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[ "\n\nThis article is about the demographic features of the population of Antigua and Barbuda, including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\n", "Population pyramid\nPopulation of Antigua and Barbuda, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\nAccording to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of Antigua and Barbuda was 86,295.\nThe estimated population of is ().\n", "\n\n\n\nAverage population \nLive births\nDeaths\nNatural change\nCrude birth rate (per 1000)\nCrude death rate (per 1000)\nNatural change (per 1000)\nInfant mortality rate\nTFR\n\n 1950\n ~46 000\n1 654\n 535\n1 119\n35.7\n11.6\n24.2\n\n 1951\n ~48 000\n1 676\n 605\n1 071\n34.7\n12.5\n22.2\n\n 1952\n ~50 000\n1 612\n 526\n1 086\n32.3\n10.5\n21.8\n\n 1953\n ~51 000\n1 687\n 599\n1 088\n33.0\n11.7\n21.3\n\n 1954\n ~52 000\n1 660\n 532\n1 128\n31.9\n10.2\n21.7\n\n 1955\n ~53 000\n1 880\n 516\n1 364\n35.7\n9.8\n25.9\n\n 1956\n ~53 000\n1 917\n 497\n1 420\n36.1\n9.4\n26.8\n\n 1957\n ~53 000\n1 764\n 512\n1 252\n33.0\n9.6\n23.4\n\n 1958\n ~54 000\n1 818\n 551\n1 267\n33.8\n10.3\n23.6\n\n 1959\n ~54 000\n1 831\n 517\n1 314\n33.8\n9.5\n24.3\n\n 1960\n ~55 000\n1 878\n 538\n1 340\n34.3\n9.8\n24.5\n\n 1961\n ~55 000\n1 768\n 503\n1 265\n31.9\n9.1\n22.8\n\n 1962\n ~56 000\n1 787\n 405\n1 382\n31.7\n7.2\n24.5\n\n 1963\n ~57 000\n1 833\n 574\n1 259\n32.0\n10.0\n21.9\n\n 1964\n ~59 000\n1 886\n 500\n1 386\n32.2\n8.5\n23.7\n\n 1965\n ~60 000\n1 742\n 484\n1 258\n29.2\n8.1\n21.1\n\n 1966\n ~61 000\n1 745\n 492\n1 253\n28.7\n8.1\n20.6\n\n 1967\n ~62 000\n1 794\n 440\n1 354\n28.9\n7.1\n21.8\n\n 1968\n ~63 000\n1 811\n 513\n1 298\n28.7\n8.1\n20.5\n\n 1969\n ~64 000\n1 527\n 410\n1 117\n23.7\n6.4\n17.4\n\n 1970\n ~65 000\n1 540\n 411\n1 129\n23.6\n6.3\n17.3\n\n 1971\n ~66 000\n1 700\n 414\n1 286\n25.6\n6.2\n19.4\n\n 1972\n ~67 000\n1 573\n 455\n1 118\n23.4\n6.8\n16.6\n\n 1973\n ~68 000\n1 257\n 377\n 880\n18.5\n5.5\n12.9\n\n 1974\n ~69 000\n1 274\n 496\n 778\n18.6\n7.2\n11.3\n\n 1975\n ~69 000\n1 336\n 463\n 873\n19.3\n6.7\n12.6\n\n 1976\n ~70 000\n1 522\n 491\n1 031\n21.8\n7.0\n14.8\n\n 1977\n ~70 000\n1 429\n 489\n 940\n20.3\n7.0\n13.4\n\n 1978\n ~71 000\n1 342\n 402\n 940\n19.0\n5.7\n13.3\n\n 1979\n ~71 000\n1 397\n 469\n 928\n19.8\n6.6\n13.2\n\n 1980\n ~70 000\n1 238\n 387\n 851\n17.6\n5.5\n12.1\n\n 1981\n ~70 000\n1 177\n 377\n 800\n16.9\n5.4\n11.5\n\n 1982\n ~69 000\n1 152\n 394\n 758\n16.7\n5.7\n11.0\n\n 1983\n ~68 000\n1 174\n 404\n 770\n17.3\n5.9\n11.3\n\n 1984\n ~67 000\n1 126\n 386\n 740\n16.8\n5.8\n11.1\n\n 1985\n ~66 000\n1 190\n 405\n 785\n18.1\n6.2\n11.9\n\n 1986\n ~65 000\n1 130\n 383\n 747\n17.5\n5.9\n11.6\n\n 1987\n ~63 000\n1 104\n 417\n 687\n17.4\n6.6\n10.8\n\n 1988\n ~63 000\n1 107\n 389\n 718\n17.7\n6.2\n11.5\n\n 1989\n ~62 000\n1 137\n 415\n 722\n18.3\n6.7\n11.7\n\n 1990\n ~62 000\n1 288\n 433\n 855\n20.8\n7.0\n13.8\n\n 1991\n ~62 000\n1 178\n 438\n 740\n18.9\n7.0\n11.9\n\n 1992\n ~63 000\n1 256\n 442\n 814\n19.8\n7.0\n12.8\n\n 1993\n ~65 000\n1 228\n 455\n 773\n18.9\n7.0\n11.9\n\n 1994\n ~67 000\n1 271\n 451\n 820\n19.1\n6.8\n12.3\n\n 1995\n ~68 000\n1 347\n 434\n 913\n19.7\n6.3\n13.4\n\n 1996\n ~70 000\n1 400\n 429\n 971\n19.9\n6.1\n13.8\n\n 1997\n ~72 000\n1 448\n 468\n 980\n20.0\n6.5\n13.6\n\n 1998\n ~74 000\n1 366\n 456\n 910\n18.4\n6.1\n12.3\n\n 1999\n ~76 000\n1 329\n 509\n 820\n17.5\n6.7\n10.8\n\n 2000\n ~78 000\n1 528\n 447\n1 081\n19.7\n5.8\n13.9\n\n 2001\n ~79 000\n1 366\n 457\n 909\n17.3\n5.8\n11.5\n\n 2002\n ~80 000\n1 201\n 434\n 767\n15.0\n5.4\n9.6\n\n 2003\n ~81 000\n1 242\n 437\n 805\n15.4\n5.4\n10.0\n\n 2004\n ~82 000\n1 272\n 527\n 745\n15.6\n6.4\n9.1\n15.6\n\n 2005\n 82 786\n1 243\n 497\n 746\n15.0\n6.0\n9.0\n13.1\n1.6\n\n 2006\n 84 330\n1 207\n 465\n 742\n14.3\n5.8\n8.5\n10.9\n1.6\n\n 2007\n 85 901\n1 295\n 471\n 824\n15.1\n5.5\n9.6\n21.7\n1.7\n\n 2008\n 87 506\n1 452\n 543\n 909\n16.6\n6.2\n10.4\n17.4\n1.8\n\n 2009\n 89 138\n1 418\n 523\n 895\n15.9\n5.7\n10.2\n11.4\n1.8\n\n 2010\n 90 801\n1 255\n 504\n 751\n13.8\n5.6\n8.2\n10.5\n1.5\n\n 2011\n \n1 257\n 478\n 779\n\n\n\n22.6\n\n 2012\n \n1 187\n 510\n 677\n\n\n\n15.3\n\n\n===Structure of the population===\n\nStructure of the population (27.05.2011) (Census) :\n\n\nAge Group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\n%\n\n Total\n 40 986\n 44 581\n 85 567\n 100\n\n 0-4\n 3 361\n 3 262\n 6 623\n 7,74\n\n 5-9\n 3 272\n 3 188\n 6 460\n 7,55\n\n 10-14\n 3 690 \n 3 638\n 7 329\n 8,57\n\n 15-19\n 3 554\n 3 519\n 7 073\n 8,27\n\n 20-24\n 3 206\n 3 418\n 6 624\n 7,74\n\n 25-29\n 3 135\n 3 512\n 6 647\n 7,77\n\n 30-34\n 3 101\n 3 516\n 6 617\n 7,73\n\n 35-39\n 3 049\n 3 699\n 6 748\n 7,89\n\n 40-44\n 3 124\n 3 588\n 6 712\n 7,84\n\n 45-49\n 2 893\n 3 348\n 6 241\n 7,29\n\n 50-54\n 2 416\n 2 694\n 5 110\n 5,97\n\n 55-59\n 1 763\n 1 957\n 3 721\n 4,35\n\n 60-64\n 1 398\n 1 569\n 2 968\n 3,47\n\n 65-69\n 1 066\n 1 172\n 2 238\n 2,62\n\n 70-74\n 690\n 810\n 1 500\n 1,75\n\n 75-79\n 527\n 654\n 1 181\n 1,38\n\n 80-84\n 331\n 520\n 850\n 0,99\n\n 85-89\n 214\n 298\n 512\n 0,60\n\n 90-94\n 72\n 122\n 193\n 0,23\n\n 95+\n 27\n 57\n 84\n 0,10\n\n unknown\n 96\n 40\n 136\n 0,16\n\n\n\n\nAge group \nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n 0-14\n 10 323\n 10 088\n 20 411\n 23,85\n\n 15-64\n 27 736 \n 30 860\n 58 596\n 68,48\n\n 65+\n 2 927\n 3 633\n 6 560\n 7,67\n\n\n", "The population of Antigua and Barbuda, is predominantly black (91.0%) or mixed (4.4%). 1.9% of the population is white and 0.7% East Indian. There is also a small Amerindian population: 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 (0.3% of the total population). The remaining 1.6% of the population includes people from the Middle East (0.6%) and Chinese (0.2%).\n\nThe 2001 census disclosed that 19,425, or 30 per cent of the total population of Antigua and Barbuda, reported their place of birth as a foreign country. Over 15,000 of these persons were from other Caribbean states, representing 80 of the total foreign born. The main countries of\norigin were Guyana, Dominica and Jamaica. Approximately 4,500 or 23 per cent of all foreign\nborn came from Guyana, 3,300 or 17 per cent came from Dominica and 2,800 or 14 per cent\ncame from Jamaica. The largest single group from a country outside the region came from the\nUnited States. Of the total of 1,715 persons, nine per cent of the foreign born, came\nfrom the United States while three per cent and one per cent came from the United Kingdom and Canada, respectively. Many of these are the children of Antiguans and Barbudans who had emigrated to these countries, mainly during the 1980s, and subsequently returned.\n", "\nThe following demographic statistics are from The World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated \n\n===Population===\n92,436\n\n===Nationality===\nNoun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s)\nAdjective: Antiguan, Barbudan\n\n===Languages===\nEnglish (official)\nAntiguan creole\n\n===Ethnic groups===\nBlack 87.3%\nMixed 4.7%, \nHispanic 2.7%\nWhite 1.6%\nOther 2.7%\nUnspecified 0.9%\n\n===Religions===\nProtestant 68.3% \nAnglican 17.6%\nSeventh-day Adventist 12.4%\nPentecostal 12.2%\nMoravian 8.3%\nMethodist 5.6%\nWesleyan Holiness 4.5%\nChurch of God 4.1%\nBaptist 3.6%\nRoman Catholic 8.2%\nOther 12.2%\nUnspecified 5.5%\nNone 5.9%\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Population", "Vital statistics", "Ethnic groups", " The World Factbook demographic statistics ", "References" ]	Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda
[ "\nThis article is about communications systems in Antigua and Barbuda. \n", "'''Telephones – main lines in use:''' 37,500 (2006)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 168\n\n'''Telephones – mobile cellular:''' 110,200 (2006) (APUA PCS, Cable & Wireless, Digicel)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 177\n\n'''Telephone system:'''\n''domestic:'' good automatic telephone system\n''international:'' 3 fiber optic submarine cables (2 to St. Kitts and 1 to Guadeloupe); satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)\n", "'''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 4, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2002)\n\n\n+ Radio Stations of Anguilla\n Band / Freq.\n Call Sign\n Brand\n City of license\n Notes\n\n AM 620\n V2C\n ABS Radio and TV\n Saint John's, Antigua\n ABS; 5 kW\n\n AM 1100\n ZDK\n Radio ZDK\n Saint John's, Antigua\n Owner: Grenville Radio; 20 kW\n\n AM 1160\n Unknown\n Radio Lighthouse\n Saint John's, Antigua\n 10 kW\n\n AM 1580\n Unknown\n Unknown\n Judge Bay, Antigua\n 50 kW\n\n FM 88.5\n Unknown\n Power FM\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 89.7\n Unknown\n Catholic Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n 2 kW\n\n FM 90.5\n V2C-FM\n ABS Radio and TV\n Saint John's, Antigua\n repeats AM 620\n\n FM 91.1\n Unknown\n Observer Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 91.9\n Unknown\n Hitz 91.9\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 92.3\n Unknown\n Radio Lighthouse\n Saint John's, Antigua\n repeats AM 1160\n\n FM 92.9\n VYBZ-FM\n Vybz FM\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 93.9\n Unknown\n Caribbean SuperStation\n Saint John's, Antigua\n repeats Caribbean SuperStation from Trinidad\n\n FM 95.7\n Unknown\n Zoom Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 97.1\n ZDK\n Radio ZDK\n Saint John's, Antigua\n repeats AM 1100\n\n FM 98.5\n Unknown\n Red Hot Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 99.1\n Unknown\n Hit Radio Music Power\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 100.1\n Unknown (ZDKR-FM?)\n Sun FM\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 101.5\n Unknown\n Second Advent Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n 20 watts\n\n FM 102.3\n Unknown\n Variety Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n FM 103.1\n Unknown\n Life FM\n Codrington, Barbuda\n 1 kW\n\n FM 103.9\n Unknown\n Life FM\n Saint John's, Antigua\n repeats 103.1 Codrington\n\n FM 104.3\n Unknown\n Nice FM\n Codrington, Barbuda\n\n\n FM 107.3\n Unknown\n Crusader Radio\n Saint John's, Antigua\n\n\n SW 3.255 mHz\n V2C\n ABS Radio and TV\n Saint John's, Antigua\n Repeats AM 620\n\n\n'''Radios:''' 36,000 (1997)\n", "'''Television broadcast stations:''' 2 (1997)\n\n'''Televisions:''' 31,000 (1997)\n", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' Cable & Wireless, Antigua Computer Technologies (ACT), Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA INET)\n\n'''Internet hosts:''' 2,215 (2008)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 140\n\n'''Internet users:''' 60,000 (2007)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 158\n\n'''Country codes:''' AG\n", "*Antigua and Barbuda\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Telephone", "Radio", "Television", "Internet", "See also", "References" ]	Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force''' is the armed force of Antigua and Barbuda. The ABDF has responsibility for several different roles: internal security, prevention of drug smuggling, the protection and support of fishing rights, prevention of marine pollution, search and rescue, ceremonial duties, assistance to government programs, provision of relief during natural disasters, assistance in the maintenance of essential services, and support of the police in maintaining law and order.\n\nThe ABDF is one of the world's smallest militaries, consisting of 245 people. It is much better equipped for fulfilling its civil roles as opposed to providing a deterrence against would-be aggressors or in defending the nation during a war.\n", "380X Defender of the ABDF Coast Guard during the \"Tradewinds 2013\" joint training exercise\nThe ABDF consists of four major units:\nAntigua and Barbuda Regiment - comprises four line companies and is the infantry unit and fighting arm of the defence force.\nService and Support Unit - provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force.\nCoast Guard - the maritime element of the defence force, and is divided into four units:\nCommanding Officer's office\nEngineer Unit\nAdministration Unit\nFlotilla - the flotilla is the operational part of the Coast Guard, and consists of the following vessels and watercraft:\n1 Swiftships Shipbuilders 65-foot Commercial Cruiser-class patrol boat (P-01 ''Liberta''), in service since 1984\n1 SeaArk Boats Dauntless-class patrol boat (P-02 ''Palmetto''), in service since 1995\n1 Point-class cutter (P-03 ''Hermitage''), transferred from the US Coast Guard in 1998\n1 Defender 380X-class all-weather interceptor (D-8), date of acquisition unknown\n2 Boston Whaler 27-foot-class launches (071 and 072), in service since 1988\n1 Zodiac Marine & Pool 8.23-meter Hurricane-type rigid-hulled inflatable boat, in service since 1998\nAntigua and Barbuda Cadet Corps\n", "* In 1983 14 men of the ''Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force'' were deployed to Grenada during the Operation Urgent Fury.\n* In 1990 12 soldiers were sent to Trinidad after a failed coup attempt by radical Black Muslims against the constitutionally elected government headed by Prime Minister A.N.R. Robinson.\n* In 1995 members of the ''Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force'' were deployed in Haiti as a part of Operation Uphold Democracy.\n", "* - The Mercian Regiment\n", "\n", "* Regional Security System\n", "* Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force official page\n* Article on the ABDF by Dr Dion Phillips\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Organization", "Former deployments", "Alliances", "References", " See also ", "External links" ]	Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Antisemitism''' (also spelled '''anti-Semitism''' or '''anti-semitism''') is hostility to, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an '''antisemite'''. Antisemitism is generally considered to be a form of racism.\n\nAntisemitism may be manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, state police, or even military attacks on entire Jewish communities. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is now also applied to historic anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe, official Soviet anti-Jewish policies, and Arab and Muslim involvement in the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries.\n\nThe root word ''Semite'' gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, ''e.g.'', including Arabs. The compound word ''antisemite'' was popularized in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for ''Judenhass'' \"Jew-hatred\", and that has been its common use since then.\n", "\n===Etymology===\n1879 statute of the Antisemitic League\nThe origin of \"antisemitic\" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: \"The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' i.e., his derogation of the \"Semites\" as a race.\" Avner Falk similarly writes: 'The German word ''antisemitisch'' was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase ''antisemitische Vorurteile'' (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how \"Semitic races\" were inferior to \"Aryan races\"'.\n\nPseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and \"progress\" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase \"the Jews are our misfortune\" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term \"Semitic\" almost synonymously with \"Jewish\", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria.\n\nAccording to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to \"stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.\"\n\nCover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition\nIn 1879 German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, ''Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet'' (''The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective'') in which he used the word ''Semitismus'' interchangeably with the word ''Judentum'' to denote both \"Jewry\" (the Jews as a collective) and \"jewishness\" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).\n\nThis use of ''Semitismus'' was followed by a coining of \"Antisemitismus\" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, ''Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum'' (''The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit'', 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word '' Antisemitismus'', \"antisemitism\".\n\nThe pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the \"Anti-Kanzler-Liga\" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence, and advocating their forced removal from the country.\n\nSo far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte'', and Wilhelm Scherer used the term ''Antisemiten'' in the January issue of ''Neue Freie Presse''.\n\nThe Jewish Encyclopedia reports, \"In February 1881, a correspondent of the ''Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums'' speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use (\"Allg. Zeit. d. Jud.\" 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'\"\n\nThe related term \"philosemitism\" was coined around 1885.\n\n===Usage===\nFrom the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Assyrians) who are not the objects of anti-Semitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' has been used to describe bigotry against people who speak other Semitic languages, the validity of such usage has been questioned.\n\nThe term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Some scholars favor the unhyphenated form because, \"If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful\" whereas \"in antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that.\" For example, Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to \"dispel the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes.\" Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; Yehuda Bauer, professor of Holocaust studies at the Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry at Hebrew University of Jerusalem; and James Carroll, historian and novelist. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on \"the existence of something called 'Semitism'\", \"the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism\".\n\nObjections to the usage of the term, such as the obsolete nature of the term Semitic as a racial term, have been raised since at least the 1930s.\n\n===Definition===\nThough the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an \"umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews\", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.\n\nHolocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as \"a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews.\"\n\nElaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, \"Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character.\"\n\nFor Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.\n\nRothschild with the world in his hands\nBernard Lewis defines antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of \"cosmic evil.\" Thus, \"it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic\" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.\n\nThere have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that \"while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses.\" For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean \"hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity.\"\n\nIn 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: \"Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities.\" It also adds that \"such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity,\" but that \"criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic.\" It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including: promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. Late in 2013, the definition was removed from the website of the Fundamental Rights Agency. A spokesperson said that it had never been regarded as official and that the agency did not intend to develop its own definition. However, despite its disappearance from the website of the Fundamental Rights Agency, the definition has gained widespread international use. The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State, in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism, and in 2016 it was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, making it the most widely adopted definition of antisemitism around the world.\n1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described \"candidat antisémite\" Adolphe Willette: \"The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!\" (see file for complete translation)\n\n===Evolution of usage===\nIn 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the ''Antisemiten-Liga'' (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, ''The New York Times'' notes that Lueger was \"Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895 A. C. Cuza organized the ''Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle'' in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.\n\nIn 1882, the early Zionist pioneer Judah Leib Pinsker wrote that antisemitism was a psychological response rooted in fear and was an inherited predisposition. He named the condition ''Judeophobia''. \n\nIn the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: \"The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race.\"\n\nAfter the 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term \"anti-Semitism\" acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when \"Jew\" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: \"There are no anti-Semites in the world... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion.\"\n", "Jews (identified by the mandatory Jewish badge and Jewish hat) being burned during the Black Death in 1348.\nAntisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the \"origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods.\" König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create \"serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism.\" These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.\nWilliam Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:\npolitical and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero and Charles Lindbergh;\ntheological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism;\nnationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;\nand racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust by the Nazis.\n\nLouis Harap separates \"economic antisemitism\" and merges \"political\" and \"nationalistic\" antisemitism into \"ideological antisemitism\". Harap also adds a category of \"social antisemitism\".\n* religious (Jew as Christ-killer),\n* economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),\n* social (Jew as social inferior, \"pushy,\" vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),\n* racist (Jews as an inferior \"race\"),\n* ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),\n* cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).\n\nGustavo Perednik has argued that what he terms \"Judeophobia\" has a number of unique traits which set it apart from other forms of racism, including permanence, depth, obsessiveness, irrationality, endurance, ubiquity, and danger. He also wrote in his book ''The Judeophobia'' that \"The Jews were accused by the nationalists of being the creators of Communism; by the Communists of ruling Capitalism. If they live in non-Jewish countries, they are accused of double-loyalties; if they live in the Jewish country, of being racists. When they spend their money, they are reproached for being ostentatious; when they don't spend their money, of being avaricious. They are called rootless cosmopolitans or hardened chauvinists. If they assimilate, they are accused of being fifth-columnists, if they don't, of shutting themselves away.\"\n\n===Cultural antisemitism===\n\nLouis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as \"that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, \"Jewish\" culture. Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of \"Jewishness\" as a \"religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education.\" According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing \"unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation.\" Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning \"the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live.\"\nAn important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.\n\n===Religious antisemitism===\n\nMariana de Carabajal (converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601\nReligious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Christianized ''Marranos'' or Iberian Jews in the late 15th century and 16th century who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.\n\nAlthough the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that, \"most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism and the like.\" William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: \"The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism.\" From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, \"... the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.\"\n\n===Economic antisemitism===\nThe underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.\n\nLinking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting Antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by Henry Ford and his Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as ''The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews'' published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet.\nDerek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:\n:a) Jews are savages that \"are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor\"\n:b) Jews are \"leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination\"\n\nAbraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:\n#All Jews are wealthy\n#Jews are stingy and greedy\n#Powerful Jews control the business world\n#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism\n#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews\n#Jews use their power to benefit \"their own kind\"\n\nGerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as \"Jews control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world\". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as \"scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted\", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as \"clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate world finances\".\n\nLéon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of the economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, the economic antisemitism is \"distinct and nearly constant\" but theological antisemitism is \"often subdued\".\n\nAn academic study by Francesco D’Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of anti-Semitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded \"that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted, but of the persecutors as well.\"\n\n===Racial antisemitism===\n\nJewish Soviet soldier taken prisoner by the German Army, August 1941. At least 50,000 Jewish soldiers were shot after selection.\nRacial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion.\n\nRacial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or \"Aryans\", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.\n\nRacial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.\n\nAccording to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. \"The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism.\" However, with racial antisemitism, \"Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear.\"\n\nIn the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his ''Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race'' of 1853–5. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.\n\n===Political antisemitism===\n\n\"The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistially – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.\"\n\n— Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886, MA 1 475\n\nWilliam Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national and/or world power.\" Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to \"lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises\" while seeking to \"exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms.\"\n\nAccording to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.\n\n\n===Conspiracy theories===\n\n\nHolocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by the Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a \"Zionist plot\" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.\n\n===New antisemitism===\n\nStarting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik has posited that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and \"proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews\". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.\n\nCritics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misused to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.\n\n===Indology===\n\nGerman indologists arbitrarily identified \"layers\" in the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita with the objective of fueling European anti-Semitism via the Indo-Aryan migration theory. This identification required equating Brahmins with Jews, resulting in anti-Brahmanism.\n", "\nThe massacre of the Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627\nMany authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:\n#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature\n#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times\n#Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class\n#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism\n#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century\n#Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism\n\nChanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: \"ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.\"\n\n===Ancient world===\n\nThe first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the \"absurdity of their Law\", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the ''Shabbat''. One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.\n\nIn view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by \"the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices\". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the ''poleis''. Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.\nStatements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses \"in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life.\" Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses \"not to adore the gods.\" Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially \"cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings.\"\n\nThere are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.\n\nThe Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.\n\nRelationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.\n\nJames Carroll asserted: \"Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million.\"\n\n===Persecutions during the Middle Ages===\n\n\nIn the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbad Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with \"civic and ecclesiastic punishments\", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.\n\nFrom the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews (and Christians) as ''dhimmi'', and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the ''dhimmis'' harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages in Europe there was persecution against Jews in many places, with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. A main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious.\n\nThe persecution hit its first peak during the Crusades. In the First Crusade (1096) hundreds or even thousands of Jews were killed as the crusaders arrived. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.\n\nIn the Second Crusade (1147) the Jews in Germany were subject to several massacres. The Jews were also subjected to attacks by the Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320. The Crusades were followed by expulsions, including, in 1290, the banishing of all English Jews; in 1394, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews in France; and in 1421, the expulsion of thousands from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.\n\nAs the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.\n\n===17th century===\nDuring the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called ''jasyr''.\n\nEuropean immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.\n\nIn the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.\n\n===Enlightenment===\nIn 1744, Frederick II of Prussia limited the number of Jews allowed to live in Breslau to only ten so-called \"protected\" Jewish families and encouraged a similar practice in other Prussian cities. In 1750 he issued the ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the \"protected\" Jews had an alternative to \"either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin\" (quoting Simon Dubnow). In the same year, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that \"Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution.\"\n\nIn 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews of the Pale of Settlement to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland.\n\nAccording to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's \"Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative\". Paul H. Meyer adds: \"There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France.\" Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's ''Dictionnaire Philosophique'' concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.\n\n===Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century===\nHistorian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: \"I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching them to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan.\"\n\nIn the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: \"…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt….\"\n\n===Secular or racial antisemitism===\n\nIn 1850 the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called \"the inventor of modern antisemitism\" – published ''Das Judenthum in der Musik'' (roughly \"Jewishness in Music\") under a pseudonym in the ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik''. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly \"German\" art. The crux was, of course, the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:\n\nAccording to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.\n\nAlthough originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.\n \nAntisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in \"The Good Bargain\" (\"''Der gute Handel\"'') and \"The Jew Among Thorns\" (''\"Der Jude im Dorn\"'').\n\nThe middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress, but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.\n\nIn America, even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.\n\nThe Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.\n\nAdolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.\n\nSome scholars view Karl Marx's essay ''On The Jewish Question'' as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it. Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that \"On the Jewish Question\" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that \"This work On The Jewish Question has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation.\" David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret ''On the Jewish Question'' in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of ''The Jewish Question'', about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that \"Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians\". According to McLellan, Marx used the word ''Judentum'' colloquially, as meaning ''commerce'', arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as \"an extended pun at Bauer's expense\".\n\n===20th century===\n\nThe victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav\n\nBetween 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the USA, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.\n\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented incidents of blood-libel in Europe. Christians used allegations of Jews killing Christians as a justification for the killing of Jews.\n\nAntisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper ''The Dearborn Independent'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that \"in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money\".\n\nIn the early 1940s the aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led The America First Committee in opposing any involvement in the war against Fascism. During his July 1936 visit to Germany, Lindbergh wrote letters saying that there was \"more intelligent leadership in Germany than is generally recognized\". The German American Bund held parades in New York City during the late 1930s, where members wore Nazi uniforms and raised flags featuring swastikas alongside American flags.\n\nSometimes race riots, as in Detroit in 1943, targeted Jewish businesses for looting and burning.\n\nA wagon piled high with corpses outside the crematorium at the recently liberated thumb\n\n1941 decree of Boris III of Bulgaria for approval of the antisemitic Law for protection of the nation\nIn Germany, Nazism led Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, who came to power on 30 January 1933 shortly afterwards instituted repressive legislation which denied the Jews basic civil rights. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between \"Aryans\" and Jews as ''Rassenschande'' (\"race disgrace\") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship, (their official title became \"subjects of the state\"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed ''Kristallnacht'', in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, Kraków, Lvov, Lublin and Radom. After the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.\n\nAntisemitism was commonly used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts in the Soviet Union, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy-theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the \"rootless cosmopolitan\" (euphemism for \"Jew\") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot (1952–1953). Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.\n\nAfter the war, the Kielce pogrom and the \"March 1968 events\" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland has a common theme of blood libel rumours.\n\n=== 21st-century European antisemitism ===\n\n\n Physical assaults against Jews in those countries included beatings, stabbings and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that \"European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism.\"\n\nThis rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both the Muslim anti-Semitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.\n\nIn Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states has brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government alongside with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Most of the antisemitic incidents are against Jewish cemeteries and building (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.\n\nEuropeans are concerned about antisemitism because, historically, societies with a large degree of anti-Semitism are self-destructive. Furthermore, the Jews of Europe have generally aligned themselves with Europe's democratic elite, a class whose future is uncertain according to the Economist Intelligence Unit.\n\n=== 21st-century Arab antisemitism ===\n\nDisplaced Iraqi Jews arrive in Israel in 1951 during the Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries\nRobert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is \"deeply ingrained and institutionalized\" in \"Arab nations in modern times.\"\n\nIn a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held few positive opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly had few who held positive views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.\n\nAccording to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of ''Newsweek'', \"anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic.\"\n\nMuslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.\n\nAccording to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.\n", "\nAntisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat. Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have arisen by many Jews having strictly kept to their own communities, with their own practices and laws.\n\nIt has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in Europe during Medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Factors contributing to this situation included that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral \"usury\".\n\n\n", "\n\nA March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.\n\n=== Africa ===\n\n\n====Algeria====\n\nAlmost all Jews in Algeria left upon independence in 1962. Algeria's 140,000 Jews had French citizenship since 1870 (briefly revoked by Vichy France in 1940), and they mainly went to France, with some going to Israel.\n\n====Egypt====\nIn Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's antisemitic treatise, ''The International Jew'', complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.\n\nOn 5 May 2001, after Shimon Peres visited Egypt, the Egyptian ''al-Akhbar'' internet paper said that \"lies and deceit are not foreign to Jews.... For this reason, Allah changed their shape and made them into monkeys and pigs.\"\n\nIn July 2012, Egypt's Al Nahar channel fooled actors into thinking they were on an Israeli television show and filmed their reactions to being told it was an Israeli television show. In response, some of the actors launched into antisemitic rants or dialogue, and many became violent. Actress Mayer El Beblawi said that \"Allah did not curse the worm and moth as much as he cursed the Jews\" while actor Mahmoud Abdel Ghaffar launched into a violent rage and said, \"You brought me someone who looks like a Jew... I hate the Jews to death\" after finding out it was a prank.\n\n====Libya====\n\nLibya had once one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to 300 BCE. Despite the repression of Jews in the late 1930, as a result of the pro-Nazi Fascist Italian regime, Jews were third of the population of Libya till 1941. In 1942 the Nazi German troops occupied the Jewish quarter of Benghazi, plundering shops and deporting more than 2,000 Jews across the desert. Sent to work in labor camps, more than one-fifth of this group of Jews perished. A series of pogroms started in November 1945, while more than 140 Jews were killed in Tripoli and most synagogues in the city looted.\nUpon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated from Libya. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, another series of pogroms forced all but about 100 Jews to flee. When Muammar al-Gaddafi came to power in 1969, all remaining Jewish property was confiscated and all debts to Jews cancelled.\n\n==== Morocco ====\n\n\nJewish communities, in Islamic times often living in ghettos known as ''mellah'', have existed in Morocco for at least 2,000 years. Intermittent large scale massacres (such as that of 6,000 Jews in Fez in 1033, over 100,000 Jews in Fez and Marrakesh in 1146 and again in Marrakesh in 1232) were accompanied by systematic discrimination through the years.\nIn 1875, 20 Jews were killed by a mob in Demnat, Morocco; elsewhere in Morocco, Jews were attacked and killed in the streets in broad daylight.\nWhile the pro-Nazi Vichy regime during World War II passed discriminatory laws against Jews, King Muhammad prevented deportation of Jews to death camps (although Jews with French, as opposed to Moroccan, citizenship, being directly subject to Vichy law, were still deported.)\nIn 1948, approximately 265,000 Jews lived in Morocco. Between 5,000 and 8,000 live there now.\nIn June 1948, soon after Israel was established and in the midst of the first Arab-Israeli war, riots against Jews broke out in Oujda and Djerada, killing 44 Jews. In 1948-9, 18,000 Jews left the country for Israel. After this, Jewish emigration continued (to Israel and elsewhere), but slowed to a few thousand a year. Through the early fifties, Zionist organizations encouraged emigration, particularly in the poorer south of the country, seeing Moroccan Jews as valuable contributors to the Jewish State:\nIn 1955, Morocco attained independence and emigration to Israel has increased further until 1956 then it was prohibited until 1963, then resumed. By 1967, only 60,000 Jews remained in Morocco.\nThe Six-Day War in 1967 led to increased Arab-Jewish tensions worldwide, including Morocco. By 1971, the Jewish population was down to 35,000; however, most of this wave of emigration went to Europe and North America rather than Israel.\n\n==== South Africa ====\n\n\nAntisemitism has been present in history of South Africa since Europeans first set foot ashore on the Cape Peninsula. In the years 1652–1795 Jews were not allowed to settle at the Cape. An 1868 Act would sanction religious discrimination. Antisemitism reached its apotheosis in the years leading up to World War II. Inspired by the rise of national socialism in Germany the Ossewabrandwag (OB) – whose membership accounted for almost 25% of the 1940 Afrikaner population – and the National Party faction ''New Order'' would champion a more programmatic solution to the 'Jewish problem'.\n\n==== Tunisia ====\n\n\nJews have lived in Tunisia for at least 2300 years. In the 13th century, Jews were expelled from their homes in Kairouan and were ultimately restricted to ghettos, known as ''hara''. Forced to wear distinctive clothing, several Jews earned high positions in the Tunisian government. Several prominent international traders were Tunisian Jews. From 1855 to 1864, Muhammad Bey relaxed dhimmi laws, but reinstated them in the face of anti-Jewish riots that continued at least until 1869.\nTunisia, as the only Middle Eastern country under direct Nazi control during World War II, was also the site of racist antisemitic measures activities such as the yellow star, prison camps, deportations, and other persecution.\nIn 1948, approximately 105,000 Jews lived in Tunisia. Only about 1,500 remain there today. Following Tunisia's independence from France in 1956, a number of anti-Jewish policies led to emigration, of which half went to Israel and the other half to France. After attacks in 1967, Jewish emigration both to Israel and France accelerated. There were also attacks in 1982, 1985, and most recently in 2002 when a bomb in Djerba took 21 lives (most of them German tourists) near the local synagogue, in a terrorist attack claimed by Al-Qaeda.\n\n===Asia===\n\n====Iran====\n\nMahmoud Ahmadinejad, former president of Iran, has frequently been accused of denying the Holocaust.\n\nIn July, the winner of Iran's first annual International Wall Street Downfall Cartoon Festival, jointly sponsored by the semi-state-run Iranian media outlet Fars News, was an antisemitic cartoon depicting Jews praying before the New York Stock Exchange, which is made to look like the Western Wall. Other cartoons in the contest were antisemitic as well. The national director of the Anti-Defamation League, Abraham Foxman, condemned the cartoon, stating that \"Here's the anti-Semitic notion of Jews and their love for money, the canard that Jews 'control' Wall Street, and a cynical perversion of the Western Wall, the holiest site in Judaism,\" and \"Once again Iran takes the prize for promoting antisemitism.\"\n\n====Japan====\n\nThe Japanese first learned about antisemitism in 1918, during the cooperation of the Imperial Japanese Army with the White movement in Siberia. White Army soldiers had been issued copies of ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', and \"The ''Protocols'' continue to be used as evidence of Jewish conspiracies even though they are widely acknowledged to be a forgery. During World War II, Nazi Germany encouraged Japan to adopt antisemitic policies. In the post-war period, extremist groups and ideologues have promoted conspiracy theories.\n\n====Lebanon====\nIn 2004, Al-Manar, a media network affiliated with Hezbollah, aired a drama series, ''The Diaspora'', which observers allege is based on historical antisemitic allegations. BBC correspondents who have watched the program says it quotes extensively from the ''Protocols of the Elders of Zion''.\n\n====Malaysia====\n\nAlthough Malaysia presently has no substantial Jewish population, the country has reportedly become an example of a phenomenon called \"antisemitism without Jews.\"\n\nIn his treatise on Malay identity, \"The Malay Dilemma,\" which was published in 1970, former Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad wrote: \"The Jews are not only hooked-nosed... but understand money instinctively.... Jewish stinginess and financial wizardry gained them the economic control of Europe and provoked antisemitism which waxed and waned throughout Europe through the ages.\"\n\nThe Malay-language Utusan Malaysia daily stated in an editorial that Malaysians \"cannot allow anyone, especially the Jews, to interfere secretly in this country's business... When the drums are pounded hard in the name of human rights, the pro-Jewish people will have their best opportunity to interfere in any Islamic country,\" the newspaper said. \"We might not realize that the enthusiasm to support actions such as demonstrations will cause us to help foreign groups succeed in their mission of controlling this country.\" Prime Minister Najib Razak's office subsequently issued a statement late Monday saying Utusan's claim did \"not reflect the views of the government.\"\n\n====Palestinian territories====\n\n\nHaj Amin al-Husseini is a central figure of Palestinian nationalism in Mandatory Palestine. He took refuge and collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II. He met Adolf Hitler in December 1941. Scholarly opinion is divided on the Mufti's antisemitsm, with many scholars viewing him as a staunch antisemite while some deny the appropriateness of the term, or argue that he became antisemitic.\n\nIn March 2011, the Israeli government issued a paper claiming that \"Anti-Israel and anti-Semitic messages are heard regularly in the government and private media and in the mosques and are taught in school books,\" to the extent that they are \"an integral part of the fabric of life inside the PA.\" In August 2012, Israeli Strategic Affairs Ministry director-general Yossi Kuperwasser stated that Palestinian incitement to antisemitism is \"going on all the time\" and that it is \"worrying and disturbing.\" At an institutional level, he said the PA has been promoting three key messages to the Palestinian people that constitute incitement: \"that the Palestinians would eventually be the sole sovereign on all the land from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean Sea; that Jews, especially those who live in Israel, were not really human beings but rather 'the scum of mankind'; and that all tools were legitimate in the struggle against Israel and the Jews.\" In August 2014, the Hamas' spokesman in Doha said on live television that Jews use blood to make matzos.\n\n====Pakistan====\n\nThe U.S. State Department's first Report on Global Anti-Semitism mentioned a strong feeling of antisemitism in Pakistan. In Pakistan, a country without Jewish communities, antisemitic sentiment fanned by antisemitic articles in the press is widespread.\n\nIn Pakistan, Jews are often regarded as miserly. After Israel's independence in 1948, violent incidents occurred against Pakistan's small Jewish community of about 2,000 Bene Israel Jews. The Magain Shalome Synagogue in Karachi was attacked, as were individual Jews. The persecution of Jews resulted in their exodus via India to Israel (see Pakistanis in Israel), the UK, Canada and other countries. The Peshawar Jewish community ceased to exist although a small community reportedly still exists in Karachi.\n\nA substantial number of people in Pakistan believe that the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York were a secret Jewish conspiracy organized by Israel's MOSSAD, as were the 7 July 2005 London bombings, allegedly perpetrated by Jews in order to discredit Muslims. Pakistani political commentator Zaid Hamid claimed that Indian Jews perpetrated the 2008 Mumbai attacks. Such allegations echo traditional antisemitic theories.\nThe Jewish religious movement of Chabad Lubavich had a mission house in Mumbai, India that was attacked in the 2008 Mumbai attacks, perpetrated by militants connected to Pakistan led by Ajmal Kasab, a Pakistani national. Antisemitic intents were evident from the testimonies of Kasab following his arrest and trial.\n\n====Saudi Arabia====\n\nPeople with either Israeli passports or Israeli stamps in their passport are not allowed to visit Saudi Arabia.\nSaudi textbooks vilify Jews, call Jews apes (and Christians swine); demand that students avoid and not befriend Jews; claim that Jews worship the devil; and encourage Muslims to engage in Jihad to vanquish Jews.\nSaudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that Jews are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'' as factual.\n\n====Turkey====\n\nIn recent decades, synagogues have been targeted in a number of terrorist attacks. In 2003, the Neve Shalom Synagogue was targeted in a car bombing, killing 21 Turkish Muslims and 6 Jews.\n\nIn June 2011, the ''Economist'' suggested that \"The best way for Turks to promote democracy would be to vote against the ruling party\". Not long after, the Turkish Prime Minister, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, said that \"The International media, as they are supported by Israel, would not be happy with the continuation of the AKP government\". The ''Hurriyet Daily News'' quoted Erdoğan at the time as claiming \"The Economist is part of an Israeli conspiracy that aims to topple the Turkish government\".\nMoreover, during Erdogan's tenure, Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'' has once again become a best selling book in Turkey. Prime Minister Erdogan called antisemitism a \"crime against humanity.\" He also said that \"as a minority, they're our citizens. Both their security and the right to observe their faith are under our guarantee.\"\n\n===Europe===\n\nAccording to a 2004 report from the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, antisemitism had increased significantly in Europe since 2000, with significant increases in verbal attacks against Jews and vandalism such as graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries. Germany, France, Britain, and Russia are the countries with the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe. The Netherlands and Sweden have also consistently had high rates of antisemitic attacks since 2000.\n\nSome claim that recent European antisemitic violence can actually be seen as a spillover from the long running Arab-Israeli conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large Muslim immigrant communities in European cities. However, compared to France, the United Kingdom and much of the rest of Europe, in Germany Arab and pro-Palestinian groups are involved in only a small percentage of antisemitic incidents. According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the more extreme attacks on Jewish sites and physical attacks on Jews in Europe come from militant Islamic and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside.\n\nOn 1 January 2006, Britain's chief rabbi, Lord Jonathan Sacks, warned that what he called a \"tsunami of antisemitism\" was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC Radio 4, Sacks said: \"A number of my rabbinical colleagues throughout Europe have been assaulted and attacked on the streets. We've had synagogues desecrated. We've had Jewish schools burnt to the ground—not here but in France. People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable.\"\n\nFollowing an escalation in antisemitism in 2012, which included the deadly shooting of three children at a Jewish school in France, the European Jewish Congress demanded in July a more proactive response. EJC President Moshe Kantor explained, \"We call on authorities to take a more proactive approach so there would be no reason for statements of regret and denunciation. All these smaller attacks remind me of smaller tremors before a massive earthquake. The Jewish community cannot afford to be subject to an earthquake and the authorities cannot say that the writing was not on the wall.\" He added that European countries should take legislative efforts to ban any form of incitement, as well as to equip the authorities with the necessary tools to confront any attempt to expand terrorist and violent activities against Jewish communities in Europe.\n\n====Austria====\n\n\n====France====\n\nFrance is home to the continent's largest Jewish community (about 600,000). Jewish leaders decry an intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also growing among Caribbean islanders from former French colonies. Former Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy denounced the killing of Ilan Halimi on 13 February 2006 as an antisemitic crime.\n\nJewish philanthropist Baron Eric de Rothschild suggests that the extent of antisemitism in France has been exaggerated. In an interview with ''The Jerusalem Post'' he says that \"the one thing you can't say is that France is an anti-Semitic country.\"\n\nIn March 2012, Mohammed Merah opened fire at a Jewish school in Toulouse, killing a teacher and three children. An 8-year-old girl was shot in the head at point blank range. President Nicolas Sarkozy said that it was \"obvious\" it was an antisemitic attack and that, \"I want to say to all the leaders of the Jewish community, how close we feel to them. All of France is by their side.\" The Israeli Prime Minister condemned the \"despicable anti-Semitic\" murders. After a 32-hour siege and standoff with the police outside his house, and a French raid, Merah jumped off a balcony and was shot in the head and killed. Merah told police during the standoff that he intended to keep on attacking, and he loved death the way the police loved life. He also claimed connections with al-Qaeda.\n\n4 months later, in July 2012, a French Jewish teenager wearing a \"distinctive religious symbol\" was the victim of a violent antisemitic attack on a train travelling between Toulouse and Lyon. The teen was first verbally harassed and later beaten up by two assailants. Richard Prasquier from the French Jewish umbrella group, CRIF, called the attack \"another development in the worrying trend of anti-Semitism in our country.\"\n\nAnother incident in July 2012 dealt with the vandalism of the synagogue of Noisy-le-Grand of the Seine-Saint-Denis district in Paris. The synagogue was vandalized three times in a ten-day period. Prayer books and shawls were thrown on the floor, windows were shattered, drawers were ransacked, and walls, tables, clocks, and floors were vandalized. The authorities were alerted of the incidents by the Bureau National de Vigilance Contre L’Antisémtisme (BNVCA), a French antisemitism watchdog group, which called for more measures to be taken to prevent future hate crimes. BNVCA President Sammy Ghozlan stated that, \"Despite the measures taken, things persist, and I think that we need additional legislation, because the Jewish community is annoyed.\"\n\nIn August 2012, Abraham Cooper, the dean of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, met French Interior Minister Manuel Valls and reported that antisemitic attacks against French Jews increased by 40% since Merah's shooting spree in Toulouse. Cooper pressed Valls to take extra measures to secure the safety of French Jews, as well as to discuss strategies to foil an increasing trend of lone-wolf terrorists on the Internet.\n\n====Germany====\n\n\nThe Interior Minister of Germany, Wolfgang Schäuble, points out the official policy of Germany: \"We will not tolerate any form of extremism, xenophobia or anti-Semitism.\" Although the number of extreme right-wing groups and organisations grew from 141 (2001) to 182 (2006), especially in the formerly communist East Germany, Germany's measures against right-wing groups and antisemitism are effective, despite Germany having the highest rates of antisemitic acts in Europe. According to the annual reports of the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution the overall number of far-right extremists in Germany dropped during the last years from 49,700 (2001), 45,000 (2002), 41,500 (2003), 40,700 (2004), 39,000 (2005), to 38,600 in 2006. Germany provided several million euros to fund \"nationwide programs aimed at fighting far-right extremism, including teams of traveling consultants, and victims' groups.\"\n\nIn July 2012, two women were assaulted in Germany, sprayed with tear gas, and were shown a \"Hitler salute,\" apparently because of a Star of David necklace that they wore.\n\nIn late August 2012, Berlin police investigated an attack on a 53-year-old rabbi and his 6-year-old daughter, allegedly by four Arab teens, after which the rabbi needed treatment for head wounds at a hospital. The police classified the attack as a hate crime. ''Jüdische Allgemeine'' reported that the rabbi was wearing a kippah and was approached by one of the teens, who asked the rabbi if he was Jewish. The teen then attacked the rabbi while yelling antisemitic comments, and threatened to kill the rabbi's daughter. Berlin’s mayor condemned the attack, saying that \"Berlin is an international city in which intolerance, xenophobia and anti-Semitism are not being tolerated. Police will undertake all efforts to find and arrest the perpetrators.\"\n\nIn October 2012, various historians, including Dr. Julius H. Schoeps, a prominent German-Jewish historian and a member of the German Interior Ministry’s commission to combat antisemitism, charged the majority of Bundestag deputies with failing to understand antisemitism and the imperativeness of periodic legislative reports on German antisemitism. Schoeps cited various antisemitic statements by German parliament members as well. The report in question determined that 15% of Germans are antisemitic while over 20% espouse \"latent anti-Semitism,\" but the report has been criticized for downplaying the sharpness of antisemitism in Germany, as well as for failing to examine anti-Israel media coverage in Germany.\n\n====Greece====\n\n\n'''Antisemitism in Greece''' manifests itself in religious, political and media discourse. The recent Greek government-debt crisis has facilitated the rise of far right groups in Greece, most notably the formerly obscure Golden Dawn.\nJews have lived in Greece since antiquity, but the largest community of around 20,000 Sephardic Jews settled in Thessalonica after an invitation from the Ottoman Sultan in the 15th century. After Thessalonica was annexed to Greece in 1913, the Greek government recognized Jews as Greek citizens with full rights and attributed Judaism the status of a recognized and protected religion. Currently in Greece, Jewish communities representing the 5,000 Greek Jews are legal entities under public law. \nAccording to the ADL (Anti-Defamation League) report of 2015, the \"ADL Global 100\", a report of the status of antisemitism in 100 countries around the world, 69% of the adult population in Greece harbor antisemitic attitudes and 85% think that \"Jews have too much power in the business world\".\nIn March 2015, a survey about the Greeks' perceptions of the holocaust was published. Its findings showed that less than 60 percent of the respondents think that holocaust teaching should be included in the curriculum.\n\n====Hungary====\n\nIn the 21st century, antisemitism in Hungary has evolved and received an institutional framework, while verbal and physical aggression against Jews has escalated, creating a great difference between its earlier manifestations in the 1990s and recent developments. One of the major representatives of this institutionalized antisemitic ideology is the popular Hungarian party Jobbik, which received 17 percent of the vote in the April 2010 national election. The far-right subculture, which ranges from nationalist shops to radical-nationalist and neo-Nazi festivals and events, plays a major role in the institutionalization of Hungarian antisemitism in the 21st century. The contemporary antisemitic rhetoric has been updated and expanded, but is still based on the old antisemitic notions. The traditional accusations and motifs include such phrases as Jewish occupation, international Jewish conspiracy, Jewish responsibility for the Treaty of Trianon, Judeo-Bolshevism, as well as blood libels against Jews. Nevertheless, the past few years have seen the reemergence of the blood libel and an increase in Holocaust relativization and denial, while the monetary crisis has revived references to the \"Jewish banker class\".\n\n====Italy====\n\n\nThe ongoing political conflict between Israel and Palestine has played an important role in the development and expression of antisemitism in the 21st century, and in Italy as well. The Second Intifada, which began in late September 2000, has set in motion unexpected mechanisms, whereby traditional anti-Jewish prejudices were mixed with politically based stereotypes. In this belief system, Israeli Jews were charged with full responsibility for the fate of the peace process and with the conflict presented as embodying the struggle between good (the Palestinians) and evil (the Israeli Jews).