and Bartholomaeus Golsch from \"the worst of the ''recentiores''\", which broke off at the end of Book 26. The next edition (Bologna, 1517) suffered from its editor's \"monstrously bad conjectures\" upon the poor text of the 1474 edition; the 1474 edition was pirated for the first Froben edition (Basle, 1518). It wasn't until 1533 that the last five books of Ammianus' history were put into print by Silvanus Otmar and edited by Mariangelus Accursius. The first modern edition was produced by C.U. Clark (Berlin, 1910–1913). The first English translations were by Philemon Holland in 1609, and later by C.D. Yonge in 1862.\n", "A copy of the ''Res Gestae'' from 1533\nEdward Gibbon judged Ammianus \"an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.\" But he also condemned Ammianus for lack of literary flair: \"The coarse and undistinguishing pencil of Ammianus has delineated his bloody figures with tedious and disgusting accuracy.\" Austrian historian Ernst Stein praised Ammianus as \"the greatest literary genius that the world produced between Tacitus and Dante\".\n\nAccording to Kimberly Kagan, his accounts of battles emphasize the experience of the soldiers but at the cost of ignoring the bigger picture. As a result, it is difficult for the reader to understand why the battles he describes had the outcome they did.\n\nAmmianus' work contains a detailed description of the tsunami in Alexandria which devastated the metropolis and the shores of the eastern Mediterranean on 21 July 365. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave.\n\nAccording to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition, \"it is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like Livy and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are peculiarly interesting. In his description of the empire—the exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the army—we find the explanation of its fall before the Goths twenty years after his death.\"\n", "\n", "* Wolfgang Seyfarth (ed.) ''Rerum gestarum libri qui supersunt'' (in 2 vols). Leipzig: Teubner, 1978.\n* Latin text and facing English translation (by J.C. Rolfe) in the Loeb Classical Library, 1935‑1940 with many reprintings.\n* Walter Hamilton (trans.) ''The Later Roman Empire (AD 354–378)''. Penguin Classics, 1986. An abridged English translation.\n* Barnes, Timothy D. ''Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology)''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998 (hardcover, ).\n* Clark, Charles Upson. ''The Text Tradition of Ammianus Marcellinus.'' Ph.D. Diss. Yale: 1904.\n* Crump, Gary A. ''Ammianus Marcellinus as a military historian.'' Steiner, 1975, .\n* Drijvers, Jan and David Hunt. ''Late Roman World and its Historian.'' Routledge, 1999, .\n* Kelly, Gavin. ''Ammianus Marcellinus: The Allusive Historian.'' Cambridge University Press, 2008, .\n* Matthews, J. ''The Roman Empire of Ammianus''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.\n* Norden, Eduard. ''Antika Kunstprosa.'' Leipzig, 1909.\n* Rowell, Henry Thompson. ''Ammianus Marcellinus, soldier-historian of the late Roman Empire.'' University of Cincinnati, 1964.\n* Sabbah, Guy. ''La Méthode d'Ammien Marcellin.'' Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978.\n* Seager, Robin. ''Ammianus Marcellinus: Seven Studies in His Language and Thought.'' Univ of Missouri Pr, 1986, .\n* Thompson, E.A. ''The Historical Work of Ammianus Marcellinus.'' London: Cambridge University Press, 1947.\n* \n", "\n* \n* \n* Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project\n* Ammianus Marcellinus' works in Latin at the Latin Library\n* Ammianus Marcellinus' works in English at the Tertullian Project with introduction on the manuscripts\n* Bibliography for Ammianus Marcellinus at Bibliographia Latina Selecta compiled by M.G.M. van der Poel\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Work", "Reception", "Notes", "Texts, references, and further reading", "External links" ]	Ammianus Marcellinus
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 13''' was the seventh manned mission in the Apollo space program and the third intended to land on the Moon. The craft was launched on April 11, 1970, at 13:13 CST (19:13 UTC) from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, but the lunar landing was aborted after an oxygen tank exploded two days later, crippling the Service Module (SM) upon which the Command Module (CM) had depended. Despite great hardship caused by limited power, loss of cabin heat, shortage of potable water, and the critical need to make makeshift repairs to the carbon dioxide removal system, the crew returned safely to Earth on April 17, 1970, six days after launch.\n\nThe flight passed the far side of the Moon at an altitude of above the lunar surface, and 400,171 km (248,655 mi) from Earth, a spaceflight record marking the farthest humans have ever traveled from Earth. The mission was commanded by James A. Lovell with John L. \"Jack\" Swigert as Command Module Pilot and Fred W. Haise as Lunar Module Pilot. Swigert was a late replacement for the original CM pilot Ken Mattingly, who was grounded by the flight surgeon after exposure to German measles.\n\nThe story of the Apollo 13 mission has been dramatized multiple times, most notably in the 1995 film ''Apollo 13''.\n", "\n\n===Prime and backup crew===\nAccording to the standard crew rotation in place during the Apollo program, the prime crew for Apollo 13 would have been the backup crew for Apollo 10 with Mercury and Gemini veteran L. Gordon Cooper in command. That crew was composed of\nL. Gordon Cooper, Jr (Commander);\nDonn F. Eisele (Command Module Pilot);\nEdgar D. Mitchell (Lunar Module Pilot).\n\nDeke Slayton, NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, never intended to rotate Cooper and Eisele to another mission, as both were out of favor with NASA management for various reasons (Cooper for his lax attitude towards training, and Eisele for incidents aboard Apollo 7 and an extra-marital affair). He assigned them to the backup crew simply because of a lack of flight-qualified manpower in the Astronaut Office at the time the assignment needed to be made. Slayton felt Cooper had no more than a very small chance of receiving the Apollo 13 command, ''if'' he did an outstanding job with the assignment, which he did not. Despite Eisele's issues with management, Slayton always intended to assign him to a future Apollo Applications Program mission rather than a lunar mission, but this program was eventually cut down to only the Skylab component.\n\nThus, the original assignment Slayton submitted to his superiors for this flight was:\n\nAlan B. Shepard, Jr (Commander);\nStuart A. Roosa (Command Module Pilot);\nEdgar D. Mitchell (Lunar Module Pilot).\n\nFor the first time ever, Slayton's recommendation was rejected by management, who felt that Shepard needed more time to train properly for a lunar flight, as he had only recently benefited from experimental surgery to correct an inner ear disorder which had kept him grounded since his first Mercury flight in 1961. Thus, Lovell's crew, backup for the historic Apollo 11 mission and therefore slated for Apollo 14, was swapped with Shepard's crew and the original crew selection for the mission became:\n\nOriginal crew photo.Left to right: Lovell, Mattingly, Haise\nPrime crew:\n\n\nBackup crew:\n\n\nKen Mattingly was originally intended as the Command Module Pilot. Seven days before launch, the Backup Lunar Module Pilot, Charlie Duke, contracted rubella from one of his children. This exposed both the prime and backup crews, who trained together. Mattingly was found to be the only one of the other five who had not had rubella as a child and thus was not immune. Three days before launch, at the insistence of the Flight Surgeon, Swigert was moved to the prime crew.\n\nMattingly never contracted rubella and was assigned after the mission as Command Module Pilot to Young's crew, which later flew Apollo 16, the fifth mission to land on the Moon.\n\n===Support crew===\nVance D. Brand;\nJack R. Lousma;\nJoseph P. Kerwin.\n\n===Flight directors===\nGene Kranz (lead) – White Team;\nGlynn Lunney – Black Team;\nMilt Windler – Maroon Team;\nGerry Griffin – Gold Team.\n\n===Mission insignia===\nRobbins medallion\nThe astronauts' mission insignia was sculpted as a medallion titled ''Steeds of Apollo'' by Lumen Martin Winter and was struck by the Franklin Mint.\n\n", "'''Mass:''' CSM ''Odyssey'' ; LM ''Aquarius'' ;\n'''Perigee:''' ;\n'''Apogee''' (parking orbit): ;\n'''Inclination''' (Earth departure): 31.817°;\n'''Period:''' 88.19 min.\n\n===Objective===\n\nThe Apollo 13 mission was to explore the Fra Mauro formation, or Fra Mauro highlands, named after the diameter Fra Mauro crater located within it. It is a widespread, hilly selenological area thought to be composed of ejecta from the impact that formed Mare Imbrium.\n\nThe next Apollo mission, Apollo 14, eventually made a successful flight to Fra Mauro.\n\n===Abort===\nApril 14, 1970 UTC (April 13, 21:07:53 CST)\n'''Oxygen tank explosion:''' 03:07:53 UTC (55:54:53 Ground Elapsed Time); from Earth\n'''CSM power down, LM power up:''' 05:23 UTC (58:10 Ground Elapsed Time)\n\n===Closest approach to Moon===\nApril 15, 1970, 00:21:00 UTC; \n\n===Splashdown===\nApril 17, 1970, 18:07:41 UTC (142:54:47 Ground Elapsed Time). Crew was on board the USS ''Iwo Jima'' 45 minutes later.\n", "\n===Launch and translunar injection===\nApollo 13 launches from Kennedy Space Center, April 11, 1970\nApollo 13 spacecraft configuration en route to the Moon\n\nThe mission was launched at the planned time, 02:13:00 PM EST (19:13:00 UTC) on April 11. An anomaly occurred when the second-stage, center (inboard) engine shut down about two minutes early. The four outboard engines and the third-stage engine burned longer to compensate, and the vehicle achieved very close to the planned circular parking orbit, followed by a normal translunar injection about two hours later. The engine shutdown was determined to be caused by severe pogo oscillations measured at a strength of 68 ''g'' and a frequency of 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by . The vehicle's guidance system shut the engine down in response to sensed thrust chamber pressure fluctuations. Pogo oscillations had been seen on previous Titan rockets, and also on the Saturn V during Apollo 6, but on Apollo 13, they were amplified by an unexpected interaction with turbopump cavitation. Later missions implemented anti-pogo modifications that had been under development. These included addition of a helium-gas reservoir to the center engine liquid oxygen line to damp pressure oscillations, an automatic cutoff as a backup, and simplification of the propellant valves of all five second-stage engines.\n\nThe crew performed the separation and transposition maneuver to dock the Command Module ''Odyssey'' to the Lunar Module (LM) ''Aquarius'', and pulled away from the spent third stage, which ground controllers then sent on a course to impact the Moon in range of a seismometer placed on surface by Apollo 12. They then settled in for the three-day trip to Fra Mauro.\n\n\n===Accident===\nMission Operations Control Room during Apollo 13's fourth television transmission, on the evening of April 13, 1970. Astronaut Fred Haise, Jr., Lunar Module Pilot, is seen on the screen\n\nApproaching 56 hours into the mission, Apollo 13 was approximately from Earth en route to the Moon. Approximately six and a half minutes after the end of a live TV broadcast from the spacecraft, Haise was in the process of closing out the LM, while Lovell was stowing the TV camera, and Houston flight controllers asked Swigert to turn on the hydrogen and oxygen tank stirring fans in the Service Module, which were designed to destratify the cryogenic contents and increase the accuracy of their quantity readings. Two minutes later, the astronauts heard a \"pretty large bang,\" accompanied by fluctuations in electrical power and the firing of the attitude control thrusters. The crew initially thought that a meteoroid might have struck the Lunar Module. Communications and telemetry to Earth were lost for 1.8 seconds, until the system automatically corrected by switching the high-gain S-band antenna, used for translunar communications, from narrow-beam to wide-beam mode.\n\n\nImmediately after the bang Swigert reported a \"problem\", which Lovell repeated and clarified as a \"main B bus undervolt\", a temporary loss of operating voltage on the second of the spacecraft's main electrical circuits. Oxygen tank 2 immediately read quantity zero. About three minutes later, the number 1 and number 3 fuel cells failed. Lovell reported seeing out the window that the craft was venting \"a gas of some sort\" into space. The number 1 oxygen tank quantity gradually reduced to zero over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.\n\nBecause the fuel cells generated the Command/Service Module's electrical power by combining hydrogen and oxygen into water, when oxygen tank 1 ran dry, the remaining fuel cell finally shut down, leaving the craft on the Command Module's limited-duration battery power and water. The crew was forced to shut down the CM completely to save this for re-entry, and to power up the LM to use as a \"lifeboat.\" This situation had been suggested during an earlier training simulation, but had not been considered a likely scenario. Without the LM, the accident would certainly have been fatal.\nThe circumlunar trajectory followed by Apollo 13, drawn to scale; the accident occurred about 5½ hours from entry into the Moon's sphere of gravitational influence\n\n===Crew survival and return journey===\nA Direct Abort return, depicted in a 1966 planning report. The trajectory shown is at a point much earlier and farther away from the Moon than where the Apollo 13 accident happened.\n\nThe damage to the Service Module made safe return from a lunar landing impossible, so Lead Flight Director Gene Kranz ordered an abort of the mission. The existing abort plans, first drawn up in 1966, were evaluated; the quickest was a Direct Abort trajectory, which required using the Service Module Propulsion System (SPS) engine to achieve a delta-v.p. III-14 Although a successful SPS firing at 60 hours ground elapsed time (GET) would land the crew one day earlier (at 118 hours GET, or 58 hours later), the large delta-v was possible only if the LM were jettisoned first,p. II-1 and since crew survival depended on the LM's presence during the coast back to Earth, that option was \"out of the question.\"p. III-17 An alternative would have been to burn the SPS fuel to depletion, then jettison the Service Module and make a second burn with the LM Descent Propulsion System (DPS) engine. It was desired to keep the Service Module attached for as long as possible because of the thermal protection it afforded the Command Module's heat shield. Apollo 13 was close to entering the lunar sphere of gravitational influence (at 61 hours GET), which was the break-even point between direct and circumlunar aborts, and the latter allowed more time for evaluation and planning before a major rocket burn.p. B-5 There also was concern about \"the structural integrity of the Service Module,\"p. III‑23 so mission planners were instructed that the SPS engine would not be used \"except as a last-ditch effort.\"p. III-14\n\nFor these reasons, Kranz chose the alternative circumlunar option, using the Moon's gravity to return the ship to Earth. Apollo 13 had left its initial free-return trajectory earlier in the mission, as required for the lunar landing at Fra Mauro. Therefore, the first order of business was to re-establish the free-return trajectory with a 30.7-second burn of the DPS. The descent engine was used again two hours after pericynthion, the closest approach to the Moon (\"PC+2 burn\"), to speed the return to Earth by 10 hours and move the landing spot from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. A more aggressive burn could have been performed at PC+2 by first jettisoning the Service Module, returning the crew in about the same amount of time as a direct abort,p. III-20 but this was deemed unnecessary given the rates at which consumables were being used. The 4-minute, 24-second burn was so accurate that only two more small course corrections were subsequently needed.\n\nAstronaut John L. Swigert, at right, with the \"mailbox\" rig improvised to adapt the Command Module's square carbon dioxide scrubber cartridges to fit the Lunar Module, which took a round cartridge\nMission Control during the Apollo 13 mission\nConsiderable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from the crew, flight controllers, and support personnel for the safe return. The developing drama was shown on television. Because electrical power was severely limited, no more live TV broadcasts were made; TV commentators used models and animated footage as illustrations. Low power levels made even voice communications difficult.\n\nThe Lunar Module consumables were intended to sustain two people for a day and a half, not three people for four days. Oxygen was the least critical consumable because the LM carried enough to repressurize the LM after each surface EVA. Unlike the Command/Service Module (CSM), which was powered by fuel cells that produced water as a byproduct, the LM was powered by silver-zinc batteries, so electrical power and water (used for equipment cooling as well as drinking) were critical consumables. To keep the LM life-support and communication systems operational until re-entry, the LM was powered down to the lowest levels possible. In particular, the LM's Abort Guidance System was used for most of the coast back to Earth instead of the primary guidance system, as it used less power and water.pp. III‑17,33,40\n\nAvailability of lithium hydroxide (LiOH) for removing carbon dioxide presented a serious problem. The LM's internal stock of LiOH canisters was not sufficient to support the crew until return, and the remainder was stored in the descent stage, out of reach. The CM had an adequate supply of canisters, but these were incompatible with the LM. Engineers on the ground improvised a way to join the cube-shaped CM canisters to the LM's cylindrical canister-sockets by drawing air through them with a suit return hose. NASA engineers referred to the improvised device as \"the mailbox\".\n\nAnother problem to be solved for a safe return was accomplishing a complete power-up from scratch of the completely shut-down Command Module, something never intended to be done in-flight. Flight controller John Aaron, with the support of grounded astronaut Mattingly and many engineers and designers, had to invent a new procedure to do this with the ship's limited power supply and time factor. This was further complicated by the fact that the reduced power levels in the LM caused internal temperatures to drop to as low as . The unpowered CM got so cold that water began to condense on solid surfaces, causing concern that this might short out electrical systems when it was reactivated. This turned out not to be a problem, partly because of the extensive electrical insulation improvements instituted after the Apollo 1 fire.\n\nThe last problem to be solved was how to separate the Lunar Module a safe distance away from the Command Module just before re-entry. The normal procedure was to use the Service Module's reaction control system (RCS) to pull the CSM away after releasing the LM along with the Command Module's docking ring, but this RCS was inoperative because of the power failure, and the useless SM would be released before the LM. To solve the problem, Grumman called on the engineering expertise of the University of Toronto. A team of six UT engineers, led by senior scientist Bernard Etkin, was formed to solve the problem within a day. The team concluded that pressurizing the tunnel connecting the Lunar Module to the Command Module just before separation would provide the force necessary to push the two modules a safe distance away from each other just prior to re-entry. The team had 6 hours to compute the pressure required, using slide rules. They needed an accurate calculation, as too high a pressure might damage the hatch and its seal, causing the astronauts to burn up; too low a pressure would not provide enough separation distance of the LM. Grumman relayed their calculation to NASA, and from there in turn to the astronauts, who used it successfully.\n\n===Re-entry and splashdown===\n\nAs Apollo 13 neared Earth, the crew first jettisoned the Service Module, using the LM's reaction control system to pull themselves a safe distance from it, instead of the normal procedure which used automatic firing of the SM's RCS. They photographed it for later analysis of the accident's cause. It was then that the crew were surprised to see for the first time that the entire Sector 4 panel had been blown off. According to the analysts, these pictures also showed the antenna damage and possibly an upward tilt to the fuel cell shelf above the oxygen tank compartment.\n\nFinally, the crew jettisoned the Lunar Module ''Aquarius'' using the above procedure worked out at the University of Toronto, leaving the Command Module ''Odyssey'' to begin its lone re-entry through the atmosphere. The re-entry on a lunar mission normally was accompanied by about four minutes of typical communications blackout caused by ionization of the air around the Command Module. The blackout in Apollo 13's reentry lasted six minutes, which was 87 seconds longer than had been expected. The possibility of heat-shield damage from the tank rupture heightened the tension of the blackout period.\n\n''Odyssey'' regained radio contact and splashed down safely in the South Pacific Ocean, , southeast of American Samoa and from the recovery ship, USS ''Iwo Jima''.\nThe crew was in good condition except for Haise, who was suffering from a serious urinary tract infection because of insufficient water intake. To avoid altering the trajectory of the spacecraft, the crew had been instructed to temporarily stop urine dumps. A misunderstanding prompted the crew to store all urine for the rest of the flight.\n\nThe Lunar Module and Service Module reentered the atmosphere over the South Pacific between the islands of Fiji and New Zealand.\n\n\nFile:Apollo13.jpg\|The crew of Apollo 13 on board the USS ''Iwo Jima'' following splashdown\nFile:Apollo 13 Lunar Module.jpg\|The Apollo 13 Lunar Module ''Aquarius'' is jettisoned above the Earth after serving as a lifeboat for four days. It reentered Earth's atmosphere over Fiji and burned up during reentry\nFile:Apollo 13 Service Module and Lunar Module as entering Earth's atmosphere Download.jpg\|Apollo 13 Service Module (SM) and Lunar Module (LM) as they entered Earth's atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean on April 18, 1970 between the Fiji Islands and Auckland, New Zealand\nFile:Apollo 13 Service Module - AS13-59-8500.jpg\|Apollo 13's damaged Service Module, as photographed from the Command Module after being jettisoned\nFile:Mission Control Celebrates - GPN-2000-001313.jpg\|Mission Control celebrates the successful splashdown of Apollo 13\nFile:Crew on the phone.png\|The Apollo 13 crew talking with President Nixon on April 17, 1970\n\n", "\nNASA Administrator Thomas Paine and Deputy Administrator George Low sent a memorandum to NASA Langley Research Center Director Edgar M. Cortright on April 17, 1970, (date of spacecraft splashdown) advising him of his appointment as chairman of an '''Apollo 13 Review Board''' to investigate the cause of the accident.\n\n===Review board===\nThe second memorandum to Cortright from Paine and Low on April 21 established the board as follows:\n\n:{\|\n'''Members:'''\n\n* Robert F. Allnutt (Assistant to the Administrator, NASA Hqs.);\n* Neil Armstrong (Astronaut, Manned Spacecraft Center);\n* Dr. John F. Clark (Director, Goddard Space Flight Center);\n* Brig. General Walter R. Hedrick, Jr. (Director of Space, DCS/RED, Hqs., USAF);\n* Vincent L. Johnson (Deputy Associate Administrator-Engineering, Office of Space Science and Applications);\n* Milton Klein (Manager, AEC-NASA Space Nuclear Propulsion Office);\n* Dr. Hans M. Mark (Director, Ames Research Center).\n\n'''Counsel:'''\n* George Malley (Chief Counsel, Langley Research Center)\n\n'''OMSF Technical Support:'''\n* Charles W. Mathews (Deputy Associate Administrator, Office of Manned Space Flight)\n\n'''Observers:'''\n\n* William A. Anders (Executive Secretary, National Aeronautics and Space Council; ex-astronaut);\n* Dr. Charles D. Harrington (Chairman, NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel);\n* I. I. Pinkel (Director, Aerospace Safety Research and Data Institute, Lewis Research Center).\n\n'''Congressional Liaison:'''\n* Gerald J. Mossinghoff (Office of Legislative Affairs, NASA Hqs.)\n\n'''Public Affairs Liaison:'''\n* Brian Duff (Public Affairs Officer. Manned Spacecraft Center)\n\n\n===Activities and report===\nThe board exhaustively investigated and analyzed the history of the manufacture and testing of the oxygen tank, and its installation and testing in the spacecraft up to the Apollo 13 launch, as documented in detailed records and logs. They visited and consulted with engineers at the contractor's sites and the Kennedy Space Center. Once a theory of the cause was developed, elements of it were tested, including on a test rig simulation in a vacuum chamber, with a damaged tank installed in the fuel cell bay. This test confirmed the theory when a similar explosion was created, which blew off the outer panel exactly as happened in the flight.\nCortright sent the final ''Report of Apollo 13 Review Board'' to Thomas Paine on June 15, 1970.\n\nThe failure started in the Service Module's number 2 oxygen tank. Damaged Teflon insulation on the wires to the stirring fan inside oxygen tank 2 allowed the wires to short-circuit and ignite this insulation. The resulting fire rapidly increased pressure beyond its limit and the tank dome failed, filling the fuel cell bay (Sector 4) with rapidly expanding gaseous oxygen and combustion products. It is also possible some combustion occurred of the Mylar/Kapton thermal insulation material used to line the oxygen shelf compartment in this bay.\n\nThe resulting pressure inside the compartment popped the bolts attaching the Sector 4 outer aluminum skin panel, which as it blew off probably caused minor damage to the nearby S-band antenna.\n\nMechanical shock forced the oxygen valves closed on the number 1 and number 3 fuel cells, leaving them operating for only about three minutes on the oxygen in the feed lines. The shock also either partially ruptured a line from the number 1 oxygen tank, or caused its check or relief valve to leak, causing its contents to leak out into space over the next 130 minutes, entirely depleting the SM's oxygen supply.\n\nThe board determined the oxygen tank failure was caused by an unlikely chain of events. Tanks storing cryogens, such as liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen, require either venting, extremely good insulation, or both, in order to avoid excessive pressure buildup due to vaporization of the tanks' contents. The Service Module oxygen tanks were so well insulated that they could safely contain supercritical hydrogen and oxygen for years. Each oxygen tank held several hundred pounds of oxygen, which was used for breathable air and the production of electricity and water. The construction of the tanks made internal inspection impossible.\n\nThe tank contained several components relevant to the accident:\n* a quantity sensor;\n* a fan to stir the tank contents for more accurate quantity measurements;\n* a heater to vaporize liquid oxygen as needed;\n* a thermostat to protect the heater;\n* a temperature sensor;\n* fill and drain valves and piping.\n\nThe heater and protection thermostats were originally designed for the Command Module's 28-volt DC bus. The specifications for the heater and thermostat were later changed to allow a 65-volt ground supply, in order to pressurize the tanks more rapidly. Beechcraft, the tank subcontractor, did not upgrade the thermostat to handle the higher voltage.\n\nThe oxygen shelf carrying the oxygen tanks was originally installed in the Apollo 10 Service Module, but was removed to fix a potential electromagnetic interference problem. During removal, the shelf was accidentally dropped about because a retaining bolt had not been removed. The tank appeared to be undamaged, but a loosely fitting filling tube was apparently damaged, and photographs suggested that the close-out cap on the top of the tank may have hit the fuel cell shelf. The report of the Apollo 13 review board considers the probability of tank damage during this incident to be \"rather low.\"\nAfter the tank was filled for ground testing, it could not be emptied through the normal drain line. To avoid delaying the mission by replacing the tank, the heater was connected to 65-volt ground power to boil off the oxygen. Lovell signed off on this procedure. It should have taken a few days at the thermostatic opening temperature of . When the thermostat opened, the 65-volt supply fused its contacts closed and the heater remained powered. The board confirmed by testing that the thermostats welded themselves closed under the higher voltage.\nThis raised the temperature of the heater to an estimated . A chart recorder on the heater current showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, as it should have been if the thermostat was functioning correctly, but no one noticed it at the time. Because the temperature sensor was not designed to read higher than the thermostat opening temperature, the monitoring equipment did not register the true temperature inside the tank. The gas boiled off in hours rather than days.\n\nThe sustained high temperatures melted the Teflon insulation on the fan power supply wires and left them exposed. When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off. During the \"cryo stir\" procedure, fan power passed through the bare wires which apparently shorted, producing sparks and igniting the Teflon. This in turn boiled liquid oxygen faster than the tank vent could remove it.\n\nApollo 13 details of oxygen tank number 2 and the heater and thermostat unit\nIn June 1970, the Cortright Report provided an in-depth analysis of the mission in an extremely detailed five-chapter report with eight appendices. It included a copy of established NASA procedures for alleviating high pressure in a cryogenic oxygen tank, to include:\nTurning the four tank heaters and fans off;\nPulling the two heater circuit breakers to open to remove the energy source;\nPerforming a 2-minute purge, or directly opening the O2 valve.\nTelemetered parameters of the oxygen tank rupture incident, with inset image of pressure relief valve\nThis procedure was designed to prevent hardware failure so that the lunar landing mission could be continued. The ''Mission Operations Report Apollo 13'' recounts how the master caution and warning alarm had been turned off for a previous low-pressure reading on hydrogen tank 2, and so it did not trigger to call attention to the high oxygen pressure reading.\n\nOxygen tank 2 was not the only pressure vessel that failed during this mission. Prior to the accident, the crew had moved the scheduled entry into the Lunar Module forward by three hours. This was done to get an earlier look at the pressure reading of the supercritical helium (SHe) tank in the LM descent stage, which had been suspect since before launch. After the abort decision, the helium pressure continued to rise and Mission Control predicted the time that the burst disc would rupture. The helium tank burst disc ruptured at 108:54, after the lunar flyby. The expulsion reversed the direction of the passive thermal control (PTC) roll (nicknamed the \"barbecue roll\").\n\nWhile the investigation board did recreate the oxygen tank failure, it did not report on any experiments that would show how effective the Cryogenic Malfunctions Procedures were to prevent the system failure by de-energizing the electrical heater and fan circuits.\n\n===Corrective actions===\nThe oxygen tank was redesigned, with the thermostats upgraded to handle the proper voltage. The heaters were retained since they were necessary to maintain oxygen pressure. The stirring fans, with their unsealed motors, were removed, which meant the oxygen quantity gauge was no longer accurate. This required adding a third tank so that no tank would go below half full.\n\nAll electrical wiring in the power system bay was sheathed in stainless steel, and the oxygen quantity probes were changed from aluminum to stainless steel. The fuel cell oxygen supply valves were redesigned to isolate the Teflon-coated wiring from the oxygen. The spacecraft and Mission Control monitoring systems were modified to give more immediate and visible warnings of anomalies.\n", "President Richard Nixon speaks before awarding the Apollo 13 astronauts the Presidential Medal of Freedom\n\nBecause Apollo 13 followed the free-return trajectory, its altitude over the lunar far side was approximately greater than the orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. The Moon was almost at apogee during the mission (as it also was during the flights of Apollo 10 and Apollo 15), which also increased the distance from the Earth. The combination of the two effects ensures that Apollo 13 holds the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, reaching a distance of from Earth on 7:21 pm EST, April 14, 1970.\n\nThe A7L spacesuit intended to be worn on the lunar surface by Lovell would have been the first to feature red bands on the arms, legs, lunar EVA helmet assembly, and the life-support backpack. This came about because Mission Control personnel watching the video feeds of Apollos 11 and 12 had trouble distinguishing the astronauts while both had their helmet sunshades down. The red bands were used for the remaining Apollo flights, the Space Shuttle program, and in the International Space Station.\n\nThe Apollo 13 mission was called \"a successful failure\" by Lovell, because of the successful safe return of the astronauts, but the failed lunar landing. Lead Flight Director Gene Kranz and\nFlight controller Sy Liebergot, the first one to see the telemetry of the initial oxygen tank failure, both describe it decades later as \"NASA's finest hour.\"\n\nPresident Nixon awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the crew and the Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team for their actions during the mission.\n\nThe Cold Cathode Gauge Experiment (CCGE) which was part of the ALSEP on Apollo 13 was never flown again. It was a version of the Cold Cathode Ion Gauge (CCIG) which featured on Apollo 12, Apollo 14, and Apollo 15. The CCGE was designed as a standalone version of the CCIG. On other missions, the CCIG was connected as part of the Suprathermal Ion Detector (SIDE). Because of the aborted landing, this experiment was never deployed. Other experiments included on Apollo 13's ALSEP included the Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), the Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE), and the Charged Particle Lunar Environment Experiment (CPLEE).\n\n===Plaque and insignia===\n\nReplica of the plaque with Swigert's name that was to replace the one attached to ''Aquarius'' that had Mattingly's name\n\nThe original lunar plaque affixed to the front landing leg of ''Aquarius'' bore Mattingly’s name, so a replacement plaque with Swigert’s name was carried in the cabin, for Lovell to place over the other after he descended the ladder. He kept the plaque as a souvenir. In his book ''Lost Moon'' (later renamed ''Apollo 13''), Lovell stated that, apart from the plaque and a couple of other pieces, the only other memento he possesses is a letter from Charles Lindbergh.\n\nThe Apollo 13 crew patch featured three flying horses as Apollo's \"chariot\" across space. Given Lovell's Navy background, the logo also included the mottoes \"''Ex Luna, scientia''\" (\"From the Moon, knowledge\"), borrowed from the U.S. Naval Academy's motto, \"''Ex scientia tridens''\" (\"From knowledge, sea power\"). The mission number appeared in Roman numerals as Apollo XIII. The patch did not have to be modified after Mattingly's replacement since it is one of only two Apollo mission insignia—the other being Apollo 11—not to include the names of the crew. It was designed by artist Lumen Martin Winter, who based it on a mural he had done for The St. Regis Hotel in New York City. The mural was later purchased by actor Tom Hanks, who portrayed Lovell in the movie ''Apollo 13'', and now is on the wall of a restaurant near Chicago owned by Lovell's son.\n\n===Successful experiments===\n\nDespite Apollo 13's failure to land on the Moon, several experiments were conducted successfully because they were initiated before or conducted independently of the oxygen tank explosion.\nSeveral experiments to study electrical phenomena were conducted prior to and during the launch of Apollo 13. This information was used to better understand hazards of launching in less than ideal weather conditions.\n* Eleven photographs of Earth were taken at precisely recorded times, to study the feasibility of using geosynchronous satellites to study cloud height.\n* Apollo 13's S-IVB third stage was the first to be purposely crashed into the lunar surface, as an ''active seismic'' experiment which measured its impact with a seismometer left on the lunar surface by the crew of Apollo 12. (The S-IVBs from the previous four lunar missions were sent into solar orbit by ground control after use.)\n\n===\"Towing fees\"===\n\nAs a joke following Apollo 13's successful splashdown, Grumman Aerospace Corporation pilot Sam Greenberg (who had helped with the strategy for re-routing power from the LM to the crippled CM) issued a tongue-in-cheek invoice for $400,540.05 to North American Rockwell, Pratt and Whitney, and Beech Aircraft, prime and subcontractors for the CSM, for \"towing\" the crippled ship most of the way to the Moon and back. The figure was based on an estimated at $1.00 per mile, plus $4.00 for the first mile. An extra $536.05 was included for battery charging, oxygen, and an \"additional guest in room\" (Swigert). A 20% \"commercial discount,\" as well as a further 2% discount if North American were to pay in cash, reduced the total to $312,421.24. North American declined payment, noting that it had ferried three previous Grumman LMs to the Moon (Apollo 10, Apollo 11 and Apollo 12) with no such reciprocal charges.\n", "\nThe Apollo 13 Command Module on display at the Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas\n\nThe Command Module shell was formerly at the Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, in Paris. The interior components were removed during the investigation of the accident and reassembled into boilerplate BP-1102A, the water egress training module; and were subsequently on display at the Museum of Natural History and Science in Louisville, Kentucky, until 2000. The Command Module and the internal components were reassembled, and ''Odyssey'' is currently on display at the Cosmosphere in Hutchinson, Kansas.\n\nThe Lunar Module burned up in Earth's atmosphere on April 17, 1970, having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a SNAP 27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) on board. Intended to power the mission's ALSEP, the RTG survived re-entry (as designed) and landed in the Tonga Trench. While it will remain radioactive for several thousand years, it does not appear to be releasing any of its 3.9 kg of radioactive plutonium-238.\n\nLovell's lunar space suit helmet, one of his gloves, and the plaque that had been intended to be left on the Moon are on exhibit at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, Illinois.\n\nThe Apollo 13 S-IVB with its Instrument Unit was guided to crash onto the lunar surface on April 14, providing a signal for the Apollo 12 Passive Seismic Experiment.\n\n\nFile:S70-34985.jpg\|A recording of the Apollo 13 S-IVB's impact on the lunar surface as detected by the Apollo 12 Passive Seismic Experiment\nFile:Apollo13-booster-crater.jpg\|Crater left by the S-IVB's impact\nFile:Apollo 13 LM part.jpg\|LM armrest on display at the Apollo/Saturn V Center in Florida\n\n", "\nThe 1974 movie ''Houston, We've Got a Problem'', while set around the Apollo 13 incident, is a fictional drama about the crises faced by ground personnel when the emergency disrupts their work schedules and places additional stress on their lives; only a couple of news clips and a narrator's solemn voice deal with the actual problems. \"Houston... We've Got a Problem\" was also the title of an episode of the BBC documentary series ''A Life At Stake'', broadcast in March 1978. This was an accurate, if simplified, reconstruction of the events.\n\nLovell was approached in 1991 by journalist Jeffrey Kluger about collaborating on a non-fiction account of the mission. The resultant book, ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'', was published in 1994. The next year, a film adaptation of the book, ''Apollo 13'', was released, directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks as Lovell, Bill Paxton as Haise, Kevin Bacon as Swigert, Gary Sinise as Mattingly, Ed Harris as flight director Gene Kranz, and Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Lovell. James Lovell, Eugene Kranz, and other principals have stated that this film depicted the events of the mission with reasonable accuracy, given that some dramatic license was taken. For example, the film changes the tense of Lovell's famous follow-up to Swigert's original words from, \"Houston, we've had a problem\", to \"Houston, we ''have'' a problem\". The film was nominated for several Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Supporting Actor (Harris) and Best Supporting Actress (Quinlan).\n\nIn the 1998 miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'', co-produced by Hanks and Howard, the mission is dramatized in the episode \"We Interrupt This Program\". Rather than showing the incident from the crew's perspective as in the ''Apollo 13'' feature film, it is instead presented from an Earth-bound perspective of television reporters competing for coverage of the event.\n\nIn 2008, an interactive theatrical show titled ''Apollo 13: Mission Control'' premiered at BATS Theatre in Wellington, New Zealand. The production faithfully recreated the mission control consoles and audience members became part of the storyline. The show also featured a 'guest' astronaut each night: a member of the public who suited up and amongst other duties, stirred the oxygen tanks and said the line \"Houston, we've had a problem.\" This 'replacement' astronaut was a nod to Jack Swigert, who replaced Ken Mattingly shortly before the launch in 1970. The production toured to other cities extensively in New Zealand and Australia in 2010–2011. The production was scheduled to travel to the US in 2012.\n\nIn the ''DC's Legends of Tomorrow'' episode 'Moonshot,' the oxygen tank explosion is averted when Eobard Thawne disguises himself as Swigert, in order to retrieve a piece of the Spear of Destiny that was hidden in the pole section of the American flag planted on July 21, 1969. Thawne and Ray Palmer crash land the lander on the Moon's surface.\n\nIn November 2011, a notebook containing a checklist Lovell used to calculate a trajectory to get the damaged spacecraft, Apollo 13, back to Earth, and handwritten calculations by Lovell, was auctioned off by Heritage Auctions for $388,375. NASA made an email inquiry asking Heritage if Lovell had clear title to the notebook, stating that NASA had \"nothing to indicate\" the agency had ever transferred ownership of the checklist to Lovell. In January 2012, Heritage stated that the sale had been placed on hold after NASA launched an investigation into whether it was the astronaut’s property to sell.\n", "* List of man-made objects on the Moon\n", "\n\n", "* \n", "\n* \"Apollo 13\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* \"Apollo-13 (29\") at NASA, summary of mission\n* \n* \n\n'''NASA reports'''\n* Apollo 13 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 70-50K, April 2, 1970\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft - A Chronology'' NASA SP-4009, vol. IV, pt. 3\n* \"Table 2-41. Apollo 13 Characteristics\" from ''NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978'' by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series, NASA SP-4012, (1988)\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n* \"Apollo 13: Lunar exploration experiments and photography summary\" (Original mission as planned) (PDF) NASA, February 1970\n* Apollo 13 Spacecraft Incident Investigation (PDF) NASA, June 1970\n* ''Report of Apollo 13 Review Board'', (PDF) NASA, June 1970\n* \"Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription\" (PDF) NASA, April 1970\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n* \"Space Educators' Handbook Apollo 13\" at NASA\n* \"Gene Kranz Oral History Interview, Part 2\" at C-SPAN; interview conducted April 28, 1999\n* \n* \"Apollo 13: ''LIFE'' With the Lovell Family During 'NASA's Finest Hour'\" – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine\n* \"Apollo 13: NASA's Finest Hour\" – slideshow by ''Life'' magazine at the Internet Archive\n* \"Apollo 13: Triumph on the Dark Side\" is an episode of ''Man, Moment, Machine'', a 2006 documentary series that aired on The History Channel\n* ''Apollo 13: Failure is Not An Option'' documentary on YouTube\n* \"Apollo 13 transcripts on Spacelog\"\n* \"Apollo 13 - 'Houston, we've had a problem'\" Audio of the Apollo 13 mission during its first moments of trouble\n* Complete post-flight press conference, April 21, 1970: Part 1 - Part 2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Mission parameters", "Mission highlights", "Analysis and response", "Mission notes", "Spacecraft location", "Popular culture and media", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Apollo 13
[ "\n\n\n'''Apollo 7''' was an October 1968 human spaceflight mission carried out by the United States. It was the first mission in the United States' Apollo program to carry a crew into space. It was also the first U.S. spaceflight to carry astronauts since the flight of Gemini XII in November 1966. The AS-204 mission, also known as \"Apollo 1\", was intended to be the first manned flight of the Apollo program. It was scheduled to launch in February 1967, but a fire in the cabin during a January 1967 test killed the crew. Manned flights were then suspended for 21 months, while the cause of the accident was investigated and improvements made to the spacecraft and safety procedures, and unmanned test flights of the Saturn V rocket and Apollo Lunar Module were made. Apollo 7 fulfilled Apollo 1's mission of testing the Apollo Command/Service Module (CSM) in low Earth orbit.\n\nThe Apollo 7 crew was commanded by Walter M. Schirra, with senior pilot / navigator Donn F. Eisele, and pilot / systems engineer R. Walter Cunningham. Official crew titles were made consistent with those that would be used for the manned lunar landing missions: Eisele was ''Command Module Pilot'' and Cunningham was ''Lunar Module Pilot''. Their mission was Apollo's 'C' mission, an 11-day Earth-orbital test flight to check out the redesigned Block II CSM with a crew on board. It was the first time a Saturn IB vehicle put a crew into space; Apollo 7 was the first three-person American space mission, and the first to include a live TV broadcast from an American spacecraft. It was launched on October 11, 1968, from what was then known as Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, Florida. Despite tension between the crew and ground controllers, the mission was a complete technical success, giving NASA the confidence to send Apollo 8 into orbit around the Moon two months later. The flight would prove to be the final space flight for all of its three crew members—and the only one for both Cunningham and Eisele—when it splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean on October 22, 1968. It was also the only manned launch from Launch Complex 34, as well as the last launch from the complex.\n", "\n\n===Backup crew===\n\n\n===Support crew===\nRonald E. Evans\nWilliam R. Pogue\nJohn L. Swigert\n", "\nApollo 7's liftoff\nSchirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were first named as an Apollo crew on September 29, 1966. They were to fly a second Earth orbital test of the original Block I Command/Service module (not designed to dock with the Apollo Lunar Module for lunar flight) after Apollo 1, the first manned flight, to be made by Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom, Edward H. White, and Roger Chaffee. In December 1966, the second mission was deemed redundant and canceled, and Schirra's crew were reassigned as Grissom's backup.\n\nPlans for the first manned Apollo flights were completely disrupted by the January 27, 1967 cabin fire which killed Grissom, White, and Chaffee. Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were later named as prime crew for the first manned flight, which would now use the Block II spacecraft designed for the lunar missions. The Command Module (CM) and astronauts' spacesuits had been extensively redesigned, to reduce and eliminate the chance of a repeat of the accident which killed the first crew. Schirra thus became the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions. His crew would test the life support, propulsion, guidance and control systems during this \"open-ended\" mission (meaning it would be extended as it passed each test). The duration was limited to 11 days, reduced from the original 14-day limit for Apollo 1. Since it flew in low Earth orbit and did not include the Lunar Module (LM), Apollo 7 was launched with the Saturn IB booster rather than the much larger and more powerful Saturn V.\n\nThroughout the Mercury and Gemini programs, McDonnell Aircraft engineer Guenter Wendt had been leader of the spacecraft launch pad teams, with ultimate responsibility for condition of the spacecraft at launch. He earned the astronauts' respect and admiration, including Schirra's. However, the spacecraft contractor had changed from McDonnell (Mercury & Gemini) to North American Rockwell (Apollo), so Wendt was not the pad leader for Apollo 1.\n\nSo adamant was Schirra in his desire to have Wendt back as Pad Leader for his Apollo flight, that he got his boss Deke Slayton to persuade North American management to hire Wendt away from McDonnell, and Schirra personally lobbied North American's launch operations manager to change Wendt's shift from midnight to day so he could be pad leader for Apollo 7. Wendt remained as Pad Leader for the entire Apollo program.\n", "\nWendt's face was the last they saw before the hatch was sealed, and immediately after liftoff Eisele said with a mock German accent into his radio, \"I vonder vere Guenter Vendt?\"\n\n===On-orbit operations===\nClose-up of the S-IVB stage during rendezvous maneuvers. Note the docking target inside the spacecraft adapter, and how the right-hand panel is not fully opened to the same angle as the others\n\nThe first manned American space flight in 22 months lifted from LC-34 at 15:02:45 UTC on Friday, October 11, 1968. Liftoff proceeded flawlessly; the Saturn IB performed well on its first manned launch and there were no significant anomalies during the boost phase. The astronauts described it as very smooth riding compared to the rough, bumpy Titan II used to launch the Gemini spacecraft.\n\nFollowing orbital injection and separation from the S-IVB, the crew turned the CSM around using its Reaction Control System thrusters, and Eisele practiced a simulated Lunar Module rendezvous and docking, using a visual reference target mounted inside the spacecraft adapter in the same radial position it occupied on the LM. One of the adapter panels on the S-IVB failed to completely deploy to its 45 degree open position, reminding CAPCOM Tom Stafford of his \"angry alligator\" experience on Gemini 9A, when docking was prevented by mis-deployed adapter panels. Had this been an actual lunar mission, the astronauts might have found the process of LM extraction from the adapter more difficult, risking possible damage. This reinforced the decision to add a system to completely separate and jettison the panels on all subsequent Apollo-Saturn V flights.\n\nThe Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the all-important engine that would place Apollo into and out of lunar orbit, made eight firings, performing within 1% of the engine acceptance test thrust and specific impulse values. As the Saturn IB itself had performed very smoothly during launch, the astronauts were unprepared for the sudden violent jolt they received upon first activating the SPS, leading to Schirra yelling \"Yabbadabbadoo!\" in reference to ''The Flintstones'' cartoon. Don Eisele called it \"a real boot in the rear.\"\n\nAn assortment of minor hardware problems occurred over the flight; these included the drinking water hose trigger sticking during the final two days, a momentary undervoltage of the main AC buses caused by the automatic cryo fan switch in the service module LOX and LH2 tanks, and a loss of telemetry due to a malfunctioning electrical commutator following SM jettison at the end of the mission, meaning that the final 15 minutes of data transmission were lost. Aside from the last event, which remained a mystery despite postflight testing of the commutator, all of the problems on Apollo 7 were quickly resolved and some of them also involved equipment or procedures that would not be used on subsequent missions.\n\nApollo promised the best food preparation yet seen on a manned spacecraft. For the first time, astronauts had both hot and cold water to prepare meals with (the food came in freeze-dried vacuum packs that would be injected with water or else eaten dry followed by a sip of water) and Wally Schirra, who had had only toothpaste-like tubes for food on his Mercury flight, described the food as \"Still does not match home cooking, but it comes a lot closer than space food used to.\" Thirty-three meals were provided for the three crewmen, allowing them three meals a day for each of the 11 days in space. Even so, the astronauts complained that there was more food than they could eat and that most of it was too sweet, although the menus had been prepared based on their personal preferences.\n\nEarly fears that the movement of the astronauts inside the CM would make it hard for the spacecraft's attitude control system to stabilize it proved unfounded, and they reported that motion was \"incredibly easy\" with no gravity to work against. As sleeping in the fetal position was cramping and painful, an exercise device called the Exer-Genie was provided.\n\nAnother mission goal was the first live television broadcast from an American spacecraft (Gordon Cooper had transmitted slow scan television pictures from ''Faith 7'' in 1963, which were never broadcast). It was initially scheduled for midday on day two, but Schirra was concerned with the broadcast interfering with the rendezvous test.\n\n===\"Mutiny\" in space===\nEven though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, 11 days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. Tension with Schirra began with the launch decision, when flight managers decided to launch with a less-than-ideal abort option for the early part of the ascent. Once in orbit, the spacious cabin may have induced some crew motion sickness, which had not been an issue in the earlier, smaller spacecraft. The crew were unhappy with their food selections, especially the high energy sweets. They also found the waste collection system cumbersome (requiring 30 minutes to use) and smelly. But the worst problem occurred when Schirra developed a severe head cold. As a result, he became irritable with requests from Mission Control and all three astronauts began \"talking back\" to the CAPCOM. An early example was this exchange after Mission Control requested that a TV camera be turned on in the spacecraft:\nWalter Schirra looks out the rendezvous window in front of the commander's station on the ninth day of the mission\n\nSCHIRRA: You've added two burns to this flight schedule, and you've added a urine water dump; and we have a new vehicle up here, and I can tell you at this point TV will be delayed without any further discussion until after the rendezvous.\nCAPCOM (Jack Swigert): Roger. Copy.\nSCHIRRA: Roger.\nCAPCOM 1 (Deke Slayton): Apollo 7, this is CAPCOM number 1.\nSCHIRRA: Roger.\nCAPCOM 1: All we've agreed to do on this is flip it. \nSCHIRRA: ... with two commanders, Apollo 7\nCAPCOM 1: All we have agreed to on this particular pass is to flip the switch on. No other activity is associated with TV; I think we are still obligated to do that.\nSCHIRRA: We do not have the equipment out; we have not had an opportunity to follow setting; we have not eaten at this point. At this point, I have a cold. I refuse to foul up our time lines this way.\n\n\nA further source of tension between Mission Control and the crew was that Schirra repeatedly expressed the view that the reentry should be conducted with their helmets off, contrary to previous Project Mercury and Gemini experience. They perceived a risk that their eardrums might burst due to the sinus pressure from their colds, and they wanted to be able to pinch their noses and blow to equalize the pressure as it increased during reentry. This would have been impossible wearing the helmets, as the new Apollo helmets were a continuous \"fishbowl\" type without a moveable visor, unlike previous helmets. However, on repeated occasions over the course of the mission, Schirra was instructed that the helmets should be worn for safety reasons. In the final exchange on the subject, Mission Control made it clear to Schirra that he would be expected to account for flouting instructions:\n\nCAPCOM Number 1 (Deke Slayton): Okay. I think you ought to clearly understand that there is absolutely no experience at all with landing without the helmet on. \nSCHIRRA: And there is no experience with the helmet either on that one. \nCAPCOM: That one we've got a lot of experience with, yes. \nSCHIRRA: If we had an open visor, I might go along with that. \nCAPCOM: Okay. I guess you better be prepared to discuss in some detail when we land why we haven't got them on. I think you're too late now to do much about it. \nSCHIRRA: That's affirmative. I don't think anybody down there has worn the helmets as much as we have. \nCAPCOM: Yes. \nSCHIRRA: We tried them on this morning. \nCAPCOM: Understand that. The only thing we're concerned about is the landing. We couldn't care less\nabout the reentry. But it's your neck, and I hope you don't break it. \nSCHIRRA: Thank you, babe. \nCAPCOM: Over and out.\n\n\nExchanges such as this led to Eisele and Cunningham being rejected for future missions (Schirra had already announced his impending retirement from NASA). If Apollo 7 was a mutiny, the Skylab mutiny could be compared to a full-blown rebellion, alternatively some have downplayed these as \"strikes\" or workplace tension, or simply the intricacies of working out the spaceflight workplace and planning environment. After Skylab, those \"mutineer\" astronauts did not fly again either, but neither did the most of the other astronauts in the Skylab program. NASA did not do another long duration space-flight of more than a couple weeks or so for over 25 years (see Shuttle–Mir Program)\n\n===Reentry and post-flight evaluation===\n\nThe splashdown point was , SSW of Bermuda and north of the recovery ship USS ''Essex''.\n\nDespite the difficulties between the crew and Mission Control, the mission successfully met its objectives to verify the Apollo Command and Service Modules' flight worthiness, allowing Apollo 8's flight to the Moon to proceed just two months later. Apollo 7 was Project Apollo's only human spaceflight mission to launch from Cape Kennedy Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34. All subsequent Apollo and Skylab spacecraft flights (including Apollo–Soyuz) were launched from Launch Complex 39 at the nearby Kennedy Space Center. Launch Complex 34 was declared redundant and decommissioned in 1969, making Apollo 7 the last human spaceflight mission to launch from the Cape Air Force Station in the 20th century. As of January 2017, Cunningham is the only surviving member of the crew. Eisele died in 1987 and Schirra in 2007.\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe insignia for the flight shows a Command and Service module with its SPS engine firing, the trail from that fire encircling a globe and extending past the edges of the patch symbolizing the Earth-orbital nature of the mission. The Roman numeral VII appears in the South Pacific Ocean and the crew's names appear on a wide black arc at the bottom. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.\n", "\nAfter the mission, NASA awarded Schirra, Eisele, and Cunningham its Exceptional Service Medal in recognition of their success. On November 2, 1968, President Lyndon Johnson held a ceremony at the LBJ Ranch in Johnson City, Texas, to present the astronauts with the medals. He also presented NASA's highest honor, the Distinguished Service Medal, to recently retired NASA administrator James E. Webb, for his \"outstanding leadership of America's space program\" since the beginning of Apollo.\n\nSchirra, Eisele, and Cunningham were the only crew, of all the Apollo, Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions, who had not been awarded the Distinguished Service Medal immediately following their missions (though Schirra had received the medal twice before, for his Mercury and Gemini missions). Therefore, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin decided to belatedly award the medals to the crew in October 2008, \"for exemplary performance in meeting all the Apollo 7 mission objectives and more on the first manned Apollo mission, paving the way for the first flight to the Moon on Apollo 8 and the first manned lunar landing on Apollo 11.\" Only Cunningham was still alive at the time; Eisele's widow accepted his medal, and Apollo 8 crew member Bill Anders accepted Schirra's. Other Apollo astronauts, including Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Alan Bean, were present at the award ceremony. Former Flight Director Christopher C. Kraft, Jr., who had been in conflict with the crew during the mission, sent a conciliatory video message of congratulations, saying: \"We gave you a hard time once but you certainly survived that and have done extremely well since ... I am frankly, very proud to call you a friend.\"\n", "The Apollo 7 Command Module as exhibited at The Frontiers of Flight Museum\nIn January 1969, the Apollo 7 Command Module was displayed on a NASA float in the inauguration parade of President Richard M. Nixon. For nearly 30 years the Command Module was on loan (renewable every two years) to the National Museum of Science and Technology, in Ottawa, Ontario, along with the space suit worn by Wally Schirra. In November 2003, the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., requested them back for display at their new annex at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center. Currently, the Apollo 7 CM is on loan to the Frontiers of Flight Museum located next to Love Field in Dallas, Texas.\n", "Barbara Eden, Bob Hope, Eisele, Cunningham, Schirra, and \"voice of Mission Control\" Paul Haney, on ''The Bob Hope Show''\nOn November 6, 1968, comedian Bob Hope broadcast one of his variety television specials from NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston to honor the Apollo 7 crew. Barbara Eden, star of the popular comedy series ''I Dream of Jeannie'', which featured two fictional astronauts among its regular characters, appeared with Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham.\n\nSchirra parlayed the head cold he contracted during Apollo 7 into a television advertising contract as a spokesman for Actifed, an over the counter version of the medicine he took in space.\n\nThe Apollo 7 mission is dramatized in the 1998 miniseries ''From the Earth to the Moon'' episode \"We Have Cleared the Tower\", with Mark Harmon as Schirra, John Mese as Eisele, Fredric Lehne as Cunningham, and Max Wright as Wendt.\n\nA documentary, ''The Log of Apollo 7'', has been restored from 16 mm film and posted online.\n", "\nFile:Apollo 7 crew during water egress training.jpg\|The crew during water egress training\nFile:Apollo 7 photographed in flight by ALOTS (68-HC-641).jpg\|Apollo 7 in flight\nImage:As7-3-1545.jpg\|Apollo 7 S-IVB rocket stage in orbit\nFile:Saturn IB Second Stage with open LM adapter.jpg\|Distant view of the S-IVB stage\nImage:Apollo_7_Florida.jpg\|View of Florida from Apollo 7\nFile:Apollo 7 recovery with SH-3 Sea King 1968.jpg\|A crewmember being hoisted into the recovery helicopter\nImage:The Apollo 7 crew is welcomed aboard the USS Essex.jpg\|The crew is welcomed aboard the USS ''Essex''\nImage:Załoga Apollo 7 68PC-0211-m.jpg\|Crew after recovery aboard USS ''Essex''\n\n", "List of Apollo missions\nTimeline of longest spaceflights\n", "\n\n", "\n \n* \n\n", "* \n* \n", "\n* Master catalog entry at NASA/NSSDC\n* Apollo 7 Press Kit (PDF) NASA, Release No. 68-168K, October 6, 1968\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n* ''The Flight of Apollo 7'' NASA documentary film at the Internet Archive\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Background", "Mission highlights", "Mission insignia", "Crew honors", "Spacecraft location", "Depiction in media", "Gallery", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Apollo 7
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Apollo 9''' was the third manned mission in the United States Apollo space program and the first flight of the Command/Service Module (CSM) with the Lunar Module (LM, pronounced \"lem\"). Its three-person crew, consisting of Commander James McDivitt, Command Module Pilot David Scott, and Lunar Module Pilot Rusty Schweickart, spent ten days in low Earth orbit testing several aspects critical to landing on the Moon, including the LM engines, backpack life support systems, navigation systems, and docking maneuvers. The mission was the second manned launch of a Saturn V rocket.\n\nAfter launching on March 3, 1969, the crewmen performed the first manned flight of a LM, the first docking and extraction of a LM, two spacewalks (EVA), and the second docking of two manned spacecraft—two months after the Soviets performed a spacewalk crew transfer between Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5. The mission proved the LM worthy of manned spaceflight. Further tests on the Apollo 10 mission would prepare the LM for its ultimate goal, landing on the Moon. They returned to Earth on March 13, 1969.\n", "\n\n===Backup crew===\n\n Williams was killed in October 1967 when the T-38 he was flying crashed near Tallahassee, and was replaced with Alan L. Bean.\n\n===Support crew===\n* Fred W. Haise, Jr.\n* Jack R. Lousma\n* Edgar D. Mitchell\n* Alfred M. Worden\n\n===Flight directors===\n* Gene Kranz, White team\n* Gerry Griffin, Gold team\n* Pete Frank, Orange team\n", "* '''Mass:''' CSM 26,801 kg; LM 14,575 kg\n* '''Perigee:''' 189.5 km\n* '''Apogee:''' 192.4 km\n* '''Inclination:''' 32.57°\n* '''Period:''' 88.64 min\n\n===LM - CSM docking===\n* '''Undocked''': March 7, 1969 - 12:39:36 UTC\n* '''Re-docked''':March 7, 1969 - 19:02:26 UTC\n\n===EVA===\n* ''Schweickart'' - EVA - LM forward hatch\n '''Start''': March 6, 1969, 16:45:00 UTC\n '''End''': March 6, 1969, 17:52:00 UTC\n** '''Duration''': 1 hour, 07 minutes\n* ''Scott'' - Standup EVA - CM side hatch\n '''Start''': March 6, 1969, 17:01:00 UTC\n '''End''': March 6, 1969, 18:02:00 UTC\n** '''Duration''': 1 hour, 01 minute\n", "McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart train for the AS-258 mission in the first block II Command Module, wearing early versions of the block II pressure suit\nIn April 1966, McDivitt, Scott, and Schweickart were selected by Deke Slayton as the second Apollo crew, as backup to Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee for the first manned Earth orbital test flight of the block I Command/Service Module, designated '''AS-204''' expected to fly in late 1966. This was to be followed by a second block I flight, '''AS-205''', to be crewed by Wally Schirra, Donn Eisele, and\nWalter Cunningham. The third manned mission, designated AS-207/208, was planned to fly the block II Command Module and the Lunar Module in Earth orbit, launched on separate Saturn IBs, with a crew to be named.\n\nHowever, delays in the block I CSM development pushed AS-204 into 1967. By December 1966, the original AS-205 mission was cancelled, Schirra's crew was named as Grissom's backup, and McDivitt's crew was promoted to prime crew for the LM test mission, re-designated '''AS-205/208'''. On January 26, 1967, they were training for this flight, expected to occur in late 1967, in the first block II Command Module 101 at the North American plant in Downey, California.\nThe next day, Grissom's crew were conducting a launch-pad test for their planned February 21 mission, which they named Apollo 1, when a fire broke out in the cabin, killing all three men and putting an 18-month hold on the manned program while the block II Command Module (CM) and A7L pressure suit were redesigned for safety.\n\nAs it turned out, a 1967 launch of AS-205/208 would have been impossible even absent the Apollo 1 accident, as problems with the LM delayed its first unmanned test flight until January 1968. NASA was able to use the 18-month hiatus to catch up with development and unmanned testing of the LM and the Saturn V launch vehicle.\n\nBy October 1967, planning for manned flights resumed, with Apollo 7 being the first Earth orbit CSM flight (now known as the '''C mission''') in October 1968 given to Schirra's crew, and McDivitt's mission (now known as the '''D Mission''') following as Apollo 8 in December 1968, using a single Saturn V instead of the two Saturn IBs. This would be followed by a higher Earth orbit flight ('''E Mission'''), to be crewed by Frank Borman, Michael Collins, and William Anders in early 1969.\n\nHowever, LM problems again prevented it from being ready for the D mission by December, so NASA officials created another mission for Apollo 8 using the Saturn V to launch only the CSM on the first manned flight to orbit the Moon, and the E mission was cancelled as unnecessary. Slayton asked McDivitt and Borman which mission they preferred to fly; McDivitt wanted to fly the LM, while Borman volunteered for the pioneering lunar flight. Therefore, Slayton swapped the crews, and McDivitt's crew flew Apollo 9.\n\nThe crew swap also affected who would be the first crew to land on the Moon; when the crews for Apollo 8 and 9 were swapped, their backup crews were also swapped. Since the rule of thumb was for backup crews to fly as prime crew three missions later, this put Neil Armstrong's crew (Borman's backup) in position for the first landing mission Apollo 11 instead of Pete Conrad's crew, who made the second landing on Apollo 12.\n", "Apollo 9 launches from Kennedy Space Center, March 3, 1969\n\nApollo 9 was the first space test of the complete Apollo spacecraft, including the third critical piece of Apollo hardware besides the Command/Service Module and the Saturn V launch vehicle—the Lunar Module. It was also the first space docking of two vehicles with an internal crew transfer between them. For ten days, the astronauts put both Apollo spacecraft through their paces in Earth orbit, including an undocking and redocking of the lunar lander with the command vehicle, just as the landing mission crew would perform in lunar orbit. Apollo 9 gave proof that the Apollo spacecraft were up to this critical task, on which the lives of lunar landing crews would depend.\n\nFor this and all subsequent Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own spacecraft (the last spacecraft to have been named was Gemini 3). The gangly LM was named ''Spider'', and the CSM was labeled ''Gumdrop'' because of the Command Module's shape, and because of the blue wrapping in which the craft arrived at Kennedy Space Center. These names were required as radio call signs when the vehicles flew independently.\n\nSchweickart and Scott performed an EVA—Schweickart checked out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system rather than being dependent on an umbilical connection to the spacecraft, while Scott filmed him from the Command Module hatch. Schweickart was due to carry out a more extensive set of activities to test the suit, and demonstrate that it was possible for astronauts to perform an EVA from the Lunar Module to the Command Module in an emergency, but as he had been suffering from space sickness the extra tests were scratched.\n\nsplashdown in the Atlantic Ocean, March 13, 1969\n\nMcDivitt and Schweickart later test-flew the LM, and practiced separation and docking maneuvers in Earth orbit. They flew the LM up to from ''Gumdrop'', using the engine on the descent stage to propel them originally, before jettisoning it and using the ascent stage to return. This test flight represented the first flight of a manned spacecraft that was not equipped to reenter the Earth's atmosphere.\n\nThe splashdown point was 23°15′N, 67°56′W, east of the Bahamas and within sight of the recovery ship USS ''Guadalcanal''. Apollo 9 was the last spacecraft to splash down in the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nThe Command Module was displayed at the Michigan Space and Science Center, Jackson, Michigan, until April 2004 when the center closed. In May 2004, it was moved to the San Diego Aerospace Museum (now named the San Diego Air & Space Museum). The LM ascent stage orbit decayed on October 23, 1981, the LM descent stage (1969-018D) orbit decayed March 22, 1969. The S-IVB stage J-2 engine was restarted after Lunar Module extraction and propelled the stage into solar orbit by burning to depletion.\n\nThe Saturn IVB third stage became a derelict object where it would continue to orbit the Sun for many years. , it remains in orbit.\n", "Robbins medallion\nThe circular patch shows a drawing of a Saturn V rocket with the letters USA on it. To its right, an Apollo CSM is shown next to an LM, with the CSM's nose pointed at the \"front door\" of the LM rather than at its top docking port. The CSM is trailing rocket fire in a circle. The crew's names are along the top edge of the circle, with APOLLO IX at the bottom. The \"D\" in McDivitt's name is filled with red to mark that this was the \"D mission\" in the alphabetic sequence of Apollo missions. The patch was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\"\n T + Time\n Event\n Burn Time\n Delta-Velocity\n Orbit\n\n T + 00:00:00 \n Lift-off \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:02:14.34 \n S-IC center engine cut-off \n 141 s \n \n\n\n T + 00:02:42.76 \n S-IC engine cut-off \n 169 s \n \n\n\n T + 00:02:45.16 \n S-II ignition \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:03:13.5 \n S-II skirt separation \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:03:18.3 \n LES jettison \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:08:56.22 \n S-II cut-off \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:08:57 \n S-II cutoff + separation, S-IVB ignition \n \n \n\n\n T + 00:11:04.66 \n S-IVB cutoff + orbital insertion \n 127.4 s \n \n191.3 × 189.5 km\n\n T + 02:41:16 \n CSM/S-IVB separation \n \n \n\n\n T + 03:01:59.3 \n CSM/LM docking \n \n \n\n\n T + 04:08:09 \n Spacecraft/S-IVB separation \n \n \n\n\n T + 05:59:01.07 \n First Service Propulsion System (SPS) test \n 5.1 s \n +10.4 m/s \n 234.1 × 200.7 km\n\n T + 22:13:04.07 \n Second SPS test \n 110 s \n +259.2 m/s \n 351.5 × 199.5 km\n\n T + 25:17:39.27 \n Third SPS test \n 281.6 s \n +782.6 m/s \n 503.4 × 202.6 km\n\n T + 28:24:41.37 \n Fourth SPS test \n 28.2 s \n -91.45 m/s \n 502.8 × 202.4 km\n\n T + 49:41:34.46 \n Docked DPS test \n 369.7 s \n -530.1 m/s \n 499.3 × 202.2 km\n\n T + 54:26:12.27 \n Fifth SPS test \n 43.3 s \n -175.6 m/s \n 239.3 × 229.3 km\n\n T + 92:39:36 \n CSM/LM undocking \n \n \n\n\n T + 93:02:54 \n CSM separation maneuver \n 10.9 s \n -1.5 m/s \n\n\n T + 93:47:35.4 \n LM Descent Propulsion System (DPS) phasing maneuver \n 18.6 s \n +27.6 m/s \n 253.5 × 207 km\n\n T + 95:39:08.6 \n LM DPS insertion maneuver \n 22.2 s \n +13.1 m/s \n 257.2 × 248.2 km\n\n T + 96:16:06.54 \n LM concentric sequence initiation maneuver/Descent stage jettison \n 30.3 s \n -12.2 m/s \n 255.2 × 208.9 km\n\n T + 96:58:15 \n LM Ascent Propulsion System (APS) constant delta height maneuver \n 2.9 s \n -12.6 m/s \n 215.6 × 207.2 km\n\n T + 97:57:59 \n LM terminal phase finalization maneuver \n 34.7 s \n +6.8 m/s \n 232.8 × 208.5 km\n\n T + 99:02:26 \n CSM/LM docking \n \n \n\n\n T + 101:22:45 \n LM ascent stage jettison \n \n \n\n\n T + 101:32:44 \n Post-jettison CSM separation maneuver \n 7.2 s \n +0.9 m/s \n 235.7 × 224.6 km\n\n T + 101:53:15.4 \n LM APS burn to depletion \n 350 s \n +1,643.2 m/s \n 6,934.4 × 230.6 km\n\n T + 123:25:06.97 \n Sixth SPS test \n 1.29 s \n -11.5 m/s \n 222.6 × 195.2 km\n\n T + 169:39:00.36 \n Seventh SPS test \n 25 s \n +199.6 m/s \n 463.4 × 181.1 km\n\n T + 240:31:14.84 \n Deorbit burn (SPS) \n 11.6 s \n -99.1 m/s \n 442.2 × -7.8 km\n\n T + 240:36:03.8 \nSM jettison \n \n \n\n\n T + 241:00:54 \n Splashdown \n \n \n\n\n\n", "\nFile:AS09-19-2919 The lunar module awaits extraction from Apollo 9's S-IVB stage.jpg\|The Lunar Module awaits extraction from Apollo 9's S-IVB stage\nImage:Gumdrop Meets Spider - GPN-2000-001100.jpg\|David Scott stands in the opened Command Module hatch\nFile:Schweickart spacer kosmiczny GPN-2000-001108.jpg\|Rusty Schweickart stands on the porch of ''Spider'' during his extravehicular activity on the fourth day of the mission\nImage:Spider_in_Earth_Orbit_-_GPN-2000-001106.jpg\|Apollo 9 LM ''Spider''\nImage:Spider_Over_The_Ocean_-_GPN-2000-001109.jpg\|LM ''Spider'' over ocean\nFile:Lunar Module Ascent Stage - GPN-2000-001110.jpg\|The LM ''Spider'' ascent stage on the fifth day of the mission\n\n", "The Apollo 9 Command Module ''Gumdrop'' (1969-018A) is on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum, San Diego, California. Its Service Module (SM) was jettisoned shortly after the deorbit burn and re-entered the atmosphere.\n\nThe ascent stage of LM-3 ''Spider'' (1969-018C) re-entered on October 23, 1981.\n\nThe descent stage of LM-3 ''Spider'' (1969-018D) re-entered on March 22, 1969.\n\nThe upper stage of the Apollo 9 Saturn V, S-IVB-504N, (1969-018B) remains in heliocentric (solar) orbit .\n", "* Extravehicular activity\n* List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999\n* Splashdown\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n\n", "\n* \"Apollo 9\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica\n* NSSDC Master Catalog at NASA\n\n'''NASA reports'''\n* Apollo 9 Press Kit (PDF), NASA, Release No. 69-29, February 23, 1969\n* \"Table 2-37. Apollo 9 Characteristics\" from ''NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978'' by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series, NASA SP-4012, (1988)\n* \n* \"Apollo 9 flight plan AS-504/CSM-104/LM-3 Final Report\" (PDF) by J. V. Rivers, NASA, February 1969\n* ''The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology'' NASA, NASA SP-4009\n* \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975\n\n'''Multimedia'''\n* ''Apollo 9: Three To Make Ready'' Official NASA documentary film (1969)\n* Apollo 9 16mm onboard film part 1, part 2 raw footage taken from Apollo 9\n* ''Apollo 9: The Space Duet of Spider & Gumdrop'' Official NASA documentary film (1969), \n* Apollo 9 images at NASA'S Kennedy Space Center\n* Apollo launch and mission videos at ApolloTV.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Crew", "Mission parameters", "Mission background", "Mission highlights", "Mission insignia", "Summary of maneuvers", "Pictures", "Spacecraft location", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Apollo 9
[ "\n\n\n'''Arthritis''' is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In some types other organs are also affected. Onset can be gradual or sudden.\n\n\nThere are over 100 types of arthritis. The most common forms are osteoarthritis (degenerative joint disease) and rheumatoid arthritis. Osteoarthritis usually occurs with age and affects the fingers, knees, and hips. Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that often affects the hands and feet. Other types include gout, lupus, fibromyalgia, and septic arthritis. They are all types of rheumatic disease.\n\n\nTreatment may include resting the joint and alternating between applying ice and heat. Weight loss and exercise may also be useful. Pain medications such as ibuprofen and paracetamol (acetaminophen) may be used. In some a joint replacement may be useful.\n\n\nOsteoarthritis affects more than 3.8% of people while rheumatoid arthritis affects about 0.24% of people. Gout affects about 1 to 2% of the Western population at some point in their lives. In Australia about 15% of people are affected, while in the United States more than 20% have a type of arthritis. Overall the disease becomes more common with age. Arthritis is a common reason that people miss work and can result in a decreased quality of life. The term is from Greek ''arthro-'' meaning joint and ''-itis'' meaning inflammation.\n", "There are several diseases where joint pain is primary, and is considered the main feature. Generally when a person has \"arthritis\" it means that they have one of these diseases, which include:\n* Osteoarthritis\n* Rheumatoid arthritis\n* Gout and pseudo-gout\n* Septic arthritis\n* Ankylosing spondylitis\n* Juvenile idiopathic arthritis\n* Still's disease\n\nJoint pain can also be a symptom of other diseases. In this case, the arthritis is considered to be secondary to the main disease; these include:\n* Psoriasis (Psoriatic arthritis)\n* Reactive arthritis\n* Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome\n* Haemochromatosis\n* Hepatitis\n* Lyme disease\n* Sjogren's disease\n* Hashimoto's thyroiditis\n* Celiac disease\n* Non-celiac gluten sensitivity\n* Inflammatory bowel disease (including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis)\n* Henoch–Schönlein purpura\n* Hyperimmunoglobulinemia D with recurrent fever\n* Sarcoidosis\n* Whipple's disease\n* TNF receptor associated periodic syndrome\n* Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (and many other vasculitis syndromes)\n* Familial Mediterranean fever\n* Systemic lupus erythematosus\n\n\nAn ''undifferentiated arthritis'' is an arthritis that does not fit into well-known clinical disease categories, possibly being an early stage of a definite rheumatic disease.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" align=\"right\"\n\n Extra-articular features of joint disease\n\n Cutaneous nodules\n\n Cutaneous vasculitis lesions\n\n Lymphadenopathy\n\n Oedema\n\n Ocular inflammation\n\n Urethritis\n\n Tenosynovitis (tendon sheath effusions)\n\n Bursitis (swollen bursa)\n\n Diarrhea\n\n Orogenital ulceration\n\nPain, which can vary in severity, is a common symptom in virtually all types of arthritis. Other symptoms include swelling, joint stiffness and aching around the joint(s). Arthritic disorders like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis can affect other organs in the body, leading to a variety of symptoms. Symptoms may include:\n\n* Inability to use the hand or walk\n* Stiffness, which may be worse in the morning, or after use\n* Malaise and fatigue\n* Weight loss\n* Poor sleep\n* Muscle aches and pains\n* Tenderness\n* Difficulty moving the joint\n\nIt is common in advanced arthritis for significant secondary changes to occur. For example, arthritic symptoms might make it difficult for a person to move around and/or exercise, which can lead to secondary effects, such as:\n* Muscle weakness\n* Loss of flexibility\n* Decreased aerobic fitness\nThese changes, in addition to the primary symptoms, can have a huge impact on quality of life.\n\n===Disability===\n\nArthritis is the most common cause of disability in the USA. More than 20 million individuals with arthritis have severe limitations in function on a daily basis. Absenteeism and frequent visits to the physician are common in individuals who have arthritis. Arthritis can make it very difficult for individuals to be physically active and some become home bound.\n\nIt is estimated that the total cost of arthritis cases is close to $100 billion of which almost 50% is from lost earnings. Each year, arthritis results in nearly 1 million hospitalizations and close to 45 million outpatient visits to health care centers.\n\nDecreased mobility, in combination with the above symptoms, can make it difficult for an individual to remain physically active, contributing to an increased risk of obesity, high cholesterol or vulnerability to heart disease. People with arthritis are also at increased risk of depression, which may be a response to numerous factors, including fear of worsening symptoms.\n", "\nDiagnosis is made by clinical examination from an appropriate health professional, and may be supported by other tests such as radiology and blood tests, depending on the type of suspected arthritis. All arthritides potentially feature pain. Pain patterns may differ depending on the arthritides and the location. Rheumatoid arthritis is generally worse in the morning and associated with stiffness; in the early stages, patients often have no symptoms after a morning shower. Osteoarthritis, on the other hand, tends to be worse after exercise. In the aged and children, pain might not be the main presenting feature; the aged patient simply moves less, the infantile patient refuses to use the affected limb.\n\nElements of the history of the disorder guide diagnosis. Important features are speed and time of onset, pattern of joint involvement, symmetry of symptoms, early morning stiffness, tenderness, gelling or locking with inactivity, aggravating and relieving factors, and other systemic symptoms. Physical examination may confirm the diagnosis, or may indicate systemic disease. Radiographs are often used to follow progression or help assess severity.\n\nBlood tests and X-rays of the affected joints often are performed to make the diagnosis. Screening blood tests are indicated if certain arthritides are suspected. These might include: rheumatoid factor, antinuclear factor (ANF), extractable nuclear antigen, and specific antibodies.\n\n===Osteoarthritis===\n\nOsteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis. It can affect both the larger and the smaller joints of the body, including the hands, wrists, feet, back, hip, and knee. The disease is essentially one acquired from daily wear and tear of the joint; however, osteoarthritis can also occur as a result of injury. In recent years, some joint or limb deformities, such as knock-knee or acetabular overcoverage or dysplasia, have also been considered as a predisposing factor for knee or hip osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis begins in the cartilage and eventually causes the two opposing bones to erode into each other. The condition starts with minor pain during physical activity, but soon the pain can be continuous and even occur while in a state of rest. The pain can be debilitating and prevent one from doing some activities. Osteoarthritis typically affects the weight-bearing joints, such as the back, knee and hip. Unlike rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis is most commonly a disease of the elderly. More than 30 percent of women have some degree of osteoarthritis by age 65. Risk factors for osteoarthritis include prior joint trauma, obesity, and a sedentary lifestyle.\n\n===Rheumatoid arthritis===\n\nRheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a disorder in which the body's own immune system starts to attack body tissues. The attack is not only directed at the joint but to many other parts of the body. In rheumatoid arthritis, most damage occurs to the joint lining and cartilage which eventually results in erosion of two opposing bones. RA often affects joints in the fingers, wrists, knees and elbows, is symmetrical (appears on both sides of the body), and can lead to severe deformity in a few years if not treated. RA occurs mostly in people aged 20 and above. In children, the disorder can present with a skin rash, fever, pain, disability, and limitations in daily activities. With earlier diagnosis and aggressive treatment, many individuals can lead a better quality of life than if going undiagnosed for long after RA's onset. The drugs to treat RA range from corticosteroids to monoclonal antibodies given intravenously. Treatments also include analgesics such as NSAIDs and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), while in rare cases, surgery may be required to replace joints, but there is no cure for the disease.\n\nTreatment with DMARDs is designed to initiate an adaptive immune response, in part by CD4+ T helper (Th) cells, specifically Th17 cells. Th17 cells are present in higher quantities at the site of bone destruction in joints and produce inflammatory cytokines associated with inflammation, such as interleukin-17 (IL-17).\n\nBone erosion is a central feature of rheumatoid arthritis. Bone continuously undergoes remodeling by actions of bone resorbing osteoclasts and bone forming osteoblasts. One of the main triggers of bone erosion in the joints in rheumatoid arthritis is inflammation of the synovium, caused in part by the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL), a cell surface protein present in Th17 cells and osteoblasts. Osteoclast activity can be directly induced by osteoblasts through the RANK/RANKL mechanism.\n\n===Lupus===\n\nLupus is a common collagen vascular disorder that can be present with severe arthritis. Other features of lupus include a skin rash, extreme photosensitivity, hair loss, kidney problems, lung fibrosis and constant joint pain.\n\n===Gout===\n\nGout is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals in the joint, causing inflammation. There is also an uncommon form of gouty arthritis caused by the formation of rhomboid crystals of calcium pyrophosphate known as pseudogout. In the early stages, the gouty arthritis usually occurs in one joint, but with time, it can occur in many joints and be quite crippling. The joints in gout can often become swollen and lose function. Gouty arthritis can become particularly painful and potentially debilitating when gout cannot successfully be treated. When uric acid levels and gout symptoms cannot be controlled with standard gout medicines that decrease the production of uric acid (e.g., allopurinol, febuxostat) or increase uric acid elimination from the body through the kidneys (e.g., probenecid), this can be referred to as refractory chronic gout or RCG.\n\n===Comparison of types===\n\n+ Comparison of some major forms of arthritis\n\n !! Osteoarthritis !! Rheumatoid arthritis !! Gouty arthritis\n\n Speed of onset\n Months \n Weeks-months \n Hours for an attack\n\n Main locations\n Weight-bearing joints (such as knees, hips, vertebral column) and hands\n Hands (proximal interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joint) wrists, ankles, knees and hips\n Great toe, ankles, knees and elbows\n\n Inflammation\n May occur, though often mild compared to inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis \n Yes \n Yes\n\n Radiologic changes\n\nNarrowed joint space\nOsteophytes\nLocal osteosclerosis\nSubchondral cysts\n\nNarrowed joint space\nBone erosions\n\n\"Punched out\" bone erosions\n\n Laboratory findings\n None \n Anemia, elevated ESR and C-reactive protein (CRP), rheumatoid factor, anti-citrullinated protein antibody\n Crystal in joints\n\nOther features\n\nNo systemic signs\nBouchard's and Heberden's nodes\n\nExtra-articular features are common\nUlnar deviation, swan neck- and Boutonniere deformity of the hand\n\nTophi\nNephrolithiasis\n\n\n===Other===\nInfectious arthritis is another severe form of arthritis. It presents with sudden onset of chills, fever and joint pain. The condition is caused by bacteria elsewhere in the body. Infectious arthritis must be rapidly diagnosed and treated promptly to prevent irreversible joint damage.\n\nPsoriasis can develop into psoriatic arthritis. With psoriatic arthritis, most individuals develop the skin problem first and then the arthritis. The typical features are of continuous joint pains, stiffness and swelling. The disease does recur with periods of remission but there is no cure for the disorder. A small percentage develop a severe painful and destructive form of arthritis which destroys the small joints in the hands and can lead to permanent disability and loss of hand function.\n", "There is no known cure for either rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. Treatment options vary depending on the type of arthritis and include physical therapy, lifestyle changes (including exercise and weight control), orthopedic bracing, and medications. Joint replacement surgery may be required in eroding forms of arthritis. Medications can help reduce inflammation in the joint which decreases pain. Moreover, by decreasing inflammation, the joint damage may be slowed.\n\n===Physical therapy===\nIn general, studies have shown that physical exercise of the affected joint can noticeably improve long-term pain relief. Furthermore, exercise of the arthritic joint is encouraged to maintain the health of the particular joint and the overall body of the person.\n\nIndividuals with arthritis can benefit from both physical and occupational therapy. In arthritis the joints become stiff and the range of movement can be limited. Physical therapy has been shown to significantly improve function, decrease pain, and delay need for surgical intervention in advanced cases. Exercise prescribed by a physical therapist has been shown to be more effective than medications in treating osteoarthritis of the knee. Exercise often focuses on improving muscle strength, endurance and flexibility. In some cases, exercises may be designed to train balance. Occupational therapy can provide assistance with activities as well as equipment.\n\n===Medications===\nThere are several types of medications that are used for the treatment of arthritis. Treatment typically begins with medications that have the fewest side effects with further medications being added if insufficiently effective.\n\nDepending on the type of arthritis, the medications that are given may be different. For example, the first-line treatment for osteoarthritis is acetaminophen (paracetamol) while for inflammatory arthritis it involves non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen. Opioids and NSAIDs are less well tolerated.\n\nRheumatoid arthritis (RA) is autoimmune so in addition to using pain medications and anti-inflammatory drugs, this type uses another category of drug called disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs). An example of this type of drug is Methotrexate. These types of drugs act on the immune system and slow down the progression of RA.\n\n===Surgery===\nA number of rheumasurgical interventions have been incorporated in the treatment of arthritis since the 1950s. Arthroscopic surgery for osteoarthritis of the knee provides no additional benefit to optimized physical and medical therapy.\n\n===Alternative medicine===\nFurther research is required to determine if transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for knee osteoarthritis is effective for controlling pain.\n\nLow level laser therapy may be considered for relief of pain and stiffness associated with arthritis. Evidence of benefit is tentative.\n\nPulsed electromagnetic field therapy has tentative evidence supporting improved functioning but no evidence of improved pain in osteoarthritis. The FDA has not approved PEMF for the treatment of arthritis. In Canada, PEMF devices are legally licensed by Health Canada for the treatment of pain associated with arthritic conditions.\n", "Arthritis is predominantly a disease of the elderly, but children can also be affected by the disease. More than 70% of individuals in North America affected by arthritis are over the age of 65. Arthritis is more common in women than men at all ages and affects all races, ethnic groups and cultures. In the United States a CDC survey based on data from 2007–2009 showed 22.2% (49.9 million) of adults aged ≥18 years had self-reported doctor-diagnosed arthritis, and 9.4% (21.1 million or 42.4% of those with arthritis) had arthritis-attributable activity limitation (AAAL). With an aging population, this number is expected to increase.based on \n\nDisability due to musculoskeletal disorders increased by 45% from 1990 to 2010. Of these, osteoarthritis is the fastest increasing major health condition. Among the many reports on the increased prevalence of musculoskeletal conditions, data from Africa are lacking and underestimated. A systematic review assessed the prevalence of arthritis in Africa and included twenty population-based and seven hospital-based studies. The majority of studies, twelve, were from South Africa. Nine studies were well-conducted, eleven studies were of moderate quality, and seven studies were conducted poorly. The results of the systematic review were as follows:\nRheumatoid arthritis: 0.1% in Algeria (urban setting); 0.6% in Democratic Republic of Congo (urban setting); 2.5% and 0.07% in urban and rural settings in South Africa respectively; 0.3% in Egypt (rural setting), 0.4% in Lesotho (rural setting)\nOsteoarthritis: 55.1% in South Africa (urban setting); ranged from 29.5 to 82.7% in South Africans aged 65 years and older\nKnee osteoarthritis has the highest prevalence from all types of osteoarthritis, with 33.1% in rural South Africa\nAnkylosing spondylitis: 0.1% in South Africa (rural setting)\nPsoriatic arthritis: 4.4% in South Africa (urban setting)\nGout: 0.7% in South Africa (urban setting)\nJuvenile idiopathic arthritis: 0.3% in Egypt (urban setting)\n", "Evidence of osteoarthritis and potentially inflammatory arthritis has been discovered in dinosaurs. The first known traces of human arthritis date back as far as 4500 BC. In early reports, arthritis was frequently referred to as the most common ailment of prehistoric peoples. It was noted in skeletal remains of Native Americans found in Tennessee and parts of what is now Olathe, Kansas. Evidence of arthritis has been found throughout history, from Ötzi, a mummy (circa 3000 BC) found along the border of modern Italy and Austria, to the Egyptian mummies circa 2590 BC.\n\nIn 1715, William Musgrave published the second edition of his most important medical work, ''De arthritide symptomatica'', which concerned arthritis and its effects.\n", "The word 'arthritides' denotes the collective group of arthritis-like conditions.\n", " Arthritis Care (charity in the UK)\n* Arthritis Foundation (US not-for-profit)\n* Knee arthritis\n* Osteoimmunology\n* Weather pains\n", "\n", "\n* \n* American College of Rheumatology – US professional society of rheumatologists\n* National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases - US National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Classification", "Signs and symptoms", "Diagnosis", "Treatment", "Epidemiology", "History", "Terminology", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Arthritis
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "670 – The second Shia Imam Hassan ibn Ali passes away after being poisoned\n1513 – Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León first sights land in what is now the United States state of Florida.\n1755 – Commodore William James captures the Maratha fortress of Suvarnadurg on west coast of India.\n1792 – The Coinage Act is passed establishing the United States Mint.\n1800 – Ludwig van Beethoven leads the premiere of his First Symphony in Vienna.\n1801 – French Revolutionary Wars: The British capture the Danish fleet.\n1851 – Rama IV is crowned King of Thailand.\n1863 – American Civil War: The largest in a series of Southern bread riots occurs in Richmond, Virginia.\n1865 – American Civil War: Defeat at the Third Battle of Petersburg forces the Army of Northern Virginia and the Confederate government to abandon Richmond, Virginia.\n1885 – Canadian Cree warriors attack the village of Frog Lake, killing nine.\n1900 – The United States Congress passes the Foraker Act, giving Puerto Rico limited self-rule.\n1902 – Dmitry Sipyagin, Minister of Interior of the Russian Empire, is assassinated in the Marie Palace, St Petersburg.\n* 1902 – \"Electric Theatre\", the first full-time movie theater in the United States, opens in Los Angeles.\n1911 – The Australian Bureau of Statistics conducts the country's first national census.\n1912 – The ill-fated begins sea trials.\n1917 – World War I: United States President Woodrow Wilson asks the U.S. Congress for a declaration of war on Germany.\n1921 – The Autonomous Government of Khorasan, a military government encompassing the modern state of Iran, is established.\n1930 – After the mysterious death of Empress Zewditu, Haile Selassie is proclaimed emperor of Ethiopia.\n1956 – ''As the World Turns'' and ''The Edge of Night'' premiere on CBS-TV. The two soaps become the first daytime dramas to debut in the 30-minute format.\n1972 – Actor Charlie Chaplin returns to the United States for the first time since being labeled a communist during the Red Scare in the early 1950s.\n1973 – Launch of the LexisNexis computerized legal research service.\n1975 – Vietnam War: Thousands of civilian refugees flee from Quảng Ngãi Province in front of advancing North Vietnamese troops.\n1979 – A Soviet bio-warfare laboratory at Sverdlovsk accidentally releases airborne anthrax spores, killing 66 plus an unknown amount of livestock. \n1980 – United States President Jimmy Carter signs the Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act.\n1982 – Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.\n1986 – Alabama governor George Wallace, a former segregationist, best known for the \"Stand in the Schoolhouse Door\", announces that he will not seek a fifth four-year term and will retire from public life upon the end of his term in January 1987.\n1989 – Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev arrives in Havana, Cuba, to meet with Fidel Castro in an attempt to mend strained relations.\n1991 – Rita Johnston becomes the first female Premier of a Canadian province when she succeeds William Vander Zalm (who had resigned) as Premier of British Columbia.\n1992 – In New York, Mafia boss John Gotti is convicted of murder and racketeering and is later sentenced to life in prison.\n* 1992 – Forty-two civilians were massacred in the town of Bijeljina.\n2002 – Israeli forces surround the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem into which armed Palestinians had retreated.\n2004 – Islamist terrorists involved in the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks attempt to bomb the Spanish high-speed train AVE near Madrid; the attack is thwarted.\n2006 – Over 60 tornadoes break out in the United States; Tennessee is hardest hit with 29 people killed.\n2012 – A mass shooting at Oikos University in California leaves seven people dead and three injured.\n2014 – A spree shooting occurs at the Fort Hood army base in Texas, with four dead, including the gunman, and 16 others injured.\n2015 – Gunmen attack Garissa University College in Kenya, killing at least 148 people and wounding 79 others.\n", "742 – Charlemagne, Frankish king (d. 814)\n1348 – Andronikos IV Palaiologos, Byzantine Emperor (d. 1385)\n1473 – John Corvinus, Hungarian noble (d. 1504)\n1545 – Elisabeth of Valois (d. 1568)\n1565 – Cornelis de Houtman, Dutch explorer (d. 1599)\n1586 – Pietro Della Valle, Italian traveler (d. 1652)\n1602 – Mary of Jesus of Ágreda, Franciscan abbess (d. 1665)\n1614 – Jahanara Begum, Mughal princess (d. 1681)\n1618 – Francesco Maria Grimaldi, Italian mathematician and physicist (d. 1663)\n1647 – Maria Sibylla Merian, German-Dutch botanist and illustrator (d. 1717)\n1653 – Prince George of Denmark (d. 1708)\n1696 – Francesca Cuzzoni, Italian operatic soprano (d. 1778)\n1719 – Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, German poet (d. 1803)\n1725 – Giacomo Casanova, Italian explorer and author (d. 1798)\n1788 – Francisco Balagtas, Filipino poet and author (d. 1862)\n 1788 – Wilhelmine Reichard, German balloonist (d. 1848)\n1789 – Lucio Norberto Mansilla, Argentinian general and politician (d. 1871)\n1792 – Francisco de Paula Santander, Colombian general and politician, 4th President of the Republic of the New Granada (d. 1840)\n1798 – August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet and academic (d. 1874)\n1805 – Hans Christian Andersen, Danish novelist, short story writer, and poet (d. 1875)\n1814 – Erastus Brigham Bigelow, American inventor (d. 1879)\n1827 – William Holman Hunt, English soldier and painter (d. 1910)\n1835 – Jacob Nash Victor, American engineer (d. 1907)\n1838 – Léon Gambetta, French lawyer and politician, 45th Prime Minister of France (d. 1882)\n1840 – Émile Zola, French novelist, playwright, journalist (d. 1902)\n1841 – Clément Ader, French engineer, designed the Ader Avion III (d. 1926)\n1842 – Dominic Savio, Italian Catholic saint, adolescent student of Saint John Bosco (d. 1857)\n1861 – Iván Persa, Slovenian priest and author (d. 1935)\n1862 – Nicholas Murray Butler, American philosopher and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)\n1869 – Hughie Jennings, American baseball player and manager (d. 1928)\n1875 – Walter Chrysler, American businessman, founded Chrysler (d. 1940)\n 1875 – William Donne, English cricketer and captain (d. 1942)\n1884 – J. C. Squire, English poet, author, and historian (d. 1958)\n1891 – Jack Buchanan, Scottish entertainer (d. 1957)\n* 1891 – Max Ernst, German painter, sculptor, and poet (d. 1976)\n* 1891 – Tristão de Bragança Cunha, Indian nationalist and anti-colonial activist from Goa (d. 1958)\n1896 – Johnny Golden, American golfer (d. 1936)\n1898 – Harindranath Chattopadhyay, Indian poet, actor and politician (d. 1990)\n1900 – Roberto Arlt, Argentinian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1942)\n 1900 – Anis Fuleihan, Cypriot-American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1970)\n* 1900 – Alfred Strange, English footballer (d. 1978)\n1902 – Jan Tschichold, German-Swiss graphic designer and typographer (d. 1974)\n1903 – Lionel Chevrier, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Canadian Minister of Justice (d. 1987)\n1906 – Alphonse-Marie Parent, Canadian priest and educator (d. 1970)\n1907 – Harald Andersson, American-Swedish discus thrower (d. 1985)\n* 1907 – Luke Appling, American baseball player and manager (d. 1991)\n1908 – Buddy Ebsen, American actor and dancer (d. 2003)\n1910 – Paul Triquet, Canadian general, Victoria Cross recipient (d. 1980)\n* 1910 – Chico Xavier, Brazilian spiritual medium (d. 2002)\n1914 – Alec Guinness, English actor (d. 2000)\n1919 – Delfo Cabrera, Argentinian runner and soldier (d. 1981)\n1920 – Gerald Bouey, Canadian lieutenant and civil servant (d. 2004)\n 1920 – Jack Stokes, English animator and director (d. 2013)\n* 1920 – Jack Webb, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1982)\n1922 – John C. Whitehead, American banker and politician, 9th United States Deputy Secretary of State (d. 2015)\n1923 – Gloria Henry, American actress\n* 1923 – Johnny Paton, Scottish footballer, coach, and manager (d. 2015)\n* 1923 – G. Spencer-Brown, English mathematician, psychologist, and author (d. 2016)\n1924 – Bobby Ávila, Mexican baseball player (d. 2004)\n1925 – George MacDonald Fraser, Scottish author and screenwriter (d. 2008)\n* 1925 – Hans Rosenthal, German radio and television host (d. 1987)\n1926 – Jack Brabham, Australian race car driver (d. 2014)\n 1926 – Rudra Rajasingham, Sri Lankan police officer and diplomat (d. 2006)\n1927 – Carmen Basilio, American boxer and soldier (d. 2012)\n 1927 – Howard Callaway, American soldier and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Army (d. 2014)\n* 1927 – Rita Gam, American actress (d. 2016)\n* 1927 – Billy Pierce, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2015)\n* 1927 – Kenneth Tynan, English author and critic (d. 1980)\n1928 – Joseph Bernardin, American cardinal (d. 1996)\n 1928 – Serge Gainsbourg, French singer-songwriter, actor, and director (d. 1991)\n* 1928 – Roy Masters, English-American radio host\n* 1928 – David Robinson, Northern Irish horticulturist and academic (d. 2004)\n1929 – Ed Dorn, American poet and educator (d. 1999)\n1930 – Roddy Maude-Roxby, English actor\n1931 – Vladimir Kuznetsov, Russian javelin thrower (d. 1986)\n1932 – Edward Egan, American cardinal (d. 2015)\n1933 – György Konrád, Hungarian sociologist and author\n1934 – Paul Cohen, American mathematician and theorist (d. 2007)\n* 1934 – Brian Glover, English wrestler and actor (d. 1997)\n* 1934 – Carl Kasell, American journalist and game show host\n* 1934 – Richard Portman, American sound engineer (d. 2017)\n1936 – Shaul Ladany, Serbian-Israeli race walker and engineer\n1937 – Dick Radatz, American baseball player (d. 2005)\n1938 – John Larsson, Swedish 17th General of The Salvation Army\n 1938 – Booker Little, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1961)\n* 1938 – Al Weis, American baseball player\n1939 – Marvin Gaye, American singer-songwriter (d. 1984)\n 1939 – Anthony Lake, American academic and diplomat, 18th United States National Security Advisor\n* 1939 – Lise Thibault, Canadian journalist and politician, 27th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec\n1940 – Donald Jackson, Canadian figure skater and coach\n 1940 – Mike Hailwood, English motorcycle racer (d. 1981)\n* 1940 – Penelope Keith, English actress \n1941 – Dr. Demento, American radio host\n 1941 – Sonny Throckmorton, American country singer-songwriter \n1942 – Leon Russell, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2016)\n 1942 – Roshan Seth, Indian-English actor\n1943 – Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce, South African-English admiral and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports\n 1943 – Caterina Bueno, Italian singer (d. 2007)\n* 1943 – Larry Coryell, American jazz guitarist (d. 2017)\n* 1943 – Antonio Sabàto, Sr., Italian actor\n1944 – Bill Malinchak, American football player\n1945 – Jürgen Drews, German singer-songwriter \n* 1945 – Guy Fréquelin, French race car driver\n* 1945 – Linda Hunt, American actress\n* 1945 – Reggie Smith, American baseball player and coach\n* 1945 – Don Sutton, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1945 – Anne Waldman, American poet\n1946 – Richard Collinge, New Zealand cricketer\n 1946 – David Heyes, English politician\n* 1946 – Sue Townsend, English author and playwright (d. 2014)\n* 1946 – Kurt Winter, Canadian guitarist and songwriter (d. 1997)\n1947 – Paquita la del Barrio, Mexican singer-songwriter\n 1947 – Tua Forsström, Finnish writer\n* 1947 – Emmylou Harris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1947 – Camille Paglia, American author and critic\n1948 – Roald Als, Danish author and illustrator\n 1948 – Dimitris Mitropanos, Greek singer (d. 2012)\n* 1948 – Daniel Okrent, American journalist and author\n* 1948 – Joan D. Vinge, American author\n1949 – Paul Gambaccini, American-English radio and television host\n 1949 – Bernd Müller, German footballer\n* 1949 – Pamela Reed, American actress\n* 1949 – David Robinson, American drummer \n1950 – Lynn Westmoreland, American politician\n1951 – Ayako Okamoto, Japanese golfer\n1952 – Lennart Fagerlund, Swedish cyclist\n 1952 – Will Hoy, English race car driver (d. 2002)\n* 1952 – Leon Wilkeson, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2001)\n1953 – Jim Allister, Northern Irish lawyer and politician\n 1953 – James Vance, American author and playwright\n1954 – Gregory Abbott, American singer-songwriter and producer\n 1954 – Donald Petrie, American actor and director\n1955 – Michael Stone, Northern Irish loyalist paramilitary\n1957 – Caroline Dean, English biologist and academic\n* 1957 – Hank Steinbrenner, American businessman, co-owner of the New York Yankees\n1958 – Stefano Bettarello, Italian rugby player\n 1958 – Larry Drew, American basketball player and coach\n1959 – Gelindo Bordin, Italian runner\n 1959 – David Frankel, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1959 – Juha Kankkunen, Finnish race car driver\n* 1959 – Yves Lavandier, French director and producer\n* 1959 – Badou Ezzaki, Moroccan footballer and manager\n1960 – Linford Christie, Jamaican-English sprinter\n 1960 – Brad Jones, Australian race car driver\n* 1960 – Pascale Nadeau, Canadian journalist\n1961 – Buddy Jewell, American singer-songwriter\n 1961 – Christopher Meloni, American actor\n* 1961 – Keren Woodward, English singer-songwriter\n1962 – Pierre Carles, French director and producer\n 1962 – Billy Dean, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1962 – Clark Gregg, American actor\n1963 – Karl Beattie, English director and producer\n 1963 – Mike Gascoyne, English engineer\n1964 – Pete Incaviglia, American baseball player and coach\n 1964 – Jonathon Sharkey, American wrestler \n1965 – Rodney King, American victim of police brutality (d. 2012)\n1966 – Bill Romanowski, American football player and actor\n* 1966 – Teddy Sheringham, English footballer and coach\n1967 – Greg Camp, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1967 – Phil Demmel, American guitarist and songwriter\n1969 – Ajay Devgan, Indian actor, director, and producer\n1971 – Edmundo Alves de Souza Neto, Brazilian footballer\n* 1971 – Jason Lewry, English cricketer\n* 1971 – Todd Woodbridge, Australian tennis player and sportscaster\n1972 – Remo D'Souza, Indian choreographer and dancer\n 1972 – Calvin Davis, American sprinter and hurdler\n* 1972 – Zane Lamprey, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1973 – Dmitry Lipartov, Russian footballer\n 1973 – Roselyn Sánchez, Puerto Rican-American actress\n* 1973 – Aleksejs Semjonovs, Latvian footballer\n1974 – Tayfun Korkut, Turkish football manager and former player\n1975 – Randy Livingston, American basketball player\n* 1975 – Katrin Rutschow-Stomporowski, German rower\n1976 – Andreas Anastasopoulos, Greek shot putter\n 1976 – Rory Sabbatini, South African golfer\n1977 – Per Elofsson, Swedish skier\n 1977 – Michael Fassbender, German-Irish actor and producer\n* 1977 – Hanno Pevkur, Estonian lawyer and politician, Estonian Minister of Justice\n1978 – Scott Lynch, American author\n 1978 – Ethan Smith, American actor, director, and producer\n1979 – Jesse Carmichael, American keyboard player \n1980 – Adam Fleming, Scottish journalist\n* 1980 – Gavin Heffernan, Canadian director and screenwriter\n* 1980 – Ricky Hendrick, American race car driver (d. 2004)\n* 1980 – Wairangi Koopu, New Zealand rugby league player\n* 1980 – Carlos Salcido, Mexican footballer\n1981 – Michael Clarke, Australian cricketer\n 1981 – Kapil Sharma, Indian stand-up comedian, television presenter and actor\n1982 – Marco Amelia, Italian footballer\n 1982 – Jeremy Bloom, American football player and skier\n* 1982 – Jack Evans, American wrestler\n* 1982 – David Ferrer, Spanish tennis player\n* 1983 – Yung Joc, American rapper\n* 1983 – Maksym Mazuryk, Ukrainian pole vaulter\n1984 – Engin Atsür, Turkish basketball player\n 1984 – Nóra Barta, Hungarian diver\n* 1984 – Jérémy Morel, French footballer\n1985 – Thom Evans, Zimbabwean-Scottish rugby player\n 1985 – Stéphane Lambiel, Swiss figure skater\n1986 – Ibrahim Afellay, Dutch footballer\n 1986 – Andris Biedriņš, Latvian basketball player\n* 1986 – Lee DeWyze, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1987 – Pablo Aguilar, Paraguayan footballer\n 1987 – Marc Pugh, English footballer\n1990 – Yevgeniya Kanayeva, Russian gymnast\n 1990 – Miralem Pjanić, Bosnian footballer\n* 1991 – Quavo, American rapper\n1997 – Abdelhak Nouri, Dutch footballer\n\n", " 870 – Æbbe the Younger, Frankish abbess\n* 872 – Muflih al-Turki, Turkish general\n1118 – Baldwin I of Jerusalem (b. 1058)\n1244 – Henrik Harpestræng, Danish botanical and medical author\n1272 – Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, English husband of Sanchia of Provence (b. 1209)\n1335 – Henry of Bohemia (b. 1265)\n1412 – Ruy González de Clavijo, Spanish explorer and author\n1416 – Ferdinand I of Aragon (b. 1379)\n1502 – Arthur, Prince of Wales (b. 1486)\n1507 – Francis of Paola, Italian friar and saint, founded the Order of the Minims (b. 1416)\n1511 – Bernard VII, Lord of Lippe, German nobleman (b. 1428)\n1640 – Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, Polish author and poet (b. 1595)\n1657 – Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1608)\n 1657 – Jean-Jacques Olier, French priest, founded the Society of Saint-Sulpice (b. 1608)\n1672 – Pedro Calungsod, Filipino missionary and saint (b. 1654)\n 1672 – Diego Luis de San Vitores, Spanish Jesuit missionary (b. 1627)\n1720 – Joseph Dudley, English politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b. 1647)\n1742 – James Douglas, Scottish physician and anatomist (b. 1675)\n1747 – Johann Jacob Dillenius, German-English botanist and mycologist (b. 1684)\n1754 – Thomas Carte, English historian and author (b. 1686)\n1787 – Thomas Gage, English general and politician, Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (b. 1719)\n1791 – Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, French journalist and politician (b. 1749)\n1801 – Thomas Dadford, Jr., English engineer (b. 1761)\n1803 – Sir James Montgomery, 1st Baronet, Scottish judge and politician (b. 1721)\n1817 – Johann Heinrich Jung, German author and academic (b. 1740)\n1827 – Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus, German physician and educator (b. 1776)\n1845 – Philip Charles Durham, Scottish admiral and politician (b. 1763)\n1865 – A. P. Hill, American general (b. 1825)\n1872 – Samuel Morse, American painter and academic, invented the Morse code (b. 1791)\n1891 – Albert Pike, American lawyer and general (b. 1809)\n* 1891 – Ahmed Vefik Pasha, Greek playwright and politician, 249th Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire (b. 1823)\n1894 – Achille Vianelli, Italian painter and academic (b. 1803)\n1896 – Theodore Robinson, American painter and academic (b. 1852)\n1914 – Paul Heyse, German author, poet, and translator, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1830)\n1917 – Bryn Lewis, Welsh international rugby player (b.1891)\n1923 – Topal Osman, Turkish colonel (b. 1883)\n1928 – Theodore William Richards, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1868)\n1930 – Zewditu I of Ethiopia (b. 1876)\n1933 – Ranjitsinhji, Indian cricketer (b. 1872)\n1936 – Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, French general (b. 1860)\n1942 – Édouard Estaunié, French novelist (b. 1862)\n1948 – Sabahattin Ali, Turkish journalist, author, and poet (b. 1907)\n1953 – Hugo Sperrle, German field marshal (b. 1885)\n1966 – C. S. Forester, English novelist (b. 1899)\n1972 – Franz Halder, German general (b. 1884)\n* 1972 – Toshitsugu Takamatsu, Japanese martial artist and educator (b. 1887)\n1974 – Georges Pompidou, French banker and politician, 19th President of France (b. 1911)\n1977 – Walter Wolf, German academic and politician (b. 1907)\n1987 – Buddy Rich, American drummer, songwriter, and bandleader (b. 1917)\n1989 – Manolis Angelopoulos, Greek singer (b. 1939)\n1992 – Juanito, Spanish footballer and manager (b. 1954)\n 1992 – Jan van Aartsen, Dutch politician (b. 1909)\n1994 – Betty Furness, American actress, consumer advocate, game show panelist, television journalist and television personality (b. 1916)\n1994 – Marc Fitch, British historian and philanthropist (b. 1908)\n1995 – Hannes Alfvén, Swedish physicist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)\n1997 – Tomoyuki Tanaka, Japanese director and producer (b. 1910)\n1998 – Rob Pilatus, American-German singer-songwriter (b. 1965)\n2001 – Charles Daudelin, Canadian sculptor and painter (b. 1920)\n2002 – Levi Celerio, Filipino composer and songwriter (b. 1910)\n 2002 – John R. Pierce, American engineer and author (b. 1910)\n2003 – Edwin Starr, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)\n2004 – John Argyris, Greek computer scientist, engineer, and academic (b. 1913)\n2005 – Pope John Paul II (b. 1920)\n2006 – Lloyd Searwar, Guyanese anthologist and diplomat (b. 1925)\n2007 – Henry L. Giclas, American astronomer and academic (b. 1910)\n2008 – Yakup Satar, Turkish World War I veteran(b. 1898)\n2009 – Albert Sanschagrin, Canadian bishop (b. 1911)\n 2009 – Bud Shank, American saxophonist and flute player (b. 1926)\n2010 – Chris Kanyon, American wrestler (b. 1970)\n2011 – John C. Haas, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1918)\n2012 – Jesús Aguilarte, Venezuelan captain and politician (b. 1959)\n 2012 – Elizabeth Catlett, American-Mexican sculptor and illustrator (b. 1915)\n* 2012 – Mauricio Lasansky, American graphic designer and academic (b. 1914)\n2013 – Fred, French author and illustrator (b. 1931)\n 2013 – Jesús Franco, Spanish director, screenwriter, producer, and actor (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – Milo O'Shea, Irish-American actor (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Maria Redaelli, Italian super-centenarian (b. 1899)\n2014 – Glyn Jones, South African actor and screenwriter (b. 1931)\n 2014 – Urs Widmer, Swiss author and playwright (b. 1938)\n2015 – Manoel de Oliveira, Portuguese actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1908)\n 2015 – Robert H. Schuller, American pastor and author (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician, Governor of Limburg (b. 1954)\n2016 – Gallieno Ferri, Italian comic book artist and illustrator (b. 1929)\n 2016 – Robert Abajyan, Armenian sergeant (b. 1996)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\nAbundius of Como\nAmphianus of Lycia\nÆbbe the Younger\nBronach of Glen-Seichis (Irish martyrology)\nFrancis of Paola\nFrancisco Coll Guitart\nHenry Budd (Anglican Church of Canada)\nNicetius of Lyon\nPedro Calungsod\nUrban of Langres\n*April 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nInternational Children's Book Day (International observance)\nMalvinas Day (Argentina)\nOdisha Day (Odisha, India)\nThai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand)\nUnity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus)\nWorld Autism Awareness Day (International observance)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 2
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Acetylene''' (systematic name: '''ethyne''') is the chemical compound with the formula C2H2. It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. This colorless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is unstable in its pure form and thus is usually handled as a solution. Pure acetylene is odorless, but commercial grades usually have a marked odor due to impurities.\n\nAs an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because its two carbon atoms are bonded together in a triple bond. The carbon–carbon triple bond places all four atoms in the same straight line, with CCH bond angles of 180°.\n", "Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund Davy, who identified it as a \"new carburet of hydrogen\". It was rediscovered in 1860 by French chemist Marcellin Berthelot, who coined the name \"acétylène\".\nBerthelot's empirical formula for acetylene (C4H2), as well as the alternative name \"quadricarbure d'hydrogène\" (''hydrogen quadricarbide'') were incorrect because chemists at that time used the wrong atomic mass for carbon (6 instead of 12).\nBerthelot was able to prepare this gas by passing vapours of organic compounds (methanol, ethanol, etc.) through a red-hot tube and collecting the effluent. He also found acetylene was formed by sparking electricity through mixed cyanogen and hydrogen gases. Berthelot later obtained acetylene directly by passing hydrogen between the poles of a carbon arc. Commercially available acetylene gas could smell foul due to the common impurities hydrogen sulfide and phosphine. However, as purity increases it will become odourless.\n", "Since the 1950s, acetylene has mainly been manufactured by the partial combustion of methane or appears as a side product in the ethylene stream from cracking of hydrocarbons. Approximately 400,000 tonnes were produced by this method in 1983. Its presence in ethylene is usually undesirable because of its explosive character and its ability to poison Ziegler–Natta catalysts. It is selectively hydrogenated into ethylene, usually using Pd–Ag catalysts.\n\nUntil the 1950s, when oil supplanted coal as the chief source of reduced carbon, acetylene (and the aromatic fraction from coal tar) was the main source of organic chemicals in the chemical industry. It was prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide, a reaction discovered by Friedrich Wöhler in 1862 and still familiar to students:\n: CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2\n\nCalcium carbide production requires extremely high temperatures, ~2000 °C, necessitating the use of an electric arc furnace. In the US, this process was an important part of the late-19th century revolution in chemistry enabled by the massive hydroelectric power project at Niagara Falls.\n", "In terms of valence bond theory, in each carbon atom the 2s orbital hybridizes with one 2p orbital thus forming an sp hybrid. The other two 2p orbitals remain unhybridized. The two ends of the two sp hybrid orbital overlap to form a strong σ valence bond between the carbons, while on each of the other two ends hydrogen atoms attach also by σ bonds. The two unchanged 2p orbitals form a pair of weaker π bonds.\n\nSince acetylene is a linear symmetrical molecule, it possesses the D∞h point group.\n", "\n===Changes of state===\nAt atmospheric pressure, acetylene cannot exist as a liquid and does not have a melting point. The triple point on the phase diagram corresponds to the melting point (−80.8 °C) at the minimum pressure at which liquid acetylene can exist (1.27 atm). At temperatures below the triple point, solid acetylene can change directly to the vapour (gas) by sublimation. The sublimation point at atmospheric pressure is −84.0°C.\n\n===Other===\nThe adiabatic flame temperature in air at atmospheric pressure is 2534 °C. \n\nAcetylene gas can be dissolved in acetone or dimethylformamide in room temperature and 1 atm. \n", "\n===Metal acetylides===\n\n\nSince acetylene has a pKa of 25, acetylene can be deprotonated by a superbase to form an acetylide:\n\n: HC≡CH + RM → RH + HC≡CM\n\nVarious organometallic and inorganic reagents are effective. The formation of the acetylide depends upon several factors such as the pKb of the base, the valency of the metal, and solvent characteristics.\n\nCopper(I) acetylide and silver acetylide can be formed in aqueous solutions with especial ease due to a poor solubility equilibrium.\n\n===Reppe chemistry===\nWalter Reppe discovered that in the presence of metal catalysts, acetylene can react to give a wide range of industrially significant chemicals.\n* With alcohols, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, or carboxylic acids to give vinyl compounds:\n:300px\n* With carbonyl groups to give α-ethynyl alcohols in ethynylation reactions: \n:300px\n:1,4-Butynediol is produced industrially in this way from formaldehyde and acetylene.\n* With carbon monoxide to give acrylic acid, or acrylic esters, which can be used to produce acrylic glass:\n:400px\n:400px\n* Cyclization to give benzene (see Alkyne trimerisation), cyclooctatetraene, or hydroquinone:\n:240px\n:240px\n:{Fe(CO)5} + {4C2H2} + 2H2O -> {2C6H4(OH)2} + FeCO3 at basic conditions(50-, 20-).\n", "\n===Welding===\nApproximately 20 percent of acetylene is supplied by the industrial gases industry for oxyacetylene gas welding and cutting due to the high temperature of the flame; combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a flame of over , releasing 11.8 kJ/g. Oxyacetylene is the hottest burning common fuel gas. Acetylene is the third-hottest natural chemical flame after dicyanoacetylene's and cyanogen at . Oxy-acetylene welding was a very popular welding process in previous decades; however, the development and advantages of arc-based welding processes have made oxy-fuel welding nearly extinct for many applications. Acetylene usage for welding has dropped significantly. On the other hand, oxy-acetylene welding ''equipment'' is quite versatile – not only because the torch is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding (as in certain artistic applications), but also because it lends itself easily to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering, bending or forming), the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts, and other applications. Bell Canada cable repair technicians still use portable acetylene fuelled torch kits as a soldering tool for sealing lead sleeve splices in manholes and in some aerial locations. Oxyacetylene welding may also be used in areas where electricity is not readily accessible. As well, oxy-fuel cutting is still very popular and oxy-acetylene cutting is utilized in nearly every metal fabrication shop. For use in welding and cutting, the working pressures must be controlled by a regulator, since above 15 psi, if subjected to a shockwave (caused for example by a flashback), acetylene will decompose explosively into hydrogen and carbon. Acetylene fuel container/burner as used in the island of Bali\n\n===Portable lighting===\nCalcium carbide was used to generate acetylene used in the lamps for portable or remote applications. It was used for miners and cavers before the widespread use of incandescent lighting; or many years later low-power/high-lumen LED lighting; and is still used by mining industries in some nations without workplace safety laws. It was also used as an early light source for lighthouses.\n\n===Plastics and acrylic acid derivatives===\nExcept in China, use of acetylene as a chemical feedstock has declined by 70% from 1965 to 2007 owing to cost and environmental considerations.\nAcetylene can be semihydrogenated to ethylene, providing a feedstock for a variety of polyethylene plastics. Another major application of acetylene, especially in China is its conversion to acrylic acid derivatives. These derivatives form products such as acrylic fibers, glasses, paints, resins, and polymers.\n\n===Niche applications===\nIn 1881, the Russian chemist Mikhail Kucherov described the hydration of acetylene to acetaldehyde using catalysts such as mercury(II) bromide. Before the advent of the Wacker process, this reaction was conducted on an industrial scale.\n\nThe polymerization of acetylene with Ziegler-Natta catalysts produces polyacetylene films. Polyacetylene, a chain of CH centres with alternating single and double bonds, was one of the first discovered organic semiconductors. Its reaction with iodine produces a highly electrically conducting material. Although such materials are not useful, these discoveries led to the developments of organic semiconductors, as recognized by the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 to Alan J. Heeger, Alan G MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa.\n\nIn the early 20th century acetylene was widely used for illumination, including street lighting in some towns. Most early automobiles used carbide lamps before the adoption of electric headlights. \n\nAcetylene is sometimes used for carburization (that is, hardening) of steel when the object is too large to fit into a furnace.\n\nAcetylene is used to volatilize carbon in radiocarbon dating. The carbonaceous material in an archeological sample is treated with lithium metal in a small specialized research furnace to form lithium carbide (also known as lithium acetylide). The carbide can then be reacted with water, as usual, to form acetylene gas to be fed into mass spectrometer to measure the isotopic ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.\n", "The energy richness of the C≡C triple bond and the rather high solubility of acetylene in water make it a suitable substrate for bacteria, provided an adequate source is available . A number of bacteria living on acetylene have been identified. The enzyme acetylene hydratase catalyzes the hydration of acetylene to give acetaldehyde.\n\n:C2H2 + H2O → CH3CHO\n\nAcetylene is a moderately common chemical in the universe, often associated with the atmospheres of gas giants. One curious discovery of acetylene is on Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Natural acetylene is believed to form from catalytic decomposition of long-chain hydrocarbons at temperatures of and above. Since such temperatures are highly unlikely on such a small distant body, this discovery is potentially suggestive of catalytic reactions within that moon, making it a promising site to search for prebiotic chemistry.\n", "Acetylene is not especially toxic but, when generated from calcium carbide, it can contain toxic impurities such as traces of phosphine and arsine, which give it a distinct garlic-like smell . It is also highly flammable, as most light hydrocarbons, hence its use in welding. Its most singular hazard is associated with its intrinsic instability, especially when it is pressurized: under certain conditions acetylene can react in an exothermic addition-type reaction to form a number of products, typically benzene and/or vinylacetylene, possibly in addition to carbon and hydrogen . Consequently, acetylene, if initiated by intense heat or a shockwave, can decompose explosively if the absolute pressure of the gas exceeds about . Most regulators and pressure gauges on equipment report gauge pressure and the safe limit for acetylene therefore is 101 kPagage or 15 psig. It is therefore supplied and stored dissolved in acetone or dimethylformamide (DMF), contained in a gas cylinder with a porous filling (Agamassan), which renders it safe to transport and use, given proper handling. Acetylene cylinders should be used in the upright position to avoid withdrawing acetone during use.\n\nInformation on safe storage of acetylene in upright cylinders is provided by the OSHA, Compressed Gas Association, United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), EIGA, and other agencies.\n\nCopper catalyses the decomposition of acetylene and as a result acetylene should not be transported in copper pipes. Brass pipe fittings should also be avoided.\n\nCylinders should be stored in an area segregated from oxidizers to avoid exacerbated reaction in case of fire/leakage. Acetylene cylinders should not be stored in confined spaces / enclosed vehicles / garages / buildings to avoid unintended leakage leading to explosive atmosphere. In the USA, National Electric Code (NEC) requires consideration for hazardous areas including those where acetylene may be released during accidents or leaks. Consideration may include electrical classification and use of listed Group A electrical components in USA. Further information on determining the areas requiring special consideration is in NFPA 497. In Europe, ATEX also requires consideration for hazardous areas where flammable gases may be released during accidents or leaks.\n", "\n", "\n* Acetylene Production Plant and Detailed Process\n* Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive!\n* \n* Movie explaining acetylene formation from calcium carbide and the explosive limits forming fire hazards\n* Calcium Carbide & Acetylene at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Acetylene\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discovery", "Preparation", "Bonding", "Physical properties", "Reactions", "Applications", "Natural occurrence", "Safety and handling", "References", "External links" ]	Acetylene
[ "\n\n'''Alfred''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Alfred (name)\nAlfred (bishop) (died 943)\nAlfred the Great (849–899), king of Wessex.\nAlfred Aetheling (died 1036), son of King Ethelred II of England.\nAlfred Bansard des Bois (1848-1920), French politician. \nAlfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1844-1900),Son of Queen Victoria\nAlfred Eissler, American football player\nAlfred Hitchcock, an English film director and producer.\n Alfred Butch Lee, Alfred Butch Lee is a retired Puerto Rican basketball player. \nAlfred Lecerf, a Belgian politician\nAlfred McCullough, American football player\nAlfred Newton, an English zoologist and ornithologist.\nAlfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, engineer, innovator, and armaments manufacturer. \nAlfred Rasser, a Swiss artist\n Alfred Russel Wallace,a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist\n* Alfred Matthew Yankovic, American singer-songwriter, music producer, actor, comedian, writer, satirist, and parodist known as Weird Al Yankovic\n* Alfred a pseudonym of the American statesman Samuel Adams\n", "* Lake Alfred, Florida\n* Alfred, Maine\n* Alfred (town), New York\n* Alfred (village), New York\n* Alfred, North Dakota\n* Alfred, Texas\n* Alfred, Ontario, Canada\n* Alfred Island, Nunavut, Canada\n* Alfred Town, a village in New South Wales, Australia\n* Mount Alfred, British Columbia, Canada\n", "Alfred, a fictional penguin in the comic strip ''Zig et Puce''\n''Alfred J. Kwak'', a Dutch animated television series\nAlfred Pennyworth, a DC comic book character who serves as Batman's butler\nAlfred Brooks, the main character in ''The Contender'', created by Robert Lipsyte\nAlfred F. Jones, the personification of America in the manga series ''Hetalia''\n", "''Alfred'' (Arne opera), a 1740 masque by Thomas Arne\n''Alfred'' (Dvořák opera), an 1870 opera by Antonín Dvořák\n", "HMS ''Alfred'' (1778)\nHMS ''King Alfred''\nHMS ''Royal Alfred'' (1864)\nUSS ''Alfred'' (1774)\n", "Alfred (software), an application launcher for macOS\nAlfred Music Publishing, a sheet music publisher\nAlfred State College, New York\nAlfred University, New York\nThe Alfred Hospital, a hospital in Melbourne, Australia\n", "*Alfredo\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "People", "Geographical features", "Fictional characters", "Musical works", "Ships", "Other", "See also" ]	Alfred
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 475 – The Roman general Orestes forces western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos to flee his capital city, Ravenna.\n* 489 – Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, defeats Odoacer at the Battle of Isonzo, forcing his way into Italy.\n* 632 – Fatimah, daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad died, with her cause of death being a controversial topic among the Sunni Muslims and Shia Muslims.\n* 663 – Silla–Tang armies crush the Baekje restoration attempt and force Yamato Japan to withdraw from Korea in the Battle of Baekgang.\n1189 – Third Crusade: The Crusaders begin the Siege of Acre under Guy of Lusignan.\n1521 – The Ottoman Turks occupy Belgrade.\n1524 – The Kaqchikel Maya rebel against their former Spanish allies during the Spanish conquest of Guatemala.\n1542 – Turkish–Portuguese War (1538–57): Battle of Wofla: The Portuguese are scattered, their leader Christovão da Gama is captured and later executed.\n1565 – Pedro Menéndez de Avilés sights land near St. Augustine, Florida and founds the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in the continental United States.\n1609 – Henry Hudson discovers Delaware Bay.\n1619 – Election of Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor.\n1640 – Second Bishop's War: King Charles I's English army loses to a Scottish Covenanter force at the Battle of Newburn.\n1648 – The Siege of Colchester ends when Royalists Forces surrender to the Parliamentary Forces after eleven weeks, during the Second English Civil War.\n1709 – Meidingnu Pamheiba is crowned King of Manipur.\n1789 – William Herschel discovers a new moon of Saturn: Enceladus.\n1810 – Battle of Grand Port: The French accept the surrender of a British Navy fleet.\n1830 – The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's new ''Tom Thumb'' steam locomotive races a horse-drawn car, presaging steam's role in US railroads.\n1833 – The Slavery Abolition Act 1833 receives royal assent, abolishing slavery through most of the British Empire.\n1845 – The first issue of ''Scientific American'' magazine is published.\n1849 – After a month-long siege, Venice, which had declared itself independent as the Republic of San Marco, surrenders to Austria.\n1859 – The Carrington event is the strongest geomagnetic storm on record to strike the Earth. Electrical telegraph service is widely disrupted.\n1861 – American Civil War: Union forces attack Cape Hatteras, North Carolina in the Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries which lasts for two days.\n1862 – American Civil War: Second Battle of Bull Run, also known as the Battle of Second Manassas. The battle ends on August 30. \n1867 – The United States takes possession of the (at this point unoccupied) Midway Atoll.\n1879 – Cetshwayo, last king of the Zulus, is captured by the British.\n1898 – Caleb Bradham's beverage \"Brad's Drink\" is renamed \"Pepsi-Cola\".\n1901 – Silliman University is founded in the Philippines. It is the first American private school in the country.\n1909 – A group of mid-level Greek Army officers launches the Goudi coup, seeking wide-ranging reforms.\n1913 – Queen Wilhelmina opens the Peace Palace in The Hague.\n1914 – World War I: The Royal Navy defeats the German fleet in the Battle of Heligoland Bight.\n* 1914 – World War I: German troops take the city of Namur in Belgium.\n1916 – World War I: Germany declares war on Romania.\n 1916 – World War I: Italy declares war on Germany.\n1917 – Ten Suffragettes are arrested while picketing the White House.\n1924 – The Georgian opposition stages the August Uprising against the Soviet Union.\n1931 – France and the Soviet Union sign a treaty of non-aggression.\n1937 – Toyota Motors becomes an independent company.\n1943 – Denmark in World War II: German authorities demand that Danish authorities crack down on acts of resistance. The next day, martial law is imposed on Denmark.\n1944 – World War II: Marseille and Toulon are liberated.\n1955 – Black teenager Emmett Till is brutally murdered in Mississippi, galvanizing the nascent Civil Rights Movement.\n1957 – U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond begins a filibuster to prevent the Senate from voting on Civil Rights Act of 1957; he stopped speaking 24 hours and 18 minutes later, the longest filibuster ever conducted by a single Senator.\n1963 – March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom: The Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. gives his ''I Have a Dream'' speech\n1964 – The Philadelphia race riot begins.\n1968 – Rioting takes place in Chicago during the Democratic National Convention, triggering a brutal police crackdown.\n1988 – Ramstein air show disaster: Three aircraft of the Frecce Tricolori demonstration team collide and the wreckage falls into the crowd. Seventy-five are killed and 346 seriously injured.\n1990 – Iraq declares Kuwait to be its newest province.\n 1990 – An F5 tornado strikes the Illinois cities of Plainfield and Joliet, killing 29 people.\n1993 – The ''Galileo'' spacecraft discovers a moon, later named Dactyl, around 243 Ida, the first known asteroid moon.\n1998 – Pakistan's National Assembly passes a constitutional amendment to make the \"Qur'an and Sunnah\" the \"supreme law\" but the bill is defeated in the Senate.\n* 1998 – Second Congo War: Loyalist troops backed by Angolan and Zimbabwean forces repulse the RCD and Rwandan offensive on Kinshasa.\n", "* 933 – Richard I, duke of Normandy (d. 996)\n1023 – Emperor Go-Reizei of Japan (d. 1068)\n1366 – Jean Le Maingre, marshal of France (d. 1421)\n1476 – Kanō Motonobu, Japanese painter (d. 1559)\n1481 – Francisco de Sá de Miranda, Portuguese poet (d. 1558)\n1582 – Taichang Emperor of China (d. 1620)\n1591 – John Christian of Brieg, Duke of Brzeg (1602–1639) (d. 1639)\n1592 – George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English courtier and politician (d. 1628)\n1612 – Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn, Dutch linguist and scholar (d. 1653)\n1667 – Louise of Mecklenburg-Güstrow (d. 1721)\n1691 – Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (d. 1750)\n1714 – Duke Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick (d. 1774)\n1728 – John Stark, American general (d. 1822)\n1739 – Agostino Accorimboni, Italian composer (d. 1818)\n1749 – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German novelist, poet, playwright, and diplomat (d. 1832)\n1774 – Elizabeth Ann Seton, American nun and saint, co-founded the Sisters of Charity Federation in the Vincentian-Setonian Tradition (d. 1821)\n1801 – Antoine Augustin Cournot, French mathematician and philosopher (d. 1877)\n1814 – Sheridan Le Fanu, Irish author (d. 1873)\n1816 – Charles Sladen, English-Australian politician, 6th Premier of Victoria (d. 1884)\n1822 – Graham Berry, English-Australian politician, 11th Premier of Victoria (d. 1904)\n1827 – Grand Duchess Catherine Mikhailovna of Russia (d. 1894)\n1833 – Edward Burne-Jones English artist of the Pre-Raphaelite movement (d. 1898)\n1837 – Francis, Duke of Teck (d. 1900)\n1840 – Alexander Cameron Sim, Scottish-Japanese pharmacist and businessman, founded Kobe Regatta & Athletic Club (d. 1900)\n1853 – Vladimir Shukhov, Russian architect and engineer, designed the Adziogol Lighthouse (d. 1939)\n1859 – Matilda Howell, American archer (d. 1938)\n 1859 – Vittorio Sella, Italian mountaineer and photographer (d. 1943)\n1867 – Umberto Giordano, Italian composer and academic (d. 1948)\n1878 – George Whipple, American physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1976)\n1884 – Peter Fraser, Scottish-New Zealand journalist and politician, 24th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1950)\n1885 – Vance Palmer, Australian author, playwright, and critic (d. 1959)\n1887 – August Kippasto, Estonian-Australian wrestler and poet (d. 1973)\n 1887 – István Kühár, Slovenian priest and politician (d. 1922)\n1888 – Evadne Price, Australian actress, astrologer, and author (d. 1985)\n1891 – Benno Schotz, Estonian-Scottish sculptor and engineer (d. 1984)\n1894 – Karl Böhm, Austrian conductor and director (d. 1981)\n1896 – Firaq Gorakhpuri, Indian author, poet, and critic (d. 1982)\n1898 – Charlie Grimm, American baseball player, manager, and sportscaster (d. 1983)\n1899 – Charles Boyer, French-American actor, singer, and producer (d. 1978)\n* 1899 – Andrei Platonov, Russian author and poet (d. 1951)\n* 1899 – James Wong Howe, Chinese American cinematographer (d. 1976)\n1903 – Bruno Bettelheim, Austrian-American psychologist and author (d. 1990)\n1904 – Secondo Campini, Italian-American engineer (d. 1980)\n* 1904 – Leho Laurine, Estonian chess player (d. 1998)\n1905 – Cyril Walters, Welsh-English cricketer (d. 1992)\n1906 – John Betjeman, English poet and academic (d. 1984)\n1908 – Roger Tory Peterson, American ornithologist and author (d. 1996)\n1910 – Morris Graves, American painter and academic (d. 2001)\n* 1910 – Tjalling Koopmans, Dutch-American mathematician and economist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)\n1911 – Joseph Luns, Dutch politician and diplomat, 5th Secretary General of NATO (d. 2002)\n1913 – Robertson Davies, Canadian journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1995)\n* 1913 – Jack Dreyfus, American businessman, founded the Dreyfus Corporation (d. 2009)\n* 1913 – Lindsay Hassett, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (d. 1993)\n* 1913 – Robert Irving, English conductor and director (d. 1991)\n* 1913 – Terence Reese, English bridge player and author (d. 1996)\n* 1913 – Richard Tucker, American tenor and actor (d. 1975)\n1915 – Max Robertson, Bengal-born English sportscaster and author (d. 2009)\n 1915 – Tasha Tudor, American author and illustrator (d. 2008)\n1916 – Hélène Baillargeon, Canadian singer and actress (d. 1997)\n 1916 – C. Wright Mills American sociologist and author (d. 1962)\n* 1916 – Jack Vance, American author (d. 2013)\n1917 – Jack Kirby, American author and illustrator (d. 1994)\n1918 – L. B. Cole, American illustrator and publisher (d. 1995)\n1919 – Godfrey Hounsfield, English biophysicist and engineer Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)\n1921 – John Herbert Chapman, Canadian physicist and engineer (d. 1979)\n* 1921 – Fernando Fernán Gómez, Spanish actor, director, and playwright (d. 2007)\n* 1921 – Nancy Kulp, American actress and soldier (d. 1991)\n1924 – Janet Frame, New Zealand author and poet (d. 2004)\n 1924 – Tony MacGibbon, New Zealand cricketer and engineer (d. 2010)\n* 1924 – Peggy Ryan, American actress and dancer (d. 2004)\n* 1924 – Zalman Schachter-Shalomi, Ukrainian-American rabbi and author (d. 2014)\n1925 – Billy Grammer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2011)\n 1925 – Donald O'Connor, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 2003)\n* 1925 – Philip Purser, English author and critic\n1928 – F. William Free, American businessman (d. 2003)\n 1928 – Vilayat Khan, Indian sitar player and composer (d. 2004)\n1929 – István Kertész, Hungarian conductor (d. 1973)\n 1929 – Roxie Roker, American actress (d. 1995)\n1930 – Ben Gazzara, American actor (d. 2012)\n 1930 – Windsor Davies, British actor.\n1931 – Tito Capobianco, Argentinian director and producer\n 1931 – Cristina Deutekom, Dutch soprano and actress (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Ola L. Mize, American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – John Shirley-Quirk, English actor, singer, and educator (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Roger Williams, English hepatologist and academic\n1932 – Andy Bathgate, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager (d. 2016)\n 1932 – Yakir Aharonov, Israeli academic and educator\n1933 – Philip French, English journalist, critic, and producer (d. 2015)\n 1933 – Patrick Kalilombe, Malawian bishop and theologian (d. 2012) \n1935 – Melvin Charney, Canadian sculptor and architect (d. 2012)\n 1935 – Gilles Rocheleau, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1998)\n1936 – Don Denkinger, American baseball player and umpire\n 1935 – Warren M. Washington, American atmospheric scientist \n1938 – Maurizio Costanzo, Italian journalist and academic\n 1938 – Paul Martin, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Prime Minister of Canada\n* 1938 – Bengt Fahlström, Swedish journalist\n1939 – John Kingman, English mathematician and academic\n1940 – William Cohen, American lawyer and politician, 20th United States Secretary of Defense\n* 1940 – Roger Pingeon, French cyclist\n1941 – Michael Craig-Martin, Irish painter and illustrator\n 1941 – Toomas Leius, Estonian tennis player and coach\n* 1941 – John Stanley Marshall, English drummer \n* 1941 – Paul Plishka, American opera singer\n1942 – Wendy Davies, Welsh historian and academic\n 1942 – Sterling Morrison, American singer and guitarist (d. 1995)\n* 1942 – Jorge Urosa, Venezuelan cardinal \n1943 – Surayud Chulanont, Thai general and politician, 24th Prime Minister of Thailand\n 1943 – Robert Greenwald, American director and producer \n* 1943 – Shuja Khanzada, Pakistani colonel and politician (d. 2015)\n* 1943 – Lou Piniella, American baseball player and manager\n* 1943 – David Soul, American actor and singer\n* 1943 – Jihad Al-Atrash, Lebanese actor and voice actor\n1944 – Marianne Heemskerk, Dutch swimmer\n1945 – Bob Segarini, American-Canadian singer-songwriter \n1947 – Emlyn Hughes, English footballer (d. 2004)\n 1947 – Liza Wang, Hong Kong actress and singer\n1948 – Vonda N. McIntyre, American author\n 1948 – Murray Parker, New Zealand cricketer and educator\n* 1948 – Heather Reisman, Canadian publisher and businesswoman\n* 1948 – Danny Seraphine, American drummer and producer \n* 1948 – Elizabeth Wilmshurst, English academic and jurist\n1949 – Hugh Cornwell, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n 1949 – Svetislav Pešić, Serbian basketball player and coach\n1950 – Ron Guidry, American baseball player and coach\n 1950 – Tony Husband, English cartoonist\n1951 – Colin McAdam, Scottish footballer (d. 2013)\n 1951 – Wayne Osmond, American singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1951 – Keiichi Suzuki, Japanese singer-songwriter \n1952 – Jacques Chagnon, Canadian educator and politician\n 1952 – Rita Dove, American poet and essayist\n* 1952 – Wendelin Wiedeking, German businessman\n1953 – Ditmar Jakobs, German footballer\n 1953 – Tõnu Kaljuste, Estonian conductor and journalist\n1954 – Katharine Abraham, American feminist economist\n 1954 – George M. Church, American geneticist, chemist, and engineer\n* 1954 – John Dorahy, Australian rugby player and coach\n* 1954 – Ravi Kanbur, Indian-English economist and academic\n1956 – Luis Guzmán, Puerto Rican-American actor and producer\n 1956 – Steve Whiteman, American singer-songwriter \n1957 – Greg Clark, English businessman and politician, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government\n 1957 – Ivo Josipović, Croatian lawyer, jurist, and politician, 3rd President of Croatia\n* 1957 – Daniel Stern, American actor and director\n* 1957 – Ai Weiwei, Chinese sculptor and activist\n1958 – Scott Hamilton, American figure skater \n1959 – Brian Thompson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1961 – Kim Appleby, English singer-songwriter and actress \n 1961 – Cliff Benson, American football player\n* 1961 – Jennifer Coolidge, American actress\n* 1961 – Ian Pont, English cricketer and coach\n1962 – Paul Allen, English footballer\n 1962 – Craig Anton, American actor and screenwriter\n* 1962 – David Fincher, American director and producer\n1963 – Regina Jacobs, American runner\n 1963 – Maria Gheorghiu, Romanian folk singer-songwriter\n1964 – Lee Janzen, American golfer\n 1964 – Kaj Leo Johannesen, Faroese footballer and politician, 12th Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands\n1965 – Dan Crowley, Australian rugby player\n 1965 – Sonia Kruger, Australian television host and actress\n* 1965 – Satoshi Tajiri, Japanese video game developer; created ''Pokémon''\n* 1965 – Shania Twain, Canadian singer-songwriter\n1966 – Priya Dutt, Indian social worker and politician\n1967 – Jamie Osborne, English jockey and trainer\n1968 – Billy Boyd, Scottish actor and singer\n1969 – Jack Black, American actor and comedian\n* 1969 – Sheryl Sandberg, COO of Facebook and Founder of Leanin.org\n* 1969 – Mary McCartney, English photographer and activist\n* 1969 – Jason Priestley, Canadian actor, director, and producer \n* 1969 – Pierre Turgeon, Canadian-American ice hockey player\n1970 – Melina Aslanidou, German-Greek singer-songwriter\n 1970 – Rick Recht, American singer-songwriter\n1971 – Shane Andrews, American baseball player\n 1971 – Todd Eldredge, American figure skater and coach\n* 1971 – Janet Evans, American swimmer\n* 1971 – Raúl Márquez, Mexican-American boxer and sportscaster\n1972 – Ravindu Shah, Kenyan cricketer\n 1972 – Jay Witasick, American baseball player and coach\n1974 – Johan Andersson, Swedish game designer and programmer\n 1974 – Takahito Eguchi, Japanese pianist and composer\n* 1974 – Carsten Jancker, German footballer and manager\n1975 – Jamie Cureton, English footballer\n 1975 – Gareth Farrelly, Irish footballer and manager\n* 1975 – Hamish McLachlan, Australian television personality\n* 1975 – Royce Willis, New Zealand rugby player\n1976 – Federico Magallanes, Uruguayan footballer\n1978 – Jess Margera, American drummer \n1979 – Shaila Dúrcal, Spanish singer-songwriter\n 1979 – Robert Hoyzer, German footballer and referee\n* 1979 – Kristen Hughes, Australian netball player\n* 1979 – Markus Pröll, German footballer\n* 1979 – Ruth Riley, American basketball player\n1980 – Antony Hämäläinen, Finnish singer-songwriter \n 1980 – Jaakko Ojaniemi, Finnish decathlete\n* 1980 – Carly Pope, Canadian actress and producer\n* 1980 – Jonathan Reynolds, English lawyer and politician\n1981 – Matt Alrich, American lacrosse player\n 1981 – Kezia Dugdale, Scottish politician\n* 1981 – Martin Erat, Czech ice hockey player\n* 1981 – Daniel Gygax, Swiss footballer\n* 1981 – Raphael Matos, Brazilian race car driver\n* 1981 – Jake Owen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1981 – Ahmed Talbi, Moroccan footballer\n* 1981 – Agata Wróbel, Polish weightlifter\n1982 – Anderson Silva de França, Brazilian footballer\n 1982 – Kevin McNaughton, Scottish footballer\n* 1982 – Thiago Motta, Brazilian-Italian footballer\n* 1982 – LeAnn Rimes, American singer-songwriter and actress\n1983 – Ashley Hansen, Australian footballer\n 1983 – Lasith Malinga, Sri Lankan cricketer\n* 1983 – Luke McAlister, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1983 – Lilli Schwarzkopf, German heptathlete\n1986 – Jeff Green, American basketball player\n 1986 – Armie Hammer, American actor\n* 1986 – Tommy Hanson, American baseball player (d. 2015)\n* 1986 – Simon Mannering, New Zealand rugby league player\n* 1986 – Gilad Shalit, Israeli soldier and hostage \n* 1986 – Florence Welch, English singer-songwriter \n1987 – Caleb Moore, American snowmobile racer (d. 2013)\n1989 – César Azpilicueta, Spanish footballer\n* 1989 – Valtteri Bottas, Finnish race car driver\n* 1989 – Jo Kwon, South Korean singer and dancer\n* 1989 – Cassadee Pope, American singer-songwriter \n1990 – Bojan Krkić, Spanish footballer\n1991 – Felicio Brown Forbes, German footballer\n1992 – Gabriela Drăgoi, Romanian gymnast\n 1992 – Bismack Biyombo, Congolese basketball player\n* 1992 – Max Collins, American-Filipino actress and model\n1993 – Jakub Sokolík, Czech footballer\n1994 – Bobby Andonov, Australian singer\n* 1994 – Manon Arcangioli, French tennis player\n* 1994 – Junior Malanda, Belgian footballer (d. 2015)\n2003 – Quvenzhané Wallis, American actress \n\n", " 388 – Magnus Maximus, Roman emperor (b. 335)\n* 430 – Augustine of Hippo, Algerian bishop, theologian, and saint (b. 354)\n* 476 – Orestes, Roman general and politician\n* 632 – Fatimah, daughter of Muhammad (b. 605)\n* 770 – Empress Kōken of Japan (b. 718)\n* 876 – Louis the German, Frankish king (b. 804)\n* 919 – He Gui, Chinese general (b. 858)\n1055 – Emperor Xingzong of Liao (b. 1016)\n1149 – Mu'in ad-Din Unur, regent of Damascus\n1231 – Eleanor of Portugal, Queen of Denmark (b. c. 1211)\n1341 – King Levon IV of Armenia (murdered) (b. 1309)\n1406 – John de Sutton V (b. 1380)\n1481 – Afonso V of Portugal (b. 1432)\n1540 – Federico II Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (b. 1500)\n1609 – Francis Vere, English soldier (b. c. 1560)\n1645 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch playwright, philosopher, and jurist (b. 1583)\n1648 – George Lisle, English general (b. 1610)\n* 1648 – Charles Lucas, English general (b. 1613)\n1654 – Axel Oxenstierna, Swedish lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (b. 1583)\n1665 – Elisabetta Sirani, Italian painter (b. 1638)\n1678 – John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1602)\n1735 – Edwin Stead, English landowner and cricketer (b. 1701)\n1757 – David Hartley, English psychologist and philosopher (b. 1705)\n1784 – Junípero Serra, Spanish priest and missionary (b. 1713)\n1793 – Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine, French general (b. 1740)\n1805 – Alexander Carlyle, Scottish church leader and author (b. 1722)\n1818 – Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, American fur trader, founded Chicago (b. 1750)\n1820 – Andrew Ellicott, American surveyor and urban planner (b. 1754)\n1839 – William Smith, English geologist and engineer (b. 1769)\n1888 – Julius Krohn, Finnish poet and journalist (b. 1835)\n1891 – Robert Caldwell, English missionary and linguist (b. 1814)\n1900 – Henry Sidgwick, English economist and philosopher (b. 1838)\n1903 – Frederick Law Olmsted, American journalist and architect, co-designed Central Park (b. 1822)\n1919 – Adolf Schmal, Austrian fencer and cyclist (b. 1872)\n1934 – Edgeworth David, Welsh-Australian geologist and explorer (b. 1858)\n1937 – George Prendergast, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Victoria (b. 1854)\n1943 – Georg Hellat, Estonian architect (b. 1870)\n 1943 – Boris III of Bulgaria (b. 1894)\n1955 – Emmett Till, American murder victim (b. 1941)\n1959 – Bohuslav Martinů, Czech-American composer and educator (b. 1890)\n1965 – Giulio Racah, Italian-Israeli physicist and mathematician (b. 1909)\n1968 – Dimitris Pikionis, Greek architect and academic (b. 1887)\n1971 – Reuvein Margolies, Israeli author and scholar (b. 1889)\n1972 – Prince William of Gloucester (b. 1941)\n1975 – Fritz Wotruba, Austrian sculptor (b. 1907)\n1978 – Bruce Catton, American historian and journalist (b. 1899)\n* 1978 – Robert Shaw, English actor (b. 1927)\n1981 – Béla Guttmann, Hungarian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1900)\n1982 – Geoff Chubb, South African cricketer (b. 1911)\n1984 – Muhammad Naguib, Egyptian general and politician, 1st President of Egypt (b. 1901)\n1985 – Ruth Gordon, American actress and screenwriter (b. 1896)\n1986 – Russell Lee, American photographer and journalist (b. 1903)\n1987 – John Huston, Irish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1906)\n1988 – Jean Marchand, Canadian union leader and politician, 43rd Secretary of State for Canada (b. 1918)\n 1988 – Max Shulman, American author and screenwriter (b. 1919)\n1989 – John Steptoe, American author and illustrator (b. 1950)\n1990 – Willy Vandersteen, Belgian author and illustrator (b. 1913)\n1991 – Alekos Sakellarios, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1913)\n1993 – William Stafford, American poet and academic (b. 1914)\n1995 – Earl W. Bascom, American rodeo performer and painter (b. 1906)\n 1995 – Michael Ende, German scientist and author (b. 1929)\n* 1995 – Carl Giles, English cartoonist (b. 1916)\n2005 – Jacques Dufilho, French actor (b. 1914)\n 2005 – Esther Szekeres, Hungarian-Australian mathematician and academic (b. 1910)\n* 2005 – George Szekeres, Hungarian-Australian mathematician and academic (b. 1911)\n2006 – Heino Lipp, Estonian shot putter and discus thrower (b. 1922)\n 2006 – Benoît Sauvageau, Canadian educator and politician (b. 1963)\n* 2006 – Melvin Schwartz, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1932)\n2007 – Arthur Jones, American businessman, founded Nautilus, Inc. and MedX Corporation (b. 1926)\n 2007 – Hilly Kristal, American businessman, founded CBGB (b. 1932)\n* 2007 – Paul MacCready, American engineer and businessman, founded AeroVironment (b. 1925)\n* 2007 – Francisco Umbral, Spanish journalist and author (b. 1935)\n* 2007 – Miyoshi Umeki, Japanese-American actress (b. 1929)\n2008 – Phil Hill, American race car driver (b. 1927)\n2009 – Adam Goldstein, American drummer, DJ, and producer (b. 1973)\n2010 – William P. Foster, American bandleader and educator (b. 1919)\n2011 – Bernie Gallacher, English footballer (b. 1967)\n2012 – Rhodes Boyson, English educator and politician (b. 1925)\n 2012 – Shulamith Firestone, Canadian-American activist and author (b. 1945)\n* 2012 – Dick McBride, American author, poet, and playwright (b. 1928)\n* 2012 – Saul Merin, Polish-Israeli ophthalmologist and academic (b. 1933)\n* 2012 – Ramón Sota, Spanish golfer (b. 1938)\n2013 – John Bellany, Scottish painter and academic (b. 1942)\n 2013 – Lorella Cedroni, Italian political scientist and philosopher (b. 1961)\n* 2013 – Edmund B. Fitzgerald, American businessman (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Frank Pulli, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1935)\n* 2013 – Barry Stobart, English footballer (b. 1938)\n* 2013 – Rafael Díaz Ycaza, Ecuadorian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1925)\n2014 – Glenn Cornick, English bass guitarist (b. 1947)\n 2014 – Hal Finney, American cryptographer and programmer (b. 1956)\n* 2014 – John Anthony Walker, American soldier and spy (b. 1937)\n2015 – Al Arbour, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1932)\n 2015 – Mark Krasniqi, Kosovan ethnographer, poet, and translator (b. 1920)\n* 2015 – Nelson Shanks, American painter and educator (b. 1937)\n2016 – Juan Gabriel, Mexican singer and songwriter (b. 1950)\n 2016 – Mr. Fuji, American professional wrestler and manager (b. 1934)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nAlexander of Constantinople\nAugustine of Hippo\nHermes\nMoses the Black \nAugust 28 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nFeast of the Mother of God (Eastern Orthodox Church, a public holiday in the Republic of Macedonia, Serbia, and Georgia)\nNational Grandparents Day (Mexico)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n\n On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 28
[ "\n\n\nArabic numerals sans-serif\n\n'''Arabic numerals''', also called '''Hindu–Arabic numerals''' are the ten digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, based on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the most common system for the symbolic representation of numbers in the world today. In this numeral system, a sequence of digits such as \"975\" is read as a single number, using the position of the digit in the sequence to interpret its value. It was originally developed by ancient mathematicians in the Indian subcontinent around AD 500.\n\nThe system was adopted by Arabic mathematicians in Baghdad and passed on to the Arabs farther west. There is some evidence to suggest that the numerals in their current form developed from Arabic letters in the Maghreb, the western region of the Arab world. The current form of the numerals developed in North Africa, distinct in form from the Indian and Eastern Arabic numerals. It was in the North African city of Bejaia that the Italian scholar Fibonacci first encountered the numerals; his work was crucial in making them known throughout Europe and then further to the Europeans who spread it worldwide. The use of Arabic numerals spread around the world through European trade, books and colonialism.\n\nThe term ''Arabic numerals'' is ambiguous. It most commonly refers to the numerals widely used in Europe and the Americas; to avoid confusion, Unicode calls these ''European digits''. ''Arabic numerals'' is also the conventional name for the entire family of related numerals of Arabic and Indian numerals. It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs, in which case it generally refers to the Eastern Arabic numerals. It would be more appropriate to refer to the ''Arabic numeral system'', where the value of a digit in a number depends on its position.\n\nAlthough the phrase \"Arabic numeral\" is frequently capitalized, it is sometimes written in lower case: for instance, in its entry in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', which helps to distinguish it from \"Arabic numerals\" as the East Arabic numerals specific to the Arabs.\n", "\n===Origins===\n\n\n\nThe decimal Hindu–Arabic numeral system was developed in India by around AD 700. The development was gradual, spanning several centuries, but the decisive step was probably provided by Brahmagupta's formulation of zero as a number in AD 628. The system was revolutionary by including zero in positional notation, thereby limiting the number of individual digits to ten. It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics. One may distinguish between this positional ''system'', which is identical throughout the family, and the precise glyphs used to write the numerals, which varied regionally.\n\nThe glyphs most commonly used in conjunction with the Latin script since early modern times are 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.\nThe first universally accepted inscription containing the use of the 0 glyph in India is first recorded in the 9th century, in an inscription at Gwalior in Central India dated to 870. Numerous Indian documents on copper plates exist, with the same symbol for zero in them, dated back as far as the 6th century AD, but their dates are uncertain. Inscriptions in Indonesia and Cambodia dating to AD 683 have also been found.\n\nBrahmi numerals (lower row) in India in the 1st century AD\nThe numerals used in the Bakhshali manuscript, dated to sometime between the 3rd and 7th century AD.\nModern-day Arab telephone keypad with two forms of Arabic numerals: Western Arabic/European numerals on the left and Eastern Arabic numerals on the right\n\nThe numeral system came to be known to both the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, whose book ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' was written about 825 in Arabic, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, ''On the Use of the Indian Numerals'' (''Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi'') about 830. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West. \n\nIn the 10th century, Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953. The decimal point notation was introduced by Sind ibn Ali, who also wrote the earliest treatise on Arabic numerals.\n\nA distinctive West Arabic variant of the symbols begins to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus, called ''ghubar'' (\"sand-table\" or \"dust-table\") numerals, which are the direct ancestor of the modern Western Arabic numerals used throughout the world. Ghubar numerals themselves are probably of Roman origin.\n\n====Popular myths====\nSome popular myths have argued that the original forms of these symbols indicated their numeric value through the number of angles they contained, but no evidence exists of any such origin.\n\n===Adoption in Europe===\nAdoption of the Hindu numerals through the Arabs by Europe\nWoodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.\nTalhoffer Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology.\nLate 18th-century French revolutionary \"decimal\" clockface.\n\nIn 825 Al-Khwārizmī wrote a treatise in Arabic, ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'', which survives only as the 12th-century Latin translation, ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum''. ''Algoritmi'', the translator's rendition of the author's name, gave rise to the word ''algorithm''.\n\nThe first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the ''Codex Vigilanus'' of 976.\n\nFrom the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later, Pope Sylvester II) used his position to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France.\n\nLeonardo Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa), a mathematician born in the Republic of Pisa who had studied in Béjaïa (Bougie), Algeria, promoted the Indian numeral system in Europe with his 1202 book ''Liber Abaci'':\n\nWhen my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.\n\nThe numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe. Languages written in the Latin alphabet run from left-to-right, unlike languages written in the Arabic alphabet. Hence, from the point of view of the reader, numerals in Western texts are written with the highest power of the base first whereas numerals in Arabic texts are written with the lowest power of the base first.\n\nThe reason the digits are more commonly known as \"Arabic numerals\" in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the 10th century by Arabic-speakers of North Africa, who were then using the digits from Libya to Morocco. Arabs, on the other hand, call the system \"Hindu numerals\", referring to their origin in India. This is not to be confused with what the Arabs call the \"Hindi numerals\", namely the Eastern Arabic numerals ( - - - - - - - - - ) used in the Middle East, or any of the numerals currently used in Indian languages (e.g. Devanagari: ).\n\nThe European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press, and they became widely known during the 15th century. Early evidence of their use in Britain includes: an equal hour horary quadrant from 1396, in England, a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin Cathedral. (See G.F. Hill, ''The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe'' for more examples.) In central Europe, the King of Hungary Ladislaus the Posthumous, started the use of Arabic numerals, which appear for the first time in a royal document of 1456. By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe. Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of Anno Domini years, and for numbers on clockfaces.\n\nToday, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), for sequential volumes, to differentiate monarchs or family members with the same first names, and (in lower case) to number pages in prefatory material in books.\n\n===Adoption in Russia===\nCyrillic numerals were a numbering system derived from the Cyrillic alphabet, used by South and East Slavic peoples. The system was used in Russia as late as the early 18th century when Peter the Great replaced it with Arabic numerals.\n\n===Adoption in China===\nIron plate with an order 6 magic square in Persian/ Arabic numbers from China, dating to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368).\n\nArabic numerals were introduced to China during the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) by the Muslim Hui people. In the early 17th century, European-style Arabic numerals were introduced by Spanish and Portuguese Jesuits.\n", "\n\nThe numeral system employed, known as algorism, is positional decimal notation. Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, which may have evolved from the Brahmi numerals, or developed independently from it. The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the Middle Ages:\n\nThe widespread Western Arabic numerals used with the Latin script, in the table below labelled ''European'', descended from the West Arabic numerals developed in al-Andalus (Andalucía, Spain) and the Maghreb. Spanish scholars because of the geographic proximity, trade and constant warfare with the Muslim kingdoms of Southern Spain saw a potential in the simplicity of Arabic numbers, and decided to adopt those symbols, later other Europeans followed and incorporated them too. (There are two typographic styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and text figures).\nThe Arabic–Indic or Eastern Arabic numerals, used with the Arabic script, developed primarily in what is now Iraq. A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in the Persian and Urdu languages is shown as East Arabic-Indic.\nThe Devanagari numerals used with Devanagari and related variants are grouped as Indian numerals.\n\nThe evolution of the numerals in early Europe is shown on a table created by the French scholar Jean-Étienne Montucla in his ''Histoire de la Mathematique'', which was published in 1757:\n\nTable of numerals\n500px\n\nThe Arabic numeral glyphs 0–9 are encoded in ASCII and Unicode at positions 0x30 to 0x39, matching up with the second hexadecimal digit for convenience:\n\n\n\nBinary\nOctal\nDecimal\nHexadecimal\nGlyph\n\n0011 0000\n060\n48\n30\n0\n\n0011 0001\n061\n49\n31\n1\n\n0011 0010\n062\n50\n32\n2\n\n0011 0011\n063\n51\n33\n3\n\n0011 0100\n064\n52\n34\n4\n\n0011 0101\n065\n53\n35\n5\n\n0011 0110\n066\n54\n36\n6\n\n0011 0111\n067\n55\n37\n7\n\n0011 1000\n070\n56\n38\n8\n\n0011 1001\n071\n57\n39\n9\n\n", "\n", "\n", "\n \n", ".\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n", "\n* Development of Hindu Arabic and Traditional Chinese Arithmetic \n* History of Counting Systems and Numerals. Retrieved 11 December 2005.\n* The Evolution of Numbers. 16 April 2005.\n* O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. Indian numerals. November 2000.\n* History of the numerals\n Arabic numerals\n Hindu-Arabic numerals\n Numeral & Numbers' history and curiosities\n Gerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu-Arabic numerals at Convergence\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Evolution of symbols", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arabic numerals
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* 190 – Dong Zhuo has his troops evacuate the capital Luoyang and burn it to the ground.\n* 475 – Byzantine Emperor Basiliscus issues a circular letter (''Enkyklikon'') to the bishops of his empire, supporting the Monophysite christological position.\n* 537 – Siege of Rome: The Byzantine general Belisarius receives his promised reinforcements, 1,600 cavalry, mostly of Hunnic or Slavic origin and expert bowmen. He starts, despite shortages, raids against the Gothic camps and Vitiges is forced into a stalemate.\n1241 – Battle of Liegnitz: Mongol forces defeat the Polish and German armies.\n1288 – Mongol invasions of Vietnam: Yuan forces are defeated by Trần forces in the Battle of Bach Dang in present-day northern Vietnam.\n1388 – Despite being outnumbered 16 to 1, forces of the Old Swiss Confederacy are victorious over the Archduchy of Austria in the Battle of Näfels.\n1413 – Henry V is crowned King of England.\n1440 – Christopher of Bavaria is appointed King of Denmark.\n1454 – The Treaty of Lodi is signed, establishing a balance of power among northern Italian city-states for almost 50 years.\n1511 – St John's College, Cambridge, England, founded by Lady Margaret Beaufort, receives its charter.\n1585 – The expedition organised by Sir Walter Raleigh departs England for Roanoke Island (now in North Carolina) to establish the Roanoke Colony.\n1609 – Eighty Years' War: Spain and the Dutch Republic sign the Treaty of Antwerp to initiate twelve years of truce.\n 1609 – Philip III of Spain issues the decree of the \"Expulsion of the Moriscos\". \n1682 – Robert Cavelier de La Salle discovers the mouth of the Mississippi River, claims it for France and names it Louisiana.\n1782 – American War of Independence: Battle of the Saintes begins.\n1860 – On his phonautograph machine, Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville makes the oldest known recording of an audible human voice.\n1865 – American Civil War: Robert E. Lee surrenders the Army of Northern Virginia (26,765 troops) to Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia, effectively ending the war.\n1909 – The U.S. Congress passes the Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act.\n1914 – Mexican Revolution: One of the world's first naval/air skirmishes takes place off the coast of western Mexico.\n1916 – World War I: The Battle of Verdun: German forces launch their third offensive of the battle.\n1917 – World War I: The Battle of Arras: The battle begins with Canadian Corps executing a massive assault on Vimy Ridge.\n1918 – World War I: The Battle of the Lys: The Portuguese Expeditionary Corps is crushed by the German forces during what is called the Spring Offensive on the Belgian region of Flanders.\n 1918 – The National Council of Bessarabia proclaims union with the Kingdom of Romania.\n1937 – The ''Kamikaze'' arrives at Croydon Airport in London. It is the first Japanese-built aircraft to fly to Europe.\n1939 – Marian Anderson sings at the Lincoln Memorial, after being denied the right to sing at the Daughters of the American Revolution's Constitution Hall.\n1940 – World War II: Operation Weserübung: Germany invades Denmark and Norway.\n 1940 – Vidkun Quisling seizes power in Norway.\n1942 – World War II: The Battle of Bataan/Bataan Death March: United States forces surrender on the Bataan Peninsula. The Japanese Navy launches an air raid on Trincomalee in Ceylon (Sri Lanka); Royal Navy aircraft carrier and Royal Australian Navy Destroyer are sunk off the island's east coast.\n1945 – Execution of Dietrich Bonhoeffer, anti-Nazi dissident and spy, by the Nazi regime.\n* 1945 – World War II: The German pocket battleship ''Admiral Scheer'' is sunk by the Royal Air Force\n* 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Königsberg, in East Prussia, ends.\n* 1945 – The United States Atomic Energy Commission is formed.\n1947 – The Glazier–Higgins–Woodward tornadoes kill 181 and injure 970 in Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas.\n 1947 – The Journey of Reconciliation, the first interracial Freedom Ride begins through the upper South in violation of Jim Crow laws. The riders wanted enforcement of the United States Supreme Court's 1946 Irene Morgan decision that banned racial segregation in interstate travel.\n1948 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán's assassination provokes a violent riot in Bogotá (the ''Bogotazo''), and a further ten years of violence in Colombia.\n 1948 – Fighters from the Irgun and Lehi Zionist paramilitary groups attacked Deir Yassin near Jerusalem, killing over 100.\n1952 – Hugo Ballivián's government is overthrown by the Bolivian National Revolution, starting a period of agrarian reform, universal suffrage and the nationalization of tin mines\n1957 – The Suez Canal in Egypt is cleared and opens to shipping.\n1959 – Project Mercury: NASA announces the selection of the United States' first seven astronauts, whom the news media quickly dub the \"Mercury Seven\".\n1960 – Dr Hendrik Verwoerd, Prime Minister of South Africa and architect of apartheid, narrowly survives an assassination attempt by a white farmer, David Pratt in Johannesburg.\n1961 – The Pacific Electric Railway in Los Angeles, once the largest electric railway in the world, ends operations.\n1965 – Astrodome opens. First indoor baseball game is played.\n1967 – The first Boeing 737 (a 100 series) makes its maiden flight.\n1969 – The first British-built ''Concorde'' 002 makes its maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford.\n1975 – The first game of the Philippine Basketball Association, the second oldest professional basketball league in the world.\n1976 – The EMD F40PH diesel locomotive enters revenue service with Amtrak.\n1980 – The Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein kills philosopher Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and his sister Bint al-Huda after three days of torture.\n1981 – The U.S. Navy nuclear submarine accidentally collides with the ''Nissho Maru'', a Japanese cargo ship, sinking it.\n1989 – Tbilisi massacre: an anti-Soviet peaceful demonstration and hunger strike in Tbilisi, demanding restoration of Georgian independence, is dispersed by the Soviet Army, resulting in 20 deaths and hundreds of injuries.\n1991 – Georgia declares independence from the Soviet Union\n1992 – A U.S. Federal Court finds former Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega guilty of drug and racketeering charges. He is sentenced to 30 years in prison.\n1999 – Kosovo War: The Battle of Košare begins.\n2003 – Iraq War: Baghdad falls to American forces; Iraqis turn on symbols of their former leader Saddam Hussein, pulling down a grand statue of him and tearing it to pieces.\n2005 – Charles, Prince of Wales marries Camilla Parker Bowles in a civil ceremony at Windsor's Guildhall.\n2009 – In Tbilisi, Georgia, up to 60,000 people protest against the government of Mikheil Saakashvili.\n2013 – A 6.1–magnitude earthquake strikes Iran killing 32 people and injuring over 850 people.\n* 2013 – At least 13 people are killed and another three injured after a man goes on a spree shooting in the Serbian village of Velika Ivanča.\n2014 – A student stabs 20 people at Franklin Regional High School in Murrysville, Pennsylvania.\n2017 – Palm Sunday church bombings at Coptic Churches in Tanta and Alexandria take place.\n", "\n1283 – Margaret, Maid of Norway, Queen of Scotland (d. 1290)\n1285 – Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan, Emperor Renzong of Yuan (d. 1320)\n1458 – Camilla Battista da Varano, Italian saint (d. 1524)\n1498 – Jean, Cardinal of Lorraine (d. 1550)\n1586 – Julius Henry, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (d. 1665)\n1597 – John Davenport, English minister, co-founded the New Haven Colony (d. 1670)\n1598 – Johann Crüger, Sorbian-German composer and theorist (d. 1662)\n1624 – Henrik Rysensteen, Dutch military engineer (d. 1679)\n1627 – Johann Caspar Kerll, German organist and composer (d. 1693)\n1634 – Countess Albertine Agnes of Nassau (d. 1696)\n1648 – Henri de Massue, Earl of Galway, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1720)\n1649 – James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, Dutch-English general and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire (d. 1685)\n1654 – Samuel Fritz, Czech Jesuit missionary to South America (d. 1725?)\n1680 – Philippe Néricault Destouches, French playwright (d. 1754)\n1686 – James Craggs the Younger, English politician, Secretary of State for the Southern Department (d. 1721)\n1691 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (d. 1761)\n1717 – Georg Matthias Monn, Austrian organist, composer, and educator (d. 1750)\n1770 – Thomas Johann Seebeck, German physicist and academic (d. 1831)\n1773 – Étienne Aignan, French author and academic (d. 1824)\n1794 – Theobald Boehm, German flute player and composer (d. 1881)\n1802 – Elias Lönnrot, Finnish physician and philologist (d. 1884)\n1806 – Isambard Kingdom Brunel, English engineer, designed the Clifton Suspension Bridge (d. 1859)\n1807 – James Bannerman, Scottish theologian and academic (d. 1868)\n1821 – Charles Baudelaire, French poet and critic (d. 1867)\n1830 – Eadweard Muybridge, English photographer and cinematographer (d. 1904)\n1835 – Leopold II of Belgium (d. 1909)\n* 1835 – Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (d. 1913)\n1846 – Paolo Tosti, Italian-English composer and educator (d. 1916)\n1848 – Ezequiél Moreno y Díaz, Spanish Augustinian Recollect priest and saint (d. 1906)\n1865 – Erich Ludendorff, German general and politician (d. 1937)\n 1865 – Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Polish-American mathematician and engineer (d. 1923)\n1867 – Chris Watson, Chilean-Australian journalist and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1941)\n 1867 – Charles Winckler, Danish tug of war competitor, discus thrower, and shot putter (d. 1932)\n1872 – Léon Blum, Jewish-French lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1950)\n1875 – Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (d. 1912)\n1880 – Jan Letzel, Czech architect (d. 1925)\n1882 – Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (d. 1946)\n* 1882 – Otz Tollen, German actor (d. 1965)\n1883 – Frank King, American cartoonist (d. 1969)\n1887 – Konrad Tom, Polish actor, writer, singer, and director (d. 1957)\n1888 – Sol Hurok, Ukrainian-American talent manager (d. 1974)\n1893 – Charles E. Burchfield, American painter (d.1967)\n* 1893 – Victor Gollancz, English publisher, founded Victor Gollancz Ltd (d. 1967)\n* 1893 – Rahul Sankrityayan, Indian linguist, author, and scholar (d. 1963)\n1895 – Mance Lipscomb, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976)\n 1895 – Michel Simon, Swiss-French actor (d. 1975)\n1897 – John B. Gambling, American radio host (d. 1974)\n1898 – Curly Lambeau, American football player and coach (d. 1965)\n* 1898 – Paul Robeson, American singer, actor, and activist (d. 1976)\n1900 – Allen Jenkins, American actor and singer (d. 1974)\n1901 – Jean Bruchési, Canadian historian and author (d. 1979)\n* 1901 – Paul Willis, American actor and director (d. 1960)\n1902 – Théodore Monod, French explorer and scholar (d. 2000)\n1903 – Ward Bond, American actor (d. 1960)\n1904 – Sharkey Bonano, American singer, trumpet player, and bandleader (d. 1972)\n1905 – J. William Fulbright, American lawyer and politician (d. 1995)\n1906 – Rafaela Aparicio, Spanish actress (d. 1996)\n 1906 – Antal Doráti, Hungarian-American conductor and composer (d. 1988)\n1908 – Joseph Krumgold, American author and screenwriter (d. 1980)\n 1908 – Victor Vasarely, Hungarian-French painter (d. 1997)\n1909 – Robert Helpmann, Australian dancer, actor, and choreographer (d. 1986)\n1910 – Abraham A. Ribicoff, American lawyer and politician, 4th United States Secretary of Health and Human Services (d. 1998)\n1912 – Lev Kopelev, Ukrainian-German author and academic (d. 1997)\n1915 – Daniel Johnson, Sr., Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Premier of Quebec (d. 1968)\n1916 – Julian Dash, American swing music jazz tenor saxophonist (d. 1974)\n 1916 – Heinz Meyer, German Fallschirmjäger during World War II (d. 1987)\n* 1916 – Bill Leonard, American journalist (d. 1994)\n1917 – Johannes Bobrowski, German songwriter and poet (d. 1965)\n 1917 – Ronnie Burgess, Welsh footballer and manager (d. 2005)\n* 1917 – Brad Dexter, American actor (d. 2002)\n1918 – Jørn Utzon, Danish architect, designed the Sydney Opera House (d. 2008)\n1919 – J. Presper Eckert, American engineer, invented the ENIAC (d. 1995)\n1921 – Jean-Marie Balestre, French businessman (d. 2008)\n 1921 – Yitzhak Navon, Israeli politician (d. 2015)\n* 1921 – Frankie Thomas, American actor (d. 2006)\n* 1921 – Mary Jackson, African American mathematician and aerospace engineer (d. 2005)\n1922 – Carl Amery, German author and activist (d. 2005)\n1923 – Leonard Levy, American historian and author (d. 2006)\n1924 – Arthur Shaw, English professional footballer (d. 2015)\n1925 – Virginia Gibson, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2013)\n* 1925 – Art Kane, American photographer (d. 1995)\n1926 – Gerry Fitt, Northern Irish soldier and politician; British life peer (d. 2005)\n 1926 – Hugh Hefner, American publisher, founded Playboy Enterprises (d. 2017)\n1927 – Tiny Hill, New Zealand rugby player\n1928 – Paul Arizin, American basketball player (d. 2006)\n* 1928 – Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and mathematician\n1929 – Sharan Rani Backliwal, Indian sarod player and scholar (d. 2008)\n 1929 – Fred Hollows, New Zealand-Australian ophthalmologist (d. 1993)\n* 1929 – Paule Marshall, American author and academic\n1930 – Nathaniel Branden, Canadian-American psychotherapist and author (d. 2014)\n 1930 – F. Albert Cotton, American chemist and academic (d. 2007)\n* 1930 – Wallace McCain, Canadian businessman, founded McCain Foods (d. 2011)\n1931 – Richard Hatfield, Canadian lawyer and politician, 26th Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1991)\n1932 – Jim Fowler, American zoologist and television host\n* 1932 – Armin Jordan, Swiss conductor (d. 2006)\n* 1932 – Peter Moores, English businessman and philanthropist (d. 2016)\n* 1932 – Carl Perkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1998)\n1933 – Jean-Paul Belmondo, French actor and producer\n 1933 – René Burri, Swiss photographer and journalist (d. 2014)\n* 1933 – Fern Michaels, American author\n* 1933 – Richard Rose, American political scientist and academic\n* 1933 – Gian Maria Volontè, Italian actor (d. 1994)\n1934 – Bill Birch, New Zealand surveyor and politician, 38th New Zealand Minister of Finance\n 1934 – Tom Phillis, Australian motorcycle racer (d. 1962)\n* 1934 – Mariya Pisareva, Russian high jumper\n1935 – Aulis Sallinen, Finnish composer and academic\n 1935 – Avery Schreiber, American actor and comedian (d. 2002)\n1936 – Jerzy Maksymiuk, Polish pianist, composer, and conductor\n 1936 – Valerie Solanas, American radical feminist author, attempted murderer (d. 1988)\n1937 – Simon Brown, Baron Brown of Eaton-under-Heywood, English lieutenant, lawyer, and judge\n 1937 – Marty Krofft, Canadian screenwriter and producer\n* 1937 – Valerie Singleton, English television and radio host\n1938 – Viktor Chernomyrdin, Russian businessman and politician, 30th Prime Minister of Russia (d. 2010)\n1939 – Michael Learned, American actress \n1940 – Hans-Joachim Reske, German sprinter\n 1940 – Jim Roberts, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2015)\n1941 – Kay Adams, American singer-songwriter\n1942 – Brandon deWilde, American actor (d. 1972)\n* 1942 – Margo Smith, American singer-songwriter\n1943 – Terry Knight, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2004)\n1944 – Joe Brinkman, American baseball player and umpire\n* 1944 – Heinz-Joachim Rothenburg, German shot putter\n1945 – Steve Gadd, American drummer and percussionist\n 1945 – Peter Gammons, American journalist\n1946 – Nate Colbert, American baseball player\n 1946 – Mike Hancock, English politician\n* 1946 – Alan Knott, English cricketer\n* 1946 – Sara Parkin, Scottish activist and politician\n* 1946 – David Webb, English footballer, coach, and manager\n1947 – Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Italian economist and academic\n1948 – Jaya Bachchan, Indian actress and politician\n* 1948 – Michel Parizeau, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1948 – Patty Pravo, Italian singer\n1949 – Tony Cragg, English sculptor\n1950 – Nathan Cook, American actor (d. 1998)\n1952 – Robert Clark, American author\n 1952 – Bruce Robertson, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1952 – Tania Tsanaklidou, Greek singer and actress\n1953 – John Howard, English singer-songwriter and pianist\n 1953 – Hal Ketchum, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1954 – Ken Kalfus, American journalist and author\n 1954 – Dennis Quaid, American actor \n* 1954 – Iain Duncan Smith, British soldier and politician, Secretary of State for Work and Pensions\n1955 – Yamina Benguigui, Algerian-French director and politician\n 1955 – Joolz Denby, English poet and author\n1956 – Miguel Ángel Russo, Argentinian footballer and coach\n 1956 – Nigel Shadbolt, English computer scientist and academic\n* 1956 – Vahur Sova, Estonian architect\n* 1956 – Marina Zueva, Russian ice dancer and coach\n1957 – Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer and architect (d. 2011)\n 1957 – Martin Margiela, Belgian fashion designer\n* 1957 – Jamie Redfern English-born Australian television presenter and pop singer\n1958 – Tony Sibson, English boxer\n 1958 – Nigel Slater, English journalist and author\n1959 – Bernard Jenkin, English businessman and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Defence\n1960 – Jaak Aab, Estonian educator and politician, Minister of Social Affairs of Estonia\n1961 – Mark Kelly, Irish keyboard player \n 1961 – Kirk McCaskill, Canadian-American baseball and hockey player\n1962 – John Eaves, American production designer and illustrator\n 1962 – Ihor Podolchak, Ukrainian director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1962 – Imran Sherwani, English field hockey player\n* 1962 – Jeff Turner, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster\n1963 – Marc Jacobs, American-French fashion designer\n 1963 – Joe Scarborough, American journalist, lawyer, and politician\n1964 – Rob Awalt, German-American football player\n 1964 – Juliet Cuthbert, Jamaican sprinter\n* 1964 – Peter Penashue, Canadian businessman and politician, 9th Canadian Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs\n* 1964 – Margaret Peterson Haddix, American author\n* 1964 – Rick Tocchet, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach\n1965 – Helen Alfredsson, Swedish golfer\n 1965 – Paulina Porizkova, Czech-born Swedish-American model and actress\n* 1965 – Jeff Zucker, American businessman\n1966 – John Hammond, English weather forecaster\n 1966 – Cynthia Nixon, American actress \n1967 – Natascha Engel, German-English translator and politician\n 1967 – Sam Harris, American author, philosopher, and neuroscientist\n1968 – Jay Chandrasekhar, American actor, comedian, writer and director\n1969 – Linda Kisabaka, German runner\n1970 – Chorão, Brazilian singer-songwriter (d. 2013)\n1971 – Peter Canavan, Irish footballer and manager\n* 1971 – Leo Fortune-West, English footballer and manager\n* 1971 – Austin Peck, American actor\n* 1971 – Jacques Villeneuve, Canadian race car driver\n1972 – Bernard Ackah, German-Japanese martial artist and kick-boxer\n 1972 – Siiri Vallner, Estonian architect\n1973 – Spencer Rice, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1974 – Megan Connolly, Australian actress (d. 2001)\n* 1974 – Jenna Jameson, American actress and pornographic performer\n1975 – Robbie Fowler, English footballer and manager\n 1975 – David Gordon Green, American director and screenwriter\n1976 – Kyle Peterson, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1977 – Gerard Way, American singer-songwriter and comic book writer\n1978 – Kousei Amano, Japanese actor\n 1978 – Jorge Andrade, Portuguese footballer\n* 1978 – Rachel Stevens, Jewish-English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress \n1979 – Albert Hammond, Jr., American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1979 – Jeff Reed, American football player\n1980 – Sarah Ayton, English sailor\n 1980 – Luciano Galletti, Argentinian footballer\n1981 – Milan Bartovič, Czech ice hockey player\n 1981 – A. J. Ellis, American baseball player\n* 1981 – Ireneusz Jeleń, Polish footballer\n* 1981 – Dennis Sarfate, American baseball player\n1982 – Jay Baruchel, Canadian actor\n 1982 – Carlos Hernández, Costa Rican footballer\n* 1982 – Kathleen Munroe, Canadian-American actress\n1983 – Ryan Clark, Australian actor\n 1983 – Willie Colon, American football player\n1984 – Habiba Ghribi, Tunisian runner\n 1984 – Adam Loewen, Canadian baseball player\n* 1984 – Óscar Razo, Mexican footballer\n1985 – Antonio Nocerino, Italian footballer\n 1985 – David Robertson, American baseball player\n1986 – Mike Hart, American football player\n 1986 – Leighton Meester, American actress \n1987 – Kassim Abdallah, French-Comorian footballer\n 1987 – Graham Gano, American football player\n* 1987 – Craig Mabbitt, American singer\n* 1987 – Jesse McCartney, American singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1987 – Jarrod Mullen, Australian rugby league player\n* 1987 – Jazmine Sullivan, American singer-songwriter\n1988 – Michel Alves Baroni, Brazilian footballer\n 1988 – Jeremy Metcalfe, English race car driver\n1989 – Danielle Kahle, American figure skater\n1990 – Kristen Stewart, American actress\n* 1990 – Ryan Williams, American football player\n1991 – Ryan Kelly, American basketball player\n 1991 – Mary Killman, American synchronized swimmer\n1992 – Joshua Ledet, American singer\n1994 – Joey Pollari, American actor\n1995 – Domagoj Bošnjak, Croatian basketball player\n 1995 – Robert Bauer, German-Kazakhstani footballer\n1996 – Jayden Brailey, Australian rugby league player\n 1996 – Emerson Hyndman, American soccer player\n1998 – Elle Fanning, American actress\n2000 – Jackie Evancho, American singer \n\n", "* 585 BC – Emperor Jimmu, the first Emperor of Japan (b. 711 BC)\n* AD 93 – Yuan An, Chinese scholar and politician\n* 436 – Tan Daoji, Chinese general and politician\n* 491 – Zeno, Byzantine emperor (b. 425)\n* 682 – Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari, Egyptian politician, Governor of Egypt (b. 616)\n* 715 – Pope Constantine (b. 664)\n1024 – Pope Benedict VIII (b. 980)\n1137 – William X, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 1099)\n1241 – Duke Henry II of Poland\n1283 – Margaret of Scotland, Queen of Norway (b. 1261; childbirth)\n1327 – Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland (ca. 1296)\n1483 – Edward IV of England (b. 1442)\n1484 – Edward of Middleham, Prince of Wales (b. 1473)\n1553 – François Rabelais, French monk and scholar (b. 1494)\n1557 – Mikael Agricola, Finnish priest and scholar (b. 1510)\n1626 – Francis Bacon, English jurist and politician, Attorney General for England and Wales (b. 1561)\n1654 – Matei Basarab, Romanian prince (b. 1588)\n1693 – Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy, French author (b. 1618)\n1747 – Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat, Scottish soldier and politician (b. 1667)\n1754 – Christian Wolff, German philosopher and academic (b. 1679)\n1761 – William Law, English priest and theologian (b. 1686)\n1768 – Sarah Fielding, English author (b. 1710)\n1804 – Jacques Necker, Swiss-French politician, Chief Minister to the French Monarch (b. 1732)\n1806 – William V, Prince of Orange (b. 1748)\n1872 – Erastus Corning, American businessman and politician (b. 1794)\n1876 – Charles Goodyear, American lawyer, judge, and politician (b. 1804)\n1882 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, English poet and painter (b. 1828)\n1889 – Michel Eugène Chevreul, French chemist and academic (b. 1786)\n1909 – Helena Modjeska, Polish-American actress (b. 1840)\n1915 – Raymond Whittindale, English rugby player (b. 1883)\n1917 – James Hope Moulton, English philologist and scholar (b. 1863)\n1922 – Hans Fruhstorfer, German entomologist and explorer (b. 1866)\n1926 – Zip the Pinhead, American freak show performer (b. 1857)\n1936 – Ferdinand Tönnies, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1855)\n1940 – Mrs. Patrick Campbell, English actress (b. 1865)\n1944 – Yevgeniya Rudneva, Ukrainian lieutenant and pilot (b. 1920)\n1945 – Dietrich Bonhoeffer, German pastor and theologian (b. 1906)\n 1945 – Wilhelm Canaris, German admiral (b. 1887)\n* 1945 – Johann Georg Elser, German carpenter (b. 1903)\n* 1945 – Hans Oster, German general (b. 1887)\n* 1945 – Karl Sack, German lawyer and jurist (b. 1896)\n* 1945 – Hans von Dohnányi, Austrian-German lawyer and jurist (b. 1902)\n1948 – George Carpenter, Australian 5th General of The Salvation Army (b. 1872)\n 1948 – Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, Colombian lawyer and politician, 16th Colombian Minister of National Education (b. 1903)\n1951 – Vilhelm Bjerknes, Norwegian physicist and meteorologist (b. 1862)\n1953 – Eddie Cochems, American football player and coach (b. 1877)\n* 1953 – C. E. M. Joad, English philosopher and television host (b. 1891)\n* 1953 – Hans Reichenbach, German philosopher from the Vienna Circle (b. 1891)\n1959 – Frank Lloyd Wright, American architect, designed the Price Tower and Fallingwater (b. 1867)\n1961 – Zog I of Albania (b. 1895)\n1963 – Eddie Edwards, American trombonist (b. 1891)\n 1963 – Xul Solar, Argentinian painter and sculptor (b. 1887)\n1970 – Gustaf Tenggren, Swedish-American illustrator and animator (b. 1896)\n1976 – Dagmar Nordstrom, American singer-songwriter and pianist (b. 1903)\n* 1976 – Phil Ochs, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1940)\n1978 – Clough Williams-Ellis, English-Welsh architect, designed Portmeirion (b. 1883)\n1980 – Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Iraqi cleric and philosopher (b. 1935)\n1982 – Wilfrid Pelletier, Canadian pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1896)\n1988 – Brook Benton, American singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1931)\n* 1988 – Hans Berndt, German footballer (b. 1913)\n* 1988 – Dave Prater, American singer (b. 1937)\n1991 – Forrest Towns, American hurdler and coach (b. 1914)\n1993 – Joseph B. Soloveitchik, American rabbi and philosopher (b. 1903)\n1996 – Richard Condon, American author and publicist (b. 1915)\n1997 – Mae Boren Axton, American singer-songwriter (b. 1914)\n* 1997 – Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (b. 1916)\n1998 – Tom Cora, American cellist and composer (b. 1953)\n1999 – Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara, Nigerien general and politician, President of Niger (b. 1949)\n2001 – Willie Stargell, American baseball player and coach (b. 1940)\n2002 – Pat Flaherty, American race car driver (b. 1926)\n* 2002 – Leopold Vietoris, Austrian soldier, mathematician, and academic (b. 1891)\n2003 – Jerry Bittle, American cartoonist (b. 1949)\n2006 – Billy Hitchcock, American baseball player, coach, manager (b. 1916)\n* 2006 – Vilgot Sjöman, Swedish director and screenwriter (b. 1924)\n2007 – Egon Bondy, Czech philosopher and poet (b. 1930)\n 2007 – Dorrit Hoffleit, American astronomer and academic (b. 1907)\n2009 – Nick Adenhart, American baseball player (b. 1986)\n2010 – Zoltán Varga, Hungarian footballer and manager (b. 1945)\n2011 – Zakariya Rashid Hassan al-Ashiri, Bahraini journalist (b. 1971)\n 2011 – Sidney Lumet, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1924)\n2012 – Malcolm Thomas, Welsh rugby player and cricketer (b. 1929)\n2013 – David Hayes, American sculptor and painter (b. 1931)\n* 2013 – Greg McCrary, American football player (b. 1952)\n* 2013 – Mordechai Mishani, Israeli lawyer and politician (b. 1945)\n* 2013 – McCandlish Phillips, American journalist and author (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – Paolo Soleri, Italian-American architect, designed the Cosanti (b. 1919)\n2014 – Gil Askey, American trumpet player, composer, and producer (b. 1925)\n 2014 – Chris Banks, American football player (b. 1973)\n* 2014 – Rory Ellinger, American lawyer and politician (b. 1941)\n* 2014 – Norman Girvan, Jamaican economist, academic, and politician (b. 1941)\n* 2014 – Aelay Narendra, Indian politician (b. 1946)\n* 2014 – A. N. R. Robinson, Trinbagonian politician, 3rd President of Trinidad and Tobago (b. 1926)\n* 2014 – Svetlana Velmar-Janković, Serbian author (b. 1933)\n2015 – Paul Almond, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1931)\n 2015 – Margaret Rule, British marine archaeologist (b. 1928)\n* 2015 – Nina Companeez, French director and screenwriter (b. 1937)\n* 2015 – Alexander Dalgarno, English physicist and academic (b. 1928)\n* 2015 – Ivan Doig, American journalist and author (b. 1939)\n* 2015 – Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, Chinese-American academic (b. 1909)\n2016 – Duane Clarridge, American spy (b. 1932)\n 2016 – Will Smith, American football player (b. 1981)\n* 2017 - John Clarke, Comedian, Writer, Satirist (b. 1948)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nDietrich Bonhoeffer (Anglicanism, Lutheranism)\nGaucherius\nMateriana\nWaltrude\nApril 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nAnniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark)\nBaghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)\nBataan Day or ''Araw ng Kagitingan'' (Philippines)\nConstitution Day (Kosovo)\nDay of National Unity (Georgia)\nDay of the Finnish Language (Finland)\nFeast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)\nMartyr's Day (Tunisia)\nNational Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States) \nRemembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth)\nVimy Ridge Day (Canada)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 9