\n\n====Netherlands====\n\nThe Netherlands has the second highest incidence of antisemitic incidents in the European Union. However, it is difficult to obtain exact figures because the specific groups against whom attacks are made are not specifically identified in police reports, and analyses of police data for antisemitism therefore relies on key-word searches, e.g. \"Jew\" or \"Israel\". According to Centre for Information and Documentation on Israel (CIDI), a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, the number of antisemitic incidents reported in the whole of the Netherlands was 108 in 2008, 93 in 2009, and 124 in 2010. Some two thirds of this are acts of aggression. There are approximately 52 000 Dutch Jews. According to the NRC Handelsblad newspaper, the number of antisemitic incidents in Amsterdam was 14 in 2008 and 30 in 2009. In 2010, Raphaël Evers, an orthodox rabbi in Amsterdam, told the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten that Jews can no longer be safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. \"We Jews no longer feel at home here in the Netherlands. Many people talk about moving to Israel,\" he said.\n\nAccording to the Anne Frank Foundation, antisemitism in the Netherlands in 2011 was roughly at the same level as in 2010. Actual antisemitic incidents increased from 19 in 2010 to 30 in 2011. Verbal antisemitic incidents dropped slightly from 1173 in 2010 to 1098 in 2011. This accounts for 75%–80% of all verbal racist incidents in the Netherlands. Antisemitism is more prevalent in the age group 23–27 years, which is a younger group than that of racist incidents in general.\n\n====Norway====\n\nIn 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that antisemitism was common among some 8th, 9th, and 10th graders in Oslo's schools. Teachers at schools with large numbers of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often \"praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his killing of Jews\", that \"Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students\" and that \"Muslims laugh or command teachers to stop when trying to educate about the Holocaust\". Additionally, \"while some students might protest when some express support for terrorism, none object when students express hate of Jews\", saying that it says in \"the Quran that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews\". Most of these students were said to be born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also stated that his child had been taken by a Muslim mob after school (though the child managed to escape), reportedly \"to be taken out to the forest and hung because he was a Jew\".\n\nNorwegian Education Minister Kristin Halvorsen referred to the antisemitism reported in this study as being \"completely unacceptable.\" The head of a local Islamic council joined Jewish leaders and Halvorsen in denouncing such antisemitism.\n\nIn October 2012, the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe issued a report regarding antisemitism in Norway, criticizing Norway for an increase in antisemitism in the country and blaming Norwegian officials for failing to address antisemitism.\"\n\n====Poland====\nThe University of Warsaw’s study in 2016 found that 37% of surveyed Poles expressed negative attitudes towards Jews (up from 32% in 2015); 56% said that they wouldn't accept a Jew in their family (up from 46%); and 32% wouldn't want Jewish neighbors (up from 27%).\n\nIn November 2015, following Antoni Macierewicz’s (Law and Justice party) designation as Minister of National Defence, he faced allegations of antisemitism and protests by the Anti Defamation League. In 1996 Macierewicz asserted that Poles did not murder Jews in the Kielce pogrom in 1946. In 2001, Macierewicz wrote: \"Is the hubbub surrounding Jedwabne intended to eclipse the responsibility of Jews for Communism and the Soviet occupation?\" In a radio interview in 2002 Macierewicz said, in response to a caller’s question, that he had read the Protocols of the Elders of Zion.\n\n====Russia====\n\nAntisemitism in Russia refers to acts of hostility against Jews in Russia and the promotion of antisemitic views in the country since the end of the Soviet Union.\n\n====Spain====\n\n\n====Sweden====\n\nAfter Germany and Austria, Sweden has the highest rate of antisemitic incidents in Europe, though the Netherlands has reported a higher rate of antisemitism in some years. A government study in 2006 estimated that 15% of Swedes agree with the statement: \"The Jews have too much influence in the world today\". 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult Muslims \"harbour systematic antisemitic views\". The former prime minister Göran Persson described these results as \"surprising and terrifying\". However, the rabbi of Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said that \"It's not true to say that the Swedes are anti-Semitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be.\"\n\nIn 2009, a synagogue that served the Jewish community in Malmö was set ablaze. Jewish cemeteries were repeatedly desecrated, worshippers were abused while returning home from prayer, and masked men mockingly chanted \"Hitler\" in the streets. As a result of security concerns, Malmö's synagogue has guards and rocket-proof glass in the windows, and the Jewish kindergarten can only be reached through thick steel security doors.\n\nIn early 2010, the Swedish publication ''The Local'' published series of articles about the growing antisemitism in Malmö, Sweden. In 2009, the Malmö police received reports of 79 antisemitic incidents, which was twice the number of the previous year (2008). Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is shrinking by 5% a year. \"Malmö is a place to move away from,\" he said, citing antisemitism as the primary reason. In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzk told ''Die Presse'', an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews are being \"harassed and physically attacked\" by \"people from the Middle East,\" although he added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims \"exhibit hatred of Jews.\" In October 2010, ''The Forward'' reported on the current state of Jews and the level of antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti-Israel rallies where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel. Judith Popinski, an 86-year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express \"extreme caution\" when visiting the southern parts of the country due to an alleged increase in verbal and physical harassment of Jewish citizens in the city of Malmö. Ilmar Reepalu, the mayor of Malmö for over 15 years, has been accused of failing to protect the Jewish community in Malmö, causing 30 Jewish families to leave the city in 2010, and more preparing to leave, which has left the possibility that Malmö's Jewish community will disappear soon. Critics of Reepalu say that his statements, such as antisemitism in Malmö actually being an \"understandable\" consequence of Israeli policy in the Middle East, have encouraged young Muslims to abuse and harass the Jewish community. In an interview with ''the Sunday Telegraph'' in February 2010, Reepalu said, \"There haven't been any attacks on Jewish people, and if Jews from the city want to move to Israel that is not a matter for Malmö,\" which renewed concerns about Reepalu.\n\n====Ukraine====\n\nAntisemithic graffiti in Lviv; ''Yids will not reside in Lviv'', 2007\nOleh Tyahnybok, the leader of the far-right Svoboda party, whose members hold senior positions in Ukraine's government, urged his party to fight \"the Moscow-Jewish mafia ruling Ukraine.\" The ''Algemeiner Journal'' reported: \"Svoboda supporters include among their heroes leaders of pro-Nazi World War II organizations known for their atrocities against Jews and Poles, such as the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN), the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA), and the 14th Waffen-SS Galicia Division.\"\n\nAccording to The Simon Wiesenthal Center (in January 2011) \"Ukraine has, to the best of our knowledge, never conducted a single investigation of a local Nazi war criminal, let alone prosecuted a Holocaust perpetrator.\"\n\nAccording to ''Der Spiegel'', Dmytro Yarosh, leader of the far-right Right Sector, wrote: \"I wonder how it came to pass that most of the billionaires in Ukraine are Jews?\" Late February 2014 Yarosh pledged during a meeting with Israel’s ambassador in Kiev to fight all forms of racism. Right Sector's leader for West Ukraine, Oleksandr Muzychko, has talked about fighting \"communists, Jews and Russians for as long as blood flows in my veins.\" Muzychko was shot dead on 24 March 2014. An official inquiry concluded he had shot himself in the heart at the end of a chase with the Ukrainian police.\n\nIn April 2014, Donetsk Chief Rabbi Pinchas Vishedski said that \"Anti-Semitic incidents in the Russian-speaking east were rare, unlike in Kiev and western Ukraine.\" An April 2014 listing of anti-Jewish violence in Ukraine in ''Haaretz'' no incidents outside this \"Russian-speaking east\" were mentioned.\n\nAccording to the Israel's Ambassador to Ukraine, the antisemitism occurs here much less frequently than in other European countries, and has more a hooligan's nature rather than a system.\n\n====United Kingdom====\n\n\nIn 2017 a Institute for Jewish Policy Research survey found that the levels of anti-Semitism in Great Britain were among the lowest in the world, with 2.4% expressing multiple anti-Semitic attitudes, and about 70% having a favourable opinion of Jews. However, only 17% had a favourable opinion of Israel, with 33% holding an unfavourable view.\n\nIn 2017, a report by the Campaign Against Antisemitism (CAA) found that the previous year, 2016, had been the worst on record for antisemitic hate crime in the UK. Prior to that, 2015 had been the worst year on record, and 2014 was the worst year on record before that. The report found that in 2016, antisemitic crime rose by 15% compared to 2015, or 45% compared to 2014. It also found that 1 in 10 antisemitic crimes was violent. Despite rising levels of antisemitic crime, the report said there had been a decrease in the charging of antisemitic crime. In the report's foreword, the CAA's Chairman wrote: \"Britain has the political will to fight antisemitism and strong laws with which to do it, but those responsible for tackling the rapidly growing racist targeting of British Jews are failing to enforce the law. There is a very real danger of Jewish citizens emigrating, as has happened elsewhere in Europe unless there is radical change.\"\n\nEvery years since 2015, the CAA has commissioned polling by YouGov concerning the attitude of the British public toward British Jews. In 2017, their polling found that 36% of British adults believed at least one of the antisemitic statements pollsters had shown them to be true, a reduction from 39% in 2016 and 45% in 2015. Additionally, the polling revealed widespread fear amongst British Jews, with almost 1 in 3 saying that they had considered emigrating in the last two years due to antisemitism, and 37% saying that they concealed their Judaism in publlic. The report gave various indications as to the cause of the fears, with British Jews identifying Islamist antisemitism, far-left antisemitism and far-right antisemitism as their main concerns, in that order. 78% of British Jews saying that they had witnessed antisemitism disguised as a political comment about Israel, 76% thoughts that political developments were contributing antisemitism, and 52% felt that the Crown Prosecution Service was not doing enough.\n\nIn 2016, the Home Affairs Select Committee held an inquiry into the rise of antisemitism in the UK. The inquiry called Jeremy Corbyn, Ken Livingstone and others to give evidence. In 2005, a group of British Members of Parliament set up an inquiry into antisemitism, which published its findings in 2006. Its report stated that \"until recently, the prevailing opinion both within the Jewish community and beyond had been that antisemitism had receded to the point that it existed only on the margins of society.\" It found a reversal of this progress since 2000. The inquiry was reconstituted following a surge in antisemitic incidents in Britain during the summer of 2014, and the new inquiry published its report in 2015, making recommendations for reducing antisemitism.\n\n===North America===\n\n====Canada====\n\nAlthough antisemitism in Canada is less prevalent than in many other countries, there have been recent incidents. For example, a 2004 study identified 24 incidents of antisemitism between 14 March and 14 July 2004 in Newfoundland, Montreal, Quebec City, Ottawa, the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), and some smaller Ontario communities. The incidents included vandalism and other attacks on four synagogues, six cemeteries, four schools, and a number of businesses and private residences.\n\n====United States====\n\n\nIn November 2005, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights examined antisemitism on college campuses. It reported that \"incidents of threatened bodily injury, physical intimidation or property damage are now rare\", but antisemitism still occurs on many campuses and is a \"serious problem.\" The Commission recommended that the U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights protect college students from antisemitism through vigorous enforcement of ''Title VI'' of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and further recommended that Congress clarify that Title VI applies to discrimination against Jewish students.\n\nOn 19 September 2006, Yale University founded the Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Anti-Semitism (YIISA), the first North American university-based center for study of the subject, as part of its Institution for Social and Policy Studies. Director Charles Small of the Center cited the increase in antisemitism worldwide in recent years as generating a \"need to understand the current manifestation of this disease\". In June 2011, Yale voted to close this initiative. After carrying out a routine review, the faculty review committee said that the initiative had not met its research and teaching standards. Donald Green, then head of Yale’s Institution for Social and Policy Studies, the body under whose aegis the antisemitism initiative was run, said that it had not had many papers published in the relevant leading journals or attracted many students. As with other programs that had been in a similar situation, the initiative had therefore been cancelled. This decision has been criticized by figures such as former U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Staff Director Kenneth L. Marcus, who is now the director of the Initiative to Combat Anti-Semitism and Anti-Israelism in America’s Educational Systems at the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, and Deborah Lipstadt, who described the decision as \"weird\" and \"strange.\" Antony Lerman has supported Yale's decision, describing the YIISA as a politicized initiative that was devoted to the promotion of Israel rather than to serious research on antisemitism.\n\nA 2007 survey by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) concluded that 15% of Americans hold antisemitic views, which was in-line with the average of the previous ten years, but a decline from the 29% of the early sixties. The survey concluded that education was a strong predictor, \"with most educated Americans being remarkably free of prejudicial views.\" The belief that Jews have too much power was considered a common antisemitic view by the ADL. Other views indicating antisemitism, according to the survey, include the view that Jews are more loyal to Israel than America, and that they are responsible for the death of Jesus of Nazareth. The survey found that antisemitic Americans are likely to be intolerant generally, e.g. regarding immigration and free-speech. The 2007 survey also found that 29% of foreign-born Hispanics and 32% of African-Americans hold strong antisemitic beliefs, three times more than the 10% for whites.\n\nA 2009 study published in ''Boston Review'' found that nearly 25% of non-Jewish Americans blamed Jews for the financial crisis of 2008–2009, with a higher percentage among Democrats than Republicans. 32% of Democrats blamed Jews for the financial crisis, versus 18% for Republicans.\n\nIn August 2012, the California state assembly approved a non-binding resolution that \"encourages university leaders to combat a wide array of anti-Jewish and anti-Israel actions,\" although the resolution \"is purely symbolic and does not carry policy implications.\"\n\nIn April 2017, ''Politico Magazine'' published an article purporting to show links between U.S. President Donald Trump, Russian President Vladimir Putin and the Jewish outreach organization Chabad-Lubavitch. The article was widely condemned, with the head of the Anti-Defamation League Jonathan Greenblatt saying that it \"evokes age-old myths about Jews\".\n\n=== South America ===\n\n====Venezuela====\nAntisemitic graffiti in Venezuela, alongside a hammer and sickle\n\nIn a 2009 news story, Michael Rowan and Douglas E. Schoen wrote, \"In an infamous Christmas Eve speech several years ago, Chávez said the Jews killed Christ and have been gobbling up wealth and causing poverty and injustice worldwide ever since.\" Hugo Chávez stated that \"the world is for all of us, then, but it so happens that a minority, the descendants of the same ones that crucified Christ, the descendants of the same ones that kicked Bolívar out of here and also crucified him in their own way over there in Santa Marta, in Colombia. A minority has taken possession of all of the wealth of the world.\"\n\nIn February 2012, opposition candidate for the 2012 Venezuelan presidential election Henrique Capriles was subject to what foreign journalists characterized as vicious attacks by state-run media sources. The ''Wall Street Journal'' said that Capriles \"was vilified in a campaign in Venezuela's state-run media, which insinuated he was, among other things, a homosexual and a Zionist agent\". A 13 February 2012 opinion article in the state-owned Radio Nacional de Venezuela, titled \"The Enemy is Zionism\" attacked Capriles' Jewish ancestry and linked him with Jewish national groups because of a meeting he had held with local Jewish leaders, saying, \"This is our enemy, the Zionism that Capriles today represents... Zionism, along with capitalism, are responsible for 90% of world poverty and imperialist wars.\"\n", "\n\n* 1968 Polish political crisis\n* Antisemitism around the world\n* Antisemitism in the anti-globalization movement\n* Antisemitism in the Arab world\n* Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946\n* Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946\n* Anti-Arabism\n* Criticism of Judaism\n* Farhud\n* Host desecration\n* Jacob Barnet affair\n* Anti-Semite and Jew\n* Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory\n* May Laws\n* Orientalism\n* Persecution of Jews\n* Racial policy of Nazi Germany\n* Rootless cosmopolitan\n* Secondary antisemitism\n* Stab-in-the-back legend\n* Timeline of antisemitism\n\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPoliakov, Léon. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003\nPoliakov, Léon. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003\nPoliakov, Léon. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003\nPoliakov, Léon. ''The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933'', University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003\nPoliakov, Léon (1997). \"Anti-Semitism\". ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'' (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. \n\n \n* \n* Anti-semitism entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed.\n\n\n'''Further reading'''\n::'''Books and reports'''\n\nBodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999.\nCarr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001.\nCohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.\nFreudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.\nGerber, Jane S. (1986). \"Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World\". In ''History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism'', ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. \nHilberg, Raul. ''The Destruction of the European Jews''. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes.\nIsser, Natalie. ''Antisemitism during the French Second Empire'' (1991)\n \nMcKain, Mark. ''Anti-Semitism: At Issue'', Greenhaven Press, 2005.\nMarcus, Kenneth L. The Definition of Anti-Semitism, 2015, Oxford University Press\nMichael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007\nMichael, Robert. ''Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust''\nNirenberg, David. ''Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition'' (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp.\n\nRoth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004\nSelzer, Michael (ed). ''\"Kike!\" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America'', New York 1972.\nSteinweis, Alan E. ''Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany''. Harvard University Press, 2006. .\nStillman, Norman (1979). ''The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. \nStillman, N.A. (2006). \"Yahud\". ''Encyclopaedia of Islam''. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online\n , United States Department of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See html version.\nStav, Arieh (1999). ''Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery''. Gefen Publishing House. \nTausch, Arno, The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (January 14, 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2549654 or https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2549654\n\n\n::'''Bibliographies, calendars, etc.'''\n\n''Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles'', \"Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism\", 9 March 2007\nLazare, Bernard, ''Antisemitism: Its History and Causes''\nAnti-Defamation League Arab Antisemitism\n Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism\n* Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism (with up to date calendar of antisemitism today)\n* Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)\n* Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports\nPorat, Dina. \"What makes an anti-Semite?\", ''Haaretz'', 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.\nYehoshua, A.B., An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism, Azure, Spring 2008.\n* Antisemitism in modern Ukraine\n* Antisemitism and Special Relativity\n\n", "\n\n\n* ''The Journal for the Study of Antisemitism''\n* H-Antisemitism, H-Net discussion list for scholars and advanced students\n* H-HOLOCAUST, H-Net discussion list for scholars and advanced students\nAish '' Why the Jews? Real Causes or mere excuses?''\n Yad Vashem Antisemitism: About the Holocaust\nAnti-Defamation League Report on International Anti-Semitism\nUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Special Focus: Antisemitism; Encyclopedia 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; ''Voices on Antisemitism Podcast Series''\n* Yale Initiative for the Interdisciplinary Study of Antisemitism\n* International Institute for Education and Research on Antisemitism (Berlin/London)\n* Anti-semitism: A Growing Threat to All Faiths: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, Global Human Rights, and International Organizations of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, February 27, 2013\n* The United nations and Anti-Semitism\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origin and usage in the context of xenophobia", "Manifestations", "History", "Causes", "Current situation", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Antisemitism
[ "\n\n\n '''Geography of Azerbaijan'''\n\n Azerbaijan\n\n'''Continent'''\n Asia / Europe\n\n'''Region'''\n Caucasus\n\n'''Coordinates'''\n \n\n'''Area'''\n Ranked 119th86,600 km2\n\n'''Coastline'''\n 0 km (landlocked)\n\n'''Borders'''\n 2,468 km (Armenia 996 km Georgia 428 km Iran 689 km Russia 338 km Turkey 17 km)\n\n'''Highest point'''\n Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m\n\n'''Lowest point'''\n Caspian Sea -28 m\n\n'''Longest river'''\n Kura River 1,514 km\n\n'''Largest lake'''\n Mingäçevir Reservoir 605 km2\n\nAzerbaijan map of Köppen climate classification.\n'''Azerbaijan''' is situated in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. About the size of Portugal or the state of Maine, Azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86,600 square kilometers, less than 1% of the land area of the former Soviet Union. Of the three Transcaucasian states, Azerbaijan has the greatest land area. Special administrative subdivisions are the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by a strip of Armenian territory, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, entirely within Azerbaijan. (The status of Nagorno-Karabakh was under negotiation in 1994.) Located in the region of the southern Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea to the east, Georgia and Russia to the north, Iran to the south, and Armenia to the southwest and west. A small part of Nakhchivan also borders Turkey to the northwest. The capital of Azerbaijan is the ancient city of Baku, which has the largest and best harbor on the Caspian Sea and has long been the center of the republic's oil industry.\n", "Topographic map of Azerbaijan\nThe elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands; nearly half the country is considered mountainous. Notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast, which are covered with tea plantations, orange groves, and lemon groves; numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of Kobustan Mountain near Baku; and coastal terrain that lies as much as twenty-eight meters below sea level.\n\nExcept for its eastern Caspian shoreline and some areas bordering Georgia and Iran, Azerbaijan is ringed by mountains. To the northeast, bordering Russia's Dagestan Autonomous Republic, is the Greater Caucasus range; to the west, bordering Armenia, is the Lesser Caucasus range. To the extreme southeast, the Talysh Mountains form part of the border with Iran. The highest elevations occur in the Greater Caucasus, where Mount Bazar-dyuzi rises 4,466 meters above sea level. Eight large rivers flow down from the Caucasus ranges into the central Kura-Aras Lowlands, alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the Azerbaijani name for the Mtkvari River (Kura) and its main tributary, the Aras. The Mtkvari, the longest river in the Caucasus region, forms the delta and drains into the Caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the Aras. The Mingechaur Reservoir, with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in Azerbaijan, was formed by damming the Kura in western Azerbaijan. The waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the Kura-Aras plain. Most of the country's rivers are not navigable. About 15% of the land in Azerbaijan is arable.\n\n\n", "Azerbaijan is nearly surrounded by mountains. The Greater Caucasus range, with the country’s highest elevations, lies in the north along the border with Russia and run southeast to the Abseron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea. The country’s highest peak, Bazardyuze Dagi, rises to 4,485 m in this range near the Azerbaijan-Russia border. The Lesser Caucasus range, with elevations up to 3,500 m, lies to the west along the border with Armenia. The Talish Mountains form part of the border with Iran at the southeast tip of the country.\n\nKobustan Mountain, located near Baku, is carved by deep ravines, from which bubble mud volcanoes and mineral springs.\n", "\n===Temperature===\nThe climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern Azerbaijan. Along the shores of the Caspian Sea it is temperate, while the higher mountain elevations are generally cold. Baku, on the Caspian, enjoys mild weather that averages in January and in July.\n\n===Rainfall===\nPhysiographic conditions and different atmosphere circulations admit 8 types of air currents including continental, sea, arctic, tropical currents of air that formulates the climate of the Republic. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lenkeran (1,600 to 1,800 mm.) and the minimum in Absheron (200 to 350 mm.). The maximum daily precipitation of 334 mm was observed at the Bilieser Station in 1955.\n", "NASA satellite image of Azerbaijan.\nSubtle changes due to rising sea level can be seen along this coastline\nAir and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development. Major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries, which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the Soviet era. Air quality is extremely poor in Baku, the center of oil refining. Some reports have described Baku's air as the most polluted in the former Soviet Union, and other industrial centers suffer similar problems.\n\nThe Caspian Sea, including Baku Bay, has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage, reducing the yield of caviar and fish. In the Soviet period, Azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the Soviet Union. The continued regular use of the pesticide DDT in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse, although that chemical was officially banned in the Soviet Union because of its toxicity to humans. Excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by Azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses. Rising water levels in the Caspian Sea, mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by man-made structures, have reversed the decades-long drying trend and now threaten coastal areas; the average level rose 1.5 meters between 1978 and 1993. Because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, large numbers of trees were felled, roads were built through pristine areas, and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces.\n\nLike other former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the Moscow-centered planning system. The Committee for the Protection of the Natural Environment is part of the Azerbaijani government, but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds, establishing pollution standards, or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations. Early in 1994, plans called for Azerbaijan to participate in the international Caspian Sea Forum, sponsored by the European Union (EU).\n\n; Natural hazards:\n: Droughts and floods; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea\n; Environment—current issues:\n: Local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baky and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton.\n; Environment - international agreements:\n:* Party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands\n:* Signed, but not ratified: none\n", "; Area:\n:* Total: 86,600 km² - ''country comparison to the world:'' 113\n:* Land: 82,629 km²\n:* Water: 3,971 km²\n:* Note: Includes the exclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on November 26, 1991.\n\n; Area comparative\n:* Australia comparative: larger than Tasmania\n:* Canada comparative: larger than New Brunswick\n:* United Kingdom comparative: slightly larger than Scotland\n:* United States comparative: slightly smaller than Maine\n:* EU comparative: slightly smaller than Portugal\n; Land boundaries:\n:* Total: 2,468 km\n:* Border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 428 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 700 km, Russia 338 km, Turkey 17 km\n; Coastline:\n: 0 km (landlocked). Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea. (713 km)\n; Maritime claims:\n: None (landlocked)\n; Terrain\n:* large,flat lowland (much of it below sea-level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, uplands in the west\n; Elevation extremes:\n:* Lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m\n:* Highest point: Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m (on border with Russia)\n:* Highest peak entirely within Azeri territory: Shah Dagi 4,243 m\n\n===Islands===\n\n", "\n; Natural resources:\n: Petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, bauxite\n; Land use:\n:* Arable land: 22.95%\n:* Permanent crops: 2.79%\n:* Other: 74.26% (2012 est.)\n; Irrigated land:\n:* 14,250 km² (2010)\n; Total renewable water resources:\n:* 34.68 km3 (2011)\n; Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)\n:* Total: 12.21 km3/yr (4%/18%/78%)\n:* Per capita: 1,384 cu m/yr (2010)\n; Natural hazards\n:* droughts\n", "\n", "\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Topography and drainage", "Mountains", "Climate", "{{anchor\|Environmental issues}}Environmental problems", "Area and boundaries", "Resources and land use", "See also", "References" ]	Geography of Azerbaijan