[ "'''ABM''' or '''Abm''' may refer to:\n", "* Air Battle Manager, a rated flying position in the US Air Force\n* Anti-ballistic missile, missile systems designed to counter ballistic missiles\n* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, a treaty between the USA and USSR\n", "* ABM Industries, an American corporation\n* ABM United Kingdom Limited, a United Kingdom software company\n* Abahlali baseMjondolo, movement of South African shackdwellers\n* Abanyom language, a Niger–Congo language of Nigeria\n* Abertawe Bro Morgannwg University Health Board, an NHS Trust in Wales\n* Account-based marketing, a targeted approach to marketing to a key account\n* Activity-based management, a strategic decision-making method\n* Acute Bacterial Meningitis, commonly referred to as ABM when caused by bacterial pathogens\n* Advanced Bit Manipulation, an instruction set extension for x86\n* Advantage Business Media, a private American company\n* Agaricus Blazei Murill, a Brazilian mushroom\n* Agent-based model, a specific individual-based computational model for computer simulation\n* Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, an Egyptian militant organisation\n* Antique Boat Museum, a museum in Clayton, NY, USA\n* Associated British Maltsters, a malting company taken over by Dalgety plc\n* Asynchronous Balanced Mode, a communication mode of HDLC and derivative protocols\n* Australian Bus Manufacturers, a former Australian bus bodybuilder\n* Automated banking machine, another term for Automated teller machine used mainly in Canada\n* Automated bid managers, an advertising tool used to manage budgets on pay per click campaigns\n* Bamaga Injinoo Airport, in Queensland, Australia (IATA airport code)\n* ''Uru: Ages Beyond Myst'', an adventure computer game\n* A-flat minor, commonly abbreviated as A♭m or Abm\n*ABM Makine AS, a Grinding Technology company\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Military", "Other uses" ]	ABM
[ "\n\n\n'''Apuleius''' (; also called '''Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis''' and in c. 124 – c. 170 AD) was a Latin-language prose writer, platonist philosopher and rhetorian. He was a Numidian who lived under the Roman Empire and was from Madauros (now M'Daourouch, Algeria). He studied Platonism in Athens, travelled to Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt and was an initiate in several cults or mysteries. The most famous incident in his life was when he was accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of a wealthy widow. He declaimed and then distributed a witty ''tour de force'' in his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near ancient Tripoli, Libya. This is known as the ''Apologia''.\n\nHis most famous work is his bawdy picaresque novel, the ''Metamorphoses'', otherwise known as ''The Golden Ass''. It is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into a donkey.\n", "''Apuleii Opera omnia'' (1621)\nApuleius was born in Madauros, a colonia in Numidia on the North African coast bordering Gaetulia, and he described himself as \"half-Numidian half-Gaetulian.\" Madaurus was the same ''colonia'' where Augustine of Hippo later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. As to his first name, no ''praenomen'' is given in any ancient source; late-medieval manuscripts began the tradition of calling him ''Lucius'' from the name of the hero of his novel. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (''Apology'') and his work ''Florida'', which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches.\n\nHis father was a provincial magistrate (''duumvir'') who bequeathed at his death the sum of nearly two million sesterces to his two sons. Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonist philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome to study Latin rhetoric and, most likely, to speak in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so.\n\nApuleius was an initiate in several Greco-Roman mysteries, including the Dionysian Mysteries. He was a priest of Asclepius and, according to Augustine, ''sacerdos provinciae Africae'' (i.e., priest of the province of Carthage).\n\nNot long after his return home he set out upon a new journey to Alexandria. On his way there he was taken ill at the town of Oea (modern-day Tripoli) and was hospitably received into the house of Sicinius Pontianus, with whom he had been friends when he had studied in Athens. The mother of Pontianus, Pudentilla, was a very rich widow. With her son's consent – indeed encouragement – Apuleius agreed to marry her. Meanwhile, Pontianus himself married the daughter of one Herennius Rufinus; he, indignant that Pudentilla's wealth should pass out of the family, instigated his son-in-law, together with a younger brother, Sicinius Pudens, a mere boy, and their paternal uncle, Sicinius Aemilianus, to join him in impeaching Apuleius upon the charge that he had gained the affections of Pudentilla by charms and magic spells. The case was heard at Sabratha, near Tripoli, c. 158 AD, before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa. The accusation itself seems to have been ridiculous, and the spirited and triumphant defence spoken by Apuleius is still extant. This is known as the ''Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)''.\n\nApuleius accused an extravagant personal enemy of turning his house into a brothel and prostituting his own wife.\n\nOf his subsequent career we know little. Judging from the many works of which he was author, he must have devoted himself diligently to literature. He occasionally gave speeches in public to great reception; he had the charge of exhibiting gladiatorial shows and wild beast events in the province, and statues were erected in his honor by the senate of Carthage and of other senates.\n", "Frontispiece from the Bohn Library 1902 edition of ''The Works of Apuleius'': a portrait of Apuleius flanked by Pamphile changing into an owl and the Golden Ass\n\n=== ''The Golden Ass'' ===\n\n''The Golden Ass'' (''Asinus Aureus'') or ''Metamorphoses'' is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments with magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found many digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche.\n\nThe ''Metamorphoses'' ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes, and purifies himself. He is introduced to the ''Navigium Isidis''. Then the secrets of the cult's books are explained to him, and further secrets are revealed before he goes through the process of initiation, which involves a trial by the elements in a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the ''pastophoroi'' – a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris. The adventures of the ass stand at the beginning of the picaresque novel tradition which eventually produced ''The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling''.\n\n=== Other works ===\nHis other works are:\n\n* ''Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)''. Apuleius' courtroom defense. The work is a stylish defence against his opponents, with little reference to magic.\n* ''Florida''. A compilation of twenty-three extracts from his various speeches and lectures.\n* ''De Platone et dogmate eius (On Plato and his Doctrine)''. An outline in two books of Plato's physics and ethics, preceded by a life of Plato\n* ''De Deo Socratis (On the God of Socrates)''. A work on the existence and nature of demons, the intermediaries between gods and humans. This treatise was roughly attacked by Augustine of Hippo. It contains a passage comparing gods and kings which is the first recorded occurrence of the proverb \"familiarity breeds contempt\":\n* ''On the Universe''. This Latin translation of the work ''De Mundo'' is probably by Apuleius.\n\nApuleius wrote many other works which have not survived. He wrote works of poetry and fiction, as well as technical treatises on politics, dendrology, agriculture, medicine, natural history, astronomy, music, and arithmetic, and he translated Plato's ''Phaedo''.\n\n=== Spurious works ===\nThe extant works wrongly attributed to Apuleius are:\n\n* ''Peri Hermeneias'' (''On interpretation''). A brief Latin version of a guide to Aristotelian logic.\n* ''Asclepius''. A Latin paraphrase of a lost Greek dialogue (''The perfect discourse'') featuring Asclepius and Hermes Trismegistus.\n", "The Apuleian Sphere described in ''Petosiris to Nechepso'', also known as \"Columcille's Circle\" or \"Petosiris' Circle\", is a magical prognosticating device for predicting the survival of a patient.\n", "\n\n\n", "* Luca Graverini, ''Literature and Identity in the Golden Ass of Apuleius'' (Columbus: Ohio State University press, 2012; original ed. in Italian, Pisa: Pacini, 2007). .\n* Claudio Moreschini, ''Apuleius and the Metamorphoses of Platonism'' (Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2016) (''Nutrix. Studies in Late Antique, Medieval and Renaissance Thought'' 10), \n* Carl C. Schlam, ''The Metamorphoses of Apuleius: On Making an Ass of Oneself'' (Chapel Hill-London, 1992).\n* Gerald Sandy, ''The Greek World of Apuleius: Apuleius and the Second Sophistic'' (Leiden, Brill, 1997).\n* Finkelpearl, Ellen D. ''Metamorphosis of Language in Apuleius: A Study of Allusion in the Novel'' (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1998).\n* O. Pecere, A. Stramaglia, ''Studi apuleiani. Note di aggiornamento di L. Graverini'' (Cassino: Edizioni dell' Università degli Studi di Cassino, 2003).\n* Lucia Pasetti, ''Plauto in Apuleio'' (Bologna: Patron Editore, 2007).\n* Frangoulidis, Stavros. ''Witches, Isis and narrative: approaches to magic in Apuleius' Metamorphoses'' (Berlin; New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2008) (Trends in classics – Supplementary volumes, 2).\n* Apuleius : Rhetorical Works. translated and annotated Stephen Harrison, John Hilton, and Vincent Hunink. edited Stephen Harrison. (New York : Oxford University Press, 2001).\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* L. Apuleii Opera Omnia, pars I, Lipsia, sumtibus C. Cnoblochii, 1842 and L. Apuleii Opera Omnia, pars II, Lipsia, sumtibus C. Cnoblochii, 1842\n* The works of Apuleius, London, George Bell and sons, 1878\n* Apuleius (123–180 CE) the Famous Berber writer\n* Apulei Opera (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at The Latin Library\n* English translation of ''Florida'' by H. E. Butler\n* English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler\n* English translation of the ''God of Socrates'' by Thomas Taylor\n* Apuleius – Apologia: Seminar (Latin text of the ''Apologia'' with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary)\n* ''Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius''\n* Apuleius' works: text, concordances and frequency list\n* Ongoing website for “Apuleius and Africa” conference\n* Apuleius and Africa Bibliography\n* The Spectacles of Apuleius: a digital humanities project\n* Free public domain audiobook version of ''Apuleius on the Doctrines of Plato translated by George Burges\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Life ", " Works ", " Apuleian Sphere ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Apuleius
[ "\n\n\n'''Alexander Selkirk''' (167613 December 1721) was a Scottish privateer and Royal Navy officer who spent more than four years as a castaway (1704–1709) after being marooned by his captain on an uninhabited island in the South Pacific Ocean. He survived that ordeal, but succumbed to tropical illness a dozen years later while serving aboard off West Africa.\n\nSelkirk was an unruly youth, and joined buccaneering voyages to the South Pacific during the War of the Spanish Succession. One such expedition was on ''Cinque Ports'', commanded by William Dampier. The ship called in for provisions at the Juan Fernández Islands, and Selkirk judged correctly that the craft was unseaworthy and asked to be left there.\n\nWhen he was eventually rescued by follow-on English privateer Woodes Rogers, Selkirk had become adept at hunting and making use of the resources that he found on the island. His story of survival was widely publicised after their return to England, becoming a source of inspiration for writer Daniel Defoe's fictional character Robinson Crusoe.\n", "Alexander Selkirk was the son of a shoemaker and tanner in Lower Largo, Fife, Scotland, born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition. He was summoned before the Kirk Session in August 1693 for his \"indecent conduct in church\", but he \"did not appear, being gone to sea\". He was back at Largo in 1701 when he again came to the attention of church authorities for beating up his brothers.\n\nEarly on, he was engaged in buccaneering. In 1703 he joined an expedition of English privateer and explorer William Dampier to the South Pacific Ocean, setting sail from Kinsale in Ireland on 11 September. They carried letters of marque from the Lord High Admiral authorising their armed merchant ships to attack foreign enemies as the War of the Spanish Succession was then going on between England and Spain. Dampier was captain of ''St George'' and Selkirk served on ''Cinque Ports'', ''St George''s companion ship, as sailing master under Captain Thomas Stradling. By this time, Selkirk must have had considerable experience at sea.\n\nIn February 1704, following a stormy passage around Cape Horn, the privateers fought a long battle with a well-armed French vessel, ''St Joseph'', only to have it escape to warn its Spanish allies of their arrival in the Pacific. A raid on the Panamanian gold mining town of Santa María failed when their landing party was ambushed. The easy capture of ''Asunción'', a heavily laden merchantman, revived the men's hopes of plunder, and Selkirk was put in charge of the prize ship. Dampier took off some much-needed provisions of wine, brandy, sugar and flour; then abruptly set the ship free, arguing that the gain was not worth the effort. In May 1704 Stradling decided to abandon Dampier and strike out on his own.\n", "Map of the Juan Fernández Islands, where Selkirk lived as a castaway\nIn September 1704, after parting ways with Dampier, Captain Stradling brought ''Cinque Ports'' to an island known to the Spanish as Más a Tierra located in the uninhabited Juan Fernández archipelago off the coast of Chile for a mid-expedition restocking of fresh water and supplies.\n\nSelkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of their vessel, and probably wanted to make needed repairs before going any farther. He declared that he would rather stay on Juan Fernández than continue in a dangerously leaky ship. Glad to be rid of a troublemaker, Stradling took him up on the offer and landed Selkirk on the island with a musket, a hatchet, a knife, a cooking pot, a Bible, bedding and some clothes. Selkirk regretted his rashness, but Stradling refused to let him back on board.\n\n''Cinque Ports'' did indeed later founder off the coast of what is now Colombia. Stradling and some of his crew survived the loss of their ship but were forced to surrender to the Spanish. The survivors were taken to Lima, Peru, where they endured a harsh imprisonment.\n\n===Life on the island===\nAt first, Selkirk remained along the shoreline of Juan Fernández. During this time he ate spiny lobsters and scanned the ocean daily for rescue, suffering all the while from loneliness, misery and remorse. Hordes of raucous sea lions, gathered on the beach for the mating season, eventually drove him to the island's interior. Once inland, his way of life took a turn for the better. More foods were available there: feral goats—introduced by earlier sailors—provided him with meat and milk, while wild turnips, cabbage leaves and dried pepper berries offered him variety and spice. Rats would attack him at night, but he was able to sleep soundly and in safety by domesticating and living near feral cats.\n\nSelkirk reading his Bible in one of the two huts he built on a mountainside\nSelkirk proved resourceful in using materials that he found on the island: he forged a new knife out of barrel hoops left on the beach, he built two huts out of pepper trees, one of which he used for cooking and the other for sleeping, and he employed his musket to hunt goats and his knife to clean their carcasses. As his gunpowder dwindled, he had to chase prey on foot. During one such chase he was badly injured when he tumbled from a cliff, lying helpless and unable to move for about a day. His prey had cushioned his fall, probably sparing him a broken back.\n\nChildhood lessons learned from his father, a tanner, now served him well. For example, when his clothes wore out, he made new ones from hair-covered goatskins using a nail for sewing. As his shoes became unusable, he had no need to replace them, since his toughened, calloused feet made protection unnecessary. He sang psalms and read from the Bible, finding it a comfort in his situation and a prop for his English.\n\nDuring his sojourn on the island two vessels came to anchor. Unfortunately for Selkirk, both were Spanish. As a Scotsman and a privateer, he risked a grim fate if captured and, therefore, tried to hide himself. On one occasion he was spotted and chased by a group of sailors from one of the ships. His pursuers urinated beneath the tree in which he was hiding but failed to discover him. Frustrated, his would-be captors gave up and sailed away.\n\n===Rescue===\nThe rescued Selkirk, seated at right, being taken aboard ''Duke''.\nSelkirk's long-awaited deliverance came on 2 February 1709 by way of ''Duke'', a privateering ship piloted by William Dampier, and its sailing companion ''Duchess''. Thomas Dover led the landing party that met Selkirk. After four years and four months without human company, Selkirk was almost incoherent with joy. The ''Duke'' captain and leader of the expedition was Woodes Rogers, who mischievously referred to him as the governor of the island. The agile castaway caught two or three goats a day and helped restore the health of Rogers' men, who were suffering from scurvy.\n\nCaptain Rogers was impressed by Selkirk's physical vigour, but also by the peace of mind that he had attained while living on the island, observing: \"One may see that solitude and retirement from the world is not such an insufferable state of life as most men imagine, especially when people are fairly called or thrown into it unavoidably, as this man was.\" He made Selkirk ''Duke''s second mate, later giving him command of one of their prize ships, ''Increase'', before it was ransomed by the Spanish.\n\nSelkirk returned to privateering with a vengeance. At Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador, he led a boat crew up the Guayas River where a number of wealthy Spanish ladies had fled, and relieved them of the gold and jewels they had hidden inside their clothing. His part in the hunt for treasure galleons along the coast of Mexico resulted in the capture of ''Nuestra Señora de la Encarnación y Desengaño'', renamed ''Bachelor'', on which he served as sailing master under Captain Dover to the Dutch East Indies. Selkirk completed the around-the-world voyage by the Cape of Good Hope as the sailing master of ''Duke'', arriving at the Downs off the English coast on 1 October 1711. He had been away for eight years.\n", "Crusoe in goatskin clothing shows the influence of Selkirk\n\nSelkirk's experience as a castaway aroused a great deal of attention in England. Rogers included an account of Selkirk's ordeal in a book chronicling their privateering expedition entitled ''A Cruising Voyage Round the World'' (1712). The following year, prominent essayist Richard Steele wrote an article about him for ''The Englishman'' newspaper. Selkirk appeared set to enjoy a life of ease and celebrity, claiming his share of ''Duke'''s plundered wealth—about £800 (equivalent to £ today). However, legal disputes made the amount of any payment uncertain.\n\nAfter a few months in London, he began to seem more like his former self again. In September 1713 he was charged with assaulting a shipwright in Bristol and may have been kept in confinement for two years. He returned to Lower Largo, where he met Sophia Bruce, a young dairymaid. They eloped to London early in 1717 but apparently did not marry. He was soon off to sea again, having enlisted in the Royal Navy. While on a visit to Plymouth in 1720, he married a widowed innkeeper named Frances Candis. He was serving as master's mate on board , engaged in an anti-piracy patrol off the west coast of Africa, when he died on 13 December 1721, succumbing to the yellow fever that plagued the voyage. He was buried at sea.\n\nWhen Daniel Defoe published ''The Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe'' (1719), few readers could have missed the resemblance to Selkirk. An illustration on the first page of the novel shows \"a rather melancholy-looking man standing on the shore of an island, gazing inland\", in the words of modern explorer Tim Severin. He is dressed in the familiar hirsute goatskins, his feet and shins bare. Yet Crusoe's island is located not in the mid-latitudes of the South Pacific but away in the Caribbean, where the furry attire would hardly be comfortable in the tropical heat. This incongruity supports the popular belief that Selkirk was a model for the fictional character, although literary scholars now accept that his was \"just one of many survival narratives that Defoe knew about\".\n", "\n* William Cowper's \"The Solitude Of Alexander Selkirk\" is about Selkirk's feelings as the castaway lived all alone on the island. This poem gave rise to the common phrase \"monarch of all I survey\" via the verse:\n:::I am monarch of all I survey,\n:::My right there is none to dispute;\n:::From the centre all round to the sea,\n:::I am lord of the fowl and the brute.\n\n* Charles Dickens used Selkirk as a simile in Chapter Two of ''The Pickwick Papers'' (1836): \"Colonel Builder and Sir Thomas Clubber exchanged snuff-boxes, and looked very much like a pair of Alexander Selkirks—'Monarchs of all they surveyed. This is also a reference to William Cowper's poem.\n* Poet Patrick Kavanagh likens his loneliness on the road to that of Selkirk, in his poem \"Inniskeen Road: July Evening\":\n:::Oh, Alexander Selkirk knew the plight\n:::Of being king and government and nation.\n:::A road, a mile of kingdom, I am king\n:::Of banks and stones and every blooming thing.\n\n* In \"Etiquette\", one of W. S. Gilbert's ''Bab Ballads'', Selkirk is used as a model for the English castaways:\n:::These passengers, by reason of their clinging to a mast,\n:::Upon a desert island were eventually cast.\n:::They hunted for their meals, as Alexander Selkirk used,\n:::But they couldn’t chat together—they had not been introduced.\n\n* Joshua Slocum mentions Selkirk in the book ''Sailing Alone Around the World'' (1900). During his visit to the Juan Fernández Islands, Slocum runs across a marker commemorating Selkirk’s stay.\n* In Allan Cole and Chris Bunch's Sten science fiction series, Book Two, ''The Wolf Worlds'', the Scottish character Alex bemoans their predicament after crash landing: A slackit way f'r a mon,' Alex mourned to himself. 'Ah didnae ken Ah'd ever be Alex Selkirk.\n", "''Selkirk, the Real Robinson Crusoe'' is a stop motion film by Walter Tournier based on Selkirk's life. It premièred simultaneously in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay on 2 February 2012, distributed by The Walt Disney Company. It was the first full-length animated feature to be produced in Uruguay.\n", "Plaque for Selkirk in Lower Largo, Scotland, which reads: \"In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner, the original of Robinson Crusoe who lived on the island of Juan Fernández in complete solitude for four years and four months. He died , lieutenant of HMS ''Weymouth'', . This statue is erected by David Gillies, net manufacturer, on the site of the cottage in which Selkirk was born.\"\nSelkirk has been memorialised in his Scottish birthplace. Lord Aberdeen delivered a speech on 11 December 1885, after which his wife, Lady Aberdeen, unveiled a bronze statue and plaque in memory of Selkirk outside a house on the site of his original home on the Main Street of Lower Largo. David Gillies of Cardy House, Lower Largo, a descendant of the Selkirks, donated the statue created by Thomas Stuart Burnett.\n\nThe Scotsman is also remembered in his former island home. In 1869 the crew of placed a bronze tablet at a spot called Selkirk's Lookout on a mountain of Más a Tierra, Juan Fernández Islands, to mark his stay. On 1 January 1966 Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva renamed Más a Tierra Robinson Crusoe Island after Defoe's fictional character to attract tourists. The largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, known as Más Afuera, became Alejandro Selkirk Island, although Selkirk probably never saw that island since it is located to the west.\n", "An archaeological expedition to the Juan Fernández Islands in February 2005 found part of a nautical instrument that could have belonged to Selkirk. It was \"a fragment of copper alloy identified as being from a pair of navigational dividers\" dating from the early 18th (or late 17th) century. Selkirk is the only person known to have been on the island at that time who is likely to have had dividers, and was even said by Rogers to have had such instruments in his possession. The artefact was discovered while excavating a site not far from Selkirk's Lookout where the famous castaway is believed to have lived.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \"Trapped on a Pacific Island: Scientists Research the Real Robinson Crusoe\" by Marco Evers (6 February 2009) in ''Spiegel Online''\n* \"Island Gives Up Secret of Real Robinson Crusoe\" in ''The Scotsman'' (22 September 2005)\n* \"The Real Robinson Crusoe\" by Bruce Selcraig (July 2005) in ''Smithsonian''\n* An account of a trip to Selkirk's Island by James S. Bruce and Mayme S. Bruce (Spring 1993) in ''The Explorers Journal''\n* \"On a Piece of Stone: Alexander Selkirk on Greater Land\" by Edward E. Leslie (1988) in ''Desperate Journeys, Abandoned Souls: True Stories of Castaways and Other Survivors'' (pp. 61–85)\n* Satellite imagery of the Juan Fernández Islands from Google Maps\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and privateering", "Castaway", "Later life and influence", "In other literary works", "In film", "Commemoration", "Archaeological findings", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alexander Selkirk
[ "\nA Ground-Based Interceptor of the United States' Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system, loaded into a silo at Fort Greely, Alaska, in July 2004\nAn '''anti-ballistic missile''' ('''ABM''') is a surface-to-air missile designed to counter ballistic missiles (see missile defense). Ballistic missiles are used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological or conventional warheads in a ballistic flight trajectory. The term \"anti-ballistic missile\" is a generic term conveying a system designed to intercept and destroy any type of ballistic threat, however it is commonly used for systems specifically designed to counter intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs).\n", "Israel's Arrow 3\nThere are only three systems in the world that can intercept ICBMs. Besides them, many smaller systems exist (tactical ABMs), that generally cannot intercept intercontinental strategic missiles, even if within range—an incoming ICBM simply moves too fast for these systems.\n\nThe Russian A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, used for the defense of Moscow, whose development started in 1971. The currently active system is called A-135. The system uses Gorgon and Gazelle missiles with nuclear warheads to intercept incoming ICBMs.\n\nThe U.S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD; previously known as National Missile Defense – NMD) system has reached initial operational capability. Instead of using an explosive charge, it launches a kinetic projectile. The George W. Bush administration accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and in 2006 was operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against the nuclear threat from North Korean missiles or launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from the Middle East. President Bush referenced the September 11 attacks in 2001 and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense. The current GMD system has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a rogue state such as North Korea.\n\nIsrael's Arrow 3 system entered operational service in 2017. It is designed for exo-atmosphere interception of ballistic missiles during the spaceflight portion of their trajectory, including those of ICBMs. It may also act as an anti-satellite weapon.\n\n\n===American plans for Central European site===\n\nDuring 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to discuss potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defence systems.\nDuring spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States and Poland as well as the Czech Republic were published. The plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launch site in Poland. The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from Iran and North Korea. This caused harsh comments by Russian President Vladimir Putin at the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) security conference during spring 2007 in Munich. Other European ministers commented that any change of strategic weapons should be negotiated on NATO level and not 'unilaterally' sic, actually bilaterally between the U.S. and other states (although most strategic arms reduction treaties were between the Soviet Union and U.S., not NATO). German foreign minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier expressed severe concerns about the way in which the U.S. had conveyed its plans to its European partners and criticised the U.S. administration for not having consulted Russia prior to announcing its endeavours to deploy a new missile defence system in Central Europe. As of July 2007, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland.\n", "\n===People's Republic of China===\n\n==== Historical Project 640 ====\nProject 640 had been the PRC's indigenous effort to develop ABM capability. The Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was established from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640. The project was to involve at least three elements, including the necessary sensors and guidance/command systems, the Fan Ji (FJ) missile interceptor, and the XianFeng missile-intercepting cannon. The FJ-1 had completed two successful flight tests during 1979, while the low-altitude interceptor FJ-2 completed some successful flight tests using scaled prototypes. A high altitude FJ-3 interceptor was also proposed. Despite the development of missiles, the programme was slowed down due to financial and political reasons. It was finally closed down during 1980 under a new leadership of Deng Xiaoping as it was seemingly deemed unnecessary after the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty between the Soviet Union and the United States and the closure of the US Safeguard ABM system.\n\n==== Operational P.R.Chinese system ====\nIn March 2006, China tested an interceptor system comparable to the U.S. Patriot missiles.\n\nChina has acquired and is license-producing the S-300PMU-2/S-300PMU-1 series of terminal ABM-capable SAMs. China-produced HQ-9 SAM system may possess terminal ABM capabilities. PRC Navy's operating modern air-defense destroyers known as the Type 052C Destroyer and Type 051C Destroyer are armed with naval HHQ-9 missiles.\n\nThe HQ-19, similar to the THAAD, was first tested in 2003, and subsequently a few more times, including in November 2015. The HQ-29, a counterpart to the MIM-104F PAC-3, was first tested in 2011.\n\nSurface-to-air missiles that supposedly have some terminal ABM capability (as opposed to midcourse capability):\n* HQ-29\n* HQ-19\n* HQ-9\n* FK-3\n* HQ-18\n* HQ-10\n* HQ-16\n* HQ-15\n\n==== Development of midcourse ABM in P.R.China ====\nThe technology and experience from the successful anti-satellite test using a ground-launched interceptor during January 2007 was immediately applied to current ABM efforts and development.\n\nChina carried out a land-based anti-ballistic missile test on 11 January 2010. The test was exoatmospheric and done in midcourse phase and with a kinetic kill vehicle. China is the second country after US that demonstrated intercepting ballistic missile with a kinetic kill vehicle, the interceptor missile was a SC-19. The sources suggest the system is not operationally deployed as of 2010.\n\nOn 27 January 2013, China did another anti ballistic missile test. According to the Chinese Defence Ministry, the missile launch is defensive in character and is not aimed against any countries. Experts hailed China's technological breakthrough because it is difficult to intercept ballistic missiles that have reached the highest point and speed in the middle of their course. Only 2 countries, including the US, have successfully conducted such a test in the past decade.\n\n\nRumored midcourse missiles:\n* DN-3\n* DN-2\n* DN-1\n* HQ-26\n* SC-19\n* KT-409\n\n=== France, Italy and United Kingdom ===\nRoyal Navy Type 45 destroyers, and French Navy and Italian Navy ''Horizon'' -class frigates operate Aster 30 missiles\n\nItaly and France have developed a missile family called Aster (Aster 15 and Aster 30). Aster 30 is capable of ballistic missile defense. On 18 October 2010, France announced a successful tactical ABM test of the Aster 30 missile and on 1 December 2011 a successful interception of a Black Sparrow ballistic target missile. Royal Navy Type 45 destroyers and French Navy and Italian Navy ''Horizon'' -class frigates are armed with PAAMS, using Aster 15 and Aster 30 missiles. is in developing another version, the Aster 30 block II, which can destroy ballistic missiles at a maximum range of 3000 km. It will have a Kill Vehicle warhead.\n\n===India ===\nAdvanced Air Defence (AAD) interceptor missile\n\n\nIndia has an active ABM development effort using indigenously developed and integrated radars, and indigenous missiles. In November 2006, India successfully conducted the PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) in which an anti-ballistic missile, called the Prithvi Air Defence (PAD), an ''exo-atmospheric'' (outside the atmosphere) interceptor system, intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of . During the test, the target missile was intercepted at a altitude. India became the fourth nation in the world after United States, Russia, and Israel to acquire such a capability and the third nation to acquire it using in-house research and development. On 6 December 2007, the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile system was tested successfully. This missile is an Endo-atmospheric interceptor with an altitude of . In 2009, reports emerged of a new missile named the PDV. The DRDO is developing a new Prithvi interceptor missile code-named PDV. The PDV is designed to take out the target missile at altitudes above . The first PDV was successfully test fired on 27 April 2014. According to scientist V K Saraswat of DRDO, the missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. On 15 May 2016 India successfully launched advanced Defence interceptor missile named Ashvin interceptor missile from Abdul Kalam Island from Odisha coast.\n\n=== Israel ===\n\n==== Anti-ballistic missile systems ====\n\n=====Arrow 2=====\n\nAn Arrow 2 anti-ballistic missile interceptor\nThe Arrow project was begun after the U.S. and Israel agreed to co-fund it on 6 May 1986.\n\nThe Arrow ABM system was designed and constructed in Israel with financial support by the United States by a multibillion-dollar development program called \"Minhelet Homa\" with the participation of companies like Israel Military Industries, Tadiran and Israel Aerospace Industries.\n\nDuring 1998 the Israeli military conducted a successful test of their Arrow missile. Designed to intercept incoming missiles travelling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. On 29 July 2004 Israel and the United States carried out joint experiment in the USA, in which the Arrow was launched against a real Scud missile. The experiment was a success, as the Arrow destroyed the Scud with a direct hit. During December 2005 the system was deployed successfully in a test against a replicated Shahab-3 missile. This feat was repeated on 11 February 2007.\n\n===== Arrow 3 =====\n\nArrow 3 in testing.\nThe Arrow 3 system is capable of exo-atmosphere interception of ballistic missiles, including of ICBMs. It also act as an anti-satellite weapon.\n\nLieutenant General Patrick J. O'Reilly, Director of the US Missile Defense Agency, said: \"The design of Arrow 3 promises to be an extremely capable system, more advanced than what we have ever attempted in the U.S. with our programs.\"\n\nOn December 10, 2015 Arrow 3 scored its first intercept in a complex test designed to validate how the system can detect, identify, track and then discriminate real from decoy targets delivered into space by an improved Silver Sparrow target missile. According to officials, the milestone test paves the way toward low-rate initial production of the Arrow 3.\n\n=====David’s sling=====\n\nIsrael's David's Sling, designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles\nDavid's Sling (Hebrew: קלע דוד), also sometimes called Magic Wand (Hebrew: שרביט קסמים), is an Israel Defense Forces military system being jointly developed by the Israeli defense contractor Rafael Advanced Defense Systems and the American defense contractor Raytheon, designed to intercept tactical ballistic missiles, as well as medium- to long-range rockets and slower-flying cruise missiles, such as those possessed by Hezbollah, fired at ranges from 40 km to 300 km. It is designed with the aim of intercepting the newest generation of tactical ballistic missiles, such as Iskander.\n\n=== Japan ===\nJapanese guided missile destroyer JDS ''Kongō'' (DDG-173) firing a Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile.\n\nSince 1998, when North Korea launched a Taepodong-1 missile over northern Japan, the Japanese have been jointly developing a new surface-to-air interceptor known as the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 (PAC-3) with the US. So far tests have been successful, and there are planned 11 locations that the PAC-3 will be installed. A military spokesman said that tests had been done on two sites, one of them a business park in central Tokyo, and Ichigaya – a site not far from the Imperial Palace.\nAlong with the PAC-3, Japan has installed a US-developed ship-based anti-ballistic missile system, which was tested successfully on 18 December 2007. The missile was launched from a Japanese warship, in partnership with the U.S. Missile Defense Agency and destroyed a mock target launched from the coast.\n\n===Russian Federation===\nS-300PMU-2 vehicles. From left to right: 64N6E2 detection radar, 54K6E2 command post and 5P85 TEL.\nThe Moscow ABM defense system was designed with the aim of being able to intercept the ICBM warheads aimed at Moscow and other important industrial regions, and is based on:\nABM-1 Galosh (decommissioned)\nA-135 anti-ballistic missile system\n*ABM-3 Gazelle\nABM-4 Gorgon\nA–235 Nudol (In development)\n\nApart from the main Moscow deployment, Russia has striven actively for intristic ABM capabilities of its SAM systems.\n\nS-300P (SA-10)\nS-300V/V4 (SA-12)\nS-300PMU-1/2 (SA-20)\nS-400 (SA-21)\nS-500 (In development)\n\n===United States of America===\n\nUnited States Navy RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 anti-ballistic missile.\nIn several tests, the U.S. military have demonstrated the feasibility of destroying long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectiveness of newer systems against 1950s tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the MIM-104 Patriot (PAC-1 and PAC-2) had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom.\n\nThe U.S. Navy Aegis combat system uses RIM-161 Standard Missile 3, which hit a target going faster than ICBM warheads.\n\nThese systems, as opposed to U.S. GMD system, are not capable of a mid-course intercept of an ICBM.\n\nThe U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system began production in 2008. Its stated range as a short to intermediate ballistic missile interceptor means that it cannot hit ICBMs, which can reach terminal phase speeds of mach 8 or greater.\n\nThe United States Army released information as early as 2004 about their plans to develop a command system that was intended to replace Raytheon’s Patriot missile (SAM) program along with seven other forms of defense command systems. The system, the Integrated Air and Missile Battle Command System (IBCS), is an anti-ballistic missile defense system designed to shoot down short, medium, and intermediate range ballistic missiles in their terminal phase by intercepting with a hit-to-kill approach.\n\n===Republic of China===\n\nProcurement of MIM-104 Patriot and indigenous Tien-Kung anti-ballistic missile systems.\n", "\n===1940s and 1950s===\nLaunch of an US Army Nike Zeus missile, the first ABM system to enter widespread testing.\nThe idea of destroying rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German V-1 and V-2 program of World War II.\n\nBritish fighters destroyed some V-1 \"buzz bombs\" in flight, although concentrated barrages of heavy anti-aircraft artillery had greater success. Under the lend-lease program, 200 US 90 mm AA guns with SCR-584 radars and Western Electric/Bell Labs computers were sent to the UK. These demonstrated a 95% success rate against V-1s that flew into their range.\n\nThe V-2, the first true ballistic missile, was impossible to destroy in the air. SCR-584's could be used to plot the trajectories of the missiles and provide some warning, but were more useful in backtracking their ballistic trajectory and determining the rough launch locations. The Allies launched Operation Crossbow to find and destroy V-2s before launch, but these operations were largely ineffective. In one instance a Spitfire happened upon a V-2 rising through the trees, and fired on it with no effect. This led to allied efforts to capture launching sites in Belgium and the Netherlands.\n\nA wartime study by Bell Labs into the task of shooting down ballistic missiles in flight concluded it was not possible. In order to intercept a missile, one needs to be able to steer the attack onto the missile before it hits. A V-2's speed would require guns of effectively infinite reaction time, or some sort of weapon with ranges on the order of dozens of miles, neither of which appeared possible. This was, however, just before the emergence of high-speed computing systems. By the mid-1950s, things had changed considerably, and many forces worldwide were considering ABM systems.\n\nThe American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles soon after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defences against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until 1957, when the Soviet Union demonstrated its advances in ICBM technology with the launch of Sputnik, the Earth's first artificial satellite. The US Army accelerated development of their LIM-49 Nike Zeus system in response. Zeus was criticized throughout its development program, especially from those within the US Air Force and nuclear weapons establishments who suggested it would be much simpler to build more nuclear warheads and guarantee mutually assured destruction. Zeus was eventually cancelled in 1963.\n\nIn 1958, the U.S. sought to explore whether airbursting nuclear weapons might be used to ward off ICBMs. It conducted several test explosions of low-yield nuclear weapons — 1.7kt boosted fission W25 warheads — launched from ships to very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic Ocean. Such an explosion releases a burst of X-rays in the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. These can become trapped in the Earth' magnetic field, creating an artificial radiation belt. It was believed that this might be strong enough to damage warheads traveling through the layer. This proved not to be the case, but Argus returned key data about a related effect, the Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP).\n\n===Canada===\nOther countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at CARDE in Canada, which researched the main problems of ABM systems. A key problem with any radar system is that the signal is in the form of a cone, which spreads with distance from the transmitter. For long-distance interceptions like ABM systems, the inherent inaccuracy of the radar makes an interception difficult. CARDE considered using a terminal guidance system to address the accuracy concerns, and developed several advanced infrared detectors for this role. They also studied a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget reductions during the late 1950s the research ended. One offshoot of the project was Gerald Bull's system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes shot from a sabot round, which would later be the basis of Project HARP. Another was the CRV7 and Black Brant rockets, which used the new solid rocket fuel.\n\n===Soviet Union===\nThe Soviet military had requested funding for ABM research as early as 1953, but were only given the go-ahead to begin deployment of such a system on 17 August 1956. Their test system, known simply as System A, was based on the V-1000 missile, which was similar to the early US efforts. The first successful test interception was carried out on 24 November 1960, and the first with a live warhead on 4 March 1961. In this test, a dummy warhead was released by a R-12 ballistic missile launched from the Kapustin Yar, and intercepted by a V-1000 launched from Sary-Shagan. The dummy warhead was destroyed by the impact of 16,000 tungsten-carbide spherical impactors 140 seconds after launch, at an altitude of .\n\nThe V-1000 missile system was nonetheless considered not reliable enough and abandoned in favour of nuclear-armed ABMs. A much larger missile, the Fakel 5V61 (known in the west as Galosh), was developed to carry the larger warhead and carry it much further from the launch site. Further development continued, and the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, designed to protect Moscow, became operational in 1971. A-35 was designed for exoatmospheric interceptions, and would have been highly susceptible to a well-arranged attack using multiple warheads and radar black-out techniques.\n\nA-35 was upgraded during the 1980s to a two-layer system, the A-135. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. The A-135 system is considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States Safeguard system of 1975.\n\n===American Nike-X and Sentinel===\nNike Zeus failed to be a credible defence in an era of rapidly increasing ICBM counts due to its ability to attack only one target at a time. Additionally, significant concerns about its ability to successfully intercept warheads in the presence of high-altitude nuclear explosions, including its own, lead to the conclusion that the system would simply be too costly for the very low amount of protection it could provide.\n\nBy the time it was cancelled in 1963, potential upgrades had been explored for some time. Among these were radars capable of scanning much greater volumes of space and able to track many warheads and launch several missiles at once. These, however, did not address the problems identified with radar blackouts caused by high-altitude explosions. To address this need, a new missile with extreme performance was designed to attack incoming warheads at much lower altitudes, as low as 20 km. The new project encompassing all of these upgrades was launched as Nike-X.\n\nThe main missile was LIM-49 Spartan—a Nike Zeus upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megaton warhead intended to destroy enemy's warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called Sprint with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph (13 000 km/h) within 4 seconds of flight—an average acceleration of ''90 g'') and had a smaller W66 enhanced radiation warhead in the 1–3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions.\n\nThe experimental success of Nike X persuaded the Lyndon B. Johnson administration to propose a thin ABM defense, that could provide almost complete coverage of the United States. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara referred to it as \"Sentinel\". McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see cost-exchange ratio), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the USSR had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the People's Republic of China.\n\nIn the meantime, a public debate over the merit of ABMs began. Difficulties that had already made an ABM system questionable for defending against an all-out attack. One problem was the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems.\n\nWhen this proved infeasible for economic reasons, a much smaller deployment using the same systems was proposed, namely Safeguard (described later).\n\n===The problem of defense against MIRVs===\nTesting of the LGM-118A Peacekeeper re-entry vehicles, all eight shot from only one missile. Each line represents the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five Hiroshima-style weapons.\nABM systems were developed initially to counter single warheads launched from large Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough; since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, the price of the ICBM launching a large warhead should always be greater than the much smaller interceptor missile needed to destroy it. In an arms race the defense would always win.\n\nIn practice, the price of the interceptor missile was considerable, due to its sophistication. The system had to be guided all the way to an interception, which demanded guidance and control systems that worked within and outside the atmosphere. The Nike Zeus was expected to cost about $1 million, about the same as an ICBM. However, due to their relatively short ranges, an ABM missile would be needed to counter an ICBM wherever it might be aimed. That implies that dozens of interceptors are needed for every ICBM. This led to intense debates about the \"cost-exchange ratio\" between interceptors and warheads.\n\nConditions changed dramatically in 1970 with the introduction of Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly, each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. These would spread out in space, ensuring that a single interceptor would be needed for each warhead. This simply added to the need to have several interceptors for each warhead in order to provide geographical coverage. Now it was clear that an ABM system would always be many times more expensive than the ICBMs they defended against.\n\n===The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972===\n\nTechnical, economic and political problems described resulted in the ABM treaty of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) anti-ballistic missiles.\n\nBy the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a mere 100 ABMs to protect a single, small area. The Soviets retained their Moscow defences. The U.S. designated their ICBM sites near Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, where Safeguard was already under advanced development. The radar systems and anti-ballistic missiles were approximately 90 miles north/northwest of Grand Forks AFB, near Concrete, North Dakota. The missiles were deactivated in 1975. The main radar site (PARCS) is still used as an early warning ICBM radar, facing relative north. It is located at Cavalier Air Force Station, North Dakota.\n\n===Brief use of Safeguard in 1975/1976===\nThe U.S. Safeguard system, which utilized the nuclear-tipped LIM-49A Spartan and Sprint missiles, in the short operational period of 1975/1976, was the second counter-ICBMs system in the world. Safeguard protected only the main fields of US ICBMs from attack, theoretically ensuring that an attack could be responded to with a US launch, enforcing the mutually assured destruction principle.\n\n===SDI experiments in the 1980s===\n\nThe Reagan-era Strategic Defense Initiative (often referred to as \"Star Wars\"), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies.\n\nSDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray lasers were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. Several post-SDI technologies are used by the present Missile Defense Agency (MDA).\n\nLasers originally developed for the SDI plan are in use for astronomical observations. Used to ionize gas in the upper atmosphere, they provide telescope operators with a target to calibrate their instruments.\n\n===Tactical ABMs deployed in 1990s===\nThe Israeli Arrow missile system was tested initially during 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the 1990s.\n\nThe Patriot was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used during the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi Scud missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot was much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry.\n\n\nTesting ABM technology continued during the 1990s with mixed success. After the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. A new Patriot, PAC-3, was developed and tested—a complete redesign of the PAC-2 deployed during the war, including a totally new missile.\nThe improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probability of kill over the earlier PAC-2. During Operation Iraqi Freedom, Patriot PAC-3s had a nearly 100% success rate against Iraqi TBMs fired. However, since no longer range Iraqi Scud missiles were used, PAC-3 effectiveness against those was untested. Patriot was involved in three friendly fire incidents: two incidents of Patriot shootings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft shooting at a Patriot battery.\n\nA new version of the Hawk missile was tested during the early to mid-1990s and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps Hawk systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities. MIM-23 Hawk missile is not operational in the U.S. service since 2002, but is used by many other countries.\n\nSM-2 Block IV missile used by the U.S. Navy\nSoon after the Gulf war, the Aegis combat system was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The Standard missile system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. During the late 1990s, SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense function. Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 2008, an SM-3 missile launched from a ''Ticonderoga''-class cruiser, the USS Lake Erie, successfully intercepted a non-functioning satellite.\n\nFrom 1992 to 2000, a demonstration system for the US Army Terminal High Altitude Area Defense was deployed at White Sands Missile Range. Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred from 1999 onward. The US Army is in the process of fielding THAAD line batteries.\n\n===Brilliant Pebbles concept===\nApproved for acquisition by the Pentagon during 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that was meant to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on improvements of computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites.\nIt promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.\n\nThe name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was discontinued later in favor of a limited ground-based defense.\n\n===Transformation of SDI into MDA, development of NMD/GMD===\nWhile the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, during the early 1990s, President George H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. Such system was developed since 1992, was expected to become operational in 2010 and capable of intercepting small number of incoming ICBMs. First called the National Missile Defense (NMD), since 2002 it was renamed Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD). It was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from the Middle East. The Alaska interceptors may be augmented later by the naval Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the Boeing Airborne Laser.\n\nDuring 1998, Defense secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on intercontinental ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China.\n\nIn terms of organization, during 1993 SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO). In 2002, it was renamed to Missile Defense Agency (MDA).\n\n===U.S withdrawal from Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in 2002===\nOn 13 June 2002, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and recommenced developing missile defense systems that would have formerly been prohibited by the bilateral treaty. The action was stated as needed to defend against the possibility of a missile attack conducted by a rogue state.\n\nThe next day, the Russian Federation dropped the START II agreement, intended to completely ban MIRVs.\n\n===ABM test targets===\nOn 15 December 2016, the US Army SMDC had a successful test of a U.S. Army Zombie Pathfinder rocket, to be used as a target for exercising various anti-ballistic missile scenarios. The rocket was launched as part of NASA's sounding rocket program, at White Sands Missile Range.\n", "\n", "* Missile defense\n* Iron Dome\n* National Missile Defense\n* Nuclear disarmament\n* Nuclear proliferation\n* Nuclear warfare\n* Atmospheric entry\n* Terminal High Altitude Area Defense\n* Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System\n* Sprint (missile)\n* Spartan (missile)\n* Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system\n* Multiple Kill Vehicle\n* 2010 Chinese anti-ballistic missile test\n", "* Article on Missile Threat Shift to the Black Sea region\n* Video of the Endo-Atmospheric Interceptor missile system test by India\n* Video of the Exo-Atmospheric interceptor missile system test by India\n* Center for Defense Information\n* Federation of American Scientists\n* MissileThreat.com\n* Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex\n* History of U.S. Air Defense Systems\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Current counter-ICBM systems", "Current tactical systems{{anchor\|Countries with ABM capability\|reason=Old section name}}", "History of ABMs", "Footnotes", "See also", "External links" ]	Anti-ballistic missile
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 708 – Copper coins are minted in Japan for the first time (Traditional Japanese date: August 10, 708).\n1261 – Pope Urban IV succeeds Pope Alexander IV as the 182nd pope.\n1315 – Battle of Montecatini: The army of the Republic of Pisa, commanded by Uguccione della Faggiuola, wins a decisive victory against the joint forces of the Kingdom of Naples and the Republic of Florence despite being outnumbered.\n1350 – Battle of Winchelsea (or Les Espagnols sur Mer): The English naval fleet under King Edward III defeats a Castilian fleet of 40 ships.\n1475 – The Treaty of Picquigny ends a brief war between the kingdoms of France and England.\n1484 – Pope Innocent VIII succeeds Pope Sixtus IV.\n1498 – Vasco da Gama decides to depart Calicut and return to Kingdom of Portugal.\n1521 – The Ottoman Turks capture Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade).\n1526 – Battle of Mohács: The Ottoman Turks led by Suleiman the Magnificent defeat and kill the last Jagiellonian king of Hungary and Bohemia.\n1541 – The Ottoman Turks capture Buda, the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom.\n1728 – The city of Nuuk in Greenland is founded as the fort of Godt-Haab by the royal governor Claus Paarss.\n1756 – Frederick the Great attacks Saxony, beginning the Seven Years' War in Europe.\n1758 – The Treaty of Easton establishes the first American Indian reservation, at Indian Mills, New Jersey, for the Lenape.\n1778 – American Revolutionary War: British and American forces battle indecisively at the Battle of Rhode Island.\n1786 – Shays' Rebellion, an armed uprising of Massachusetts farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens.\n1807 – British troops under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeat a Danish militia outside Copenhagen in the Battle of Køge.\n1831 – Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction.\n1842 – Treaty of Nanking signing ends the First Opium War.\n1861 – American Civil War: The Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries gives Federal forces control of Pamlico Sound.\n1869 – The Mount Washington Cog Railway opens, making it the world's first mountain-climbing rack railway.\n1871 – Emperor Meiji orders the abolition of the han system and the establishment of prefectures as local centers of administration. (Traditional Japanese date: July 14, 1871).\n1885 – Gottlieb Daimler patents the world's first internal combustion motorcycle, the ''Reitwagen''.\n1898 – The Goodyear tire company is founded.\n1903 – The , the last of the five s, is launched.\n1907 – The Quebec Bridge collapses during construction, killing 75 workers.\n1910 – The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, also known as the Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty, becomes effective, officially starting the period of Japanese rule in Korea.\n1911 – Ishi, considered the last Native American to make contact with European Americans, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern California.\n1914 – World War I: Start of the Battle of St. Quentin in which the French Fifth Army counter-attacked the invading Germans at Saint-Quentin, Aisne.\n1915 – US Navy salvage divers raise , the first U.S. submarine sunk in an accident.\n1916 – The United States passes the Philippine Autonomy Act.\n1918 – World War I: Bapaume taken by the New Zealand Division in the Hundred Days Offensive.\n1930 – The last 36 remaining inhabitants of St Kilda are voluntarily evacuated to other parts of Scotland.\n1941 – World War II: Tallinn, the capital of Estonia, is occupied by Nazi Germany following an occupation by the Soviet Union.\n1943 – World War II: German-occupied Denmark scuttles most of its navy; Germany dissolves the Danish government.\n1944 – World War II: Slovak National Uprising takes place as 60,000 Slovak troops turn against the Nazis.\n1949 – Soviet atomic bomb project: The Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb, known as ''First Lightning'' or ''Joe 1'', at Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan.\n1950 – Korean War: British troops arrive in Korea to bolster the US presence there.\n1958 – United States Air Force Academy opens in Colorado Springs, Colorado.\n1965 – The Gemini V spacecraft returns to Earth, landing in the Atlantic Ocean.\n1966 – The Beatles perform their last concert before paying fans at Candlestick Park in San Francisco.\n 1966 – Leading Egyptian thinker Sayyid Qutb is executed for plotting the assassination of President Gamal Abdel Nasser.\n1970 – Chicano Moratorium against the Vietnam War, East Los Angeles, California. Police riot kills three people, including journalist Rubén Salazar.\n1982 – The synthetic chemical element Meitnerium, atomic number 109, is first synthesized at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung in Darmstadt, Germany.\n1991 – Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party.\n 1991 – Libero Grassi, an Italian businessman from Palermo, is killed by the Sicilian Mafia after taking a solitary stand against their extortion demands.\n1996 – Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801, a Tupolev Tu-154, crashes into a mountain on the Arctic island of Spitsbergen, killing all 141 aboard.\n1997 – At least 98 villagers are killed by the Armed Islamic Group of Algeria GIA in the Rais massacre, Algeria.\n2003 – Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, the Shia Muslim leader in Iraq, is assassinated in a terrorist bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a mosque in Najaf.\n2005 – Hurricane Katrina devastates much of the U.S. Gulf Coast from Louisiana to the Florida Panhandle, killing an estimated 1,836 people and causing over $108 billion in damage.\n2012 – At least 26 Chinese miners are killed and 21 missing after a blast in the Xiaojiawan coal mine, located at Panzhihua, Sichuan Province.\n", "1321 – John of Artois, Count of Eu, French soldier (d. 1387)\n1347 – John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (d. 1375)\n1434 – Janus Pannonius, Hungarian bishop and poet (d. 1472)\n1514 – García Álvarez de Toledo, 4th Marquis of Villafranca, Spanish noble and admiral (d. 1577)\n1534 – Nicholas Pieck, Dutch Franciscan friar and martyr (d. 1572)\n1597 – Henry Gage, Royalist officer in the English Civil War (d. 1645)\n1619 – Jean-Baptiste Colbert, French economist and politician, Controller-General of Finances (d. 1683)\n1628 – John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (d. 1701)\n1632 – John Locke, English physician and philosopher (d. 1704)\n1724 – Giovanni Battista Casti, Italian poet and author (d. 1803)\n1725 – Charles Townshend, English politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 1767)\n1728 – Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony (d. 1797)\n1756 – Jan Śniadecki, Polish mathematician and astronomer (d. 1830)\n1756 – Count Heinrich von Bellegarde, Austrian general and politician (d. 1845)\n1773 – Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)\n1777 – Hyacinth, Russian religious leader, founded Sinology (d. 1853)\n1780 – Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, French painter and illustrator (d. 1867)\n1792 – Charles Grandison Finney, American minister and author (d. 1875)\n1805 – Frederick Denison Maurice, English priest, theologian, and author (d. 1872)\n1809 – Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., American physician and author (d. 1894)\n1810 – Juan Bautista Alberdi, Argentinian theorist and diplomat (d. 1884)\n1811 – Henry Bergh, American activist, founded the ASPCA (d. 1888)\n1842 – Alfred Shaw, English cricketer, rugby player, and umpire (d. 1907)\n1843 – David B. Hill, American lawyer and politician, 29th Governor of New York (d. 1910)\n1844 – Edward Carpenter, English anthologist and poet (d. 1929)\n1857 – Sandford Schultz, English cricketer (d. 1937)\n1861 – Byron G. Harlan, American singer (d. 1936)\n1862 – Andrew Fisher, Scottish-Australian politician and diplomat, 5th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1928)\n 1862 – Maurice Maeterlinck, Belgian poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1949)\n1871 – Albert François Lebrun, French engineer and politician, 15th President of France (d. 1950)\n1875 – Leonardo De Lorenzo, Italian flute player and educator (d. 1962)\n1876 – Charles F. Kettering, American engineer and businessman, founded Delco Electronics (d. 1958)\n 1876 – Kim Koo, South Korean politician, 6th President of The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (d. 1949)\n1887 – Jivraj Narayan Mehta, Indian physicians and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Gujarat (d. 1978)\n1888 – Salme Dutt, Estonian-English politician (d. 1964)\n1891 – Marquis James, American journalist and author (d. 1955)\n1898 – Preston Sturges, American director and producer (d. 1959)\n1901 – Aurèle Joliat, Canadian ice hockey player and referee (d. 1986)\n1904 – Werner Forssmann, German physician and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)\n1905 – Dhyan Chand, Indian field hockey player (d. 1979)\n 1905 – Arndt Pekurinen, Finnish activist (d. 1941)\n1910 – Vivien Thomas, American surgeon and academic (d. 1985)\n1911 – John Charnley, British orthopedic surgeon (d. 1982)\n1912 – Sohn Kee-chung, South Korean runner (d. 2002)\n 1912 – Barry Sullivan, American actor (d. 1994)\n* 1912 – Wolfgang Suschitzky, Austrian-English cinematographer and photographer (d. 2016)\n1913 – Len Butterfield, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1999)\n1915 – Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (d. 1982)\n* 1915 – Nathan Pritikin, American nutritionist and author (d. 1985)\n1916 – Luther Davis, American playwright and screenwriter (d. 2008)\n 1916 – George Montgomery, American actor, stuntman, director, and producer (d. 2000)\n1917 – Isabel Sanford, American actress (d. 2004)\n1920 – Charlie Parker, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1955)\n* 1920 – Herb Simpson, American baseball player (d. 2015)\n* 1920 – Otis Boykin, American inventor and engineer (d. 1982)\n1922 – Richard Blackwell, American actor, fashion designer, and critic (d. 2008)\n 1922 – John Edward Williams, American author and educator (d. 1994)\n* 1922 – Arthur Anderson, American actor (d. 2016)\n1923 – Richard Attenborough, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)\n1924 – Dinah Washington, American singer and pianist (d. 1963)\n1926 – Helene Ahrweiler, Greek historian and academic\n 1926 – Donn Fendler, American author and speaker (d. 2016)\n* 1926 – Betty Lynn, American actress\n1927 – Jimmy C. Newman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2014)\n1928 – Charles Gray, English actor (d. 2000)\n* 1928 – Herbert Meier, Swiss author and translator\n1929 – Thom Gunn, English-American poet and academic (d. 2004)\n1930 – Jacques Bouchard, Canadian businessman (d. 2006)\n* 1930 – Carlos Loyzaga, Filipino basketball player and coach (d. 2016)\n1931 – Stelios Kazantzidis, Greek singer and guitarist (d. 2001)\n 1931 – Lise Payette, Canadian journalist and politician\n1933 – Sorel Etrog, Romanian-Canadian sculptor, painter, and illustrator (d. 2014)\n 1933 – Arnold Koller, Swiss politician\n1934 – Dimitris Papamichael, Greek actor and director (d. 2004)\n1935 – Hugo Brandt Corstius, Dutch linguist and author (d. 2014)\n* 1935 – William Friedkin, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1935 – László Garai, Hungarian psychologist and scholar\n1936 – John McCain, American captain and politician\n1937 – James Florio, American commander, lawyer, and politician, 49th Governor of New Jersey\n1938 – Elliott Gould, American actor and producer\n 1938 – Angela Huth, English journalist and author\n* 1938 – Christian Müller, German footballer and manager\n* 1938 – Robert Rubin, American lawyer and politician, 70th United States Secretary of the Treasury\n1939 – Jolán Kleiber-Kontsek, Hungarian discus thrower and shot putter\n 1939 – Joel Schumacher, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n1940 – James Brady, American politician and activist, 15th White House Press Secretary (d. 2014)\n 1940 – Gary Gabelich, American race car driver (d. 1984)\n1941 – Robin Leach, English journalist and television host\n1942 – James Glennon, American cinematographer (d. 2006)\n* 1942 – Gottfried John, German actor (d. 2014)\n1943 – Mohamed Amin, Kenyan photographer and journalist (d. 1996)\n 1943 – Dick Halligan, American pianist and composer \n* 1943 – Arthur B. McDonald, Canadian astrophysicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n1945 – Chris Copping, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1945 – Wyomia Tyus, American runner\n1946 – Bob Beamon, American long jumper\n 1946 – Francine D. Blau, American economist and academic\n* 1946 – Demetris Christofias, Cypriot businessman and politician, 6th President of Cyprus\n* 1946 – Giorgio Orsoni, Italian lawyer and politician, 17th Mayor of Venice\n1947 – Temple Grandin, American ethologist, academic, and author\n 1947 – James Hunt, English race car driver and sportscaster (d. 1993)\n1948 – Robert S. Langer, American chemical engineer, entrepreneur, and academic\n1949 – Stan Hansen, American wrestler and actor\n1950 – Doug DeCinces, American baseball player\n 1950 – Frank Henenlotter, American director and screenwriter\n* 1950 – Dave Reichert, American soldier and politician\n1951 – Geoff Whitehorn, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1952 – Karen Hesse, American author and poet\n* 1952 – Dave Malone, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1952 – Don Schlitz, American Hall of Fame country music songwriter \n1953 – David Boaz, American businessman and author \n 1953 – Richard Harding, English rugby player\n* 1953 – James Quesada, Nicaraguan-American anthropologist and academic\n1954 – Michael P. Kube-McDowell, American journalist, author, and academic\n1955 – Diamanda Galás, American singer-songwriter and pianist\n* 1955 – Jack Lew, American lawyer and politician, 25th White House Chief of Staff\n1956 – Mark Morris, American dancer and choreographer\n 1956 – Eddie Murray, American football player\n* 1956 – Charalambos Xanthopoulos, Greek footballer\n* 1956 – Steve Yarbrough, American novelist and short story writer\n1957 – Jerry D. Bailey, American jockey and sportscaster\n 1957 – Grzegorz Ciechowski, Polish singer-songwriter, film music composer (d. 2001)\n1958 – Lenny Henry, English comedian, actor, and screenwriter\n 1958 – Michael Jackson, American singer-songwriter, producer, dancer, and actor (d. 2009) \n1959 – Rebecca De Mornay, American actress\n 1959 – Ramón Díaz, Argentinian footballer and manager\n* 1959 – Ray Elgaard, Canadian football player\n* 1959 – Chris Hadfield, Canadian colonel, pilot, and astronaut\n* 1959 – Eddi Reader, Scottish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1959 – Timothy Shriver, American businessman and activist \n* 1959 – Stephen Wolfram, English-American physicist and mathematician\n1960 – Todd English, American chef and author\n 1960 – Tony MacAlpine, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer \n1961 – Carsten Fischer, German field hockey player\n 1961 – Rodney McCray, American basketball player\n1962 – Carl Banks, American football player and sportscaster\n 1962 – Hiroki Kikuta, Japanese game designer and composer \n* 1962 – Ian James Corlett, Canadian voice actor, writer, producer and author\n* 1962 – Simon Thurley, English historian and academic\n1963 – Elizabeth Fraser, Scottish singer-songwriter \n1964 – Perri \"Pebbles\" Reid, American dance-pop and urban contemporary singer-songwriter \n* 1964 – Zisis Tsekos, Greek footballer\n1965 – Will Perdue, American basketball player and sportscaster\n1966 – Jörn Großkopf, German footballer and manager\n1967 – Neil Gorsuch, American judge\n 1967 – Anton Newcombe, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1968 – Meshell Ndegeocello, German-American singer-songwriter\n1969 – Joe Swail, Northern Irish snooker player\n* 1969 – Jennifer Crittenden, American screenwriter and producer\n1971 – Henry Blanco, Venezuelan baseball player and coach\n 1971 – Alex Griffin, English bass player \n* 1971 – Carla Gugino, American actress \n1972 – Amanda Marshall, Canadian singer-songwriter\n 1972 – Bae Yong-joon, South Korean actor\n1973 – Vincent Cavanagh, English singer and guitarist \n 1973 – Olivier Jacque, French motorcycle racer\n1974 – Kumi Tanioka, Japanese keyboard player and composer\n1975 – Kyle Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1976 – Stephen Carr, Irish footballer\n 1976 – Phil Harvey, English businessman\n* 1976 – Kevin Kaesviharn, American football player\n* 1976 – Georgios Kalaitzis, Greek basketball player\n* 1976 – Pablo Mastroeni, Argentine-American soccer player and manager\n* 1976 – Jon Dahl Tomasson, Danish footballer and manager\n1977 – Cayetano, Greek DJ and producer\n 1977 – Devean George, American basketball player\n* 1977 – John Patrick O'Brien, American soccer player\n* 1977 – Roy Oswalt, American baseball player\n* 1977 – Charlie Pickering, Australian comedian and radio host\n* 1977 – Aaron Rowand, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1978 – Volkan Arslan, German-Turkish footballer\n 1978 – Celestine Babayaro, Nigerian footballer\n1979 – Stijn Devolder, Belgian cyclist\n 1979 – Kristjan Rahnu, Estonian decathlete\n* 1979 – Ryan Shealy, American baseball player \n1980 – Chris Simms, American football player\n 1980 – David West, American basketball player\n1981 – Geneviève Jeanson, Canadian cyclist\n 1981 – Jay Ryan, New Zealand-Australian actor and producer\n1982 – Ruhila Adatia-Sood, Kenyan journalist and radio host (d. 2013)\n 1982 – Carlos Delfino, Argentinian-Italian basketball player\n* 1982 – Vincent Enyeama, Nigerian footballer\n1983 – Antti Niemi, Finnish ice hockey player\n1986 – Hajime Isayama, Japanese illustrator\n* 1986 – Lea Michele, American actress and singer\n1987 – Tony Kane, Irish footballer\n1990 – Jakub Kosecki, Polish footballer\n* 1990 – Patrick van Aanholt, Dutch footballer\n1991 – Néstor Araujo, Mexican footballer\n1991 – Deshaun Thomas, American basketball player\n1992 – Mallu Magalhães, Brazilian singer-songwriter \n 1992 – Noah Syndergaard, American baseball player\n* 1993 – Liam Payne, English singer-songwriter\n\n", "* 886 – Basil I, Byzantine emperor (b. 811)\n* 939 – Wang Jipeng, emperor of Min\n* 939 – Li Chunyan, empress of Min (Ten Kingdoms)\n* 956 – Fu ('''the Elder'''), Chinese empress consort\n* 979 – Abu Taghlib, Hamdanid ruler\n1093 – Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1057)\n1123 – Eystein I of Norway (b. 1088)\n1135 – Al-Mustarshid, Caliph of Baghdad\n1159 – Bertha of Sulzbach, Byzantine Empress (b. 1110s)\n1298 – Eleanor of England, Countess of Bar (b. 1269)\n1315 – Peter Tempesta (b. 1261)\n* 1315 – Charles of Taranto (b. 1296)\n1395 – Albert III, Duke of Austria (b. 1349)\n1442 – John VI, Duke of Brittany (b. 1389)\n1499 – Alesso Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (b. 1427)\n1523 – Ulrich von Hutten, Lutheran reformer (b. 1488)\n1526 – Louis II of Hungary (b. 1506)\n 1526 – Pál Tomori Hungarian archbishop and soldier (b. 1475)\n1533 – Atahualpa, Inca emperor (b. 1497)\n1542 – Cristóvão da Gama, Portuguese commander (b. 1516)\n1604 – Hamida Banu Begum, wife of the second Mughal emperor Humayun (b. 1527)\n1657 – John Lilburne, English activist (b. 1614)\n1712 – Gregory King, English genealogist, engraver, and statistician (b. 1648)\n1749 – Matthias Bel, Hungarian pastor and polymath (b. 1684)\n1769 – Edmond Hoyle, English author and educator (b. 1672)\n1780 – Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect, co-designed The Panthéon (b. 1713)\n1799 – Pope Pius VI (b. 1717)\n1844 – Edmund Ignatius Rice, Irish missionary and educator, founded the Christian Brothers and Presentation Brothers (b. 1762)\n1856 – Mary Anne Schimmelpenninck, English author and activist (b. 1778)\n1866 – Tokugawa Iemochi, Japanese shogun (b. 1846)\n1877 – Brigham Young, American religious leader, 2nd President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1801)\n1889 – Stefan Dunjov, Bulgarian colonel (b. 1815)\n1891 – Pierre Lallement, French businessman, invented the bicycle (b. 1843)\n1892 – William Forbes Skene, Scottish historian and author (b. 1809)\n1904 – Murad V, Ottoman sultan (b. 1840)\n1917 – George Huntington Hartford, American businessman (b. 1833) \n1930 – William Archibald Spooner, English priest and author (b. 1844)\n1931 – David T. Abercrombie, American businessman, co-founded Abercrombie & Fitch (b. 1867)\n1944 – Attik, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1885)\n1946 – Adolphus Busch III, American businessman (b. 1891)\n* 1946 – John Steuart Curry, American painter and academic (b. 1897)\n1951 – Sydney Chapman, English economist and civil servant (b. 1871)\n1952 – Anton Piëch, Austrian lawyer (b. 1894)\n1958 – Marjorie Flack, American author and illustrator (b. 1897)\n1966 – Sayyid Qutb, Egyptian theorist, author, and poet (b. 1906)\n1968 – Ulysses S. Grant III, American general (b. 1881)\n1971 – Nathan Freudenthal Leopold Jr., American murderer (b. 1904)\n1972 – Lale Andersen, German singer-songwriter (b. 1905)\n1975 – Éamon de Valera, Irish soldier and politician, 3rd President of Ireland (b. 1882)\n1977 – Jean Hagen, American actress (b. 1923)\n 1977 – Brian McGuire, Australian race car driver (b. 1945)\n1979 – Gertrude Chandler Warner, American author and educator (b. 1890)\n1981 – Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (b. 1892)\n1982 – Ingrid Bergman, Swedish actress (b. 1915)\n 1982 – Lehman Engel, American composer and conductor (b. 1910)\n1985 – Evelyn Ankers, British-American actress (b. 1918)\n1987 – Archie Campbell, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1914)\n* 1987 – Lee Marvin, American actor (b. 1924)\n1989 – Peter Scott, English explorer and painter (b. 1909)\n1990 – Manly Palmer Hall, Canadian-American mystic and author (b. 1901)\n1991 – Libero Grassi, Italian businessman (b. 1924)\n1992 – Félix Guattari, French philosopher and theorist (b. 1930)\n1995 – Frank Perry, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1930)\n2000 – Shelagh Fraser, English actress (b. 1922)\n* 2000 – Willie Maddren, English footballer and manager (b. 1951)\n* 2000 – Conrad Marca-Relli, American-Italian painter and academic (b. 1913)\n2001 – Graeme Strachan, Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1952)\n 2001 – Francisco Rabal, Spanish actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n2002 – Lance Macklin, English race car driver (b. 1919)\n2003 – Mohammad Baqir al-Hakim, Iraqi politician (b. 1939)\n* 2003 – Patrick Procktor, English painter and academic (b. 1936)\n2004 – Hans Vonk, Dutch conductor (b. 1942)\n2007 – James Muir Cameron Fletcher, New Zealand businessman (b. 1914)\n* 2007 – Richard Jewell, American police officer (b. 1962)\n* 2007 – Pierre Messmer, French civil servant and politician, 154th Prime Minister of France (b. 1916)\n* 2007 – Alfred Peet, Dutch-American businessman, founded Peet's Coffee & Tea (b. 1920)\n2008 – Geoffrey Perkins, English actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1953)\n 2008 – Michael Schoenberg, American geophysicist and theorist (b. 1939)\n2011 – Honeyboy Edwards, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1915)\n 2011 – Junpei Takiguchi, Japanese voice actor (b. 1931)\n2012 – Ruth Goldbloom, Canadian academic and philanthropist, co-founded Pier 21 (b. 1923)\n 2012 – Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, English historian and author (b. 1953)\n* 2012 – Shoshichi Kobayashi, Japanese-American mathematician and academic (b. 1932)\n* 2012 – Anne McKnight, American soprano (b. 1924)\n* 2012 – Les Moss, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1925)\n* 2012 – Sergei Ovchinnikov, Russian volleyball player and coach (b. 1969)\n2013 – Joan L. Krajewski, American lawyer and politician (b. 1934)\n 2013 – Medardo Joseph Mazombwe, Zambian cardinal (b. 1931)\n* 2013 – Bruce C. Murray, American geologist and academic, co-founded The Planetary Society (b. 1931)\n2014 – Octavio Brunetti, Argentinian pianist and composer (b. 1975)\n 2014 – Björn Waldegård, Swedish race car driver (b. 1943)\n2016 – Gene Wilder, American stage and screen comic actor, screenwriter, film director, and author (b. 1933)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nAdelphus of Metz\nBeheading of St. John the Baptist\nEadwold of Cerne\nEuphrasia Eluvathingal (Syro-Malabar Catholic Church)\nJohn Bunyan (Episcopal Church)\nSabina\n*August 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nInternational Day against Nuclear Tests \nMiners' Day (Ukraine)\nMunicipal Police's Day (Poland)\nNational Sports Day (India)\nSlovak National Uprising Anniversary (Slovakia)\nTelugu Language Day (India)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n\n On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 29
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* 526 – King Theoderic the Great dies of dysentery at Ravenna; his daughter Amalasuntha takes power as regent for her 10-year-old son Athalaric. \n1282 – Peter III of Aragon lands at Trapani to intervene in the War of the Sicilian Vespers.\n1363 – The five-week Battle of Lake Poyang begins, in which the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders (Chen Youliang and Zhu Yuanzhang) meet to decide who will supplant the Yuan dynasty.\n1464 – Pope Paul II succeeds Pope Pius II as the 211th pope.\n1574 – Guru Ram Das becomes the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master.\n1590 – Tokugawa Ieyasu enters Edo Castle. (Traditional Japanese date: August 1, 1590)\n1727 – Anne, eldest daughter of King George II of Great Britain, is given the title Princess Royal.\n1791 – sinks after having run aground on the outer Great Barrier Reef the previous day.\n1799 – The entire Dutch fleet is captured by British forces under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell during the War of the Second Coalition.\n1800 – Gabriel Prosser postpones a planned slave rebellion in Richmond, Virginia, but is arrested before he can make it happen.\n1813 – First Battle of Kulm: French forces are defeated by an Austrian-Prussian-Russian alliance.\n* 1813 – Creek War: Fort Mims massacre: Creek \"Red Sticks\" kill over 500 settlers (including over 250 armed militia) in Fort Mims, north of Mobile, Alabama.\n1835 – Australia: Melbourne, Victoria is founded.\n1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Richmond: Confederates under Edmund Kirby Smith rout Union forces under General William \"Bull\" Nelson.\n1873 – Austrian explorers Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht discover the archipelago of Franz Josef Land in the Arctic Sea.\n1896 – Philippine Revolution: After Spanish victory in the Battle of San Juan del Monte, eight provinces in the Philippines are declared under martial law by the Spanish Governor-General Ramón Blanco y Erenas.\n1909 – Burgess Shale fossils are discovered by Charles Doolittle Walcott.\n1914 – World War I: Germans defeat the Russians in the Battle of Tannenberg.\n1917 – Vietnamese prison guards led by Trịnh Văn Cấn mutiny at the Thái Nguyên penitentiary against local French authority.\n1918 – Fanni Kaplan shoots and seriously injures Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, which along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official Moisei Uritsky days earlier, prompts the decree for Red Terror.\n1922 – Battle of Dumlupınar: The final battle in the Greco-Turkish War (\"Turkish War of Independence\").\n1940 – The Second Vienna Award reassigns the territory of Northern Transylvania from Romania to Hungary.\n1942 – World War II: The Battle of Alam el Halfa begins.\n1945 – Hong Kong is liberated from Japan by British Armed Forces.\n* 1945 – The Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, General Douglas MacArthur lands at Atsugi Air Force Base.\n* 1945 – The Allied Control Council, governing Germany after World War II, comes into being.\n* 1945 – The August Revolution ends as Emperor Bảo Đại abdicates, ending the Nguyễn dynasty.\n1962 – Japan conducts a test of the NAMC YS-11, its first aircraft since World War II and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war.\n1963 – The Moscow–Washington hotline between the leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union goes into operation.\n1967 – Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.\n1974 – A Belgrade–Dortmund express train derails at the main train station in Zagreb killing 153 passengers.\n* 1974 – A powerful bomb explodes at the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries headquarters in Marunouchi, Tokyo. Eight are killed, 378 are injured. Eight left-wing activists are arrested on May 19, 1975 by Japanese authorities.\n1981 – President Mohammad-Ali Rajai and Prime Minister Mohammad-Javad Bahonar of Iran are assassinated in a bombing committed by the People's Mujahedin of Iran.\n1984 – STS-41-D: The Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' takes off on its maiden voyage.\n1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union: Azerbaijan declares independence from Soviet Union.\n1992 – The 11-day Ruby Ridge standoff ends with Randy Weaver surrendering to federal authorities.\n1995 – Bosnian War: NATO launches Operation Deliberate Force against Bosnian Serb forces.\n1998 – Second Congo War: Armed forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and their Angolan and Zimbabwean allies recapture Matadi and the Inga dams in the western DRC from RCD and Rwandan troops. \n2014 – Prime Minister of Lesotho Tom Thabane flees to South Africa as the army allegedly stages a coup.\n", "1334 – Peter of Castile (d. 1369)\n1569 – Jahangir, Mughal emperor (d. 1627)\n1574 – Albert Szenczi Molnár, Hungarian writer and translator (d. 1634)\n1609 – Sir Alexander Carew, 2nd Baronet, English politician (d. 1644)\n 1609 – Artus Quellinus the Elder, Flemish sculptor (d. 1668)\n1627 – Itō Jinsai, Japanese philosopher (d. 1705)\n1720 – Samuel Whitbread, English brewer and politician, founded Whitbread (d. 1796)\n1748 – Jacques-Louis David, French painter and illustrator (d. 1825)\n1768 – Joseph Dennie, American author and journalist (d. 1812)\n1797 – Mary Shelley, English novelist and playwright (d. 1851)\n1812 – Agoston Haraszthy, Hungarian-American businessman, founded Buena Vista Winery (d. 1869)\n1818 – Alexander H. Rice, American businessman and politician, 30th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1895)\n1839 – Gulstan Ropert, French-American bishop and missionary (d. 1903)\n1842 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Alexandrovna of Russia (d. 1849)\n1848 – Andrew Onderdonk, American surveyor and contractor (d. 1905)\n1850 – Marcelo H. del Pilar, Filipino journalist and lawyer (d. 1896)\n1852 – Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1911)\n* 1852 – J. Alden Weir, American painter and academic (d. 1919)\n1856 – Carl David Tolmé Runge, German mathematician, physicist, and spectroscopist (d. 1927)\n1860 – Isaac Levitan, Russian painter and illustrator (d. 1900)\n1870 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Georgievna of Russia (d. 1891)\n1871 – Ernest Rutherford, New Zealand-English physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1937)\n1883 – Theo van Doesburg, Dutch artist (d. 1931)\n1884 – Theodor Svedberg, Swedish chemist and physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)\n1885 – Tedda Courtney, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 1957)\n1890 – Samuel Frederick Henry Thompson, English captain and pilot (d. 1918)\n1893 – Huey Long, American lawyer and politician, 40th Governor of Louisiana (d. 1935)\n1896 – Raymond Massey, Canadian-American actor and playwright (d. 1983)\n1898 – Shirley Booth, American actress and singer (d. 1992)\n1901 – John Gunther, American journalist and author (d. 1970)\n* 1901 – Roy Wilkins, American journalist and activist (d. 1981)\n1903 – Bhagwati Charan Verma, Indian author (d. 1981)\n1906 – Joan Blondell, American actress and singer (d. 1979)\n1907 – Leonor Fini, Argentinian painter, illustrator, and author (d. 1996)\n 1907 – Bertha Parker Pallan, American archaeologist (d. 1978)\n* 1907 – John Mauchly, American physicist and co-founder of the first computer company (d. 1980)\n1908 – Fred MacMurray, American actor (d. 1991)\n1909 – Virginia Lee Burton, American author and illustrator (d. 1968)\n1910 – Roger Bushell, South African-English soldier and pilot (d. 1944)\n1912 – Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)\n* 1912 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-English captain (d. 2011)\n1913 – Richard Stone, English economist and statistician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)\n1915 – Princess Lilian, Duchess of Halland (d. 2013)\n* 1915 – Robert Strassburg, American composer, conductor, and educator (d. 2003)\n1916 – Shailendra, Pakistani-Indian songwriter (d. 1968)\n1917 – Denis Healey, English soldier and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (d. 2015)\n* 1917 – Grand Duke Vladimir Kirillovich of Russia (d. 1992)\n1918 – Harold Atcherley, English businessman (d. 2017)\n 1918 – Billy Johnson, American baseball player (d. 2006)\n* 1918 – Ted Williams, American baseball player and manager (d. 2002)\n1919 – Maurice Hilleman, American microbiologist and vaccinologist (d. 2005)\n 1919 – Wolfgang Wagner, German director and manager (d. 2010)\n* 1919 – Kitty Wells, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2012)\n1920 – Arnold Green, Estonian soldier and politician (d. 2011)\n1922 – Lionel Murphy, Australian jurist and politician, 22nd Attorney-General of Australia (d. 1986)\n* 1922 – Regina Resnik, American soprano and actress (d. 2013)\n1923 – Barbara Ansell, English physician and author (d. 2001)\n 1923 – Charmian Clift, Australian journalist and author (d. 1969)\n* 1923 – Vic Seixas, American tennis player\n1924 – Kenny Dorham, American singer-songwriter and trumpet player (d. 1972)\n 1924 – Lajos Kisfaludy, Hungarian chemist and engineer (d. 1988)\n1925 – Laurent de Brunhoff, French author and illustrator\n 1925 – Donald Symington, American actor (d. 2013)\n1926 – Daryl Gates, American police officer, created the D.A.R.E. Program (d. 2010)\n1927 – Geoffrey Beene, American fashion designer (d. 2004)\n* 1927 – Bill Daily, American actor\n* 1927 – Piet Kee, Dutch organist and composer \n1928 – Lloyd Casner, American race car driver (d. 1965)\n 1928 – Harvey Hart, Canadian director and producer (d. 1989)\n* 1928 – Johnny Mann, American singer-songwriter and conductor (d. 2014)\n1929 – Guy de Lussigny, French painter and sculptor (d. 2001)\n 1929 – Ian McNaught-Davis, English mountaineer and television host (d. 2014)\n1930 – Warren Buffett, American businessman and philanthropist\n 1930 – Noel Harford, New Zealand cricketer and basketball player (d. 1981)\n1931 – Jack Swigert, American pilot and astronaut (d. 1982)\n1933 – Don Getty, Canadian football player and politician, 11th Premier of Alberta (d. 2016)\n1934 – Antonio Cabangon Chua, Filipino media mogul and businessman (d. 2016)\n1935 – John Phillips, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)\n* 1935 – Alexandra Bellow, Romanian-American mathematician\n1936 – Peter North, English scholar and academic\n1937 – Bruce McLaren, New Zealand race car driver and engineer, founded the McLaren racing team (d. 1970)\n1938 – Murray Gleeson, Australian lawyer and judge, 11th Chief Justice of Australia\n1939 – Elizabeth Ashley, American actress \n* 1939 – John Peel, English radio host and producer (d. 2004)\n1941 – Ignazio Giunti, Italian race car driver (d. 1971)\n 1941 – Ben Jones, American actor and politician\n* 1941 – Sue MacGregor, English journalist and radio host\n* 1941 – John McNally, English singer and guitarist (The Searchers)\n1942 – Jonathan Aitken, Irish-British journalist and politician, Minister for Defence Procurement\n 1942 – Pervez Sajjad, Pakistani cricketer\n1943 – Tal Brody, American-Israeli basketball player and coach\n 1943 – Robert Crumb, American illustrator\n* 1943 – Colin Dann, English author\n* 1943 – Nigel Hall, English sculptor and academic\n* 1943 – Jean-Claude Killy, French skier\n* 1943 – David Maslanka, American composer and academic\n1944 – Frances Cairncross, English economist, journalist, and academic\n 1944 – Freek de Jonge, Dutch singer and comedian \n* 1944 – Molly Ivins, American journalist and author (d. 2007)\n* 1944 – Tug McGraw, American baseball player (d. 2004)\n* 1944 – Alex Wyllie, New Zealand rugby player and coach\n1946 – Queen Anne-Marie of Greece\n 1946 – Peggy Lipton, American model and actress\n1947 – Allan Rock, Canadian lawyer, politician, and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United Nations\n1948 – Lewis Black, American comedian, actor, and author\n* 1948 – Fred Hampton, American activist and revolutionary, chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party\n* 1948 – Victor Skumin, Russian psychiatrist, psychologist, and academic\n1949 – Ted Ammon, American financier and banker (d. 2001)\n 1949 – Don Boudria, Canadian public servant and politician, 2nd Canadian Minister for International Cooperation\n1950 – Antony Gormley, English sculptor and academic\n1951 – Jim Paredes, Filipino singer-songwriter and actor \n* 1951 – Timothy Bottoms, American actor and producer\n* 1951 – Dana Rosemary Scallon, Irish singer and activist\n* 1951 – Gediminas Kirkilas, Lithuanian politician, 11th Prime Minister of Lithuania\n1952 – Simon Bainbridge, English composer and educator\n 1952 – Wojtek Fibak, Polish tennis player\n1953 – Ron George, American businessman and politician\n 1953 – Lech Majewski, Polish director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1953 – Horace Panter, English bass player \n* 1953 – Robert Parish, American basketball player\n1954 – Alexander Lukashenko, Belarusian marshal and politician, 1st President of Belarus\n1954 – Ravi Shankar Prasad, Indian lawyer and politician, Indian Minister of Communications and IT\n* 1954 – David Paymer, American actor and director\n1955 – Jamie Moses, English-American guitarist\n1956 – Frank Conniff, American actor, producer, and screenwriter\n1958 – Karen Buck, Northern Irish politician\n 1958 – Fran Fraschilla, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster\n* 1958 – Muriel Gray, Scottish journalist and author\n* 1958 – Martin Jackson, English drummer \n* 1958 – Anna Politkovskaya, Russian journalist and activist (d. 2006)\n* 1958 – Peter Tunks, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster\n1959 – Mark \"Jacko\" Jackson, Australian footballer, actor, and singer\n1960 – Ben Bradshaw, English journalist and politician, Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport\n* 1960 – Gary Gordon, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)\n* 1960 – Guy A. Lepage, Canadian comedian and producer\n1962 – Ricky Sanders, American football player\n 1962 – Craig Whittaker, English businessman and politician\n1963 – Dave Brockie, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014)\n 1963 – Michael Chiklis, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1963 – Sabine Oberhauser, Austrian physician and politician\n* 1963 – Phil Mills, Welsh race car driver\n1964 – Gavin Fisher, English engineer and designer\n 1964 – Ra Luhse, Estonian architect\n1966 – Peter Cunnah, Northern Irish singer-songwriter and producer\n 1966 – Joann Fletcher, English historian and academic\n1967 – Frederique van der Wal, Dutch model and actress\n 1967 – Justin Vaughan, New Zealand cricketer\n1968 – Diran Adebayo, English author and critic\n 1968 – Vladimir Malakhov, Russian ice hockey player\n1969 – Vladimir Jugović, Serbian footballer\n 1969 – Dimitris Sgouros, Greek pianist and composer\n1970 – Carlo Checchinato, Italian rugby player and manager\n 1970 – Michael Wong, Malaysian-Chinese singer-songwriter \n1971 – Lars Frederiksen, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1971 – Julian Smith, Scottish politician\n1972 – Cameron Diaz, American model, actress, and producer\n 1972 – Pavel Nedvěd, Czech footballer\n1973 – Lisa Ling, American journalist and author\n1974 – Aaron Barrett, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1974 – Javier Otxoa, Spanish cyclist\n1975 – Radhi Jaïdi, Tunisian footballer and coach\n1976 – Mike Koplove, American baseball player\n1977 – Shaun Alexander, American football player\n 1977 – Marlon Byrd, American baseball player\n* 1977 – Kamil Kosowski, Polish footballer\n* 1977 – Félix Sánchez, American-Dominican runner and hurdler\n1978 – Sinead Kerr, Scottish figure skater\n 1978 – Cliff Lee, American baseball player\n1979 – Juan Ignacio Chela, Argentinian tennis player\n 1979 – Leon Lopez, English singer-songwriter and actor\n* 1979 – Scott Richmond, Canadian baseball player\n1980 – Derrick Ward, American football player\n1981 – Germán Legarreta, Puerto Rican-American actor\n* 1981 – Adam Wainwright, American baseball player\n1982 – Will Davison, Australian race car driver\n 1982 – Andy Roddick, American tennis player\n1983 – Emmanuel Culio, Argentinian footballer\n 1983 – Gustavo Eberto, Argentinian footballer (d. 2007)\n* 1983 – Jun Matsumoto, Japanese singer, dancer, and actor \n* 1983 – Simone Pepe, Italian footballer\n* 1983 – Tian Qin, Chinese canoe racer\n* 1983 – Marco Vianello, Italian footballer\n1984 – Anthony Ireland, Zimbabwean cricketer\n1985 – Richard Duffy, Welsh footballer\n* 1985 – Joe Inoue, American singer-songwriter\n* 1985 – Leisel Jones, Australian swimmer\n* 1985 – Éva Risztov, Hungarian swimmer\n* 1985 – Steven Smith, Scottish footballer\n* 1985 – Eamon Sullivan, Australian swimmer\n* 1985 – Anna Ushenina, Ukrainian chess player\n* 1985 – Holly Weston, English actress\n1986 – Theo Hutchcraft, English singer-songwriter \n 1986 – Lelia Masaga, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1986 – Ryan Ross, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1986 – Zafer Yelen, Turkish footballer\n1987 – Tania Foster, English singer-songwriter \n1988 – Ernests Gulbis, Latvian tennis player\n1989 – Simone Guerra, Italian footballer\n 1989 – Ronald Huth, Paraguayan footballer\n* 1989 – Bebe Rexha, American singer-songwriter \n1991 – Seriki Audu, Nigerian footballer (d. 2014)\n 1991 – Jacqueline Cako, American tennis player\n* 1991 – Liam Cooper, Scottish footballer\n1994 – Monika Povilaitytė, Lithuanian volleyball player\n 1994 – Kwon So-hyun, South Korean singer-songwriter and actress \n* 1994 – Heo Young-ji, South Korean singer\n\n", "* 526 – Theodoric the Great, Italian ruler (b. 454)\n* 832 – Cui Qun, Chinese chancellor (b. 772)\n1131 – Hervey le Breton, bishop of Bangor and Ely \n1181 – Pope Alexander III (b. c. 1100–1105)\n1329 – Khutughtu Khan Kusala, Chinese emperor (b. 1300)\n1428 – Emperor Shōkō of Japan (b. 1401)\n1483 – Louis XI of France (b. 1423)\n1500 – Victor, Duke of Münsterberg and Opava, Count of Glatz (b. 1443)\n1580 – Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (b. 1528)\n1604 – John Juvenal Ancina, Italian Oratorian and bishop (b. 1545)\n1619 – Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1535)\n1621 – Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī, co-founder of Isfahan School of Islamic Philosophy (b. 1547)\n1751 – Christopher Polhem, Swedish physicist and engineer (b. 1661)\n1856 – Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English lawyer and author (b. 1811)\n1879 – John Bell Hood, American general (b. 1831)\n1886 – Ferris Jacobs, Jr., American general and politician (b. 1836)\n1896 – Aleksey Lobanov-Rostovsky, Russian politician and diplomat, Minister of Foreign Affairs for Russia (b. 1824)\n1906 – Hans Auer, Swiss-Austrian architect and educator, designed the Federal Palace of Switzerland (b. 1847)\n1907 – Richard Mansfield, American actor and manager (b. 1857)\n1908 – Alexander P. Stewart, American general (b. 1821)\n1928 – Wilhelm Wien, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864)\n1935 – Henri Barbusse, French journalist and author (b. 1873)\n* 1935 – Namık İsmail, Turkish painter and educator (b. 1890)\n1936 – Ronald Fellowes, 2nd Baron Ailwyn, English peer (b. 1886)\n1938 – Max Factor, Sr., Polish-born American make-up artist and businessman, founded the Max Factor Company (b. 1877)\n1940 – J. J. Thomson, English physicist and mathematician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856)\n1941 – Peder Oluf Pedersen, Danish physicist and engineer (b. 1874)\n1943 – Eddy de Neve, Indonesian-Dutch footballer and lieutenant (b. 1885)\n 1943 – Eustáquio van Lieshout, Dutch priest and missionary (b. 1890)\n1945 – Alfréd Schaffer, Hungarian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1893)\n1946 – Konstantin Rodzaevsky, Russian lawyer (b. 1907)\n1947 – Gunnar Sommerfeldt, Danish actor and director (b. 1890) \n1949 – Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (b. 1877)\n1951 – Konstantin Märska, Estonian director and cinematographer (b. 1896)\n1954 – Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster, Italian cardinal (b. 1880)\n1961 – Charles Coburn, American actor (b. 1877)\n1963 – Guy Burgess, English-Soviet spy (b. 1911)\n1964 – Salme Dutt, Estonian-English lawyer and politician (b. 1888)\n1967 – Ad Reinhardt, American painter, illustrator, and academic (b. 1913)\n1968 – William Talman, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1915)\n1970 – Del Moore, American comedian and actor (b. 1916)\n1971 – Ali Hadi Bara, Iranian-Turkish sculptor (b. 1906)\n1979 – Jean Seberg, American actress (b. 1938)\n1981 – Vera-Ellen, American actress and dancer (b. 1921)\n 1981 – Mohammad-Ali Rajai, Iranian politician, 2nd President of Iran (b. 1933)\n1985 – Taylor Caldwell, English-American author (b. 1900)\n1988 – Jack Marshall, New Zealand colonel, lawyer and politician, 28th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1912)\n1989 – Seymour Krim, American journalist and critic (b. 1922)\n1990 – Bernard D. H. Tellegen, Dutch engineer and academic (b. 1900)\n1991 – Cyril Knowles, English footballer and manager (b. 1944)\n 1991 – Vladimír Padrůněk, Czech bass player (b. 1952)\n* 1991 – Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (b. 1925)\n1993 – Richard Jordan, American actor (b. 1938)\n1994 – Lindsay Anderson, English director and screenwriter (b. 1923)\n1995 – Fischer Black, American economist and academic (b. 1938)\n 1995 – Sterling Morrison, American guitarist and singer (b. 1942)\n1996 – Christine Pascal, French actress, director, and screenwriter (b. 1953)\n1999 – Reindert Brasser, Dutch discus thrower (b. 1912)\n* 1999 – Raymond Poïvet, French illustrator (b. 1910)\n2001 – Ivor Spencer-Thomas, Welsh farmer and inventor (b. 1907)\n2001 – Govan Mbeki, ANC activist and father of President of South Africa Thank Mbeki (b. 1910)\n2002 – J. Lee Thompson, English-Canadian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1914)\n2003 – Charles Bronson, American actor and soldier (b. 1921)\n* 2003 – Donald Davidson, American philosopher and academic (b. 1917)\n2004 – Fred Lawrence Whipple, American astronomer and academic (b. 1906)\n2006 – Robin Cooke, Baron Cooke of Thorndon, New Zealand lawyer and judge (b. 1926)\n* 2006 – Glenn Ford, Canadian-American actor and producer (b. 1916)\n* 2006 – Naguib Mahfouz, Egyptian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n2007 – Michael Jackson, English author and journalist (b. 1942)\n 2007 – Charles Vanik, American soldier and politician (b. 1918)\n2008 – Brian Hambly, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1937)\n 2008 – Killer Kowalski, Canadian-American wrestler and trainer (b. 1926)\n2009 – Klaus-Peter Hanisch, German footballer (b. 1952)\n2010 – J. C. Bailey, American wrestler (b. 1983)\n* 2010 – Alain Corneau, French director and screenwriter (b. 1943)\n* 2010 – Myrtle Edwards, Australian cricketer and softball player (b. 1921)\n* 2010 – Francisco Varallo, Argentinian footballer (b. 1910)\n2013 – William C. Campbell, American golfer (b. 1923)\n 2013 – Howie Crittenden, American basketball player and coach (b. 1933)\n* 2013 – Allan Gotthelf, American philosopher and academic (b. 1942)\n* 2013 – Seamus Heaney, Irish poet and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)\n* 2013 – Leo Lewis, American football player and coach (b. 1933)\n2014 – Bipan Chandra, Indian historian and academic (b. 1928)\n 2014 – Igor Decraene, Belgian cyclist (b. 1996)\n* 2014 – Andrew V. McLaglen, English-American director and producer (b. 1920)\n* 2014 – Felipe Osterling, Peruvian lawyer and politician (b. 1932)\n2015 – Wes Craven, American director, producer, screenwriter, and actor (b. 1939)\n 2015 – Edward Fadeley, American lawyer and politician (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – M. M. Kalburgi, Indian scholar, author, and academic (b. 1938)\n* 2015 – Marvin Mandel, American lawyer and politician, 56th Governor of Maryland (b. 1920)\n* 2015 – Oliver Sacks, English-American neurologist, author, and academic (b. 1933)\n* 2017 – Louise Hay, American motivational author, (b. 1926)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\n Alexander of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodoxy)\n Blessed Alfredo Ildefonso Schuster\n Blessed Eustáquio van Lieshout\n Blessed Stephen Nehmé (Maronite Church / Catholic Church)\n Charles Chapman Grafton (Episcopal Church)\n Fantinus\n Felix and Adauctus\n Fiacre\n Jeanne Jugan\n Narcisa de Jesús\n Pammachius\n August 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Constitution Day (Kazakhstan)\n* Constitution Day (Turks and Caicos Islands)\n* Independence Day (Tartarstan, Russia not formally recognized)\n* International Day of the Disappeared\n* Popular Consultation Day (East Timor)\n* Saint Rose of Lima's Day (Peru)\n* Victory Day (Turkey)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 30
[ "\n\n\n\nThe '''acre''' is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is defined as the area of 1 chain by 1 furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to of a square mile, 43,560 square feet, approximately 4,047 m2, or about 40% of a hectare.\n\nThe acre is commonly used in Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, American Samoa, the Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Canada, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Ireland, Jamaica, Montserrat, Myanmar, Pakistan, Samoa, St. Lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United States and the US Virgin Islands.\n\nThe international symbol of the acre is '''ac'''. The most commonly used acre today is the international acre. In the United States both the international acre and the US survey acre are in use, but differ by only two parts per million; see below. The most common use of the acre is to measure tracts of land. One international acre is defined as exactly square metres.\n\nAn acre was defined in the Middle Ages as the amount of land that could be ploughed in one day by a yoke of oxen.\n", "One acre equals 0.0015625 square miles, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet or about (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends on which yard it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day. A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.\n", "In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959 the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metres. Consequently, the international acre is exactly square metres.\n\nBoth the international acre and the US survey acre contain of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based. The US survey acre is about square metres; its exact value ( m2) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre.\n\nSince the difference between the US survey acre and international acre is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet of paper (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable.\n", "In India, residential plots are measured in cents or decimal, which is one hundredth of an acre, or . In Sri Lanka the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common.\n", "1 international acre is equal to the following metric units:\n0.40468564224 hectare (A square with 100 m sides has an area of 1 hectare.)\n4,046.8564224 square metres\n\n1 United States survey acre is equal to:\n0.404687261 hectare\n4,046.87261 square metres (1 square kilometre is equal to 247.105 acres)\n\n1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units:\n66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet)\n10 square chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links)\n1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square)\n4,840 square yards\n43,560 square feet\n160 perches. A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre)\n4 roods\nA furlong by a chain (furlong 220 yards, chain 22 yards)\n40 rods by 4 rods, 160 rods2 (historically fencing was often sold in 40 rod lengths)\n (0.0015625) square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres)\n\nPerhaps the easiest way for US residents to envisage an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( of 880 yards by of 880 yards), about the size of a standard American football field. The area of one acre (red) superposed on an American football field (green) and association football (soccer) pitch (blue). To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zones). The full field, including the end zones, covers about .\n\nFor residents of other countries, the acre might be envisaged as approximately half of a 105-m-long by 68-m-wide association football (soccer) pitch.\n\nIt may also be remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1%.\n", "\nThe word \"acre\" is derived from Old English originally meaning \"open field\", cognate to west coast Norwegian and Swedish , German , Dutch , Latin , Sanskrit , and Greek (). In English, it was historically spelled ''aker''.\n\nThe acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day. This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong. A long, narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. The word \"furlong\" itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long.\n\nBefore the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of \"acre\" existed as there were German states.\n\nStatutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently, the United Kingdom, by acts of:\nEdward I\nEdward III\nHenry VIII\nGeorge IV\nQueen Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.\n\nHistorically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land.\n\nThe acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of mile (880 yards) and is square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being mile long, and being of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase \"the back 40\" would refer to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes.\n", " '''Customary acre''' – The customary acre was a measure of roughly similar size to the acre described above, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation found in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundels. However, there were more ancient measures that were also farthingales. These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre.\n* '''Builder's acre''' – In US construction and real estate development, an area of 40,000 square feet. Used to simplify math and for marketing, it is nearly 10% smaller than a survey acre.\n* '''Scottish acre''', one of a number of obsolete Scottish units of measurement\n* '''Irish acre''' = 7,840 square yards\n* '''Cheshire acre''' = 10,240 square yards\n* '''stremma''' or '''Greek acre''' ≈ 10,000 square Greek feet, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the zeugarion)\n* '''dunam''' or '''Turkish acre''' ≈ 1,600 square Turkish paces, but now set at exactly 1,000 square metres (a similar unit was the çift)\n* '''actus quadratus''' or '''Roman acre''' ≈ 14,400 square Roman feet (about 1,260 square metres)\n* God's Acre – a synonym for a churchyard.\n", "\n* Acre-foot\n* Anthropic units\n* Conversion of units\n* French arpent – also used in Louisiana as length and area unit of measure\n* Jugerum\n* a Morgen (\"morning\") of land is usually set at of a Tagwerk (\"day work\") of ploughing with an ox\n* Public Land Survey System\n* Quarter acre\n* Section (United States land surveying)\n* Spanish customary units\n\n", "\n", "\n* The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom)\n* Cockeyed.com presents \"How much is inside an acre?\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Differences between international and US survey acres", "South Asia", "Equivalence to other units of area", " Historical origin ", "Legacy acres", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Acre
[ "'''ATP''' may refer to:\n\n\n", "* Available-to-promise, a business function that provides a response to customer order enquiries\n", "* Association of Tennis Professionals, international men's professional tennis association\n* American Technical Publishers, an employee-owned publishing company located in Orland Park, Illinois\n* '''', the largest pension program in Denmark\n* Armenia Tree Project, a non-profit organization promoting Armenia's socioeconomic development through reforestation\n* Associated Talking Pictures, a British film studio of the 1930s later renamed as Ealing Studios\n* Association for Transpersonal Psychology, a psychological organization\n* ATP architects engineers, an international architecture and engineering office for integrated design\n* ATP Oil and Gas, a Texas-based oil and gas company that operates in the Gulf of Mexico and the North Sea\n", "* Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh, a city in Andhra Pradesh, India\n* Anantapur district, a district in Andhra Pradesh, India\n", "* Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (band), a Japanese alternative rock/pop band\n* All Tomorrow's Parties (music festival), a music festival which takes place in Great Britain\n* Alberta Theatre Projects, a Canadian theatre production company \n* ATP Recordings, a record label affiliated with the All Tomorrow's Parties festival\n", "* Adenosine triphosphate, coenzyme used as an energy carrier in the cells of all known organisms; an integral part of the process by which energy is moved throughout the cell\n* Accidental Tech Podcast (atp.fm), hosted by Marco Arment, John Siracusa and Casey Liss\n* Automated theorem proving, the proving of mathematical theorems by a computer program\n* Advanced Technology Program, a United States government program\n* Alberta Taciuk process, thermal retorting technology for extracting oil from oil sands, oil shale, and oil contaminated soils / sludges\n", "* Airline Transport Pilot License, a type of pilot's license\n* ATP Flight School, a flight training school with multiple locations throughout the United States.\n* ATP (treaty), the 1970 Agreement on the International Carriage of Perishable Foodstuffs and on the Special Equipment to be used for such Carriage\n* Automatic Train Protection, a British train protection system\n* BAe ATP, a British Aerospace turboprop passenger aircraft designed for the short range market\n* Aitape Airport in Papua New Guinea, IATA airport code ATP\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Commerce", "Companies and organizations", "Geography", "Music and theater", "Science and technology", "Transport" ]	ATP
[ "\n\n'''Adenosine triphosphate''' ('''ATP''') is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the \"molecular unit of currency\" of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di- or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA.\n\nFrom the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components, a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate. It is used in cells as a coenzyme.\n", "In terms of its structure, ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9-nitrogen atom to the 1′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the 5′ carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di- and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP and AMP. The three phosphoryl groups are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal phosphate, gamma (γ). \n\nIn neutral solution, ionized ATP exists mostly as ATP4−, with a small proportion of ATP3−. \n\n===Binding of metal cations to ATP===\nBeing polyanionic and featuring a potentially chelatable polyphosphate group, ATP binds metal cations with high affinity. The binding constant for is (). The binding of a divalent cation, almost always magnesium, strongly affects the interaction of ATP with various proteins Due to the strength of the ATP-Mg2+ interaction, ATP exists in the cell mostly as a complex with bonded to the phosphate oxygen centers.\n\nA second magnesium ion is critical for ATP binding in the kinase domain. The presence of Mg2+ regulates kinase activity.\n", "Salts of ATP can be isolated as colorless solids.\n\nATP is stable in aqueous solutions between pH 6.8 and 7.4, but it is rapidly hydrolysed at more extreme pH's. ATP hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate. Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium, with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentration of ADP.\n\n In the context of biochemical reactions, these anhydride bonds are frequently referred to as ''high-energy bonds''. \n\nThe hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate releases 30.5 kJ/mol of enthalpy, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ/mol. The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (Pi) or pyrophosphate (PPi) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are:\n\n:ATP + → ADP + Pi Δ''G''° = −30.5 kJ/mol (−7.3 kcal/mol)\n:ATP + → AMP + PPi Δ''G''° = −45.6 kJ/mol (−10.9 kcal/mol)\nThese abbreviated equations can be written more explicitly (R = adenosyl):\n:RO-P(O)2-O-P(O)2-O-PO34- + → RO-P(O)2-O-PO33- + PO43- + 2 H+\n:RO-P(O)2-O-P(O)2-O-PO34- + → RO-PO32- + O3P-O-PO44- + 2 H+\n\nThis image shows a 360-degree rotation of a single, gas-phase magnesium-ATP chelate with a charge of −2. The anion was optimized at the UB3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) theoretical level and the atomic connectivity modified by the human optimizer to reflect the probable electronic structure.\n", "===Production, aerobic conditions===\nWith a typical intracellular concentration of 1–10 mM, ATP is abundant. The dephosphorylation of ATP and rephosphorylation of ADP and AMP occur repeatedly in the course of aerobic metabolism.\n\nATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta-oxidation. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide, the combination of pathways 1 and 2, is known as cellular respiration, produces about 30 equivalents of ATP from each molecule of glucose. \n\nATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote occurs mainly in the mitochondria, which comprise nearly 25% of the volume of a typical cell.\n\n====Glycolysis====\n\n\nIn glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, PGK and pyruvate kinase. Two equivalents of NADH are also produced, which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase. The pyruvate generated as an end-product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle.\n\n=====Regulation=====\nIn glycolysis, hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate, and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself. The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase (PFK), which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP. The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual, since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK; the active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two conformations, only one of which binds the second substrate fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The protein has two binding sites for ATP – the active site is accessible in either protein conformation, but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly. A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP-induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK, including cyclic AMP, ammonium ions, inorganic phosphate, and fructose-1,6- and -2,6-biphosphate.\n====Citric acid cycle====\n\n\nIn the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group, which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle). Every \"turn\" of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide, one equivalent of ATP guanosine triphosphate (GTP) through substrate-level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase, three molecules of NADH, and one equivalent of FADH2. NADH and FADH2 are recycled to (NAD+ and FAD, respectively), generating additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. The oxidation of NADH results in the synthesis of 2–3 equivalents of ATP, and the oxidation of one FADH2 yields between 1–2 equivalents of ATP. The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process. Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen, it is an obligately aerobic process because O2 is used to recycle the NADH and FADH2. In the absence of oxygen, the citric acid cycle ceases.\n\nThe generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate-aspartate shuttle (and to a lesser extent, the glycerol-phosphate shuttle) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD+. Instead of transferring the generated NADH, a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate, which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix. Another malate dehydrogenase-catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction, producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion's interior store of NAD+. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space.\n\nIn oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain pumps protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping generates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Flow of protons down this potential gradient – that is, from the intermembrane space to the matrix – yields ATP by ATP synthase.\n\nMost of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix. The inner membrane contains an antiporter, the ADP/ATP translocase, which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space. This translocase is driven by the membrane potential, as it results in the movement of about 4 negative charges out of the mitochondrial membrane in exchange for 3 negative charges moved inside. However, it is also necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate, partially dissipating the proton gradient.\n\n=====Regulation=====\nThe citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates, particularly the ratio of NAD+ to NADH and the concentrations of calcium, inorganic phosphate, ATP, ADP, and AMP. Citrate – the molecule that gives its name to the cycle – is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK, providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis.\n\n====Beta oxidation====\n\nIn the presence of air and various cofactors and enzymes, fatty acids are degraded to acetyl-CoA. The pathway is called beta-oxidation. Each cycle of beta-oxidation shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbon atoms and produces one equivalent each of NADH and one FADH2. The NADH and FADH2 are used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Dozens of ATP equivalents are generated by the beta-oxidation of a single long acyl chain. The acetyl-CoA produced by beta-oxidation can be subsequently metabolized by the citric acid cycle, yielding further equivalents of ATP.\n\n=====Regulation=====\nIn oxidative phosphorylation, the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase, which is regulated by the availability of its substrate – the reduced form of cytochrome c. The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates:\n: NADH + cyt cox + ADP + Pi NAD+ + cyt cred + ATP\nwhich directly implies this equation:\n:\n\nThus, a high ratio of NADH to NAD+ or a high ratio of ADPPi to ATP imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity. An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm.\n\n===Production, anaerobic conditions===\nFermentation is the metabolism of organic compounds in the absence of air. It involves substrate-level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain. The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is:\n: → 2 + 2 ATP\n\nAnaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of . Prokaryotes can utilize a variety of electron acceptors. These include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.\n\n===ATP replenishment by nucleoside diphosphate kinases===\nATP can also be synthesized through several so-called \"replenishment\" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDKs), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family.\n\n===ATP production during photosynthesis===\nIn plants, ATP is synthesized in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. The process is called photophosphorylation. The \"machinery\" is similar to that in mitochondria except that light energy is used to pump protons across a membrane to produce a proton-motive force. ATP synthase then ensues exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation. Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle, which produces triose sugars.\n\n===ATP recycling===\nThe total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.2 moles. The majority of ATP is recycled from ADP by the aforementioned processes. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant.\n\nThe energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily, which is around 50 to 75 kg. A human will typically use up his or her body weight of ATP over the course of the day. Each equivalent of ATP is recycled 500-750 times during a single day ().\n\nAn example of the Rossmann fold, a structural domain of a decarboxylase enzyme from the bacterium ''Staphylococcus epidermidis'' () with a bound flavin mononucleotide cofactor.\n", "===Intracellular signaling===\nATP is involved signal transduction by serving as substrate for kinases, enzymes that transfer phosphate groups. Kinases are the most common ATP-binding proteins. They share a small number of common folds. Phosphorylation of a protein by a kinase can activate a cascade such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade.\n\nATP is also a substrate of adenylate cyclase, most commonly in G protein-coupled receptor signal transduction pathways and is transformed to second messenger, cyclic AMP, which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores. This form of signal transduction is particularly important in brain function, although it is involved in the regulation of a multitude of other cellular processes.\n\n===DNA and RNA synthesis===\nATP is one of four \"monomers\" required in the synthesis of RNA. The process is promoted by RNA polymerases. A similar process occurs in the formation of DNA, except that ATP is first converted to the deoxyribonucleotide dATP. Like many condensation reactions in nature, DNA replication and DNA transcription also consumes ATP.\n\n===Amino acid activation in protein synthesis===\n\nAminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzymes consume ATP in the attachment tRNA to amino acids, forming aminoacyl-tRNA complexes. Aminoacyl transferase binds AMP-amino acid to tRNA. The coupling reaction proceeds in two steps:\n\n# aa + ATP --> aa-AMP + PPi\n# aa-AMP + tRNA --> aa-tRNA + AMP\n\nThe amino acid is coupled to the penultimate nucleotide at the 3′-end of the tRNA (the A in the sequence CCA) via an ester bond (roll over in illustration).\n===ATP binding cassette transporter===\nTransporting chemicals out of a cell against a gradient is often associated with ATP hydrolysis. Transport is mediated by ATP binding cassette transporters. The human genome encodes 48 ABC transporters, that are used for exporting drugs, lipids, and other compounds.\n", "Biochemistry laboratories often use ''in vitro'' studies to explore ATP-dependent molecular processes. Enzyme inhibitors of ATP-dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP-dependent reactions. ATP analogs are also used in X-ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP, often together with other substrates.\nMost useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be; instead they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP-bound state. Adenosine 5′-(γ-thiotriphosphate) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma-phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom; this anion is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP-dependent processes. In crystallographic studies, hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion. However, caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs, since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration.\n", "ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann, and independently by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subbarow of Harvard Medical School, but its correct structure was not determined until some years later. It was proposed to be the intermediary between energy-yielding and energy-requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941. It was first synthesized in the laboratory by Alexander Todd in 1948.\n\n\n", "* Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)\n* Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)\n* Adenosine-tetraphosphatase\n* ATPases\n* ATP test\n* ATP hydrolysis\n* Citric acid cycle (also called the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle)\n* Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)\n* Nucleotide exchange factor\n* Phosphagen\n* Photophosphorylation\n", "\n", "\n* ATP bound to proteins in the PDB\n* ScienceAid: Energy ATP and Exercise\n* PubChem entry for Adenosine Triphosphate\n* KEGG entry for Adenosine Triphosphate\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Structure", "Chemical properties", "Production from AMP and ADP", "Other biochemical functions", "ATP analogues", "History", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Adenosine triphosphate
[ "\n\n\n\nIn Norse mythology, '''Ægir''' (Old Norse \"sea\") is a sea jötunn associated with the ocean. He is also known for being a friend of the gods and hosting elaborate parties for them.\n\nHe is the namesake for the exoplanet previously known as Epsilon Eridani b.\n\nÆgir's servants are Fimafeng (killed by Loki) and Eldir.\n", "The ''Nafnaþulur'' attached to the ''Prose Edda'' list Ægir as a giant. Richard Cleasby and Guðbrandur Vigfússon saw his name as pre-Norse, derived from an ancient Indo-European root.\n", "Both ''Hversu Noregr byggðist'' and Snorri Sturluson in ''Skáldskaparmál'' state that Ægir is the same as the sea-giant '''Hlér''', who lives on the Hlésey (\"Hlér island\", modern Danish ''Læsø''), and this is borne out by kennings. Snorri uses his visiting the Æsir as the frame of that section of the Prose Edda.\n\nIn ''Lokasenna'', Ægir hosts a party for the gods where he provides the ale brewed in an enormous pot or cauldron provided by Thor and Týr. The story of their obtaining the pot from the giant Hymir is told in ''Hymiskviða''.\n\nThe prose introduction to ''Lokasenna'' and Snorri's list of kennings state that Ægir is also known as Gymir, who is Gerðr's father, but this is evidently an erroneous interpretation of kennings in which different giant-names are used interchangeably.\n", "right\nAccording to ''Fundinn Noregr'', Ægir is a son of the giant Fornjótr, the king of ''\"Gotlandi, Kænlandi and Finnlandi\"'', and brother of Logi (\"fire\") and Kári (\"wind\").\n\nÆgir's wife is Rán. She is mother of the Nine Daughters of Ægir:\nBára (or Dröfn, \"wave\")\nBlóðughadda (\"the one with blood-red hair – the color of the waves after a naval battle\")\nBylgja (\"to billow\" or \"big wave\")\nDúfa (\"the pitching wave\")\nHefring (\"the surging wave\")\nHiminglæva (\"the wave that reflects the light of the sky\")\nHrönn (\"the grasping wave\")\nKólga (\"the chilling wave\")\nUnnr (or Uðr, \"wave\")\n", "\n Norse mythology\n* Trent Aegir\n", "\n", "Cleasby, Richard, Guðbrandur Vigfússon (1957). ''An Icelandic-English Dictionary''. 2nd ed. with supplement by William A. Craigie. Clarendon Press. Repr. 1975. \nde Vries, Jan (1956). ''Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte'' Volume 1. 2nd ed. Berlin: de Gruyter. Repr. 1970.\nFaulkes, Anthony (tr. and ed.) (1987). Snorri Sturluson. ''Edda''. Everyman Classics. Repr. 1998. .\nLindow, John (2001). '' Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs''. Oxford University Press. \n*Simek, Rudolf (1993). ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology'', tr. Angela Hall. Cambridge: Brewer. Repr. 2000. \n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " Attestations ", " Family ", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Ægir
[ "\n\nTesting the susceptibility of ''Staphylococcus aureus'' to antibiotics by the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method – antibiotics diffuse from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of ''S. aureus'', resulting in a zone of inhibition.\n\n'''Antibiotics''' (From ancient Greek αντιβιοτικά, ''antiviotika)'' also called '''antibacterials''', are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the common cold or influenza; drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics.\n\nSometimes the term antibiotic (which means \"opposing life\") is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic; antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine.\n\nAntibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Together with vaccination, antibiotics have led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access have also led to their overuse, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. This has led to widespread problems, so much as to prompt the World Health Organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a \"serious threat that is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country\".\n", "=== Biological antibiotics derived from molds ===\n \nSubstances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times.\n\nPenicillin, the first natural antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928\nBefore the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, \"if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics\".\n\nIn 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold ''Penicillium glaucum'' that is used in the making of some types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field. Pasteur conducted research showing that ''Bacillus anthracis'' would not grow in the presence of the related mold ''Penicillium notatum''.\n\nIn 1895 Vincenzo Tiberio, Itallian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold.\n\nIn 1897, doctoral student Ernest Duchesne submitted a dissertation, \"Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes\" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between molds and microbes), the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of molds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a perpetual battle for survival. Duchesne observed that ''E. coli'' was eliminated by ''Penicillium glaucum'' when they were both grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated laboratory animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with ''Penicillium glaucum'', the animals did not contract typhoid. Unfortunately Duchesne's army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research. Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics.\n\nAlexander Fleming was awarded a Nobel prize for his role in the discovery of penicillinIn 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by certain molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a green mold, ''Penicillium chrysogenum'', in one of his culture plates. He observed that the presence of the mold killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria. Fleming postulated that the mold must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.\n\nErnst Chain, Howard Florey and Edward Abraham succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was first proposed by Abraham in 1942 and then later confirmed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. (see below) The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Chain and Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming.\n\nFlorey credited Rene Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin. In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Dubos had reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from ''B. brevis.'' It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during World War II and limited access during the Cold War.\n\n=== Synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes ===\nSynthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the first synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine.\nDr. Paul Ehrlich and Dr. Sahachiro Hata \nThe era of antibacterial treatment began with the discoveries of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by Alfred Bertheim and Ehrlich in 1907. Ehrlich and Bertheim experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat trypanosomiasis in mice and spirochaeta infection in rabbits. While their early compounds were too toxic, Ehrlich and Sahachiro Hata, a Japanese bacteriologist working with Erlich in the quest for a drug to treat syphilis, achieved success with the 606th compound in their series of experiments. In 1910 Ehrlich and Hata announced their discovery, which they called drug \"606\", at the Congress for Internal Medicine at Wiesbaden. The Hoechst company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan. This drug is now known as arsphenamine. The drug was used to treat syphilis in the first half of the 20th century. In 1908, Ehrlich received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his contributions to immunology. Hata was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 and for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 and 1913.\n\nThe first sulfonamide and the first systemically active antibacterial drug, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 or 1933 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany, for which Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Sulfanilamide, the active drug of Prontosil, was not patentable as it had already been in use in the dye industry for some years. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.\n", "Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent bacterial infections, and sometimes protozoan infections. (Metronidazole is effective against a number of parasitic diseases). When an infection is suspected of being responsible for an illness but the responsible pathogen has not been identified, an empiric therapy is adopted. This involves the administration of a broad-spectrum antibiotic based on the signs and symptoms presented and is initiated pending laboratory results that can take several days.\n\nWhen the responsible pathogenic microorganism is already known or has been identified, definitive therapy can be started. This will usually involve the use of a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The choice of antibiotic given will also be based on its cost. Identification is critically important as it can reduce the cost and toxicity of the antibiotic therapy and also reduce the possibility of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. To avoid surgery, antibiotics may be given for non-complicated acute appendicitis.\n \nAntibiotics may be given as a preventive measure (prophylactic) and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a weakened immune system (particularly in HIV cases to prevent pneumonia), those taking immunosuppressive drugs, cancer patients and those having surgery. Their use in surgical procedures is to help prevent infection of incisions made. They have an important role in dental antibiotic prophylaxis where their use may prevent bacteremia and consequent infective endocarditis. Antibiotics are also used to prevent infection in cases of neutropenia particularly cancer-related.\n\n===Administration===\nThere are different routes of administration for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually taken by mouth. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated systemic infections, antibiotics can be given intravenously or by injection. Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given topically in the form of eye drops onto the conjunctiva for conjunctivitis or ear drops for ear infections and acute cases of swimmer's ear. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including acne and cellulitis. Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse. Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections. However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local hypersensitivity reactions or contact dermatitis occurring.\n", "Health advocacy messages such as this one encourage patients to talk with their doctor about safety in using antibiotics.\nAntibiotics are screened for any negative effects before their approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a wide extent of adverse side effects ranging from mild to very severe depending on the type of antibiotic used, the microbes targeted, and the individual patient. Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity or allergic reactions. Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis. Safety profiles of newer drugs are often not as well established as for those that have a long history of use.\n \nCommon side-effects include diarrhea, resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as ''Clostridium difficile''. Antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus ''Candida'' in the vulvo-vaginal area. Additional side-effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as the possibility of tendon damage from the administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid.\n\n===Obesity===\nExposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. One study has reported that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to control mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy.\n", "\n===Birth control pills===\nWell controlled studies on the effect of oral contraceptive failure and antibiotics are very limited. The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with birth control pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). Situations that may increase the risk of oral contraceptive failure include non-compliance (missing taking the pill), vomiting or diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders or interpatient variability in oral contraceptive absorption affecting ethinylestradiol serum levels in the blood. Women with menstrual irregularities may be at higher risk of failure and should be advised to use backup contraception during antibiotic treatment and for one week after its completion. If patient-specific risk factors for reduced oral contraceptive efficacy are suspected, backup contraception is recommended.\n\nIn cases where antibiotics have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibiotic rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibiotics that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives. More studies on the possible interactions between antibiotics and birth control pills (oral contraceptives) are required as well as careful assessment of patient-specific risk factors for potential oral contractive pill failure prior to dismissing the need for backup contraception.\n\n===Alcohol===\nInteractions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered.\n\nAntibiotics such as metronidazole, tinidazole, cephamandole, latamoxef, cefoperazone, cefmenoxime, and furazolidone, cause a disulfiram-like chemical reaction with alcohol by inhibiting its breakdown by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath. In addition, the efficacy of doxycycline and erythromycin succinate may be reduced by alcohol consumption. Other effects of alcohol on antibiotic activity include altered activity of the liver enzymes that break down the antibiotic compound.\n", "\nThe successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, ''in vitro'' characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial.\nTo predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.\n\n===Combination therapy===\n\nIn important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, combination therapy (i.e., the concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their synergistic effects to improve treatment outcome as the combined effect of both antibiotics is better than their individual effect. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections may be treated with a combination therapy of fusidic acid and rifampicin. Antibiotics used in combination may also be antagonistic and the combined effects of the two antibiotics may be less than if the individual antibiotic was given as part of a monotherapy. For example, chloramphenicol and tetracyclines are antagonists to penicillins and aminoglycosides. However, this can vary depending on the species of bacteria. In general, combinations of a bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic are antagonistic.\n", "\nMolecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell\n\nAntibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Protein synthesis inhibitors (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. \"Narrow-spectrum\" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as gram-negative or gram-positive, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).\n", "\nWith advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus ''Penicillium''), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 1000 daltons.\n\nSince the first pioneering efforts of Howard Florey and Chain in 1939, the importance of antibiotics, including antibacterials, to medicine has led to intense research into producing antibacterials at large scales. Following screening of antibacterials against a wide range of bacteria, production of the active compounds is carried out using fermentation, usually in strongly aerobic conditions.\n", "\n\nScanning electron micrograph of a human neutrophil ingesting methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA)\n\nThe emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.\n\nResistance may take the form of biodegredation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces.\nThe survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance, but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through horizontal gene transfer. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.\n\nAntibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing fitness of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.\n\nPaleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms. Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability.\n\nSeveral molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.\n\nAntibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as \"superbugs\", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that \"most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections.\" On 26 May 2016 an E coli bacteria \"superbug\" was identified in the United States resistant to colistin, \"the last line of defence\" antibiotic.\n\n===Misuse===\nThis poster from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention \"Get Smart\" campaign, intended for use in doctors' offices and other healthcare facilities, warns that antibiotics do not work for viral illnesses such as the common cold.\n\n\n\nPer ''The ICU Book'' \"The first rule of antibiotics is try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them.\" Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.\n\nCommon forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found \"physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them\". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.\n\nSeveral organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is ''Keep Antibiotics Working''. In France, an \"Antibiotics are not automatic\" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.\n\nThe emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (including the World Health Organization, the National Academy of Sciences, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration) have advocated restricting the amount of antibiotic use in food animal production. However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA).\n\nDespite pledges by food companies and restaurants to reduce or eliminate meat that comes from animals treated with antibiotics, the purchase of antibiotics for use on farm animals has been increasing every year.\n\nThere has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.\n", "\nThe term 'antibiosis', meaning \"against life\", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of ''Bacillus anthracis''. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942.\n\nThe term ''antibiotic'' was first used in 1942 by Selman Waksman and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution. This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as gastric juices and hydrogen peroxide). It also excluded synthetic antibacterial compounds such as the sulfonamides. In current usage, the term \"antibiotic\" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not.\n\nThe term \"antibiotic\" derives from ''anti'' + βιωτικός (''biōtikos''), \"fit for life, lively\", which comes from βίωσις (''biōsis''), \"way of life\", and that from βίος (''bios''), \"life\". The term \"antibacterial\" derives from Greek ἀντί (''anti''), \"against\" + βακτήριον (''baktērion''), diminutive of βακτηρία (''baktēria''), \"staff, cane\", because the first ones to be discovered were rod-shaped.\n", "\n===Alternatives===\nThe increase in bacterial strains that are resistant to conventional antibacterial therapies together with decreasing number of new antibiotics currently being developed in the drug pipeline has prompted the development of bacterial disease treatment strategies that are alternatives to conventional antibacterials. Non-compound approaches (that is, products other than classical antibacterial agents) that target bacteria or approaches that target the host including phage therapy and vaccines are also being investigated to combat the problem.\n\n===Resistance-modifying agents===\nOne strategy to address bacterial drug resistance is the discovery and application of compounds that modify resistance to common antibacterials. Resistance modifying agents are capable of partly or completely suppressing bacterial resistance mechanisms. For example, some resistance-modifying agents may inhibit multidrug resistance mechanisms, such as drug efflux from the cell, thus increasing the susceptibility of bacteria to an antibacterial. Targets include:\n* The efflux inhibitor Phe-Arg-β-naphthylamide.\n* Beta-lactamase inhibitors, such as clavulanic acid and sulbactam \nMetabolic stimuli such as sugar can help eradicate a certain type of antibiotic-tolerant bacteria by keeping their metabolism active.\n\n===Vaccines===\nVaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.\n\n===Phage therapy===\n\n\nPhage injecting its genome into bacterial cell\nPhage therapy is another method for treating antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Phage therapy infects pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, bacteriophages and their host ranges are extremely specific for certain bacteria, thus they do not disturb the host organism and intestinal microflora unlike antibiotics. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, infect and can kill bacteria and affect bacterial growth primarily during lytic cycles. Phages insert their DNA into the bacterium, where it is transcribed and used to make new phages, after which the cell will lyse, releasing new phage able to infect and destroy further bacteria of the same strain. The high specificity of phage protects \"good\" bacteria from destruction. However, some disadvantages to use of bacteriophages also exist. Bacteriophages may harbour virulence factors or toxic genes in their genomes and identification of genes with similarity to known virulence factors or toxins by genomic sequencing may be prudent prior to use. In addition, the oral and IV administration of phages for the eradication of bacterial infections poses a much higher safety risk than topical application, and there is the additional concern of uncertain immune responses to these large antigenic cocktails. There are considerable regulatory hurdles that must be cleared for such therapies. The use of bacteriophages as a replacement for antimicrobial agents against MDR pathogens no longer respond to conventional antibiotics remains an attractive option despite numerous challenges.\n\n===Phytochemicals===\nPlants are an important source of antimicrobial compounds and traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious diseases. There is a recent renewed interest into the use of natural products for the identification of new members of the 'antibiotic-ome' (defined as natural products with antibiotic activity), and their application in antibacterial drug discovery in the genomics era. Phytochemicals are the active biological component of plants and some phytochemicals including tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids and flavonoids possess antimicrobial activity. Some antioxidant dietary supplements also contain phytochemicals (polyphenols), such as grape seed extract, and demonstrate ''in vitro'' anti-bacterial properties. Phytochemicals are able to inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis, damage microbial membrane structures, modify bacterial membrane surface hydrophobicity and also modulate quorum-sensing. With increasing antibiotic resistance in recent years, the potential of new plant-derived antibiotics is under investigation.\n\n===Development of new antibiotics===\nIn April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB.\nSome of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:\nTazobactam\n\n''Streptomyces'' research is expected to provide new antibiotics, including treatment against MRSA and infections resistant to commonly used medication. Efforts of John Innes Centre and universities in the UK, supported by BBSRC, resulted in the creation of spin-out companies, for example Novacta Biosystems, which has designed the type-b lantibiotic-based compound NVB302 (in phase 1) to treat ''Clostridium difficile'' infections.\nPossible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. In the US, the Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act was introduced with the aim of fast tracking the drug development of antibiotics to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, \"By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible.\"\n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", "Medical uses", "Side-effects", "Interactions", "Pharmacodynamics", "Classes", "Production", "Resistance", "Etymology", "Research", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Antibiotics
[ "\n\n\n'''ASA''' as an abbreviation or initialism may refer to:\n\n", "* Acoustical Society of America\n* Advertising Standards Authority (disambiguation)\n* African Studies Association\n* African Studies Association of the United Kingdom\n* Aid to Southeast Asia, a non-governmental organization\n* Airline Superintendents Association of Trinidad & Tobago\n* Air Services Australia, air traffic management and related services provider for Australia\n* Albany Students' Association, at Massey University's Albany Campus in Auckland, New Zealand\n* Alpha Sigma Alpha (ΑΣΑ), U.S. national sorority\n* Amateur Softball Association, national governing body of Softball\n* Amateur Swimming Association, UK governing body for swimming\n* American Sailing Association\n* American Scientific Affiliation, an organization of Christians in science\n* Archery Shooters Association\n* American Society for Aesthetics\n* American Society of Agronomy\n* American Society of Anesthesiologists\n* American Society of Appraisers\n* American Sociological Association\n* American Sportscasters Association\n* American Staffing Association\n* American Standards Association, name of the American National Standards Institute from 1928 to 1966\n* American Statistical Association\n* American Student Assistance\n* American Studies Association\n* American Stroke Association, or American Heart Association\n* American Sunbathing Association, former name of the American Association for Nude Recreation\n* American Synesthesia Association\n* Americans for Safe Access, marijuana law reform group\n* Associate of the Society of Actuaries\n* Association of Social Anthropologists\n* Association of Southeast Asia\n* Astronomical Society of Australia, the professional society of astronomers in Australia\n* Australian Society of Authors, the peak professional association for Australian literary creators\n* Austrian Service Abroad, provider of alternative Austrian national service\n* Austrian Space Agency\n* Austrian Studies Association \n* Autism Society of America\n* United States Army Security Agency, the U.S. Army's electronic intelligence arm\n", "* Aeropuertos y Servicios Auxiliares, Mexican airport operator\n* African Safari Airways, airline company based in East Africa\n* Air Services Agreement\n* The International Civil Aviation Organization's code for Alaska Airlines\n* Allmennaksjeselskap or ASA, the designation for a Norwegian public limited company\n* ASA (automobile), Italian marque of automobiles\n* ASA Aluminium Body, Argentinian manufacturer of replicas of sports cars\n* Association for Social Advancement, microfinance institution, Bangladesh\n* Atlantic Southeast Airlines, based in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Now merged into ExpressJet.\n* Anglo-Saxon accounting, accounting methodology used in English-speaking countries - see Anglo-Saxon economy\n", "* Adult Soccer Association, in the U.S.\n* Agremiação Sportiva Arapiraquense, Brazilian soccer club\n* Amateur Softball Association, in the U.S.\n* Amateur Swimming Association, oversees swimming in England\n* American Speed Association, motorsports sanctioning body\n* Athletics South Africa, the national governing body for the sport of athletics in South Africa\n* Atlético Sport Aviação, Angolan multisports club\n* Australian Soccer Association, former name of Football Federation Australia\n* The IOC designated country code for American Samoa\n", "* Accessible surface area of a biomolecule, accessible to a solvent\n* Acetylsalicylic acid, a very common pain reliever, often referred to as aspirin \n* Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate, a plastic polymer\n* Advanced surface ablation, refractive eye surgery\n* Anterior spinal artery, the blood vessel which supplies the anterior portion of the spinal cord\n* Argininosuccinic aciduria, a disorder of the urea cycle\n* ASA physical status classification system, rating of patients undergoing anesthesia\n* Auditory scene analysis, process of organizing sound\n", "* ASA carriage control characters, a system used for controlling mainframe line printers\n* Cisco adaptive security appliance, a popular product/technique used in VLAN networks\n* Adaptive simulated annealing, optimization algorithm\n* ASA film speed rating for photographic film (now superseded by ISO rating)\n", "* Alexander-Smith Academy\n* Arizona School for the Arts\n", "* Allied States of America, a fictional American nation in the television show ''Jericho''\n* Angle-Side-Angle, a shortcut for showing either congruency or similarity between two triangles\n* Anti-Soviet agitation, a criminal offense in the Soviet Union\n* Assistant State's Attorney, a title for attorneys working in State's Attorney's office in the United States\n* Asa of Judah, a king in the Hebrew bible\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Organizations ", " Business ", " Sport ", " Science and medicine ", " Technology ", " Schools ", " Other " ]	ASA
[ "A map showing the Battle of Actium.\n\n'''Actium''' (Greek: Ἄκτιον) was the name of an ancient town on a promontory of western Greece in northwestern Acarnania, at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf). Actium is chiefly famous as the name given to the nearby naval Battle of Actium, in which Octavian won a decisive victory over Mark Antony on September 2, 31 BC.\n\nActium was situated on the southern side of the strait opposite the later city of Nicopolis built by Octavian. Since 2002 the peninsular of Actium has been linked with Preveza on the north shore of the Ambracian Gulf by the Aktio-Preveza Undersea Tunnel.\n", "Battle of Actium by Laureys a Castro, 1672. Note anachronisms.\nActium belonged originally to the Corinthian colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the sanctuary of Apollo Actius. In the 3rd century BC it fell to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their religious summits there.\n\nOn the promontory was the ancient sanctuary of Apollo Actius, which was later enlarged by Augustus, and also the town of Actium.\n\nOctavian also ordered a war monument to be constructed to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC on the site of his campsite prior to the naval engagement, near Nicopolis.\n\nOctavian instituted or renewed the games known as Actia or Ludi Actiaci, named after Actium in Nicopolis (the new city) to memorialise the battle. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the battle.\n", "In 1980 the Greek Ministry of Transport and Communications reported that shipwrecks from the Battle of Actium had been located at Actium near the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf.\n\nIn summer 2009 archaeologists discovered the ruins of the Temple of Apollo and found two statue heads, one of Apollo, one of Artemis (Diana).\n", "\n*Battle of Actium\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Archaeology", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Actium
[ "\n\n\n\nAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier by Jules Dalou 1866\n'''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' (also '''Antoine Lavoisier''' after the French Revolution; ; 26 August 17438 May 1794;) was a French nobleman and chemist central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the \"father of modern chemistry\".\n\nIt is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry largely stem from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. He recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783) and opposed the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He predicted the existence of silicon (1787) and was also the first to establish that sulfur was an element (1777) rather than a compound. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same.\n\nLavoisier was a powerful member of a number of aristocratic councils, and an administrator of the ''Ferme générale''. The ''Ferme générale'' was one of the most hated components of the ''Ancien Régime'' because of the profits it took at the expense of the state, the secrecy of the terms of its contracts, and the violence of its armed agents. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. At the height of the French Revolution, he was charged with tax fraud and selling adulterated tobacco, and was guillotined.\n", "\n===Early life and education===\nAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a wealthy family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parliament of Paris, he inherited a large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother. Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as the Collège Mazarin) in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11. In his last two years (1760–1761) at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. In the philosophy class he came under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician and observational astronomer who imbued the young Lavoisier with an interest in meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which never left him. Lavoisier entered the school of law, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1763 and a licentiate in 1764. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never practiced as a lawyer. However, he continued his scientific education in his spare time.\n\n===Early scientific work===\nLavoisier's education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time, and he was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's dictionary of chemistry. He attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1764 he read his first paper to the French Academy of Sciences, France's most elite scientific society, on the chemical and physical properties of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the King for an essay on the problems of urban street lighting. In 1768 Lavoisier received a provisional appointment to the Academy of Sciences. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France.\n\n=== Lavoisier as a social reformer ===\n\n==== Research benefitting the public good ====\nWhile Lavoisier is commonly known for his contributions to the sciences, he also dedicated a significant portion of his fortune and work toward benefitting the public. Lavoisier was a humanitarian – he cared deeply about the people in his country and often concerned himself with improving the livelihood of the population by agriculture, industry, and the sciences. The first instance of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay on improving urban street lighting to the French Academy of Sciences.\n\nThree years later in 1768, he focused on a new project to design an aqueduct. The goal was to bring in water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could have clean drinking water. But, since the construction never commenced, he instead turned his focus to purifying the water from the Seine. This was the project that interested Lavoisier in the chemistry of water and public sanitation duties.\n\nHe additionally was interested in air quality, and spent some time studying the health risks associated with gunpowder’s effect on the air. In 1772, he performed a study on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been damaged by fire, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and clean air throughout.\n\nAt the time, the prisons in Paris were known to be largely unlivable and the prisoners’ treatment inhumane. Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780 (and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions to improve living conditions, which were largely ignored.\n\nOnce a part of the Academy, Lavoisier also held his own competitions to push the direction of research towards bettering the public and his own work. One such project he proposed in 1793 was to better public health on the “insalubrious arts.”\n\n==== Sponsorship of the sciences ====\nLavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in “scientific sociability” and philanthropy.\n\nLavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in the General Farm, which allowed him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him to contribute financially to better the community. (It would also contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later.)\n\nIt was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and additionally not very financially profitable for the average scientist, so Lavoisier used his wealth to open a very expensive and sophisticated laboratory in France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing funding for their research.\n\nHe also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations, Lycée and Musée des Arts et Métiers which were created to serve as educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, Lycée regularly taught courses to the public beginning in 1793.\n\n===Ferme générale and marriage===\n''Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife'' by Jacques-Louis David, ca. 1788\nAt the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a share in the ''Ferme générale'', a tax farming financial company which advanced the estimated tax revenue to the royal government in return for the right to collect the taxes. On behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of the city. His participation in the collection of its taxes did not help his reputation when the Reign of Terror began in France, as taxes and poor government reform were the primary motivators during the French Revolution. \n \nLavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the ''Ferme générale''. She was to play an important part in Lavoisier's scientific career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard Kirwan's ''Essay on Phlogiston'' and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she assisted him in the laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry. \n\nFor 3 years following his entry into the ''Ferme générale'', Lavoisier's scientific activity diminished somewhat, for much of his time was taken up with official ''Ferme générale'' business. He did, however, present one important memoir to the Academy of Sciences during this period, on the supposed conversion of water into earth by evaporation. By a very precise quantitative experiment Lavoisier showed that the \"earthy\" sediment produced after long-continued reflux heating of water in a glass vessel was not due to a conversion of the water into earth but rather to the gradual disintegration of the inside of the glass vessel produced by the boiling water. He also attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants.\n\n===Adulteration of tobacco===\nThe Farmers General held a monopoly of the production, import and sale of tobacco in France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million livres a year. However this revenue began to fall because of a growing black market in tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most commonly with ash and water. Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether ash had been mixed in with tobacco: \"When a spirit of vitriol, ''aqua fortis'' or some other acid solution is poured on ash, there is an immediate very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied by an easily detected noise.\" Lavoisier also noticed that the addition of a small amount of ash improved the flavour of tobacco. Of one vendor selling adulterated goods he wrote \"His tobacco enjoys a very good reputation in the province... the very small proportion of ash that is added gives it a particularly pungent flavour that consumers look for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage by adding a bit of this liquid mixture when the tobacco is fabricated.\" Lavoisier also found that while adding a lot of water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and smell bad, the addition of a very small amount improved the product. Thereafter the factories of the Farmers General added, as he recommended, a consistent 6.3% of water by volume to the tobacco they processed. To allow for this addition, the Farmers General delivered to retailers seventeen ounces of tobacco while only charging for sixteen. To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added, and to exclude the black market, Lavoisier saw to it that a watertight system of checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it very difficult for retailers to source contraband tobacco or to improve their profits by bulking it up. He was energetic and rigorous in implementing this, and the systems he introduced were deeply unpopular with the tobacco retailers across the country. This unpopularity was to have consequences for him during the French Revolution.\n\n=== Royal Commission on Agriculture ===\nLavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then served as its Secretary and spent considerable sums of his own money in order to improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, an area where farmland was of poor quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest, causing outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to the Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices.\n\n=== Gunpowder Commission ===\nLavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of a very busy schedule of public and private duties, especially in connection with the ''Ferme Générale''. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government. Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was made one of four commissioners of gunpowder appointed to replace a private company, similar to the Ferme générale, which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions requirements. As a result of his efforts, both the quantity and quality of French gunpowder greatly improved, and it became a source of revenue for the government. His appointment to the Gunpowder Commission brought one great benefit to Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house and a laboratory in the Royal Arsenal. Here he lived and worked between 1775 and 1792.\n\n=== During the Revolution ===\nIn June 1791 Lavoisier made a loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours to buy a printing works so that du Pont could publish his newspaper, ''La Correspondance Patriotique''. The plan was for this to include both reports of debates in the National Constituent Assembly as well as papers from the Academy of Sciences. He also chaired the commission set up to establish a uniform system of weights and measures which in March 1791 recommended the adoption of the metric system.The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the Convention on 1 August 1793. Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with Laplace and several other members, for political reasons. One of his last major works was a proposal to the National Convention for the reform of French education. He also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, which helped to exempt them from a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.\n\n=== Final days and execution ===\nAs the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply unpopular ''Ferme Générale'', and it was eventually abolished in March 1791. In 1792 Lavoisier was forced to resign from his post on the Gunpowder Commission and to move from his house and laboratory at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the request of Abbé Grégoire. \n\nOn 24 November 1793, the arrest of all the former tax farmers was ordered. Lavoisier and the other Farmers General faced nine accusations of defrauding the state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it. Lavoisier drafted their defence, refuting the financial accusations, reminding the court of how they had maintained a consistently high quality of tobacco. The court was however inclined to believe that by condemning them and seizing their goods, it would recover huge sums for the state. Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants.\n\nAccording to a (probably apocryphal) story, the appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal: ''\"La République n'a pas besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu.\"'' (\"The Republic has no need of scientists or chemists; the course of justice cannot be delayed.\") Lavoisier was convicted with summary justice of having plundered the people and the treasury of France, of having adulterated the nation's tobacco with water, and of having supplied the enemies of France with huge sums of money from the national treasury.\n\nLavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: ''\"Il ne leur a fallu qu’un moment pour faire tomber cette tête, et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable.\"'' (\"It took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not suffice to reproduce its like.\")\n\n==== Post-mortem ====\nA year and a half after his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. During the White Terror, his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included, reading \"To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted\".\n\nAbout a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de Condorcet, the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations from being made. The statue was melted down during the Second World War and has not since been replaced. However, one of the main \"lycées\" (high schools) in Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are named after Lavoisier, and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville and on the façade of the ''Cour Napoléon'' of the Louvre. His name is one of the 72 names of eminent French scientists, engineers and mathematicians inscribed on the Eiffel Tower as well as on buildings around Killian Court at MIT in Cambridge, MA US.\n", "\n===Oxygen theory of combustion===\nMme Lavoisier in the 1780s taken from ''Traité élémentaire de chimie'' (Elementary treatise on chemistry)\n\nDuring late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion, the topic on which he was to make his most significant contribution to science. He reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in a note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it combined with a large quantity of air to produce acid spirit of phosphorus, and that the phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In a second sealed note deposited with the Academy a few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended his observations and conclusions to the burning of sulfur and went on to add that \"what is observed in the combustion of sulfur and phosphorus may well take place in the case of all substances that gain in weight by combustion and calcination: and I am persuaded that the increase in weight of metallic calces is due to the same cause.\"\n\n====Joseph Black's \"fixed air\"====\nDuring 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the literature on air, particularly \"fixed air,\" and to repeat many of the experiments of other workers in the field. He published an account of this review in 1774 in a book entitled ''Opuscules physiques et chimiques'' (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the course of this review he made his first full study of the work of Joseph Black, the Scottish chemist who had carried out a series of classic quantitative experiments on the mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the difference between a mild alkali, for example, chalk (CaCO3), and the caustic form, for example, quicklime (CaO), lay in the fact that the former contained \"fixed air,\" not common air fixed in the chalk, but a distinct chemical species, now understood to be carbon dioxide (CO2), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier recognized that Black's fixed air was identical with the air evolved when metal calces were reduced with the charcoal and even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination and increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO2.\n\n====Joseph Priestley====\nJoseph Priestley, an English chemist known for isolating oxygen, which he termed \"dephlogisticated air.\"\nIn the spring of 1774 Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin and lead in sealed vessels which conclusively confirmed that the increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But the question remained about whether it was combination with common atmospheric air or with only a part of atmospheric air. In October the English chemist Joseph Priestley visited Paris, where he met Lavoisier and told him of the air which he had produced by heating the red calx of mercury with a burning glass and which had supported combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at this time was unsure of the nature of this gas, but he felt that it was an especially pure form of common air. Lavoisier carried out his own researches on this peculiar substance. The result was his famous memoir ''On the Nature of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their Calcination and Increases Their Weight'', read to the Academy on 26 April 1775 (commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the original memoir Lavoisier showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed air in the process. When reduced without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported respiration and combustion in an enhanced way. He concluded that this was just a pure form of common air, and that it was the air itself \"undivided, without alteration, without decomposition\" which combined with metals on calcination.