[ "\n\n\nThe '''Azerbaijani Armed Forces''' () were re-established according to the Law of the Republic of Azerbaijan on the Armed Forces from 9 October 1991. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) had originally formed its own armed forces from 26 June 1918. However these were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92 the armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases and equipment left on Azeri soil.\n\nThe armed forces have three branches: the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy. Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances.\n\nAccording to the Azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at $2.46 billion USD, however according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, only $1.473 billion was spent in that year. IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5 billion. The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation and maintenance of military equipment. In the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters.\n\nThe incumbent Minister of Defence of Azerbaijan is Colonel General Zakir Hasanov, who succeeded Safar Abiyev.\n", "Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300 million in 2005 to $2.46 billion in 2009. The total armed forces number 56,840 men in the land forces, 7,900 men in the air force and air defence force, and 2,200 men in the navy. There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, and Internal Troops. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, an additional 162 T-80's were acquired between 2005 and 2010, 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems. The air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters.\n\nAzerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state. Azerbaijan participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the multi-national force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo. Azeri troops are still serving in Afghanistan.\n\nDespite the rise in Azerbaijan's defence budget, the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being ill-prepared for wide scale combat operations.\n\nHowever, in 2017 Global Firepower ranked Azerbaijan 59th among 127 countries for its military strength. It was the best performance among the countries of South Caucasus.\n\nToday 'National Hero of Azerbaijan' is the highest national title in the country, awarded for outstanding services of national importance to Azerbaijan in defense, as well as other deeds in other spheres.\n", "\n\n===Azerbaijan Democratic Republic===\nSamad bey Mehmandarov, the Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic\nThe history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918, when the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan Republic were created on 26 June 1918. First ''de facto'' Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, and then Lt-Gen. Ali-Agha Shikhlinski his deputy. Chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. Maciej Sulkiewicz (March 1919 – 10 December 1919) and Maj-Gen. Abdulhamid bey Gaitabashi (10 December 1919 – April 1920).\n\nThe Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, the Azeris did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. The national Army of Azerbaijan was abolished by the Bolshevik government, 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the Bolsheviks.\nOfficers of the army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918.\n\n===World War II===\nCadets of the Baku Higher All-Arms Command School during a parade in Baku in 1960.\nDuring World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union. Much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku. By a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals.\nOperation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the USSR.\nSome 800,000 Azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the Soviet Army of which 400,000 died. Azeri national formations of the Red Army included the 223rd, 227th, 396th, 402nd, and 416th Rifle Divisions. Azeri Major-General Hazi Aslanov was awarded a second Hero of the Soviet Union after a long post-war fight for recognition of his accomplishments.\n\n===Dissolution of the Soviet armed forces===\nDuring the Cold War, Azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the Soviet 4th Army whose principle formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions (23rd Guards, 60th, 75th, and 295th). The 75th Motor Rifle Division was isolated in Nakhichevan. The 4th Army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments. The 75th Division's stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the Nakhichevan authorities. Azerbaijan also hosted the 49th Arsenal of the Soviet Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery, which contained over 7,000 train-car loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units.\n\nThe first president of Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutallibov, did not wish to build an independent army, wanting to rely instead largely on Soviet troops. Even when the Parliament decided that an army should be formed in September 1991, disagreements between the government and the opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front Party impeded creation of a unified force. Around this time, the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18–110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the Soviet Ground Forces (probably part of the 4th Army) located in Shikhov, south of Baku. At the time of the parliamentary decision, Lieutenant-General Valeh Barshadli became the first Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan, from 5 September to 11 December 1991. Later from May to 4 September 1992 he served as Chief of General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces.\nA Guard of Honor during a parade in Baku in 1966.\nIn summer 1992, the nascent Defense Ministry received a resolution by the Azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in Azerbaijani territory. It then forwarded an ultimatum to Moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th Motor Rifle Regiments of the 295th Motor Rifle Division. In July 1992, Azerbaijan ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment. Azerbaijan approved the CFE flank agreement in May 1997.\n\nThe transfer of the property of the 4th Army (except for part of the property of the 366th Motor Rifle Regiment of the 23rd Guards Motor Rifle Division captured by Armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiment's withdrawal from Stepanakert) and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992. Thus, by the end of 1992, Azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units. It also inherited naval ships. There are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th Army of the Soviet Air Defence Forces came under Azeri control.\nAfter Lt Gen Barshadli became Chief of General Staff, subsequent defense ministers from 1992 have included:\n\n* Maj.-Gen. Tajeddin Mehdiyev (December 1991 – February 1992)\n* Colonel Shahin Musayev (February 1992) ''(acting)''\n* Interior Troops Colonel Tahir Aliyev (February - March 1992)\n* Rahim Gaziyev (March 1992 - February 1993)\n* Maj.-Gen. Dadash Rzayev (February - June 1993)\n* Maj.-Gen. Safar Abiyev (June 1993 - August 1993) ''(acting)''\n* Maj.-Gen. Vahid Musayev (August 1993) ''(acting)''\n* Maj. Gen. Mammadrafi Mammadov (September 1993 - February 1995)\n* Col.-Gen. Safar Abiyev (February 1995 - October 2013)\n* Col.-Gen. Zakir Hasanov (October 2013 – present)\n\nThe Azeri armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by Armenian forces during the 1992–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War, which resulted in the loss of control of Nagorno-Karabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons, comprising roughly 20% of the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani sources insist that Armenian victory was largely due to military help from Russia and the wealthy Armenian diaspora. Armenians partially deny the allegation, claiming that Russian side was equally supplying Armenian and Azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries. During the war, the Azeri armed forces were also aided by Turkish military advisers, and Russian, Ukrainian, Chechen and Afghan mercenaries.\n\n===Non-combat deaths===\nA number of Azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking non-combat deaths and have noted an upward trend. Based on Defense Ministry statistics that had not been released to the public, the Group of Monitoring Compliance with Human Rights in the Army (GMCHRA) has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in non-combat incidents for 2011, and the injury of 91 others. In comparison, there were 62 non-combat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010. The string of non-combat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military. Factors behind the deaths include bullying, hazing, and the systemic corruption within the Azeri military.\n", "Azerbaijan has a dozen 300mm salvo rocket systems 9A52 \"Smerch\" with a range of 70-.\nThe Azerbaijani Land Forces number 85,000 strong, according to UK Advanced Research and Assessment Group estimates. The 2,500 men of the National Guard are also part of the ground forces. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years. Other paramilitary agencies consist of Interior Ministry Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, 12,000 strong, and the land component of the State Border Service, 5,000 strong.\n\nAzerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with Turkey's assistance. Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh.\n\n===Organization===\nAzerbaijani Army Order of Battle\nThe Land Forces consist of five army corps:\n1st Army Corps also known as Evlax Army Corps (concentrated near Ganja)\n2nd Army Corps also known as Pirekeshkul Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian controlled territories and part is deployed on the Azerbaijan-Iranian border)\n3rd Army Corps also known as Shamkir Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian controlled territories)\n4th Army Corps also known as Baku Army Corps (covers Absheron Peninsula and the coast)\n5th Army Corps also known as Nakhchivan Army Corps (deployed in Nakhichevan)\n\nThe Land Forces include 23 motor rifle brigades, an artillery brigade, a multiple rocket launcher brigade, and an anti-tank regiment. The IISS Military Balance reported in 2007 that the Land Forces had an estimated 40 SA-13 Gopher, SA-4 Ganef, and SA-8 Gecko air defence missile systems, with '80–240 eff.' to support the army in the battlefield. (IISS 2007, p. 157)\n\nThe Peacekeeping forces of Azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the Land Forces, though the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan do also supply some. As of March 2011, 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan. In the past, it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Iraq.\n\nThe Azeri peacekeeping unit deployed in Iraq consisted of 14 officers, 16 sergeants and 120 privates, a total of 150 troops. The unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in Al Haditha from August 2003. In December 2008, Azerbaijan withdrew the unit from Iraq.\n\nReportedly in December 2014 Azerbaijan created the 6th Army Corps in Nakhchivan. Karam Mustafayev became commander of the Special 6th Army Corps. The Special 6th Army Corps has been created based on the Nakhchivan 5th Army Corps to strengthen defense capability of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the Armed Forces, improve central control, reports quoting the Defence Ministry said.\n", "The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force is a single unified service branch. Some 8,000 men serve in the air force and air defence force.\n\nThe Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters. The country has four major airbases. Nasosnaya (air base) has fighters, Kyurdamir Air Base a bomber regiment, Ganja Air Base transports, and Baku Kala Air Base the helicopter unit. There are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there. These are Dollyar Air Base, Nakhichevan Airport, Sanqacal Air Base, and Sitalcay Air Base.\n\nThe Azeri Air Force uses MiG-21, MiG-23, Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft, as well as the MiG-29 purchased from Ukraine in 2006 and Il-76 transport aircraft. The MiG-29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the AzAF. Azerbaijan is holding talks with either the People's Republic of China or Pakistan to purchase JF-17 Thunder aircraft. MiG-25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 2007–09 period.\n\nAzerbaijan's helicopter force is concentrated at Baku Kala Air Base and according to the IISS consists of a single regiment with around 14–15 Mi-24, 12–13 Mi-8 and 7 Mi-2. Jane's Information Group and the IISS give figures which agree with only a single aircraft's difference. Recently, end of 2010 Russian Rosvertol announced that Azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of Mi-35M (Hind-E) gunships what would further enhance the Azeri ground attack formations.\n\nThe Air Force has L-29 and L-39 advanced training aircraft in store. The Azerbaijan Border Guard and Voluntary Society of Defense, Patriotism and Sport have Yakovlev light training aircraft.\n\n===Air defense===\nS-300 PMU2 during a military parade in Baku 2011.\nAzerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend Azeri airspace. There are at least 2 divisions of S-300PMU2. Thereby the country has one of the most capable SAM surface-to-air missile system in the region. Azerbaijan also operates two S-200 (SA-5 GAMMON) batteries near Baku and Mingachevir; the S-300PMU-2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation. The country also has about 100 NATO designated SA-2 Guideline (original name S-75), SA-3 Goa (S-125 Pechora-2M), and the SA-5 Gammon (S-200) are in static installations. These may be around Baku and the central part to cover the whole Azeri aerospace.\n\nHowever, August 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of S-300 surface-to-air missiles, the largest apparent gap in Azerbaijan's air defense system may have been filled.\n\nAlso in Azerbaijan there was a former Soviet early warning radar. The Gabala Radar Station was a bistatic phased-array installation, operated by the Russian Space Forces. The contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the Azerbaijani government. The contract costed Russia $7 million per year. The radar station had a range of up to , and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the Indian Ocean. In December 2012 Russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station. The site was given back to Azerbaijan and all the equipment dismantled and transported to Russia. Nowadays, Russia covers the area from the Armavir Radar Station.\n\n===Training and education===\nAzerbaijani pilots are trained in the Azerbaijan Air Force School and then developing their skills in operational units. Azerbaijan has an experience exchange with Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and a number of NATO countries. The Turkish Air Force School has a great role in the training of Azeri military pilots. Azerbaijani pilots are also trained in Ukraine's Pilot Training School.\n", "The main naval base of the Soviet Union in the Caspian Sea was based in Baku. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the Caspian Fleet. The Azerbaijan Navy has about 2,200 personnel. The navy has a Petya class light frigate, ''Qusar'' (G 121), and a number of patrol craft, including one Turk class, ''Araz,'' P 223, one Brya (Project 722) class, P 218, one Shelon (Project 1388M) class, P 212, one Poluchat class (Project 368), P 219, one Luga class (Project 888), T 710, and four Petrushka (Polish UK-3 class), P 213, P 214, P 215, and P 216. There are four minesweepers consisting of 2 Sonya class minesweeper and 2 Yevgenya class minesweepers. (Jane's Fighting Ships 2010)\n\nThe Navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft, 3 Polnochny and 2 Vydra,(IISS 2007) plus three research ships, 1 Project 10470, A 671, ex Svyaga, 1 Balerian Uryvayev class survey vessel (AG) and one Vadim Popov class survey vessel (AG).\n\nThe U.S. Navy has helped train the Azeri Navy. There is also an agreement to provide US support to refurbish Azeri warships in the Caspian Sea. In 2006, the US Government donated 3 motorboats to the Azerbaijani navy. In 2007 an agreement between Azeri Navy and a US military company was concluded, which stated that a part of the Azeri Navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems. The US company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment. A number of separate U.S. programmes are underway under the Caspian Guard Initiative, focused mostly on enhancing Azerbaijani and Kazakh maritime border security.\n\nIn May 2011, President of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic Rovnag Abdullayev stated that Azerbaijan to start production of national warships after 2013.\n\n===Special forces===\n\nMembers of the Azerbaijani Special Forces during a military parade in Baku 2011\nThe Naval Intelligence of Azerbaijan maintains the 641st Special Warfare Naval Unit. The special forces were trained by the Navy Seals of the U.S. and both special forces have participated in joint naval exercises, headquartered at the Azerbaijani Naval Station on the island of Wolf in the Bay of Baku. Unit 641 has several midget submarines such as Triton-1M and Triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers. The special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups, 2 groups for mountainous warfare and one diving group. Obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night, on land and on water.\n\nThere is also unconfirmed reports of a 'Tigers' special warfare unit. It is said that the 'Tigers' unit was established in cooperation with the Turkish Navy in 2001. The training and structure of the Tigers are similar to Turkish special forces, Su Altı Taarruz and United States Special Forces who have close training relationships with them. The first Tiger units were established at Ganja following a joint training program with Turkey. The Special Forces are equipped with the Israeli IMI Tavor TAR-21.\n", "Marauder'' is a South African MRAP manufactured under license in Azerbaijan.\n\nThe Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for Azerbaijan. It was established in 2005. The Defence Industries Ministry subsumed the State Department for Military Industry and for Armaments and the Military Science Center, each of which was formerly a separate agency within the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry.\n\nThe defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing defense production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan. Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.\n\nThe major military companies of Azerbaijan are:\n RPE Iglim, aviation and shipbuilding\n* Radiogurashdirma, communication means and radio-electronic\n* RPE Neftgazavtomat, devices and automation systems for monitoring technological processes\n* RPE Automatic Lines, non-standard equipment and products for application in electrotechnical and machine engineering\n* Avia-Agregat, multi-purpose aviation equipment, various airdrome conditioners, universal container of board conductor, air-to-air radiators, fuel-oil, air-to-air heat exchangers and ventilators \n\nIn early 2008, reports indicated that an agreement with Turkey had been signed which would lead to Azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and small calibre artillery pieces. Another 2008 report mentioned Azerbaijan's desire to produce its own military aircraft and helicopters, but quoted a military expert as saying that it would be impossible to do so for the next five years.\n", "Azerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the military-technical sphere and has an agreement on military-technical cooperation with more than 30 countries.\n\n===Turkey===\nAzerbaijani Special Forces unit in Turkish manufactured Otokar Cobra.\nIn December 2009 an agreement on military assistance was signed by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The agreement envisions Ankara's supplying Azerbaijan with weapons, military equipment and, if necessary, soldiers in case war with Armenia over Karabakh resumes.\n\nTurkey has provided Azerbaijan with infantry weapons, tactical vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) professional training, military organization, technology transfer, licensed military hardware production and other services. Due to help from Turkish specialists and instructors, thousands of Azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards.\n\nThe military position as international importance of Azerbaijan increased with agreement between Azerbaijan and Turkey on the participation an Azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of Turkish battalion in Kosovo.\n\nSince 1992 Azerbaijan and Turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols, some of the major protocols include:\n* Cooperation of staff members\n* National security cooperation in the topographical area\n* Forming and training of profession school of forces kind of Baku\n* Carrying out of the material and technical purchasing\n* Military industry cooperation\n* Development of the 5th Army Corps also known as Nakhchivan Army Corps in Nakhchivan\n* Cooperation in the area of military history, military archives and museum work and military publication\n* Assistance on training, material and technical between the Azerbaijan Border Guard and the Turkish Armed Forces.\n* Long-term economical and military cooperation and application of the financial aid\n* Application of material and technical provision\n\nIn May 2011, Azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of long-range rockets from two Chinese companies, the minister of the defence industry has said. Other arms deals were signed with Turkey. Turkish Defence Minister Vecdi Gonul and Yaver Jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output – 107-mm rockets and the national rifle, possibly the Mehmetçik-1. A protocol of intent was signed the same day with the Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation MKEK on the joint production of 120-mm mortar launchers. This project will come into force in a few months time. Agreement has also been reached with Turkish company Aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in Azerbaijan, specifically the latest types of weapons' sights. These projects will probably happen in the near future too. Recently, Turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the T-155 Firtina self-propelled howitser is almost done and could start production. T-155 has been powered by a German MTU power pack, which restricts the sale to some countries like Azerbaijan. The Turkish manufacturer MKEK, has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where Azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech, more capable 155mm 52 caliber from Turkish authorities.\n\n===United States===\nNasosnaya Air Base in Azerbaijan, Gen. Tom Hobbins, U.S. Air Forces in Europe commander, and Chief Master Sgt. Gary Coleman, USAFE command chief, Lt. Col. Elmar Hüseynov\nSection 907 of the United States Freedom Support Act bans any kind of direct United States aid to the Azerbaijani government. Since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive U.S. military cooperation with Azerbaijan. This has included Special Forces and naval aid, consultations with United States European Command, and linkages through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program.\n\nOn 19 May 2006, Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev and the then commander of United States Air Forces in Europe General Tom Hobbins met in Baku to discuss military cooperation. He said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of Azerbaijani armed forces. Hobbins pointed to the progress made in the NATO-Azerbaijan relations, saying that the successful implementation of the NATO Partnership for Peace program in Azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance. He said that the two countries' air forces will expand cooperation.\n\nThe U.S. state of Oklahoma is linked with Azerbaijan through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program (SPP). Oklahoma National Guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to Baku.\n\n===Russia===\n\nRussia is Azerbaijan's main arms supplier. \"As of today, military and technical cooperation with Russia is measured at $4 billion and it tends to grow further,\" President Ilham Aliyev said today after meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Baku, the Azeri capital in 2013.\n\n===Israel===\nAzerbaijan and Israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry. Azerbaijan has shown great interest in Israeli technology over the years. In particular, an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in Azerbaijan.\n\nThe Israeli defense company Elta Systems Ltd has had cooperation from Azerbaijan in building the TecSAR reconnaissance satellite system, which can take high-definition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions. According to Azerbaijani military experts, the TecSAR system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of Azerbaijan.\n\nAs of June 2009, Israel and Azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of Namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in Azerbaijan. There is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made.\n\nBoth countries treat a nuclear I.R. Iran as security threat.\n\n===NATO===\nAzerbaijan deployed 150 peacekeepers during the Iraq War\nThe North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Azerbaijan actively cooperate on defence institutional reforms and have developed practical cooperation in many other areas. Azerbaijan's Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) and its Partnership for Peace (PfP) linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO.\n\nThe Azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing IPAP-recommended reforms, however, in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek NATO membership. This is because Azerbaijan's foreign policy 'seeks to balance interests with the U.S., EU, Russia and Iran.'\n\nAccording to a NATO diplomatic source some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. \"Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom and the Baltic states,\" are among the member-states also backing a fast track for Azerbaijan's NATO membership.\n\nHowever, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011.\n\nThere is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of GUAM: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova.\n", "Azerbaijan Voluntary Military Patriotism Technical Sport Society\nJudiciary of Azerbaijan\n", "\n* \n* \n", "U.S. Army War College Center for Strategic Leadership, Transformation of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces, October 2008\n", "\n Official YouTube Channel of Azerbaijani Soldier program\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Overview", "History of the Azerbaijani military", "Land forces", "Air forces", "Navy", "Defense industry", "International cooperation", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Azerbaijani Armed Forces
[ "\nArmenia map of Köppen climate classification.\nMap of Armenia\n\nArmenia is a landlocked country in the Transcaucasia region, between the Black and Caspian Seas, bordered on the north and east by Georgia and Azerbaijan and on the south and west by Iran and Turkey.\n\nThe terrain is mostly mountainous and flat, with fast flowing rivers and few forests but with many trees. The climate is highland continental: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4,095 m above sea-level at Mount Aragats.\n\nPollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT is not helping the already poor soil quality in many parts of the country.\n\nArmenia is trying to address its environmental problems. It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and introduced taxes for air and water pollution and solid waste disposal, whose revenues are used for environmental protection activities. Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS, a group of 12 former Soviet republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues. The Armenian Government is working toward closing the Armenian Nuclear Power Plant as soon as alternative energy sources are identified.\n\n'''Geographic coordinates''': \n", "Detailed map of Armenia \nArmenia is located in southern Transcaucasia, the region southwest of Russia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. Modern Armenia term means Republic of Armenia which occupies part of historical Armenia, whose ancient centres were in the valley of the Araks River and the region around Lake Van in Turkey. Armenia is bordered on the north by Georgia, on the east by Azerbaijan, on the southwest by the Nagorno-Karabagh, on the south by Iran, and on the west by Turkey.\n", "Topography of Armenia\nTwenty-five million years ago, a geological upheaval pushed up the Earth's crust to form the Armenian Plateau, creating the complex topography of modern Armenia. The Lesser Caucasus range extends through northern Armenia, runs southeast between Lake Sevan and Azerbaijan, then passes roughly along the Armenian-Azerbaijani border to Iran. Thus situated, the mountains make travel from north to south difficult. Geological turmoil continues in the form of devastating earthquakes, which have plagued Armenia. In December 1988, the second largest city in the republic, Leninakan (now Gyumri), was heavily damaged by a massive quake that killed more than 25,000 people.\n\nAbout half of Armenia's area of approximately has an elevation of at least , and only 3% of the country lies below . The lowest points are in the valleys of the Araks River and the Debet River in the far north, which have elevations of , respectively. Elevations in the Lesser Caucasus vary between . To the southwest of the range is the Armenian Plateau, which slopes southwestward toward the Araks River on the Turkish border. The plateau is masked by intermediate mountain ranges and extinct volcanoes. The largest of these, Mount Aragats, high, is also the highest point in Armenia. Most of the population lives in the western and northwestern parts of the country, where the two major cities, Yerevan and Gyumri (which was called Aleksandropol' during the tsarist period), are located.\n\nThe valleys of the Debet and Akstafa rivers form the chief routes into Armenia from the north as they pass through the mountains. Lake Sevan, across at its widest point and long, is by far the largest lake. It lies above sea level on the plateau. Terrain is most rugged in the extreme southeast, which is drained by the Bargushat River, and most moderate in the Araks River valley to the extreme southwest. Most of Armenia is drained by the Araks or its tributary, the Hrazdan, which flows from Lake Sevan. The Araks forms most of Armenia's border with Turkey and Iran while the Zangezur Mountains form the border between Armenia's southern province of Syunik and Azerbaijan's adjacent Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.\nArmenian terrain\n", "\n\nTemperatures in Armenia generally depend upon elevation. Mountain formations block the moderating climatic influences of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, creating wide seasonal variations with cold snowy winters, and warm to hot summers. On the Armenian Plateau, the mean midwinter temperature is to , and the mean midsummer temperature is to . Average precipitation ranges from per year in the lower Araks River valley to at the highest altitudes. Despite the harshness of winter in most parts (with frosts reaching and lower in Shirak region), the fertility of the plateau's volcanic soil made Armenia one of the world's earliest sites of agricultural activity.\n", "A broad public discussion of environmental problems began in the mid-1980s, when the first \"green\" groups formed in opposition to Yerevan's intense industrial air pollution and to nuclear power generation in the wake of the 1986 reactor explosion at Chernobyl'. Environmental issues helped form the basis of the nationalist independence movement when environmental demonstrations subsequently merged with those for other political causes in the late 1980s.\nrepublics as they emerge from the centralized planning system's disastrous approach to resource management. By 1980 the infrequency of sightings of Mount Ararat, which looms about sixty kilometers across the closed Turkish border, became a symbol of worsening air pollution in Yerevan.\n", "'''Area''':\n''total:'' 29,743 km²\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 149\n''land:'' 28,454 km²\n''water:'' 1,289 km²\n\n'''Area comparative'''\nAustralia comparative: about one third (33%) the size of Tasmania\nCanada comparative: greater than half (56%) the size of Nova Scotia\nTurkey comparative: about a quarter (%24) smaller than the size of Konya Province.\nUnited Kingdom comparative: about one third larger (30%) than Wales\nUnited States comparative: slightly smaller (7%) than Maryland\nEU comparative: slightly smaller (8%) than Belgium\n\n'''Land boundaries''':\n''total:'' 1,570 km\n''border countries:''\nAzerbaijan and Nagorno-Karabakh Republic-proper 566 km, Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave 221 km, Georgia 219 km, Iran 44 km, Turkey 311 km\n\n'''Coastline:'''\n0 km (landlocked)\n\n'''Maritime claims:'''\nnone (landlocked)\n\n'''Elevation extremes:'''\n''lowest point:''\nDebed River 400 m\n''highest point:''\nMount Aragats 4,090 m\n\n'''Extreme points of Armenia:'''\n''North:''\nTavush ()\n''South:''\nSyunik' ()\n''West:''\nShirak ()\n''East:''\nSyunik' ()\n", "'''Natural resources:'''\nsmall deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, bauxite\n\n'''Land use:'''\n''arable land:''\n15.75%\n''permanent crops:''\n1.99%\n''other:''\n82.26% (2012)\n\n'''Irrigated land:'''\n2,735 km² (2006)\n\n'''Total renewable water resources:'''\n7.77 m³ (2011) Armenia is considered to be a big water “supplier” in the Caspian basin; as a result, the country lacks water, especially in summer when the rate of evaporation exceeds the amount of precipitation. That is the main reason why people here since ancient times have built water reservoirs and irrigation canal. Lake Sevan contains the largest amount of water in the country.\n\n'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''\n''total:'' 2.86 km³/yr (40%/6%/54%)\n''per capita:'' 929.7 m³/yr (2010)\n\n===Geography Other===\nlandlocked in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains; Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan) is the largest lake in this mountain range\n", "Geography of Europe\nGeographical Issues in Armenia\nMountains of Armenia\nShikahogh State Preserve\n", "\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Physical environment", "Topography and drainage", "Climate", "Environmental problems", "Area and boundaries", "Resources and land use", "See also", "References" ]	Geography of Armenia