\n\nAfter returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation of the air from mercury calx. His results now showed that this air was not just an especially pure form of common air but was \"five or six times better than common air, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of common air.\" He called the air dephlogisticated air, as he thought it was common air deprived of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to absorb a much greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies and respiring animals, the greatly enhanced combustion of substances and the greater ease of breathing in this air were explained.\n\n=== Pioneer of stoichiometry ===\nLavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his \"Traité Élémentaire de Chimie\" to ''\"Rien ne se perd, rien ne se crée, tout se transforme.\"'' (''\"Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed.\"''). Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). (See An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass)\n\n=== Chemical nomenclature ===\nLavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a new program for the reforms of chemical nomenclature to the Academy in 1787, for there was virtually no rational system of chemical nomenclature at this time. This work, titled ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', 1787), introduced a new system which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry. The Classical elements of earth, air, fire, and water were discarded, and instead some 55 substances which could not be decomposed into simpler substances by any known chemical means were provisionally listed as elements. The elements included light; caloric (matter of heat); the principles of oxygen, hydrogen, and azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet unknown \"radicals\" of muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and \"fluoric\" acid; 17 metals; 5 earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals such as magnesia, barite, and strontia); three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the \"radicals\" of 19 organic acids. The acids, regarded in the new system as compounds of various elements with oxygen, were given names which indicated the element involved together with the degree of oxygenation of that element, for example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphoric and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, the \"ic\" termination indicating acids with a higher proportion of oxygen than those with the \"ous\" ending. Similarly, salts of the \"ic\" acids were given the terminal letters \"ate,\" as in copper sulfate, whereas the salts of the \"ous\" acids terminated with the suffix \"ite,\" as in copper sulfite. The total effect of the new nomenclature can be gauged by comparing the new name \"copper sulfate\" with the old term \"vitriol of Venus.\" Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and to the United States and became common use in the field of chemistry. This marked the beginning of the anti-phlogistic approach to the field.\n\n=== Chemical revolution and opposition ===\nAntoine Lavoisier is commonly cited as a central contributor to the chemical revolution. His precise measurements and meticulous keeping of balance sheets throughout his experiment were vital to the wide spread acceptance of the law of conservation of mass. His introduction of new terminology, a binomial system modeled after that of Linnaeus, also helps to mark the dramatic changes in the field which are referred to generally as the chemical revolution. However, Lavoisier encountered much opposition in trying to change the field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued that quantification of substances did not imply conservation of mass. Rather than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Jean Baptiste Biot, wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, \"one felt the necessity of linking accuracy in experiments to rigor of reasoning.\" His opposition, however, that a precision in experimentation did not imply precision in inferences and reasonings. Despite opposition, Lavoisier continued to use precise instrumentation to convince other chemists of his conclusions, often results to five to eight decimal places. Nicholson, who estimated that only three of these decimal places were meaningful, stated: If it be denied that these results are pretended to be true in the last figures, I must beg leave to observe, that these long rows of figures, which in some instances extend to a thousand times the nicety of experiment, serve only to exhibit a parade which true science has no need of: and, more than this, that when the real degree of accuracy in experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, we are somewhat disposed to doubt whether the ''exactitude scrupuleuse'' of the experiments be indeed such as to render the proofs ''de l'ordre demonstratif''.\n", "\n===Easter memoir===\nAntoine Lavoisier portrait\nThe \"official\" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the intervening period Lavoisier had ample time to repeat some of Priestley's latest experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that approximately five volumes of this air added to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no longer stated that the principle which combined with metals on calcination was just common air but \"nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air\" or the \"eminently respirable part of the air\". The same year he coined the name oxygen for this constituent of the air, from the Greek words meaning \"acid former\". He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids contained oxygen and that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.\n\n===Dismantling phlogiston theory===\nLavoisier's chemical research between 1772 and 1778 was largely concerned with developing his own new theory of combustion. In 1783 he read to the academy his famous paper entitled ''Réflexions sur le phlogistique'' (Reflections on Phlogiston), a full-scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Lavoisier also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove an important capstone to his combustion theory and win many converts to it. Many investigators had been experimenting with the combination of Henry Cavendish's inflammable air, which Lavoisier termed hydrogen (Greek for \"water-former\"), with dephlogisticated air (oxygen) by electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted the production of water, but all interpreted the reaction in varying ways within the framework of the phlogiston theory. In cooperation with mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by burning jets of hydrogen and oxygen in a bell jar over mercury. The quantitative results were good enough to support the contention that water was not an element, as had been thought for over 2,000 years, but a compound of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The interpretation of water as a compound explained the inflammable air generated from dissolving metals in acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the reduction of calces by inflammable air (combination of gas from calx with oxygen to form water).\n\nDespite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic approach remained unaccepted by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive proof of the composition of water, attempting to use this in support of his theory. Working with Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a red-hot iron gun barrel, allowing the oxygen to form an oxide with the iron and the hydrogen to emerge from the end of the pipe. He submitted his findings of the composition of water to the Académie des Sciences in April 1784, reporting his figures to eight decimal places. Opposition responded to this further experimentation by stating that Lavoisier continued to draw the incorrect conclusions, and that his experiment demonstrated the displacement of phlogiston from iron by the combination of water with the metal. Lavoisier developed a new apparatus which utilized a pneumatic trough, a set of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty savants were invited to witness the decomposition and synthesis of water using this apparatus, convincing many who attended of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories. This demonstration established water as a compound of oxygen and hydrogen with great certainty for those who viewed it. The dissemination of the experiment, however, proved subpar, as it lacked the details to properly display the amount of precision taken in the measurements. The paper ended with a hasty statement that the experiment was \"more than sufficient to lay hold of the certainty of the proposition\" of the composition of water and stated that the methods uses in the experiment would unite chemistry with the other physical sciences and advance discoveries. Lavoisier and Berthollet, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company Trading Card, 1929\n\n===''Elementary Treatise of Chemistry''===\nLavoisier employed the new nomenclature in his ''Traité élémentaire de chimie'' (''Elementary Treatise on Chemistry''), published in 1789. This work represents the synthesis of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry and can be considered the first modern textbook on the subject. The core of the work was the oxygen theory, and the work became a most effective vehicle for the transmission of the new doctrines. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements. It remains a classic in the history of science. While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for ''Traité élémentaire'' as a textbook in Edinburgh was sufficient to merit translation into English within about a year of its French publication. In any event, the ''Traité élémentaire'' was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.Lavoisier's Laboratory, Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s\n\n===Physiological work===\nConstant-pressure calorimeter, engraving made by madame Lavoisier for thermochemistry experiments\nThe relationship between combustion and respiration had long been recognized from the essential role which air played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend his new theory of combustion to include the area of respiration physiology. His first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most significant contribution to this field was made in the winter of 1782/1783 in association with Laplace. The result of this work was published in a famous memoir, \"On Heat.\" Lavoisier and Laplace designed an ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of around an inner shell filled with ice. By measuring the quantity of carbon dioxide and heat produced by confining a live guinea pig in this apparatus, and by comparing the amount of heat produced when sufficient carbon was burned in the ice calorimeter to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded that respiration was in fact a slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, ''\"la respiration est donc une combustion,\"'' that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.\n\nThis continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs, enabled the living animal to maintain its body temperature above that of its surroundings, thus accounting for the puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Lavoisier continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process of body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig in the experiments. Their work was only partially completed and published because of the disruption of the Revolution; but Lavoisier's pioneering work in this field served to inspire similar research on physiological processes for generations to come.\n", "The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of Rangaku. Page from Udagawa Yōan's 1840 ''Seimi Kaisō''\nLavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous).\n\nLavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel de Ville, Paris\n\nLavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond is a crystalline form of carbon.\n\nHe was also responsible for the construction of the gasometer, an expensive instrument he used at his demonstrations. While he used his gasometer exclusively for these, he also created smaller, cheaper, more practical gasometers that worked with a sufficient degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.\n\nHe was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in his capacity to take over experimental work that others had carried out—without always adequately recognizing their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.\n\nOverall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.\n", "During his lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a gold medal by the King of France for his work on urban street lighting (1766), and was appointed to the French Academy of Sciences (1768).\n\nLavoisier's work was recognized as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by the American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and the Société Chimique de France in 1999.\nAntoine Laurent Lavoisier’s Louis 1788 publication entitled ''Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique'', published with colleagues Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.\n\nA number of Lavoisier Medals have been named and given in Lavoisier's honour, by organizations including the Société chimique de France, the International Society for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company.\n", "\n* ''Opuscules physiques et chimiques'' (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). ( Second edition, 1801)\n* ''L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres'' (Paris, 1779).\n* ''Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785'' (Instruction on the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing the subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with fodder, published by order of King on 31 May 1785).\n* (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) '' Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)\n* (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) '' Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs.'' (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789)\n* '' Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes'' (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here\n* (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) \" Mémoire sur la chaleur,\" ''Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences'' (1780), pp. 355–408.\n* '' Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à 1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier'' (1792)\n* ''Mémoires de physique et de chimie'' (1805: posthumous)\n\n===In translation===\n* '' Essays Physical and Chemical'' (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass and Company Ltd., 1970) translation by Thomas Henry of ''Opuscules physiques et chimiques''\n* ''The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His Most Christian Majesty, and approved by the Royal Academy of Sciences'' (1784) trans. by Charles Williamos of ''L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse''\n* (with Pierre-Simon Laplace) ''Memoir on Heat: Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences, 28 June 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Place of the same Academy.'' (New York: Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of ''Mémoire sur la chaleur''\n* '' Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A Particular View To An Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids'', trans. Thomas Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:\n# \"Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air in passing through their Lungs.\" (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)\n# \"On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air.\" (Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)\n# \"On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus.\"\n# \"On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and recomposing that Acid.\"\n# \"On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid.\"\n# \"Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogistic Substances, and on the Changes effected on Air in which the Pyrophorus was burned.\"\n# \"On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites.\"\n# \"General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they are composed.\"\n# \"On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids.\"\n* “Reflections on Phlogiston”, translation by Nicholas W. Best of “Réflexions sur le phlogistique, pour servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de la calcination” (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and 13 July 1783). Published in two parts:\n# \n# \n* ''Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier, Bertholet, and De Fourcroy'' (1788) Dictionary\n''Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern Discoveries'' (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1790; New York: Dover, 1965) translation by Robert Kerr of ''Traité élémentaire de chimie''. (Dover).\n* 1799 edition\n1802 edition: volume 1, volume 2\n Some illustrations from 1793 edition\n Some more illustrations from Othmer Library of Chemical History\n More illustrations (from Collected Works) at Othmer Library of Chemical History\n", "\n", "\n''Lavoisier'', by Jacques-Léonard Maillet, ca 1853, among culture heroes in the Louvre's ''Cour Napoléon\n\n \n* ''Catalogue of Printed Works by and Memorabilia of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794... Exhibited at the Grolier Club'' (New York, 1952).\n* \n* \nDuveen, D. I. and H. S. Klickstein, ''A Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794'' (London, 1954)\n \n\n \n* \n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* Chemical revolution\n", "\n\n\n* Panopticon Lavoisier a virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier\n* Antoine Laurent Lavoisier\n* Bibliography at Panopticon Lavoisier\n\n===About his work===\n* Location of Lavoisier's laboratory in Paris\n* Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen by the BBC\n* Who was the first to classify materials as \"compounds\"? – Fred Senese\n* Cornell University's Lavoisier collection\n\n===His writings===\n* \n* \n* Les Œuvres de Lavoisier (The Complete Works of Lavoisier) edited by Pietro Corsi (Oxford University) and Patrice Bret (CNRS) \n* Oeuvres de Lavoisier (Works of Lavoisier) at Gallica BnF in six volumes. \n* WorldCat author page\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", " Contributions to chemistry ", " Notable works ", "Legacy", "Awards and honours", "Selected writings", "Notes", "Further reading", "See also", "External links" ]	Antoine Lavoisier
[ "\n\n'''Hermann Kolbe''' (''Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe'', 27 September 1818 – 25 November 1884), was a seminal contributor in the birth of modern organic chemistry. He was a Professor at Marburg and Leipzig. Kolbe coined the term synthesis and contributed to the philosophical demise of vitalism through synthesis of the organic substance acetic acid from carbon disulfide, and also contributed to the development of structural theory. This was done via modifications to the idea of \"radicals\" and accurate prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, and to the emerging array of organic reactions through his Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylate salts, the Kolbe-Schmitt reaction in the preparation of aspirin and the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. After studies with Wöhler and Bunsen, Kolbe was involved with the early internationalization of chemistry through overseas work in London (with Frankland), and rose through the ranks of his field to edit the ''Journal für Praktische Chemie''. As such, he was elected to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences won the Royal Society of London's Davy Medal in the year of his death. Despite these accomplishments and his training, by a storied next generation of chemists (including Zaitsev, Curtius, Beckmann, Graebe, Markovnikov, etc.), Kolbe is remembered for editing the ''Journal'' for more than a decade, where his rejection of Kekulé's structure of benzene, van't Hoff's theory on the origin of chirality and von Baeyer's reforms of nomenclature were personally critical and linguistically violent. Kolbe died of a heart attack in Leipzig at age 68, six years after the death of his wife, Charlotte. He was survived by four children.\n", "\nKolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13, he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler.\n\nIn 1842, he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the Philipps-Universität Marburg. He took his doctoral degree in 1843 at the same university. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new ''Museum of Economic Geology'' in London and a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847, he was engaged in editing the ''Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie'' (''Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry'') edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851, Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg and, in 1865, he was called to the Universität Leipzig. In 1864, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.\n\nIn 1853, he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children.\n", "\nAs late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create \"organic\" (i.e., in its original meaning, biologically derived) compounds. Kolbe promoted the idea that organic compounds could be derived from substances clearly sourced from outside this \"organic\" context, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. (Hence, while by modern definitions, he was converting one organic molecule to another, by the parlance of his era, he was converting \"inorganic\"—''anorganisch''—substances into \"organic\" ones only thought accessible through vital processes.) He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide to acetic acid in several steps (1843–45). Kolbe also introduced a modified idea of structural radicals, so contributing to the development of structural theory. A dramatic success came when his theoretical prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols was confirmed by the synthesis of the first of these classes of organic molecules. Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning, and contributed a number of new chemical reactions.\n\nIn particular, Kolbe developed procedures for the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other carboxylic acids (Kolbe electrolysis) and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. His method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis, and with Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids.\nIn addition to his own bench research and scholarly and editorial work, Kolbe oversaw student research at Leipzig and especially at Marburg; students spending time under his tutelage included Peter Griess, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev (known for Zaitsev's rule predicting the product composition of elimination reactions), Theodor Curtius (discoverer of diazo compounds, hydrazines, and the Curtius rearrangement), Ernst Otto Beckmann (discoverer of the Beckmann rearrangement), Carl Graebe (discoverer of alizarin), Oscar Loew, Constantin Fahlberg, Nikolai Menshutkin, Vladimir Markovnikov (first to describe carbocycles smaller and larger than cyclohexane, and known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions to alkenes), Jacob Volhard, Ludwig Mond, Alexander Crum Brown (first to describe the double bond of ethylene), Maxwell Simpson, and Frederick Guthrie.\n", "Besides his work for periodicals he wrote numerous books \nKolbe served for more than a decade as what, in modern terms, would be understood the senior editor of the ''Journal für Praktische Chemie'' (''Journal of practical chemistry'', from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory.\n\nHis rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van't Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, was expressed in his vituperative articles in the ''Journal für Praktische Chemie''. Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists: \n\"...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science...\"\n\nThe violence of his language worked unfairly to limit his posthumous reputation.\n", "* \n* \n", "\n", "* ''Kurzes Lehrbuch der Chemie . 1.Anorganische Chemie'' . Vieweg, Braunschweig 2. verb. Aufl. 1884 Digital edition by the University and State Library Düsseldorf\n* Wiley online library: ''Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis'', ultimate descendent of the ''Journal für Praktische Chemie'', accessed 2 July 2014.\n* ''Journal für Praktische Chemie'', the article on the original German journal and its descendents, at the German Wikipedia, accessed 2 July 2014.\n", "\n English Translation of Kolbe's seminal 1860 German article in Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. English title: 'On the syntheses of salicylic acid'; German title \"Ueber Synthese der Salicylsäure\".\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Work in chemical research", "Work as journal editor", "Sources", "Notes and references", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Hermann Kolbe
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* 796 – King Æthelred I of Northumbria is murdered in Corbridge by a group led by his ealdormen, Ealdred and Wada. The ''patrician'' Osbald is crowned, but abdicates within 27 days. \n1025 – Bolesław Chrobry is crowned in Gniezno, becoming the first King of Poland.\n1232 – The Spanish town of Arjona declares independence and names its native Muhammad ibn Yusuf as ruler. This marks the Muhammad's first rise to prominence; he would later establish the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, the last independent Muslim state in Spain.\n1506 – The cornerstone of the current St. Peter's Basilica is laid.\n1518 – Bona Sforza is crowned as queen consort of Poland.\n1521 – Trial of Martin Luther begins its second day during the assembly of the Diet of Worms. He refuses to recant his teachings despite the risk of excommunication.\n1689 – Bostonians rise up in rebellion against Sir Edmund Andros.\n1738 – ''Real Academia de la Historia'' (\"Royal Academy of History\") is founded in Madrid.\n1775 – American Revolution: The British advancement by sea begins; Paul Revere and other riders warn the countryside of the troop movements.\n1831 – The University of Alabama is founded in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.\n1847 – American victory at the battle of Cerro Gordo opens the way for invasion of Mexico.\n1857 – \"The Spirits Book\" by Allan Kardec is published, marking the birth of Spiritualism in France.\n1864 – Battle of Dybbøl: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of Schleswig. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement.\n1897 – The Greco-Turkish War is declared between Greece and the Ottoman Empire.\n1899 – The St. Andrew's Ambulance Association is granted a royal charter by Queen Victoria.\n1902 – The 7.5 Guatemala earthquake shakes Guatemala with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (''Severe''), killing between 800–2,000.\n1906 – An earthquake and fire destroy much of San Francisco, California.\n1909 – Joan of Arc is beatified in Rome.\n1912 – The Cunard liner brings 705 survivors from the to New York City.\n1915 – French pilot Roland Garros is shot down and glides to a landing on the German side of the lines during World War I.\n1923 – Yankee Stadium: \"The House that Ruth Built\" opens.\n1942 – World War II: The Doolittle Raid on Japan: Tokyo, Yokohama, Kobe and Nagoya are bombed.\n 1942 – Pierre Laval becomes Prime Minister of Vichy France.\n1943 – World War II: Operation Vengeance, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto is killed when his aircraft is shot down by U.S. fighters over Bougainville Island.\n1945 – Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of Heligoland, Germany.\n1946 – The International Court of Justice holds its inaugural meeting in The Hague, Netherlands.\n1949 – Ireland leaves the British Commonwealth and becomes the Republic of Ireland.\n1949 – The keel for the aircraft carrier is laid down at Newport News Drydock and Shipbuilding. However, construction is canceled five days later, resulting in the Revolt of the Admirals.\n1954 – Gamal Abdel Nasser seizes power in Egypt.\n1955 – Twenty-nine nations meet at Bandung, Indonesia, for the first Asian-African Conference.\n1980 – The Republic of Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) comes into being, with Canaan Banana as the country's first President. The Zimbabwean dollar replaces the Rhodesian dollar as the official currency.\n1983 – A suicide bomber in Lebanon destroys the United States embassy in Beirut, killing 63 people.\n1988 – The United States launches Operation Praying Mantis against Iranian naval forces in the largest naval battle since World War II.\n1992 – General Abdul Rashid Dostum revolts against President Mohammad Najibullah of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and allies with Ahmad Shah Massoud to capture Kabul.\n1996 – In Lebanon, at least 106 civilians are killed when the Israel Defense Forces shell the United Nations compound at Quana where more than 800 civilians had taken refuge.\n* 2007 – A series of bombings, two of them being suicides, occur in Baghdad, killing 198 and injuring 251.\n2013 – A suicide bombing in a Baghdad cafe kills 27 people and injures another 65.\n", " 359 – Gratian, Roman emperor (d. 383)\n* 588 – K'an II, Mayan ruler (d. 658)\n* 812 – Al-Wathiq, Abbasid caliph (d. 847)\n1446 – Ippolita Maria Sforza, Italian noble (d. 1484)\n1503 – Henry II of Navarre, (d. 1555)\n1534 – William Harrison, English clergyman (d. 1593)\n1580 – Thomas Middleton, English Jacobean playwright and poet (d. 1627)\n1590 – Ahmed I, Ottoman Emperor (d. 1617)\n1605 – Giacomo Carissimi, Italian priest and composer (d. 1674)\n1648 – Jeanne Guyon, French mystic and author (d. 1717)\n1666 – Jean-Féry Rebel, French violinist and composer (d. 1747)\n1740 – Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet, English banker and politician (d. 1810)\n1759 – Jacques Widerkehr, French cellist and composer (d. 1823)\n1771 – Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg (d. 1820)\n1772 – David Ricardo, British economist and politician (d. 1823)\n1794 – William Debenham, English founder of Debenhams (d. 1863)\n1797 – Adolphe Thiers, French historian and politician, 2nd President of France (d. 1877)\n1813 – James McCune Smith, African-American physician, apothecary, abolitionist, and author (d. 1865)\n1819 – Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, Cuban lawyer and activist (d. 1874)\n* 1819 – Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1895)\n1838 – Paul-Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, French chemist and academic (d. 1912)\n1854 – Ludwig Levy, German architect (d. 1907)\n1857 – Clarence Darrow, American lawyer (d. 1938)\n1858 – Dhondo Keshav Karve, Indian educator and activist, Bharat Ratna Awardee (d. 1962)\n* 1858 – Alexander Shirvanzade, Armenian playwright and author (d. 1935)\n1863 – Count Leopold Berchtold, Austrian-Hungarian politician and diplomat, Joint Foreign Minister of Austria-Hungary (d. 1942)\n 1863 – Linton Hope, English sailor and architect (d. 1920)\n1864 – Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (d. 1916)\n1874 – Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, Croatian author and poet (d. 1938)\n1877 – Vicente Sotto, Filipino lawyer and politician (d. 1950)\n1879 – Korneli Kekelidze, Georgian philologist and scholar (d. 1962)\n1880 – Sam Crawford, American baseball player, coach, and umpire (d. 1968)\n1882 – Isaac Babalola Akinyele, Nigerian ruler (d. 1964)\n* 1882 – Leopold Stokowski, English conductor (d. 1977)\n1884 – Jaan Anvelt, Estonian educator and politician (d. 1937)\n1888 – Duffy Lewis, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1979)\n1889 – Jessie Street, Australian activist (d. 1970)\n1892 – Eugene Houdry, French-American mechanical engineer and inventor (d. 1962)\n1893 – Violette Morris, French shot putter and discus thrower (d. 1944)\n1897 – Ardito Desio, Italian geologist and cartographer (d. 2001)\n* 1897 – Per-Erik Hedlund, Swedish skier (d. 1975)\n1898 – Patrick Hennessy, Irish soldier and businessman (d. 1981)\n1901 – Al Lewis, American songwriter (d. 1967)\n* 1901 – László Németh, Hungarian dentist, author, and playwright (d. 1975)\n1902 – Waldemar Hammenhög, Swedish author (d. 1972)\n 1902 – Giuseppe Pella, Italian politician, 32nd Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1981)\n1904 – Pigmeat Markham, African-American comedian, singer, and dancer (d. 1981)\n1905 – Sydney Halter, Canadian lawyer and businessman (d. 1990)\n* 1905 – George H. Hitchings, American physician and pharmacologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)\n1907 – Miklós Rózsa, Hungarian-American composer and conductor (d. 1995)\n1911 – Ilario Bandini, Italian businessman and race car driver (d. 1992)\n* 1911 – Maurice Goldhaber, Ukrainian Jewish-American physicist and academic (d. 2011)\n1914 – Claire Martin, Canadian author (d. 2014)\n1915 – Joy Davidman, Polish-Ukrainian Jewish American poet and author (d. 1960)\n1916 – Carl Burgos, American illustrator (d. 1984)\n 1916 – Doug Peden, Canadian basketball player (d. 2005)\n1917 – Ty LaForest, Canadian-American baseball player (d. 1947)\n1918 – Gabriel Axel, Danish-French actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)\n* 1918 – André Bazin, French critic and theorist (d. 1958)\n* 1918 – Shinobu Hashimoto, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1918 – Clifton Hillegass, American publisher, founded ''CliffsNotes'' (d. 2001)\n* 1918 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (d. 2004)\n1919 – Virginia O'Brien, American actress and singer (d. 2001)\n 1919 – Esther Afua Ocloo, Ghanaian entrepreneur and pioneer of microlending (d. 2002)\n1920 – John F. Wiley, American football player and coach (d. 2013)\n1921 – Jean Richard, French actor and singer (d. 2001)\n1922 – Barbara Hale, American actress (d. 2017)\n 1922 – Lord Kitchner, Trinidadian singer (d. 2000)\n1923 – Alfred Bieler, Swiss ice hockey player (d. 2013)\n 1923 – Beryl Platt, Baroness Platt of Writtle, English engineer and politician (d. 2015)\n1924 – Clarence \"Gatemouth\" Brown, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2005)\n 1924 – Henry Hyde, American commander, lawyer, and politician (d. 2007)\n* 1924 – Roy Mason, English miner and politician, Secretary of State for Defence (d. 2015)\n1925 – Marcus Schmuck, Austrian mountaineer and author (d. 2005)\n1926 – Doug Insole, English cricketer\n1927 – Samuel P. Huntington, American political scientist, author, and academic (d. 2008)\n 1927 – Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Polish journalist and politician, Prime Minister of Poland (d. 2013)\n* 1927 – Charles Pasqua, French businessman and politician, French Minister of the Interior (d. 2015)\n1928 – Karl Josef Becker, German cardinal and theologian (d. 2015)\n 1928 – Otto Piene, German sculptor and academic (d. 2014)\n1929 – Peter Hordern, English soldier and politician\n1930 – Clive Revill, New Zealand actor and singer\n1931 – Bill Miles, American director and producer (d. 2013)\n1934 – James Drury, American actor\n* 1934 – George Shirley, American tenor and educator\n1935 – Brian Clay, Australian rugby league player (d. 1987)\n 1935 – Costas Ferris, Egyptian-Greek actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1936 – Roger Graef, American-English criminologist, director, and producer\n 1936 – Vladimir Hütt, Estonian physicist and philosopher (d. 1997)\n1937 – Jan Kaplický, Czech architect, designed the Selfridges Building (d. 2009)\n 1937 – Tatyana Shchelkanova, Russian long jumper and heptathlete (d. 2011)\n* 1937 – Teddy Taylor, Scottish journalist and politician, Shadow Secretary of State for Scotland\n1939 – Glen Hardin, American pianist and arranger\n 1939 – Thomas J. Moyer, American lawyer and judge (d. 2010)\n1940 – Joseph L. Goldstein, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate\n 1940 – Mike Vickers, English guitarist, saxophonist, and songwriter \n1941 – Michael D. Higgins, Irish sociologist and politician, 9th President of Ireland\n1942 – Michael Beloff, English lawyer and academic\n* 1942 – Steve Blass, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1942 – Robert Christgau, American journalist and critic\n* 1942 – Jochen Rindt, German-Austrian race car driver (d. 1970)\n1944 – Kathy Acker, American author and poet (d. 1997)\n 1944 – Frances D'Souza, Baroness D'Souza, English academic and politician\n* 1944 – Robert Hanssen, American FBI agent and double agent \n* 1944 – Philip Jackson, Scottish sculptor and photographer\n1945 – Bernard Arcand, Canadian anthropologist and author (d. 2009)\n1945 – Richard Bausch, American novelist and short story writer\n* 1945 – Robert Bausch, American novelist and short story writer\n1946 – Hayley Mills, English actress \n 1946 – Tommy Shannon, American bass guitarist\n1947 – Moses Blah, Liberian general and politician, 23rd President of Liberia (d. 2013)\n 1947 – Dorothy Lyman, American actress\n* 1947 – Cindy Pickett, American actress\n* 1947 – Jerzy Stuhr, Polish actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1947 – James Woods, American actor and producer\n1948 – Régis Wargnier, French director, producer, and screenwriter\n1949 – Geoff Bodine, American race car driver\n1950 – Paul Callery, Australian footballer\n 1950 – Tina Chow, American model and jewelry designer (d. 1992)\n* 1950 – Kenny Ortega, American director, producer, and choreographer\n* 1950 – Grigory Sokolov, Russian pianist and composer\n1951 – Ricardo Fortaleza, Australian-Filipino boxer and coach\n 1951 – Pierre Pettigrew, Canadian businessman and politician, 5th Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs\n1953 – Rick Moranis, Canadian-American actor, comedian, singer and screenwriter \n1954 – Robert Greenberg, American pianist and composer\n1956 – Eric Roberts, American actor\n1957 – Ian Campbell, Australian jumper\n1958 – Lisa Edwards, Australian singer\n 1958 – Malcolm Marshall, Barbadian cricketer and coach (d. 1999)\n1959 – Susan Faludi, American journalist and author\n 1959 – Frank Mulholland, Lord Mulholland, Scottish judge, former Solicitor General for Scotland and Lord Advocate\n1960 – Yelena Zhupiyeva-Vyazova, Ukrainian runner\n1961 – Kelly Hansen, American singer-songwriter \n* 1961 – Jane Leeves, English actress and dancer\n* 1961 – John Podhoretz, American journalist and author\n1962 – Jeff Dunham, American comedian and ventriloquist\n 1962 – Nick Farr-Jones, Australian rugby player and sportscaster\n1963 – Eric McCormack, Canadian-American actor and producer\n 1963 – Conan O'Brien, American actor, producer, screenwriter, and talk show host\n* 1963 – Phil Simmons, Trinidadian cricketer\n* 1963 – Peter Van Loan, Canadian lawyer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of International Trade\n1964 – Niall Ferguson, Scottish historian and academic\n 1964 – Rithy Panh, Cambodian director and screenwriter\n1966 – Valeri Kamensky, Russian ice hockey player\n1967 – Maria Bello, American actress and writer\n1969 – Keith DeCandido, American author\n 1969 – Stefan Schwarz, Swedish footballer and manager\n* 1969 – Robert Změlík, Czech decathlete\n1970 – Rico Brogna, American baseball player and coach\n 1970 – Greg Eklund, American drummer and guitarist \n* 1970 – Saad Hariri, Saudi Arabian-Lebanese businessman and politician, 66th Prime Minister of Lebanon\n* 1970 – François Leroux, Canadian ice hockey player and radio host\n* 1970 – Tatiana Stefanidou, Greek journalist and talk show host\n1971 – Oleg Petrov, Russian ice hockey player\n 1971 – Graham Rowntree, English rugby player\n* 1971 – David Tennant, Scottish actor \n1972 – Rosa Clemente, American journalist and activist\n 1972 – Eli Roth, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1972 – Michael Rutter, English motorcycle racer\n1973 – Derrick Brooks, American football player\n 1973 – Brady Clark, American baseball player\n* 1973 – Haile Gebrselassie, Ethiopian runner\n1974 – Millie Corretjer, Puerto Rican-American actress and singer \n 1974 – Mark Tremonti, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n1976 – Gavin Creel, American actor and singer\n 1976 – Melissa Joan Hart, American actress, director, and producer\n* 1976 – Andrew Ilie, Romanian-Australian tennis player\n* 1976 – Justin Ross, American politician\n* 1976 – Staffan Strand, Swedish high jumper\n1977 – Dan LaCouture, American ice hockey player\n 1977 – Cindy Taylor, Paraguayan model and actress\n1979 – Michael Bradley, American basketball player and coach\n 1979 – Ethan Cohn, American actor\n* 1979 – Matt Cooper, Australian rugby league player \n* 1979 – Anthony Davidson, English race car driver\n* 1979 – Kourtney Kardashian, American model and businesswoman\n1980 – Rabiu Afolabi, Nigerian footballer and manager\n 1980 – Justin Levens, American mixed martial artist (d. 2008)\n* 1980 – Robyn Regehr, Canadian ice hockey player\n1981 – Brian Buscher, American baseball player\n 1981 – Milan Jovanović, Serbian footballer\n* 1981 – Aldo Ramírez, Colombian footballer\n* 1981 – Audrey Tang, Taiwanese computer scientist and academic\n1982 – Ibrahim al-Asiri, Saudi Arabian terrorist\n 1982 – Greg Camarillo, American football player\n* 1982 – Ricardo Colclough, Canadian-American football player\n* 1982 – Simone Farina, Italian footballer\n* 1982 – Scott Hartnell, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1982 – Blair Late, American singer-songwriter and journalist \n* 1982 – Darren Sutherland, Irish boxer (d. 2009)\n* 1982 – Marie-Élaine Thibert, Canadian singer\n1983 – Miguel Cabrera, Venezuelan baseball player\n 1983 – Reeve Carney, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n1984 – Red Bryant, American football player\n 1984 – America Ferrera, American actress and producer\n1985 – Łukasz Fabiański, Polish footballer\n1986 – Billy Butler, American baseball player\n* 1986 – Maurice Edu, American soccer player\n* 1986 – Taylor Griffin, American basketball player\n* 1986 – Conrad Logan, Irish footballer\n* 1986 – Efraín Velarde, Mexican footballer\n1987 – Brett Deledio, Australian footballer\n 1987 – Danny Guthrie, English footballer\n* 1987 – Rosie Huntington-Whiteley, English model and actress\n* 1987 – Samantha Jade, Australian singer-songwriter and actress\n* 1987 – Ivan Tričkovski, Macedonian footballer\n1988 – Andre Frolov, Estonian footballer\n 1988 – Alexander Hauck, South African-German rugby player\n1989 – Simas Buterlevičius, Lithuanian basketball player\n1990 – Henderson Álvarez, Venezuelan baseball player\n* 1990 – Anna van der Breggen, Dutch cyclist\n* 1990 – Jake Howells, English footballer\n* 1990 – Wojciech Szczęsny, Polish footballer\n* 1990 – Junior Torunarigha, Nigerian footballer\n1993 – Matt Salisbury, English cricketer\n 1993 – Nathan Sykes, English singer-songwriter \n1995 – Divock Origi, Belgian footballer\n1996 – Mariah Bell, American figure skater\n* 1996 – Ioana Ducu, Romanian tennis player\n1997 – Matthias Blübaum, German chess grandmaster\n\n", " 727 – Agallianos Kontoskeles, Byzantine commander and rebel leader\n* 796 – Æthelred I, king of Northumbria\n* 850 – Perfectus, Spanish monk and martyr\n* 909 – Dionysius II, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch\n* 943 – Fujiwara no Atsutada, Japanese nobleman and poet (b. 906)\n* 963 – Stephen Lekapenos, co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire\n1161 – Theobald of Bec, French-English archbishop (b. 1090)\n1176 – Galdino della Sala, Italian archdeacon and saint\n1552 – John Leland, English poet and historian (b. 1502)\n1555 – Polydore Vergil, English historian (b. 1470)\n1556 – Luigi Alamanni, Italian poet and politician (b. 1495)\n1567 – Wilhelm von Grumbach, German adventurer (b. 1503)\n1587 – John Foxe, English historian and author (b. 1516)\n1619 – Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani, Mughal empress (b. 1573)\n1636 – Julius Caesar, English judge and politician (b. 1557)\n1650 – Simonds d'Ewes, English lawyer and politician (b. 1602)\n1674 – John Graunt, English demographer and statistician (b. 1620)\n1689 – George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys, Welsh judge and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1648)\n1732 – Louis Feuillée, French astronomer, geographer, and botanist (b. 1660)\n1763 – Marie-Josephte Corriveau, Canadian murderer (b. 1733)\n1794 – Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden, English lawyer, judge, and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)\n1796 – Johan Wilcke, Swedish physicist and academic (b. 1732)\n1802 – Erasmus Darwin, English physician and botanist (b. 1731)\n1832 – Jeanne-Elisabeth Chaudet, French painter (b. 1761)\n1859 – Tatya Tope, Indian general (b. 1814)\n1864 – Juris Alunāns, Latvian philologist and linguist (b. 1832)\n1873 – Justus von Liebig, German chemist and academic (b. 1803)\n1898 – Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (b. 1826)\n1906 – Luis Martín, Spanish religious leader, 24th Superior-General of the Society of Jesus (b. 1846)\n1917 – Vladimir Serbsky, Russian psychiatrist and academic (b. 1858)\n1936 – Milton Brown, American singer and bandleader (b. 1903)\n 1936 – Ottorino Respighi, Italian composer and conductor (b. 1879)\n1938 – George Bryant, American archer (b. 1878)\n1942 – Aleksander Mitt, Estonian speed skater (b. 1903)\n* 1942 – Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, American heiress, sculptor and art collector, founded the Whitney Museum of American Art (b. 1875)\n1943 – Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese admiral (b. 1884)\n1945 – John Ambrose Fleming, English physicist and engineer, invented the vacuum tube (b. 1849)\n* 1945 – Ernie Pyle, American journalist and soldier (b. 1900)\n1947 – Jozef Tiso, Slovak priest and politician, President of Slovakia (b. 1887)\n1951 – Óscar Carmona, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 11th President of Portugal (b. 1869)\n1955 – Albert Einstein, German-American physicist, engineer, and academic (b. 1879)\n1958 – Maurice Gamelin, Belgian-French general (b. 1872)\n1959 – Irving Cummings, American actor, director, and producer (b. 1888)\n 1959 – Percy Smith, English footballer and manager (b. 1880)\n1963 – Meyer Jacobstein, American academic and politician (b. 1880)\n1964 – Ben Hecht, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1894)\n1965 – Guillermo González Camarena, Mexican engineer (b. 1917)\n1967 – Karl Miller, German footballer (b. 1913)\n1974 – Marcel Pagnol, French author, playwright, and director (b. 1895)\n1986 – Marcel Dassault, French businessman, founded Dassault Aviation (b. 1892)\n1988 – Pierre Desproges, French journalist and actor (b. 1939)\n 1988 – Oktay Rıfat Horozcu, Turkish poet and playwright (b. 1914)\n1995 – Arturo Frondizi, Argentinian lawyer and politician, 32nd President of Argentina (b. 1908)\n1996 – Brook Berringer, American football player (b. 1973)\n* 1996 – Bernard Edwards, American bass player and producer (b. 1952)\n1997 – Edward Barker, English cartoonist (b. 1950)\n1998 – Terry Sanford, American lieutenant and politician, 65th Governor of North Carolina (b. 1917)\n2002 – Thor Heyerdahl, Norwegian ethnographer and explorer (b. 1914)\n 2002 – Wahoo McDaniel, American football player and wrestler (b. 1938)\n2003 – Edgar F. Codd, English-American soldier, pilot, and computer scientist (b. 1923)\n2004 – Kamisese Mara, Fijian politician, 2nd President of Fiji (b. 1920)\n2005 – Sam Mills, American football player and coach (b. 1959)\n2006 – Mercedes Palomino, Spanish-born Quebec actor and theatre director (b. 1913) \n2007 – Iccho Itoh, Japanese politician (b. 1945)\n2008 – Germaine Tillion, French ethnologist and anthropologist (b. 1907)\n2012 – Dick Clark, American television host and producer, founded Dick Clark Productions (b. 1929)\n 2012 – René Lépine, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1929)\n* 2012 – K. D. Wentworth, American author (b. 1951)\n2013 – Cordell Mosson, American bass player (b. 1952)\n 2013 – Steuart Pringle, English general (b. 1928)\n* 2013 – Goran Švob, Croatian philosopher and author (b. 1947)\n* 2013 – Anne Williams, English activist (b. 1951)\n2014 – Guru Dhanapal, Indian director and producer (b. 1959)\n 2014 – Sanford Jay Frank, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1954)\n* 2014 – Eduard Kosolapov, Russian footballer (b. 1976)\n* 2014 – David McClarty, Northern Irish politician (b. 1951)\n* 2014 – Brian Priestman, English conductor and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2014 – Dylan Tombides, Australian footballer (b. 1994)\n2015 – Roger Lobo, Macanese-Hong Kong businessman and politician (b. 1923)\n 2015 – Erwin Waldner, German footballer (b. 1933)\n* 2017 – Vic Albury, Major League pitcher (b. 1947)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nCorebus\nCyril VI of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)\nEleutherius and Antia\nGaldino della Sala\nMolaise of Leighlin\nPerfectus\nPlato of Sakkoudion\nApril 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nAnniversary of the Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice, 1242 (Russia)\nArmy Day (Iran)\nComa Patients' Day (Poland)\nFriend's Day (Brazil)\nIndependence Day, celebrates the independence of Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980.\nInternational Day For Monuments and Sites \nInvention Day (Japan)\nVictory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice (Russia)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 18
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "215 BC – A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at Lake Trasimene.\n 599 – Maya king Uneh Chan of Calakmul attacks rival city-state Palenque in southern Mexico, defeating queen Yohl Ik'nal and sacking the city.\n* 711 – Dagobert III is crowned King of the Franks.\n1014 – Battle of Clontarf: High King of Ireland Brian Boru defeats Viking invaders, but is killed in battle.\n1016 – Edmund Ironside succeeds his father Æthelred the Unready as king of England.\n1343 – St. George's Night Uprising commences in the Duchy of Estonia.\n1348 – The founding of the Order of the Garter by King Edward III is announced on St. George's Day.\n1516 – The Bayerische Reinheitsgebot (regarding the ingredients of beer) is signed in Ingolstadt.\n1521 – Battle of Villalar: King Charles I of Spain defeats the Comuneros.\n1635 – The first public school in the United States, Boston Latin School, is founded in Boston.\n1655 – The Siege of Santo Domingo begins during the Anglo-Spanish War, and fails seven days later.\n1660 – Treaty of Oliva is established between Sweden and Poland.\n1661 – King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland is crowned in Westminster Abbey.\n1815 – The Second Serbian Uprising: A second phase of the national revolution of the Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, erupts shortly after the annexation of the country to the Ottoman Empire.\n1879 – Fire burns down the second main building and dome of the University of Notre Dame, which prompts the construction of the third, and current, Main Building with its golden dome.\n1914 – First baseball game at Wrigley Field, then known as Weeghman Park, in Chicago. \n1918 – World War I: The British Royal Navy makes a raid in an attempt to neutralise the Belgian port of Bruges-Zeebrugge.\n1920 – The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) is founded in Ankara. The assembly denounces the government of Sultan Mehmed VI and announces the preparation of a temporary constitution.\n1927 – Cardiff City defeat Arsenal in the FA Cup Final, the only time it has been won by a team not based in England.\n1935 – The Polish Constitution of 1935 is adopted.\n1940 – The Rhythm Club fire at a dance hall in Natchez, Mississippi, kills 198 people.\n1941 – World War II: The Greek government and King George II evacuate Athens before the invading Wehrmacht.\n1942 – World War II: Baedeker Blitz – German bombers hit Exeter, Bath and York in retaliation for the British raid on Lübeck.\n1945 – World War II: Adolf Hitler's designated successor Hermann Göring sends him a telegram asking permission to take leadership of the Third Reich, which causes Hitler to replace him with Joseph Goebbels and Karl Dönitz.\n1946 – Manuel Roxas is elected the last President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines.\n1949 – Chinese Civil War: Establishment of the People's Liberation Army Navy.\n1951 – American journalist William N. Oatis is arrested for espionage by the Communist government of Czechoslovakia.\n1961 – Algiers putsch by French generals.\n1967 – Soviet space program: Soyuz 1 (Russian: Союз 1, Union 1) a manned spaceflight carrying cosmonaut Colonel Vladimir Komarov is launched into orbit.\n1968 – Vietnam War: Student protesters at Columbia University in New York City take over administration buildings and shut down the university.\n1971 – Bangladesh Liberation War: The Pakistan Army and Razakars massacre approximately 3,000 Hindu emigrants in the Jathibhanga area of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).\n1985 – Coca-Cola changes its formula and releases New Coke. The response is overwhelmingly negative, and the original formula is back on the market in less than three months.\n1990 – Namibia becomes the 160th member of the United Nations and the 50th member of the Commonwealth of Nations.\n1993 – Eritreans vote overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a United Nations-monitored referendum.\n 1993 – Sri Lankan politician Lalith Athulathmudali is assassinated while addressing a gathering, approximately four weeks ahead of the Provincial Council elections for the Western Province.\n2005 – The first ever YouTube video, titled \"Me at the zoo\", was published by user \"jawed\".\n2013 – At least 28 people are killed and more than 70 are injured as violence breaks out in Hawija, Iraq.\n", "1141 – Malcolm IV of Scotland (d. 1165)\n1185 – Afonso II of Portugal (d. 1223)\n1408 – John de Vere, 12th Earl of Oxford (d. 1462)\n1420 – George of Poděbrady, King of Bohemia (d. 1471)\n1464 – Joan of France, Duchess of Berry (d. 1505)\n 1464 – Robert Fayrfax, English Renaissance composer (d. 1521)\n1484 – Julius Caesar Scaliger, Italian physician and scholar (d. 1558)\n1500 – Alexander Ales, Scottish theologian and academic (d. 1565)\n* 1500 – Johann Stumpf, Swiss writer (d. 1576)\n1512 – Henry FitzAlan, 19th Earl of Arundel, Chancellor of the University of Oxford (d. 1580)\n1516 – Georg Fabricius, German poet, historian, and archaeologist (d. 1571)\n1564 – William Shakespeare, English poet, playwright, and actor (d.1616)\n1598 – Maarten Tromp, Dutch admiral (d. 1653)\n1621 – William Penn, English admiral and politician (d. 1670)\n1628 – Johannes Hudde, Dutch mathematician and politician (d. 1704)\n1661 – Issachar Berend Lehmann, German-Jewish banker, merchant and diplomat (d. 1730)\n1715 – Johann Friedrich Doles, German composer and conductor (d. 1797)\n1720 – Vilna Gaon, Lithuanian rabbi and author (d. 1797)\n1744 – Princess Charlotte Amalie Wilhelmine of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Plön (d. 1770)\n1748 – Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, French physician and anatomist (d. 1794)\n1791 – James Buchanan, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 15th President of the United States (d. 1868)\n1792 – Thomas Romney Robinson, Irish astronomer and physicist (d. 1882)\n1794 – Wei Yuan, Chinese scholar and author (d. 1856)\n1805 – Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz, German philosopher and academic (d. 1879)\n1812 – Frederick Whitaker, English-New Zealand lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1891)\n1813 – Stephen A. Douglas, American educator and politician, 7th Illinois Secretary of State (d. 1861)\n 1813 – Frédéric Ozanam, Italian-French historian and scholar (d. 1853)\n1819 – Edward Stafford, Scottish-New Zealand educator and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1901)\n1823 – Abdülmecid I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1861)\n1853 – Winthrop M. Crane, American businessman and politician, 40th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1920)\n1856 – Granville Woods, American inventor and engineer (d. 1910)\n1857 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer (d. 1919)\n1858 – Max Planck, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)\n* 1858 – Ethel Smyth, English composer (d. 1944)\n1860 – Justinian Oxenham, Australian public servant (d. 1932)\n1861 – Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby, English field marshal and diplomat, British High Commissioner in Egypt (d. 1936)\n* 1861 – John Peltz, American baseball player and manager (d. 1906)\n1865 – Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Russian-Azerbaijani general (d. 1943)\n1867 – Johannes Fibiger, Danish physician and pathologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)\n1876 – Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, German historian and author (d. 1925)\n1880 – Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (d. 1942)\n1882 – Albert Coates, English composer and conductor (d. 1953)\n1888 – Georges Vanier, Canadian general and politician, 19th Governor General of Canada (d. 1967)\n1889 – Karel Doorman, Dutch admiral (d. 1942)\n1893 – Frank Borzage, American actor and director (d. 1952)\n1895 – Ngaio Marsh, New Zealand author and director (d. 1982)\n1898 – Lucius D. Clay, American general (d. 1978)\n* 1897 – Folke Jansson, Swedish triple jumper (d. 1965)\n* 1897 – Lester B. Pearson, Canadian historian and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1972)\n1899 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)\n 1899 – Minoru Shirota, Japanese physician and microbiologist, invented Yakult (d. 1982)\n1900 – Jim Bottomley, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1959)\n 1900 – Joseph Green, Polish-American actor and director (d. 1996)\n1901 – E. B. Ford, English biologist and geneticist (d. 1988)\n1902 – Halldór Laxness, Icelandic author and poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)\n1903 – Guy Simonds, English-Canadian general (d. 1974)\n1904 – Cliff Bricker, Canadian runner (d. 1980)\n* 1904 – Louis Muhlstock, Polish-Canadian painter (d. 2001)\n* 1904 – Duncan Renaldo, American actor (d. 1985)\n1907 – Lee Miller, American model and photographer (d. 1977)\n 1907 – Fritz Wotruba, Austrian sculptor, designed the Wotruba Church (d. 1975)\n1908 – Myron Waldman, American animator and director (d. 2006)\n1910 – Simone Simon, French actress (d. 2005)\n1911 – Ronald Neame, English-American director, cinematographer, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2010)\n1913 – Diosa Costello, Puerto Rican-American entertainer, producer and club owner (d. 2013)\n1915 – Arnold Alexander Hall, English engineer, academic, and businessman (d. 2000)\n1916 – Yiannis Moralis, Greek painter and educator (d. 2009)\n* 1916 – Sinah Estelle Kelley, African-American chemist (d. 1982)\n1917 – Dorian Leigh, American model (d. 2008)\n 1917 – Tony Lupien, American baseball player and coach (d. 2004)\n1918 – Maurice Druon, French author and screenwriter (d. 2009)\n1919 – Oleg Penkovsky, Russian colonel (d. 1963)\n1920 – Eric Grant Yarrow, 3rd Baronet, English businessman\n1921 – Cleto Bellucci, Italian archbishop (d. 2013)\n* 1921 – Janet Blair, American actress and singer (d. 2007)\n* 1921 – Warren Spahn, American baseball player and coach (d. 2003)\n1923 – Dolph Briscoe, American lieutenant and politician, 41st Governor of Texas (d. 2010)\n 1923 – Avram Davidson, American soldier and author (d. 1993)\n1924 – Chuck Harmon, American baseball player and scout\n 1924 – Bobby Rosengarden, American drummer and bandleader (d. 2007)\n1926 – J.P. Donleavy, American-Irish novelist and playwright\n 1926 – Rifaat el-Mahgoub, Egyptian politician (d. 1990)\n1928 – Shirley Temple, American actress, singer, dancer, and diplomat (d. 2014)\n1929 – George Steiner, French-American philosopher, author, and critic\n1930 – Michael Bowen, Gibraltarian-English archbishop\n1932 – Halston, American fashion designer (d. 1990)\n* 1932 – Jim Fixx, American runner and author (d. 1984)\n1933 – Annie Easley, African-American computer scientist, mathematician, and engineer (d. 2011)\n1934 – George Canseco, Filipino composer and producer (d. 2004)\n1936 – Roy Orbison, American singer-songwriter (d. 1988)\n1937 – Victoria Glendinning, English author and critic\n* 1937 – David Mills, English cricketer (d. 2013)\n* 1937 – Barry Shepherd, Australian cricketer (d. 2001)\n1939 – Jorge Fons, Mexican director and screenwriter\n 1939 – Bill Hagerty, English journalist\n* 1939 – Lee Majors, American actor\n* 1939 – Ray Peterson, American pop singer (d. 2005)\n1940 – Michael Copps, American academic and politician\n 1940 – Dale Houston, American singer-songwriter (d. 2007)\n* 1940 – Michael Kadosh, Israeli footballer and manager (d. 2014)\n1941 – Jacqueline Boyer, French singer and actress\n 1941 – Arie den Hartog, Dutch road bicycle racer\n* 1941 – Paavo Lipponen, Finnish journalist and politician, 38th Prime Minister of Finland\n* 1941 – Michael Lynne, American film producer, co-founded New Line Cinema\n* 1941 – Ed Stewart, English radio and television host (d. 2016)\n* 1941 – Ray Tomlinson, American computer programmer and engineer (d. 2016)\n1942 – Sandra Dee, American model and actress (d. 2005)\n1943 – Gail Goodrich, American basketball player and coach\n* 1943 – Tony Esposito, Canadian-American ice hockey player, coach, and manager\n* 1943 – Frans Koppelaar, Dutch painter\n* 1943 – Herve Villechaize, French actor (d. 1993)\n1944 – Jean-François Stévenin, French actor and director\n1946 – Blair Brown, American actress\n* 1946 – Carlton Sherwood, American soldier and journalist (d. 2014)\n1947 – Robert Burgess, English sociologist and academic\n 1947 – Glenn Cornick, English bass player (Jethro Tull) (d. 2014)\n* 1947 – Bernadette Devlin McAliskey, Irish republican activist; co-founder, Irish Republican Socialist Party (1974); British MP Mid Ulster (1969–74)\n1948 – Pascal Quignard, French author and screenwriter\n 1948 – Serge Thériault, Canadian actor\n1949 – Paul Collier, English economist and academic\n 1949 – David Cross, English violinist \n* 1949 – John Miles, British rock singer, songwriter, and guitarist \n1950 – Rowley Leigh, English chef and journalist\n 1950 – Barbara McIlvaine Smith, Sac and Fox Nation Native American politician\n1951 – Martin Bayerle, American treasure hunter\n1952 – Narada Michael Walden, African-American singer-songwriter, drummer, and producer\n1953 – James Russo, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1954 – Stephen Dalton, English air marshal\n* 1954 – Michael Moore, American director, producer, and activist\n1955 – Judy Davis, Australian actress\n 1955 – Tony Miles, English chess player (d. 2001)\n* 1955 – Urmas Ott, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2008)\n1957 – Neville Brody, English graphic designer, typographer, and art director\n 1957 – Jan Hooks, American actress and comedian (d. 2014)\n1958 – Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson, Icelandic composer and producer\n 1958 – Ryan Walter, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1960 – Valerie Bertinelli, American actress\n 1960 – Steve Clark, English guitarist and songwriter (d. 1991)\n* 1960 – Barry Douglas, Irish pianist and conductor\n* 1960 – Léo Jaime, Brazilian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor \n* 1960 – Claude Julien, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1961 – George Lopez, American comedian, actor, and talk show host\n 1961 – Pierluigi Martini, Italian race car driver\n1962 – John Hannah, Scottish actor and producer\n 1962 – Shaun Spiers, English businessman and politician\n1963 – Paul Belmondo, French race car driver\n 1963 – Robby Naish, American windsurfer\n1964 – Gianandrea Noseda, Italian pianist and conductor\n1965 – Leni Robredo, Filipina activist, 14th Vice President of the Philippines\n1966 – Jörg Deisinger, German bass player \n1967 – Rheal Cormier, Canadian baseball player\n* 1967 – Melina Kanakaredes, American actress\n1968 – Bas Haring, Dutch philosopher, writer, television presenter and professor.\n 1968 – Ken McRae, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1968 – Timothy McVeigh, American terrorist, Oklahoma City bombing co-perpetrator (d. 2001)\n1969 – Martín López-Zubero, American-Spanish swimmer and coach\n 1969 – Yelena Shushunova, Russian gymnast\n* 1969 – Richard Wolstencroft, Australian director and producer\n1970 – Egemen Bağış, Turkish politician, 1st Minister of European Union Affairs\n 1970 – Dennis Culp, American singer-songwriter and trombonist \n* 1970 – Andrew Gee, Australian rugby league player and manager\n* 1970 – Hans Välimäki, Finnish chef and author\n* 1970 – Tayfur Havutçu, Turkish international footballer and manager\n1971 – Uli Herzner, German-American fashion designer\n1972 – Pierre Labrie, Canadian poet and playwright\n* 1972 – Peter Dench, English photographer and journalist\n1973 – Patrick Poulin, Canadian ice hockey player\n1974 – Carlos Dengler, American bass player \n* 1974 – Michael Kerr, New Zealand-German rugby player\n1975 – Bobby Shaw, American football player\n1976 – Aaron Dessner, American guitarist, songwriter, and producer \n1977 – John Cena, American wrestler\n 1977 – Andruw Jones, Curaçaoan baseball player\n* 1977 – David Kidwell, New Zealand rugby league player and coach\n* 1977 – Willie Mitchell, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1977 – John Oliver, English comedian, actor, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1977 – Kal Penn, Indian-American actor \n* 1977 – Bram Schmitz, Dutch cyclist\n* 1977 – Lee Young-pyo, South Korean footballer\n1978 – Gezahegne Abera, Ethiopian runner\n1979 – Barry Hawkins, English snooker player\n* 1979 – Jaime King, American actress and model\n* 1979 – Joanna Krupa, Polish-American model and television personality \n* 1979 – Samppa Lajunen, Finnish skier\n1982 – Tony Sunshine, American singer-songwriter\n1983 – Daniela Hantuchová, Slovak tennis player\n* 1983 – Ian Henderson, English rugby league player\n* 1983 – Carl Higbie, American Navy SEAL, author, and political commentator\n1984 – Alexandra Kosteniuk, Russian chess player\n1985 – Angel Locsin, Filipino actress, producer, and fashion designer\n1986 – Sven Kramer, Dutch speed skater\n 1986 – Alysia Montaño, American runner\n* 1986 – Rafael Fernandes, Brazilian baseball player\n1987 – Michael Arroyo, Ecuadorian footballer\n 1987 – John Boye, Ghanaian footballer\n* 1987 – Emily Fox, American basketball player \n1988 – Victor Anichebe, Nigerian footballer\n 1988 – Alistair Brownlee, English triathlete\n* 1988 – Signe Ronka, Canadian figure skater \n* 1988 – Lenka Wienerová, Slovak tennis player\n1989 – Nicole Vaidišová, Czech tennis player\n1990 – Dev Patel, English actor\n1991 – Nathan Baker, English footballer\n 1991 – Caleb Johnson, American singer-songwriter\n* 1991 – Paul Vaughan, Australian-Italian rugby league player\n1994 – Patrick Olsen, Danish footballer\n1995 – Gigi Hadid, American fashion model and television personality\n\n", "* 303 – Saint George, Roman soldier and martyr (b. 275)\n* 711 – Childebert III, Frankish king (b. 670)\n* 725 – Wihtred of Kent (b. 670)\n* 871 – Æthelred of Wessex (b. 837)\n* 915 – Yang Shihou, Chinese general\n* 944 – Wichmann the Elder, Saxon nobleman\n* 997 – Adalbert of Prague, Czech bishop, missionary, and saint (b. 956)\n1014 – Brian Boru, Irish king (b. 941)\n1016 – Æthelred the Unready, English son of Edgar the Peaceful (b. 968)\n1124 – Alexander I of Scotland (b. 1078)\n1151 – Adeliza of Louvain (b. 1103)\n1170 – Minamoto no Tametomo, Japanese samurai (b. 1139)\n1196 – Béla III of Hungary (b. c.1148)\n1200 – Zhu Xi, Chinese philosopher (b. 1130)\n1217 – Inge II of Norway (b. 1185)\n1262 – Aegidius of Assisi, companion of Saint Francis of Assisi\n1307 – Joan of Acre (b. 1272)\n1400 – Aubrey de Vere, 10th Earl of Oxford, English politician and nobleman (b. c. 1338)\n1407 – Olivier de Clisson, French soldier (b. 1326)\n1501 – Domenico della Rovere, Catholic cardinal (b. 1442)\n1554 – Gaspara Stampa, Italian poet (b. 1523)\n1605 – Boris Godunov, Russian ruler (b. 1551)\n1616 – Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Peruvian historian and author (b. 1539)\n* 1616 – William Shakespeare, English actor, playwright, and poet (b. 1564)\n* 1616 – Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish author (b. 1547)\n1625 – Maurice, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)\n1695 – Henry Vaughan, Welsh poet and author (b. 1621)\n1702 – Margaret Fell, English religious leader, founded the Religious Society of Friends (b. 1614)\n1781 – James Abercrombie, Scottish general and politician (b. 1706)\n1784 – Solomon I of Imereti (b. 1735)\n1792 – Karl Friedrich Bahrdt, German theologian and author (b. 1741)\n1794 – Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French lawyer and politician (b. 1721)\n1827 – Georgios Karaiskakis, Greek general (b. 1780)\n1839 – Jacques Félix Emmanuel Hamelin, French admiral and explorer (b. 1768)\n1850 – William Wordsworth, English poet and author (b. 1770)\n1889 – Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly, French author and critic (b. 1808)\n1895 – Carl Ludwig, German physician and physiologist (b. 1815)\n1905 – Gédéon Ouimet, Canadian politician, 2nd Premier of Quebec (b. 1823)\n1907 – Alferd Packer, American prospector (b. 1842)\n1915 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (b. 1887)\n1936 – Teresa de la Parra, French-Venezuelan author (b. 1889)\n1951 – Jules Berry, French actor and director (b. 1883)\n 1951 – Charles G. Dawes, American banker and politician, 30th Vice President of the United States, Nobel Peace Prize laureate (b. 1865)\n1959 – Bak Jungyang, Korean politician \n1965 – George Adamski, Polish-American ufologist and author (b. 1891)\n1966 – George Ohsawa, Japanese founder of the Macrobiotic diet (b. 1893)\n1981 – Josep Pla, Catalan journalist and author (b. 1897)\n1983 – Buster Crabbe, American swimmer and actor (b. 1908)\n1984 – Red Garland, American pianist (b. 1923)\n1985 – Sam Ervin, American lawyer and politician (b. 1896)\n1986 – Harold Arlen, American composer (b. 1905)\n* 1986 – Jim Laker, English cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1922)\n* 1986 – Otto Preminger, Ukrainian-American actor, director, and producer (b. 1906)\n1990 – Paulette Goddard, American actress (b. 1910)\n1991 – Johnny Thunders, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1952)\n1992 – Satyajit Ray, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1921)\n 1992 – Tanka Prasad Acharya, Nepalese politician, 27th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1912)\n1993 – Cesar Chavez, American activist, co-founded the United Farm Workers (b. 1927)\n1995 – Douglas Lloyd Campbell, Canadian farmer and politician, 13th Premier of Manitoba (b. 1895)\n* 1995 – Howard Cosell, American lawyer and journalist (b. 1918)\n* 1995 – Riho Lahi, Estonian journalist (b. 1904)\n* 1995 – John C. Stennis, American lawyer and politician (b. 1904)\n1996 – Jean Victor Allard, Canadian general (b. 1913)\n 1996 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (b. 1899)\n1997 – Denis Compton, English cricketer and footballer (b. 1918)\n1998 – Konstantinos Karamanlis, Greek lawyer and politician, 172nd Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1907)\n* 1998 – James Earl Ray, American assassin of Martin Luther King, Jr. (b. 1928)\n* 1998 – Thanassis Skordalos, Greek singer-songwriter and lyra player (b. 1920)\n2003 – Fernand Fonssagrives, French-American photographer (b. 1910)\n2004 – Herman Veenstra, Dutch water polo player (b. 1911)\n2005 – Joh Bjelke-Petersen, New Zealand-Australian politician, 31st Premier of Queensland (b. 1911)\n 2005 – Robert Farnon, Canadian-English trumpet player, composer and conductor (b. 1917)\n* 2005 – Al Grassby, Australian journalist and politician (b. 1928)\n* 2005 – John Mills, English actor (b. 1908)\n* 2005 – Romano Scarpa, Italian author and illustrator (b. 1927)\n* 2005 – Earl Wilson, American baseball player, coach and educator (b. 1934)\n* 2006 – Phil Walden, American record producer and manager, co-founder of Capricorn Records (b. 1940)\n2007 – Paul Erdman, Canadian-American economist and author (b. 1932)\n 2007 – David Halberstam, American journalist, historian and author (b. 1934)\n* 2007 – Peter Randall, English sergeant (b. 1930)\n* 2007 – Boris Yeltsin, Russian politician, 1st President of Russia (b. 1931)\n2010 – Peter Porter, Australian-born British poet (b. 1929) \n2011 – James Casey, English comedian, radio scriptwriter and producer (b. 1922)\n* 2011 – Tom King, American guitarist and songwriter (b. 1943)\n* 2011 – Geoffrey Russell, 4th Baron Ampthill, English businessman and politician (b. 1921)\n* 2011 – Max van der Stoel, Dutch politician and Minister of State (b. 1924)\n* 2011 – John Sullivan, English screenwriter and producer (b. 1946)\n2012 – Lillemor Arvidsson, Swedish trade union leader and politician, 34th Governor of Gotland (b. 1943)\n 2012 – Billy Bryans, Canadian drummer, songwriter and producer (b. 1947)\n* 2012 – Chris Ethridge, American bass player and songwriter (b. 1947)\n* 2012 – Raymond Thorsteinsson, Canadian geologist and paleontologist (b. 1921)\n* 2012 – LeRoy T. Walker, American football player and coach (b. 1918)\n2013 – Bob Brozman, American guitarist (b. 1954)\n 2013 – Robert W. Edgar, American educator and politician (b. 1943)\n* 2013 – Tony Grealish, English footballer (b. 1956)\n* 2013 – Antonio Maccanico, Italian banker and politician (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Frank W. J. Olver, English-American mathematician and academic (b. 1924)\n* 2013 – Kathryn Wasserman Davis, American philanthropist and scholar (b. 1907)\n2014 – Benjamín Brea, Spanish-Venezuelan saxophonist, clarinet player, and conductor (b. 1946)\n 2014 – Michael Glawogger, Austrian director, screenwriter, and cinematographer (b. 1959)\n* 2014 – Jaap Havekotte, Dutch speed skater and producer of ice skates (b. 1912)\n* 2014 – Connie Marrero, Cuban baseball player and coach (b. 1911)\n* 2014 – F. Michael Rogers, American general (b. 1921)\n* 2014 – Mark Shand, English conservationist and author (b. 1951)\n* 2014 – Patric Standford, English composer and educator (b. 1939)\n2015 – Richard Corliss, American journalist and critic (b. 1944)\n 2015 – Ray Jackson, Australian activist (b. 1941)\n* 2015 – Pierre Claude Nolin, Canadian lawyer and politician, Speaker of the Canadian Senate (b. 1950)\n* 2015 – Jim Steffen, American football player (b. 1936)\n* 2015 – Francis Tsai, American author and illustrator (b. 1967)\n2016 – Inge King, German-born Australian sculptor (b. 1915)\n 2016 – Banharn Silpa-archa, Thai politician, Prime Minister (1995–1996) (b. 1932)\n\n", "Castile and León Day (Castile and León)\nChristian feast day:\nAdalbert of Prague\nFelix, Fortunatus, and Achilleus\nGeorge\nGerard of Toul\nToyohiko Kagawa (Episcopal and Lutheran Church)\nApril 23 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nEarliest day on which the first day of Children's Day can fall, while April 29 is the latest; celebrated on the last Saturday of April. (Colombia) \nIndependence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida)\nInternational Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day\nKhongjom Day (Manipur)\nNational Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus)\nNavy Day (China)\nSt George's Day (England) and its related observances:\nCanada Book Day (Canada)\nLa Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain)\nWorld Book Day \nUN English Language Day (United Nations)\n", "\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "References", "External links" ]	April 23
[ "\n\n\nIn linguistics, an ''' allomorph''' is a variant form of a morpheme, that is, when a unit of meaning varies in sound without changing meaning. The term ''allomorph'' explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes.\n", "\nEnglish has several morphemes that vary in sound but not in meaning. Examples include the past tense and the plural morphemes.\n\nFor example, in English, a past tense morpheme is ''-ed''. It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a schwa when following an alveolar stop:\n\nas or in verbs whose stem ends with the alveolar stops or , such as 'hunted' or 'banded' \nas in verbs whose stem ends with voiceless phonemes other than , such as 'fished' \nas in verbs whose stem ends with voiced phonemes other than , such as 'buzzed' \n\nNotice the \"other than\" restrictions above. This is a common fact about allomorphy: if the allomorphy conditions are ordered from most restrictive (in this case, after an alveolar stop) to least restrictive, then the first matching case usually \"wins\". Thus, the above conditions could be re-written as follows:\n\nas or when the stem ends with the alveolar stops or \nas when the stem ends with voiceless phonemes\nas elsewhere\n\nThe fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final , despite the fact that the latter is voiceless, is then explained by the fact that appears in that environment, together with the fact that the environments are ordered. Likewise, the fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final is because the earlier clause for the allomorph takes priority; and the fact that the allomorph does not appear after stem-final voiceless phonemes is because the preceding clause for the takes priority.\n\nIrregular past tense forms, such as \"broke\" or \"was/ were\", can be seen as still more specific cases (since they are confined to certain lexical items, such as the verb \"break\"), which therefore take priority over the general cases listed above.\n", "Allomorphy can also exist in stems or roots, as in Classical Sanskrit:\n\n\n+'''Vāk''' (voice)\n\n\n'''Singular'''\n'''Plural'''\n\n Nominative\n\n\n\n Genitive\n\n\n\n Instrumental\n\n\n\n Locative\n\n\n\n\nThere are three allomorphs of the stem: , and . The allomorphs are conditioned by the particular case-marking suffixes.\n\nThe form of the stem , found in the nominative singular and locative plural, is the etymological form of the morpheme. Pre-Indic palatalization of velars resulted in the variant form , which was initially phonologically conditioned. The conditioning can still be seen in the locative singular form for which the is followed by the high front vowel .\n\nHowever, subsequent merging of and into made the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds in the genitive case (both singular and plural) as well as the nominative plural and instrumental singular. Thus, allomorphy was no longer directly relatable to phonological processes.\n\nPhonological conditioning also accounts for the form in the instrumental plural in which the assimilates in voicing to the following .\n", "The term was originally used to describe variations in chemical structure. It was first applied to language (in writing) in 1948, by Fatih Şat and Sibel Merve in Language XXIV.\n", "Null allomorph\nAlternation (linguistics)\nAllophone\nConsonant mutation\nGrassmann's Law\nSuppletion\n", " \n\nVictoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, and Nina Hyams (2011) An Introduction to Language (9th edition), Wadsworth, Cengage Learning: Boston, USA, pp. 268-272.\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Allomorphy in English suffixes", "Stem allomorphy", "History", "See also", "References" ]	Allomorph
[ "\nA simplified procedure for determining whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes. The cases on the extreme left and extreme right are those in which the sounds are allophones.\nIn phonology, an '''allophone''' (; from the , ''állos'', \"other\" and φωνή, ''phōnē'', \"voice, sound\") is one of a set of multiple possible spoken sounds (or ''phones'') or signs used to pronounce a single phoneme in a particular language. For example, (as in ''pin'') and (as in ''spin'') are allophones for the phoneme in the English language. The specific allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable from the phonetic context (such allophones are called '''positional variants'''), but sometimes allophones occur in free variation. Replacing a sound by another allophone of the same phoneme will usually not change the meaning of a word, although sometimes the result may sound non-native or even unintelligible. Native speakers of a given language usually perceive one phoneme in that language as a single distinctive sound, and are \"''both unaware of and even shocked by''\" the allophone variations used to pronounce single phonemes.\n", "The term \"allophone\" was coined by Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s. In doing so, he placed a cornerstone in consolidating early phoneme theory. The term was popularized by G. L. Trager and Bernard Bloch in a 1941 paper on English phonology and went on to become part of standard usage within the American structuralist tradition.\n", "Every time a user's speech is vocalized for a given phoneme, it will be slightly different from other utterances, even for the same speaker. This has led to some debate over how real, and how universal, phonemes really are (see phoneme for details). Only some of the variation is significant (i.e., detectable or perceivable) to speakers. There are two types of allophones, based on whether a phoneme must be pronounced using a specific allophone in a specific situation, or whether the speaker has freedom to (unconsciously) choose which allophone to use.\n\nWhen a specific allophone (from a set of allophones that correspond to a phoneme) ''must'' be selected in a given context (i.e., using a different allophone for a phoneme will cause confusion or make the speaker sound non-native), the allophones are said to be 'complementary' (i.e., the allophones complement each other, and one is not used in a situation where the usage of another is standard). In the case of complementary allophones, each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and may be involved in a phonological process.\n\nIn other cases, the speaker is able to select freely from '''free variant''' allophones, based on personal habit or preference.\n\nAnother example of an allophone is assimilation, wherein a phoneme is to sound more like the other phoneme. One example of assimilation is consonant voicing and devoicing, wherein voiceless consonants are voiced before and after voiced consonants and voiced consonants are devoiced before and after voiceless consonants.\n", "A tonic allophone is sometimes called an '''allotone''', for example in the neutral tone of Mandarin.\n", "\n=== English ===\n\n \nThere are many allophonic processes in English, like lack of plosion, nasal plosion, partial devoicing of sonorants, complete devoicing of sonorants, partial devoicing of obstruents, lengthening and shortening vowels, and retraction.\n\n* Aspiration – strong explosion of breath. In English a voiceless plosive (that is p, t or k) is aspirated whenever it stands as the consonant at the beginning of the stressed syllable or of the first, stressed or unstressed, syllable in a word. For example, as in ''pin'' and as in ''spin'' are allophones for the phoneme because they cannot distinguish words (in fact, they occur in complementary distribution). English speakers treat them as the same sound, but they are different: the first is aspirated and the second is unaspirated (plain). Many languages treat these two phones differently; see Aspirated consonant, section Usage patterns.\n* Nasal plosion – In English a plosive () has nasal plosion when it is followed by a nasal, inside a word or across word boundary.\n* Partial devoicing of sonorants – In English sonorants () are partially devoiced when they follow a voiceless sound within the same syllable.\n* Complete devoicing of sonorants – In English a sonorant is completely devoiced when it follows an aspirated plosive ().\n* Partial devoicing of obstruents – In English, a voiced obstruent is partially devoiced next to a pause or next to a voiceless sound, inside a word or across its boundary.\n* Retraction – in English are retracted before .\n\nBecause the choice of allophone is seldom under conscious control, people may not realize they exist. English speakers may be unaware of the differences among six allophones of the phoneme , namely unreleased as in ''cat'', aspirated as in ''top'', glottalized as in ''button'', flapped as in American English ''water'', nasalized flapped as in ''winter'', and none of the above as in ''stop''. However, they may become aware of the differences if, for example, they contrast the pronunciations of the following words:\n\n''Night rate'': unreleased (without word space between and )\n''Nitrate'': aspirated or retracted \n\nIf a flame is held before the lips while these words are spoken, it flickers more during aspirated ''nitrate'' than during unaspirated ''night rate.'' The difference can also be felt by holding the hand in front of the lips. For a Mandarin speaker, to whom and are separate phonemes, the English distinction is much more obvious than it is to the English speaker who has learned since childhood to ignore it.\n\nAllophones of English may be noticed if the 'light' of ''leaf'' is contrasted with the 'dark' of ''feel'' . Again, this difference is much more obvious to a Turkish speaker, for whom and are separate phonemes, than to an English speaker, for whom they are allophones of a single phoneme.\n\n===Cross-language comparison===\nThere are many examples for allophones in languages other than English. Typically, languages with a small phoneme inventory allow for quite a lot of allophonic variation. (See e.g. Hawaiian and Toki Pona.) Examples: (Links of language names go to the specific article or subsection on the phenomenon.)\n* Consonant allophones\n Final devoicing, in particular Final-obstruent devoicing: Arapaho, English, Nahuatl and many others\n Voicing of initial letter \n Anticipatory assimilation\n Aspiration changes: Algonquin \n Frication between vowels: Dahalo\n Lenition: Manx \n Voicing of clicks: Dahalo\n\n Allophones for /b/: Arapaho, Xavante\n Allophones for /d/: Xavante\n Allophones for /f/: Bengali\n Allophones for /j/: Xavante\n Allophones for /k/: Manam\n Allophones for /pʰ/: Garhwali\n e and o are allophones of /i/ and /u/ in closed final syllables in Malaysian, Singapore and Sumatra and ɪ and ʊ are allophones of /i/ and /u/ in Indonesian.\n l and n as allophones: Some dialects of Hawaiian\n Allophones for /n/\n* ŋ: Finnish and many more.\n* wide range of variation in Japanese (as archiphoneme /N/) \n Allophones for /r/: Xavante\n Allophones for /ɽ/: Bengali\n Allophones for /s/: Bengali, Taos \n t and k as allophones: Hawaiian\n Allophones for /w/:\n* v and w: Hindustani, Hawaiian\n* fricative β before unrounded vowels: O'odham\n Allophones for /z/: Bengali\n* Vowel allophones\n Polish\n Russian\n** Allophones for /i/, /a/ and /u/: Nuxálk\n* Vowel/consonant allophones\n** Vowels become glides in diphthongs: Manam\n\n", "Since phonemes are abstractions of speech sounds, not the sounds themselves, they have no direct phonetic transcription. When they are realized without much allophonic variation, a simple ''broad transcription'' is used. However, when there are complementary allophones of a phoneme, so that the allophony is significant, things become more complicated. Often, if only one of the allophones is simple to transcribe, in the sense of not requiring diacritics, then that representation is chosen for the phoneme.\n\nHowever, there may be several such allophones, or the linguist may prefer greater precision than this allows. In such cases a common convention is to use the \"elsewhere condition\" to decide which allophone will stand for the phoneme. The \"elsewhere\" allophone is the one that remains once the conditions for the others are described by phonological rules. For example, English has both oral and nasal allophones of its vowels. The pattern is that vowels are nasal only when preceding a nasal consonant within the same syllable; elsewhere they are oral. Therefore, by the \"elsewhere\" convention, the oral allophones are considered basic; nasal vowels in English are considered to be allophones of oral phonemes.\n\nIn other cases, an allophone may be chosen to represent its phoneme because it is more common in the world's languages than the other allophones, because it reflects the historical origin of the phoneme, or because it gives a more balanced look to a chart of the phonemic inventory. Another alternative, commonly employed for archiphonemes, is the use of a capital letter, such as /N/ for m, n, ŋ.\n\nIn rare cases a linguist may represent phonemes with abstract symbols, such as dingbats, so as not to privilege any one allophone.\n", "Allo-\nAllophonic rule\nAllomorph\nAlternation (linguistics)\nDiaphoneme\nList of phonetics topics\n", "\n", "* Phonemes and allophones\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of concept", "Complementary and free-variant allophones and assimilation", "Allotone", " Examples ", " Representing a phoneme with an allophone ", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Allophone
[ "\n\nAn '''affix''' (in modern sense) is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. Affixes may be derivational, like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or inflectional, like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes. Affixations, the linguistic process speakers use form different words by adding morphemes (affixes) at the beginning (prefixation), the middle (infixation) or the end (suffixation) of words.\n", "Affixes are divided into many categories, depending on their position with reference to the stem. ''Prefix'' and ''suffix'' are extremely common terms. ''Infix'' and ''circumfix'' are less so, as they are not important in European languages. The other terms are uncommon.\n\n\n+ Categories of affixes\n Affix !! Example !! Schema !! Description\n\n '''Prefix''' \n un-do \n prefix-stem \n Appears before the stem\n\n '''Suffix/postfix''' \n look-ing \n stem-suffix \n Appears after the stem\n\n '''Suffixoid''''''/semi-suffix''' \n cat-like \n stem-suffixoid \n Appears after the stem, but is only partially bound to it\n\n '''Infix''' \n Absoloutely \n stem \n Appears within a stem — common in Borneo-Philippines languages\n\n '''Circumfix''' \n enen \n circumfixcircumfix \n One portion appears before the stem, the other after\n\n '''Interfix''' \n speed-o-meter \n stema-interfix-stemb \n Links two stems together in a compound\n\n '''Duplifix''' \n money~shmoney \n stem~duplifix \n Incorporates a reduplicated portion of a stem(may occur before, after, or within the stem)\n\n '''Transfix''' \n Maltese: ktb \"he wrote\"(compare root ''ktb'' \"write\") \n stem \n A discontinuous affix that interleaves within a discontinuous stem\n\n '''Simulfix''' \n mouse → mice \nstem\\simulfix \n Changes a segment of a stem\n\n '''Suprafix''' \n '''pro'''duce (noun)pro'''duce''' (verb) \nstem\\suprafix \n Changes a suprasegmental feature of a stem\n\n '''Disfix''' \n Alabama: tipli \"break up\"(compare root ''tipasli'' \"break\") \n stm \n The elision of a portion of a stem\n\n\n''Prefix'' and ''suffix'' may be subsumed under the term ''adfix'' in contrast to ''infix.''\n\nWhen marking text for interlinear glossing, as in the third column in the chart above. simple affixes such as prefixes and suffixes are separated from the stem with hyphens. Affixes which disrupt the stem, or which themselves are discontinuous, are often marked off with angle brackets. Reduplication is often shown with a tilde. Affixes which cannot be segmented are marked with a back slash.\n", "''Lexical affixes'' (or ''semantic affixes'') are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as incorporated nouns within verbs and as elements of nouns. In other words, they are similar to word roots/stems in function but similar to affixes in form. Although similar to incorporated nouns, lexical affixes differ in that they never occur as freestanding nouns, i.e. they always appear as affixes.\n\nLexical affixes are relatively rare. The Wakashan, Salishan, and Chimakuan languages all have lexical suffixes — the presence of these is an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest of the North America.\n\nThe lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of Northern Straits Saanich written in the Saanich orthography and in Americanist notation:\n\n\n\n Lexical Suffix\n Noun\n\n -o,\n -aʔ\n \"person\"\n, ełtálṉew̱\n ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ\n \"person\"\n\n -nát\n -net\n \"day\"\n sȼićel\n skʷičəl\n \"day\"\n\n -sen\n -sən\n \"foot, lower leg\"\n sxene,\n sx̣ənəʔ\n \"foot, lower leg\"\n\n -áwtw̱\n -ew̕txʷ\n \"building, house, campsite\"\n, á,leṉ\n ʔeʔləŋ\n \"house\"\n\n\nLexical suffixes, when compared with free nouns, often have a more generic or general meaning. For instance, one of these languages may have a lexical suffix that means water in a general sense, but it may not have any noun equivalent referring to water in general and instead have several nouns with a more specific meaning (such \"saltwater\", \"whitewater\", etc.). In other cases, the lexical suffixes have become grammaticalized to various degrees.\n\nSome linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree arguing that they may additionally be syntactic arguments just as free nouns are and, thus, equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the Halkomelem language (the word order here is verb–subject–object):\n\n:{\| class=\"IPA wikitable\"\n\n\n\n VERB\n SUBJ\n OBJ\n\n (1)\n niʔ\n šak’ʷ-ət-əs\n łə słeniʔ\n łə qeq\n\n\n \"the woman washed the baby\"\n\n \n\n\n\n VERB+LEX.SUFF\n SUBJ\n\n\n (2)\n niʔ\n šk’ʷ-əyəł\n łə słeniʔ\n\n\n\n \"the woman baby-washed\"\n\n\nIn sentence (1), the verb \"wash\" is '''šak’ʷətəs''' where '''šak’ʷ-''' is the root and '''-ət''' and '''-əs''' are inflectional suffixes. The subject \"the woman\" is '''łə słeniʔ''' and the object \"the baby\" is '''łə qeq'''. In this sentence, \"the baby\" is a free noun. (The '''niʔ''' here is an auxiliary, which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.)\n\nIn sentence (2), \"baby\" does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix '''-əyəł''' which is affixed to the verb root '''šk’ʷ-''' (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). Note how the lexical suffix is neither \"the baby\" (definite) nor \"a baby\" (indefinite); such referential changes are routine with incorporated nouns.\n", "In orthography, the terms for affixes may be used for the smaller elements of conjunct characters. For example, Maya glyphs are generally compounds of a ''main sign'' and smaller ''affixes'' joined at its margins. These are called ''prefixes, superfixes, postfixes,'' and ''subfixes'' according to their position to the left, on top, to the right, or at the bottom of the main glyph. A small glyph placed inside another is called an ''infix.'' Similar terminology is found with the conjunct consonants of the Indic alphabets. For example, the Tibetan alphabet utilizes prefix, suffix, superfix, and subfix consonant letters.\n", "\n* Agglutination\n* Augmentative\n* Binary prefix\n* Clitic\n* Combining form\n* Concatenation\n* Diminutive\n* English prefixes\n* Family name affixes\n* Internet-related prefixes\n* Marker (linguistics)\n* Morphological derivation\n* Separable affix\n* SI prefix\n* Stemming - affix removal using computer software\n* Unpaired word\n* Word formation\n\n", "\n", "* \n* Montler, Timothy. (1986). ''An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish''. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory.\n* Montler, Timothy. (1991). ''Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list''. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization. \n", "\n\n* Comprehensive and searchable affix dictionary reference\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Positional categories of affixes", "Lexical affixes", "Orthographic affixes", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", " External links " ]	Affix
[ "\n\n''Pearl'' is one of the greatest allegories from the High Middle Ages\nAs a literary device, an '''allegory''' is a metaphor whose vehicle may be a character, place or event, representing real-world issues and occurrences. Allegory (in the sense of the practice and use of allegorical devices and works) has occurred widely throughout history in all forms of art, largely because it can readily illustrate or convey complex ideas and concepts in ways that are comprehensible or striking to its viewers, readers, or listeners.\n\nWriters or speakers typically use allegories as literary devices or as rhetorical devices that convey (semi-)hidden meanings through symbolic figures, actions, imagery, or events, which together create the moral, spiritual, or political meaning the author wishes to convey.\n", "Salvator Rosa: ''Allegory of Fortune'', representing Fortuna, the goddess of luck, with the horn of plenty \nFirst attested in English in 1382, the word ''allegory'' comes from Latin ''allegoria'', the latinisation of the Greek ἀλληγορία (''allegoría''), \"veiled language, figurative,\" which in turn comes from both ἄλλος (''allos''), \"another, different\" and ἀγορεύω (''agoreuo''), \"to harangue, to speak in the assembly\" which originate from ἀγορά (''agora''), \"assembly\".\n", "Northrop Frye discussed what he termed a \"continuum of allegory\", a spectrum that ranges from what he termed the \"naive allegory\" of ''The Faerie Queene'', to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature. In this perspective, the characters in a \"naive\" allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction; the allegory has been selected first, and the details merely flesh it out.\n\nMany ancient religions are based on astrological allegories, that is, allegories of the movement of the sun and the moon as seen from the Earth.\n", "\nIn classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the Cave in Plato's ''Republic'' (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32). Among the best-known examples of allegory, Plato's Allegory of the Cave, forms a part of his larger work ''The Republic.'' In this allegory, Plato describes a group of people who have lived chained in a cave all of their lives, facing a blank wall (514a–b). The people watch shadows projected on the wall by things passing in front of a fire behind them and begin to ascribe forms to these shadows, using language to identify their world (514c–515a). According to the allegory, the shadows are as close as the prisoners get to viewing reality, until one of them finds his way into the outside world where he sees the actual objects that produced the shadows. He tries to tell the people in the cave of his discovery, but they do not believe him and vehemently resist his efforts to free them so they can see for themselves (516e–518a). This allegory is, on a basic level, about a philosopher who upon finding greater knowledge outside the cave of human understanding, seeks to share it as is his duty, and the foolishness of those who would ignore him because they think themselves educated enough.\nIn Late Antiquity Martianus Capella organized all the information a fifth-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and ''Philologia,'' with the seven liberal arts the young man needed to know as guests.\n\nOther early allegories are found in the Hebrew Bible, such as the extended metaphor in Psalm 80 of the Vine and its impressive spread and growth, representing Israel's conquest and peopling of the Promised Land. Also allegorical is Ezekiel 16 and 17, wherein the capture of that same vine by the mighty Eagle represents Israel's exile to Rome.\n", "British School 17th century – Portrait of a Lady, Called Elizabeth, Lady Tanfield. Sometimes the meaning of an allegory can be lost, even if art historians suspect that the artwork is an allegory of some kind.\n\nAllegory has an ability to freeze the temporality of a story, while infusing it with a spiritual context. Mediaeval thinking accepted allegory as having a ''reality'' underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as the facts of surface appearances. Thus, the Papal Bull ''Unam Sanctam'' (1302) presents themes of the unity of Christendom with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as facts on which is based a demonstration with the vocabulary of logic: \"''Therefore'' of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they ''necessarily'' confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ.\" This text also demonstrates the frequent use of allegory in religious texts during the Mediaeval Period, following the tradition and example of the Bible.\n\nIn the late 15th century, the enigmatic ''Hypnerotomachia'', with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and masques on contemporary allegorical representation, as humanist dialectic conveyed them.\n\nThe denial of medieval allegory as found in the 11th-century works of Hugh of St Victor and Edward Topsell's ''Historie of Foure-footed Beastes'' (London, 1607, 1653) and its replacement in the study of nature with methods of categorisation and mathematics by such figures as naturalist John Ray and the astronomer Galileo is thought to mark the beginnings of early modern science.\n", "\nSince meaningful stories are nearly always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories which the author may not have recognised. This is allegoresis, or the act of reading a story as an allegory. Examples of allegory in popular culture that may or may not have been intended include the works of Bertolt Brecht, and even some works of science fiction and fantasy, such as ''The Chronicles of Narnia'' by C.S. Lewis and ''A Kingdom Far and Clear: The Complete Swan Lake Trilogy'' by Mark Helprin.\n\nThe story of the apple falling onto Isaac Newton's head is another famous allegory. It simplified the idea of gravity by depicting a simple way it was supposedly discovered. It also made the scientific revelation well known by condensing the theory into a short tale.\n", "\nDetail of Laurent de La Hyre's ''Allegory of Arithmetic'', c. 1650\nIt is important to note that while allegoresis may make discovery of allegory in any work, not every resonant work of modern fiction is allegorical, and some are clearly not intended to be viewed this way. According to Henry Littlefield's 1964 article, L. Frank Baum's ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'', may be readily understood as a plot-driven fantasy narrative in an extended fable with talking animals and broadly sketched characters, intended to discuss the politics of the time. Yet, George MacDonald emphasised in 1893 that, \"A fairy tale is not an allegory,\" in direct reference to ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''.\n\nJ.R.R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' is another example of a well-known work mistakenly perceived as allegorical, as the author himself once stated, \"...I cordially dislike allegory in all its manifestations, and always have done so since I grew old and wary enough to detect its presence. I much prefer history – true or feigned– with its varied applicability to the thought and experience of readers. I think that many confuse applicability with allegory, but the one resides in the freedom of the reader, and the other in the purposed domination of the author.\" While this does not mean his works may not be treated as having allegorical themes, especially when reinterpreted through postmodern sensibilities, it at least suggests that none were conscious in his writings. This further reinforces the idea of forced allegoresis, as allegory is often a matter of interpretation and only sometimes of original artistic intention.\n\nLike allegorical stories, allegorical poetry has two meanings – a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.\n\nSome unique specimens of allegory can be found in the following works:\nEdmund Spenser – ''The Faerie Queene'': The several knights in the poem actually stand for several virtues.\nWilliam Shakespeare – ''The Tempest'': a fight between good and evil on a deserted island\nJohn Bunyan – ''The Pilgrim's Progress'': The journey of the protagonists Christian and Evangelist symbolises the ascension of the soul from earth to Heaven.\nNathaniel Hawthorne – ''Young Goodman Brown'': The Devil's Staff symbolises defiance of God. The characters' names, such as ''Goodman'' and ''Faith'', ironically serve as paradox in the conclusion of the story.\nNathaniel Hawthorne – ''The Scarlet Letter'': The scarlet letter symbolises many things. The characters, while developed with interiority, are allegorical in that they represent ways of seeing the world. Symbolism is also prominent.\nGeorge Orwell – ''Animal Farm'': The pigs stand for political figures of the Russian Revolution.\nLászló Krasznahorkai - ''The Melancholy of Resistance'' and the film ''Werckmeister Harmonies'': It uses a circus to describe an occupying dysfunctional government.\nEdgar Allan Poe – ''The Masque of the Red Death'': The story can be read as an allegory how no one can evade death.\nArthur Miller – ''The Crucible'': The play about the Salem witch trials, was written as an allegory to the McCarthyism during the blacklisting of Communists in the United States of America.\n\n===Art===\nSome elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in approximate chronological order:\nAmbrogio Lorenzetti – ''Allegoria del Buono e Cattivo Governo e loro Effetti in Città e Campagna'' (c. 1338–1339)\nSandro Botticelli – ''Primavera'' (c. 1482)\nAlbrecht Dürer – ''Melencolia I'' (1514)\nBronzino – ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'' (c. 1545)\nThe English School's – ''\"Allegory of Queen Elizabeth\"'' (c. 1610)\nArtemisia Gentileschi – ''Allegory of Inclination'' (c. 1620), ''An Allegory of Peace and the Arts under the English Crown'' (1638); ''Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting'' (c. 1638–39)\n The ''Feast of Herod with the Beheading of St John the Baptist'' by Bartholomeus Strobel is also an allegory of Europe in the time of the Thirty Years War, with portraits of many leading political and military figures.\nJan Vermeer – ''Allegory of Painting'' (c. 1666)\nMarcel Duchamp – ''The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even'' (1912–1923)\nGraydon Parrish – ''The Cycle of Terror and Tragedy'' (2006)\nMany statues of Lady Justice: \"Such visual representations have raised the question why so many allegories in the history of art, pertaining occupations once reserved for men only, are of female sex.\"\nDamien Hirst – ''Verity'' (2012)\n", "\nFile:Melencolia I (Durero).jpg\|Albrecht Dürer, ''Melencolia I'' (1514): Unused tools, an hourglass, an empty scale surround a melancholic woman, other esoteric and exoteric symbols point to her alleged mental state.\nFile:Angelo Bronzino - Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - National Gallery, London.jpg\|Bronzino, ''Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time'' (c. 1545): The deities of love are surrounded by allegories of Time (a bald, man with angry eyes), Folly (the young woman-demon on the right, possibly also so old woman on the left).\nFile:Titian - Allegorie der Zeit.jpg\|Titian, ''Allegory of Prudence'' (c. 1565–1570): The three human heads symbolise past, present and future, the characterisation of which is furthered by the triple-headed beast (wolf, lion, dog), girded by the body of a big snake.\nFile:Elizabeth-I-Allegorical-Po.jpg\|The English School's ''Allegory of Queen Elizabeth'' (c. 1610), with Father Time at her right and Death looking over her left shoulder. Two cherubs are removing the weighty crown from her tired head.\nFile:Self-portrait as the Allegory of Painting (La Pittura) - Artemisia Gentileschi.jpg\|Artemisia Gentileschi, ''Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting'' (c. 1638–39)\nFile:Jan Vermeer - The Art of Painting - Google Art Project.jpg\|Jan Vermeer, ''The Art of Painting'' (c. 1666): Painting is shown as related to history and politics, the young woman being Clio, the muse of history, and other symbols for the political and religious division of the Netherlands appearing.\nFile:Kessel, Jan van Sr. - Allegory of Hearing.JPG\|Jan van Kessel, ''Allegory of Hearing'' (17th century): Diverse sources of sound, especially instruments serve as allegorical symbols.\n\n", "Allegorical interpretation of the Bible\nAllegorical interpretations of Plato\nAllegory in the Middle Ages\nAllegory in Renaissance literature\nAllegorical sculpture\nCultural depictions of Philip II of Spain\n Diwan (poetry)\nParable\nSemiotics\nTheagenes of Rhegium\n", "\n", "Frye, Northrop (1957) ''Anatomy of Criticism''.\nFletcher, Angus (1964) ''Allegory: The Theory of a Symbolic Mode''.\nFoucault, Michel (1966) ''The Order of Things''.\n\n", "\n\n ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Allegory in Literary history\n* ''Electronic Antiquity'', Richard Levis, \"Allegory and the ''Eclogues''\" Roman definitions of ''allegoria'' and interpreting Vergil's ''Eclogues''.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Types", "Classical allegory", "Medieval allegory", "Modern allegory", "Poetry and fiction", "Gallery", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Allegory
[ "\n\nDiamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon: pure forms of the same element that differ in crystalline structure.\n\n'''Allotropy''' or '''allotropism''' () is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical state, known as ''allotropes'' of these elements. Allotropes are different structural modifications of an element; the atoms of the element are bonded together in a different manner. For example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (the carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice arrangement), graphite (the carbon atoms are bonded together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (the carbon atoms are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal formations). The term ''allotropy'' is used for elements only, not for compounds. The more general term, used for any crystalline material, is polymorphism. Allotropy refers only to different forms of an element within the same phase (i.e. different solid, liquid or gas forms); these different states are not, themselves, considered to be examples of allotropy.\n\nFor some elements, allotropes have different molecular formulae which can persist in different phases – for example, two allotropes of oxygen (dioxygen, O2, and ozone, O3), can both exist in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. Conversely, some elements do not maintain distinct allotropes in different phases – for example phosphorus has numerous solid allotropes, which all revert to the same P4 form when melted to the liquid state.\n", "The concepts of allotropy was originally proposed in 1841 by the Swedish scientist Baron Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848). The term is derived . After the acceptance of Avogadro's hypothesis in 1860 it was understood that elements could exist as polyatomic molecules, and the two allotropes of oxygen were recognized as O2 and O3. In the early 20th century it was recognized that other cases such as carbon were due to differences in crystal structure.\n\nBy 1912, Ostwald noted that the allotropy of elements is just a special case of the phenomenon of polymorphism known for compounds, and proposed that the terms allotrope and allotropy be abandoned and replaced by polymorph and polymorphism. Although many other chemists have repeated this advice, IUPAC and most chemistry texts still favour the usage of allotrope and allotropy for elements only.\n", "Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element and can exhibit quite different physical properties and chemical behaviours. The change between allotropic forms is triggered by the same forces that affect other structures, i.e. pressure, light, and temperature. Therefore, the stability of the particular allotropes depends on particular conditions. For instance, iron changes from a body-centered cubic structure (ferrite) to a face-centered cubic structure (austenite) above 906 °C, and tin undergoes a modification known as tin pest from a metallic form to a semiconductor form below 13.2 °C (55.8 °F). As an example of allotropes having different chemical behaviour, ozone (O3) is a much stronger oxidizing agent than dioxygen (O2).\n", "\n\nTypically, elements capable of variable coordination number and/or oxidation states tend to exhibit greater numbers of allotropic forms. Another contributing factor is the ability of an element to catenate.\n\nExamples of allotropes include:\n\n===Non-metals===\n\n\n Element\n Allotropes\n\nCarbon\n\n* Diamond – an extremely hard, transparent crystal, with the carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedral lattice. A poor electrical conductor. An excellent thermal conductor.\n* Lonsdaleite – also called hexagonal diamond.\n* Graphene - is the basic structural element of other allotropes, nanotubes, charcoal, and fullerenes.\n* Q-carbon – a ferromagnetic, tough, and brilliant crystal structure that is harder and brighter than diamonds.\n* Graphite – a soft, black, flaky solid, a moderate electrical conductor. The C atoms are bonded in flat hexagonal lattices (graphene), which are then layered in sheets.\n* Linear acetylenic carbon (Carbyne)\n* Amorphous carbon\n* Fullerenes, including Buckminsterfullerene, a.k.a. \"buckyballs\", such as C60.\n* Carbon nanotubes – allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure.\n\nPhosphorus\n\n* White phosphorus – crystalline solid of tetraphosphorus (P4) molecules\n* Red phosphorus – amorphous polymeric solid\n* Scarlet phosphorus\n* Violet phosphorus with monoclinic crystalline structure\n* Black phosphorus – semiconductor, analogous to graphite\n* Diphosphorus - gaseous form composed of P2 molecules, stable between 1200 °C and 2000 °C; created e.g. by dissociation of P4 molecules of white phosphorus at around 827 °C\n\nOxygen\n\n* Dioxygen, O2 – colorless (faint blue)\n* Ozone, O3 – blue\n* Tetraoxygen, O4 – metastable\n* Octaoxygen, O8 – red\n\nSulfur\n\n* Sulfur has a large number of allotropes, second only to carbon\n\nSelenium\n\n* \"Red selenium,\" cyclo-Se8\n* Gray selenium, polymeric Se\n* Black selenium, irregular polymeric rings up to 1000 atoms long\n\n\n===Metalloids===\n\n\n Element\n Allotropes\n\nBoron\n\n* Amorphous boron – brown powder – B12 regular icosahedra\n* α-rhombohedral boron\n* β-rhombohedral boron\n* γ-orthorhombic boron\n* α-tetragonal boron\n* β-tetragonal boron\n* High-pressure superconducting phase\n\nSilicon\n\n* Amorphous silicon\n* crystalline silicon, Diamond cubic structure\n* Silicene, buckled planar single layer Silicon, similar to graphene\n\nArsenic\n\n* Yellow arsenic – molecular non-metallic As4, with the same structure as white phopshorus\n* Gray arsenic, polymeric As (metalloid)\n* Black arsenic – molecular and non-metallic, with the same structure as red phosphorus\n\nGermanium\n\nα-germanium – semimetallic, with the same structure as diamond\nβ-germanium – metallic, with the same structure as beta-tin\nGermanene - Buckled planar Germanium, similar to graphene\n\nAntimony\n\n blue-white antimony – stable form (metalloid), with the same structure as gray arsenic\n* yellow antimony (non-metallic)\n* black antimony (non-metallic)\n* explosive antimony\n\nTellurium\n\n* amorphous tellurium - gray-black or brown powder\n* crystalline tellurium - hexagonal crystalline structure (metalloid)\n\n\n===Metals===\n\nAmong the metallic elements that occur in nature in significant quantities (56 up to U, without Tc and Pm), almost half (27) are allotropic at ambient pressure: Li, Be, Na, Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, Co, Sr, Y, Zr, Sn, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Gd, Tb, Dy, Yb, Hf, Tl, Th, Pa and U. Some phase transitions between allotropic forms of technologically relevant metals are those of Ti at 882 °C, Fe at 912 °C and 1394 °C, Co at 422 °C, Zr at 863 °C, Sn at 13 °C and U at 668 °C and 776 °C.\n\n\n\n Element\n Allotropes\n\nTin\n\n* grey tin (alpha tin, Tin pest)\n* white tin (beta tin)\n* rhombic tin (gamma tin)\n* sigma tin (forms at very high pressure)\n\nIron\n\n* ferrite (α-iron): the ferromagnetic form at T C); BCC crystal structure\n* β-iron: T = 770 – 912 °C; the paramagnetic form of α-iron; same structure as α\n* austenite (γ-iron): 912 – 1,394 °C; FCC crystal structure\n* δ-iron: 1,394 – 1,538 °C; forms from cooling down molten iron; same structure as α\n* ε-iron (also called hexaferrum): forms at high pressures; HCP crystal structure\n\nCobalt\n\nα-cobalt – forms above 417 °C simple cubic (metallic)\nβ-cobalt – forms below 417 °C hexagonal close packed (hcp) (metallic)\n\nPolonium\n\nα-polonium – simple cubic (metallic)\nβ-polonium – rhombohedral (metallic)\n\n\n====Lanthanides and actinides====\nPhase diagram of the actinide elements.\n\n* Cerium, samarium, dysprosium and ytterbium have three allotropes.\n* Praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium and terbium have two allotropes.\n* Plutonium has six distinct solid allotropes under \"normal\" pressures. Their densities vary within a ratio of some 4:3, which vastly complicates all kinds of work with the metal (particularly casting, machining, and storage). A seventh plutonium allotrope exists at very high pressures. The transuranium metals Np, Am, and Cm are also allotropic.\n* Promethium, americium, berkelium and californium have three allotropes each.\n", "Isomer\nPolymorphism (materials science)\nSuperdense carbon allotropes\n", "\n", " \n", "\n Allotropes – Chemistry Encyclopedia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Differences in properties of an element's allotropes", "List of allotropes", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Allotropy
[ "\n\nCoin of Agathocles.\n'''Agathocles''' (, ''Agathoklḗs''; 361–289 BC) was a Greek tyrant of Syracuse (317–289 BC) and king of Sicily (304–289 BC).\n", "Agathocles was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name Termini Imerese) in Sicily. The son of a potter who had moved to Syracuse in about 343 BC, he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army along with his brother Antander. In 333 BC he married the widow of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice banished for attempting to overthrow the oligarchical party in Syracuse.\n\nIn 317 BC he returned with an army of mercenaries under a solemn oath to observe the democratic constitution which was established after they took the city. Having banished or murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily.\n\nWar with Carthage followed. In 311 BC Agathocles was defeated in the Battle of the Himera River and besieged in Syracuse. In 310 BC he made a desperate effort to break through the blockade and attack the enemy in Africa. In Africa he concluded the treaty with Ophellas, ruler of Cyrenaica. After several victories he was at last completely defeated (307 BC) and fled secretly to Sicily.\n\nAfter concluding peace with Carthage in 306 BC, Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in 304 BC, and established his rule over the Greek cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the Halycus River. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.\n\nHis last years were plagued by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson Archagathus, at whose instigation he is said to have been poisoned; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular \"tyrant.\" Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king.\n\nAgathocles was married three times. His first wife was the widow of his patron Damas by whom he had two sons: Archagathus and Agathocles, who were both murdered in 307 BC. His second wife was Alcia and they had a daughter called Lanassa, who married as the second wife of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. His third wife was the Greek Ptolemaic Princess Theoxena, who was the second daughter of Berenice I from her first husband Philip and was a stepdaughter of Ptolemy I Soter. Theoxena bore Agathocles two children: Archagathus and Theoxena. Theoxena survived Agathocles. He had further descendants from his second and third marriage.\n", "Agathocles was cited as an example \"Of Those Who By Their Crimes Come to Be Princes” in Chapter VIII of Niccolò Machiavelli’s treatise on politics - ''The Prince'' (1513). \nHe was described as behaving as a criminal at every stage of his career. Machiavelli claimed: \n\nMachiavelli goes on to reason that Agathocles' success, in contrast to other criminal tyrants, was due to his ability to mitigate his crimes by limiting them to those that \n\nHowever, he came to \"glory\" as much as he did brutality by repelling invading Carthaginians and winning the loyalty of the denizens of his land.\n", "\n", "* \n* THE HISTORY OF AGATHOCLES by H. J. W. TILLYARD (BTM format)\n* Ancient Library articles: Archagathus no. 1 & 2\n* Ptolemaic Genealogy: Theoxena\n* Ptolemy Dynasty: Affiliated Lines – Agathocles\n* Schubert, (1887) ''Geschichte des Agathokles''\n* Grote, ''History of Greece'', ch. 97.\n", "\n* Diodorus Siculus xix., xxi., xxii. (follows generally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles)\n* Polybius ix. 23\n", "\n* Coinage of Agathocles\n\n\n'''Preceded by:''''''''oligarchy''''' position previously held by Timoleon in 337 BC\n'''Tyrant of Syracuse'''317 BC289 BC\n'''Succeeded by:''''''Hicetas'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Legacy", "Notes", "References", "Primary sources", "External links" ]	Agathocles of Syracuse
[ "\n\nBaron '''Augustin-Louis Cauchy''' FRS FRSE (; 21 August 1789 – 23 May 1857) was a French mathematician and physicist who made pioneering contributions to analysis. He was one of the first to state and prove theorems of calculus rigorously, rejecting the heuristic principle of the generality of algebra of earlier authors. He almost singlehandedly founded complex analysis and the study of permutation groups in abstract algebra. A profound mathematician, Cauchy had a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings range widely in mathematics and mathematical physics.\n\n\"More concepts and theorems have been named for Cauchy than for any other mathematician (in elasticity alone there are sixteen concepts and theorems named for Cauchy).\" Cauchy was a prolific writer; he wrote approximately eight hundred research articles and five complete textbooks.\n", "\n===Youth and education===\nCauchy was the son of Louis François Cauchy (1760–1848) and Marie-Madeleine Desestre. Cauchy had two brothers, Alexandre Laurent Cauchy (1792–1857), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in 1847, and a judge of the court of cassation in 1849; and Eugene François Cauchy (1802–1877), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works.\n\nCauchy married Aloise de Bure in 1818. She was a close relative of the publisher who published most of Cauchy's works. By her he had two daughters, Marie Françoise Alicia (1819) and Marie Mathilde (1823).\n\nCauchy's father (Louis François Cauchy) was a high official in the Parisian Police of the New Régime. He lost his position because of the French Revolution (July 14, 1789) that broke out one month before Augustin-Louis was born. The Cauchy family survived the revolution and the following Reign of Terror (1794) by escaping to Arcueil, where Cauchy received his first education, from his father. After the execution of Robespierre (1794), it was safe for the family to return to Paris. There Louis-François Cauchy found himself a new bureaucratic job, and quickly moved up the ranks. When Napoleon Bonaparte came to power (1799), Louis-François Cauchy was further promoted, and became Secretary-General of the Senate, working directly under Laplace (who is now better known for his work on mathematical physics). The famous mathematician Lagrange was also a friend of the Cauchy family.\n\nOn Lagrange's advice, Augustin-Louis was enrolled in the École Centrale du Panthéon, the best secondary school of Paris at that time, in the fall of 1802. Most of the curriculum consisted of classical languages; the young and ambitious Cauchy, being a brilliant student, won many prizes in Latin and Humanities. In spite of these successes, Augustin-Louis chose an engineering career, and prepared himself for the entrance examination to the École Polytechnique.\n\nIn 1805 he placed second out of 293 applicants on this exam, and he was admitted. One of the main purposes of this school was to give future civil and military engineers a high-level scientific and mathematical education. The school functioned under military discipline, which caused the young and pious Cauchy some problems in adapting. Nevertheless, he finished the Polytechnique in 1807, at the age of 18, and went on to the École des Ponts et Chaussées (School for Bridges and Roads). He graduated in civil engineering, with the highest honors.\n\n===Engineering days===\nAfter finishing school in 1810, Cauchy accepted a job as a junior engineer in Cherbourg, where Napoleon intended to build a naval base. Here Augustin-Louis stayed for three years, and although he had an extremely busy managerial job, he still found time to prepare three mathematical manuscripts, which he submitted to the ''Première Classe'' (First Class) of the Institut de France. Cauchy's first two manuscripts (on polyhedra) were accepted; the third one (on directrices of conic sections) was rejected.\n\nIn September 1812, now 23 years old, after becoming ill from overwork, Cauchy returned to Paris. Another reason for his return to the capital was that he was losing his interest in his engineering job, being more and more attracted to the abstract beauty of mathematics; in Paris, he would have a much better chance to find a mathematics related position. Although he formally kept his engineering position, he was transferred from the payroll of the Ministry of the Marine to the Ministry of the Interior. The next three years Augustin-Louis was mainly on unpaid sick leave, and spent his time quite fruitfully, working on mathematics (on the related topics of symmetric functions, the symmetric group and the theory of higher-order algebraic equations). He attempted admission to the First Class of the Institut de France but failed on three different occasions between 1813 and 1815. In 1815 Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo, and the newly installed Bourbon king Louis XVIII took the restoration in hand. The Académie des Sciences was re-established in March 1816; Lazare Carnot and Gaspard Monge were removed from this Academy for political reasons, and the king appointed Cauchy to take the place of one of them. The reaction by Cauchy's peers was harsh; they considered his acceptance of membership of the Academy an outrage, and Cauchy thereby created many enemies in scientific circles.\n\n===Professor at École Polytechnique===\nIn November 1815, Louis Poinsot, who was an associate professor at the École Polytechnique, asked to be exempted from his teaching duties for health reasons. Cauchy was by then a rising mathematical star, who certainly merited a professorship. One of his great successes at that time was the proof of Fermat's polygonal number theorem. However, the fact that Cauchy was known to be very loyal to the Bourbons, doubtless also helped him in becoming the successor of Poinsot. He finally quit his engineering job, and received a one-year contract for teaching mathematics to second-year students of the École Polytechnique. In 1816, this Bonapartist, non-religious school was reorganized, and several liberal professors were fired; the reactionary Cauchy was promoted to full professor.\n\nWhen Cauchy was 28 years old, he was still living with his parents. His father found it high time for his son to marry; he found him a suitable bride, Aloïse de Bure, five years his junior. The de Bure family were printers and booksellers, and published most of Cauchy's works. Aloïse and Augustin were married on April 4, 1818, with great Roman Catholic pomp and ceremony, in the Church of Saint-Sulpice. In 1819 the couple's first daughter, Marie Françoise Alicia, was born, and in 1823 the second and last daughter, Marie Mathilde. Cauchy had two brothers: Alexandre Laurent Cauchy, who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in 1847, and a judge of the court of cassation in 1849; and Eugène François Cauchy, a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works.\n\nThe conservative political climate that lasted until 1830 suited Cauchy perfectly. In 1824 Louis XVIII died, and was succeeded by his even more reactionary brother Charles X. During these years Cauchy was highly productive, and published one important mathematical treatise after another. He received cross appointments at the Collège de France, and the .\n\n===In exile===\nIn July 1830, France underwent another revolution. Charles X fled the country, and was succeeded by the non-Bourbon king Louis-Philippe (of the House of Orléans). Riots, in which uniformed students of the École Polytechnique took an active part, raged close to Cauchy's home in Paris.\n\nThese events marked a turning point in Cauchy's life, and a break in his mathematical productivity. Cauchy, shaken by the fall of the government, and moved by a deep hatred of the liberals who were taking power, left Paris to go abroad, leaving his family behind. He spent a short time at Fribourg in Switzerland, where he had to decide whether he would swear a required oath of allegiance to the new regime. He refused to do this, and consequently lost all his positions in Paris, except his membership of the Academy, for which an oath was not required. In 1831 Cauchy went to the Italian city of Turin, and after some time there, he accepted an offer from the King of Sardinia (who ruled Turin and the surrounding Piedmont region) for a chair of theoretical physics, which was created especially for him. He taught in Turin during 1832–1833. In 1831, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the following year a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.\n\nIn August 1833 Cauchy left Turin for Prague, to become the science tutor of the thirteen-year-old Duke of Bordeaux Henri d'Artois (1820–1883), the exiled Crown Prince and grandson of Charles X. As a professor of the École Polytechnique, Cauchy had been a notoriously bad lecturer, assuming levels of understanding that only a few of his best students could reach, and cramming his allotted time with too much material. The young Duke had neither taste nor talent for either mathematics or science, so student and teacher were a perfect mismatch. Although Cauchy took his mission very seriously, he did this with great clumsiness, and with surprising lack of authority over the Duke.\n\nDuring his civil engineering days, Cauchy once had been briefly in charge of repairing a few of the Parisian sewers, and he made the mistake of mentioning this to his pupil; with great malice, the young Duke went about saying Mister Cauchy started his career in the sewers of Paris. His role as tutor lasted until the Duke became eighteen years old, in September 1838. Cauchy did hardly any research during those five years, while the Duke acquired a lifelong dislike of mathematics. The only good that came out of this episode was Cauchy's promotion to Baron, a title by which Cauchy set great store. In 1834, his wife and two daughters moved to Prague, and Cauchy was finally reunited with his family after four years in exile.\n\n===Last years===\nCauchy returned to Paris and his position at the Academy of Sciences late in 1838. He could not regain his teaching positions, because he still refused to swear an oath of allegiance. However, he desperately wanted to regain a formal position in Parisian science.\n\nCauchy prior to 1857\nIn August 1839 a vacancy appeared in the Bureau des Longitudes. This Bureau had some resemblance to the Academy; for instance, it had the right to co-opt its members. Further, it was believed that members of the Bureau could \"forget\" about the oath of allegiance, although formally, unlike the Academicians, they were obliged to take it. The Bureau des Longitudes was an organization founded in 1795 to solve the problem of determining position on sea – mainly the longitudinal coordinate, since latitude is easily determined from the position of the sun. Since it was thought that position on sea was best determined by astronomical observations, the Bureau had developed into an organization resembling an academy of astronomical sciences.\n\nIn November 1839 Cauchy was elected to the Bureau, and discovered immediately that the matter of the oath was not so easily dispensed with. Without his oath, the king refused to approve his election. For four years Cauchy was in the absurd position of being elected, but not being approved; hence, he was not a formal member of the Bureau, did not receive payment, could not participate in meetings, and could not submit papers. Still Cauchy refused to take any oaths; however, he did feel loyal enough to direct his research to celestial mechanics. In 1840, he presented a dozen papers on this topic to the Academy. He also described and illustrated the signed-digit representation of numbers, an innovation presented in England in 1727 by John Colson. The confounded membership of the Bureau lasted until the end of 1843, when Cauchy was finally replaced by Poinsot.\n\nThroughout the nineteenth century the French educational system struggled over the separation of Church and State. After losing control of the public education system, the Catholic Church sought to establish its own branch of education and found in Cauchy a staunch and illustrious ally. He lent his prestige and knowledge to the École Normale Écclésiastique, a school in Paris run by Jesuits, for training teachers for their colleges. He also took part in the founding of the Institut Catholique. The purpose of this institute was to counter the effects of the absence of Catholic university education in France. These activities did not make Cauchy popular with his colleagues who, on the whole, supported the Enlightenment ideals of the French Revolution. When a chair of mathematics became vacant at the Collège de France in 1843, Cauchy applied for it, but got just three out of 45 votes.\n\nThe year 1848 was the year of revolution all over Europe; revolutions broke out in numerous countries, beginning in France. King Louis-Philippe, fearful of sharing the fate of Louis XVI, fled to England. The oath of allegiance was abolished, and the road to an academic appointment was finally clear for Cauchy. On March 1, 1849, he was reinstated at the Faculté de Sciences, as a professor of mathematical astronomy. After political turmoil all through 1848, France chose to become a Republic, under the Presidency of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, and son of Napoleon's brother, who had been installed as the first king of Holland. Soon (early 1852) the President made himself Emperor of France, and took the name Napoleon III.\n\nNot unexpectedly, the idea came up in bureaucratic circles that it would be useful to again require a loyalty oath from all state functionaries, including university professors. Not always does history repeat itself, however, because this time a cabinet minister was able to convince the Emperor to exempt Cauchy from the oath. Cauchy remained a professor at the University until his death at the age of 67. He received the Last Rites and died at 4 a.m. on May 23, 1857.\n\nHis name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.\n", "\n===Early work===\nThe genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the problem of Apollonius—describing a circle touching three given circles—which he discovered in 1805, his generalization of Euler's formula on polyhedra in 1811, and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on wave propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the French Academy of Sciences in 1816. Cauchy's writings covered notable topics including: the theory of series, where he developed the notion of convergence and discovered many of the basic formulas for q-series. In the theory of numbers and complex quantities, he was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. He also wrote on the theory of groups and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and determinants.\n\n===Wave theory, mechanics, elasticity===\nIn the theory of light he worked on Fresnel's wave theory and on the dispersion and polarization of light. He also contributed significant research in mechanics, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. He wrote on the equilibrium of rods and elastic membranes and on waves in elastic media. He introduced a 3 × 3 symmetric matrix of numbers that is now known as the Cauchy stress tensor. In elasticity, he originated the theory of stress, and his results are nearly as valuable as those of Siméon Poisson.\n\n===Number theory===\nOther significant contributions include being the first to prove the Fermat polygonal number theorem.\n\n===Complex functions===\nCauchy is most famous for his single-handed development of complex function theory. The first pivotal theorem proved by Cauchy, now known as ''Cauchy's integral theorem'', was the following:\n\n:\n\nwhere ''f''(''z'') is a complex-valued function holomorphic on and within the non-self-intersecting closed curve ''C'' (contour) lying in the complex plane. The ''contour integral'' is taken along the contour ''C''. The rudiments of this theorem can already be found in a paper that the 24-year-old Cauchy presented to the Académie des Sciences (then still called \"First Class of the Institute\") on August 11, 1814. In full form the theorem was given in 1825. The 1825 paper is seen by many as Cauchy's most important contribution to mathematics.\n\nIn 1826 Cauchy gave a formal definition of a residue of a function. This concept regards functions that have poles—isolated singularities, i.e., points where a function goes to positive or negative infinity. If the complex-valued function ''f''(''z'') can be expanded in the neighborhood of a singularity ''a'' as\n\n:\n\nwhere φ(''z'') is analytic (i.e., well-behaved without singularities), then ''f'' is said to have a pole of order ''n'' in the point ''a''. If ''n'' = 1, the pole is called simple.\nThe coefficient ''B''1 is called by Cauchy the residue of function ''f'' at ''a''. If ''f'' is non-singular at ''a'' then the residue of ''f'' is zero at ''a''. Clearly the residue is in the case of a simple pole equal to,\n:\nwhere we replaced ''B''1 by the modern notation of the residue.\n\nIn 1831, while in Turin, Cauchy submitted two papers to the Academy of Sciences of Turin. In the first he proposed the formula now known as Cauchy's integral formula,\n:\nwhere ''f''(''z'') is analytic on ''C'' and within the region bounded by the contour ''C'' and the complex number ''a'' is somewhere in this region. The contour integral is taken counter-clockwise. Clearly, the integrand has a simple pole at ''z'' = ''a''. In the second paper he presented the residue theorem,\n:\nwhere the sum is over all the ''n'' poles of ''f''(''z'') on and within the contour ''C''. These results of Cauchy's still form the core of complex function theory as it is taught today to physicists and electrical engineers. For quite some time, contemporaries of Cauchy ignored his theory, believing it to be too complicated. Only in the 1840s the theory started to get response, with Pierre-Alphonse Laurent being the first mathematician, besides Cauchy, making a substantial contribution (his Laurent series published in 1843).\n\n===Cours d'Analyse===\n\nThe title page of a textbook by Cauchy. In his book ''Cours d'Analyse'' Cauchy stressed the importance of rigor in analysis. ''Rigor'' in this case meant the rejection of the principle of ''Generality of algebra'' (of earlier authors such as Euler and Lagrange) and its replacement by geometry and infinitesimals. Judith Grabiner wrote Cauchy was \"the man who taught rigorous analysis to all of Europe.\" The book is frequently noted as being the first place that inequalities, and arguments were introduced into Calculus. Here Cauchy defined continuity as follows: ''The function f(x) is continuous with respect to x between the given limits if, between these limits, an infinitely small increment in the variable always produces an infinitely small increment in the function itself.''\n\nM. Barany claims that the École mandated the inclusion of infinitesimal methods against Cauchy's better judgement . Gilain notes that when the portion of the curriculum devoted to ''Analyse Algébrique'' was reduced in 1825, Cauchy insisted on placing the topic of continuous functions (and therefore also infinitesimals) at the beginning of the Differential Calculus . Laugwitz (1989) and Benis-Sinaceur (1973) point out that Cauchy continued to use infinitesimals in his own research as late as 1853.\n\nCauchy gave an explicit definition of an infinitesimal in terms of a sequence tending to zero. There has been a vast body of literature written about Cauchy's notion of \"infinitesimally small quantities\", arguing they lead from everything from the usual \"epsilontic\" definitions or to the notions of non-standard analysis. The consensus is that Cauchy omitted or left implicit the important ideas to make clear the precise meaning of the infinitely small quantities he used. \n\n===Taylor's theorem===\nHe was the first to prove Taylor's theorem rigorously, establishing his well-known form of the remainder. He wrote a textbook (see the illustration) for his students at the École Polytechnique in which he developed the basic theorems of mathematical analysis as rigorously as possible. In this book he gave the necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a limit in the form that is still taught. Also Cauchy's well-known test for absolute convergence stems from this book: Cauchy condensation test. In 1829 he defined for the first time a complex function of a complex variable in another textbook. In spite of these, Cauchy's own research papers often used intuitive, not rigorous, methods; thus one of his theorems was exposed to a \"counter-example\" by Abel, later fixed by the introduction of the notion of uniform continuity.\n\n===Argument principle, stability===\nIn a paper published in 1855, two years before Cauchy's death, he discussed some theorems, one of which is similar to the \"Argument Principle\" in many modern textbooks on complex analysis. In modern control theory textbooks, the Cauchy argument principle is quite frequently used to derive the Nyquist stability criterion, which can be used to predict the stability of negative feedback amplifier and negative feedback control systems. Thus Cauchy's work has a strong impact on both pure mathematics and practical engineering.\n\n===Output===\n''Leçons sur le calcul différentiel'', 1829\n\nCauchy was very productive, in number of papers second only to Leonhard Euler. It took almost a century to collect all his writings into 27 large volumes:\n* '' Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy publiées sous la direction scientifique de l'Académie des sciences et sous les auspices de M. le ministre de l'Instruction publique (27 volumes)'' (Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1882–1974)\nHis greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced; these are mainly embodied in his three great treatises:\n* '' Cours d'analyse de l'École royale polytechnique (1821)''\n* ''Le Calcul infinitésimal'' (1823)\n* ''Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal''; ''La géométrie'' (1826–1828)\nHis other works include:\n* '' Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 1)''\n* '' Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 2)''\n* '' Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 3)''\n* '' Exercices d'analyse et de physique mathematique (Volume 4)'' (Paris: Bachelier, 1840–1847)\n* '' Analyse algèbrique'' (Imprimerie Royale, 1821)\n* '' Nouveaux exercices de mathématiques'' (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1895)\n* ''Courses of mechanics'' (for the École Polytechnique)\n* ''Higher algebra'' (for the )\n* ''Mathematical physics'' (for the Collège de France).\n* '' Mémoire sur l'emploi des equations symboliques dans le calcul infinitésimal et dans le calcul aux différences finis'' CR Ac ad. Sci. Paris, t. XVII, 449–458 (1843) credited as originating the operational calculus.\n", "Augustin-Louis Cauchy grew up in the house of a staunch royalist. This made his father flee with the family to Arcueil during the French Revolution. Their life there during that time was apparently hard; Augustin-Louis's father, Louis François, spoke of living on rice, bread, and crackers during the period. A paragraph from an undated letter from Louis François to his mother in Rouen says:\n\nIn any event, he inherited his father's staunch royalism and hence refused to take oaths to any government after the overthrow of Charles X.\n\nHe was an equally staunch Catholic and a member of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul. He also had links to the Society of Jesus and defended them at the Academy when it was politically unwise to do so. His zeal for his faith may have led to his caring for Charles Hermite during his illness and leading Hermite to become a faithful Catholic. It also inspired Cauchy to plead on behalf of the Irish during the Potato Famine.\n\nHis royalism and religious zeal also made him contentious, which caused difficulties with his colleagues. He felt that he was mistreated for his beliefs, but his opponents felt he intentionally provoked people by berating them over religious matters or by defending the Jesuits after they had been suppressed. Niels Henrik Abel called him a \"bigoted Catholic\" and added he was \"mad and there is nothing that can be done about him\", but at the same time praised him as a mathematician. Cauchy's views were widely unpopular among mathematicians and when Guglielmo Libri Carucci dalla Sommaja was made chair in mathematics before him he, and many others, felt his views were the cause. When Libri was accused of stealing books he was replaced by Joseph Liouville rather than Cauchy, which caused a rift between Liouville and Cauchy. Another dispute with political overtones concerned Jean Marie Constant Duhamel and a claim on inelastic shocks. Cauchy was later shown, by Jean-Victor Poncelet, to be wrong.\n", "\n* List of topics named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy\n* Cauchy–Binet formula\n* Cauchy boundary condition\n* Cauchy's convergence test\n* Cauchy (crater)\n* Cauchy determinant\n* Cauchy distribution\n* Cauchy's equation\n* Cauchy–Euler equation\n* Cauchy functional equation\n* Cauchy horizon\n* Cauchy formula for repeated integration\n* Cauchy–Frobenius lemma\n* Cauchy–Hadamard theorem\n* Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem\n* Cauchy momentum equation\n* Cauchy–Peano theorem\n* Cauchy principal value\n* Cauchy problem\n* Cauchy product\n* Cauchy's radical test\n* Cauchy–Rassias stability\n* Cauchy–Riemann equations\n* Cauchy–Schwarz inequality\n* Cauchy sequence\n* Cauchy surface\n* Cauchy's theorem (geometry)\n* Cauchy's theorem (group theory)\n* Maclaurin-Cauchy test\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n\n\n Boyer, C.: The concepts of the calculus. Hafner Publishing Company, 1949.\n* (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )\n* Cauchy, Augustin-Louis, ''Oeuvres completes''; Gauthier-Villars, 1882 (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )\n\nBenis-Sinaceur Hourya. Cauchy et Bolzano. In: Revue d'histoire des sciences. 1973, Tome 26 n°2. pp. 97–112.\n.\n \n* \n", "\n\n\n* \n* Cauchy criterion for convergence\n* ''Œuvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy'' Académie des sciences (France). Ministère de l'éducation nationale.\n* Augustin-Louis Cauchy – Œuvres complètes (in 2 series) Gallica-Math\n* \n* Augustin-Louis Cauchy – Cauchy's Life by Robin Hartshorne\n* Th. M. Rassias, Topics in Mathematical Analysis, A Volume Dedicated to the Memory of A. L. Cauchy'', World Scientific Co., Singapore, New Jersey, London, 1989.\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Work", "Politics and religious beliefs", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Augustin-Louis Cauchy
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Archimedes of Syracuse''' (; ; ) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems, including the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, and the area under a parabola.\n\nOther mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi, defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name, and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, founding hydrostatics and statics, including an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion.\n\nArchimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed. Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes, which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder, which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb, representing his mathematical discoveries.\n\nUnlike his inventions, the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity. Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him, but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople, while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time. The relatively few copies of Archimedes' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance, while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results.\n", "Archimedes was born ''c''. 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse, Sicily, at that time a self-governing colony in Magna Graecia, located along the coast of Southern Italy. The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years. In ''The Sand Reckoner'', Archimedes gives his father's name as Phidias, an astronomer about whom nothing is known. Plutarch wrote in his ''Parallel Lives'' that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II, the ruler of Syracuse. A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost, leaving the details of his life obscure. It is unknown, for instance, whether he ever married or had children. During his youth, Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria, Egypt, where Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene were contemporaries. He referred to Conon of Samos as his friend, while two of his works (''The Method of Mechanical Theorems'' and the ''Cattle Problem'') have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes.\n\nArchimedes died ''c''. 212 BC during the Second Punic War, when Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two-year-long siege. According to the popular account given by Plutarch, Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured. A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined, saying that he had to finish working on the problem. The soldier was enraged by this, and killed Archimedes with his sword. Plutarch also gives a account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier. According to this story, Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments, and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items. General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes, as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed. Marcellus called Archimedes \"a geometrical Briareus\".\n\n''Cicero Discovering the Tomb of Archimedes'' by Benjamin West (1805)\nThe last words attributed to Archimedes are \"Do not disturb my circles\", a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier. This quote is often given in Latin as \"''Noli turbare circulos meos'',\" but there is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch. Valerius Maximus, writing in ''Memorable Doings and Sayings'' in the 1st century AD, gives the phrase as \"''...sed protecto manibus puluere 'noli' inquit, 'obsecro, istum disturbare'''\" - \"... but protecting the dust with his hands, said 'I beg of you, do not disturb this. The phrase is also given in Katharevousa Greek as \"μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε!\" (''Mē mou tous kuklous taratte!'').\n\nThe tomb of Archimedes carried a sculpture illustrating his favorite mathematical proof, consisting of a sphere and a cylinder of the same height and diameter. Archimedes had proven that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder including its bases. In 75 BC, 137 years after his death, the Roman orator Cicero was serving as quaestor in Sicily. He had heard stories about the tomb of Archimedes, but none of the locals were able to give him the location. Eventually he found the tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse, in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes. Cicero had the tomb cleaned up, and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription. A tomb discovered in the courtyard of the Hotel Panorama in Syracuse in the early 1960s was claimed to be that of Archimedes, but there was no compelling evidence for this and the location of his tomb today is unknown.\n\nThe standard versions of the life of Archimedes were written long after his death by the historians of Ancient Rome. The account of the siege of Syracuse given by Polybius in his ''Universal History'' was written around seventy years after Archimedes' death, and was used subsequently as a source by Plutarch and Livy. It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person, and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city.\n", "\n===Archimedes' principle===\n\nBy placing a metal bar in a container with water on a scale, the bar displaces as much water as its own volume, increasing its mass and weighing down the scale.\nThe most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. According to Vitruvius, a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II, who had supplied the pure gold to be used, and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith. Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown, so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density.\nWhile taking a bath, he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in, and realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown. For practical purposes water is incompressible, so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume. By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced, the density of the crown could be obtained. This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added. Archimedes then took to the streets naked, so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress, crying \"Eureka!\" (, ''heúrēka''!\", meaning \"I have found it!\"). The test was conducted successfully, proving that silver had indeed been mixed in.\n\nThe story of the golden crown does not appear in the known works of Archimedes. Moreover, the practicality of the method it describes has been called into question, due to the extreme accuracy with which one would have to measure the water displacement. Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes' principle, which he describes in his treatise ''On Floating Bodies''. This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. Using this principle, it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample, then immersing the apparatus in water. The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly. Galileo considered it \"probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed, since, besides being very accurate, it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself.\" In a 12th-century text titled ''Mappae clavicula'' there are instructions on how to perform the weighings in the water in order to calculate the percentage of silver used, and thus solve the problem. The Latin poem ''Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris'' of the 4th or 5th century describes the use of a hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown, and attributes the method to Archimedes.\n\n===Archimedes' screw===\n\nThe Archimedes' screw can raise water efficiently.\nA large part of Archimedes' work in engineering arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse. The Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hiero II commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship, the ''Syracusia'', which could be used for luxury travel, carrying supplies, and as a naval warship. The ''Syracusia'' is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity. According to Athenaeus, it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations, a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities. Since a ship of this size would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull, the Archimedes' screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water. Archimedes' machine was a device with a revolving screw-shaped blade inside a cylinder. It was turned by hand, and could also be used to transfer water from a body of water into irrigation canals. The Archimedes' screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain. The Archimedes' screw described in Roman times by Vitruvius may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. The world's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS ''Archimedes'', which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw.\n\n===Claw of Archimedes===\nThe Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse. Also known as \"the ship shaker,\" the claw consisted of a crane-like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended. When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards, lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it. There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw, and in 2005 a television documentary entitled ''Superweapons of the Ancient World'' built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device.\n\n===Heat ray===\nArchimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse.\nArtistic interpretation of Archimedes' mirror used to burn Roman ships.\nPainting by Giulio Parigi.\n\nArchimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse.\nThe 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote that during the Siege of Syracuse (''c.'' 214–212 BC), Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire. Centuries later, Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning-glasses as Archimedes' weapon. The device, sometimes called the \"Archimedes heat ray\", was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships, causing them to catch fire. In the modern era, similar devices have been constructed and may be referred to as a heliostat or solar furnace.\n\nThis purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance. René Descartes rejected it as false, while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes. It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship.\n\nA test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas. The experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens. On this occasion 70 mirrors were used, each with a copper coating and a size of around five by three feet (1.5 by 1 m). The mirrors were pointed at a plywood of a Roman warship at a distance of around 160 feet (50 m). When the mirrors were focused accurately, the ship burst into flames within a few seconds. The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint, which may have aided combustion. A coating of tar would have been commonplace on ships in the classical era.\n\nIn October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one-foot (30 cm) square mirror tiles, focused on a wooden ship at a range of around 100 feet (30 m). Flames broke out on a patch of the ship, but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes. It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions. The MIT group repeated the experiment for the television show ''MythBusters'', using a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target. Again some charring occurred, along with a small amount of flame. In order to catch fire, wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature, which is around 300 °C (570 °F).\n\nWhen ''MythBusters'' broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006, the claim was placed in the category of \"busted\" (or failed) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur. It was also pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east, the Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors. ''MythBusters'' also pointed out that conventional weaponry, such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult, would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances.\n\nIn December 2010, ''MythBusters'' again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition entitled \"President's Challenge\". Several experiments were carried out, including a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a of a Roman sailing ship 400 feet (120 m) away. In all of the experiments, the sail failed to reach the 210 °C (410 °F) required to catch fire, and the verdict was again \"busted\". The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding, dazzling, or distracting the crew of the ship.\n\n===Other discoveries and inventions===\nWhile Archimedes did not invent the lever, he gave an explanation of the principle involved in his work ''On the Equilibrium of Planes''. Earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle, and are sometimes attributed to Archytas. According to Pappus of Alexandria, Archimedes' work on levers caused him to remark: \"Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.\" () Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block-and-tackle pulley systems, allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move. Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult, and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War. The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled.\n\nCicero (106–43 BC) mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue ''De re publica'', which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC. After the capture of Syracuse ''c.'' 212 BC, General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms, constructed by Archimedes and used as aids in astronomy, which showed the motion of the Sun, Moon and five planets. Cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus. The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse, and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome. Marcellus' mechanism was demonstrated, according to Cicero, by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus, who described it thus:\n\n\n\nThis is a description of a planetarium or orrery. Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had written a manuscript (now lost) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled . Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism, another device built BC that was probably designed for the same purpose. Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing. This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks.\n", "Archimedes used Pythagoras' Theorem to calculate the side of the 12-gon from that of the hexagon and for each subsequent doubling of the sides of the regular polygon.\nWhile he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices, Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics. Plutarch wrote: \"He placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life.\"\nArchimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus. Through proof by contradiction (reductio ad absurdum), he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy, while specifying the limits within which the answer lay. This technique is known as the method of exhaustion, and he employed it to approximate the value of π. In ''Measurement of a Circle'' he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle and a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle, and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon, calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step. As the number of sides increases, it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle. After four such steps, when the polygons had 96 sides each, he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 3 (approximately 3.1429) and 3 (approximately 3.1408), consistent with its actual value of approximately 3.1416. He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle (πr2). In ''On the Sphere and Cylinder'', Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude. This is the Archimedean property of real numbers.\n\nparabolic segment in the upper figure is equal to 4/3 that of the inscribed triangle in the lower figure.\nIn ''Measurement of a Circle'', Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between (approximately 1.7320261) and (approximately 1.7320512). The actual value is approximately 1.7320508, making this a very accurate estimate. He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it. This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was: \"as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results.\" It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values.\n\nIn ''The Quadrature of the Parabola'', Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right. He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio :\n\n:\n\nIf the first term in this series is the area of the triangle, then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines, and so on. This proof uses a variation of the series which sums to .\n\nIn ''The Sand Reckoner'', Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain. In doing so, he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted. He wrote: \"There are some, King Gelo (Gelo II, son of Hiero II), who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited.\" To solve the problem, Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad. The word is from the Greek ''murias'', for the number 10,000. He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads (100 million) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion, or 8.\n", "The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek, the dialect of ancient Syracuse. The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid, and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors. Pappus of Alexandria mentions ''On Sphere-Making'' and another work on polyhedra, while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the ''Catoptrica''. During his lifetime, Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria. The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus (''c''. 530 AD), while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience. Archimedes' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra (836–901 AD), and Latin by Gerard of Cremona (''c.'' 1114–1187 AD). During the Renaissance, the ''Editio Princeps'' (First Edition) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin. Around the year 1586 Galileo Galilei invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water after apparently being inspired by the work of Archimedes.\n\n===Surviving works===\n* ''On the Equilibrium of Planes'' (two volumes)\n:The first book is in fifteen propositions with seven postulates, while the second book is in ten propositions. In this work Archimedes explains the ''Law of the Lever'', stating, \"Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights.\"\n:Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles, parallelograms and parabolas.\n* ''On the Measurement of a Circle''\n:This is a short work consisting of three propositions. It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium, who was a student of Conon of Samos. In Proposition II, Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi (), showing that it is greater than and less than .\n* ''On Spirals''\n:This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus. The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral. It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity. Equivalently, in polar coordinates (, ) it can be described by the equation\n::\n:with real numbers and . This is an early example of a mechanical curve (a curve traced by a moving point) considered by a Greek mathematician.\n* ''On the Sphere and the Cylinder'' (two volumes)\nA sphere has 2/3 the volume and surface area of its circumscribing cylinder including its bases. A sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request. (see also: Equiareal map)\n:In this treatise addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud, namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter. The volume is 3 for the sphere, and 23 for the cylinder. The surface area is 42 for the sphere, and 62 for the cylinder (including its two bases), where is the radius of the sphere and cylinder. The sphere has a volume that of the circumscribed cylinder. Similarly, the sphere has an area that of the cylinder (including the bases). A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request.\n* ''On Conoids and Spheroids''\n:This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus. In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres, and paraboloids.\n* ''On Floating Bodies'' (two volumes)\n:In the first part of this treatise, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity. This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round. The fluids described by Archimedes are not , since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape.\n\n:In the second part, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, similar to the way that icebergs float. Archimedes' principle of buoyancy is given in the work, stated as follows: \n* ''The Quadrature of the Parabola''\n:In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus, Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio .\nStomachion'' is a dissection puzzle in the Archimedes Palimpsest.\n* ''(O)stomachion''\n:This is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram, and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest. Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square. Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square. Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17,152 ways. The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded. The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics.\n:The origin of the puzzle's name is unclear, and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for throat or gullet, stomachos (). Ausonius refers to the puzzle as ''Ostomachion'', a Greek compound word formed from the roots of (''osteon'', bone) and (machē, fight). The puzzle is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes' Box.\n* ''Archimedes' cattle problem''\n:This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of 44 lines, in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, Germany in 1773. It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria. Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations. There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers. This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor in 1880, and the answer is a very large number, approximately 7.760271.\n* ''The Sand Reckoner''\n:In this treatise, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will fit inside the universe. This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos, as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad, Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 in modern notation. The introductory letter states that Archimedes' father was an astronomer named Phidias. ''The Sand Reckoner'' or ''Psammites'' is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy.\n* ''The Method of Mechanical Theorems''\n:This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906. In this work Archimedes uses infinitesimals, and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor, so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results. As with ''The Cattle Problem'', ''The Method of Mechanical Theorems'' was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria.\n\n===Apocryphal works===\nArchimedes' ''Book of Lemmas'' or ''Liber Assumptorum'' is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles. The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic. The scholars T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form, since it quotes Archimedes, suggesting modification by another author. The ''Lemmas'' may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost.\n\nIt has also been claimed that Heron's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes. However, the first reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD.\n", "\nIn 1906, The Archimedes Palimpsest revealed works by Archimedes thought to have been lost.\nThe foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the Archimedes Palimpsest. In 1906, the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople and examined a 174-page goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century AD. He discovered that it was a palimpsest, a document with text that had been written over an erased older work. Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them, which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum was expensive. The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously unknown treatises by Archimedes. The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s. On October 29, 1998 it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $2 million at Christie's in New York. The palimpsest holds seven treatises, including the only surviving copy of ''On Floating Bodies'' in the original Greek. It is the only known source of ''The Method of Mechanical Theorems'', referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever. ''Stomachion'' was also discovered in the palimpsest, with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts. The palimpsest is now stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland, where it has been subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and light to read the overwritten text.\n\nThe treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest are: ''On the Equilibrium of Planes, On Spirals, Measurement of a Circle, On the Sphere and the Cylinder, On Floating Bodies, The Method of Mechanical Theorems'' and ''Stomachion''.\n", "The Fields Medal carries a portrait of Archimedes.\n* Galileo praised Archimedes many times, and referred to him as a \"superhuman\". Leibniz said \"He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times.\"\n* There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes (29.7° N, 4.0° W) in his honor, as well as a lunar mountain range, the Montes Archimedes (25.3° N, 4.6° W).\n* The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes, along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder. The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to him which reads in Latin: \"Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri\" (Rise above oneself and grasp the world).\n* Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany (1973), Greece (1983), Italy (1983), Nicaragua (1971), San Marino (1982), and Spain (1963).\n* The exclamation of Eureka! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California. In this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush.\n", "* Arbelos\n* Archimedes' axiom\n* Archimedes number\n* Archimedes paradox\n* Archimedean solid\n* Archimedes' twin circles\n* Diocles\n* List of things named after Archimedes\n* Methods of computing square roots\n* Pseudo-Archimedes\n* Salinon\n* Steam cannon\n* Zhang Heng\n", "'''a.''' In the preface to ''On Spirals'' addressed to Dositheus of Pelusium, Archimedes says that \"many years have elapsed since Conon's death.\" Conon of Samos lived , suggesting that Archimedes may have been an older man when writing some of his works.\n\n'''b.''' The treatises by Archimedes known to exist only through references in the works of other authors are: ''On Sphere-Making'' and a work on polyhedra mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria; ''Catoptrica'', a work on optics mentioned by Theon of Alexandria; ''Principles'', addressed to Zeuxippus and explaining the number system used in ''The Sand Reckoner''; ''On Balances and Levers''; ''On Centers of Gravity''; ''On the Calendar''. Of the surviving works by Archimedes, T. L. Heath offers the following suggestion as to the order in which they were written: ''On the Equilibrium of Planes I'', ''The Quadrature of the Parabola'', ''On the Equilibrium of Planes II'', ''On the Sphere and the Cylinder I, II'', ''On Spirals'', ''On Conoids and Spheroids'', ''On Floating Bodies I, II'', ''On the Measurement of a Circle'', ''The Sand Reckoner''.\n\n'''c.''' Boyer, Carl Benjamin ''A History of Mathematics'' (1991) \"Arabic scholars inform us that the familiar area formula for a triangle in terms of its three sides, usually known as Heron's formula — ''k'' = √(''s''(''s'' − ''a'')(''s'' − ''b'')(''s'' − ''c'')), where ''s'' is the semiperimeter — was known to Archimedes several centuries before Heron lived. Arabic scholars also attribute to Archimedes the 'theorem on the broken chord' ... Archimedes is reported by the Arabs to have given several proofs of the theorem.\"\n\n'''d.''' \"It was usual to smear the seams or even the whole hull with pitch or with pitch and wax\". In Νεκρικοὶ Διάλογοι (''Dialogues of the Dead''), Lucian refers to coating the seams of a skiff with wax, a reference to pitch (tar) or wax.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* Republished translation of the 1938 study of Archimedes and his works by an historian of science.\n* \n* \n* Complete works of Archimedes in English.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===''The Works of Archimedes'' online===\n* Text in Classical Greek: PDF scans of Heiberg's edition of the Works of Archimedes, now in the public domain\n* In English translation: ''The Works of Archimedes'', trans. T.L. Heath; supplemented by ''The Method of Mechanical Theorems'', trans. L.G. Robinson\n", "\n\n* \n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* The Archimedes Palimpsest project at The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, Maryland\n* \n* \n* Photograph of the Sakkas experiment in 1973\n* Testing the Archimedes steam cannon\n* Stamps of Archimedes\n* Archimedes Palimpsest reveals insights centuries ahead of its time\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Discoveries and inventions", "Mathematics", "Writings", "Archimedes Palimpsest", "Legacy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Archimedes
[ "\nIn geometry, an '''Archimedean solid''' is one of the 13 solids first enumerated by Archimedes. They are the semi-regular convex polyhedrons composed of regular polygons meeting in identical vertices, excluding the 5 Platonic solids (which are composed of only one type of polygon) and excluding the prisms and antiprisms. They differ from the Johnson solids, whose regular polygonal faces do not meet in identical vertices.\n\n\"Identical vertices\" means that for any two vertices, there is a global isometry of the entire solid that takes one vertex to the other. pointed out a widespread error in the literature on Archimedean solids: some authors only require that the faces that meet at one vertex be related by a local isometry to the faces that meet at any other vertex, and incorrectly claim that there are 13 solids satisfying this definition. There are 14, because the elongated square gyrobicupola (pseudo-rhombicuboctahedron) is the unique convex polyhedron that has regular polygons meeting in the same way at each vertex, but that does not have a global symmetry taking any vertex to any other vertex. Because of this, Grünbaum suggested that the elongated square gyrobicupola should be counted as an Archimedean solid, which would give 14 Archimedean solids, but most authors (including Archimedes himself) do not include it in their lists of 13 Archimedean solids.\n\nPrisms and antiprisms, whose symmetry groups are the dihedral groups, are generally not considered to be Archimedean solids, even though their faces are regular polygons and their symmetry groups act transitively on their vertices. Excluding these two infinite families, there are 13 Archimedean solids. All the Archimedean solids (but not the elongated square gyrobicupola) can be made via Wythoff constructions from the Platonic solids with tetrahedral, octahedral and icosahedral symmetry.\n", "The Archimedean solids take their name from Archimedes, who discussed them in a now-lost work. Pappus refers to it, stating that Archimedes listed 13 polyhedra. During the Renaissance, artists and mathematicians valued ''pure forms'' with high symmetry, and by around 1620 Johannes Kepler had completed the rediscovery of the 13 polyhedra, as well as defining the prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.\n\nKepler may have also found the elongated square gyrobicupola (pseudorhombicuboctahedron): at least, he once stated that there were 14 Archimedean solids. However, his published enumeration only includes the 13 uniform polyhedra, and the first clear statement of the pseudorhombicuboctahedron's existence was made in 1905, by Duncan Sommerville.\n", "There are 13 Archimedean solids (not counting the elongated square gyrobicupola; 15 if the mirror images of two enantiomorphs, see below, are counted separately).\n\nHere the ''vertex configuration'' refers to the type of regular polygons that meet at any given vertex. For example, a vertex configuration of (4,6,8) means that a square, hexagon, and octagon meet at a vertex (with the order taken to be clockwise around the vertex).\n\n\n\n Name(Alternative name)\nSchläfliCoxeter\n Transparent\n Solid\n Net\n Vertexfigure\n Faces\n Edges\n Vert.\n Volume(unit edges)\n Pointgroup\n Sphericity\n\n truncated tetrahedron\nt{3,3}\n Truncated tetrahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.6.650px\n 8\n 4 triangles4 hexagons\n 18\n 12\n \n Td\n \n\n cuboctahedron(rhombitetratetrahedron)\nr{4,3} or rr{3,3} or \n Cuboctahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.4.3.450px\n 14\n 8 triangles6 squares\n 24\n 12\n \n Oh\n \n\n truncated cube\nt{4,3}\n Truncated hexahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.8.850px\n 14\n 8 triangles6 octagons\n 36\n 24\n \n Oh\n \n\n truncated octahedron(truncated tetratetrahedron)\nt{3,4} or tr{3,3} or \n Truncated octahedron\n(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 4.6.650px\n 14\n 6 squares8 hexagons\n 36\n 24\n \n Oh\n \n\n rhombicuboctahedron(small rhombicuboctahedron)\nrr{4,3}\n Rhombicuboctahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.4.4.450px\n 26\n8 triangles18 squares\n 48\n 24\n \n Oh\n \n\n truncated cuboctahedron(great rhombicuboctahedron)\ntr{4,3}\n Truncated cuboctahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 4.6.850px\n 26\n 12 squares8 hexagons6 octagons\n 72\n 48\n \n Oh\n \n\n snub cube(snub cuboctahedron)\nsr{4,3}\n Snub hexahedron (Ccw)(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.3.3.3.450px\n 38\n32 triangles6 squares\n 60\n 24\n \n O\n \n\n icosidodecahedron\nr{5,3}\n Icosidodecahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.5.3.550px\n 32\n 20 triangles12 pentagons\n 60\n 30\n \n Ih\n \n\n truncated dodecahedron\nt{5,3}\n Truncated dodecahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.10.1050px\n 32\n20 triangles12 decagons\n 90\n 60\n \n Ih\n \n\n truncated icosahedron\nt{3,5}\n Truncated icosahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 5.6.650px\n 32\n 12 pentagons20 hexagons\n 90\n 60\n \n Ih\n \n\n rhombicosidodecahedron(small rhombicosidodecahedron)\nrr{5,3}\n Rhombicosidodecahedron(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.4.5.450px\n 62\n 20 triangles30 squares12 pentagons\n 120\n 60\n \n Ih\n \n\n truncated icosidodecahedron(great rhombicosidodecahedron)\ntr{5,3}\n Truncated icosidodecahedron(Animation)\n60px\n 60px\n 4.6.1050px\n 62\n30 squares20 hexagons12 decagons\n 180\n 120\n \n Ih\n \n\n snub dodecahedron(snub icosidodecahedron)\nsr{5,3}\n Snub dodecahedron (Ccw)(Animation)\n 60px\n 60px\n 3.3.3.3.550px\n 92\n 80 triangles12 pentagons\n 150\n 60\n \n I\n \n\n\nSome definitions of semiregular polyhedron include one more figure, the elongated square gyrobicupola or \"pseudo-rhombicuboctahedron\".\n", "\nThe number of vertices is 720° divided by the vertex angle defect.\n\nThe cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron are edge-uniform and are called quasi-regular.\n\nThe duals of the Archimedean solids are called the Catalan solids. Together with the bipyramids and trapezohedra, these are the face-uniform solids with regular vertices.\n\n=== Chirality ===\n\nThe snub cube and snub dodecahedron are known as ''chiral'', as they come in a left-handed (Latin: levomorph or laevomorph) form and right-handed (Latin: dextromorph) form. When something comes in multiple forms which are each other's three-dimensional mirror image, these forms may be called enantiomorphs. (This nomenclature is also used for the forms of certain chemical compounds).\n", "\ngenerator positions in a kaleidoscope.\nThe different Archimedean and Platonic solids can be related to each other using a handful of general constructions. Starting with a Platonic solid, truncation involves cutting away of corners. To preserve symmetry, the cut is in a plane perpendicular to the line joining a corner to the center of the polyhedron and is the same for all corners. Depending on how much is truncated (see table below), different Platonic and Archimedean (and other) solids can be created. Expansion or cantellation involves moving each face away from the center (by the same distance so as to preserve the symmetry of the Platonic solid) and taking the convex hull. Expansion with twisting also involves rotating the faces, thus breaking the rectangles corresponding to edges into triangles. The last construction we use here is truncation of both corners and edges. Ignoring scaling, expansion can also be viewed as truncation of corners and edges but with a particular ratio between corner and edge truncation.\n\n\n+ Construction of Archimedean Solids\nSymmetry\nTetrahedral120px\nOctahedral120px\nIcosahedral120px\n\n Starting solidOperation\nSymbol{p,q}\n Tetrahedron{3,3}50px \n Cube{4,3}50px \n Octahedron{3,4}50px \n Dodecahedron{5,3}50px \n Icosahedron{3,5}50px\n\n Truncation (t)\nt{p,q}\n truncated tetrahedron50px \n truncated cube50px \n truncated octahedron50px \n truncated dodecahedron50px \n truncated icosahedron50px\n\n Rectification (r)Ambo (a)\nr{p,q}\n tetratetrahedron50px \n cuboctahedron50px \n icosidodecahedron50px\n\n Bitruncation (2t)Dual kis (dk)\n2t{p,q}\n truncated tetrahedron50px \n truncated octahedron50px \n truncated cube50px \n truncated icosahedron50px \n truncated dodecahedron50px\n\n Birectification (2r)Dual (d)\n2r{p,q}\n tetrahedron50px\n octahedron50px \n cube50px \n icosahedron50px \n dodecahedron50px\n\n cantellation (rr)Expansion (e)\nrr{p,q}\n rhombitetratetrahedron50px \n rhombicuboctahedron50px \nrhombicosidodecahedron 50px\n\n Snub rectified (sr)Snub (s)\nsr{p,q}\n snub tetratetrahedron50px \n snub cuboctahedron50px \n snub icosidodecahedron50px\n\n Cantitruncation (tr)Bevel (b)\ntr{p,q}\n truncated tetratetrahedron50px \n truncated cuboctahedron50px \n truncated icosidodecahedron50px\n\n\nNote the duality between the cube and the octahedron, and between the dodecahedron and the icosahedron. Also, partially because the tetrahedron is self-dual, only one Archimedean solid has only tetrahedral symmetry.\n", "* Aperiodic tiling\n* Archimedean graph\n* List of uniform polyhedra\n* Toroidal polyhedron\n* Quasicrystal\n* semiregular polyhedron\n* regular polyhedron\n* uniform polyhedron\n* Icosahedral twins\n", "\n", "\n. Reprinted in .\n* (Section 3-9)\n.\n Chapter 2\n", "* \n* Archimedean Solids by Eric W. Weisstein, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.\n* Paper models of Archimedean Solids and Catalan Solids\n* Free paper models(nets) of Archimedean solids\n* The Uniform Polyhedra by Dr. R. Mäder\n* Virtual Reality Polyhedra, ''The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra'' by George W. Hart\n* Penultimate Modular Origami by James S. Plank\n* Interactive 3D polyhedra in Java\n* Solid Body Viewer is an interactive 3D polyhedron viewer which allows you to save the model in svg, stl or obj format.\n* Stella: Polyhedron Navigator: Software used to create many of the images on this page.\n* Paper Models of Archimedean (and other) Polyhedra\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origin of name", "Classification", " Properties ", " Construction of Archimedean solids ", " See also ", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Archimedean solid
[ "\n\nSet of uniform antiprisms\n\nHexagonal antiprism\n\nType\nuniform polyhedron\n\nFaces\n2 ''n''-gons, 2''n'' triangles\n\nEdges\n4''n''\n\nVertices\n2''n''\n\nConway polyhedron notation\nA''n''\n\nVertex configuration\n3.3.3.''n''\n\nSchläfli symbol\ns{2,2''n''}sr{2,''n''}{ } ⊗ {''n''}\n\nCoxeter diagrams\n\n\nSymmetry group\nD''n''d, 2+,2''n'', (2''n''), order 4''n''\n\nRotation group\nD''n'', 2,''n''+, (22''n''), order 2''n''\n\nDual polyhedron\ntrapezohedron\n\nProperties\nconvex, semi-regular vertex-transitive\n\nNet\n150px\n\nIn geometry, an ''n''-sided '''antiprism''' is a polyhedron composed of two parallel copies of some particular ''n''-sided polygon, connected by an alternating band of triangles. Antiprisms are a subclass of the prismatoids and are a (degenerate) type of snub polyhedra. \n\nAntiprisms are similar to prisms except the bases are twisted relative to each other, and that the side faces are triangles, rather than quadrilaterals.\n\nIn the case of a regular ''n''-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle . Extra regularity is obtained when the line connecting the base centers is perpendicular to the base planes, making it a '''right antiprism'''. As faces, it has the two ''n''-gonal bases and, connecting those bases, 2''n'' isosceles triangles.\n", "A '''uniform antiprism''' has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' equilateral triangles as faces. As a class, the uniform antiprisms form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. For we have as degenerate case the regular tetrahedron as a ''digonal antiprism'', and for the non-degenerate regular octahedron as a ''triangular antiprism''.\n\nThe dual polyhedra of the antiprisms are the trapezohedra. Their existence was discussed and their name was coined by Johannes Kepler, though it is possible that they were previously known to Archimedes as they satisfy the same conditions on vertices as the Archimedean solids.\n\n\n\n=== Schlegel diagrams===\n\n\n100pxA3\n100pxA4\n100pxA5\n100pxA6\n100pxA7\n100pxA8\n\n", "Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a right antiprism with ''n''-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are\n:\n\nwith ''k'' ranging from 0 to 2''n'' − 1; if the triangles are equilateral,\n:\n", "Let ''a'' be the edge-length of a uniform antiprism. Then the volume is\n:\n\nand the surface area is\n:\n", "\nThere are an infinite set of truncated antiprisms, including a lower-symmetry form of the truncated octahedron (truncated triangular antiprism). These can be alternated to create snub antiprisms, two of which are Johnson solids, and the ''snub triangular antiprism'' is a lower symmetry form of the icosahedron.\n\n\n\nAntiprisms\n\n70px\n80px\n80px\n80px\n...\n\ns{2,4}\ns{2,6}\ns{2,8}\ns{2,10}\ns{2,2''n''}\n\nTruncated antiprisms\n\n80px\n80px\n80px\n80px\n...\n\nts{2,4}\nts{2,6}\nts{2,8}\nts{2,10}\nts{2,2n}\n\nSnub antiprisms\n\nJ84\nIcosahedron\nJ85\nIrregular...\n\n50px\n80px\n80px\n80px\n...\n\nss{2,4}\nss{2,6}\nss{2,8}\nss{2,10}\nss{2,2n}\n\n", "The symmetry group of a right ''n''-sided antiprism with regular base and isosceles side faces is D''n''d of order 4''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group Td of order 24, which has three versions of D2d as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group Oh of order 48, which has four versions of D3d as subgroups.\n\nThe symmetry group contains inversion if and only if ''n'' is odd.\n\nThe rotation group is D''n'' of order 2''n'', except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group T of order 12, which has three versions of D2 as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger rotation group O of order 24, which has four versions of D3 as subgroups.\n", "{\| class=wikitable align=right width=320\n\n160px5/2-antiprism\n160px5/3-antiprism\n\n120px9/2-antiprism\n120px9/4-antiprism\n120px9/5-antiprism\n\nThis shows all the non-star and star antiprisms up to 15 sides - together with those of a 29-gon.\nUniform star antiprisms are named by their star polygon bases, {''p''/''q''}, and exist in prograde and retrograde (crossed) solutions. Crossed forms have intersecting vertex figures, and are denoted by inverted fractions, ''p''/(''p'' - ''q'') instead of ''p''/''q'', e.g. 5/3 instead of 5/2.\n\nIn the retrograde forms but not in the prograde forms, the triangles joining the star bases intersect the axis of rotational symmetry.\n\nSome retrograde star antiprisms with regular star polygon bases cannot be constructed with equal edge lengths, so are not uniform polyhedra. Star antiprism compounds also can be constructed where ''p'' and ''q'' have common factors; thus a 10/4 antiprism is the compound of two 5/2 star antiprisms.\n\n\n+ Uniform star antiprisms by symmetry, up to 12\nSymmetry group\nStar forms\n\n d5h2,5(225)\n 64px3.3.3.5/2\n\n d5d2+,5(25)\n 64px3.3.3.5/3\n\n d7h2,7(227)\n 64px3.3.3.7/2\n 64px3.3.3.7/4\n\n d7d2+,7(27)\n 64px3.3.3.7/3\n\n d8d2+,8(28)\n 64px3.3.3.8/3\n 64px3.3.3.8/5\n\n d9h2,9(229)\n 64px3.3.3.9/2\n 64px3.3.3.9/4\n\n d9d2+,9(29)\n 64px3.3.3.9/5\n\n d10d2+,10(210)\n 64px3.3.3.10/3\n\n d11h2,11(2.2.11)\n 64px3.3.3.11/2\n 64px3.3.3.11/4\n 64px3.3.3.11/6\n\n d11d2+,11(211)\n 64px3.3.3.11/3\n 64px3.3.3.11/5\n 64px3.3.3.11/7\n\n d12d2+,12(212)\n 64px3.3.3.12/5\n 64px3.3.3.12/7\n\n ...\n\n\nPrism\nApeirogonal antiprism\nGrand antiprism – a four-dimensional polytope\nOne World Trade Center, a building consisting primarily of an elongated square antiprism\n", "Skew polygon\n", " Chapter 2: Archimedean polyhedra, prisma and antiprisms\n\n", "\n\n\n*\n Nonconvex Prisms and Antiprisms\n* Paper models of prisms and antiprisms\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Uniform antiprism", "Cartesian coordinates", "Volume and surface area", " Related polyhedra ", "Symmetry", " Star antiprism ", "See also", " References", "External links" ]	Antiprism