[ "The '''demographics of Armenia''' is about the demographic features of the population of Armenia, including population growth, population density, ethnicity, education level, health, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.\nPopulation of Armenia 1950-2010.Data NSSRA ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.\n\n\n", "Pyramid Armenia 2012 http://www.armstat.am\nAfter registering a steady increase all through the Soviet period, the population of Armenia declined from 3.604 million in 1991 to 3.211 million in 2003. The latest estimate is 2.872 million on October 12, 2011.\n\nArmenia is the only republic of the former Soviet Union that has a nearly homogeneous population. It is also the second-most densely populated post-Soviet state after Moldova. Ethnic minorities include Russians, Assyrians, Ukrainians, Yazidi Kurds, Iranians, Greeks, Georgians, and Belarusians. There are also smaller communities of Vlachs, Mordvins, Ossetians, Udis, and Tats. Minorities of Poles and Caucasus Germans also exist though they are heavily Russified.\n\nMost Armenians are Christian, primarily of Apostolic Church rite. Armenia is considered the first nation to adopt Christianity, which was first preached in Armenia by two Apostles of Jesus, St. Bartholomew and St. Thaddeus in the 1st century. The Armenian Apostolic Church can trace its roots back to the 3rd and 4th centuries. The country formally adopted the Christian faith in 301 A.D. Over 90% of Armenians belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. It is a very ritualistic, conservative church, roughly comparable to the Coptic and Syrian churches. Armenia also has a population of Catholics and evangelical Protestants.\n\nThe country's population has declined due to increased emigration since the break-up of the Soviet Union. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have decreased in recent years, and there has been a moderate influx of Armenians returning to Armenia.\n", "\n\n\n\nAverage population (x 1000)\nLive births\nDeaths\nNatural change\nCrude birth rate (per 1000)\nCrude death rate (per 1000)\nNatural change (per 1000)\nTotal fertility rate\nInfant mortality rate (per 1000 births)\nLife expectancy males\nLife expectancy females\n\n1950\n1,354\n43,414\n11,525\n31,889\n32.1\n8.5\n23.6\n\n1951\n1,378\n49,790\n12,482\n37,308\n36.1\n9.1\n27.1\n\n1952\n1,415\n53.845\n12,916\n40,929\n38.1\n9.1\n28.9\n\n1953\n1,454\n51,025\n14,007\n37,018\n35.1\n9.6\n25.5\n\n1954\n1,504\n57,995\n12,301\n45,900\n38.6\n8.2\n30.4\n\n1955\n1,564\n59,477\n13,763\n45,714\n38.0\n8.8\n29.2\n\n1956\n1,616\n62,119\n12,286\n50,000\n38.5\n7.6\n30.8\n\n1957\n1,671\n66,862\n14,101\n52,761\n40.0\n8.4\n31.6\n\n1958\n1,732\n71,213\n14,089\n57,124\n41.1\n8.1\n33.0\n\n1959\n1,796\n72,211\n13,968\n58,243\n40.2\n7.8\n32.4\n\n1960\n1,867\n74,825\n12,675\n62,150\n40.1\n6.8\n33.3\n4.63\n\n1961\n1,942\n72,377\n12,496\n59,881\n37.3\n6.4\n30.8\n4.27\n\n1962\n2,005\n69,505\n13,297\n56,208\n34.7\n6.6\n28.0\n4.17\n\n1963\n2,064\n67,382\n12,046\n55,336\n32.6\n5.8\n26.8\n4.11\n\n1964\n2,133\n64,454\n12,415\n52,039\n30.2\n5.8\n24.4\n3.98\n\n1965\n2,205\n62,969\n12,582\n50,387\n28.6\n5.7\n22.9\n3.91\n\n1966\n2,273\n61,594\n12,445\n49,149\n27.1\n5.5\n21.6\n3.69\n\n1967\n2,337\n57,031\n12,622\n44,409\n24.4\n5.4\n19.0\n3.55\n\n1968\n2,401\n57,503\n12,231\n45,272\n23.9\n5.1\n18.9\n3.46\n\n1969\n2,462\n56,203\n12,782\n43,421\n22.8\n5.2\n17.6\n3.20\n\n1970\n2,518\n55,694\n12,844\n42,850\n22.1\n5.1\n17.0\n3.17\n\n1971\n2,580\n58,188\n12,518\n45,670\n22.6\n4.9\n17.7\n3.18\n\n1972\n2,644\n59,313\n13,730\n45,583\n22.4\n5.2\n17.2\n3.07\n\n1973\n2,708\n59,593\n14,102\n45,491\n22.0\n5.2\n16.8\n2.92\n\n1974\n2,770\n60,419\n14,276\n46,143\n21.8\n5.2\n16.7\n2.82\n\n1975\n2,826\n62,866\n15,498\n47,368\n22.2\n5.5\n16.8\n2.79\n\n1976\n2,883\n65,065\n15,688\n49,377\n22.6\n5.4\n17.1\n2.72\n\n1977\n2,943\n65,830\n15,813\n50,017\n22.4\n5.4\n17.0\n2.61\n\n1978\n3,001\n66,698\n16,465\n50,233\n22.2\n5.5\n16.7\n2.46\n\n1979\n3,051\n69,786\n17,125\n52,661\n22.9\n5.6\n17.3\n2.38\n\n1980\n3,096\n70,324\n17,124\n53,200\n22.7\n5.5\n17.2\n2.33\n\n1981\n3,144\n73,682\n16,659\n57,023\n23.4\n5.3\n18.1\n2.31\n\n1982\n3,194\n74,225\n17,469\n56,756\n23.2\n5.5\n17.8\n2.26\n\n1983\n3,243\n76,436\n18,369\n58,067\n23.6\n5.7\n17.9\n2.35\n\n1984\n3,292\n79,767\n19,043\n60,724\n24.2\n5.8\n18.4\n2.44\n\n1985\n3,339\n80,306\n19,581\n60,725\n24.1\n5.9\n18.2\n2.56\n\n1986\n3,387\n81,192\n19,410\n61,782\n24.0\n5.7\n18.2\n2.58\n\n1987\n3,435\n78,492\n19,727\n58,765\n22.9\n5.7\n17.1\n2.55\n\n1988\n3,453\n74,707\n35,5672\n39,140\n21.6\n10.3\n11.3\n2.49\n\n1989\n3,482\n75,250\n20,853\n54,397\n21.6\n6.0\n15.6\n2.61\n\n1990\n3,545\n79,882\n21,993\n57,889\n22.5\n6.2\n16.3\n2.63\n\n1991\n3,604\n77,825\n23,425\n54,400\n21.6\n6.5\n15.1\n2.60\n\n1992\n3,549\n70,581\n25,824\n44,757\n19.9\n7.3\n12.6\n2.44\n\n1993\n3,410\n59,041\n27,500\n31,541\n17.3\n8.1\n9.2\n2.14\n\n1994\n3,309\n51,143\n24,648\n26,495\n15.5\n7.4\n8.0\n1.878\n\n1995\n3,255\n48,960\n24,842\n24,118\n15.0\n7.6\n7.4\n1.842\n\n1996\n3,247\n48,134\n24,936\n23,198\n14.8\n7.7\n7.1\n1.834\n\n1997\n3,242\n43,929\n23,985\n19,944\n13.5\n7.4\n6.2\n1.680\n\n1998\n3,235\n39,366\n23,210\n16,156\n12.2\n7.2\n5.0\n1.509\n\n1999\n3,230\n36,502\n24,087\n12,415\n11.3\n7.5\n3.8\n1.388\n\n2000\n3,221\n34,276\n24,025\n10,251\n10.6\n7.5\n3.2\n1.305\n\n2001\n3,214\n32,065\n24,003\n8,062\n10.0\n7.5\n2.5\n1.239\n\n2002\n3,205\n32,229\n25,554\n6,675\n10.1\n8.0\n2.1\n1.207\n\n2003\n3,188\n35,793\n26,014\n9,779\n11.2\n8.2\n3.1\n1.349\n\n2004\n3,172\n37,520\n25,679\n11,841\n11.8\n8.1\n3.7\n1.383\n\n2005\n3,155\n37,499\n26,379\n11,120\n11.9\n8.4\n3.5\n1.366\n\n2006\n3,139\n37,639\n27,202\n10,437\n12.0\n8.7\n3.3\n1.348\n13.9\n70.0\n76.4\n\n2007\n3,122\n40,105\n26,830\n13,275\n12.8\n8.6\n4.3\n1.417\n10.9\n70.2\n76.6\n\n2008\n3,106\n41,185\n27,412\n13,773\n13.3\n8.8\n4.4\n1.444\n10.8\n70.4\n76.9\n\n2009\n3,089\n44,466\n27,528\n16,938\n14.4\n8.9\n5.5\n1.551\n10.4\n70.6\n77.0\n\n2010\n3,073\n44,825\n27,921\n16,904\n14.6\n9.1\n5.5\n1.556\n11.3\n70.6\n77.2\n\n2011\n3,056\n43,340\n27,963\n15,377 \n14.2\n9.1\n5.0\n1.499\n11.6\n70.7\n77.5\n\n20123\n3,037\n42,480\n27,599\n14,881\n14.0\n9.1\n4.9\n1.58\n10.7\n\n\n\n2013\n3,022\n41,770\n27,165\n14,605\n13.8\n9.0\n4.8\n1.57\n9.8\n\n\n\n2014\n3,014\n43,183\n27,196\n15,987\n14.3\n9.0\n5.3\n1.7 \n8.7\n\n2015\n3,007\n41,763\n27,878\n13,885\n13.9\n9.3\n4.6\n1.6\n8.8\n\n\n\n2016\n2,998\n40,638\n28,129\n12,509\n13.6\n9.4\n4.2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1 The numbers of life births and deaths until 1959 were calculated from the birth rate and death rate, respectively\n2 The high number of deaths in 1988 is related to the Spitak earthquake While in the 19th century the death rate was equal to the rate of other Europeans (excluding England) and lower than the death rate among the Indo—Portuguese, Hindus and Muslims.\n3 The population estimate for 2012 has been recalculated on the basis of the 2011 Census.\n\n===Fertility Rate (The Demographic Health Survey) ===\nFertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate):\n\n\n Year\n CBR (Total)\n TFR (Total)\n CBR (Urban)\n TFR (Urban)\n CBR (Rural)\n TFR (Rural)\n\n 2000\n 13.9\n 1.7 (1.5)\n 12.1\n 1.5 (1.3)\n 16.3\n 2.1 (1.7)\n\n 2005\n 14.6\n 1.7 (1.6)\n 14.5\n 1.6 (1.6)\n 14.9\n 1,8 (1,6)\n\n 2010\n 14.0\n 1.7 (1.6)\n 12.8\n 1.6 (1.5)\n 16.2\n 1.8 (1.8)\n\n 2015-2016\n 12.9\n 1.7 (1.7)\n 12.7\n 1.7 (1.6)\n 13.2\n 1.8 (1.8)\n\n\n\n=== Structure of the population ===\n\nStructure of the population (12.10.2011) (Census):\n\n\nAge Group\nMale\nFemale\nTotal\n%\n\n Total\n 1 448 052\n 1 570 802\n 3 018 854\n 100\n\n 0-4\n 110 565\n 97 007\n 207 572\n 6,88\n\n 5-9\n 96 429\n 83 500\n 179 929\n 5,96\n\n 10-14\n 95 458\n 83 179\n 178 637\n 5,92\n\n 15-19\n 117 938\n 115 137\n 233 075\n 7,72\n\n 20-24\n 143 897\n 148 337\n 292 234\n 9,68\n\n 25-29\n 132 109\n 139 820\n 271 929\n 9,01\n\n 30-34\n 108 114\n 114 891\n 223 005\n 7,39\n\n 35-39\n 89 073\n 98 348\n 187 421\n 6,21\n\n 40-44\n 82 502\n 94 462\n 176 964\n 5,86\n\n 45-49\n 98 064\n 112 996\n 211 060\n 6,99\n\n 50-54\n 109 294\n 125 238\n 234 532\n 7,77\n\n 55-59\n 80 989 \n 96 769\n 177 758\n 5,89\n\n 60-64\n 56 189\n 71 410\n 127 599\n 4,23\n\n 65-69\n 28 020\n 37 353\n 65 373\n 2,17\n\n 70-74\n 44 041\n 63 637\n 107 678\n 3,57\n\n 75-79\n 30 734\n 44 643\n 75 377\n 2,50\n\n 80-84\n 18 662\n 30 244\n 48 906\n 1,62\n\n 85+\n 5 974\n 13 831\n 19 805\n 0,66\n\n\n\n\nAge group \nMale\nFemale\nTotal\nPercent\n\n 0-14\n 302 452\n 263 686\n 566 138\n 18,75\n\n 15-64\n 1 018 169\n 1 117 408\n 2 135 577\n 70,74\n\n 65+\n 127 431\n 189 708\n 317 139\n 10,51\n\n\n", "\n\n\n+\n'''Population of Armenia according to ethnic group 1926–2011'''\n\n Ethnicgroup\n census 19261\n census 19392\n census 19593\n census 19704\n census 19795\n census 19896\n census 20017\n census 20118\n\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n Number\n %\n\n Armenians\n 743,571\n 84.5\n 1,061,997\n 82.8\n 1,551,610\n 88.0\n 2,208,327\n 88.6\n 2,724,975\n 89.7\n 3,083,616\n 93.3\n 3,145,354\n 97.9\n 2,961,801\n 98.1\n\n Yazidis\n 12,237\n 1.4\n 20,481\n 1.6\n 25,627\n 1.5\n 37,486\n 1.5\n 50,822\n 1.7\n 56,127\n 1.7\n 40,620\n 1.3\n 35,308\n 1.2\n\n Kurds\n 2,973\n 0.3\n 1,519\n 0.0\n 2,162\n 0.1\n\n Russians\n 19,548\n 2.2\n 51,464\n 4.0\n 56,464\n 3.2\n 66,108\n 2.7\n 70,336\n 2.3\n 51,555\n 1.6\n 14,660\n 0.5\n 11,911\n 0.4\n\n Assyrian people\n 2,215\n 0.3\n 3,280\n 0.3\n 4,326\n 0.2\n 5,544\n 0.2\n 6,183\n 0.2\n 5,963\n 0.2\n 3,409\n 0.1\n 2,769\n 0.1\n\n Ukrainians\n 2,286\n 0.3\n 5,496\n 0.4\n 5,593\n 0.3\n 8,390\n 0.3\n 8,900\n 0.3\n 8,341\n 0.3\n 1,633\n 0.1\n 1,176\n 0.0\n\n Greeks\n 2,980\n 0.3\n 4,181\n 0.3\n 4,976\n 0.3\n 5,690\n 0.2\n 5,653\n 0.2\n 4,650\n 0.1\n 1,176\n 0.0\n 900\n 0.0\n\n Georgians\n 274\n 0.0\n 652\n 0.1\n 816\n 0.0\n 1,439\n 0.1\n 1,314\n 0.0\n 1,364\n 0.0\n 694\n 0․0\n 617\n 0.0\n\n Azerbaijanis\n 76,870\n 8.7\n 130,896\n 10.2\n 107,748\n 6.1\n 148,189\n 5.9\n 160,841\n 5.3\n 84,860\n 2.6\n 29\n 0․0\n \n \n\n Jews\n 335\n 0.0\n 512\n 0.0\n 1,024\n 0.1\n 1,047\n 0.0\n 959\n 0.0\n 720\n 0.0\n 109\n 0․0\n 127\n 0․0\n\n Others\n 18,001\n 2.0\n 3,379\n 0.3\n 4,864\n 0.3\n 9,653\n 0.4\n 7,276\n 0.2\n 7,580\n 0.2\n 3,808\n 0.1\n 1,983\n 0.1\n\n Total\n 880,464\n 1,282,338\n 1,763,048\n 2,491,873\n 3,037,259\n 3,304,776\n 3,213,011\n 3,018,854\n\n 1 Source: . 2 Source: . 3 Source: . 4 Source: . 5 Source: . 6 Source: . 7 Source: . 8 Source: . \n\n", ":Armenian 97.7%, Kurdish 1%, Russian 0.9%, and other 0.4% (2001 census).\n\nArmenian is the only official language.\n\nArmenia is a member of the La Francophonie due to a small percentage of people studying enough French.\n\nThe largest communities of the ethnic Armenian diaspora are fluent in Russian and English.\n", "\nAccording to the Census of 2011 the religion in Armenia is the following: Christianity 2,862,366 (94.8%) of whom 2,797,187 Armenian Apostolic (92.5%), 29,280 Evangelical, 13,996 Armenian and Roman (Latin) Catholic, 8,695 Jehovah's Witness, 8,587 Eastern Orthodox (Russian, Ukrainian, Georgian, Greek), 2,874 Molokan (non-Orthodox Russians), 1,733 Assyrian Church of the East (Nestorian), 733 Protestant, 241 Mormon, Yazidism (0.8%), Paganism (0.2%), 812 Islam, 5,299 Other Religion (0.2%), 121,587 No Response (4%).\n", "\nThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.\n\n===Population===\n:3,014,000 (October 2014 est.) information from the National Statistic Service of Armenia \n:''country comparison to the world:'' 137\n\n===Urbanization===\n:Urban population: 64.1% of total population (2011)\n:Rate of urbanization: 0.34% annual rate of change (2010-15 est.)\n\n===Sex ratio===\n:At birth: 1.14 male(s)/female\n:0-14 years: 1.15 male(s)/female\n:15-24 years: 1.03 male(s)/female\n:25-54 years: 0.92 male(s)/female\n:55-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female\n:65 years and over: 0.59 male(s)/female\n:Total population: 0.89 male(s)/female (2014 est.)\n\n===Infant mortality rate===\n:Total: 3.76 deaths/1,000 live births\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 212\n:Male: 3.78 deaths/1,000 live births\n:Female: 3.74 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.)\n\n===Life expectancy at birth===\n:Total: 13.97 deaths/1,000 live births\n:Country comparison to the world: 113\n:Male: 15.39 deaths/1,000 live births\n:Female: 12.36 deaths/1,000 live births (2014 est.)\n\n===Total fertility rate===\n:1.74 children born/woman (2014 est.)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 177\n\n===HIV/AIDS===\n:Adult prevalence rate: 0,2% (2012 est.)\n:People living with HIV/AIDS: 3,500 (2012 est.)\n:HIV/AIDS - deaths: 200 (2012 est.)\n\n===Nationality===\n:Noun: Armenian(s)\n:Adjective: Armenian\n\n===Ethnic groups===\nArmenian 98%, Yezidi (Kurd) 1.2%, other 0.8% (2011 est.)\n", "* Censuses of Armenia\n* Ethnic minorities in Armenia\n* Assyrians in Armenia\n* Greeks in Armenia\n* Yazidis in Armenia\n* Lom people\n", "\n", "* Population cartogram of Armenia\n* Khachatryan, Anush; Karapetyan, Arsen: \"Public Green Space in Armenian Cities: A Legal Analysis\" in the Ccaucasus Analytical Ddigest No. 23\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Demographics trends", "Vital statistics<ref>B.R. Mitchell. International historical statistics 1750-2005: Africa. Asia and Oceania</ref><ref>http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm#2001 United nations. Demographic Yearbooks</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.armstat.am/en/\|title=Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia\|website=www.armstat.am}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/ussr_ed_1935.php?year=1957\|title=Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.\|website=www.demoscope.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=http://www.armstat.am/en/?nid=82&id=1621\|title=The Demographic Handbook of Armenia, 2014 / Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia\|website=www.armstat.am}}</ref>", "Ethnic groups ", "Languages", "Religions", " CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Demographics of Armenia
[ "\nThis article considers '''transport in Armenia'''. For Soviet transportation, see Transport in the Soviet Union.\n", "\n\n===Total===\n in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines\n\n===Broad gauge===\n825 km of gauge (825 km electrified) (1995)\nThere is no service south of Yerevan.\n\nCity with metro system: Yerevan\n\n===International Links===\n* Azerbaijan - closed - same gauge\n* Georgia - yes - same gauge\n* Iran - via Azerbaijan - closed - break of gauge - /\n* Turkey - closed - break of gauge -/\n\nMost of the cross-border lines are currently closed due to political problems.\n", "\n\nAs of the end of 2010, nearly 450,000 automobiles were registered in Armenia.\n\n===Total===\n7,700 km\nWorld Ranking: 144\n\n===Paved===\n7,700 km (including 1,561 km of expressways)\n\n===Unpaved===\n0 km (2006 est.)\n", "Natural gas 2,233 km (2008)\n", "Cargo shipments to landlocked Armenia are routed through ports in Georgia and Turkey.\n", "11 (2008) Only Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport and Gyumri's Shirak Airport are in use for commercial aviation.\ncountry comparison to the world: 154\n\n===Airports - with paved runways===\nTotal: 10\n:Over 3,047 m (9,900 feet): 2\n:1,524 to 2,437 m (7,920 feet): 2\n:914 to 1,523 m (4,950 feet): 4\n:Under 914 m: 2 (as of 2008)\n\n===Airports - with unpaved runways===\nTotal: 1\n:1,524 to 2,437 m: 0\n:914 to 1,523 m: 1\n:under 914 m: 0 (as of 2008)\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Railways", "Roadways", "Pipelines", "Ports and harbors", "Airports", "References" ]	Transport in Armenia
[ "\n\nThe '''Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia''' () comprise two services: the Army, and the Air Force and Air Defense (a unified branch). It was partially formed out of the former Soviet Army forces stationed in the Armenian SSR (mostly units of the 7th Guards Army of the Transcaucasian Military District). Being a landlocked country, Armenia has no navy.\n\nThe Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, Serzh Sargsyan. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership, headed by Vigen Sargsyan, while military command remains in the hands of the general staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Colonel-General Movses Hakobyan. Armenia established a Ministry of Defense on January 28, 1992. Border guards subject to the Ministry patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey. Since 2002, Armenia has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia signed a military cooperation plan with Lebanon on November 27, 2015.\n", "The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. The treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, such as tanks, artillery, armored combat vehicles, combat aircraft, and combat helicopters, and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits. Armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions and thus Armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the CFE Treaty. Despite this, Azerbaijan accuses Armenia of diverting a large part of its military forces to Nagorno-Karabakh and thus circumventing these international regulations. Armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons, but it has provided support, including material, to the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.\n\nIn March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993. The U.S. and other Western governments have discussed efforts to establish effective nuclear export control systems with Armenia and expressed satisfaction with Armenia's full cooperation.\n", "The Armenian Armed Forces are Headquartered in Yerevan, where most of the general staff is based. Headed by Chief of Staff Movses Hakobyan, the general staff is responsible for operational command of the Armenian Military and its three major branches.\n* Colonel-General Movses Hakobyan\n* Colonel-General Mikael Harutyunyan - Chief Military Inspector and Presidential Advisor\n* Colonel-General Harut Kassabian - Commander of Capital Guard\n* Lieutenant-General Aghik Myurzabekyan\n* Lieutenant-General Arthur Aghabekyan\n* Lieutenant-General Gurgen Melkonyan\n* Lieutenant-General Roland Kereshyan\n\nIn addition to the services listed above, Armenia established its own Internal Troops from the former Soviet Interior Troops after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Up until December 2002, Armenia maintained a Ministry of Internal Affairs, but along with the Ministry of National Security, it was reorganised as a non-ministerial institution. The two organisations became the Police of the Republic of Armenia and the National Security Service. In February 1999 the Deputy Minister of the Interior and Commander of the Internal Troops, Major General Artsrun Makarian, was found shot dead. In 2013 the International Institute for Strategic Studies attributed the force with four paramilitary battalions, 55 AIFV including 44 BMP-1, and 24 wheeled armoured personnel carriers.\n", "\nSnipers during a field exercise in 2004\nAccording to IISS 2010, Armenia has 20 T-80 tanks, 137 T-72 tanks, 8 T-54/55 tanks and 80 BMP-1's, 7 BMP-1K, 55 BMP-2 and 12 BRM-1K. Wheeled APCs reported included 11 BTR-60s, 21 BTR-70s, 4 BTR-80s, 145 MT-LBs, 5 BMD-1S, and 120 BRDM-2 scout vehicles.\n\nAlthough the Russians have supplied newer equipment to Armenia over the years, the numbers have never been sufficient to upgrade all ground force formations and many of the lower readiness units still have older, Soviet-legacy systems that have not been upgraded or in many cases effectively maintained. These older systems are placing great demands on the logistics system for service, maintenance, replacement parts and necessary upgrades, costing the army both financially and in overall readiness. The ground force is engaged in an effort of reassessment, reorganisation and restructuring, as the future of Armenia's defence needs a revised force structure and unit mix. The army sees the need to maintain much of its traditional mechanised formations, but is looking to lighten and make more mobile and self-sustainable a small number of other formations. It must develop these newer formations to support its international requirements and effectively operate in mountainous and other rugged terrain, but it must do this without affecting the mechanised capability that is needed to confront Azerbaijan's conventional forces.\n\nSince the fall of the Soviet Union, Armenia has followed a policy of developing its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. In 2000, the Centre for International Studies and Research reported that at that time the Armenian Army had the strongest combat capability of the three Caucasus countries' armies (the other two being Georgia and Azerbaijan). CSTO Secretary, Nikolay Bordyuzha, came to a similar conclusion after collective military drills in 2007 when he stated that, ''\"the Armenian Army is the most efficient one in the post-Soviet space\"''. This was echoed more recently by Igor Korotchenko, a member of the Public Council, Russian Ministry of Defense, in a March 2011 interview with Voice of Russia radio.\n\nThe Army is functionally divided into ''Active'' and ''Reserve Forces''. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Armenian society.\n\nThe Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces consists of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel.\n\nDuring peacetime the Army maintains permanent combat and mobilization readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with international treaties Armenia is a signatory to, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the infrastructure of the country for defense.\n\nIn times of crisis the Army's main tasks relate to participation in operations countering terrorist activities and defense of strategic facilities (such as nuclear power plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism.\n\nIn case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Army participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. In case of a high intensity conflict the Land Forces, together with the Air Force, Air Defense and Border Guards, form the defense group of the Armenian Armed Forces aiming at countering aggression and protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country.\n\nExperiments in developing small arms have been undertaken in Armenia, producing the K-3 assault rifle, but Jane's Infantry Weapons estimates that the program has ceased, and the rifle is not in widespread service with the army. The AK-74 is the standard issue rifle of the Armenian Army with older AKMs in reserve use. Beside AK rifles Armenian forces use mostly Russian small arms like the Makarov pistol, SVD sniper rifle, and the PKM General Purpose machine Gun.\n\n=== Military vehicles of Armenian Army (as of 2008-2016) ===\n\n+ Armoured vehicles\n\n Name\n Origin\n Type\n Number\n Photo\n Notes\n\n T-90S\n \n Main Battle Tank\n 1\n 150x150px\n 1 tank won in Tank biathlon.\n\n T-72\n \n Main Battle Tank\n 200+\n 150x150px\n Some T-72B mod. 1989 are in service with Kontakt-5 ERA. Estimated 530-540 T-72 tanks are in service together with the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army. Armenia also received 35 T-72s from Russia in 2013. \n\n T-55\n \n Main Battle Tank\n 8\n 150x150px\n 3 T-54 and 5 T-55\n\n BMP-2\n \n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 50\n 150x150px\n 50 units modernized/repaired by Russia in 2012-2013 Possibly more in storage. \n\n BMP-1\n \n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 75\n 150x150px\n \n\nBMP-1K\n \n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 7\n 150x150px\n Command Variant\n\n BRM-1K\n \n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 12\n 150x150px\n Command Variant\n\n BMD-1\n \n Infantry fighting vehicle\n 10\n 150x150px\n \n\n BRDM-2\n \n Scout car\n 120\n 150x150px\n Includes anti-tank variant\n\n BTR-80\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n 110\n 150x150px\n Possibly more in storage. Number does not include unknown number of Infauna electronic countermeasure variants first displayed at the 2016 military parade.\n\n BTR-70\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n 40+\n 150x150px\n Upgraded with new engines and 30mm gun.\n\n BTR-60\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n 100+\n 150x150px\n\n\n BTR-152\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n \n 150x150px\n \n\n MT-LB\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n 145\n 150x150px\n Including following variants:\nSnar-10 Big Fred - Radar system\n9P149 - ATGM launcher\n9K35 Strela-10 - Vehicle-mounted SAM system\n\n GAZ-2975\n \n Armoured personnel carrier\n 10\n 150x150px\n More ordered in 2015.\n\n\n===Self-propelled artillery equipments of Armenian Army (as of 2008-2016)===\n\nName\nOrigin\nType\nNumber\nPhoto\nNotes\n\n'''Self-Propelled Artillery'''\n\n2S3 Akatsiya\n\nSelf-propelled artillery\n28\n150x150px\n\n\n2S1 Gvozdika\n\nSelf-propelled artillery\n10\n150x150px\n\n\n\n===Multiple Rocket Launchers of Armenian Army (as of 2008-2016)===\n\n\n+ Multiple Rocket Launchers\n Name\n Origin\n Type\n Number\n Photo\n Notes\n\n BM-30 Smerch\n \n Multiple rocket launcher\n 6\n 120x120px\n Displayed during 2016 Independence Day Parade.\n\n WM-80\n \n Multiple rocket launcher\n 4-8\n 120x120px\n Purchased from China in 1999.\n\n BM-21 Grad\n \n Multiple rocket launcher\n 47\n 120x120px\n More in service with the Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army.\n\n N-2\n\n Multiple rocket launcher\n At least 2\n 120x120px\n Locally produced.\n\nTOS-1A\n\nMultiple rocket launcher\n6\n117x117px\nPurchased from Russia in 2016. \n\n\n===Tactical Ballistic Missile Systems of Armenian Army (as of 2008-2016)===\n\n\n+ Ballistic Missiles\n Name\n Origin\n Type\n Number\n Photo\n Notes\n\n Iskander-E\n \n short-range ballistic missile\n 4 launchers\n 150x150px\n 4 launchers, unknown number of missiles.First shown during the preparations for the 2016 military parade in Yerevan.\n\n SCUD-B\n \n short-range ballistic missile\n 8 launchers\n 131x131px\n 32 missiles\n\n OTR-21 Tochka\n \n short-range ballistic missile\n 7-8 launchers \n 150x150px\n Unknown number of missiles.\n\n", "\nArmenian Air Force Su-25's during a military parade in Yerevan.\nThe Armenian Air Force consists of 15 Su-25 ground attack planes, 1 MiG-25 jet fighter, 16 Mil Mi-24 helicopter gunships, 6 L-39 trainer and attack aircraft, 16 Yak-52 trainer aircraft, 3 Il-76 cargo planes, 18 Mil Mi-8 transport helicopters, and 10 Mil Mi-2 light utility helicopters. There are additional 18 MiG-29 fighter jets of the Russian 102nd Military Base stationed in Gyumri.\n", "The Armenian Air Defense is the anti-aircraft branch of the Armed Forces of Armenia. It was equipped and organized as part of the military reform program of Lieutenant-General Norat Ter-Grigoryants. It consists of an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 anti-aircraft complexes of various models and modifications, including the SA-8, Krug, S-75, S-125, SA-7, SA-10, SA-13, SA-16 and SA-18. Russia has SA-6 and S-300 long range surface-to-air missiles at the Russian 102nd Military Base. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.\nNumerical strength is estimated at about 3,000 servicemen, with plans for further expansion.\n\nIn late December 2010, the Armenian Defense Minister, Seyran Ohanyan, officially acknowledged that the army are equipped with the Russian-made S-300 surface-to-air missiles. The statement was made while the Minister was inspecting a new air-defense command point that maintains \"state-of-the-art equipment\" built specifically for the operation of the S-300's. Russian specialist started to train Armenian teams on sophisticated Missiles and Defensive Systems. The S-300 was paraded for the first time in the 2011 Parade and the only S-300 system (SA10 Grumble) which likes mobility. The S-300 is the main Air Defensive system that protects Armenia's air security. In the 2016 Armenian Parade celebrating the Armenian Independence BUK-M2 Air Defense Systems were shown. These systems were not part of the 200 million dollar contract agreement between Yerevan and Moscow but an agreement between CSTO partners. Other devices such as stem of electronic warfare (EW) \"Infauna\" and P-325U consist in the Armenian Armed Forces.\n\n===Military equipment of Armenian Air Defense (as of 2008-2016)===\n\n+ Anti-Aircraft\n Name\n Origin\n Type\n Number\n Photo\n Notes\n\n S-300PM\n \n surface-to-air missile\n At least 8 launchers\n 150x150px\n144 missiles. \n\n 9K33 Osa\n \n surface-to-air missile\n 40\n 150x150px\n\n\n 2K11 Krug\n \n Surface-to-air missile\n 115\n 150x150px\n349 missiles.\n\n BUK-M2 \n \n Surface-to-air missile\n N/A\n 150x150px\n First shown during the preparations for the 2016 military parade in Yerevan.\n\n 2K12 Kub\n \n\n N/A\n 150x150px\n\n\n S-75 Dvina\n \n surface-to-air missile\n 79\n 150x150px\n\n\n S-125 Neva/Pechora\n \n Surface-to-air missile\n N/A\n 150x150px\n\n\n ZSU-23-4\n \n SPAA\n N/A\n 150x150px\n\n\n Strela-10\n \n Surface-to-air missile\n N/A\n 150x150px\n\n\n", "\n\nIn addition to forces mentioned above, there are around 20,000 active soldiers defending Nagorno-Karabakh, a disputed territory which seceded from Azerbaijan in 1991 and is now a de facto independent state. They are well trained and well equipped with the latest in military software and hardware. The Karabakh army's heavy military hardware includes: 316 tanks, 324 armored vehicles, 322 artillery pieces of calibers over 122 mm, 44 multiple rocket launchers, and a new anti-aircraft defense system. In addition, the NKR Defence Army maintains a small air-force of 2 Su-25s, 5 Mi-24s and 5 other helicopters.\n", "\n===Russia ===\nVladimir Putin during his visit to the 102nd Russian military base in Armenia.\nRussia is Armenia's closest ally. The Russian 102nd Military Base, the former 127th Motor Rifle Division, is stationed in Gyumri. The military alliance of the two nations and, in particular, the presence of Russian troops on Armenian soil has been a key element of Armenia's national security doctrine since Armenia gained independence in 1991. Russia stations an estimated 5,000 soldiers of all types in Armenia, including 3,000 officially reported to be based at the 102nd Military Base. In 1997, the two countries signed a far-reaching friendship treaty, which calls for mutual assistance in the event of a military threat to either party and allows Russian border guards to patrol Armenia's frontiers with Turkey and Iran. In early 2005, the 102nd Military Base had 74 tanks, 17 battle infantry vehicles, 148 armored personnel carriers, 84 artillery pieces, 18 MiG-29 fighters, one battery of SA-6 and two batteries of S-300 anti-aircraft missiles. However, in 2005-2007, following an agreement on the withdrawal of two Russian military bases from Georgia, a great deal of military hardware was moved to the 102nd Base from the Russian 12th Military Base in Batumi and the 62nd Military Base at Akhalkalaki, Georgia. Russia also supplies weapons at the relatively lower prices of the Russian domestic market as part of a collective security agreement since January 2004.\n\nAccording to unconfirmed reports by the Azeri media, Russia has supplied $1 billion worth of arms and ammunitions to Armenia in 1996; and handed over an additional $800 million worth of arms to Armenia in 2008-2009. According to AzerNews, the weapons in this latest transfer include 21 tanks, 12 armored vehicles, five other battle machines, a great number of rocket launchers, over 1,050 cases of grenades, nearly 7,900 types of ammunition, 120 grenade launchers, over 4,000 sub-machine guns, TNT fuses, mines of various types, 14 mine-launchers, 9 Grad launchers, five cannons, and other weapons.