[ "\nA composite satellite image of Africa.\nAfrica map of Köppen climate classification.\nThe '''natural history of Africa''' encompasses some of the well known megafauna of that continent.\n\nNatural history is the study and description of organisms and natural objects, especially their origins, evolution, and interrelationships.\n", "The vegetation of Africa follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture. The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical. In the countries bordering the Mediterranean, there are groves of orange and olive trees, evergreen oaks, cork trees and pines, intermixed with cypresses, myrtles, arbutus and fragrant tree-heaths.\n\nSouth of the Atlas Range the conditions alter. The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness. Characteristic of the Sahara is the date palm, which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the acacia, from which gum arabic is obtained, is abundant.\n\nThe more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper Nile; and savanna interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the mangrove, which flourishes wherever the soil is of a swamp character.\n\nThe dense forests of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of hardwoods, two palms, ''Elaeis guineensis'' (oil palm) and ''Raphia vinifera'' (bamboo palm), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. ''Bombax'' or silk-cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the India rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as odum (''Chlorophora excelsa''), ebony, mahogany (''Khaya senegalensis''), Oldfieldia (''Oldfieldia africana'') and camwood (''Baphia nitida''). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or \"bush\" is extremely dense.\n\nIn the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or baobab (''Adansonia digitata''), doum palm (''Hyphaene'') and euphorbias. The coffee plant grows wild in such widely separated places as Liberia and southern Ethiopia. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern Mediterranean, the Himalaya and Indo-China.\n\nIn the swamp regions of north-east Africa papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of kapsias, mesembryanthemums, aloes and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the Yellow-wood (''Podocarpus elongatus''), stinkwood (''Ocotea''), sneezewood or Cape ebony (''Pteroxylon utile'') and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.\n", "Southwest African lion (''Panthera leo bleyenberghi'').\nThe fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation. The open savannas are the home of large ungulates, especially antelopes, the giraffe (peculiar to Africa), zebra, buffalo, wild donkey and four species of rhinoceros; and of carnivores, such as the lion, leopard, hyena, etc. The okapi (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the Congo basin. Bears are confined to the Atlas region, wolves and foxes to North Africa. The elephant (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the chimpanzee and gorilla. Baboons and mandrills, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped camel, as a domestic animal, is\nespecially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes.\n\nThe rivers in the tropical zone abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in South Africa, British Central Africa, British East Africa, Somaliland, etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900.\n\nThe ornithology of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the ostrich and the secretary-bird. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the desert and steppe regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south. The weaver birds and their allies, including the long-tailed whydahs, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the francolin and guineafowl. Many of the smaller birds, such as the sunbirds, bee-eaters, the parrots and kingfishers, as well as the larger plantain-eaters, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage.\n\nOf reptiles the lizard and chameleon are common, and there are a number of venomous snakes, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.\n\nThe scorpion is abundant. Of insects Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the locust is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the termites are almost incredible. The spread of malaria by means of mosquitoes is common. The tsetse fly, whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. It is found nowhere outside Africa.\n", "\nEcology\n", " \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Flora", "Fauna", "See also", "References" ]	Natural history of Africa
[ "\nright\n\nAfrica is a continent comprising 63 political territories, representing the largest of the great southward projections from the main mass of Earth's surface. Within its regular outline, it comprises an area of , including adjacent islands. Its highest mountain is Mount Kilimanjaro, its largest lake is Lake Victoria and its longest river is the Nile.\n\nSeparated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea and from much of Asia by the Red Sea, Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which is transected by the Suez Canal), wide. For geopolitical purposes, the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt – east of the Suez Canal – is often considered part of Africa. From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in Tunisia, at 37°21′ N, to the most southerly point, Cape Agulhas in South Africa, 34°51′15″ S, is a distance approximately of ; from Cap-Vert, 17°31′13″W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in Somalia, 51°27′52″ E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of .\n\nThe main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus mainly composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, and the southern from north to south.\n", "Satellite view of Africa\nThe average elevation of the continent approximates closely to above sea level, roughly near to the mean elevation of both North and South America, but considerably less than that of Asia, . In contrast with other continents, it is marked by the comparatively small area of either very high or very low ground, lands under occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia or South America, but the area of land over is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges. Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and ridges that a specialised term ''Inselberg-Landschaft'', island mountain landscape has been adopted in Germany to describe this kind of country, thought to be in great part the result of wind action.)\n\nAs a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable. Apart from the lowlands and the Atlas mountain range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the Red Sea to about 6 deg. S. on the west coast.\n\nAfrica can be divided into a number of geographic zones:\n\nThe coastal plains — often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps — never stretching far from the coast, apart from the lower courses of streams. Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers. Elsewhere, the coastal lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces that constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus.\nThe Atlas range — orthographically distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with and separated from the south by a depressed and desert area (the Sahara).\n", "Topography of Africa\nThe high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below , have a mean elevation of about . The South African Plateau, as far as about 12° S, is bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts. On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer. Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them. The largest of these level areas, the Great Karoo, is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the Kalahari Desert.\n\nThe South African Plateau is connected towards East African plateau, with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features. It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions. The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the Earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes. Towards the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by Lake Nyasa), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system.\n\nFarther north the western hollow, known as the Albertine Rift is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the Great Lakes of Tanganyika, Kivu, Lake Edward and Lake Albert, the first-named over long and the longest freshwater lake in the world. Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough. The eastern branch of the East African Rift, contains much smaller lakes, many of them brackish and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being Lake Turkana or Basso Norok.\n\nAt no great distance east of this rift-valley is Mount Kilimanjaro - with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the latter being , and the culminating point of the whole continent — and Mount Kenya, which is . Hardly less important is the Ruwenzori Range, over , which lies east of the western trough. Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active. This could cause most of the cities and states to be flooded with lava and ash.\n\nThe third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the Ethiopian Highlands, a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below , while the summits reach heights of 4400 m to 4550 m. This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by Lake Tsana.\n\nBoth in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of . In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower. The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the Gulf of Guinea (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of are reached. Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued by the islands to the south-west, has a height of , while Clarence Peak, in Fernando Po, the first of the line of islands, rises to over . Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.\n", "Much is Africa is made up of plains of the pediplain and etchplain type often occurring as steps. The etchplains aare commonly associated with laterite soil and inselbergs.\n\nThe area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole. The best marked of the basins so formed (the Congo basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.\n\nRunning along the south of desert is the plains region known as the Sahel.\n\nThe arid region, the Sahara — the largest hot desert in the world, covering — extends from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation, it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the Mediterranean; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile. That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character. The Atlas range, the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places broad. From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara. The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels.\n", "\nThe following table gives the details of the chief mountains and ranges of the continent:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Mountain !! Range !! Country !! Height (m) !! Height (ft) !! Prominence (m) !! Isolation (km)\n\n Kilimanjaro \n Eastern Rift volcanoes \n Tanzania \n 5895 \n 19,340 \n 5885 \n 5510\n\n Mt Kenya \n Eastern Rift volcanoes \n Kenya \n 5199 \n 17,058 \n 3825 \n 323\n\n Mt Stanley \n Rwenzori Mtns \n Uganda/DRC\n 5109 \n 16,762 \n 3951 \n 830\n\n Mt Meru \n Eastern Rift volcanoes \n Tanzania\n 4566 \n 14,980 \n 3170 \n 70\n\n Ras Dashen \n Semien Mountains \n Ethiopia\n 4533 \n 14,872 \n 3997 \n 1483\n\n Mt Karisimbi \n Virunga mountains \n Rwanda/DRC \n 4507 \n 14,787 \n 3312 \n 207\n\n Mt Elgon \n Eastern Rift volcanoes \n Uganda\n 4321 \n 14,178 \n 2458 \n 339\n\n Toubkal \n Atlas mountains \n Morocco\n 4167 \n 13,671 \n 3755 \n 2078\n\n Mt Cameroon \n Cameroon line \n Cameroon\n 4095 \n 13,435 \n 3901 \n 2338\n\n Mt Satima \n Aberdare range \n Kenya\n 4001 \n 13,120 \n 2081 \n 77\n\n Thabana Ntlenyana \n Drakensberg \n Lesotho \n 3482 \n 11,422 \n 2390 \n 3003\n\n Emi Koussi \n Tibesti mountains \n Chad\n 3445 \n 11,302 \n 2934 \n 2001\n\n Sapitwa Peak \n Mulanje Massif \n Malawi\n 3002 \n 9,849 \n 2319 \n 1272\n\n\n", "Drainage basins of Africa\nFrom the outer margin of the African plateaus, a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands, before breaking through the outer ranges. The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the Atlantic Ocean.\n\nTo the main African rivers belong: Nile (the longest river of Africa), Congo (river with the highest water discharge on the continent) and the Niger, which flows half of its length through the arid areas. The largest lakes are the following: Lake Victoria (Lake Ukerewe), Lake Chad, in the centre of the continent, Lake Tanganyika, lying between the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Tanzania and Zambia. There is also the considerably large Lake Malawi stretching along the eastern border of one of the poorest countries in the world -Malawi. There are also numerous water dams throughout the continent: Kariba on the river of Zambezi, Asuan in Egypt on the river of Nile and the biggest dam of the continent lying completely in The republic of Ghana is called Akosombo on the Volta river (Fobil 2003).\nThe high lake plateau of the African Great Lakes region contains the headwaters of both the Nile and the Congo.\n\nThe upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator. From there, streams pour eastward into Lake Victoria, the largest lake in Africa (covering over 26,000 square m.), and to the west and north into Lake Edward and Lake Albert. To the latter of these, the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters. Issuing from there, the Nile flows northward, and between the latitudes of 7 and 10 degrees north it traverses a vast marshy level, where its course is liable to being blocked by floating vegetation. After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the Sobat, Blue Nile and Atbara from the Ethiopian Highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it separates the great desert with its fertile watershed, and enters the Mediterranean at a vast delta.\n\nThe most remote head-stream of the Congo is the Chambezi, which flows southwest into the marshy Lake Bangweulu. From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names. Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through Lake Mweru and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa. Traversing this in a majestic northward curve, and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns southwest and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands.\n\nNorth of the Congo basin, and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface, is the basin of Lake Chad – a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Chari coming from the southeast.\n\nWest of this is the basin of the Niger, the third major river of Africa. With its principal source in the far west, it reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo, and ultimately flows into the Atlantic — a fact that eluded European geographers for many centuries. An important branch, however — the Benue—flows from the southeast.\n\nThese four river basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa — the remainder consists of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams that do not reach the sea.\n\nOf the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin, the Orange, in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the Drakensberg on the opposite side of the continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west coastal highlands of the southern limb; the Volta, Komoe, Bandama, Gambia and Senegal the highlands of the western limb. North of the Senegal, for over of coast, the arid region reaches to the Atlantic. Farther north are the streams, with comparatively short courses, reaching the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains.\n\nOf the rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean, the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the Zambezi, whose western branches rise in the western coastal highlands. The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E, at an elevation of . It flows to the west and south for a considerable distance before turning eastward. All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of Lake Nyasa, flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground stretching across the continent from 10° to 12° S. In the southwest, the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the Taukhe (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water. The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the Okavango, is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans that was formerly centred in Lake Ngami, now dried up.\n\nFarther south, the Limpopo drains a portion of the interior plateau, but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source. The Rovuma, Rufiji and Tana principally drain the outer slopes of the African Great Lakes highlands.\n\nIn the Horn region to the north, the Jubba and the Shebelle rivers begin in the Ethiopian Highlands. These rivers mainly flow southwards, with the Jubba emptying in the Indian Ocean. The Shebelle River reaches a point to the southwest. After that, it consists of swamps and dry reaches before finally disappearing in the desert terrain near the Jubba River. Another large stream, the Hawash, rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden.\n\nBetween the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the Ethiopian plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the Great Rift Valley. The largest river is the Omo, which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into Lake Rudolf. The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths, or by cataracts at no great distance upstream. But when these obstacles have been overcome, the rivers and lakes afford a vast network of navigable waters.\n\nThe area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, where the corresponding area is \n", "The principal lakes of Africa are situated in the African Great Lakes plateau. As a rule, the lakes found within the Great Rift Valley have steep sides and are very deep. This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter with depths of .\n\nOthers, however, are shallow, and hardly reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season. Such are Lake Rukwa, in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the Great Rift Valley. Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in Lake Victoria being under .\n\nBesides the African Great Lakes, the principal lakes on the continent are: Lake Chad, in the northern inland watershed; Bangweulu and Mweru, traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and Lake Mai-Ndombe and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river. All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Lake Chad appears to be drying up.\n\nDivergent opinions have been held as to the mode of origin of the African Great Lakes, especially Tanganyika, which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence. The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type. They include jellyfish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc.\n\n\n\n Lake\n m\n ft\n\n Chad \n 259\n 850\n\n Mai-Ndombe \n 335\n 1100\n\n Turkana \n 381\n 1250\n\n Malawi \n 501\n 1645\n\n Albert \n 618\n 2028\n\n Tanganyika \n 800\n 2624\n\n Ngami \n 899\n 2950\n\n Mweru \n 914\n 3000\n\n Edward \n 916\n 3004\n\n Bangweulu \n 1128\n 3700\n\n Victoria \n 1134\n 3720\n\n Abaya \n 1280\n 4200\n\n Kivu \n 1472\n 4829\n\n Tana \n 1734\n 5690\n\n Naivasha \n 1870\n 6135\n\n", "With the exception of Madagascar, the African islands are small. Madagascar, with an area of , is, after Greenland, New Guinea and Borneo, the fourth largest island on the Earth. It lies in the Indian Ocean, off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, wide at its narrowest point. Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia. East of Madagascar are the small islands of Mauritius and Réunion. There are also islands in the Gulf of Guinea on which lies the Republic of Sao Tomé and Príncipe (islands of São Tomé and Príncipe). Part of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea is lying on the island of Bioko (with the capital Malabo and the town of Lubu) and the island of Annobón. Socotra lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui. Off the north-west coast are the Canary and Cape Verde archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin. The South Atlantic Islands of Saint Helena and Ascension are classed as Africa but are situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge half way to South America.\n", "\nAfrica map of Köppen climate classification.\nLying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.\n\nGreat heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.)\n\nFarther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.\n\nIn the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.\n\nThe most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of rainfall. The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation. In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after. It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.\nVegetation in February and August\nThe rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west. Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world. The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of Mount Cameroon, where there is a mean annual rainfall of about as compared with a mean of at Cherrapunji, in Meghalaya, India.\n\nThe two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once. Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.\n\nThe countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea. Known in Egypt as the khamsin, on the Mediterranean as the sirocco, it is called on the Guinea coast the harmattan. This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result. Similar dry winds blow from the Kalahari Desert in the south. On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced.\n", "The climate of Africa lends itself to certain environmental diseases, the most serious of which are: malaria, sleeping sickness and yellow fever. Malaria is the most deadly environmental disease in Africa. It is transmitted by a genus of mosquito (anopheles mosquito) native to Africa, and can be contracted over and over again. There is not yet a vaccine for malaria, which makes it difficult to prevent the disease from spreading in Africa. Recently, the dissemination of mosquito netting has helped lower the rate of malaria.\n\nYellow fever is a disease also transmitted by mosquitoes native to Africa. Unlike malaria, it cannot be contracted more than once. Like chicken pox, it is a disease that tends to be severe the later in life a person contracts the disease.\n\nSleeping sickness, or African trypanosomiasis, is a disease that usually affects animals, but has been known to be fatal to some humans as well. It is transmitted by the Tsetse fly and is found almost exclusively in Sub-Saharan Africa. This disease has had a significant impact on African development not because of its deadly nature, like Malaria, but because it has prevented Africans from pursuing agriculture (as the sleeping sickness would kill their livestock).\n", "These are the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent.\n\n:'''Africa'''\n* Northernmost point — Iles des Chiens, Tunisia (37°32'N)\n* Southernmost point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa (34°51'15\"S)\n* Westernmost point — Santo Antão, Cape Verde Islands (25°25'W)\n* Easternmost point — Rodrigues, Mauritius (63°30'E)\n* The African pole of inaccessibility is close to the border of Central African Republic, South Sudan and Congo, near the town of Obo.\n\n:'''Africa (mainland)'''\nWesternmost Point (mainland) — Pointe des Almadies\nNorthernmost point — Ras ben Sakka (Ra's al Abyad) (Cape Blanc), Tunisia\nSouthernmost point — Cape Agulhas, South Africa \nWesternmost point — Pointe des Almadies, Cap Vert Peninsula, Ngor, Dakar, Senegal (17°33'22\"W)\nEasternmost point — Ras Hafun (Raas Xaafuun), Somalia (51°27'52\"E)\n\nThe highest point in Africa is Mount Kilimanjaro, in Tanzania. The lowest point is Lake Asal, below sea level, in Djibouti.\n", "\nList of national parks in Africa\nOutline of Africa#Geography of Africa\nRichard Grant 2014. Africa. Geographies of Change. New York: Oxford University Press.\n", "\n\n", "\n\n* Africa: The Human Footprint. Interactive map of human impact on Africa by National Geographic.\n* Africa - Interactive Map with demographics and geopolitical information from the United States Army Africa\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Main features", "Plateau region", "Plains", "Mountains", " Rivers ", "Lakes", "Islands", "Climatic conditions", "Health", "Extreme points", "See also", "Notes", "External links" ]	Geography of Africa
[ "\n\n\nOn an approval ballot, the voter can select any number of candidates\n\n'''Approval voting''' is a single-winner electoral system. Each voter may \"approve\" of (i.e., select) any number of candidates. The winner is the most-approved candidate.\n\nGuy Ottewell first described the system in 1977. Later Robert J. Weber coined the term \"Approval Voting\". It was more fully published in 1978 by political scientist Steven Brams and mathematician Peter Fishburn.\n", "\nApproval voting can be considered a form of range voting, with the range restricted to two values, 0 and 1—or a form of majority judgment, with grades restricted to ''good'' and ''poor''. Approval Voting can also be compared to plurality voting, without the rule that discards ballots that vote for more than one candidate.\n\nBy treating each candidate as a separate question, \"Do you approve of this person for the job?\" approval voting lets each voter indicate support for one, some, or all candidates. All votes count equally, and everyone gets the same number of votes: one vote per candidate, either for or against. Final tallies show how many voters support each candidate, and the winner is the candidate whom the most voters support.\n\nApproval voting ballots show, for each office being contested, a list of the candidates running for that seat. Next to each name is a checkbox, or another similar way to mark \"Yes\" or \"No\" for that candidate. This \"check yes or no\" approach means approval voting provides one of the simplest ballots for a voter to understand.\n\nBallots on which the voter marked every candidate the same (whether yes or no) have no effect on the outcome of the election. Each ballot can, therefore, be viewed as a small \"delta\" that separates two groups of candidates: those supported and those that are not. Each candidate approved is considered preferred to any candidate not approved, while the voter's preferences among approved candidates is unspecified, and likewise the voter's preferences among unapproved candidates is also unspecified.\n", "\nApproval voting has been adopted by the Mathematical Association of America (1986), the American Mathematical Society, the Institute of Management Sciences (1987) (now the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences), the American Statistical Association (1987), and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1987). The IEEE board in 2002 rescinded its decision to use approval voting. IEEE Executive Director Daniel J. Senese stated that approval voting was abandoned because \"few of our members were using it and it was felt that it was no longer needed.\" Because none of these associations report results to their members and the public, it is difficult to evaluate Senese's claim and whether it is also true of other associations; Steven Brams' analysis of the 5-candidate 1987 Mathematical Association of America presidential election shows that 79% of voters cast a ballot for one candidate, 16% for 2 candidates, 5% for 3, and 1% for 4, with the winner earning the approval of 1,267 (32%) of 3,924 voters.\n\nApproval voting was used for Dartmouth Alumni Association elections for seats on the College Board of Trustees, but after some controversy it was replaced with traditional runoff elections by an alumni vote of 82% to 18% in 2009. Dartmouth students started to use approval voting to elect their student body president in 2011. In the first election, the winner secured the support of 41% of voters against several write-in candidates. In 2012, Suril Kantaria won with the support of 32% of the voters. In 2013, 2014 and 2016, the winners also earned the support of under 40% of the voters. Results reported in The Dartmouth show that in the 2014 and 2016 elections, more than 80 percent of voters approved of only one candidate. Students replaced approval voting with plurality before the 2017 elections. \n\nApproval is used in internal elections by the Green Parties of Texas and Ohio, the Libertarian Party of Texas, and the US Modern Whig party.\n\nHistorically, several voting methods that incorporate aspects of approval voting have been used:\n* Approving voting was used for papal conclaves between 1294 and 1621, with an average of about forty cardinals engaging in repeated rounds of voting until one candidate was listed on at least two-thirds of ballots. Josef Colomer writes of the 1559 conclave when a cardinal nearly won when an ally met confidentially with cardinals and asked them for a \"token\" approval vote for his friend to avoid a shut out - and then the cardinal came close to winning with votes on 17 of 32 ballots.\n* In the 13th through 18th centuries, the Republic of Venice elected the Doge of Venice using a multi-stage process that featured random selection and voting that allowed approval of multiple candidates and required a supermajority.\n* According to Steven J. Brams, approval voting was used for unspecified elections in 19th century England.\n* The selection of the Secretary-General of the United Nations has involved \"straw poll\" rounds of approval polling to help discover and build a consensus before a formal vote is held in the Security Council. The United Nations Secretary-General selection, 2006 indicated that South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon was the only candidate to be acceptable to all five permanent members of the Security Council, which led to the withdrawal of India's Shashi Tharoor, who had the highest overall approval rate.\nThe idea of approval was adopted by X. Hu and Lloyd Shapley in 2003 in studying authority distribution in organizations.\n\nApproval voting also can be used in social scenarios as a fairer, but still quick system compared to an First-Past-The-Post equivalent, being able to avoid a spoiler effect while being very quick to calculate\n\nConsider this situation:\n\n''Ten friends have to choose between three places for lunch: Kombucha Kick (''K''), Meatlover's Mansion (''M'') and Super Sushi (''S''), and they are deciding via a vote. If they vote for their favourite place, and each person gets only one vote, the results could end up with:'' 4 votes for Kombucha, 3 for Meatlover's and 3 for Sushi. ''This would result in the group going to Kombucha, even though 6 of the 10 people did not vote for Kombucha (especially if some people despise Kombucha).'' \n\nAn approval voting system would work by asking the group on which places they are ok with, allowing them multiple votes and simply tallying up which place has the most votes, appropriate for a social situation, as figuring out preferences and proportion can take too long for simple decisions such as lunch.\n", "\nApproval voting advocates Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach predict that approval voting should increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning. The effect of this system as an electoral reform measure is not without critics, however. FairVote has a position paper arguing that approval voting has three flaws that undercut it as a method of voting and political vehicle. They argue that it can result in the defeat of a candidate who would win an absolute majority in a plurality election, can allow a candidate to win who might not win ''any'' support in a plurality election, and has incentives for tactical voting. The first two \"flaws\" are considered advantages by advocates of approval voting, as it chooses centrist candidates with broad appeal rather than polarizing candidates who appeal only to the majority.\n\nOne study showed that approval voting would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Chirac and Le Pen) in France's presidential election of 2002 (first round) – it instead would have chosen Chirac and Jospin as the top two to proceed to a runoff. Le Pen lost by a very high margin in the runoff, 82.2% to 17.8%, a sign that the true top two had not been found. Straight approval voting without a runoff, from the study, still would have selected Chirac, but with an approval percentage of only 36.7%, compared to Jospin at 32.9%. Le Pen, in that study, would have received 25.1%. In the real primary election, the top three were Chirac, 19.9%, Le Pen, 16.9%, and Jospin, 16.2%. A study of various \"evaluative voting\" methods (approval voting and score voting) during the French presidential election, 2012 showed that \"unifying\" candidates tended to do better, and polarizing candidates did worse, via the evaluative voting methods than via the plurality system.\n\nA generalized version of the Burr dilemma applies to approval voting when two candidates are appealing to the same subset of voters. Although approval voting differs from the voting system used in the Burr dilemma, approval voting can still leave candidates and voters with the generalized dilemma of whether to compete or cooperate.\n\nWhile in the modern era there have been relatively few competitive approval voting elections where tactical voting is more likely, Brams argues that approval voting usually elects Condorcet winners in practice. Critics of the use of approval voting in the alumni elections for the Dartmouth Board of Trustees in 2009 placed its ultimately successful repeal before alumni voters, arguing that the system has not been electing the most centrist candidates. ''The Dartmouth'' editorialized that \"When the alumni electorate fails to take advantage of the approval voting process, the three required Alumni Council candidates tend to split the majority vote, giving petition candidates an advantage. By reducing the number of Alumni Council candidates, and instituting a more traditional one-person, one-vote system, trustee elections will become more democratic and will more accurately reflect the desires of our alumni base.\"\n", "\n\n=== Overview ===\n\nApproval voting is vulnerable to Bullet Voting and Compromising, while it is immune to Push-Over and Burying.\n\nBullet Voting occurs when a voter approves ''only'' candidate 'a' instead of ''both'' 'a' and 'b' for the reason that voting for 'b' can cause 'a' to lose.\n\nCompromising occurs when a voter approves an ''additional'' candidate who is otherwise considered unacceptable to the voter to prevent an even worse alternative from winning.\n\nStrategic Approval voting differs from ranked choice voting methods where voters might ''reverse'' the preference order of two options. Strategic Approval voting, with more than two options, involves the voter changing their approval threshold. The voter decides which options to give the ''same'' rating, despite having a strict preference order between them.\n\n=== Sincere voting ===\n\nApproval voting experts describe sincere votes as those \"... that directly reflect the true preferences of a voter, i.e., that do not report preferences 'falsely.'\" They also give a specific definition of a sincere approval vote in terms of the voter's ordinal preferences as being any vote that, if it votes for one candidate, it also votes for any more preferred candidate. This definition allows a sincere vote to treat strictly preferred candidates the same, ensuring that every voter has at least one sincere vote. The definition also allows a sincere vote to treat equally preferred candidates differently. When there are two or more candidates, every voter has at least three sincere approval votes to choose from. Two of those sincere approval votes do not distinguish between any of the candidates: vote for none of the candidates and vote for all of the candidates. When there are three or more candidates, every voter has more than one sincere approval vote that distinguishes between the candidates.\n\n==== Examples ====\n\nBased on the definition above, if there are four candidates, A, B, C, and D, and a voter has a strict preference order, preferring A to B to C to D, then the following are the voter's possible sincere approval votes:\nvote for A, B, C, and D\nvote for A, B, and C\nvote for A and B\nvote for A\nvote for no candidates\n\nIf the voter instead equally prefers B and C, while A is still the most preferred candidate and D is the least preferred candidate, then all of the above votes are sincere and the following combination is also a sincere vote:\nvote for A and C\n\nThe decision between the above ballots is equivalent to deciding an arbitrary \"approval cutoff.\" All candidates preferred to the cutoff are approved, all candidates less preferred are not approved, and any candidates equal to the cutoff may be approved or not arbitrarily.\n\n=== Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences ===\n\nA sincere voter with multiple options for voting sincerely still has to choose which sincere vote to use. Voting strategy is a way to make that choice, in which case strategic approval voting includes sincere voting, rather than being an alternative to it. This differs from other voting systems that typically have a unique sincere vote for a voter.\n\nWhen there are three or more candidates, the winner of an approval voting election can change, depending on which sincere votes are used. In some cases, approval voting can sincerely elect any one of the candidates, including a Condorcet winner and a Condorcet loser, without the voter preferences changing. To the extent that electing a Condorcet winner and not electing a Condorcet loser is considered desirable outcomes for a voting system, approval voting can be considered vulnerable to sincere, strategic voting. In one sense, conditions where this can happen are robust and are not isolated cases. On the other hand, the variety of possible outcomes has also been portrayed as a virtue of approval voting, representing the flexibility and responsiveness of approval voting, not just to voter ordinal preferences, but cardinal utilities as well.\n\n==== Dichotomous preferences ====\n\nApproval voting avoids the issue of multiple sincere votes in special cases when voters have dichotomous preferences. For a voter with dichotomous preferences, approval voting is strategy-proof (also known as strategy-free). When all voters have dichotomous preferences and vote the sincere, strategy-proof vote, approval voting is guaranteed to elect the Condorcet winner, if one exists. However, having dichotomous preferences when there are three or more candidates is not typical. It is an unlikely situation for all voters to have dichotomous preferences when there are more than a few voters.\n\nHaving dichotomous preferences means that a voter has bi-level preferences for the candidates. All of the candidates are divided into two groups such that the voter is indifferent between any two candidates in the same group and any candidate in the top-level group is preferred to any candidate in the bottom-level group. A voter that has strict preferences between three candidates—prefers A to B and B to C—does not have dichotomous preferences.\n\nBeing strategy-proof for a voter means that there is a unique way for the voter to vote that is a strategically best way to vote, regardless of how others vote. In approval voting, the strategy-proof vote, if it exists, is a sincere vote.\n\n==== Approval threshold ====\n\nAnother way to deal with multiple sincere votes is to augment the ordinal preference model with an approval or acceptance threshold. An approval threshold divides all of the candidates into two sets, those the voter approves of and those the voter does not approve of. A voter can approve of more than one candidate and still prefer one approved candidate to another approved candidate. Acceptance thresholds are similar. With such a threshold, a voter simply votes for every candidate that meets or exceeds the threshold.\n\nWith threshold voting, it is still possible to not elect the Condorcet winner and instead elect the Condorcet loser when they both exist. However, according to Steven Brams, this represents a strength rather than a weakness of approval voting. Without providing specifics, he argues that the pragmatic judgements of voters about which candidates are acceptable should take precedence over the Condorcet criterion and other social choice criteria.\n\n=== Strategy with cardinal utilities ===\n\nVoting strategy under approval is guided by two competing features of approval voting. On the one hand, approval voting fails the later-no-harm criterion, so voting for a candidate can cause that candidate to win instead of a more preferred candidate. On the other hand, approval voting satisfies the monotonicity criterion, so not voting for a candidate can never help that candidate win, but can cause that candidate to lose to a less preferred candidate. Either way, the voter can risk getting a less preferred election winner. A voter can balance the risk-benefit trade-offs by considering the voter's cardinal utilities, particularly via the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem, and the probabilities of how others vote.\n\nA rational voter model described by Myerson and Weber specifies an approval voting strategy that votes for those candidates that have a positive prospective rating. This strategy is optimal in the sense that it maximizes the voter's expected utility, subject to the constraints of the model and provided the number of other voters is sufficiently large.\n\nAn optimal approval vote always votes for the most preferred candidate and not for the least preferred candidate. However, an optimal vote can require voting for a candidate and not voting for a more preferred candidate if there 4 candidates or more.\n\nOther strategies are also available and coincide with the optimal strategy in special situations. For example:\n* Vote for the candidates that have above average utility. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if the voter thinks that all pairwise ties are equally likely\n* Vote for any candidate that is more preferred than the expected winner and also vote for the expected winner if the expected winner is more preferred than the expected runner-up. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if there are three or fewer candidates or if the pivot probability for a tie between the expected winner and expected runner-up is sufficiently large compared to the other pivot probabilities.\nVote for the most preferred candidate only. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy when there is only one candidate with a positive prospective rating.\n\nAnother strategy is to vote for the top half of the candidates, the candidates that have an above-median utility. When the voter thinks that others are balancing their votes randomly and evenly, the strategy maximizes the voter's power or efficacy, meaning that it maximizes the probability that the voter will make a difference in deciding which candidate wins.\n\nOptimal strategic approval voting fails to satisfy the Condorcet criterion and can elect a Condorcet loser. Strategic approval voting can guarantee electing the Condorcet winner in some special circumstances. For example, if all voters are rational and cast a strategically optimal vote based on a common knowledge of how all the other voters vote except for small-probability, statistically independent errors in recording the votes, then the winner will be the Condorcet winner, if one exists.\n\n=== Strategy examples ===\n\nIn the example election described here, assume that the voters in each faction share the following von Neumann–Morgenstern utilities, fitted to the interval between 0 and 100. The utilities are consistent with the rankings given earlier and reflect a strong preference each faction has for choosing its city, compared to weaker preferences for other factors such as the distance to the other cities.\n\n\n+Voter utilities for each candidate city\n Candidates !! \n\n Fraction of Voters(living close to)\n Memphis\n Nashville\n Chattanooga\n Knoxville\n Average\n\n Memphis (42%)\n 100 \n 15 \n 10 \n 0 \n 31.25\n\n Nashville (26%)\n 0 \n 100 \n 20 \n 15 \n 33.75\n\n Chattanooga (15%)\n 0 \n 15 \n 100 \n 35 \n 37.5\n\n Knoxville (17%)\n 0 \n 15 \n 40 \n 100 \n 38.75\n\n\nUsing these utilities, voters choose their optimal strategic votes based on what they think the various pivot probabilities are for pairwise ties. In each of the scenarios summarized below, all voters share a common set of pivot probabilities.\n\n\n+Approval voting results for scenarios using optimal strategic voting\n Candidate vote totals\n\n Strategy scenario\n Winner\n Runner-up\n Memphis\n Nashville\n Chattanooga\n Knoxville\n\n Zero-info\n Memphis \n Chattanooga \n 42 \n 26 \n 32 \n 17\n\n Memphis leading Chattanooga\n Three-way tie \n 42 \n 58 \n 58 \n 58\n\n Chattanooga leading Knoxville\n Chattanooga \n Nashville \n 42 \n 68 \n 83 \n 17\n\n Chattanooga leading Nashville\n Nashville \n Memphis \n 42 \n 68 \n 32 \n 17\n\n Nashville leading Memphis\n Nashville \n Memphis \n 42 \n 58 \n 32 \n 32\n\n\nIn the first scenario, voters all choose their votes based on the assumption that all pairwise ties are equally likely. As a result, they vote for any candidate with an above-average utility. Most voters vote for only their first choice. Only the Knoxville faction also votes for its second choice, Chattanooga. As a result, the winner is Memphis, the Condorcet loser, with Chattanooga coming in second place.\n\nIn the second scenario, all of the voters expect that Memphis is the likely winner, that Chattanooga is the likely runner-up, and that the pivot probability for a Memphis-Chattanooga tie is much larger than the pivot probabilities of any other pair-wise ties. As a result, each voter votes for any candidate they prefer more than the leading candidate, and also vote for the leading candidate if they prefer that candidate more than the expected runner-up. Each remaining scenario follows a similar pattern of expectations and voting strategies.\n\nIn the second scenario, there is a three-way tie for first place. This happens because the expected winner, Memphis, was the Condorcet loser and was also ranked last by any voter that did not rank it first.\n\nOnly in the last scenario does the actual winner and runner-up match the expected winner and runner-up. As a result, this can be considered a stable strategic voting scenario. In the language of game theory, this is an \"equilibrium.\" In this scenario, the winner is also the Condorcet winner.\n\n===Dichotomous cutoff===\n\nAs this voting method is cardinal rather than ordinal, it is possible to model voters in a way that does not simplify to an ordinal method. Modelling voters with a 'dichotomous cutoff' assumes a voter has an immovable approval cutoff, while having meaningful cardinal preferences. This means that rather than voting for their top 3 candidates, or all candidates above the average approval (which may result in their vote changing if one candidate drops out, resulting in a system that does not satisfy IIA), they instead vote for all candidates above a certain approval 'cutoff' that they have decided. This cutoff does not change, regardless of which and how many candidates are running, so when all available alternatives are either above or below the cutoff, the voter votes for all or none of the candidates, despite preferring some over others. While this extreme appears unrealistic, it actually reflects reality in the way that many voters become disenfranchised and apathetic if they see no candidates they approve of. In this way, there is evidence to suggest that many voters may have an internal cutoff, and would not simply vote for their top 3, or the above average candidates, although that is not to say that it is necessarily entirely immovable.\n\nFor example, - in this scenario, voters are voting for candidates with approval above 50% (bold signifies that the voters voted for the candidate):\n\n\n\n Proportion of Electorate\n Approval of Candidate A\n Approval of Candidate B\n Approval of Candidate C\n Approval of Candidate D\n Average Approval\n\n 25%\n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n 10% \n ''50%''\n\n 35%\n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n ''50%''\n\n 30%\n 40% \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n ''50%''\n\n 10%\n '''60%''' \n 40% \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n ''50%''\n\n\nC wins with 65% of the voters' approval, beating B with 60%, D with 40% and A with 35%\n\nIf voters' threshold for receiving a vote is that the candidate has an above average approval, or they vote for their two most approved of candidates, this is not a dichotomous cutoff, as this can change if candidates drop out. On the other hand, if voters' threshold for receiving a vote is fixed (say 50%), this is a dichotomous cutoff, and satisfies IIA as shown below:\n\n\n+ A drops out, candidates voting for above average approval\n Proportion of Electorate\n Approval of Candidate A\n Approval of Candidate B\n Approval of Candidate C\n Approval of Candidate D\n Average Approval\n\n 25%\n - \n '''60%''' \n '''40%''' \n 10% \n ''37%''\n\n 35%\n - \n '''90%''' \n 60% \n 40% \n ''63%''\n\n 30%\n - \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n ''53%''\n\n 10%\n - \n 40% \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n ''47%''\n\nB now wins with 60%, beating C with 55% and D with 40%\n\n+ A drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%\n Proportion of Electorate\n Approval of Candidate A\n Approval of Candidate B\n Approval of Candidate C\n Approval of Candidate D\n Average Approval\n\n 25%\n - \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n 10% \n ''37%''\n\n 35%\n - \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n ''63%''\n\n 30%\n - \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n ''53%''\n\n 10%\n - \n 40% \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n ''47%''\n\nWith dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.\n\n\n+ D drops out, candidates voting for top 2 candidates\n Proportion of Electorate\n Approval of Candidate A\n Approval of Candidate B\n Approval of Candidate C\n Approval of Candidate D\n Average Approval\n\n 25%\n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n - \n ''63%''\n\n 35%\n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n - \n ''53%''\n\n 30%\n '''40%''' \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n - \n ''47%''\n\n 10%\n '''60%''' \n '''40%''' \n 10% \n - \n ''37%''\n\nB now wins with 70%, beating C and A with 65%\n\n+ D drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%\n Proportion of Electorate\n Approval of Candidate A\n Approval of Candidate B\n Approval of Candidate C\n Approval of Candidate D\n Average Approval\n\n 25%\n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n 40% \n - \n ''63%''\n\n 35%\n 10% \n '''90%''' \n '''60%''' \n - \n ''53%''\n\n 30%\n 40% \n 10% \n '''90%''' \n - \n ''47%''\n\n 10%\n '''60%''' \n 40% \n 10% \n - \n ''37%''\n\nWith dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.\n", "Most of the mathematical criteria by which voting systems are compared were formulated for voters with ordinal preferences. In this case, approval voting requires voters to make an additional decision of where to put their approval cutoff (see examples above). Depending on how this decision is made, approval voting satisfies different sets of criteria.\n\nThere is no ultimate authority on which criteria should be considered, but the following are criteria that many voting theorists accept and consider desirable:\n Unrestricted domain—A voter may have any preference ordering among the alternatives.\n* Non-dictatorship—There does not exist a single voter whose preference for the alternatives always determines the outcome regardless of other voters' preferences.\n* Pareto efficiency—If every voter prefers candidate A to all other candidates, then A must be elected. (from Arrow's impossibility theorem)\n* Majority criterion—If there exists a majority that ranks (or rates) a single candidate higher than all other candidates, does that candidate always win?\n* Monotonicity criterion—Is it impossible to cause a winning candidate to lose by ranking that candidate higher, or to cause a losing candidate to win by ranking that candidate lower?\n* Consistency criterion—If the electorate is divided in two and a choice wins in both parts, does it always win overall?\n* Participation criterion—Is voting honestly always better than not voting at all? (This is grouped with the distinct but similar Consistency Criterion in the table below.)\n* Condorcet criterion—If a candidate beats every other candidate in pairwise comparison, does that candidate always win? (This implies the majority criterion, above)\n* Condorcet loser criterion—If a candidate loses to every other candidate in pairwise comparison, does that candidate always lose?\n* Independence of irrelevant alternatives—Is the outcome the same after adding or removing non-winning candidates?\n* Independence of clone candidates—Is the outcome the same if candidates identical to existing candidates are added?\n* Reversal symmetry—If individual preferences of each voter are inverted, does the original winner never win?\n\n\n\n !! Unrestricted domain !! Non-dictatorship !! Pareto efficiency !! Majority !! Monotone !! Consistency & Participation !! Condorcet !! Condorcet loser !! IIA !! Clone independence !! Reversal symmetry\n\n\n Cardinal preferences \n Zero information, rational voters\n Yes\n Yes\n No\n No\n Yes\n Yes\n No\n No\n No \n No\n Yes\n\n Imperfect information, rational voters\n Yes\n Yes\n No\n No\n Yes\n Yes\n No\n No\n No\n No\n Yes\n\n Strong Nash equilibrium (Perfect information, rational voters, and perfect strategy)\n Yes\n Yes\n Yes\n Yes \n Yes \n No\n Yes\n No\n No \n Yes \n Yes\n\n Absolute dichotomous cutoff\n Yes\n No\n Yes\n No\n Yes\n Yes\n No\n No\n Yes\n Yes\n Yes\n\n Dichotomous preferences !! Rational voters\n No\n Yes\n Yes\n Yes \n Yes \n Yes \n Yes \n Yes \n Yes \n Yes \n Yes\n\n", "\n* Approval voting can allow voters to cast a compromise vote without abandoning their favorite candidate as long as voters accept the potential of that compromise vote resulting in the defeat of their favorite. Plurality voting can lead to voters abandoning their first choice in order to help a \"lesser of evils\" to win.\n* Approval ballots can be counted by existing machines designed for plurality elections, as ballots are cast, so that final tallies are immediately available after the election, without any upgrades to equipment. Approval counting can be completed at the local level and conveniently summed at the regional or national level.\n* If voters are sincere, approval voting would elect centrists at least as often as moderates of each extreme. If backers of relatively extreme candidates are insincere and \"bullet vote\" for that first choice, they can help that candidate defeat a compromise candidate who would have won if every voter had cast sincere preferences.\n* If voters are sincere, candidates trying to win an approval voting election might need as much as 100% approval to beat a strong competitor, and would have to find solutions that are fair to everyone to do so. However, a candidate may win a plurality race by promising many perks to a simple majority or even a plurality of voters at the expense of the smaller voting groups.\n* Approval voting fails the majority criterion, because a candidate who is preferred by a majority of voters is not always elected. In some cases approval voting will elect a candidate that has greater overall utility than a candidate preferred by a mere majority, if the majority also approves a compromise candidate that includes representation of the minority. In other cases, with elections having three or more candidates, approval voting will fail to elect the candidate with greater overall utility also preferred by a majority, if a less moderate candidate within the majority view gains enough approvals from the majority to win, while core supporters of the less moderate candidate are more selective (i.e. vote only for the extreme candidate), leaving a third sizable minority unrepresented.\n* Suppose a candidate is eliminated (say, for medical reasons) between a primary election and the party convention. With plurality voting, voters who supported the eliminated candidate lose their franchise. Approval voting affords representation to voters by counting their approvals among remaining candidates.\n* Approval voting without write-ins is easily reversed as disapproval voting where a choice is disavowed, as is already required in other measures in politics (e.g., representative recall).\n* Unlike plurality voting, approval voting allows voters to block a candidate by voting for several alternatives instead of just one, increasing the probability an alternative wins.\n* In contentious elections with large groups of organized voters who prefer their favorite candidate vastly over all others, approval voting may revert to plurality voting. Some voters support only their single favored candidate when they perceive the other candidates more as competitors to their preferred candidate than as compromise choices. Score voting and Majority Judgment allow these voters to give intermediate approval ratings, but at the cost of added ballot complexity and longer ballot counts.\n", "\nApproval voting can be extended to multiple winner elections. A simple way to do so is as ''block approval voting,'' a simple variant on block voting where each voter can select an unlimited number of candidates and the candidates with the most approval votes win. This does not provide proportional representation and is subject to the Burr dilemma, among other problems.\n\nOther ways of extending Approval voting to multiple winner elections have been devised. Among these are satisfaction approval voting and proportional approval voting for determining a proportional assembly, and minimax approval for determining a consensus assembly where the least satisfied voter is satisfied the most.\n", "\nApproval ballots can be of at least four semi-distinct forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot on which voters hand-write the names of the candidates they support. A more structured ballot lists all candidates, and voters mark each candidate they support. A more explicit structured ballot can list the candidates and provide two choices by each. (Candidate list ballots can include spaces for write-in candidates as well.)\n\n\n 160px\n 160px\n 160px\n 160px\n\n\nAll four ballots are theoretically equivalent. The more structured ballots may aid voters in offering clear votes so they explicitly know all their choices. The Yes/No format can help to detect an \"undervote\" when a candidate is left unmarked and allow the voter a second chance to confirm the ballot markings are correct. The \"single bubble\" format is incapable of producing invalid ballots (which might otherwise be rejected in counting).\n\nUnless the second or fourth format is used, fraudulently adding votes to an approval voting ballot does not invalidate the ballot (that is, it does not make it appear inconsistent). Thus, approval voting raises the importance of ensuring that the \"chain of custody\" of ballots is secure.\n", "\n* Borda count\n* Bucklin voting\n* Condorcet method\n* First Past the Post electoral system (also called Single-Member Plurality or Relative Majority)\n* Instant-runoff voting\n* Score Voting\n* Schulze method\n* Sequential proportional approval voting\n* Voting system - many other ways of voting\n", "\n\n", "\n* Approval Voting Article by The Center for Election Science\n* Could Approval Voting Prevent Electoral Disaster? Video by Big Think\n* Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences Article by Marc Vorsatz.\n* Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences Article by Marc Vorsatz.\n* The Arithmetic of Voting article by Guy Ottewell\n* Critical Strategies Under Approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver.\n* Going from Theory to Practice: The Mixed Success of Approval Voting Article by Steven J. Brams and Peter C. Fishburn.\n* Quick and Easy Voting for Normal People YouTube video\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " Usage ", " Effect on elections ", " Strategic voting ", " Compliance with voting system criteria ", " Other issues and comparisons ", " Multiple winners ", " Ballot types ", " See also ", " Notes ", " External links " ]	Approval voting
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arizona State University''' (commonly referred to as '''ASU''' or '''Arizona State''') is a public metropolitan research university on five campuses across the Phoenix metropolitan area, and four regional learning centers throughout Arizona. The 2018 university ratings by ''U.S. News & World Report'' rank ASU No. 1 among the Most Innovative Schools in America for the third year in a row and has ranked ASU No. 115 in National Universities with overall score of 47/100 with 83% of student applications accepted.\n\nASU is one of the largest public universities by enrollment in the U.S. It had approximately 72,000 students enrolled in fall 2016, including nearly 59,000 undergraduate and more than 13,000 graduate students. ASU's charter, approved by the board of regents in 2014, is based on the \"New American University\" model created by ASU President Crow. It defines ASU as \"a comprehensive public research university, measured not by whom it excludes, but rather by whom it includes and how they succeed; advancing research and discovery of public value; and assuming fundamental responsibility for the economic, social, cultural and overall health of the communities it serves.\"\n\nASU is classified as a research university with \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity\" designation by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Since 2005, ASU has been ranked among the top research universities in the U.S., public and private, based on research output, innovation, development, research expenditures, number of awarded patents and awarded research grant proposals. The Center for Measuring University Performance ranked ASU 24th among top U.S. public research universities in its 2015 report. ASU was classified as a Research I institute in 1994, making it one of the nation's newest major research universities (public or private).\n\nStudents currently compete in 24 varsity sports; Sun Devil Athletics fields teams in ten men's and 14 women's sports. Women's lacrosse has been added and will begin play in spring 2018, while men's tennis will return to ASU in 2017–18. The Arizona State Sun Devils are members of the Pac-12 Conference and have won 24 NCAA championships. Along with multiple athletic clubs and recreational facilities, ASU is home to more than 1,100 registered student organizations, reflecting the student body's diversity. To keep pace with the student population's growth, the university continuously renovates and expands infrastructure. The demand for new academic halls, athletic facilities, student recreation centers, and residential halls is being addressed with donor contributions and public-private investments.\n", "\nPresident Theodore Roosevelt addresses a crowd of students on the steps of the Old Main at Tempe Normal School (future Arizona State University), March 20, 1911.\n\n===1885–1929===\nOld Main on the Arizona Territorial Normal School (future Arizona State University) campus, circa 1890\n\nArizona State University was established as the '''Territorial Normal School''' at Tempe on March 12, 1885, when the 13th Arizona Territorial Legislature passed an act to create a normal school to train teachers for the Arizona Territory. The campus consisted of a single, four-room schoolhouse on a 20-acre plot largely donated by Tempe residents George and Martha Wilson. Classes began with 33 students on February 8, 1886. The curriculum evolved over the years and the name was changed several times; the institution was also known as '''Tempe Normal School of Arizona''' (1889–1903), '''Tempe Normal School ''' (1903–1925), '''Tempe State Teachers College''' (1925–1929), '''Arizona State Teachers College''' (1929–1945), '''Arizona State College''' (1945–1958) and, by a state vote, '''Arizona State University''' in 1958. The school accepted high school students and graduates, and awarded high school diplomas and teaching certificates to those who completed the requirements.\n\nIn 1923 the school stopped offering high school courses and added a high school diploma to the admissions requirements. In 1925 the school became the '''Tempe State Teachers College''' and offered four-year Bachelor of Education degrees as well as two-year teaching certificates. In 1929, the legislature authorized Bachelor of Arts in Education degrees as well, and the school was renamed the '''Arizona State Teachers College'''. Under the 30-year tenure of president Arthur John Matthews (1900–1930), the school was given all-college student status. The first dormitories built in the state were constructed under his supervision, the first being in 1902. Of the 18 buildings constructed while Matthews was president, six are still in use. Matthews envisioned an \"evergreen campus,\" with many shrubs brought to the campus, and implemented the planting of Palm Walk, now a landmark of the Tempe campus. His legacy is being continued to this day with the main campus having been declared a nationally recognized arboretum.\n\nDuring the Great Depression, Ralph W. Swetman was hired to succeed President Matthews, coming to the college from Humboldt State Teachers College where he had served as president. Swetman a three-year term, during which time he focused on the development of improved teacher-training programs. During his tenure, enrollment at the college doubled, topping the 1,000 mark for the first time.\n\n===1930–1989===\nASU's Gammage Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright\n\nIn 1933, Grady Gammage, then-president of Arizona State Teachers College at Flagstaff, became president of then–Arizona State Teachers College at Tempe, beginning a tenure that would last for nearly 28 years. Like President Matthews before him, Gammage oversaw construction of a number of buildings on the Tempe campus. He also guided the development of the university's graduate programs. The school's name was changed to '''Arizona State College''' in 1945, and finally to '''Arizona State University''' in 1958. At the time, two other names considered were '''Tempe University''' and '''State University at Tempe'''. Among Gammage's greatest achievements in Tempe was the Frank Lloyd Wright-designed construction of what is today Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium/ASU Gammage, the university's hallmark building, which was completed in 1964, five years after the president's death. Gammage was succeeded by Harold D. Richardson, who served as acting president for nine months before the appointment of the university's 11th president, G. Homer Durham.\n\nBy the 1960s, with the presidency of Durham, the university began to expand its academic curriculum by establishing several new colleges and beginning to award Doctor of Philosophy and other doctoral degrees. By the end of his nine-year tenure, ASU had more than doubled enrollment, reporting 23,000 in 1969.\n\nThe next three presidents — Harry K. Newburn (1969–71), John W. Schwada (1971–81) and J. Russell Nelson (1981–89), including and Interim President Richard Peck (1989), led the university to increased academic stature, the establishment of the ASU West campus in 1984 and its subsequent construction in 1986, a focus on computer-assisted learning and research, and rising enrollment.\n\nExample of a new academic village, taken at Barrett, The Honors College on the Tempe Campus\n\n===1990–present===\nUnder the leadership of Lattie F. Coor, president from 1990 to 2002, ASU grew through the creation of the Polytechnic campus and extended education sites. Increased commitment to diversity, quality in undergraduate education, research, and economic development occurred over his 12-year tenure. Part of Coor's legacy to the university was a successful fundraising campaign: through private donations, more than $500 million was invested in areas that would significantly impact the future of ASU. Among the campaign's achievements were the naming and endowing of Barrett, The Honors College, and the Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts; the creation of many new endowed faculty positions; and hundreds of new scholarships and fellowships.\nASU's Biodesign Institute on Tempe campus\n\nIn 2002, Michael M. Crow became the university's 16th president. At his inauguration, he outlined his vision for transforming ASU into a \"New American University\"—one that would be open and inclusive, and set a goal for the university to meet Association of American Universities criteria and to become a member. Crow initiated the idea of transforming ASU into \"One university in many places\"—a single institution comprising several campuses, sharing students, faculty, staff and accreditation. Subsequent reorganizations combined academic departments, consolidated colleges and schools, and reduced staff and administration as the university expanded its West and Polytechnic campuses. ASU's Downtown Phoenix campus was also expanded, with several colleges and schools relocating there. The university established learning centers throughout the state, including the ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City and programs in Thatcher, Yuma, and Tucson. Students at these centers can choose from several ASU degree and certificate programs.\n\nDuring Crow’s tenure, and aided by hundreds of millions of dollars in donations, ASU began a years-long research facility capital building effort, resulting in the establishment of the Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability, and several large interdisciplinary research buildings. Along with the research facilities, the university faculty was expanded, including the addition of four Nobel Laureates. Since 2002 the university's research expenditures have tripled and more than 1.5 million square feet of space has been added to the university's research facilities.\n\nThe economic downturn that began in 2008 took a particularly hard toll on Arizona, resulting in large cuts to ASU's budget. In response to these cuts, ASU capped enrollment, closed down about four dozen academic programs, combined academic departments, consolidated colleges and schools, and reduced university faculty, staff and administrators; however, with an economic recovery underway in 2011, the university continued its campaign to expand the West and Polytechnic Campuses, and establish a low-cost, teaching-focused extension campus in Lake Havasu City.\n\nIn 2015, the existing Thunderbird School of Global Management became the fifth ASU campus, as the Thunderbird School of Global Management at ASU. Partnerships for education and research with Mayo Clinic established collaborative degree programs in health care and law, and shared administrator positions, laboratories and classes at the Mayo Clinic Arizona campus.\n\nThe Beus Center for Law and Society, the new home of ASU’s Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law, opened in fall 2016 on the Downtown Phoenix campus, relocating faculty and students from the Tempe campus to the state capital.\n", "\n\n '''ASU college/school founding'''\n\n\n\n '''College/School''' \n '''Year founded'''\n\n Barrett, The Honors College \n 1988 \n\n School for the Future of Innovation in Society \n 2015 \n\n College of Health Solutions \n 2012 \n\n Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts \n 1964 \n\n Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering \n 1954 \n\n College of Letters and Sciences \n 2015 \n\n College of Liberal Arts and Sciences \n 1954 \n\n Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College \n 1954 \n\n New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences \n 1984 \n\n College of Nursing and Health Innovation \n 1957 \n\n College of Public Service and Community Solutions \n 1979 \n\n Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law \n 1964 \n\n School of Sustainability \n 2006 \n\n Thunderbird School of Global Management at ASU \n 1946 \n\n University College \n 2011 \n\n W. P. Carey School of Business \n 1961 \n\n Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication \n 1941 \n\n\n\n\nThe Arizona Board of Regents governs Arizona State University as well as the state's other public universities; University of Arizona and Northern Arizona University. The Board of Regents is composed of twelve members including eleven voting, and one non-voting member. Members of the board include the Governor and the Superintendent of Public Instruction acting as ex-officio members, eight volunteer Regent members with eight year terms that are appointed by the Governor, and two Student Regents with two years term, serving a one-year term as non-voting apprentices. ABOR provides policy guidance to the state universities of Arizona. ASU has five campuses in metropolitan Phoenix, Arizona including the Tempe campus in Tempe; the West campus and the Thunderbird School of Global Management in Glendale; the Downtown Phoenix campus; and the Polytechnic campus in Mesa. ASU also offers courses and degrees through ASU Online and at the ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City in western Arizona, and offers regional learning programs in Thatcher, Yuma and Tucson.\n\nThe Arizona Board of Regents appoints and elects the president of the university, who is considered the institution's chief executive officer and the chief budget officer. The president executes measures enacted by the Board of Regents, controls the university's property, and acts as the university's official representative to the Board of Regents. The chief executive officer is assisted through the administration of the institution by the provost, vice presidents, deans, faculty, directors, department chairs, and other officers. The president also selects and appoints administrative officers and general counsels. The 16th ASU president is Michael M. Crow, who has served since July 1, 2002.\n", "ASU's academic programs are spread across campuses in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area; however, unlike most multi-campus institutions, ASU describes itself as \"one university in many places,\" inferring there is \"not a system with separate campuses, and not one main campus with branch campuses.\" The university considers each campus \"distinctive\" and academically focused on certain aspects of the overall university mission. The Tempe campus is the university's research and graduate school center. Undergraduate studies on the Tempe campus are research-based programs designed to prepare students for graduate school, professional school, or employment. The Polytechnic campus is designed with an emphasis on professional and technological programs for direct workforce preparation. The Polytechnic campus is the location of many of the university's simulators and laboratories dedicated for project-based learning. The West campus is focused on interdisciplinary degrees and the liberal arts, while maintaining professional programs with a direct impact on the community and society. The Downtown campus focuses on direct urban and public programs such as nursing, public policy, criminal justice, mass communication, and journalism. ASU recently relocated some nursing and health related programs to its new ASU-Mayo Medical School campus. Inter-campus shuttles and light rail allow students and faculty to easily travel between the campuses. In addition to the physical campuses, ASU's \"virtual campus\", housed at the university's SkySong Innovation Center, provides online and extended education.\n\nOn the Quad of the Tempe Campus with Old Main\n\n===Tempe campus===\nOverlooking the Tempe campus from atop Hayden Butte\nArizona State University Bridge\n\n\nASU's Tempe campus is in downtown Tempe, Arizona, about east of downtown Phoenix. The campus is considered urban, and is approximately in size. The campus is arranged around broad pedestrian malls and is completely encompassed by an arboretum. The Tempe campus is also the largest of ASU's campuses, with 76,844 students enrolled in at least one class on campus in fall 2016. The campus is considered to range from the streets Rural Road to Mill Avenue and Apache Boulevard to Rio Salado Parkway.\n\nThe Tempe campus is ASU's original campus, and Old Main, the first building constructed, still stands today. Old Main was known as the Normal School when it was first constructed, and was originally a teachers college. There are many notable landmarks on campus, including Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, Palm Walk, which is lined by 111 palm trees, Charles Trumbull Hayden Library, the University Club building, Margaret Gisolo Dance Theatre, and University Bridge. In addition, the campus has an extensive public art collection, considered one of the ten best among university public art collections in America according to ''Public Art Review''. Against the northwest edge of campus is the Mill Avenue district (part of downtown Tempe) which has a college atmosphere that attracts many students to its restaurants and bars. Students also have Tempe Marketplace, which is a shopping, dining, and entertainment center with an outdoor setting and is about 1.8 miles away from campus. The Tempe campus is also home to all of the university's athletic facilities.\n\nFletcher Library, West Campus\n\n===West campus===\n\nThe West campus was established in 1984 by the Arizona Legislature and sits on in a suburban area of northwest Phoenix. The West campus lies about northwest of downtown Phoenix, and about northwest of the Tempe campus. The West campus is designated as a Phoenix Point of Pride, and is nearly completely powered by a 4.7MW solar array. This campus serves 19,382 students and offers more than 70 degree programs from the New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, W. P. Carey School of Business, College of Public Service and Community Solutions, College of Health Solutions, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, and Thunderbird School of Global Management. The campus, patterned after the University of Oxford’s architecture, opened a new residence hall and dining facility in 2012 and recreation center in 2013.\n\n===Polytechnic campus===\nPicacho Hall (left) and Peralta Hall (right) at the Polytechnic campus\n\n\nFounded in 1996 as \"ASU East,\" the ASU Polytechnic campus serves 16,227 students and is home to more than 130 bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees in professional and technical programs through the W. P. Carey School of Business/Morrison School of Management and Agribusiness, Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering, and College of Integrative Sciences and Arts, and focuses on professional and technological programs including simulators and lab space in various fields of study. The campus is in southeast Mesa, Arizona, approximately southeast of the Tempe campus, and southeast of downtown Phoenix. The Polytechnic campus sits on the former Williams Air Force Base.\n\nWalter Cronkite School of Journalism, Downtown Phoenix Campus\n\n===Downtown Phoenix campus===\n\nThe Downtown Phoenix campus was established in 2006 on the north side of Downtown Phoenix. The campus has an urban design, with several large modern academic buildings intermingled with commercial and retail office buildings. In addition to the new buildings, the campus included the adaptive reuse of several existing structures, including a 1930s era Post Office that is on the National Register of Historic Places. Serving 28,746 students, the campus houses the College of Health Solutions, College of Integrative Arts and Sciences, College of Nursing and Health Innovation, College of Public Service and Community Solutions, Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, and Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication. In the summer of 2013, the campus added the Sun Devil Fitness Center in conjunction with the original YMCA building. ASU's Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law relocated from Tempe to the Downtown Phoenix campus in 2016.\n\nThe Palm Walk is frequented by ASU students.\n\n===ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City===\n\nIn response to demands for lower-cost public higher education in Arizona, ASU developed the small, undergraduate-only college in Lake Havasu City. ASU Colleges are teaching-focused and provide a selection of popular undergraduate majors. The Lake Havasu City campus offers high-demand undergraduate degrees with lower tuition rates than other Arizona research universities and a 15-to-1 student-to-faculty ratio.\n\nMusic Building on the Tempe Campus\n\n===ASU Online===\nASU Online offers more than 100 undergraduate and graduate degree programs through an entirely online platform. The degree programs delivered online hold the same accreditation as the university's traditional face-to-face programs. ASU Online is headquartered at ASU's SkySong campus in Scottsdale, Arizona. ASU Online was ranked in the Top 4 for Best Online Bachelor's Programs by U.S. News & World Report.\n\nOnline students are taught by the same faculty and receive the same diploma as on-campus students. ASU online programs are designed to allow students to learn in highly interactive environments through student collaboration and through technological personalized learning environments.\n\nIn April 2015, ASU Online announced a partnership with edX to form a one of a kind program called the Global Freshman Academy. The program is open to all potential students. The students do not need to send in a high school transcript or GPA to apply for the courses. Students only pay for the courses ($600 per credit) after they have passed the course if they want to earn the credits.\n\nAs of spring 2017, more than 25,000 students were enrolled through ASU Online. In June 2014, ASU Online and Starbucks announced a partnership called the Starbucks College Achievement Plan. The Starbucks College Achievement Plan offers all benefits-eligible employees full-tuition coverage when they enroll in any one of ASU Online's more than 60 undergraduate degree programs.\n\n===Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, in collaboration with ASU===\nIn 2016, Mayo Clinic and ASU formed a new platform for health care education and research: the Mayo Clinic and Arizona State University Alliance for Health Care. Through this alliance, Mayo Clinic and ASU have created a blended curriculum in the Science of Health Care Delivery. Beginning in 2017, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine students in Phoenix and Scottsdale are among the first to earn a certificate in the Science of Health Care Delivery, with the option to earn a master's degree in the Science of Health Care Delivery through ASU. This program joins five additional dual degree programs and previous initiatives between Mayo Clinic and ASU, including undergraduate programs through ASU's Barrett, The Honors College and a nationally recognized partnership between Mayo Clinic and ASU's College of Nursing and Health Innovation.\n\n===Thunderbird Campus===\n\nThunderbird School of Global Management is one of the newest units of \"Arizona State University Knowledge Enterprise.\" The flagship campus is in Glendale, Arizona, at Thunderbird Field No. 1, a former military airfield from which it derives its name.\n", "\n===Admissions===\n\n+''Fall Freshman Statistics''\n\n\n !! Fall 2016 !! Fall 2015 !! Fall 2014 !! Fall 2013\n\n Applicants\n 33,466 \n 33,575 \n 30,840 \n 28,980 \n\n Admits\n 27,111 \n 27,452 \n 25,496 \n 22,910 \n\n % Admitted\n 81.0 \n 81.8 \n 82.7 \n 79.1 \n\n Enrolled\n 10,415 \n 10,391 \n 9,678 \n 8,931 \n\n Avg. HS GPA\n 3.49 \n 3.48 \n 3.46 \n 3.46\n\n\n\nSchool of Human Evolution and Social Change, Tempe Campus\n\nAdmission to any of the public universities in Arizona is ensured to residents in the top 25% of their high school class with a GPA of 3.0 in core competencies. For fall 2016, ASU admitted 81.0% of all freshman applicants, and is considered a \"more selective\" university by ''U.S. News & World Report''. Average GPA of enrolling freshman was 3.49; the average SAT score was 1136 for critical reading and math combined; and the average ACT composite score was 25.0. All freshmen are required to live on campus.\n\nBarrett, The Honors College is ranked among the top honors programs in the nation. Although there are no set minimum admissions criteria for Barrett College, the average GPA of Fall 2016 incoming freshmen was 3.79, with average SAT scores of 1284/1600 and ACT scores of 28.8. The Honors college enrolls 6,894 undergraduate students, with 395 National Merit Scholars.\n\nASU enrolls 10,249 international students, 14.2% of the total student population. The international student body represents more than 150 nations and more than 60 student clubs and organizations exist at ASU to serve the growing number of students from abroad. The growth in the number of international students in 2016 at ASU is a 17% increase over the 2014 figure. The Institute of International Education ranked ASU as the top public university in the U.S. for hosting international students in 2015–2016.\n\n===Academic programs===\n\nASU offers over 250 majors to undergraduate students, and more than 100 graduate programs leading to numerous masters and doctoral degrees in the liberal arts and sciences, design and arts, engineering, journalism, education, business, law, nursing, public policy, technology, and sustainability. These programs are divided into 16 colleges and schools which are spread across ASU's six campuses. ASU also offers the 4+1 accelerated program, which allows students in their senior year to attain their master's degree the following year. However the 4+1 accelerated program is not associated with all majors, for example in the Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College the 4+1 accelerated program only works with Education Exploratory majors. ASU uses a plus-minus grading system with highest cumulative GPA awarded of 4.0 (at time of graduation). Arizona State University is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools.\n\n\n+''Undergraduate and Graduate Enrollment''\n\n\n !! Fall 2016 !! Fall 2015 !! Fall 2014 !! Fall 2013\n\n Undergraduate\n 55,848 \n 57,919 \n 56,156 \n 53,855 \n\n Graduate\n 13,098 \n 13,130 \n 13,166 \n 12,605 \n\n Total\n 71,946 \n 71,049 \n 69,322 \n 66,460\n\n\n\n===Rankings===\n\nThe 2017 ''U.S. News & World Report'' ratings of nearly 1,800 U.S. colleges and universities ranked ASU 61st among public universities, 115th of national universities, and 121st in the world's top 1,000 global universities. ASU was also ranked No. 1 among America’s 31 \"Most Innovative Universities.\" The innovation ranking, new for 2016, was determined by a poll of top college officials nationwide asking them to name institutions \"that are making the most innovative improvements in terms of curriculum, faculty, students, campus life, technology or facilities.\"\n\nASU is ranked 51st–61st in the U.S. and 101st–150th in the world among the top 500 universities in the 2016 Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU), and 56th U.S./102nd world by the 2016 Center for World University Rankings. ''Money Magazine'' ranked ASU 162nd of 711 U.S. schools it evaluated for its 2017 Best Colleges ranking. ''The Daily Beast'' ranked ASU 172nd of nearly 2,000 U.S. schools in its 2014 Best Colleges ranking. ''The Wall Street Journal'' ranks ASU 5th in the nation for producing the best-qualified graduates, determined by a nationwide poll of corporate recruiters, and ''Forbes'' magazine named ASU one of America's best college buys.\n\nIn 2012, Public University Honors wrote, \"ASU students ranked fifth among all public universities in National Science Foundation grants for graduate study and 11th among all universities, including the schools of the Ivy League. Among other things, the high achievement in this area of excellence points to consistently strong advising and support, a logical outcome of Barrett (Arizona State University's honor college) investing more in honors staff than any other honors program we reviewed.\"\n\nSeveral ASU colleges and schools appear near the top of the 2016 ''U.S. News & World Report'' rankings, including the 27th-ranked W. P. Carey School of Business (along with its 5th-ranked program in Supply Chain Management), the 20th-ranked Herberger Institute for Design and the Arts (along with its 7th-ranked program in Ceramics, 9th-ranked program in Photography and 5th-ranked program in Printmaking), the 25th-ranked Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law (along with its 6th-ranked program in Legal Writing and 10th-ranked program in Dispute Resolution), the 42nd-ranked Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering, the 13th-ranked School of Public Affairs (along with its 4th-ranked program in City Management and Urban Policy, 7th-ranked program in Environmental Policy and Management, 11th-ranked program in Public Finance and Budgeting and 11th-ranked program in Public Management and Administration), the 11th-ranked Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College and the 31st-ranked College of Nursing and Health Innovation. Individual Ph.D. program rankings included Audiology (9th), Clinical Psychology (41st), Computer Science (48th), Earth Science (20th), Economics (42nd), Nursing Practice (19th), Physics (50th), Psychology (39th), Social Work (32nd), and Speech-Language Pathology (17th). In 2011, ASU was included in the Quacquarelli Symonds list as the 21st best school in the world for biological sciences.\n\nASU's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication has been named one of America's top 10 journalism schools by national publications and organizations for more than a decade. The most recent rankings (2012) include: NewsPro (6th), Quality Education and Jobs (6th), and International Student (1st).\n\nFor its efforts as a national leader in campus sustainability, ASU was named one of the top 6 \"Cool Schools\" by the Sierra Club in 2016, was named to the Princeton Review 2011 \"Green Honor Roll,\" and earned an \"A-\" grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Green Report Card.\n\nASU's online bachelor's degree programs have been ranked 4th in the nation by U.S. News & World Report, with its graduate business programs ranked 3rd, online MBA ranked 5th, online graduate criminal justice ranked 5th and graduate engineering ranked 13th. ASU was also ranked the #1 college offering an online bachelor's degree in communications and #5 in the top 100 Best Online Colleges by Online College Plan.\n\n===Research and Institutes===\nASU consistently ranks among the top 20 universities—without a traditional medical school—for research expenditures. It shares this designation with schools such as: Caltech, Georgia Tech, MIT, Purdue, Rockefeller, UC Berkeley, and the University of Texas at Austin. ASU is classified as \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Highest Research Activity\" by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. The university has quadrupled research expenditures since 2002 and received $518.2 million in fiscal year 2016. The university's endowment was $613 million as of June 2016. ASU is a NASA designated national space-grant institute and a member of the Universities Research Association.\n\nASU is one of the nation's most successful universities in terms of creating start-up companies through research. The university has raised more than $600 million in external funding, and 100 companies have been launched based on ASU innovations. ASU ranks #2 in the nation for proprietary start-ups \"created for every $10 million in research expenditures.\" In fiscal year 2015, ASU researchers were issued 62 patents, a significant increase over 2014 when 48 patents were granted. During fiscal year 2015, ASU faculty launched 12 new startup companies and submitted 270 invention disclosures to AzTE. Since its inception, AzTE has fostered the launch of more than 96 companies based on ASU innovations, and attracted more than $600 million in venture funding, including $96 million in fiscal year 2016 alone. According to the Sweden-based University Business Incubator (UBI) Index for 2013, ASU is one of the top universities in the world for business incubation, ranking 17th out of the top 25. ASU is one of only 15 universities and institutes from the United States to make the list, and the only university representing Arizona. UBI reviewed 550 universities and associated business incubators from around the world using an assessment framework that takes more than 50 performance indicators into consideration. As an example, one of ASU's spin-offs (Heliae Development, LLC) raised more than $28 million in venture capital in 2013 alone. In June 2016, ASU received the Entrepreneurial University Award from the Deshpande Foundation, a philanthropic organization that supports social entrepreneurship and innovation.\n\nThe university's push to create various institutes has led to greater funding and an increase in the number of researchers in multiple fields. ASU Knowledge Enterprise Development (KED) advances research, innovation, strategic partnerships, entrepreneurship, economic development and international development. KED is led by Sethuraman Panchanathan. KED supports several interdisciplinary research institutes and initiatives: Institute for Humanities Research, NewSpace Initiative, Biodesign Institute, Institute for the Science of Teaching and Learning, Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability, Institute for Social Science Research, LightWorks, McCain Institute for International Leadership, Decision Theater Network, Flexible Electronics and Display Center, Complex Adaptive Systems @ ASU, Global Security Initiative. Other notable and famed institutes at ASU are: The Institute of Human Origins, L. William Seidman Research Institute (W. P. Carey School of Business), Learning Sciences Institute, Herberger Research Institute, and the Hispanic Research Center. Much of the research conducted at ASU is considered cutting edge with its focus on interdisciplinarity. The Biodesign Institute for instance, conducts research on issues such as biomedical and healthcare outcomes as part of a collaboration with Mayo Clinic to diagnose and treat rare diseases, including cancer. Biodesign Institute researchers have also developed various techniques for reading and detecting biosignatures which expanded in 2006 with an $18 million grant from the National Human Genome Research Institute of the National Institutes of Health. The institute also is heavily involved in sustainability research, primarily through reuse of CO2 via biological feedback and various biomasses (e.g. algae) to synthesize clean biofuels. Heliae is a Biodesign Institute spin-off and much of its business centers on algal-derived, high value products. Furthermore, the institute is heavily involved in security research including technology that can detect biological and chemical changes in the air and water. The university has received more than $30 million in funding from the Department of Defense for adapting this technology for use in detecting the presence of biological and chemical weapons. Research conducted at the Biodesign Institute by ASU professor Charles Arntzen made possible the production of Ebola antibodies in specially modified tobacco plants that researchers at Mapp Biopharmaceutical used to create the Ebola therapeutic ZMapp. The treatment is credited with saving the lives of two aid workers. For his work, Arntzen was named the No. 1 honoree among Fast Company's annual \"100 Most Creative People in Business\" 2015 awards.