\n\nOfficer training is another sphere of Russian-Armenian military cooperation. In the first years of sovereignty when Armenia lacked a military educational establishment of its own, officers of its army were trained in Russia. Even now when Armenia has a military college on its own territory, the Armenian officer corps honors the tradition and is trained at Russian military educational establishments. 600 Armenian servicemen are being trained in Russia. In Armenia as of 1997, the training was conducted by the \"In the name of Marshal Bagramyan\" Training Brigade.\n\nAt the first meeting of the joint Russian-Armenian government panel for military-technical cooperation that took place during autumn 2005, Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov reported that, Russian factories will participate in the Armenian program of military modernization, and that Russia is prepared to supply the necessary spare parts and equipment. In accordance with this agreement, Armenia and Russia agreed to work together in exporting weapons and other military equipment to third countries in December 2009. The export agreement was signed by Defense Minister Seyran Ohanyan and a visiting senior Russian official, Konstantin Biryulin, during a meeting of a Russian-Armenian inter-governmental commission on bilateral military-technical cooperation. The agreement envisages the two countries' interaction in exporting military production to third countries, which will help to strengthen the armed forces of the two states, and further cement the already close Russian-Armenian military cooperation.\n\nA Russian-Armenian defense agreement signed in August 2010 extends Russia's military presence in Armenia till 2044 and commits Russia to supplying Armenia with modern and compatible weaponry and special military hardware at reduced prices.\n\nAt the beginning of 2009, Azerbaijani media published allegations that Russia had made extensive weapons transfers to Armenia throughout 2008 costing about $800 million. On January 12, 2009, the Russian ambassador was invited to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs and asked about this information. On January 21, 2009, Russian ministry of foreign relations officially denied the transfers. According to the materials published by WikiLeaks in December 2010, Azerbaijani defence minister Safar Abiyev claimed that in January 2009 during his visit to Moscow, his Russian counterpart Anatoly Serdyukov unofficially had admitted to weapons transfers \"after the second bottle of vodka\" that evening, although officially it was denied.\n\nIn June 2013 it was revealed that Russia has deployed in Armenia several Iskander-M ballistic missiles systems, which are stationed at undisclosed locations in the country.\n\n=== Collective Security Treaty Organisation ===\nOn October 7, 2002, the Presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, signed a charter in Tashkent, founding the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) (Russian: Организация Договора о Коллективной Безопасности (ОДКБ~ODKB)) or simply Ташкентский договор (The Tashkent Treaty). Nikolai Bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organisation. On 23 June 2006, Uzbekistan became a full participant in the CSTO and its membership was formally ratified by its parliament on 28 March 2008. Furthermore, the CSTO is an observer organisation at the United Nations General Assembly.\n\nThe charter reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force. Signatories would not be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states, while aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all. To this end, the CSTO holds yearly military command exercises for the CSTO nations to have an opportunity to improve inter-organisation cooperation. The largest-scale CSTO military exercise held, to date, were the \"Rubezh 2008\" exercises hosted in Armenia where a combined total of 4,000 troops from all 7 constituent CSTO member countries conducted operative, strategic, and tactical training with an emphasis towards furthering the efficiency of the collective security element of the CSTO partnership.\n\nThe Ministry of Defense of Armenia has repeatedly stated that it would expect direct military assistance from the CSTO in case war with Azerbaijan resumes, as recently as December 2009, Defense Minister Ohanyan made the same statement. In August 2009, Nikolay Bordyuzha, the CSTO's secretary-general, confirmed that official Yerevan can count on such support.\n\nOn February 4, 2009, an agreement to create the Collective Rapid Reaction Force (KSOR) was reached by five of the seven CSTO members, with plans finalized on June 14, 2009. Armenia is one of the five member states. The force is intended to be used to repulse military aggression, conduct anti-terrorist operations, fight transnational crime and drug trafficking, and neutralize the effects of natural disasters.\n\n=== NATO ===\nArmenia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PiP) program and it is in a NATO organization called Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Armenia is in the process of implementation of Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAPs), which is a program for those countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. Cooperative Best Effort exercise (the first where Russia was represented) was run on Armenian territory in 2003.\n\n=== Greece ===\nGreece is Armenia's closest ally in NATO and the two cooperate on multiple issues. A number of Armenian officers are trained in Greece every year, and military aid/material assistance has been provided to Armenia. In 2003, the two countries signed a military cooperation accord, under which Greece will increase the number of Armenian servicemen trained at the military and military-medical academies in Athens.\n\nIn February 2003, Armenia sent 34 peace keepers to Kosovo where they became part of the Greek contingent. Officials in Yerevan have said the Armenian military plans to substantially increase the size of its peace-keeping detachment and counts on Greek assistance to the effort. In June 2008, Armenia sent 72 peacekeepers to Kosovo for a total of 106 peacekeepers.\n\n=== Baltic States ===\nLithuania has been sharing experience and providing consultations to the Armenian Defense Ministry in the field of democratic control of armed forces, military and defense concepts and public relations since 2002. Started in 2004, Armenian officers have been invited to study at the Lithuanian War Academy and the Baltic Defense College in Tartu, Estonia. Lithuania covers all study expenditures. In early 2007, two Armenian officers for the first time took part in a Baltic lead international exercise, Amber Hope, which was held in Lithuania.\n\n=== United States ===\nArmenian troops before loading onto a U.S. Army UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter during a training exercise.\nThe United States has been steadily upping its military clout in the region. In early 2003, United States Department of Defense announced several major military programs in the Caucasus. Washington's military aid to Armenia in 2005 amounted to $5 million, and in April 2004, the two sides signed a military-technical cooperation accord. In late 2004, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 soldiers, which included bomb-disposal experts, doctors, and transport specialists, to Iraq as part of the American-led Multi-National Force Iraq. In 2005, the United States allocated $7 million to modernize the military communications of the Armenian Armed Forces.\n\nSince 2003, Armenia and the Kansas National Guard have exchanged military delegations as part of a National Guard Bureau program to promote better relations between the United States and developing nations. The program has largely consisted of mutual visits to each other's countries in an effort to share \"ideas and the best practices for military and emergency management.\"\n", "As of 2015, Armenia is involved in peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Lebanon. Armenia has plans to send one officer to Mali as part of the peacekeeping mission there.\n\n=== Kosovo ===\nThere are 70 Armenian soldiers serving in Kosovo as peacekeepers.\n\nArmenia joined the Kosovo Force in Kosovo in 2004. Armenian \"blue helmets\" serve within the Greek Army battalion. The relevant memorandum was signed on September 3, 2003, in Yerevan and ratified by the Armenian Parliament on December 13, 2003. The sixth deployment of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Kosovo on November 14, 2006. In 2008, the Armenian National Assembly voted unanimously to double the peacekeeping force in Kosovo by sending an extra 34 peacekeepers to the region, increasing the total number of peacekeepers in the region to 68. \nArmenia temporarily withdrew its peacekeepers from Kosovo in February 2012 as a result of the reduction of the Greek sundivisions. Armenia redeployed them in July to serve alongside American soldiers in Kosovo.\n\n=== Iraq ===\nAfter the end of the invasion of Iraq, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 peacekeepers under Polish command. Armenian peacekeepers were based in Al-Kut, 62 miles from the capital of Baghdad. On July 23, 2006, the fourth shift of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Iraq. The shift included 3 staff commanders, 2 medical officers, 10 combat engineers and 31 drivers. Throughout the length of the deployment, there was one Armenian wounded and no deaths. The Armenian government extended the small troop presence in Iraq by one year at the end of 2005 and 2006. On October 7, 2008, Armenia withdrew its contingent of 46 peacekeepers. This coincided with the withdrawal of the Polish contingent in Iraq.\n\n=== Afghanistan ===\nArmenia deploys 130 soldiers in Afghanistan as part of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). They are serving under German command protecting an airport in Konduz.\n\n=== Lebanon ===\nIn 2014, Armenia deployed 33 peacekeepers to Lebanon as part of UNIFIL. They currently serve under the Italian contingent and fulfill headquarter security functions.\n", "\n \n* \n", "* Armenian Ministry of Defense\n* Vladimir Petrov, How South Caucasus was armed, Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (Moscow, Russia)\n* \"Armenian National Security\"\n* Armenian Military Photo Gallery\n* \"Fit for a Fight?: Armenia and Azerbaijan flex military muscles, vow to not be overcome\"\n* Armenia, Greece Discuss Closer Military Ties\n* Armed Forces of Caucasian countries\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Treaty compliance", "General staff", " Army ", " Air Force ", " Air Defense ", " Military of Karabakh ", " International military cooperation ", " Peacekeeping operations ", "References", " External links " ]	Armed Forces of Armenia
[ "\n\nArmenia has maintained a policy of complementarism by trying to have positive and friendly relations with Iran, Russia, and the West, including the United States and the European Union since its independence. It has full membership status in a number of international organizations and observer status, etc. in some others. However, the dispute over the Armenian Genocide of 1915 and the recent war over Nagorno–Karabakh have created tense relations with two of its immediate neighbors, Azerbaijan and Turkey.\n", "\nPolitical map showing states which have officially recognized the Armenian Genocide\nAs of 2017, 29 states have officially recognized the historical events as genocide. Parliaments of countries that recognize the Armenian Genocide include Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Paraguay, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Uruguay, Vatican City and Venezuela. Additionally, some regional governments of countries recognize the Armenian genocide too, such as New South Wales and South Australia in Australia as well as Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales in the United Kingdom. US House Resolution 106 was introduced on 30 January 2007, and later referred to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. The bill has 225 co-sponsors. The bill called for former President George W. Bush to recognize and use the word genocide in his annual 24 April speech which he never used. His successor President Barack Obama expressed his desire to recognize the Armenian Genocide during the electoral campaigns, but after being elected, has not used the word \"genocide\" to describe the events that occurred in 1915.\n", "\n=== Nagorno-Karabakh and independent republic ===\n\nArmenia supports Armenians in the Republic of Artsakh in the longstanding, and very bitter conflict against the Azerbaijani government.\n\nThe current conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh began in 1988 when Armenian demonstrations against Azerbaijani rule broke out in Nagorno–Karabakh and later in Armenia and the Nagorno-Karabakh Supreme Soviet voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia. Soon, violence broke out against Armenians in Azerbaijan and Azeris in Armenia. In 1990, after violent episodes in Nagorno–Karabakh and Azerbaijani cities like Baku, Sumgait and Kirovabad, Moscow declared a state of emergency in Karabakh, sending troops to the region, and forcibly occupied Baku, killing over a hundred civilians. In April 1991, Azerbaijani militia and Soviet forces targeted Armenian populations in Karabakh, known as Operation Ring. Moscow also deployed troops to Yerevan. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, conflict escalated into a full-scale war between the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, supported by Armenia and Azerbaijan. Military action was influenced by the Russian military, which inspired and manipulated the rivalry between the two neighbouring sides in order to keep both under control.\n\nMore than 30,000 people were killed in the fighting during the period of 1988 to 1994. In May 1992, Armenian forces seized Shusha and Lachin (thereby linking Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia). By October 1993, Armenian forces succeeded in taking almost all of former NKAO, Lachin and large areas in southwestern Azerbaijan. In 1993, the UN Security Council adopted four resolutions calling for the cessation of hostilities, unimpeded access for international humanitarian relief efforts, and the eventual deployment of a peacekeeping force in the region. Fighting continued, however, until May 1994 at which time Russia brokered a cease-fire between the three sides.\n\nNegotiations to resolve the conflict peacefully have been ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the Minsk Group of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. The Minsk Group is co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States and has representation from Turkey, the U.S., several European nations, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Despite the 1994 cease-fire, sporadic violations, sniper-fire and landmine incidents continue to claim over 100 lives each year.\n\nSince 1997, the Minsk Group co-chairs have presented three proposals to serve as a framework for resolving the conflict. Each proposal was rejected. Beginning in 1999, the presidents of Azerbaijan and Armenia initiated a direct dialogue through a series of face-to-face meetings, often facilitated by the Minsk Group Co-Chairs. The OSCE sponsored a round of negotiations between the presidents in Key West, Florida. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell launched the talks 3 April 2001, and the negotiations continued with mediation by the U.S., Russia and France until 6 April 2001. The Co-Chairs are still continuing to work with the two presidents in the hope of finding a lasting peace.\n\nThe two countries are still at war. Citizens of the Republic of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan. If a person's passport shows evidence of travel to Nagorno–Karabakh, they are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan.\n\nIn 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenia forces and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.\n\n\n", "Armenia does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries (organized by continent):\n\n=== Africa ===\n* Botswana, Central African Republic, São Tomé and Príncipe, South Sudan, Lesotho\n\n=== Asia ===\n* Pakistan (Pakistan does not recognize Armenia), Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Turkey\n\n=== Europe ===\n* Hungary (suspended by Armenia since 31 August 2012 due to Ramil Safarov's extradition to Azerbaijan)\n\n=== North America ===\n* St. Kitts and Nevis, Dominica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados\n\n=== Oceania ===\n* Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati, Nauru, Cook Islands, Niue, Tonga, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea\n\nArmenia also has no diplomatic relations with states with limited recognition.\n", "Foreign relations of Armenia:\n\nArmenia has diplomatic relations with 162 sovereign entities (including the African Union, Arab League, European Union, the Order of Malta, and Vatican City). These include: Albania, Algeria, Afghanistan, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Austria, Argentina, Bahamas, Bahrain, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Cape Verde, Chad, Chile, the People's Republic of China, Columbia, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Dominican Republic, DR Congo, East Timor, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Grenada, Haiti, Holy See (Vatican City), Honduras, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kuwait, North Korea, South Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Libya, Macedonia, Madagascar, Maldives, Malasia, Malawi, Mali, Malta, Mauritania, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Norway, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Order of Malta, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, Suriname, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe.\n\nNotes on some of these relations follow:\n\n===African Union===\nArmenia established diplomatic relations with the African Union on 25 October 2010. The African Union Commission hailed the Armenian government’s intention to have a representative in the AU, and expressed willingness to develop relations with Armenia. The Representative of Armenia to the African Union is located in Cairo, Egypt.\n\n===Africa===\n\n\n Country\n Formal Relations Began\nNotes\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1994.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 August 2007.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 2007.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 2007.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 December 2006.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 2008.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 March 2007.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 May 1998.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 2015.\n\n\n \n\nIn October 2015, both countries Foreign Ministers met to discuss establishing diplomatic relations and possible ways of developing bilateral ties.\n\n\n \n See Armenia–Egypt relations\n* Egypt has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Cairo.\n* Roughly 6,000 Armenians live in Egypt. See also Armenians in Egypt\n\n\n \n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December 1993.\n* Armenia is represented in Ethiopia through its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.\n* Ethiopia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* There is a small community of Armenians in Ethiopia's capital Addis Ababa. See also Armenians in Ethiopia\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 1994.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 1994.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 July 1993.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in the year 2000.\n\n\n1993\n\n\n* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Madagascar were established on 25 June 1993.\n\n\n 20 January 2012\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 2012.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 1994.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 30 January 2008.\n\n\n 28 June 2013\n\n* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Mauritius were established on 28 June 2013.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on June 1992.\n* Morocco has an honorary consulate in Yerevan\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 September 1995.\n\n\n \n\n* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Namibia were established on 2 October 2006.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 4 February 1993.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 2004.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 2004.\n* Armenia is represented by Senegal through its embassy in Moscow.\n\n\n 19 April 2006\n\n* Diplomatic relations between were established on 19 April 2006.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 2004.\n\n\n1993\n\n\n* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and South Africa were established on 23 June 1993.\n* Armenia is represented in South Africa through its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.\n* South Africa is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kiev, Ukraine.\n\n\n\n\nArmenia and South Sudan have not yet established diplomatic relations, however the Foreign Minister of Armenia stated that Armenia recognizes the Republic of South Sudan as an independent state on July 9, 2011.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 1992.\n* There is a small Armenian community in Sudan, most are concentrated in the Sudanese capital Khartoum.\n\n\n2013\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 2013.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries Foreign Ministers met to discuss the next steps of establishing diplomatic relations at the 2016 La Francophonie summit.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 July 2002.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 2013.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1993.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.\n\n\n===Americas===\n\n\n Country\n Formal Relations Began\nNotes\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1993.\n\n\n \n See Argentina–Armenia relations\n* Argentina is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Yerevan.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Buenos Aires.\n* Argentine parliament has recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* Around 135,000 ethnic Armenians live in the country, the largest Armenian population in Latin America.\n* List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Armenia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relation on 12 February 1999.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 July 1992.\n* In 2014, Bolivia recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n See Armenia–Brazil relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Brasilia.\n* Brazil has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* In 2015, Brazil recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* There are between 80,000- 100,000 people of Armenian descent living in Brazil.\n\n\n\n See also Armenia–Canada relations, Embassy of Armenia in Ottawa, Armenian Canadian\n* Armenia has an embassy in Ottawa.\n* Canada is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* In 2004, the parliament of Canada recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* There are approximately 65,000 Armenians in Canada\n* Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Armenian\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia is represented in Chile through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina), and honorary consulate in Santiago.\n* Chile is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia).\n* In 2007, Chile recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* There are around 1,600 people of Armenian descent living in Chile.\nChile recognized the Armenian Genocide on 14 September 2007.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 1994.\n* The city of Armenia, Colombia was renamed after Armenia in memory of the victims of the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 1997.\n\n\n \n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.\n* Armenia is represented in Cuba through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.\n* Cuba is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2007.\n\n\n \n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1997.\n* Ecuador is a member of the Andean Parliament which recognized the Armenian Genocide in September 2016.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 1999.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 1998.\n\n\n24 October 2003\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 2003.\n\n\n \n\nArmenia maintains relations with Greenland via Denmark, established on 14 January 1992.\n\n\n3 April 2012\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April. 2012.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 January 1999.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 September 2011.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1995.\n\n\n \n See Armenia–Mexico relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Mexico City.\n* Mexico is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* There are approximately 400 Armenians living in Mexico and several thousand Mexicans of Armenian descent.\n* ''See also:'' Armenians in Mexico\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 1994.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 1998.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July. 1992.\n* In 2015, Paraguay recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n \n* Peru recognized Armenia on 26 December 1991.\n* Peru is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* There are around 50 people of Armenian descent living in Peru.\n* Peru is a member of the Andean Parliament which recognized the Armenian Genocide in September 2016.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 October 2000.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 2004.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 24 July 1999.\n\n\n1920 & 1991\n See Armenia–United States relations\n\nThe dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and created the opportunity for bilateral relations with the New Independent States (NIS) as they began a political and economic transformation. The U.S. recognized the independence of Armenia on 25 December 1991, and opened an embassy in Yerevan in February 1992.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Washington, DC and a consulate-general in Los Angeles.\n* The United States has an embassy in Yerevan, which is the second-largest American embassy in the world.\n* As of 2017, 46 out of 50 US States have fully recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* There are approximately 1,500,000 million Armenian-Americans\n* ''See also:'' Armenian American\n\n\n \n See Armenia–Uruguay relations\n* Armenia is represented in Uruguay through its embassy in Buenos Aires (Argentina) and an honorary consulate in Montevideo.\n* Uruguay is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and through a consulate in Yerevan.\n* There are around 20,000 people of Armenian descent living in Uruguay.\n* Uruguay was the first country to recognize the Armenian Genocide on 20 April 1965.\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Caracas\n* Venezuela is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* There are around 4000 people of Armenian descent living in Venezuela.\n* Venezuelan parliament has recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n===Arab League===\nArmenia was granted Observer Status in the Arab League in 2004 after a Syrian invitation.\n* Armenia maintains positive relations with most Arab states, with the exception of Saudi Arabia.\n* A memorandum on mutual understanding and cooperation between Armenia and the Arab League was signed in January 2005. The agreement promotes intensifying cooperation and the opening of Armenian diplomatic missions in Arab states.\n\n===Asia===\n\n\n Country\n Formal relations began\nNotes\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 1996.\n\n\n \n\nSee Foreign relations of Artsakh\n* The disputed region of Artsakh has very close relations with Armenia.\n* A Representative Office of Artsakh was established in Yerevan.\n\n\nNo diplomatic relations\nSee Armenia–Azerbaijan relations, Nagorno-Karabakh War, Sumgait pogrom, Baku pogrom, Maraga massacre, Khachkar destruction in Nakhichevan\nThe two nations have fought two wars in 1918–20 (Armenian–Azerbaijani War) and in 1988–94 (Nagorno-Karabakh War), in the past century, with last one ended with provisional cease fire agreement signed in Bishkek. There are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries, because of the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and dispute.\n\nDuring the Soviet period, many Armenians and Azeris lived in relative peace under the Soviet iron fist. However, when Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, the majority of Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) of the Azerbaijan SSR began a movement to unify with the Armenian SSR. In 1988, the Armenians of Karabakh voted to secede and join Armenia. This, along with sporadic massacres in Azerbaijan against Armenians resulted in the conflict that became known as the Nagorno-Karabakh War. The violence resulted in ''de facto'' Armenian control of former NKAO and seven surrounding Azerbaijani regions which was effectively halted when the three sides agreed to observe a cease-fire which has been in effect since May 1994, and in late 1995 the sides also agreed to mediation of the OSCE Minsk Group. The Minsk Group is co-chaired by the U.S., France and Russia, and comprises Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and several Western European nations. Despite the cease fire, up to 40 clashes are reported along the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict lines of control each year.\n\nThe sides are still technically at war. Citizens of the Republic of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan.5 If a person's passport shows any evidence of travel to Nagorno-Karabakh, they are forbidden to enter the Republic of Azerbaijan.54\n\nIn 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenia and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the three sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.6\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on October 1996.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 1992.\n* There is a small community of Armenians in the capital Dhaka, the neighborhood of Armanitola was named after the Armenian Community. See also Armenians in Bangladesh.\n\n\n \n\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 2012.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1992.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–China relations\n* China recognized Armenia on 21 December 1991.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Beijing.\n* China has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of bilateral relations, as both nations recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based upon their ancient and rich histories.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 December 2003.\n\n Eurasian Economic Union (Organization)\n \n\n See Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union and Enlargement of the Eurasian Economic Union\n* Armenia joined the Eurasian Union on January 2, 2015.\n* Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Customs Union Free-trade area.\n* Other members include Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Observer member Moldova.\n\n\n17 July 1992\nSee Armenia–Georgia relations\n\nArmenians and Georgians have a lot in common. Both are ancient Christian civilizations with their own distinct alphabets. Both use the terms \"Apostolic\" and \"Orthodox\" in the full titles of their respective churches. They also use the term \"Catholicos\" to refer to their church patriarchs. Despite all this, however, Armenians and Georgians have tended to have a tenuous relationship (at times, sharing close bonds while at other times regarding each other as rivals).