\n\nWorld-renowned scholars have been integral to the successes of the various institutes associated with the university. ASU students and researchers have been selected as Marshall, Truman, Rhodes, and Fulbright Scholars with the university ranking 1st overall in the U.S. for Fulbright Scholar awards to faculty and 5th overall for recipients of Fulbright U.S. Student awards in the 2015–2016 academic year. ASU faculty includes Nobel Laureates, Royal Society members, National Academy members, and members of the National Institutes of Health, to name a few. ASU Professor Donald Johanson, who discovered the 3.18 million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia, established the Institute of Human Origins (IHO) in 1981. The institute was first established in Berkeley, California and later moved to ASU in 1997. As one of the leading research organization in the United States devoted to the science of human origins, IHO pursues a transdisciplinary strategy for field and analytical paleoanthropological research. The Herberger Institute Research Center supports the scholarly inquiry, applied research and creative activity of more than 400 faculty and nearly 5,000 students. The renowned ASU Art Museum, Herberger Institute Community Programs, urban design, and other outreach and initiatives in the arts community round out the research and creative activities of the Herberger Institute. Among well known professors within the Herberger Institute is Johnny Saldaña of the School of Theatre and Film. Saldaña received the 1996 Distinguished Book Award and the prestigious Judith Kase Cooper Honorary Research Award, both from the American Alliance for Theatre Education (AATE). The Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability is the center of ASU's initiatives focusing on practical solutions to environmental, economic, and social challenges. The institute has partnered with various cities, universities, and organizations from around the world to address issues affecting the global community.\n\nASU is also involved with NASA in the field of space exploration. To meet the needs of NASA programs, ASU built the LEED Gold Certified, 298,000-square-foot Interdisciplinary Science and Technology Building IV (ISTB 4) at a cost of $110 million in 2012. The building includes space for the School of Earth and Space Exploration (SESE) and includes labs and other facilities for the Ira A. Fulton Schools of Engineering. One of the main projects at ISTB 4 includes the OSIRIS-REx Thermal Emission Spectrometer (OTES). Although ASU built the spectrometers aboard the Martian rovers Spirit and Opportunity, OTES will be the first major scientific instrument completely designed and built at ASU for a NASA space mission. Phil Christensen, the principal investigator for the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES), is a Regents' Professor at ASU. He also serves as the principal investigator for the Mars Odyssey THEMIS instruments, as well as co-investigator for the Mars Exploration Rovers. ASU scientists are responsible for the Mini-TES instruments aboard the Mars Exploration Rovers. The Center for Meteorite Studies, which is home to rare Martian meteorites and exotic fragments from space, and the Mars Space Flight Facility are on ASU's Tempe campus.\n\nThe Army Research Laboratory extended funding for the Arizona State University Flexible Display Center (FDC) in 2009 with a $50 million grant. The university has partnered with the Pentagon on such endeavors since 2004 with an initial $43.7 million grant. In 2012, researchers at the center created the world’s largest flexible full-color organic light-emitting diode (OLED), which at the time was 7.4 inches. The following year, the FEDC staff broke their own world record, producing a 14.7-inch version of the display. The technology delivers high-performance while remaining cost-effective during the manufacturing process. Vibrant colors, high switching speeds for video and reduced power consumption are some of the features the center has been able to successfully integrate into the technology. In 2012, ASU successfully eliminated the need for specialized equipment and processing, thereby reducing costs compared to competitive approaches.\n\n===Libraries===\nThe subterranean entrance to Hayden Library, Tempe campus\n\nASU's faculty and students are served by nine libraries across five campuses: Hayden Library, Noble Library, Music Library and Design and the Arts Library on the Tempe campus; Fletcher Library on the West campus; Downtown Phoenix campus library and Ross-Blakley Law Library at the Downtown Phoenix campus; Polytechnic campus library; and the Thunderbird Library at the Thunderbird campus.\n\nAs of 2013, ASU's libraries held 4.5 million volumes. The Arizona State University library system is ranked the 34th largest research library in the United States and Canada, according to criteria established by the Association of Research Libraries that measures various aspects of quality and size of the collection. The University continues to grow its rare special collections, such as the recent addition of a privately held collection of manuscripts by poet Rubén Darío.\n\nHayden Library is on Cady Mall in the center of the Tempe campus. It opened in 1966 and is the largest library facility at ASU. An expansion in 1989 created the subterranean entrance underneath Hayden Lawn and is attached to the above-ground portion of the original library. There are two floors underneath Hayden Lawn with a landmark known as the ''\"Beacon of Knowledge\"'' rising from the center. The underground library lights the beacon at night.\n\nThe 2013 Capital Improvement Plan, approved by the Arizona Board of Regents, incorporates a $35 million repurposing and renovation project for Hayden Library. The open air moat area that serves as an outdoor study space will be enclosed to increase indoor space for the library. Along with increasing space and renovating the facility, the front entrance of Hayden Library will be rebuilt.\n", "Solar panel array on the roof deck of ASU's parking structure on Apache Blvd. in Tempe, AZ.\nAs of March 2014, ASU was the top institution of higher education in the United States for solar generating capacity. Today, the university generates over 24 megawatts (MW) of electricity from on-campus solar arrays. This is an increase over the June 2012 total of 15.3 MW. ASU has 88 solar photovoltaic (PV) installations containing 81,424 solar panels across four campuses and the ASU Research Park. An additional 29 MWdc solar installation was dedicated at Red Rock, Arizona in January 2017, bringing the university's solar generating capacity to 50 MWdc.\n\nAdditionally, six wind turbines installed on the roof of the Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability building on the Tempe campus have operated since October 2008. Under normal conditions, the six turbines produce enough electricity to power approximately 36 computers.\n\nASU's School of Sustainability was the first school in the United States to introduce degrees in the field of sustainability. ASU's School of Sustainability is part of the Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability. The School was established in spring 2007 and began enrolling undergraduates in fall 2008. The school offers majors, minors, and a number of certificates in sustainability. ASU is also home to the Sustainability Consortium which was founded by Jay Golden in 2009.\n\nThe School of Sustainability has been essential in establishing the university as \"a leader in the academics of sustainable business.\" The university is widely considered to be one of the most ambitious and principled organizations for embedding sustainable practices into its operating model. The university has embraced several challenging sustainability benchmarks. Among the numerous benchmarks outlined in the university's prospectus, is the creation of a large recycling and composting operation that by 2015, will eliminate 90% of the solid waste generated by all on-campus activities. This endeavor will be aided by educating students about the benefits of avoiding overconsumption that contributes to excessive waste. Sustainability courses have been expanded to attain this goal and many of the university's individual colleges and schools have integrated such material into their lectures and courses. Second, ASU is on track to reduce its rate of water consumption by 50%. The university's most aggressive benchmark is to be the first, large research university to achieve carbon neutrality as it pertains to its Scope 1, 2 and non-transportation Scope 3 greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.\n", "\n===Maroon and gold===\nSparky the Sun Devil gesturing the pitchfork at a basketball game, 2016\nGold is the oldest color associated with Arizona State University and dates back to 1896 when the school was named the Tempe Normal School. Maroon and white were later added to the color scheme in 1898. Gold signifies the \"golden promise\" of ASU. The promise includes every student receiving a valuable educational experience. Gold also signifies the sunshine Arizona is famous for; including the power of the sun and its influence on the climate and the economy. The first uniforms worn by athletes associated with the university were black and white when the \"Normals\" were the name of the athletic teams. The student section, known as The Inferno, wears gold on game days. Maroon signifies sacrifice and bravery while white represents the balance of negativity and positivity. As it is in the city of Tempe, Arizona, the school's colors adorn the neighboring buildings during big game days and festive events.\n\n===Mascot and Spirit Squad===\n\nSparky the Sun Devil is the mascot of Arizona State University and was named by vote of the student body on November 8, 1946. Sparky often travels with the team across the country and has been at every football bowl game in which the university has participated. The university's mascot is not to be confused with the athletics department's logo, the ''Pitchfork'' or hand gesture used by those associated with the university. The new logo is used on various sport facilities, uniforms and athletics documents. Arizona State Teacher’s College had a different mascot and the sports teams were known as the Owls and later, the Bulldogs. When the school was first established, the Tempe Normal School’s teams were simply known as the Normals. Sparky is visible on the sidelines of every home game played in Sun Devil Stadium or other ASU athletic facilities. His routine at football games includes pushups after every touchdown scored by the Sun Devils. He is aided by Sparky's Crew, male yell leaders that must meet physical requirements to participate as members. The female members are known as the Spirit Squad and are categorized into a dance line and spirit line. They are the official squad that represents ASU. The spirit squad competes every year at the ESPN Universal Dance Association (UDA) College Nationals in the Jazz and Hip-Hop categories. They were chosen by the UDA to represent the USA at the World Dance Championship 2013 in the Jazz category. Currently, ASU's varsity intercollegiate cheerleading team is not allowed to participate at athletic events (e.g. football and basketball games) due to dismissal regarding prior misconduct. ASU Cheerleading has since become a club sport, through the Student Recreation Center, competing locally and nationally as a Collegiate Co-Ed Division IA-Level VI team. They have reestablished their commitment to excellence, winning various championships. The team has a strict code of conduct and is seeking reinstatement from the university to participate at athletic events.\n\"A\" Mountain, Arizona State University\nHayden Butte, also known as \"A Mountain\"\nRinging of the Victory Bell, Arizona State University circa 1956\n\n===\"A\" Mountain===\n\nA letter has existed on the slope of the mountain since 1918. A \"T\" followed by an \"N\" were the first letters to grace the landmark. Tempe Butte, home to \"A\" Mountain, has had the \"A\" installed on the slope of its south face since 1938 and is visible from campus just to the south. The original \"A\" was destroyed by vandals in 1952 with pipe bombs and a new \"A\", constructed of reinforced concrete, was built in 1955. The vandals were never identified but many speculate the conspirators were students from the rival in-state university (University of Arizona). Many ancient Hohokam petroglyphs were destroyed by the bomb; nevertheless, many of these archeological sites around the mountain remain. There are many traditions surrounding \"A\" Mountain, including a revived \"guarding of the 'A'\" in which students camp on the mountainside before games with rival schools. \"Whitewashing\" of the \"A\" is a tradition in which incoming freshmen paint the letter white during orientation week and is repainted gold before the first football game of the season. Whitewashing dates back to the 1930s and it grows in popularity every year, with thousands of students going up to paint the \"A\" every year.\nSun Devil Marching Band Battery, performing the pregame drum cadence in 2007\nOld newspaper clipping describing the Lantern Walk tradition at ASU, May 30, 1929\n\n===Lantern Walk and Homecoming===\nThe Lantern Walk is one of the oldest traditions at ASU and dates back to 1917. It is considered one of ASU’s \"most cherished\" traditions and is an occasion used to mark the work of those associated with ASU throughout history. Anyone associated with ASU is free to participate in the event, including students, alumni, faculty, employees, and friends. This differs slightly from the original tradition in which the seniors would carry lanterns up \"A\" Mountain followed by the freshman. The senior class president would describe ASU's traditions and the freshman would repeat an oath of allegiance to the university. It was described as a tradition of \"good will between the classes\" and a way of ensuring new students would continue the university's traditions with honor. In modern times, the participants walk through campus and follow a path up to \"A\" Mountain to \"light up\" Tempe. Keynote speakers, performances, and other events are used to mark the occasion. The night is culminated with a fireworks display. The Lantern Walk was held after the Spring Semester (June) but is now held the week before Homecoming, a tradition that dates back to 1924 at ASU. It is held in the fall and in conjunction with a football game.\n\n===Victory Bell===\nArizona State University reintroduced the tradition of ringing a bell after each win for the football team in 2012. The ROTC cadets associated with the university are responsible for the transportation of the bell to various events and for ringing the bell after games are won by the Sun Devils. The first Victory Bell, in various forms, was used in the 1930s but the tradition faded in the 1970s when the bell in use was removed from Memorial Union for renovations. The bell cracked and was no longer capable of ringing. That bell is on the southeast corner of Sun Devil Stadium, near the entrance to the student section. That bell, given to the university in the late 1960s, is painted gold and is a campus landmark.\n\n===Sun Devil Marching Band, Devil Walk and Songs of the University===\n\nThe Arizona State University Sun Devil Marching Band, created in 1915 and known as the \"Pride of the Southwest\", was the first of only two marching bands in the Pac-12 to be awarded the prestigious Sudler Trophy. The John Philip Sousa Foundation awarded the band the trophy in 1991. The Sun Devil Marching Band remains one of only 28 bands in the nation to have earned the designation. The band performs at every football game played in Sun Devil Stadium. In addition, the Sun Devil Marching Band has made appearances in the Fiesta Bowl, the Rose Bowl, the Holiday Bowl, and the Super Bowl XLII, in addition to many others. Smaller ensembles of band members perform at other sport venues including basketball games at Wells Fargo Arena and baseball games. The Devil Walk is held in Wells Fargo Arena by the football team and involves a more formal introduction of the players to the community; a new approach to the tradition added in 2012 with the arrival of head coach Todd Graham. It begins 2 hours and 15 minutes prior to the game and allows the players to establish rapport with the fans. The walk ends as the team passes the band and fans lined along the path to Sun Devil Stadium. The most recognizable songs played by the band are \"Alma Mater\" and ASU's fight songs titled \"Maroon and Gold\" and the \"Al Davis Fight Song\". \"Alma Mater\" was composed by former Music Professor and Director of Sun Devil Marching Band (then known as Bulldog Marching Band), Miles A. Dresskell, in 1937. \"Maroon and Gold\" was authored by former Director of Sun Devil Marching Band, Felix E. McKernan, in 1948. The \"Al Davis Fight Song\" (also known as \"Go, Go Sun Devils\" and \"Arizona State University Fight Song\") was composed by ASU alumnus Albert Oliver Davis in the 1940s without any lyrics. Recently lyrics were added to the song.\n", "\n===Extracurricular programs===\nArizona State University has an active extracurricular involvement program. Located on the 2nd floor of the Student Pavilion at the Tempe campus, Educational Outreach and Student Services (EOSS) provides opportunities for student involvement through clubs, sororities, fraternities, community service, leadership, student government, and co-curricular programming.\n\nChangemaker Central is a student-run centralized resource hub for student involvement in social entrepreneurship, civic engagement, service learning and community service that catalyzes student-driven social change. Changemaker Central locations have opened on all campuses in fall 2011, providing flexible, creative workspaces for everyone in the ASU community. The project is entirely student run and advances ASU’s institutional commitments to social embeddedness and entrepreneurship. The space allows students to meet, work and join new networks and collaborative enterprises while taking advantage of ASU’s many resources and opportunities for engagement. Changemaker Central has signature programs, including Changemaker Challenge, that support students in their journey to become changemakers by creating communities of support around new solutions/ideas and increasing access to early stage seed funding. The Changemaker Challenge seeks undergraduate and graduate students from across the university who are dedicated to making a difference in our local and global communities through innovation. Students can win up to $10,000 to make their innovative project, prototype, venture or community partnership ideas happen.\n\nIn addition to Changemaker Central, the Greek community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University has been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. ASU is also home to one of the nation's first and fastest growing gay fraternities, Sigma Phi Beta, founded in 2003; considered a sign of the growing university's commitment to supporting diversity and inclusion.\n\nThe second Eta chapter of Phrateres, a non-exclusive, non-profit social-service club, was installed here in 1958 and became inactive in the 1990s.\n\nThere are multiple councils for Greek Life, including the Interfraternity Council (IFC), Multicultural Greek Council (MGC), National Association of Latino Fraternal Organizations (NALFO), National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC), Panhellenic Association (PHA), and the Professional Fraternity Council (PFC).\n\n===Student media===\n''The State Press'' is the university's independent, student-operated news publication. ''The State Press'' covers news and events on all four ASU campuses. Student editors and managers are solely responsible for the content of the ''State Press'' website. These publications are overseen by an independent board and guided by a professional adviser employed by the university.\n\n''The Downtown Devil'' is a student-run news publication website for the Downtown Phoenix Campus, produced by students at the Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication.\n\nASU has two radio stations. KASC The Blaze 1330 AM, is a broadcast station owned and funded by the Cronkite School of Journalism, and is completely student-run save for a faculty and professional adviser. The Blaze broadcasts local, alternative and independent music 24 hours a day, and also features news and sports updates at the top and bottom of every hour. W7ASU is an amateur radio station that was first organized in 1935. W7ASU has about 30 members that enjoy amateur radio, and is primarily a contesting club.\n\n===Student government===\nAssociated Students of Arizona State University (ASASU) is the student government at Arizona State University. It is composed of the Undergraduate Student Government and the Graduate & Professional Student Association (GPSA). Each ASU campus has a specific USG; USG Tempe (Tempe), USGD (Downtown), USG Polytechnic (Polytechnic) and USG West (West). Members and officers of ASASU are elected annually by the student body.\n\nThe Residence Hall Association (RHA) of Arizona State University is the student government for every ASU student living on-campus. Each ASU campus has an RHA that operates independently. RHA's purpose is to improve the quality of residence hall life and provide a cohesive voice for the residents by addressing the concerns of the on-campus populations to university administrators and other campus organizations; providing cultural, diversity, educational, and social programming; establishing and working with individual community councils.\n\n===On-campus living===\nArizona State University offers undergraduate student housing on four metropolitan Phoenix campuses (Tempe, Polytechnic, Downtown Phoenix, and West), plus the ASU Colleges at Lake Havasu City. On the Tempe campus it includes dorms such as Palo Verde East, Palo Verde West, Tooker House (formerly Palo Verde Main), University Towers, Arcadia, Manzanita, Hassayampa Academic Village, San Pablo (otherwise known as \"CLAS Academy\"), the Sonora Center, and multiple Barrett dorms. Recently, ASU has added Vista Del Sol on Apache road to the on campus living for upper class honors students. Each dormitory is identified with a specific college, institute, major, or sport, and are relatively close to all the classes the student would be taking according to their major (excluding the Sonora Center which is meant to house 'overflow' students that do not fit in the other dormitory complexes, as well as students who have declared their major as 'exploratory'). For example, Tooker House is strictly freshmen engineering students. Aside from the on-campus dorms, ASU also offers residential halls for upper-division housing and Greek life housing. Greek housing is only available for sororities that are current members of ASU Panhellenic. There are 12 sororities residing in Greek life housing. Sororities are housed in a gated complex called Adelphi Commons and it is only accessible to members of the sororities.\n", "\nArizona State Football Team in September 2011\nJames Harden, ASU Basketball\n\nArizona State University's Division I athletic teams are called the Sun Devils, which is also the nickname used to refer to students and alumni of the university. They compete in the Pac-12 Conference in 20 varsity sports. Historically, the university has highly performed in men's, women's, and mixed archery; men's, women's, and mixed badminton; women's golf; women's swimming and diving; baseball; and football. Arizona State University's NCAA Division I-A program competes in 9 varsity sports for men and 11 for women. ASU's athletic director is Ray Anderson, former executive vice president of football operations for the National Football League. Anderson replaced Steve Patterson, who was appointed to the position in 2012 after Lisa Love, the former Senior Associate Athletic Director at the University of Southern California, was relieved of her duties. Love was responsible for the hiring of coaches Herb Sendek, the men's basketball coach, and Dennis Erickson, the men's football coach. Erickson was fired in 2011 and replaced by Todd Graham. The rival to Arizona State University is University of Arizona.\n\nASU has won 23 national collegiate team championships in the following sports: baseball (5), men's golf (2), women's golf (7), men's gymnastics (1), softball (2), men's indoor track (1), women's indoor track (2), men's outdoor track (1), women's outdoor track (1), and wrestling (1).\n\nIn September 2009 criticism over the seven-figure salaries earned by various coaches at Arizona's public universities (including ASU) prompted the Arizona Board of Regents to re-evaluate the salary and benefit policy for athletic staff. With the 2011 expansion of the Pac-12 Conference, a new $3 billion contract for revenue sharing among all the schools in the conference was established. With the infusion of funds, the salary issue and various athletic department budgeting issues at ASU were addressed. The Pac-12's new media contract with ESPN allowed ASU to hire a new coach in 2012. A new salary and bonus package (maximum bonus of $2.05 million) was instituted and is one of the most lucrative in the conference. ASU also plans to expand its athletic facilities with a public-private investment strategy to create an amateur sports district that can accommodate the Pan American Games and operate as an Olympic Training Center. The athletic district will include a $300 million renovation of Sun Devil Stadium that will include new football facilities. The press box and football offices in Sun Devil Stadium were remodeled in 2012.\n\nArizona State Sun Devils football was founded in 1897 under coach Fred Irish. The team has played in the 2012 Fight Hunger Bowl, the 2011 Las Vegas bowl, the 2016 Cactus Bowl, and the 2007 Holiday Bowl. The Sun Devils played in the 1997 Rose Bowl and won the Rose Bowl in 1987. The team has appeared in the Fiesta Bowl in 1983, 1977, 1975, 1973, 1972, and 1971 winning 5 of 6. In 1970 and 1975 they were champions of the NCAA Division I FBS National Football Championship. The Sun Devils were Pac-12 Champions in 1986, 1996, and 2007. Altogether, the football team has 17 Conference Championships and has participated in a total of 29 bowl games as of the 2015–2016 season with a 14–14–1 record in those games.\n\nThe university also participates in the American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) and is billed as the top program within that league. Beginning in 2013, ASU will be a founding member of the new Western Collegiate Hockey League (WCHL). ASU Sun Devils Hockey will compete with NCAA Division 1 schools for the first time in 2012, largely due to the success of the program. In 2016 they will begin as a full-time Division 1 team. Competing as an independent for their first year, then joining a respective conference in 2017. The conference will either be the NCHC or the WCHA.\n\nEight members of ASU's Women's Swimming and Diving Team were selected to the Pac-10 All-Academic Team on April 5, 2010. In addition, five member of ASU's Men's Swimming and Diving Team were selected to the Pac-10 All-Academic Team on April 6, 2010.\n\nIn April 2015, Bobby Hurley was hired as the men's basketball coach, replacing Herb Sendek. Previously, Hurley was the head coach at the University of Buffalo as well as an assistant coach at Rhode Island and Wagner University.\n\nIn 2015, Bob Bowman was hired as the head swim coach. Previously, Bowman trained Michael Phelps through his Olympic career.\n\nAs of Fall 2015, ASU students, including those enrolled in online courses, may avail of a free ticket to all ASU athletic events upon presentation of a valid student ID.\n", "\n===Alumni===\n\nCarl Hayden\nPat Tillman\nArizona State University has produced over 400,000 alumni worldwide. The university has produced many notable figures over its 125-year history, including influential U.S. Senator Carl Hayden, and Silver Star recipient Pat Tillman, who left his National Football League career to enlist in the United States Army in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Other notable alumni include nine current or former U.S. Representatives, including Barry Goldwater, Jr., Ed Pastor, and Matt Salmon. Arizona governors Doug Ducey, Jane Dee Hull, and Evan Mecham also attended ASU. Peterson Zah, who was the first Navajo President and the last Chairman of the Navajo Nation, is an ASU graduate. The economy minister of the United Arab Emirates, Sultan bin Saeed Al Mansoori, is another ASU graduate. Business leaders that attended ASU include: Eric Crown, CEO and co-founder of Insight Enterprises, Inc.; Ira A. Fulton, philanthropist and founder of Fulton Homes; Craig Weatherup, former Chairman of PepsiCo; Kate Spade, namesake and co-Founder of Kate Spade New York; and Larry Carter, CFO of Cisco Systems. Kevin Warren is the COO of the Minnesota Vikings, and the highest ranking African-American executive working on the business side of an NFL team.\n\nIn addition to Pat Tillman, ASU has had many renowned athletes attend the school. Those athletes include: World Golf Hall of Fame member Phil Mickelson, Baseball Hall of Fame member Reggie Jackson, Major League Baseball home run king Barry Bonds, National Basketball Association All-Star James Harden, and 2011 NFL Defensive Player of the Year Terrell Suggs. ASU alumni enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame include: Curley Culp, Mike Haynes, John Henry Johnson, Randall McDaniel, and Charley Taylor. Other notable athletes that attended ASU are: Major League Baseball All-Stars Dustin Pedroia, Sal Bando, and Paul Lo Duca; National Basketball Association All-Stars Lionel Hollins and Fat Lever, and NBA All-Star coach Byron Scott; National Football League Pro Bowl selections Jake Plummer and Danny White, as well as current Houston Texans quarterback Brock Osweiler; and three-time Olympic gold medalist swimmers Melissa Belote and Jan Henne.\n\nCelebrities who have attended ASU include: ''Jimmy Kimmel Live!'' host Jimmy Kimmel; Steve Allen, who was the original host of ''The Tonight Show''; Academy Award nominated actor Nick Nolte; 11-Time Grammy Award winning singer Linda Ronstadt; ''Saturday Night Live'' and ''Tommy Boy'' actor David Spade; ''Wonder Woman'' actress Lynda Carter; and ''Road to Perdition'' actor Tyler Hoechlin. Influential writers and novelists include: Allison Dubois, whose novels and work inspired the TV miniseries ''Medium''; novelist Amanda Brown; author and spiritual teacher Howard Falco; and best-selling author and Doctor of Animal Science Temple Grandin. Journalists and commentators include: former Monday Night Football announcer, and current Sunday Night Football announcer Al Michaels, and writer and cartoonist Jerry Dumas, who is best known for his ''Sam and Silo'' comic strip. Radio host Michael Reagan, the son of President Ronald Reagan and actress Jane Wyman, also briefly attended.\n\nAmong American research universities, Arizona State is ranked 4th for total recipients of the prestigious Fulbright Scholarship in the 2012–2013 academic year. ASU has made this list for more than 9 consecutive years. ASU alumni and students are also noted for their service to the community and have officially been recognized as a top university for contributing to the public good. The Arizona State University Alumni Association is on the Tempe campus in Old Main. The Alumni Association continues many of the university's traditions.\n\n===Faculty===\nElinor Ostrom\nASU faculty have included former CNN host Aaron Brown, meta-analysis developer Gene V. Glass, feminist and author Gloria Feldt, physicist Paul Davies, and Pulitzer Prize winner and ''The Ants'' coauthor Bert Hölldobler. Donald Johanson, who discovered the 3.18 million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia, is also a professor at ASU, as well as George Poste, Chief Scientist for the Complex Adaptive Systems Initiative. Current Nobel laureate faculty include Leland Hartwell, and Edward C. Prescott. On June 12, 2012 Elinor Ostrom, ASU's third Nobel laureate, died at the age of 78.\n\nASU faculty's achievements as of 2012 include:\n* 4 Nobel laureates\n* 3 members of the Royal Society\n* 27 National Academy members\n* 6 Pulitzer Prize winners\n* 5 Sloan Research Fellows\n* 25 Guggenheim Fellows\n* 114 Fulbright American Scholars\n* 1 MacArthur Fellow\n* 11 Members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences\n* 65 American Association for the Advancement of Science Fellows\n* 2 members of the Institute of Medicine\n* 8 Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers\n* 86 NSF CAREER award winners\n* 8 American Council of Learned Societies Fellows\n* 34 IEEE Fellows\n* 19 Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation Prize Winners\n* 1 Recipient of the Rockefeller Fellowship\n", "Arizona State University has been visited by nine United States presidents. President Theodore Roosevelt was the first president to visit campus, speaking at the dedication for the Roosevelt Dam on the steps of Old Main on March 20, 1911. President Lyndon B. Johnson spoke at ASU's Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on January 29, 1972 at a memorial service for ASU alumnus Senator Carl T. Hayden. Future president Gerald R. Ford debated Senator Albert Gore, Sr. at Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on April 28, 1968, and Ford returned to the same building as a former president to give a lecture on February 24, 1984. President Jimmy Carter visited Arizona PBS at ASU's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication on July 31, 2015 to promote a memoir. Future president Ronald Reagan gave a political speech at the school's Memorial Union in 1957, and returned to campus as a former president on March 20, 1989, delivering his first ever post-presidential speech at ASU's Wells Fargo Arena. President George H. W. Bush gave a lecture at Wells Fargo Arena on May 5, 1998.\n\nPresident Bill Clinton became the first sitting president to visit ASU on October 31, 1996, speaking on the Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium lawn. He returned to ASU in 2006, and in 2014 President Clinton, Hillary Clinton, and Chelsea Clinton came to campus to host the Clinton Global Initiative University. President George W. Bush became the second sitting president to visit the school's campus when he debated Senator John Kerry at the university's Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium on October 13, 2004. President Barack Obama visited ASU as sitting president on May 13, 2009. President Obama delivered the commencement speech for the Spring 2009 Commencement Ceremony, speaking to more than 60,000 people at Sun Devil Stadium. President Obama had previously visited the school as a United States Senator. President Richard Nixon did not visit ASU as president, but visited Phoenix as president on October 31, 1970 at an event that included a performance by the Arizona State University Band, which President Nixon acknowledged. As part of President Nixon's remarks, he stated that, \"when I am in Arizona, Arizona State is number one.\"\n", "\n===Sexual assault investigation===\nOn May 1, 2014, ASU was listed as one of fifty five higher education institutions under investigation by the Office of Civil Rights \"for possible violations of federal law over the handling of sexual violence and harassment complaints\" by Barack Obama's White House Task Force To Protect Students from Sexual Assault. The publicly announced investigation followed two Title IX suits. In July 2014, a group of at least nine current and former students who alleged they were harassed or assaulted asked the federal investigation be expanded.\nIn August 2014 ASU President Michael Crow appointed a task force comprising faculty and staff, students, and members of the university police force to review the university’s efforts to address sexual violence. Crow accepted the recommendations of the task force in November 2014.\n\n===Faculty plagiarism===\nIn 2011, Professor Matthew Whitaker was accused of plagiarizing material in six books he had written, as well as in a speech he made to local high school students. After watching a video of the speech, a plagiarism analyst said he could pretty much read along from a newspaper article as Whitaker spoke. To the intense consternation of ASU faculty members (the chairman of the tenure committee resigned in protest) an investigating committee concluded there was no pattern of deceit and the copying had been inadvertent. It all popped up again in 2014 with another Whitaker book, “Peace Be Still: Modern Black America From World War II to Barack Obama.” A blogger writing under an apparent pseudonym set out side-by-side excerpts from Whitaker’s book and material available on the Web at sites like infoplease.com and the Archive of American Television. They are more than just similar in tone. Whitaker has also been accused of appropriating training materials produced by the Chicago Police Department which he used as the basis for a lucrative contract with the Phoenix Police Department. Whitaker was to receive $268,800 to provide “cultural-consciousness training” to Phoenix police. The Phoenix Police Department wants back the $21,900 it has paid thus far. He was placed on administrative leave on September 17, 2015, while the university investigated allegations that \"his behavior has fallen short of expectations as a faculty member and a scholar.\"\n", "\n\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Organization and administration", "Campuses and locations", "Academics", "Sustainability", "Traditions", "Student life", "Athletics", "People", "Presidential visits", "Controversies", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Arizona State University
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 43 BC – Battle of Forum Gallorum: Mark Antony, besieging Caesar's assassin Decimus Brutus in Mutina, defeats the forces of the consul Pansa, but is then immediately defeated by the army of the other consul, Aulus Hirtius.\n* AD 69 – Vitellius, commander of the Rhine armies, defeats Emperor Otho in the Battle of Bedriacum and seizes the throne.\n* AD 70 – Siege of Jerusalem: Titus, son of emperor Vespasian, surrounds the Jewish capital with four Roman legions.\n* 193 – Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans).\n* 966 – After his marriage to the Christian Doubravka of Bohemia, the pagan ruler of the Polans, Mieszko I, converts to Christianity, an event considered to be the founding of the Polish state.\n1028 – Henry III, son of Conrad, is elected King of Germany.\n1205 – Battle of Adrianople between Bulgarians and Crusaders.\n1294 – Temür, grandson of Kublai, is elected Khagan of the Mongols and Emperor of the Yuan dynasty with the reigning titles Oljeitu and Chengzong.\n1341 – Sack of Saluzzo (Italy) by Italian-Angevine troops under Manfred V, Marquess of Saluzzo.\n1434 – The foundation stone of Nantes Cathedral, France is laid.\n1471 – In England, the Yorkists under Edward IV defeat the Lancastrians under the Earl of Warwick at the Battle of Barnet; the Earl is killed and Edward IV resumes the throne.\n1561 – A Celestial phenomenon is reported over Nuremberg, described as an aerial battle.\n1639 – Imperial forces are defeated by the Swedes at the Battle of Chemnitz. The Swedish victory prolongs the Thirty Years' War and allows them to advance into Bohemia.\n1699 – Khalsa: The Sikh religion was formalised as the Khalsa - the brotherhood of Warrior-Saints - by Guru Gobind Singh in northern India, in accordance with the Nanakshahi calendar.\n1715 – The Yamasee War begins in South Carolina.\n1775 – The first abolition society in North America is established. The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage is organized in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin and Benjamin Rush.\n1816 – Bussa, a slave in British-ruled Barbados, leads a slave rebellion and is killed. For this, he is remembered as the first national hero of Barbados.\n1828 – Noah Webster copyrights the first edition of his dictionary.\n1849 – Hungary declares itself independent of Austria with Lajos Kossuth as its leader.\n1865 – U.S. President Abraham Lincoln is shot in Ford's Theatre by John Wilkes Booth; Lincoln died the next day. \n 1865 – U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward and his family are attacked at home by Lewis Powell.\n1881 – The Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight is fought in El Paso, Texas.\n1890 – The Pan-American Union is founded by the First International Conference of American States in Washington, D.C.\n1894 – The first ever commercial motion picture house opened in New York City using ten Kinetoscopes, a device for peep-show viewing of films.\n1900 – The Exposition Universelle begins.\n1906 – The Azusa Street Revival opens and will launch Pentecostalism as a worldwide movement.\n1908 – Hauser Dam, a steel dam on the Missouri River in Montana, U.S., fails, sending a surge of water high downstream.\n1909 – A massacre is organized by the Ottoman Empire against the Armenian population of Cilicia.\n1912 – The British passenger liner hits an iceberg in the North Atlantic at 23:40 (sinks morning of April 15th).\n1927 – The first Volvo car premieres in Gothenburg, Sweden.\n1928 – The Bremen, a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, reaches Greenly Island, Canada - the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west.\n1931 – The Spanish Cortes deposes King Alfonso XIII and proclaims the Second Spanish Republic.\n1935 – The Black Sunday dust storm, considered one of the worst storms of the Dust Bowl, swept across the Oklahoma and Texas panhandles and neighboring areas.\n1939 – ''The Grapes of Wrath'', by American author John Steinbeck is first published by the Viking Press.\n1940 – World War II: Royal Marines land in Namsos, Norway in preparation for a larger force to arrive two days later.\n1941 – World War II: German general Erwin Rommel attacks Tobruk.\n1942 – Malta receives the George Cross for its gallantry. The George Cross was given by King George VI himself and is now an emblem on the Maltese national flag.\n1944 – Bombay explosion: A massive explosion in Bombay harbor kills 300 and causes economic damage valued then at 20 million pounds.\n1958 – The Soviet satellite Sputnik 2 falls from orbit after a mission duration of 162 days. This was the first spacecraft to carry a living animal, a female dog named Laika, who likely lived only a few hours.\n1967 – Gnassingbé Eyadéma overthrows President of Togo Nicolas Grunitzky and installs himself as the new president, a title he would hold for the next 38 years.\n1978 – Tbilisi Demonstrations: Thousands of Georgians demonstrate against Soviet attempts to change the constitutional status of the Georgian language.\n1981 – STS-1: The first operational Space Shuttle, ''Columbia'' completes its first test flight.\n1986 – In retaliation for the April 5 bombing in West Berlin in which two U.S. servicemen were killed, U.S. president Ronald Reagan orders major bombing raids against Libya, killing 60 people.\n* 1986 – The heaviest hailstones ever recorded () fall on the Gopalganj district of Bangladesh, killing 92.\n1988 – The strikes a mine in the Persian Gulf during Operation Earnest Will.\n 1988 – In a United Nations ceremony in Geneva, Switzerland, the Soviet Union signs an agreement pledging to withdraw its troops from Afghanistan.\n1991 – The Republic of Georgia introduces the post of President after its declaration of independence from the Soviet Union.\n1994 – In a U.S. friendly fire incident during Operation Provide Comfort in northern Iraq, two United States Air Force aircraft mistakenly shoot-down two United States Army helicopters, killing 26 people.\n1999 – NATO mistakenly bombs a convoy of ethnic Albanian refugees. Yugoslav officials say 75 people were killed.\n 1999 – A severe hailstorm strikes Sydney, Australia causing A$2.3 billion in insured damages, the most costly natural disaster in Australian history.\n2002 – Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez returns to office two days after being ousted and arrested by the country's military.\n2003 – The Human Genome Project is completed with 99% of the human genome sequenced to an accuracy of 99.99%.\n* 2003 – U.S. troops in Baghdad capture Abu Abbas, leader of the Palestinian group that killed an American on the hijacked cruise liner the in 1985.\n2005 – The Oregon Supreme Court nullifies marriage licenses issued to gay couples a year earlier by Multnomah County.\n2010 – Nearly 2,700 are killed in a magnitude 6.9 earthquake in the Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture.\n2014 – Twin bomb blasts in Abuja, Nigeria, kill at least 75 people and injures 141 others.\n 2014 – Two hundred seventy-six schoolgirls are abducted by Boko Haram in Chibok, Nigeria.\n", "1126 – Averroes, Spanish physician and philosopher (d. 1198)\n1204 – Henry I, king of Castile (d. 1217)\n1331 – Jeanne-Marie de Maille, French Roman Catholic saint (b. 1414) \n1527 – Abraham Ortelius, Flemish cartographer and geographer (d. 1598)\n1572 – Adam Tanner, Austrian mathematician, philosopher, and academic (d. 1632)\n1578 – Philip III of Spain (d. 1621)\n1629 – Christiaan Huygens, Dutch mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. 1695)\n1668 – Magnus Julius De la Gardie, Swedish general and politician (d. 1741)\n1678 – Abraham Darby I, English iron master (d. 1717)\n1709 – Charles Collé, French playwright and songwriter (d. 1783)\n1714 – Adam Gib, Scottish minister and author (d. 1788)\n1738 – William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1809)\n1741 – Emperor Momozono of Japan (d. 1762)\n1769 – Barthélemy Catherine Joubert, French general (d. 1799)\n1773 – Jean-Baptiste de Villèle, French politician, 6th Prime Minister of France (d. 1854)\n1788 – David G. Burnet, American politician, 2nd Vice-President of Texas (d. 1870)\n1800 – John Appold, English engineer (d. 1865)\n1812 – George Grey, Portuguese-New Zealand soldier, explorer, and politician, 11th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1898)\n1814 – Dimitri Kipiani, Georgian publicist and author (d. 1887)\n1827 – Augustus Pitt Rivers, English general, ethnologist, and archaeologist (d. 1900)\n1852 – Alexander Greenlaw Hamilton, Australian biologist (d. 1941)\n1854 – Martin Lipp, Estonian pastor and poet (d. 1923)\n1857 – Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (d. 1944)\n1865 – Alfred Hoare Powell, English architect, and designer and painter of pottery (d. 1960)\n1866 – Anne Sullivan, American educator (d. 1936)\n1868 – Peter Behrens, German architect, designed the AEG turbine factory (d. 1940)\n1870 – Victor Borisov-Musatov, Russian painter and educator (d. 1905)\n 1870 – Syd Gregory, Australian cricketer and coach (d. 1929)\n1872 – Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Indian-English scholar and translator (d. 1953)\n1881 – Husain Salaahuddin, Maldivian poet and scholar (d. 1948)\n1882 – Moritz Schlick, German-Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. 1936)\n1886 – Ernst Robert Curtius, German philologist and scholar (d. 1956)\n* 1886 – Árpád Tóth, Hungarian poet and translator (d. 1928)\n1889 – Arnold J. Toynbee, English historian and academic (d. 1975)\n1891 – B. R. Ambedkar, Indian economist, jurist, and politician, 1st Indian Minister of Law and Justice (d. 1956)\n* 1891 – Otto Lasanen, Finnish wrestler (d. 1958)\n1892 – Juan Belmonte, Spanish bullfighter (d. 1962)\n 1892 – V. Gordon Childe, Australian archaeologist and philologist (d. 1957)\n* 1892 – Claire Windsor, American actress (d. 1972)\n1902 – Sylvio Mantha, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and referee (d. 1974)\n1903 – Henry Corbin, French philosopher and academic (d. 1978)\n* 1903 – Ruth Svedberg, Swedish discus thrower and triathlete (d. 2002)\n1904 – John Gielgud, English actor, director, and producer (d. 2000)\n1905 – Elizabeth Huckaby, American author and educator (d. 1999)\n* 1905 – Georg Lammers, German sprinter (d. 1987)\n* 1905 – Jean Pierre-Bloch, French author and activist (d. 1999)\n1906 – Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Saudi Arabian king (d. 1975)\n1907 – François Duvalier, Haitian physician and politician, 40th President of Haiti (d. 1971)\n1912 – Robert Doisneau, French photographer and journalist (d. 1994)\n 1912 – Georg Siimenson, Estonian footballer (d. 1978)\n1913 – Jean Fournet, French conductor (d. 2008)\n1916 – Don Willesee, Australian telegraphist and politician, 29th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2003)\n1917 – Valerie Hobson, English actress (d. 1998)\n 1917 – Marvin Miller, American baseball executive (d. 2012)\n1918 – Mary Healy, American actress and singer (d. 2015)\n1919 – Shamshad Begum, Pakistani-Indian singer (d. 2013)\n* 1919 – K. Saraswathi Amma, Indian author and playwright (d. 1975)\n1920 – Ivor Forbes Guest, English lawyer, historian, and author\n1921 – Thomas Schelling, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2016)\n1922 – Audrey Long, American actress (d. 2014)\n1923 – Roberto De Vicenzo, Argentinian golfer (d. 2017)\n1924 – Shorty Rogers, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1994)\n 1924 – Joseph Ruskin, American actor and producer (d. 2013)\n* 1924 – Mary Warnock, Baroness Warnock, English philosopher, and academic\n1925 – Abel Muzorewa, Zimbabwean minister and politician, 1st Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia (d. 2010)\n 1925 – Rod Steiger, American soldier and actor (d. 2002)\n1926 – Barbara Anderson, New Zealand author (d. 2013)\n 1926 – Frank Daniel, Czech director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1996)\n* 1926 – Gloria Jean, American actress and singer\n* 1926 – Liz Renay, American actress and author (d. 2007)\n1927 – Alan MacDiarmid, New Zealand chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2007)\n 1927 – Dany Robin, French actress and singer (d. 1995)\n1929 – Gerry Anderson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012)\n 1929 – Inez Andrews, African-American singer-songwriter (d. 2012)\n1930 – Martin Adolf Bormann, German priest and theologian (d. 2013)\n 1930 – Arnold Burns, American lawyer and politician, 21st United States Deputy Attorney General (d. 2013)\n* 1930 – René Desmaison, French mountaineer (d. 2007)\n* 1930 – Bradford Dillman, American actor and author\n1931 – Geoffrey Dalton, English admiral\n 1931 – Paul Masnick, Canadian ice hockey player\n1932 – Bill Bennett, Canadian lawyer and politician, 27th Premier of British Columbia (d. 2015)\n 1932 – Atef Ebeid, Egyptian academic and politician, 47th Prime Minister of Egypt (d. 2014)\n* 1932 – Bob Grant, English actor and screenwriter (d. 2003)\n* 1932 – Loretta Lynn, American singer-songwriter and musician \n* 1932 – Cameron Parker, Scottish businessman and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Renfrewshire\n1933 – Paddy Hopkirk, Northern Irish race car driver\n 1933 – Boris Strugatsky, Russian author (d. 2012)\n* 1933 – Shani Wallis, English-American actress and singer\n1934 – Fredric Jameson, American philosopher and theorist\n1935 – Susan Cunliffe-Lister, Baroness Masham of Ilton, English table tennis player, swimmer, and politician\n* 1935 – John Oliver, English bishop\n* 1935 – Erich von Däniken, Swiss historian and author\n1936 – Arlene Martel, American actress and singer (d. 2014)\n 1936 – Bobby Nichols, American golfer\n* 1936 – Frank Serpico, American-Italian soldier, police officer and lecturer\n1937 – Efi Arazi, Israeli businessman, founded the Scailex Corporation (d. 2013)\n 1937 – Sepp Mayerl, Austrian mountaineer (d. 2012)\n1938 – Mahmud Esad Coşan, Turkish author and academic (d. 2001)\n1940 – Julie Christie, English actress and activist\n* 1940 – David Hope, Baron Hope of Thornes, English archbishop and academic\n* 1940 – Richard Thompson, English physician and academic\n1941 – Pete Rose, American baseball player and manager\n1942 – Valeriy Brumel, Soviet high jumper (d. 2003)\n* 1942 – Valentin Lebedev, Russian engineer and astronaut\n* 1942 – Björn Rosengren, Swedish politician, Swedish Minister of Enterprise and Innovation\n1943 – Fouad Siniora, Lebanese businessman and politician, 65th Prime Minister of Lebanon\n1944 – John Sergeant, English journalist\n1945 – Tuilaepa Aiono Sailele Malielegaoi, Samoan economist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Samoa\n 1945 – Ritchie Blackmore, English guitarist and songwriter\n* 1945 – Roger Frappier, Canadian producer, director and screenwriter\n1946 – Mireille Guiliano, French-American author\n 1946 – Michael Sarris, Cypriot economist and politician, Cypriot Minister of Finance\n* 1946 – Knut Kristiansen, Norwegian pianist and orchestra leader\n1947 – Dominique Baudis, French journalist and politician (d. 2014)\n 1947 – Bob Massie, Australian cricketer\n1948 – Berry Berenson, American model, actress, and photographer (d. 2001)\n 1948 – Anastasios Papaligouras, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Justice\n1949 – Dave Gibbons, English author and illustrator\n 1949 – DeAnne Julius, American-British economist and academic\n* 1949 – Chris Langham, English actor and screenwriter\n* 1949 – Chas Mortimer, English racing motorcyclist\n* 1949 – John Shea, American actor and director\n1950 – Francis Collins, American physician and geneticist\n 1950 – Péter Esterházy, Hungarian author (d. 2016)\n1951 – José Eduardo González Navas, Spanish politician\n 1951 – Julian Lloyd Webber, English cellist, conductor, and educator\n* 1951 – Elizabeth Symons, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean, English politician\n1952 – Kenny Aaronson, American bass player \n 1952 – Mickey O'Sullivan, Irish footballer and manager\n* 1952 – David Urquhart, Scottish bishop\n1954 – Sue Hill, English pathologist and civil servant\n 1954 – Katsuhiro Otomo, Japanese director, screenwriter, and illustrator\n1956 – Boris Šprem, Croatian lawyer and politician, 8th President of Croatian Parliament (d. 2012)\n1957 – Lothaire Bluteau, Canadian actor\n* 1957 – Mikhail Pletnev, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor\n1958 – Peter Capaldi, Scottish actor\n1959 – Marie-Thérèse Fortin, Canadian actress\n1960 – Brad Garrett, American actor and comedian\n 1960 – Myoma Myint Kywe, Burmese historian and journalist\n* 1960 – Osamu Sato, Japanese graphic artist, programmer, and composer\n* 1960 – Tina Rosenberg, American journalist and author\n* 1960 – Pat Symcox, South African cricketer\n1961 – Robert Carlyle, Scottish actor and director\n 1961 – Daniel Clowes, American cartoonist and screenwriter\n1962 – Guillaume Leblanc, Canadian athlete\n1964 – Brian Adams, American wrestler (d. 2007)\n* 1964 – Jeff Andretti, American race car driver\n* 1964 – Greg Battle, American-Canadian football player\n* 1964 – Stuart Duncan, American bluegrass musician\n* 1964 – Gina McKee, English actress\n1965 – Tom Dey, American director and producer\n 1965 – Alexandre Jardin, French author\n* 1965 – Craig McDermott, Australian cricketer and coach\n1966 – André Boisclair, Canadian lawyer and politician\n 1966 – David Justice, American baseball player and sportscaster\n* 1966 – Greg Maddux, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n1967 – Nicola Berti, Italian footballer\n 1967 – Steve Chiasson, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 1999)\n* 1967 – Alain Côté, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1967 – Barrett Martin, American drummer, songwriter, and producer \n* 1967 – Julia Zemiro, French-Australian actress, comedian, singer and writer\n1968 – Anthony Michael Hall, American actor\n1969 – Brad Ausmus, American baseball player and manager\n* 1969 – Martyn LeNoble, Dutch-American bass player\n* 1969 – Vebjørn Selbekk, Norwegian journalist\n1970 – Steve Avery, American baseball player\n 1970 – Shizuka Kudō, Japanese singer and actress \n1971 – Miguel Calero, Colombian footballer and manager (d. 2012)\n 1971 – Carlos Pérez, Dominican-American baseball player\n* 1971 – Gregg Zaun, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1972 – Paul Devlin, English-Scottish footballer and manager\n 1972 – Roberto Mejía, Dominican baseball player\n* 1972 – Dean Potter, American rock climber and BASE jumper (d. 2015)\n1973 – Roberto Ayala, Argentinian footballer\n 1973 – Adrien Brody, American actor \n* 1973 – David Miller, American tenor \n1974 – Da Brat, American rapper \n1975 – Lita, American wrestler\n* 1975 – Luciano Almeida, Brazilian footballer\n* 1975 – Avner Dorman, Israeli-American composer and academic\n* 1975 – Konstantinos Nebegleras, Greek footballer\n* 1975 – Anderson Silva, Brazilian mixed martial artist and boxer\n1976 – Christian Älvestam, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1976 – Georgina Chapman, English model, actress, and fashion designer, co-founded Marchesa\n* 1976 – Anna DeForge, American basketball player\n* 1976 – Kyle Farnsworth, American baseball player\n* 1976 – Jason Wiemer, Canadian ice hockey player\n1977 – Nate Fox, American basketball player (d. 2014)\n 1977 – Martin Kaalma, Estonian footballer\n* 1977 – Sarah Michelle Gellar, American actress and producer\n* 1977 – Rob McElhenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter\n1978 – Roland Lessing, Estonian biathlete\n1979 – Iain Balshaw, English rugby player\n* 1979 – Rebecca DiPietro, American wrestler and model\n* 1979 – Marios Elia, Cypriot footballer\n* 1979 – Ross Filipo, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1979 – Noé Pamarot, French footballer\n* 1979 – Patrick Somerville, American novelist and short story writer\n* 1979 – Kerem Tunçeri, Turkish basketball player\n1980 – Win Butler, American-Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n 1980 – Jeremy Smith, New Zealand rugby league player\n1981 – Mustafa Güngör, German rugby player\n 1981 – Amy Leach, English director and producer\n1982 – Uğur Boral, Turkish footballer\n 1982 – Larissa França, Brazilian volleyball player\n1983 – Simona La Mantia, Italian triple jumper\n 1983 – James McFadden, Scottish footballer\n* 1983 – William Obeng, Ghanaian-American football player\n* 1983 – Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Georgian basketball player\n1984 – Blake Costanzo, American football player\n 1984 – Charles Hamelin, Canadian speed skater\n* 1984 – Harumafuji Kōhei, Mongolian sumo wrestler, the 70th Yokozuna\n* 1984 – Adán Sánchez, American-Mexican musician (d. 2004)\n* 1984 – Tyler Thigpen, American football player\n1985 – Grant Clitsome, Canadian ice hockey player\n1986 – Matt Derbyshire, English footballer\n* 1986 – Goran Gogić, Serbian footballer (d. 2015)\n1987 – Michael Baze, American jockey (d. 2011)\n 1987 – Erwin Hoffer, Austrian footballer\n* 1987 – Wilson Kiprop, Kenyan runner\n* 1987 – Korina Perkovic, German tennis player\n1988 – Roberto Bautista Agut, Spanish tennis player\n 1988 – Eric Gryba, Canadian ice hockey defenseman\n* 1988 – Eliška Klučinová, Czech heptathlete\n* 1988 – Vasileios Pliatsikas, Greek footballer\n* 1988 – Brad Sinopoli, Canadian football player\n1989 – Aleksei Olegovich Alekseyev, Russian footballer\n 1989 – Joe Haden, American football player\n1990 – Markus Smarzoch, German footballer\n1992 – Frederik Sørensen, Danish footballer\n1993 – Kent Jones, American rapper\n1993 – Graham Phillips, American actor\n1996 – Abigail Breslin, American actress\n\n", "911 – Pope Sergius III, pope of the Roman Catholic Church\n1070 – Gerard, Duke of Lorraine (b. c. 1030)\n1099 – Conrad, Bishop of Utrecht (b. before 1040)\n1132 – Mstislav I of Kiev (b. 1076)\n1279 – Bolesław the Pious, Polish husband of Yolanda of Poland (b. 1224)\n1322 – Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Baron Badlesmere, English soldier and politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1275)\n1345 – Richard de Bury, English bishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of The United Kingdom (b. 1287)\n1433 – Lidwina, Dutch saint (b. 1380)\n1471 – Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, English commander and politician (b. 1428)\n* 1471 – John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (b. 1431)\n1480 – Thomas de Spens, Scottish statesman and prelate (b. c. 1415)\n1488 – Girolamo Riario, Lord of Imola and Forli (b. 1443)\n1574 – Louis of Nassau (b. 1538)\n1578 – James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, English husband of Mary, Queen of Scots (b. 1534)\n1587 – Edward Manners, 3rd Earl of Rutland (b. 1548)\n1599 – Henry Wallop, English politician (b. 1540)\n1609 – Gasparo da Salò, Italian violin maker (b. 1540)\n1662 – William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele, English politician (b. 1582)\n1682 – Avvakum, Russian priest and saint (b. 1620)\n1721 – Michel Chamillart, French politician, Controller-General of Finances (b. 1652)\n1759 – George Frideric Handel, German-English organist and composer (b. 1685)\n1785 – William Whitehead, English poet and playwright (b. 1715)\n1792 – Maximilian Hell, Slovak-Hungarian astronomer and priest (b. 1720)\n1843 – Joseph Lanner, Austrian violinist and composer (b. 1801)\n1864 – Charles Lot Church, American-Canadian politician (b. 1777)\n1910 – Mikhail Vrubel, Russian painter and sculptor (b. 1856)\n1911 – Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (b. 1880)\n 1911 – Henri Elzéar Taschereau, Canadian lawyer and jurist, 4th Chief Justice of Canada (b. 1836)\n1912 – Henri Brisson, French politician, 50th Prime Minister of France (b. 1835)\n1914 – Hubert Bland, English activist, co-founded the Fabian Society (b. 1855)\n1917 – L. L. Zamenhof, Polish physician and linguist, created Esperanto (b. 1859)\n1919 – Auguste-Réal Angers, Canadian judge and politician, 6th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (b. 1837)\n1925 – John Singer Sargent, American painter (b. 1856)\n1930 – Vladimir Mayakovsky, Georgian-Russian actor, playwright, and poet (b. 1893)\n1931 – Richard Armstedt, German philologist, historian, and educator (b. 1851)\n1935 – Emmy Noether, German-American mathematician and academic (b. 1882)\n1938 – Gillis Grafström, Swedish figure skater and architect (b. 1893)\n1943 – Yakov Dzhugashvili, Georgian-Russian lieutenant (b. 1907)\n1950 – Ramana Maharshi, Indian guru and philosopher (b. 1879)\n1951 – Al Christie, Canadian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1881)\n1962 – M. Visvesvaraya, Indian engineer and scholar (b. 1860)\n1963 – Rahul Sankrityayan, Indian monk and historian (b. 1893)\n1964 – Tatyana Afanasyeva, Russian-Dutch mathematician and theorist (b. 1876)\n 1964 – Rachel Carson, American biologist and author (b. 1907)\n1968 – Al Benton, American baseball player (b. 1911)\n1969 – Matilde Muñoz Sampedro, Spanish actress (b. 1900)\n1975 – Günter Dyhrenfurth, German-Swiss mountaineer, geologist, and explorer (b. 1886)\n 1975 – Fredric March, American actor (b. 1897)\n1976 – José Revueltas, Mexican author and activist (b. 1914)\n1978 – Joe Gordon, American baseball player and manager (b. 1915)\n* 1978 – F. R. Leavis, English educator and critic (b. 1895)\n1983 – Pete Farndon, English bassist (The Pretenders) (b. 1952)\n 1983 – Gianni Rodari, Italian journalist and author (b. 1920)\n1986 – Simone de Beauvoir, French novelist and philosopher (b. 1908)\n1990 – Thurston Harris, American singer (b. 1931)\n* 1990 – Olabisi Onabanjo, Nigerian politician, 3rd Governor of Ogun State (b. 1927)\n1994 – Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, Pakistani chemist and scholar (b. 1897)\n1995 – Burl Ives, American actor, folk singer, and writer (b. 1909)\n1999 – Ellen Corby, American actress and screenwriter (b. 1911)\n 1999 – Anthony Newley, English singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1931)\n* 1999 – Bill Wendell, American television announcer (b. 1924)\n2000 – Phil Katz, American computer programmer, co-created the zip file format (b. 1962)\n 2000 – August R. Lindt, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1905)\n* 2000 – Wilf Mannion, English footballer (b. 1918)\n2001 – Jim Baxter, Scottish footballer (b. 1939)\n 2001 – Hiroshi Teshigahara, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1927)\n2003 – Jyrki Otila, Finnish politician (b. 1941)\n2004 – Micheline Charest, English-Canadian television producer, co-founded the Cookie Jar Group (b. 1953)\n2006 – Mahmut Bakalli, Kosovo politician (b. 1936)\n2007 – June Callwood, Canadian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1924)\n* 2007 – Don Ho, American singer and ukulele player (b. 1930)\n* 2007 – René Rémond, French historian and economist (b. 1918)\n2008 – Tommy Holmes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1917)\n 2008 – Ollie Johnston, American animator and voice actor (b. 1912)\n2009 – Maurice Druon, French author (b. 1918)\n2010 – Israr Ahmed, Pakistani theologian and scholar (b. 1932)\n* 2010 – Alice Miller, Polish-French psychologist and author (b. 1923)\n* 2010 – Peter Steele, American singer-songwriter and bass player (b. 1962)\n2011 – Jean Gratton, Canadian Roman Catholic bishop (b. 1924)\n2012 – Émile Bouchard, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Jonathan Frid, Canadian actor (b. 1924)\n* 2012 – Piermario Morosini, Italian footballer (b. 1986)\n2013 – Efi Arazi, Israeli businessman, founded the Scailex Corporation (b. 1937)\n 2013 – Colin Davis, English conductor and educator (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – R. P. Goenka, Indian businessman, founded RPG Group (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – George Jackson, American singer-songwriter (b. 1945)\n* 2013 – Armando Villanueva, Peruvian politician, 121st Prime Minister of Peru (b. 1915)\n* 2013 – Charlie Wilson, American politician (b. 1943)\n2014 – Nina Cassian, Romanian poet and critic (b. 1924)\n 2014 – Crad Kilodney, American-Canadian author (b. 1948)\n* 2014 – Wally Olins, English businessman and academic (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – Mick Staton, American soldier and politician (b. 1940)\n2015 – Klaus Bednarz, German journalist and author (b. 1942)\n 2015 – Mark Reeds, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1960)\n* 2015 – Percy Sledge, American singer (b. 1940)\n* 2015 – Roberto Tucci, Italian cardinal and theologian (b. 1921)\n", "Ambedkar Jayanti (India)\nBlack Day (South Korea)\nChristian feast day:\nBénézet\nHenry Beard Delany (Episcopal Church (USA))\nDomnina of Terni\nLidwina\nPeter González\nTiburtius, Valerian, and Maximus\nApril 14 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nCommemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan) \nDhivehi Language Day (Maldives)\nDay of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia)\nDay of the Georgian language (Georgia)\nN'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers)\nNew Year festivals in South and Southeast Asian cultures, celebrated on the sidereal vernal equinox. (see April 13):\nAssamese New Year, or Bohag Bihu (India's Assam Valley)\nBengali New Year, or Pohela Boishakh (Bangladesh and India's West Bengal state)\nBurmese New Year, or Thingyan (Burma)\nHindu and Sikh New Year, or Vaisakhi (Punjab region)\nKhmer New Year, or Chol Chnam Thmey (Cambodia)\nLao New Year, or Songkan / Pi Mai Lao (Laos)\nMahl New Year, or Alathu Aharudhuvas (Maldives and India's Lakshadweep and Kerala state)\nMaithili New Year, or Jude Sheetal (Mithila region) \nMalayali New Year, or Vishu (India's Kerala state)\nNepali New Year, or Navabarsha / Vaishak Ek (Nepal)\nOriya/Odia New Year, or Pana Sankranti (India's Odisha state)\nSinhalese New Year, or Aluth Avurudhu (Sri Lanka)\nTamil New Year, or Puthandu (India's Tamil Nadu state)\nThai New Year, or Songkran, celebrated from 13 to 15 April (Thailand)\nTuluva New Year, or Bisu (India's Karnataka state)\nPan American Day (several countries in The Americas)\nThe first day of Takayama Spring Festival (Takayama, Gifu, Japan)\nYouth Day (Angola)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 14
[ "\n\n\n'''Astoria''' is a port city and the seat of Clatsop County, Oregon, United States. Situated near the mouth of the Columbia River where it meets the Pacific Ocean, the city was named after John Jacob Astor, an investor from New York City whose American Fur Company founded Fort Astoria at the site in 1811, . Astoria was incorporated by the Oregon Legislative Assembly on October 20, 1876.\n\nIt holds the distinction of being the first permanent United States settlement on the Pacific coast and for having the first U.S. post office west of the Rocky Mountains.\n\nLocated on the south shore of the Columbia River, the city is served by the deepwater Port of Astoria. Transportation includes the Astoria Regional Airport with U.S. Route 30 and U.S. Route 101 as the main highways, and the Astoria–Megler Bridge connecting to neighboring Washington across the river. The population was 9,477 at the 2010 census.\n", "=== 19th century ===\nThe Lewis and Clark Expedition spent the winter of 1805–06 at Fort Clatsop, a small log structure south and west of modern-day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, but instead they endured a torturous winter of rain and cold, later returning the way they came. Today the fort has been recreated and is now a historical park.\nGabriel Franchère's 1813 sketch of Fort Astoria.\n\nIn 1811, British explorer David Thompson, the first person known to have navigated the entire length of the Columbia River, reached the partially constructed Fort Astoria near the mouth of the river. He arrived just two months after the Pacific Fur Company's ship, the ''Tonquin''. The fort constructed by the Tonquin party established Astoria as a U.S., rather than a British, settlement, became a vital post for American exploration of the continent and was later used as an American claim in the Oregon boundary dispute with European nations.\n\nThe Pacific Fur Company, a subsidiary of John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company, was created to begin fur trading in the Oregon Country. During the War of 1812, in 1813, the company's officers sold its assets to their Canadian rivals, the North West Company. The fur trade would remain under British control until U.S. pioneers following the Oregon Trail began filtering into the town in the mid-1840s. The Treaty of 1818 established joint U.S. – British occupancy of the Oregon Country.\n\n\nIn 1846, the Oregon Treaty divided the mainland at the 49th parallel north, and the southern portion of Vancouver Island south of this line was awarded to the British.\n\nWashington Irving, a prominent American writer with a European reputation, was approached by John Jacob Astor to mythologize the three-year reign of his Pacific Fur Company. ''Astoria'' (1835), written while Irving was Astor's guest, cemented the importance of the region in the American psyche. In Irving's words, the fur traders were \"Sinbads of the wilderness\", and their venture was a staging point for the spread of American economic power into both the continental interior and into the Pacific.\n\n\nAs the Oregon Territory grew and became increasingly more colonized by Americans, Astoria likewise grew as a port city near the mouth of the great river that provided the easiest access to the interior. The first U.S. post office west of the Rocky Mountains was established in Astoria in 1847 and official state incorporation in 1876.\n\nAstoria attracted a host of immigrants beginning in the late 19th century: Nordic settlers, primarily Finns, and Chinese soon became larger parts of the population. The Finns mostly lived in Uniontown, near the present-day end of the Astoria–Megler Bridge, and took fishing jobs; the Chinese tended to do cannery work, and usually lived either downtown or in bunkhouses near the canneries. By the late 1800s, 22% of Astoria's population was Chinese.\n\n=== 20th and 21st centuries ===\nIn 1883, and again in 1922, downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, partly because it was mostly wood and entirely raised off the marshy ground on pilings. Even after the first fire, the same format was used, and the second time around the flames spread quickly again, as collapsing streets took out the water system. Frantic citizens resorted to dynamite, blowing up entire buildings to stop the fire from going further.\n\n\n 85px\n\n \n\n \n\n \n\nThe Port of Astoria (2009).\nAstoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin, although it has long since been eclipsed by Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, as an economic hub on the coast of the Pacific Northwest. Astoria's economy centered on fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia; however, in 1974, the Bumblebee Seafood corporation moved its headquarters out of Astoria and gradually reduced its presence until closing its last Astoria cannery in 1980. The lumber industry likewise declined; Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closed in 1989, and the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway discontinued service to Astoria in 1996.\nThe Astoria–Megler Bridge.\nFrom 1921 to 1966, a ferry route across the Columbia River connected Astoria with Pacific County, Washington. In 1966, the Astoria–Megler Bridge was opened. The bridge completed U.S. Route 101 and linked Astoria with Washington on the opposite shore of the Columbia, replacing the ferry service.\n\nToday, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. Logging and fishing persist, but at a fraction of their former levels. It is a port of call for cruise ships since 1982, after $10 million in pier improvements to accommodate these larger ships. To avoid Mexican ports of call during the Swine Flu outbreak of 2009, many cruises were re-routed to include Astoria. The residential community ''The World'' visited Astoria in June 2009. The town's seasonal sport fishing tourism has been active for several decades\n\n and has now been supplanted with visitors coming for the historic elements of the city. The more recent microbrewery/brewpub scene and a weekly street market have helped popularized the area as a destination.\n\nThe Astoria Column.\nIn addition to the replicated Fort Clatsop, another point of interest is the Astoria Column, a tower high, built atop Coxcomb Hill above the town, with an inner circular staircase allowing visitors to climb to see a panoramic view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the Columbia flowing into the Pacific. The tower was built in 1926 with financing by the Great Northern Railway and Vincent Astor of the Astor family, the great-grandson of John Jacob Astor, in commemoration of the city's role in the family's business history and the region's early history.\n\nSince 1998, artistically-inclined fishermen and women from Alaska and the Pacific Northwest have traveled to Astoria for the Fisher Poets Gathering, where poets and singers tell their tales to honor the fishing industry and lifestyle.\n\nAstoria is also the western terminus of the TransAmerica Bicycle Trail, a coast-to-coast bicycle touring route created in 1976 by the Adventure Cycling Association.\n\nThree United States Coast Guard cutters: the ''Steadfast'', ''Alert'', and ''Fir'', call the port of Astoria home.\n", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.\n\n===Climate===\nAstoria lies within the Mediterranean climate zone (Köppen ''Csb''), with very mild temperatures year-round, some of the most consistent in the contiguous United States; winters are mild for this latitude (it usually remains above freezing at night) and wet. Summers are cool, although short heat waves can occur. Rainfall is most abundant in late fall and winter and is lightest in July and August, averaging approximately of rain each year. Snowfall is relatively rare, occurring in only three-fifths of years. Nevertheless, when conditions are ripe, significant snowfalls can occur.\n\nAstoria is tied with Lake Charles, Louisiana, and Port Arthur, Texas, as the city with the highest average relative humidity in the contiguous United States. The average relative humidity in Astoria is 89% in the morning and 73% in the afternoon.\n\nAnnually, there are an average of only 4.2 afternoons with temperatures reaching or higher, and readings are rare. Normally there are only one or two nights per year when the temperature remains at or above . There are an average of 31 mornings with minimum temperatures at or below the freezing mark. The record high temperature was on July 1, 1942. The record low temperature was on December 8, 1972, and on December 21, 1990.\n\nThere are an average of 191 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest “rain year” was from July 1920 to June 1921 with and the driest from July 2000 to June 2001 with . The most rainfall in one month was in December 1933, and the most in 24 hours was on November 25, 1998. The most snowfall in one month was in January 1950, and the most snow in 24 hours was on December 11, 1922.\n\n\n", "\n\n===2010 census===\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 9,477 people, 4,288 households, and 2,274 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 4,980 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 89.2% White, 0.6% African American, 1.1% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.9% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.8% of the population.\n\nThere were 4,288 households of which 24.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.9% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.0% were non-families. 38.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.86.\n\nThe median age in the city was 41.9 years. 20.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.3% were from 25 to 44; 29.9% were from 45 to 64; and 17.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.\n\n===2000 census===\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,597.6 people per square mile (617.1 per km²). There were 4,858 housing units at an average density of 790.9 per square mile (305.5 per km²). The racial makeup of the city was:\n\n91.08% White\n0.52% Black or African American\n1.14% Native American\n1.94% Asian\n0.19% Pacific Islander\n2.67% from other races\n2.46% from two or more races\n\n5.98% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.\n\n14.2% were of German, 11.4% Irish, 10.2% English, 8.3% United States or American, 6.1% Finnish, 5.6% Norwegian, and 5.4% Scottish ancestry according to Census 2000.\n\nThere were 4,235 households out of which 28.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% were non-families. 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the average family size was 2.93.\n\nIn the city the population was spread out with:\n\n24.0% under the age of 18\n9.1% from 18 to 24\n26.4% from 25 to 44\n24.5% from 45 to 64\n15.9% 65 years of age or older.\n\nThe median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.9 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $33,011, and the median income for a family was $41,446. Males had a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,759. About 11.6% of families and 15.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.0% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over.\n", "Astoria operates under a council–manager form of city government. Voters elect four councilors by ward and a mayor, who each serve four-year terms. The mayor and council appoint a city manager to conduct the ordinary business of the city. The current mayor is Arline LaMear, who took office on January 5, 2015. Her predecessor, Willis Van Dusen, served as mayor for 24 years, starting in 1991.\n", "The Astoria School District has four primary and secondary schools, including Astoria High School. Clatsop Community College is the city's two-year college. The city also has a library and many parks with historical significance, plus the second oldest Job Corps facility (Tongue Point Job Corps) in the nation.\n\nFile:astor.jpg\|alt=Elementary School\|John Jacob Astor Elementary School\nFile:Astoria High School - Astoria Oregon.jpg\|alt=High School\|Astoria High School\nFile:Robert Gray School (Clatsop County, Oregon scenic images) (clatDA0040).jpg\|Robert Gray School (Astoria High School School)\|alt=Alternative School\n\n", "''The Daily Astorian'' is the main newspaper serving Astoria, it was established nearly , in 1873, and has been in publication continuously since that time. The ''Coast River Business Journal'' is a monthly business magazine covering Astoria, Clatsop County, and the Northwest Oregon coast. It, as with The Daily Astorian, is part of the EO Media Group (formerly the East Oregonian Publishing Company) family of Oregon and Washington newspapers. The local NPR station is KMUN 91.9, and KAST 1370 is a local news-talk radio station.\n", "The old Clatsop County Jail, used in the first scene of the film The Goonies. The site is now home to the Oregon Film Museum.\n\n''Shanghaied in Astoria'' is a musical about Astoria's history that has been performed in Astoria every year since 1984.\n\nAstoria was the setting of the 1985 film ''The Goonies'', which was filmed on location. Other movies filmed in Astoria include ''Short Circuit'', ''The Black Stallion'', ''Kindergarten Cop'', ''Free Willy'', ''Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home'', ''Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III'', ''Benji the Hunted'', ''The Ring Two'', ''Into the Wild'', ''The Guardian'' and ''Cthulhu''.\n\nThe early 1960s television series ''Route 66'' filmed the episode entitled \"One Tiger to a Hill\" in Astoria; it was broadcast on September 21, 1962.\n\nPop punk band The Ataris' fourth album was titled ''So Long, Astoria'' as an allusion to ''The Goonies''. A song of the same title is the album's first track. The album's back cover features news clippings from Astoria, including a picture of the port's water tower from a 2002 article on its demolition.\n", "\nTwo US Navy Cruisers were named USS ''Astoria'': A New Oleans-class heavy cruiser (CA-34) and a Cleveland class light cruiser (CL-90). The former was lost in combat in August 1942 at the World War II Pacific Ocean Battle of Savo Island, and the latter was scrapped in 1971 after being removed from active duty in 1949.\n", "Captain George Flavel House.\n* Columbia River Maritime Museum\n* Astoria Riverfront Trolley\n* Clatsop County Historical Society Heritage Museum, located in the Old City Hall\n* Astoria Regional Airport\n* Clatsop Spit\n* CGAS Astoria\n* Oregon Film Museum\n* Captain George Flavel House Museum\n* The Astoria Column (the highest point in Astoria)\n", "Astoria has one sister city, as designated by Sister Cities International:\n\n* Walldorf, Germany, which is the birthplace of Astoria's namesake, John Jacob Astor, who was born in Walldorf near Heidelberg on July 17, 1763. The sistercityship was founded on Astor's 200th birthday in 1963 in Walldorf by Walldorf's mayor Wilhelm Willinger and Astoria's mayor Harry Steinbock. \n", "\n\n", "* The Clatsop tribe of Native Americans\n* The Finnish Socialists of Astoria\n* Western Workmen's Co-operative Publishing Company\n* Columbia Memorial Hospital\n* Astoria Regional Airport\n* National Register of Historic Places listings in Clatsop County, Oregon - 43 Astoria structures & districts listed (2016)\n", "\nImage:Fort Clatsop replica 2007.jpg\|The replica of Fort Clatsop.\nImage:Astoria - Suomi Hall - CRW 3281.jpg\|Suomi Hall, the meeting hall of Finnish and Scandinavian immigrants, under the Astoria–Megler Bridge.\nImage:USCGC Alert (WMEC-630).jpg\|Coast Guard cutter Alert docked at Astoria.\nImage:Clatsop County Courthouse, Astoria, Oregon.JPG\|The Clatsop County Courthouse.\nImage:Cannery Pier Hotel (Clatsop County, Oregon scenic images) (clatDA0016).jpg\|The Cannery Pier Hotel.\nImage:USCGCCitySign.JPG\|The US Coast Guard pier.\nImage:Norwegian Pearl.jpg\|The Norwegian Pearl cruise ship docked at Astoria.\nImage:1852 US Custom House, Astoria, Oregon.jpg\|The 1852 U.S. Custom's House.\nImage:Flavel House (Astoria, Oregon).jpg\|The Flavel House Museum.\nImage:Columbia River Maritime Museum exterior in 2012.jpg\|The Columbia River Maritime Museum.\nImage:Liberty Theatre 1 (Astoria, Oregon).jpg\|The Liberty Theatre located in the Astor Building.\nImage:Welcome to Astoria.JPG\|The bicentennial Welcome to Astoria sign.\nImage:Old Columbia Hospital Building (Clatsop County, Oregon scenic images) (clatDA0020c).jpg\|The Old Columbia Hospital Building.\nImage:Heritage Museum (Clatsop County, Oregon scenic images) (clatDA0016a).jpg\|The Heritage Museum, located in the former Astoria City Hall.\nImage:John Jacob Astor Hotel, Astoria.JPG\|The former John Jacob Astor Hotel.\nImage:Green Pilings (4560895027).jpg\|Former cannery dock pilings at Astoria waterfront.\nImage:Astoria and Tongue Point, Oregon - panoramio.jpg\|An aerial view of the Astoria waterfront and Tongue Point in the distance.\nImage:Indian Burial Canoe (Clatsop County, Oregon scenic images) (clatD0067).jpg\|A Chinookan Indian Burial Canoe replica at the top of Coxcomb Hill.\n\n", "===Notes===\n\n===References===\n\n \n* \n\n", " Ebeling, Herbert C.: ''Johann Jakob Astor.'' Walldorf, Germany: Astor-Stiftung, 1998. .\n* Leedom, Karen L.: ''Astoria: An Oregon History.'' Astoria, Oregon: Rivertide Publishing, 2008. .\n* Elma MacGibbons reminiscences about her travels in the United States starting in 1898, which were mainly in Oregon and Washington. Includes chapter \"Astoria and the Columbia River.\"\n", "\n\n\n* Entry for Astoria in the ''Oregon Blue Book''\n* Astoria-Warrenton Chamber of Commerce\n* Astoria Documentary produced by Oregon Public Broadcasting\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Geography", "Demographics", "Government", "Education", "Media", "In popular culture", "Warships named ''Astoria''", "Museums and other points of interest", "Sister cities", "Notable people", "See also", "Image gallery", "Notes and references", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Astoria, Oregon
[ "'''''Alarums and Excursions''''' ('''''A&E''''') is an amateur press association started in June 1975 by Lee Gold (at the request of Bruce Pelz, who felt that discussion of ''Dungeons & Dragons'' was taking up too much space in APA-L, the APA of Los Angeles's SF Fandom, usually collated at the Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society). It was the first publication to focus solely on role-playing games. The initial aim of the publication was to prevent the playing styles to become so divergent that people couldn't participate in games together. \n\nEach issue is a collection of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions. It was a four-time winner of the Charles Roberts/Origins Award, winning \"Best Amateur Adventure Gaming Magazine\" in 1984, \"Best Amateur Game Magazine\" in 1999, and \"Best Amateur Game Periodical\" in 2000 and 2001.\n\nAlthough game reports and social reactions are common parts of many ''A&E'' contributions, it has also, over the years, become a testing ground for new ideas on the development of the RPG as a genre and an art form. The idea that role-playing games ''are'' an art form took strong root in this zine, and left a lasting impression on many of the RPG professionals who contributed.\n\nThe June 2017 collation of ''Alarums and Excursions'' was #500, with a color cover drawn by Lee Moyer and printed by Rob Heinsoo.\n\nOver the years, contributors have included: \n* Wilf K. Backhaus\n* Greg Costikyan\n* John M. Ford\n* E. Gary Gygax\n* David A. Hargrave\n* Rob Heinsoo\n* John Eric Holmes\n* Robin Laws\n* Steve Marsh\n* Phil McGregor\n* Dave Nalle\n* Mark Rein·Hagen\n* John T. Sapienza, Jr.\n* Edward E. Simbalist\n* Jonathan Tweet\n* Erick Wujcik\n* John Nephew\n* Spike Y Jones\n* Doc Cross\n* Scott Bennie\n* Ken Rolston\n* Nicole Lindroos\n* Terry K. Amthor\n* Wes Ives\n\n\nThe role-playing game ''Over the Edge'' was inspired by discussions in ''A&E''.\n\n\"''Alarums and excursions''\" is a stage direction for the moving of soldiers across a stage, used in Elizabethan drama.\n", "\n", "* Alarums and Excursions page\n* Lee Gold's index of APA-L's pre-A&E D&D-related content\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References", "External links" ]	Alarums and Excursions
[ "\n\n\n'''Alfred Jarry''' (; 8 September 1873 – 1 November 1907) was a French symbolist writer who is best known for his play ''Ubu Roi'' (1896). He also coined the term and philosophical concept of 'pataphysics.\n\nJarry was born in Laval, Mayenne, France, and his mother was from Brittany. He was associated with the Symbolist movement. His play ''Ubu Roi'' (1896) is often cited as a forerunner of Dada, and to the Surrealist and Futurist movements of the 1920s and 1930. Jarry wrote in a variety of hybrid genres and styles, prefiguring the postmodern. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism. His texts are considered examples of absurdist literature and postmodern philosophy.\n", "Alfred Jarry, ''Deux aspects de la marionnette original d'Ubu Roi'', premiered at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre on 10 December 1896\nAt the lycée in Rennes when he was 15, he led a group of boys who enjoyed poking fun at their well-meaning, but obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and his classmate, Henri Morin, wrote a play they called ''Les Polonais'' and performed it with marionettes in the home of one of their friends. The main character, ''Père Heb'', was a blunderer with a huge belly, three teeth (one of stone, one of iron and one of wood), a single, retractable ear and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work ''Ubu Roi'', Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.\n\nAt 17 Jarry passed his baccalauréat and moved to Paris to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, ''Les minutes de sable mémorial'', was published in 1893.\n\nThat same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent.\n\nJarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called \"my sacred herb\" or, when referring to absinthe, the \"green goddess.\" A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).\n\nWhen he was drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame—the army did not issue uniforms small enough—was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired his novel ''Days and Nights''.\n\nPère Ubu (later: Ubu Roi), from a woodcut by Alfred Jarry\n\nJarry returned to Paris and applied himself to writing, drinking and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with Remy de Gourmont in the publication of ''L'Ymagier ,'' a luxuriously produced \"art\" magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. Symbolism as an art movement was in full swing at this time, and ''L'Ymagier'' provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's play ''Caesar Antichrist'' (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical Book of Revelation as a point of departure, ''Caesar Antichrist'' presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which Christ is resurrected not as an agent of spirituality but as an agent of the Roman Empire that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique narrative that effectively links the domination of the soul to contemporaneous advances in the field of Egyptology such as the 1894 excavation of the Narmer Palette, an ancient artifact used for situating the rebus within hermeneutics. The character Ubu Roi first appears in this play.\n\nThe spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review ''Le Livre d'art'', of Jarry's 5-act play ''Ubu Roi,'' the rewritten and expanded ''Les Polonais'' of his school days. ''Ubu Roi''s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Œuvre.\n\nOn opening night (10 December 1896), with traditionalists and the avant-garde in the audience, King Ubu (played by Firmin Gémier) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, \"Merdre!\" (often translated as \"Pshit\" or \"Shittr!\" in English). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more degenerate contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until after Jarry's death.\n\nThe play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the royal ''we'', and called the wind \"that which blows\" and the bicycle he rode everywhere \"that which rolls.\"\n\nJarry moved into a flat which the landlord had created through the unusual expedient of subdividing a larger flat by means of a horizontal rather than a vertical partition. The diminutive Jarry could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry also took to carrying a loaded revolver. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, \"If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you.\"\n\nCorbeil in 1898 on his ''cycle Clément''.\n\nWith Franc-Nohain and Claude Terrasse he co-founded the Théatre des Pantins, which in 1898 was the site of marionette performances of ''Ubu Roi''.\n\nLiving in worsening poverty, neglecting his health and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write the novel ''Le Surmâle'' (''The Supermale''), which is partly a satire on the Symbolist ideal of self-transcendence.\n\nUnpublished until after his death, his fiction ''Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician'' (''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien'') describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of '''pataphysics''. 'Pataphysics deals with \"the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one.\" In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.\n\nJarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, \"If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion.\"\n\nIn his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. Guillaume Apollinaire, André Salmon and Max Jacob sought him out in his truncated apartment. Pablo Picasso was fascinated with Jarry. After Jarry's death Picasso acquired his revolver and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris. He later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.\n\nJarry died in Paris on 1 November 1907 of tuberculosis, aggravated by drug and alcohol use. When he could not afford alcohol, he drank ether. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the Cimetière de Bagneux, near Paris.\n\nThe complete works of Alfred Jarry are published in three volumes by Gallimard in the collection ''Bibliothèque de la Pléiade''.\n", "\n===Plays===\n* ''César-Antéchrist'' (1895) - (''Caesar Antichrist'') – which introduces Père Ubu and his symbolic meaning.\n* ''Ubu Roi'' (1896, revised from 1888) - (''Ubu Rex'') – which portrays the ambition of Père Ubu.\n* ''Ubu Cocu, ou l'Archeopteryx (1897) - (Ubu Cuckolded'') - which portrays the inconstancy of Ubu's closest. \n* ''Ubu Enchaíné'' (1899) - (''Ubu in Chains'') – which portrays Père Ubu in service.\n* ''Ubu Sur La Butte'' (1906)\n\n===Novels===\n* ''Les Jours et Les Nuits, roman d'un déserteur'' (1897) - (''Days and Nights, novel of a deserter''). \n* ''L'Amour en Visites'' (1897) - (''Love in Visits''). \n* ''L'Amour Absolu'' (1899) - (''Absolute Love'').\n* ''Messaline'' (1900) - (''Messalina'') – set in ancient Rome.\n* ''Le Surmâle'' (1902) - (''The Supermale'') - features a superhuman bicycle race that is propelled by perpetual motion food (alcohol).\n* ''Gestes et Opinions du Docteur Faustroll, Pataphysicien'' (''Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, Pataphysician'') – published posthumously in 1911.\n* ''La Dragonne'' – assembled and published posthumously in 1943.\n\n===Other notable works===\n* Short story ''La Passion considérée comme course de côte'' (''The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race'') has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by J. G. Ballard and Robert Anton Wilson.\n* ''Les Minutes de Sable Memorial'' (1894) - (''Minutes of Memorial Sand'') – a collection of short early works including the symbolist play ''Haldernablou''.\n* ''La Chandelle Verte: Lumières sur les Choses de ce Temps'' - (''The Green Candle'') – a collection of absurdist essays originally published in reviews and collected in 1969.\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Stillman, Linda Klieger (1980). ''La Theatralité dans l'Œuvre d'Alfred Jarry''. U.S.: French Literature Publications Company. \n* Stillman, Linda Klieger (1983). ''Alfred Jarry''. U.S.: Twayne Publishers, .\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Alfred Jarry: Absinthe, Bicycles and Merdre\n* 'Ubusing' Culture. Alfred Jarry's Subversive Poetics in the Almanachs du Père Ubu. Thesis.\n* DVD of \"UBUS\" play by the Portuguese TNSJ subtitles in English.\n* ''Ubu Roi ou Les Polonais'' at athena.unige.ch\n* ''Calendrier du Père Ubu pour 1901'' at athena.unige.ch\n* collection.spencer art Clement Luxury 96 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography and works", "Selected Jarry works", " Bibliography ", " References ", " External links " ]	Alfred Jarry

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