\n\nToday, relations with Georgia are of particular importance for Armenia because, under the economic blockade imposed by Turkey and Azerbaijan due to the ongoing Karabakh conflict, Georgia offers Armenia its only land connection with Europe and access to its Black Sea ports. However, because of Armenia's reliance on Russia and Georgia, both of whom fought the 2008 South Ossetia war and severed diplomatic and economic relations as a result; and as 70% of Armenia's imports entered via Georgia especially from Russia which has imposed an economic blockade on Georgia, Armenia also has been indirectly affected from this blockade as well. The development of close relations between Turkey and Georgia (such as the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and South Caucasus natural gas pipeline) have also weighed on the mutual relations. For example, on 20 March 2006, Georgian Ambassador to Armenia Revaz Gachechiladze stated, \"We sympathize with the sister nation but taking decisions of the kind we should take into account the international situation. When the time comes Georgia will do everything within the limits of the possible for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide by the international community including Georgia.\"59 However, Armenian-Georgian relations have begun to improve. On 10 May 2006, Armenia and Georgia agreed on the greater part of the lines of the state border between the two countries.60 The Javakheti region in southern Georgia contains a large Armenian population and although there have been local civic organizations (such as United Javakhk) pushing for autonomy, there has been no violence between Armenians and Georgians in the area.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Tbilisi and general consulate in Batumi.\n* Georgia has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are roughly 170,000 Armenians in Georgia today.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–India relations\n* Since 1999, Armenia has an embassy in New Delhi and two honorary consulates Mumbai, and Chennai.\n* India has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Indian government is funding the renovation of schools in Lori region.\n* Around 700 Medical students are studying in Armenian universities.\n* Armenia recognizes Kashmir to be part of India and not of Pakistan.\n* Armenia supports India's bid for permanent seat in the UNSC.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 1992.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Jakarta\n* Indonesia has an honorary consulate in Yerevan\n\n\n\nSee Armenia–Iran relations\n\nDespite religious and ideological differences, relations between Armenia and the Islamic Republic of Iran remain cordial and Armenia and Iran are strategic partners in the region. Armenia and Iran enjoy cultural and historical ties that go back thousands of years. There are no border disputes between the two countries and the Christian Armenian minority in Iran enjoys official recognition. Of special importance is the cooperation in the field of energy security which lowers Armenia's dependence on Russia and can in the future also supply Iranian gas to Europe through Georgia and the Black Sea.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Tehran.\n* Iran has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* An estimated 200,000 Armenians live in Iran. ''See also'' Iranian Armenians\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in the year 2000\n* Armenia has an Embassy in Baghdad\n* Iraq has an Embassy in Yerevan\n* In 2015, Armenia announced it would establish a consulate general in Erbil, the capital of Iraqi Kurdistan.\n* Today it is estimated that there are around 15,000 Armenians in Iraq.\n\n\n\nSee Armenia–Israel relations\n\nSince independence, Armenia has received support from Israel and today remains one of its major trade partners. While both countries have diplomatic relations, neither maintains an embassy in the other country. Instead, Ehude Moshe Eytam, the Israeli ambassador to Armenia is based in Tbilisi, Georgia, and visits Yerevan twice a month. Israel has recognized 24 Armenians as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.\n* Israel has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Between 3,000 and 10,000 Armenians live in Israel. See Armenians in Israel.\n* One of the four quarters of the Old City (Jerusalem) is known as the Armenian Quarter.\n\n\n \nSee Armenia–Japan relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Tokyo.\n* Japan has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n* Japan–Armenia Friendship Association (, ''Nihon Arumenia Yūkō Kyōkai'') \n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 18 June 1996.\n* Armenia is represented by a consulate in the capital Amman.\n* There are an estimated 3,000-5,000 Armenians living in the country today.\n\n\n \nSee Armenia–Kazakhstan relations\n* Since 1992 Armenia has an embassy in Almaty (later moved to Astana).\n* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are members of the Eurasian Union.\n* There are 25,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kazakhstan.\n* Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n\n\n13 February 1992\n\n \n* The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (Republic of Armenia) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) started on 13 February 1992.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Kuwait city.\n* Kuwait has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 6,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kuwait.\n\n\n 1993\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations in January 1993 by protocol.\n* Armenia is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Astana, Kazakhstan and an honorary consulate in Bishkek.\n* Kyrgyzstan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.\n* Around 1,000 Armenians live in the country.\n\n\n 1998\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 21 April 1998.\n\n\n\nSee Armenia–Lebanon relations\n\nArmenian-Lebanese relations are very friendly. Lebanon is host to the eighth largest Armenian population in the world with around 160,000 Armenians in the country. Lebanon is the only member of the Arab League, much less of the Middle East and the Islamic World that recognizes the Armenian Genocide. During the 2006 Lebanon War, Armenia announced that it would send humanitarian aid to Lebanon. According to the Armenian government, an unspecified amount of medicines, tents and fire-fighting equipment was allocated to Lebanese authorities on 27 July 2006.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Beirut.\n* Lebanon has an embassy in Yerevan.\n\n\n \n\n* Armenia is represented in Malaysia through embassy in New Delhi (India).\n* Malaysia is represented in Armenia through embassy in Moscow (Russia).\nMalaysia never have close contact with Armenia to maintain the relationships with Turkey.\n\n\n 1995\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1995.\n\n\n\n 1992\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 1992.\n* Armenia is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing, China.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 2013.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1993.\n\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations in July 1992.\n* Oman has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n\n\nSee Armenia–Pakistan relations\nArmenia-Pakistan relations are poor owing to disagreements between the two countries. The main issue is the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Pakistan is a major supporter of Azerbaijan during and after the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Pakistan also does not recognize Armenia despite Armenia recognizing Pakistan. Pakistan does not recognize the Armenian Genocide and maintains that during the war large number of Armenians and Muslims were killed. Armenia also has friendly relations with India, which Pakistan heavily opposes.\n\n\n \nSee Armenia–Philippines relations\n* The Philippines has a consulate in Yerevan.\n* Armenia has a consulate in Manila.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1997.\n* Approximately 5,500 Armenians live in Qatar, mostly in the capital Doha. See also Armenians in Qatar.\n\n\n \n\n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1992.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia is represented in Sri Lanka through the Embassy of Armenia in New Delhi.\n* Sri Lanka is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n\n\n \nThere are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and Saudi Arabia.\n\n\n21 February 1992 \n\nSee Armenia–South Korea relations \n* The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (Republic of Armenia) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) began on 21 February 1992.\n* The Republic of Korea and the Republic of Armenia Policy Consultation will deal with ways to vitalize high-level exchanges promote substantive cooperation and work together on regional and global issues.\n* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Seoul.\n* The Republic of Korea has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Bilateral trade in 2014:\n Exports : $15 million (textile, automobile)\n Imports : $3 million (animal feed, rubber)\n* The number of the South Koreans living in the Republic of Armenia in 2012 was about 60.\n* Foreign relations of South Korea#Europe Foreign relations of South Korea Foreign relations of the Republic of Korea.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–Syria relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Damascus and a consulate general in Aleppo and honorary consulate in Der ez-Zor .\n* Since 1997, Syria has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 150,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Syria. During the Armenian Genocide, the main killing fields of Armenians were located in the Syrian desert of Deir ez-Zor. In 2015, the government of Syria recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Syrian embassy in Yerevan\n\n\n\n 1992\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1992 by protocol.\n* Armenia is represented in Tajikistan through its embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan and an honorary consulate in Dushanbe.\n* Tajikistan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.\n* There are roughly 3,000 Armenians living in Tajikistan.\n\n\n\n 1992\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 July 1992 by protocol.\n* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Bangkok.\n* Thailand is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n\n No formal diplomatic relations\nSee Armenia–Turkey relations\n\nTurkey was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence in 1991. Despite this, for most of the 20th century and early 21st century, relations remain tense and there are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries for numerous reasons. Some bones of contention include the unresolved Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan (which has resulted in Turkey imposing a blockade on Armenia that is still in effect today), the treatment of Armenians in Turkey, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and the Armenian claim of Turkey's holding of historic Armenian lands (ceded to them in the Treaty of Kars, a treaty which Armenia refuses to recognize to this day since it was signed between the Soviet Union and Turkey, and not between Armenia and Turkey proper). At the forefront of all disputes, however, is the issue surrounding the Armenian Genocide. The killing and deportation of between one and one-and-a-half million Armenians from the Ottoman Empire orchestrated by the Young Turks is a taboo subject in Turkey itself as the Turkish government refuses to acknowledge that a genocide ever happened. However, since Turkey has become a candidate to join the European Union, limited discussion of the event is now taking place in Turkey. Some in the European Parliament have even suggested that one of the provisions for Turkey to join the E.U. should be the full recognition of the event as genocide.\n\nOn 5 June 2005, Armenian President Robert Kocharian announced that he was ready to \"continue dialogue with Azerbaijan for the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and with Turkey on establishing relations without any preconditions.\" Armenia has also stated that as a legal successor to the Armenian SSR, it is loyal to the Treaty of Kars and all agreements inherited by the former Soviet Armenian government. Yet Turkey continues to lay preconditions on relations, insisting that Armenia abandon its efforts to have the Genocide recognized, which official Yerevan is not willing to do.\n\nIn the wake of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Russia and Georgia, Armenia and Turkey have shown signs of an inclination to reconsider their relationship. According to ''The Economist'' magazine, 70% of Armenia's imports enter via Georgia. Because of the apparently belligerent posture of the Russian state, economic ties with Turkey appear especially attractive.\n\nIt is estimated that around 70,000 Armenians live in Turkey today, down from nearly 2 million before the start of the Armenian Genocide in 1914. See Armenians in Turkey.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Ashgabat.\n* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.\n* There are between 20,000 and 32,000 people of Armenian descent living in Turkmenistan.\n\n\n\n\n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.\n* The United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 3,500 people of Armenian descent living in the United Arab Emirates.\n* Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: presentation of the Emirati ambassador’s credentials to the Armenian Foreign Minister\n\n\n1995\n\n* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 1995 by protocol.\n* Uzbekistan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.\n* Around 70,000 Armenians live in Uzbekistan.\n\n\n1992\n\n\n* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Vietnam were established on 14 July 1992.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Hanoi.\n* Vietnam is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.\n\n\n===Europe===\n\n\n\n Country\n Formal relations began\nNotes\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia is represented in Albania through its embassy in Athens, (Greece).\n* Albania is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens, (Greece).\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia is represented in Andorra through its embassy in Paris, (France).\n* Andorra is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Paris, (France).\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia has an embassy in Vienna.\n* Austria has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Approximately 6,000 Armenians live in Austria. See Armenians in Austria.\n* In 2015, Austria recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia has an embassy in Minsk.\n* Belarus has an embassy in Yerevan and honorary consulate in Gyumri.\n* Both countries are full members of the Eurasian Union.\n* Approximately 30,000 Armenians live in Belarus, mainly in Minsk. See also Armenians in Belarus.\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia has an embassy in Brussels.\n* Belgium is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow.\n* Around 8,000 Armenians live in Belgium.\n* Belgium recognized the Armenian Genocide in 1998.\n\n\n \n\n\n* Bosnia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–Bulgaria relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Sofia and honorary consulates in Plovdiv and Varna.\n* Since 19 December 1999, Bulgaria has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are full members of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation.\n* There are around 50,000 people of Armenian descent living in Bulgaria.\n* In 2015, Bulgaria recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Croatia relations\n* Armenia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and honorary consulate in Zagreb.\n* Croatia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n18 March 1992\nSee Armenia–Cyprus relations\n* Cyprus was the second country to recognise the Armenian Genocide, on 24 April 1975.\n* Armenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).\n* Cyprus is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia), and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* There are over 3.500 people of Armenian descent living in Cyprus.57\n* Vahan Ovanesyan of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation visited Cyprus on 24 January 2001 to take part in celebrations of the 110th anniversary of the federation.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia is represented in Czech Republic through its embassy in Prague.\n* The Czech Republic is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Yerevan.\n* The Czech Republic has recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* There are around 12,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Czech Republic.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Denmark relations\n* Armenia is represented in Denmank through its embassy in Kopenhagen, Denmark.\n* Denmark is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kiev, Ukraine and honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* On January 26, 2017, the Parliament of Denmark approved a resolution condemning Turkish violence and massacres against Armenians during the Armenian Genocide. \n* There are approximately 3,000 Armenians in Denmark.\n\n (Organization)\n\n See Armenia–European Union relations and Future enlargement of the European Union\n* Formal relations began in 1991 when Armenia gained independence from the Soviet Union.\n* In 2002, the European Parliament announced that Armenia could potentially join the EU in the future.\n* A Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement between the EU and Armenia was finalized in 2017.\n* Armenia is a member of the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, the Council of Europe, and the EU's Eastern Partnership.\n* The Delegation of the European Union to Armenia Office is located in Yerevan. The Armenian Mission to the EU Office is in Brussels.\n* Since 2013, EU citizens enjoy visa-free travel to Armenia.\n* In 2017, Armenia began talks on visa-liberalization for Armenian citizens traveling into the EU's Schengen Area.\n* Both the European Parliament and the Council of Europe have recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n\n\n* Armenia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.\n* Estonia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* There are approximately 3,000 Armenians in Estonia.\n* Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n\n\n \n\n* Before 1918, both countries were part of the Russian Empire. Finland recognised Armenia on 30 December 1991. Armenia is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Stokholm, Sweden). Finland is represented in Armenia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan. Around 1,000 people of Armenian descent live in Finland.\n* Finnish Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–France relations\n\nFranco-Armenian relations have existed since the French and the Armenians established contact in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and are close to this day. 2006 was proclaimed the Year of Armenia in France.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Paris and honorary consulates in Lyon and Marseille.\n* France has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 750,000 Armenians in France. See also Armenians in France.\n* France recognized the Armenian Genocide in 1998.\n\n\n \n See Armenia–Germany relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulate in Karlsruhe.\n* Germany has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Between 90,000-110,000 Armenians live in Germany today. See also Armenians in Germany.\n* Germany recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2005.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Greece relations\n\nGreece was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence on 21 September 1991, and one of those that have officially recognized the Armenian Genocide. Since the independence of Armenia the two countries have been partners within the framework of international organizations (United Nations, OSCE, Council of Europe, BSEC), whilst Greece firmly supports the community programs aimed at further developing relations between the EU and Armenia.\n\nContinuous visits of the highest level have shown that both countries want to continue to improve the levels of friendship and cooperation (Visit by the President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrossian to Greece in 1996, visit by the President of the Hellenic Republic Costis Stephanopoulos in 1999, visit by the President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan to Greece in 2000 and 2005 and visit by Greek president Karolos Papoulias to Armenia in June 2007).\n\nGreece is, after Russia, the major military partner of Armenia. Armenian officers are trained in Greek military academies, and various technical assistance is supplied by Greece. Since 2003, an Armenian platoon has been deployed in Kosovo as part of KFOR, where they operate as a part of the Greek battalion of KFOR. It is estimated that around 80,000 Armenians live in Greece.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Athens.\n* Greece has an embassy in Yerevan.\n\n\n \n\n\n* Armenia has an Embassy in Rome.\n* In 2000, the Vatican recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n —31 Aug 2012\n\nSee Armenia–Hungary relations\n* Armenia was represented in Hungary through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).\n* Hungary was represented in Armenia through its embassy in Tbilisi(Georgia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* There are around 30,000 people of Armenian descent living in Hungary.\n\n\n\n \n\n\n \n \n* Ireland recognized Armenia's independence in December 1991.\n* Armenia is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London and through an honorary consulate in Dublin.\n* Ireland is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.\n* There is a small Armenian community in Ireland, mostly in Dublin.\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Rome. and honorary consulate in Milano.\n* Italy has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.\n* Italy has recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2000.\n* There are around 4,000 people of Armenian descent living in Italy.\n\n\n\n\nSee Armenia–Kosovo relations\n* Armenia has not established diplomatic relations with Kosovo.\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania).\n* Latvia is represented in Armenia through a non-resident ambassador based in Riga (at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* There are around 5,000 people of Armenian descent living in Latvia.\n* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n* Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction if the Latvian representation in Armenia\n\n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Vilnius.\n* Lithuania has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 2,500 people of Armenian descent living in Lithuania.\n* Lithuania recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2005.\n* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia (in Lithuanian only)\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels, (Belgium), and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg.\n* Luxembourg recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2015.\n\n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n* Armenia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome.\n* Malta is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Warsaw and honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Around 500 Armenians live in Malta.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia is represented in Moldova through its embassy in Kiev (Ukraine) and honorary consulate in Chisinau.\n* Moldova is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia).\n* There are around 8,000 people of Armenian descent living in Moldova.\n* Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: presentation of the Moldovan ambassador’s credentials to the Armenian Foreign Minister\n* Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n \n* Montenegro has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia has an embassy in The Hague and honorary consulate in Hilversum.\n* The Netherlands is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Tbilisi, Georgia. It made plans to open an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are between 12,000-20,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Netherlands.\n* The Netherlands recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2004.\n* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.\n* Both countries have the worlds third largest trade of diamonds and second largest trade in between the countries. Both the Netherlands and Armenia have the worlds top share in the diamond industry.\n* Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia (in Dutch only)\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia is represented in Norway through its embassy in Kopenhagen (Denmark).\n* Norway has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Approximately 2,000 Armenians live in Norway.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–Poland relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Warsaw.\n* Poland has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* There are around 50,000 Armenians in Poland.\n* See also Armenians in Poland\n* Poland recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2005.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Portugal relations\n* Armenia is represented in Portugal through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and honorary consulates in Lisbon and Porto.\n* Portugal is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\nOne of the most notable Armenians who resided in Portugal was Calouste Gulbenkian. He was a wealthy Armenian businessman and philanthropist, who made Lisbon the headquarters for his businesses. He established the international charity, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation in Lisbon. He also founded the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Romania relations\n* Armenia has an embassy in Bucharest.\n* Romania has an embassy in Yerevan.\n* Around 10,000 Armenians live in Romania.\n\n\n \n\nSee Armenia–Russia relations\n\nArmenia's most notable recent foreign policy success came with 29 August treaty with Russia on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance, in which Moscow committed itself to the defense of Armenia should it be attacked by a third party. Russia is the key regional security player, and has proved a valuable historical ally for Armenia. Although it appeared as a response to Aliyev's US trip, the treaty had probably long been under development. However, it is clear from the wider context of Armenian foreign policy that—while Yerevan welcomes the Russian security guarantee—the country does not want to rely exclusively on Moscow, nor to become part of a confrontation between Russian and US-led alliances in the Transcaucasus.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Moscow and general consulates Dony Rostov and Sankt Peterburg and honorary consulates in Kaliningrad and Sochi.\n* Russia has an embassy in Yerevan and general consulate in Gyumri.\n* Russia has recognized the Armenian Genocide in 1995.\n* Armenia joined the Russian-led Eurasian Union in 2015.\n* It is estimated that there are between 2,500,000 and 2,900,000 million Armenians in Russia.\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia is represented in San Marino through its embassy in Rome (Italy).\n* San Marino has an honorary consulte in Yerevan.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–Serbia relations\n* Armenia is represented in Serbia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and honorary consulate in Belgrad.\n* Serbia is also represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens and honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n\n\n\n \n* Armenia is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic).\n* Slovakia is represented in Armenia through a non-resident ambassador based in Bratislava (in the Foreign Ministry) and honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe.\n* Between 24–28 February 2008, Slovak Foreign Minister Ján Kubiš made an official visit to Armenia.\n* Slovakia recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2004.\n\n\n \n \n* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Ljubljana.\n* Slovenia has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.\n\n\n \n\n* Diplomatic relations were established on 29 May 1998.\n* The Sovereign Military Order of Malta maintains an embassy in Yerevan.\n* The Order of Malta has recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n\n\n \n\n \n* Armenia has an embassy in Madrid and there are two honorary consulates in Valencia and Barcelona.\n* Spain is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan. \n* Five regional parliaments in Spain including the Balearic Islands, Aragon, Navarre, Basque Country and Catalonia as well as 29 municipalities have recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* Around 80,000 Armenians live in Spain.\n* Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperations about the relation with Armenia\n\n\n \n\n \n* Sweden recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2010.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Stockholm.\n* Sweden has an embassy in Yerevan in 2014.\n* Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs: information about the Swedish ambassador to Armenia\n* Around 5,000–8,000 Armenians live in Sweden.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–Switzerland relations\n* The Armenian ambassador to Switzerland and the Swiss ambassador to Armenia (based in Yerevan, Armenia) were both accredited in 2011.\n* The Armenian ambassador to Switzerland is based in Geneva, in the Armenian representation to the United Nations.\n* There are roughly 5,000 Armenians in Switzerland.\n* In 2003, Switzerland recognized the Armenian Genocide.\n* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia\n\n\n \n\n\nArmenian–Ukrainian relations have lasted for centuries and today are cordial. Relations between Armenia and Ukraine have deflated since Armenia recognized the disputed referendum in Crimea and its subsequent annexation by Russia, and Ukraine has withdrawn its ambassador to Armenia for consultations. The Ukrainian government has asserted that this is temporary and that diplomatic relations between the two states shall indeed continue.\n* Armenia has an embassy in Kiev and consulates in Odessa and Yalta.\n* Ukraine has an embassy in Yerevan and honorary consulate in Gyumri.\n* An estimated 250,000 Armenians live in Ukraine.\n* Crimea recognized the Armenian Genocide in 2005.\n\n\n \n\n See Armenia–United Kingdom relations\n* The United Kingdom recognised Armenia on 31 December 1991.\n* The first embassy of the Republic of Armenia in Europe was established in London in October 1992.\n* Since 1995, the United Kingdom has had an embassy in Yerevan.\n* The two countries maintain collaborative and friendly relations, however the United Kingdom does not recognize the Armenian Genocide, as it considers that the evidence is not clear enough to respectively consider \"the terrible events that afflicted the Ottoman Armenian population at the beginning of the last century\" genocide under the 1948 UN convention. The British government states the \"massacres were an appalling tragedy\" and states that this was the view of the government during that period. Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland consider it to be a genocide, and there is a memorial in Cardiff, Wales.\n* There are approximately 20,000 Armenians in the UK, mostly in Greater London and Manchester.\n* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Armenia\n\n\n===Oceania===\n\n\n Country\n Formal Relations Began\nNotes\n\n\n\n \n* The first Armenians migrated to Australia in the 1850s, during the gold rush.\n* The majority came to Australia in the 1960s, starting with the Armenians of Egypt after Nasser came to power then, in the early 1970s, from Cyprus after the Turkish occupation of the island and from 1975 until 1992, a period of civil unrest in Lebanon.\n* Person-to-person governmental links are increasing although they are still modest. In September 2003, The Hon Mr Philip Ruddock MP visited Armenia in his former capacity as Australian Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. In October 2005, the Armenian Foreign Minister, H.E. Mr Vardan Oskanyan, visited Australia. In November 2005, The Hon Mr Joe Hockey MP, Minister for Human Services, visited Armenia.\n* The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia refuses to recognise the mass murder of Armenians in 1915 as Genocide, although the State of New South Wales and South Australia passed a law recognising the Armenian Genocide. The Australian Government elections of 2007 created an atmosphere in which the Opposition Labor party declared it will push for the Recognition of the Armenian Genocide in Australian Parliament if Labor wins the Elections.\n* There are around 60,000 Armenians in Australia.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 2010.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 6 June 1992.\n* Armenia is represented by New Zealand through its embassy in Moscow.\n* There is a small Armenian community in New Zealand, mostly in Auckland.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 2012.\n\n\n \n\nBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 2013.\n\n", "Armenia is additionally a full member in the following international organizations and programs:\n* Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area\n* European Civil Aviation Conference and European Common Aviation Area\n* European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages\n* European Court of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights\n* European Higher Education Area\n* FIFA and UEFA\n* Food and Agriculture Organization\n* Horizon 2020\n* International Atomic Energy Agency\n* International Committee of the Red Cross\n* International Finance Corporation\n* International Labour Organization\n* International Olympic Committee\n* Inter-Parliamentary Union\n* Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency\n* Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe\n* Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation\n* UNESCO\n* United Nations Conference on Trade and Development\n* United Nations Economic Commission for Europe\n* United Nations Industrial Development Organization\n* Universal Postal Union\n* World Health Organization\n* World Intellectual Property Organization\n* World Meteorological Organization\n* World Tourism Organization\n\nArmenia is also an observer member of the Community of Democratic Choice, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of American States, the Arab League, and a dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. Eduard Nalbandyan serves as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia.\n", "* Armenian diaspora\n* Armenia–European Union relations\n* Council of Europe\n* Eastern European Group\n* Eastern Europe\n* Eastern Partnership\n* Eurasian Economic Union\n* Euronest Parliamentary Assembly\n* Largest Armenian diaspora communities\n* List of diplomatic missions in Armenia\n* List of diplomatic missions of Armenia\n* Foreign relations of Artsakh\n* Politics of Europe\n* Visa requirements for Armenian citizens\n* Visa policy of Armenia\n\n\n", "\n", "* \n* \n", "\n; Argentina\n* List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Armenia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)\n; Canada\n* Armenian embassy in Ottawa\n* Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Armenian\n;Chile\n* \n* Chilean Senate: recognition of the Armenian Genocide (in Spanish only)\n; Czech\n* Armenian embassy in London\n* British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Armenia * British embassy in Yerevan\n;Denmark\n* Danish Foreign Ministry: development program with Armenia\n;NATO\n* Iskandaryan, Alexander:\"NATO and Armenia: A Long Game of Complementarism\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 5\n;International\n* Khachatrian, Haroutiun: \"Foreign Investments in Armenia: Influence of the Crisis and Other Peculiarities\" in the Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 28\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Armenian Genocide recognition", "Disputes", "Countries with no diplomatic relations", "Countries with diplomatic relations", "Other international organizations", "See also", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	Foreign relations of Armenia
[ "\n\n\n\n+'''American Samoa'''\n\n\n\n\n American Samoa\n\n\n '''Continent''' \n Oceania\n\n '''Subregion''' \n Oceania\n\n '''Geographic coordinates''' \n \n\n '''Area''' - Total - Water\n Ranked 216th199 km2 0 km2\n\n '''Coastline''' \n 116 km\n\n '''Land boundaries''' \n 0 km\n\n '''Countries bordered''' \n none\n\n '''Maritime claims''' \n \n\n '''Highest point''' \n Lata Mountain, 964 m\n\n '''Lowest point''' \n Pacific Ocean, 0 m\n\n '''Longest river''' \n\n\n '''Largest inland body of water''' \n\n\n '''Land Use''' - Arable land\n - Permanent crops\n - Other \n15%\n 9.5%\n 75.5% (2012 est.)\n\n '''Irrigated Land:''' \n n/a\n\n '''Climate''': \n tropical marine, little seasonal temperature variation\n\n '''Terrain''': \n volcano, limited coastal plains, two coral atolls\n\n '''Natural resources''' \n pumice, pumicite\n\n '''Natural hazards''' \n typhoons from December to March\n\n '''Environmental issues''' \n limited natural fresh water\n\n\nAmerican Samoa, located within the geographical region of Oceania, is one of only two possessions of the United States in the Southern Hemisphere, the other being Jarvis Island. Its total land area is —slightly larger than Washington, D.C.—consisting of five rugged, volcanic islands and two coral atolls. The five volcanic islands are: Tutuila, Aunu'u, Ofu, Olosega, Ta'u. The coral atolls are: Swains, and Rose Atoll. Of the seven islands, Rose Atoll is an uninhabited Marine National Monument.\n\nDue to its positioning in the South Pacific Ocean, it is frequently hit by typhoons between December and March. Rose Atoll is the easternmost point of the territory. American Samoa is the southernmost part of the United States. American Samoa is home to the National Park of American Samoa.\n", "Samoan Islands\nGeography of Samoa\nSwamps of American Samoa\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	Geography of American Samoa
[ "\nThis article is about the '''demographic''' features of the population of '''American Samoa''', including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.\nFAO, year 2005.\n", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. \n===Population===\n54,343 \n===Age structure===\n0-14 years: 24.45% (male 6,506/female 6,780)\n15-24 years: 19.61% (male 5,264/female 5,395)\n25-54 years: 42.1% (male 11,775/female 11,105)\n55-64 years: 8.69% (male 2,326/female 2,397)\n65 years and over: 5.14% (male 1,287/female 1,508) (2015 est.)t.)\n===Median age===\ntotal: 28.8 years\nmale: 29.4 years\nfemale: 28.3 years (2015 est.)\n===Population growth rate===\n-0.3%\n===Birth rate===\n22.89 births/1,000 population\n===Death rate===\n4.75 deaths/1,000 population\n-21.13 migrant(s)/1,000 population\n===Urbanization===\nUrban population: 87.2% of total population\nRate of urbanization: -0.13% annual rate of change\n===Sex ratio===\nAt birth: 1.06 male(s)/female\n0-14 years: 0.96 male(s)/female\n15-24 years: 0.98 male(s)/female\n25-54 years: 1.06 male(s)/female\n55-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female\n65 years and over: 0.85 male(s)/female\nTotal population: 1 male(s)/female (2015 est.)\nAmerican Samoa's population pyramid.\n===Infant mortality rate===\nTotal: 8.69 deaths/1,000 live births\nMale: 11.16 deaths/1,000 live births\nFemale: 6.09 deaths/1,000 live births (2015 est.)\n===Life expectancy at birth===\nTotal population: 75.14 years\nMale: 72.18 years\nFemale: 78.28 years (2015 est.)\n===Total fertility rate===\n2.92 children born/woman\n===Nationality===\nNoun: American Samoan(s) (US Nationals)\nAdjective: American Samoan\n\n===Ethnic groups===\nPacific Islander 92.6% (includes Samoan 88.9%, Tongan 2.9%, other .8%)\nAsian 3.6% (includes Filipino 2.2%, other 1.4%)\nMixed 2.7%\nOther 1.2% \n===Religions===\nChristian 98.3%\nOther 1%\nUnaffiliated 0.7% \nMajor Christian denominations on the island include the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, the Roman Catholic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Methodist Church of Samoa. Collectively, these churches account for the vast majority of the population.\n\nJ. Gordon Elton in his book claims that the Methodists, Congregationalists with the London Missionary Society, and Roman Catholics led the first Christian missions to the islands. Other denominations arrived later, beginning in 1895 with the Seventh-day Adventists, various Pentecostals (including the Assemblies of God), Church of the Nazarene, Jehovah's Witnesses and Mormons.\n\nCIA Factbook 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, other 1%, unaffiliated 0.7%. World Christian Database 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, 0.7% agnostic, 0.4% Chinese Universalist, 0.3% Buddhist and 0.3% Bahá'í.\n\nAccording to Pew Research Center, 98.3% of the total population is Christian. Among Christians, 59.5% are Protestant, 19.7% are Roman Catholic and 19.2% are other Christians. A major Protestant church on the island, gathering a substantial part of the local Protestant population, is the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, a Reformed denomination in the Congregationalist tradition. , The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints website claims membership of 16,180 or one-quarter or the whole population, with 41 congregations, and 4 family history centers in American Samoa. The Jehovah's Witnesses claim 210 \"ministers of the word\" and 3 congregations.\n\n===Languages===\nSamoan 88.6% \nEnglish 3.9%,\nTongan 2.7%, \nOther Pacific islander 3%\n*Other 1.8%\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " CIA World Factbook demographic statistics ", "References" ]	Demographics of American Samoa
[ "\n\n\n'''Politics of American Samoa''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the Governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified 1966 and came into effect 1967. Executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is a based on the United States party system. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.\n\nThere is also the traditional village politics of the Samoa Islands, the \"faamatai\" and the \"faasamoa\", which continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The Fa'asamoa is the language and customs, and the Fa'amatai the protocols of the \"fono\" (council) and the chiefly system. The Fa'amatai and the Fono take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. The \"matai\" (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The matai and the fono (which is itself made of matai) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A matai can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa.\n", "\n\nThe government of American Samoa is defined under the Constitution of American Samoa. As an unincorporated territory, the Ratification Act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the President, who in turn delegated authority to the Secretary of the Interior in . The Secretary promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa which was approved by a Constitutional Convention of the people of American Samoa and a majority of the voters of American Samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967.\n\nThe Governor of American Samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of American Samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.\n\nThe legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono, which has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 18 members, elected for a two-year term, 17 in single-seat constituencies and one by a public meeting on Swain Island. The Senate also has 18 members, elected for a four-year term by and from the chiefs of the islands.\n\nThe judiciary of American Samoa is independent of the executive and the legislature, and the High Court of American Samoa is the highest court below the United States Supreme Court in American Samoa, with the District Courts below it. The High Court is located in the capital of Pago Pago. It consists of a Chief Justice and an Associate Justice, appointed by the United States Secretary of the Interior.\n", ":''An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in American Samoa.''\n\n\n\nAt November 2, 2004, election Eni F. H. Faleomavaega of the Democratic Party (United States) defeated the Republican candidate and was re-elected.\n", "ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC\n", "*Political party strength in American Samoa\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Government", "Political parties and elections", "International organization participation", "See also", "References" ]	Politics of American Samoa
[ "\n\n\nThe economy of American Samoa is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the United States, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna being the primary export. Transfers from the U.S. federal government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia.\n", "'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $537 million (2007 est.)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 210\n\n'''GDP (official exchange rate):''' $462.2 million (2005)\n\n'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 3% (2003)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 139\n\n'''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $7,874 (2008)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 120\n\n'''GDP - composition by sector:'''\n''agriculture:''\nNA%\n''industry:''\nNA%\n''services:''\nNA% (2002)\n\n'''Labor Force:''' 17,630 (2005)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 203\n\n'''Labor force - by occupation:''' government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990)\n\n'''Unemployment rate:''' 23.8% (2010)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 175\n\n'''Population below poverty line:'''\nNA% (2002 est.)\n\n'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''\n''lowest 10%:''\nNA%\n''highest 10%:''\nNA%\n\n'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''\nNA% (2003 est.)\n\n'''Budget:'''\n''revenues:'' $155.4 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants)\n''expenditures:'' $183.6 million (FY07)\n\n'''Agriculture - products:''' bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock\n\n'''Industries:''' tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts\n\n'''Industrial production growth rate:''' NA%\n\n'''Electricity - production:''' 180 GWh (2006)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 179\n\n'''Electricity - production by source:'''\n''fossil fuel:''\n100%\n''hydro:''\n0%\n''nuclear:''\n0%\n''other:''\n0% (2001)\n\n'''Electricity - consumption:''' 167.4 GWh (2006)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 179\n\n'''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (2007)\n\n'''Electricity - imports:''' 0 kWh (2007)\n\n'''Oil - production:''' (2007 est.)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 209\n\n'''Oil - consumption:''' (604 m³/d), 2006\n''country comparison to the world:'' 170\n\n'''Oil - exports:''' (2005)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 142\n\n'''Oil - imports:''' (2005)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 166\n\n'''Natural gas - production:''' 0 cu m (2007)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 208\n\n'''Natural gas - consumption:''' 0 cu m (2007)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 207\n\n'''Natural gas - exports:''' 0 cu m (2007)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 202\n\n'''Natural gas - imports:''' 0 cu m (2007)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 201\n\n'''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 0 cu m (2006)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 205\n\n'''Exports:''' $445.6 million (2004)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 167\n\n'''Exports - commodities:'''\ncanned tuna 93% (2004)\n\n'''Exports - partners:'''\nIndonesia 70%, Australia 6.7%, Japan 6.7%, Samoa 6.7% (2002)\n\n'''Imports:''' $308.8 million (2004)\n''country comparison to the world:'' 195\n\n'''Imports - commodities:'''\nmaterials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% (2004)\n\n'''Imports - partners:'''\nAustralia 36.6%, New Zealand 20.3%, South Korea 16.3%, Mauritius 4.9% (2002)\n\n'''Debt - external:'''\n$NA (2002 est.)\n\n'''Economic aid - recipient:'''\n$NA; note - important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994\n\n'''Currency:'''\nUS dollar (USD)\n\n'''Currency code:'''\nUSD\n\n'''Exchange rates:'''\nUS dollar is used\n\n'''Fiscal year:'''\n1 October - 30 September\n", "* http://www.classbrain.com/art_cr/publish/american_samoa_economy.shtml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Numbers", "External links" ]	Economy of American Samoa
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "29 BC – Octavian holds the first of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes.\n 523 – John I becomes the new Pope after the death of Pope Hormisdas.\n* 554 – Emperor Justinian I rewards Liberius for his long and distinguished service in the Pragmatic Sanction, granting him extensive estates in Italy.\n* 582 – Maurice becomes Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.\n* 900 – Count Reginar I of Hainault rises against Zwentibold of Lotharingia and slays him near present-day Susteren.\n1099 – Raniero is elected as Pope Paschal II.\n1516 – The Treaty of Noyon between France and Spain is signed. Francis I of France recognizes Charles's claim to Naples, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, recognizes Francis's claim to Milan.\n1521 – After an extended siege, forces led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés capture Tlatoani Cuauhtémoc and conquer the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.\n1532 – Union of Brittany and France: The Duchy of Brittany is absorbed into the Kingdom of France.\n1536 – Buddhist monks from Kyoto, Japan's Enryaku-ji temple set fire to 21 Nichiren temples throughout in what will be known as the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional Japanese date: July 27, 1536).\n1553 – Michael Servetus is arrested by John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland as a heretic.\n1624 – The French king Louis XIII appoints Cardinal Richelieu as prime minister.\n1645 – Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro.\n1704 – War of the Spanish Succession: Battle of Blenheim: English and Imperial forces are victorious over French and Bavarian troops.\n1779 – American Revolutionary War: The Royal Navy defeats the Penobscot Expedition with the most significant loss of United States naval forces prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor.\n1792 – King Louis XVI of France is formally arrested by the National Tribunal, and declared an enemy of the people.\n1806 – Battle of Mišar during the Serbian Revolution begins. The battle will end two days later, with a decisive Serbian victory over the Ottomans.\n1814 – The Convention of London, a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United Provinces, is signed in London, England.\n1868 – The 8.5–9.0 Arica earthquake struck southern Peru with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (''Extreme''), causing 25,000+ deaths and a destructive basin wide tsunami that affected Hawaii and New Zealand.\n1889 – William Gray of Hartford, Connecticut is granted United States Patent Number 408,709 for \"Coin-controlled apparatus for telephones.\" \n1898 – Spanish–American War: Spanish and American forces engage in a mock battle for Manila, after which the Spanish commander surrendered in order to keep the city out of Filipino rebel hands.\n* 1898 – Carl Gustav Witt discovers 433 Eros, the first near-Earth asteroid to be found.\n* 1905 – Norwegians vote to end the union with Sweden.\n1906 – The all black infantrymen of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Regiment are accused of killing a white bartender and wounding a white police officer in Brownsville, Texas, despite exculpatory evidence; all are later dishonorably discharged. (Their records were later restored to reflect honorable discharges but there were no financial settlements.\n 1913 – First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.\n1918 – Women enlist in the United States Marine Corps for the first time. Opha May Johnson is the first woman to enlist.\n 1918 – Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW) established as a public company in Germany.\n1920 – Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Warsaw begins and will last till August 25. The Red Army is defeated.\n1937 – The Battle of Shanghai begins.\n1942 – Major General Eugene Reybold of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authorizes the construction of facilities that would house the \"Development of Substitute Materials\" project, better known as the Manhattan Project.\n1944 – World War II: German troops begin the pillage and razing of Anogeia in Crete that would continue until September 5.\n1954 – Radio Pakistan broadcasts the \"Qaumī Tarāna\", the national anthem of Pakistan for the first time.\n1960 – The Central African Republic declares independence from France.\n1961 – East Germany closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of Berlin to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the West, and construction of the Berlin Wall is started.\n1964 – Peter Allen and Gwynne Evans are hanged for the Murder of John Alan West becoming the last people executed in the United Kingdom.\n1968 – Alexandros Panagoulis attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos in Varkiza, Athens.\n1969 – The ''Apollo 11'' astronauts are released from a three-week quarantine to enjoy a ticker tape parade in New York City That evening, at a state dinner in Los Angeles, they are awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by U.S. President Richard Nixon.\n1977 – Members of the British National Front (NF) clash with anti-NF demonstrators in Lewisham, London, resulting in 214 arrests and at least 111 injuries.\n1978 – One hundred fifty Palestinians in Beirut are killed in a terrorist attack during the second phase of the Lebanese Civil War.\n* 2004 – One hundred fifty-six Congolese Tutsi refugees are massacred at the Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi.\n2008 – South Ossetian War: Russian units occupy the Georgian city of Gori.\n2015 – At least 76 people are killed and 212 others are wounded in a truck bombing in Baghdad, Iraq.\n", "1311 – Alfonso XI of Castile (d. 1350)\n1584 – Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, English admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Cumberland (d. 1640)\n1625 – Rasmus Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. 1698)\n1662 – Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1748)\n1666 – William Wotton, English linguist and scholar (d. 1727)\n1700 – Heinrich von Brühl, Polish-German politician (d. 1763)\n1717 – Louis François, Prince of Conti (d. 1776)\n1756 – James Gillray, English caricaturist and printmaker (d.1815)\n1764 – Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, French general (d. 1816)\n1790 – William Wentworth, Australian journalist, explorer, and politician (d. 1872)\n1803 – Vladimir Odoyevsky, Russian philosopher and critic (d. 1869)\n1814 – Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist and astronomer (d. 1874)\n1819 – Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet, Anglo-Irish mathematician and physicist (d. 1903)\n1820 – George Grove, English musicologist and historian (d. 1900)\n1823 – Goldwin Smith, English-Canadian historian and journalist (d. 1910)\n1831 – Salomon Jadassohn, German pianist and composer (d. 1902)\n1841 – Johnny Mullagh, Australian cricketer (d. 1891)\n1842 – Charles Wells, English brewer, founded Charles Wells Ltd (d. 1914)\n1851 – Felix Adler, German-American religious leader and educator (d. 1933)\n1860 – Annie Oakley, American target shooter (d. 1926)\n1866 – Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat S.p.A (d. 1945)\n1867 – George Luks, American painter and illustrator (d. 1933)\n1872 – Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1942)\n1879 – John Ireland, English composer and educator (d. 1962)\n1884 – Harry Dean, English cricketer and coach (d. 1957)\n1888 – John Logie Baird, Scottish engineer, invented the television (d. 1946)\n* 1888 – Gleb W. Derujinsky, Russian-American sculptor (d. 1975)\n1889 – Camillien Houde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1958)\n1895 – István Barta, Hungarian water polo player (d. 1948)\n* 1895 – Bert Lahr, American actor (d. 1967)\n1898 – Jean Borotra, French tennis player (d. 1994)\n 1898 – Regis Toomey, American actor (d. 1991)\n1899 – Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (d. 1980)\n1902 – Felix Wankel, German engineer (d. 1988)\n1904 – Buddy Rogers, American actor and musician (d. 1999)\n1906 – Chuck Carroll, American football player and lawyer (d. 2003)\n* 1906 – Art Shires, American baseball player and boxer (d. 1967)\n1907 – Basil Spence, Scottish architect, designed Coventry Cathedral (d. 1976)\n1908 – Gene Raymond, American actor and pilot (d. 1998)\n1911 – William Bernbach, American advertiser, co-founded DDB Worldwide (d. 1982)\n1912 – Claire Cribbs, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985)\n* 1912 – Ben Hogan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 1997)\n* 1912 – Salvador Luria, Italian-American microbiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)\n1913 – Makarios III, Greek archbishop and politician, 1st President of Cyprus (d. 1977)\n 1913 – Fred Davis, English snooker player (d. 1998)\n1914 – Grace Bates, American mathematician and academic (d. 1996)\n1917 – Sid Gordon, American baseball player (d. 1975)\n1918 – Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2006)\n 1918 – Frederick Sanger, English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)\n1919 – Rex Humbard, American evangelist and television host (d. 2007)\n 1919 – George Shearing, English jazz pianist and bandleader (d. 2011)\n1920 – Neville Brand, American actor (d. 1992)\n1921 – Louis Frémaux, French conductor (d. 2017)\n* 1921 – Jimmy McCracklin, American blues/R&B singer-songwriter and pianist (d 2012)\n1922 – Chuck Gilmur, American basketball player, coach, and educator (d. 2011)\n1925 – Benny Bailey, American trumpet player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2005)\n* 1925 – José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Argentine executive and policy maker (d. 2013)\n1926 – Fidel Castro, Cuban lawyer and politician, 15th President of Cuba (d. 2016)\n1928 – John Tidmarsh, English journalist and radio host\n1929 – Pat Harrington, Jr., American actor (d. 2016)\n1930 – Wilfried Hilker, German footballer and referee\n* 1930 – Don Ho, American singer and ukulele player (d. 2007)\n* 1930 – Bernard Manning, English comedian (d. 2007)\n* 1930 – Wilmer Mizell, American baseball player and politician (d. 1999)\n* 1930 – Bob Wiesler, American baseball player (d. 2014)\n1933 – Joycelyn Elders, American admiral and physician, 15th Surgeon General of the United States\n1935 – Alex de Renzy, American director and producer (d. 2001)\n* 1935 – Mudcat Grant, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1938 – Dave \"Baby\" Cortez, American R&B pianist, organist, and composer\n1940 – Bill Musselman, American basketball player and coach (d. 2000)\n1943 – Fred Hill, American football player\n 1943 – Michael Willetts, English sergeant; George Cross recipient (d. 1971)\n1945 – Lars Engqvist, Swedish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden\n 1945 – Gary Gregor, American basketball player\n* 1945 – Robin Jackman, Indian-English cricketer and sportscaster\n* 1945 – Howard Marks, Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer, and legalisation campaigner (d. 2016)\n1947 – Fred Stanley, American baseball player and manager\n 1947 – John Stocker, Canadian voice actor and director\n* 1947 – Margareta Winberg, Swedish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden\n1948 – Kathleen Battle, American operatic soprano \n1949 – Jim Brunzell, American wrestler\n* 1949 – Bobby Clarke, Canadian ice hockey player and manager\n* 1949 – Philippe Petit, French tightrope walker\n1950 – Rusty Gerhardt, American baseball player, coach, and manager\n1951 – Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)\n1952 – Dave Carter, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)\n 1952 – Gary Gibbs, American football player and coach\n* 1952 – Herb Ritts, American photographer and director (d. 2002)\n* 1952 – Hughie Thomasson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)\n1953 – Tom Cohen, American philosopher, theorist, and academic\n 1953 – Ron Hilditch, Australian rugby league player and coach\n* 1953 – Thomas Pogge, German philosopher and academic\n* 1953 – Peter Wright, English historian and author\n1954 – Nico Assumpção, Brazilian bass player (d. 2001)\n1955 – Keith Ahlers, English race car driver\n* 1955 – Hideo Fukuyama, Japanese race car driver\n* 1955 – Paul Greengrass, English director and screenwriter\n1958 – David Feherty, Northern Irish golfer and sportscaster\n 1958 – Feargal Sharkey, Northern Irish singer-songwriter \n* 1958 – Randy Shughart, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)\n1959 – Danny Bonaduce, American actor and wrestler\n 1959 – Bruce French, English cricketer and coach\n* 1959 – Tom Niedenfuer, American baseball player\n1960 – Ivar Stukolkin, Estonian swimmer\n1961 – Neil Mallender, English cricketer and umpire\n* 1961 – Tom Perrotta, American novelist and screenwriter \n1962 – John Slattery, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1963 – Steve Higgins, American talk show co-host and announcer, writer, producer, comedian and impressionist\n* 1963 – Valerie Plame, American CIA agent and author\n1964 – Jay Buhner, American baseball player and sportscaster\n 1964 – Debi Mazar, American actress\n* 1964 – Tom Prince, American baseball player and manager\n1965 – Mark Lemke, American baseball player, coach, and radio host\n 1965 – Hayato Matsuo, Japanese composer and conductor\n1966 – Scooter Barry, American basketball player\n 1966 – Shayne Corson, Canadian ice hockey player\n1967 – Dave Jamerson, American basketball player\n 1967 – Digna Ketelaar, Dutch tennis player\n1968 – Tal Bachman, Canadian singer-songwriter\n 1968 – Todd Hendricks, American football player and coach\n* 1968 – Tony Jarrett, English sprinter and hurdler\n1969 – Midori Ito, Japanese figure skater\n1970 – Will Clarke, American author\n* 1970 – Elvis Grbac, American football player and coach\n* 1970 – Alan Shearer, English footballer and manager\n1971 – Patrick Carpentier, Canadian race car driver\n 1971 – Adam Housley, American baseball player and journalist\n1972 – Kevin Plank, American businessman, founded Under Armour\n1973 – Molly Henneberg, American journalist\n* 1973 – Eric Medlen, American race car driver (d. 2007)\n1974 – Scott MacRae, American baseball player and coach\n 1974 – Joe Perry, English snooker player\n1974 – Niklas Sundin, Swedish musician and artist\n 1974 – Jarrod Washburn, American baseball player and coach\n1975 – Shoaib Akhtar, Pakistani cricketer\n 1975 – Marty Turco, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster\n1976 – Geno Carlisle, American basketball player\n1977 – Michael Klim, Polish-Australian swimmer\n* 1977 – Kenyan Weaks, American basketball player and coach\n1978 – Dwight Smith, American football player\n1979 – Román Colón, Dominican baseball player\n* 1979 – Corey Patterson, American baseball player\n* 1979 – Taizō Sugimura, Japanese politician\n1980 – Murtz Jaffer, Canadian journalist\n1982 – Christopher Raeburn, English fashion designer\n* 1982 – Sarah Huckabee Sanders, American political consultant and press secretary\n* 1982 – Sebastian Stan, Romanian-American actor\n1983 – Dallas Braden, American baseball player\n 1983 – Aleš Hemský, Czech ice hockey player\n* 1983 – Ľubomír Michalík, Slovak footballer\n* 1983 – Christian Müller, German footballer\n1984 – Alona Bondarenko, Ukrainian tennis player\n 1984 – Niko Kranjčar, Croatian footballer\n* 1984 – Boone Logan, American baseball player\n* 1984 – James Morrison, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1985 – Gerrit van Look, German rugby player and coach\n1987 – Pepe Diokno, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1987 – Devin McCourty, American football player\n* 1987 – Jason McCourty, American football player\n* 1987 – Jamie Reed, Welsh footballer\n1988 – Keith Benson, American basketball player\n 1988 – Brandon Workman, American baseball player\n1989 – Greg Draper, New Zealand footballer\n 1989 – Justin Greene, American basketball player\n* 1989 – Israel Jiménez, Mexican footballer\n1990 – DeMarcus Cousins, American basketball player\n 1990 – Benjamin Stambouli, French footballer\n1991 – Dave Days, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1992 – Lucas Moura, Brazilian footballer\n* 1992 – Katrina Gorry, Australian football player\n* 1992 – Alicja Tchórz, Polish swimmer\n1993 – Moses Mbye, Australian rugby league player\n1994 – Filip Forsberg, Swedish ice hockey player\n1996 – Antonia Lottner, German tennis player\n1998 – Dalma Gálfi, Hungarian tennis player\n\n\n==Deaths== \n* 587 – Radegund, Frankish princess and saint (b. 520)\n* 604 – Emperor Wen of Sui (b. 541)\n* 612 – Fabia Eudokia, Byzantine empress (b. 580)\n* 662 – Maximus the Confessor, Byzantine theologian\n* 696 – Takechi, Japanese prince\n* 900 – Zwentibold, last King of Lotharingia (b. 870)\n* 908 – Al-Muktafi, Abbasid caliph\n1134 – Irene of Hungary (b. 1088)\n1297 – Nawrūz, Mongol emir \n1311 – Pietro Gradenigo, Doge of Venice\n1382 – Eleanor of Aragon, Queen of Castile (b. 1358)\n1447 – Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan (b. 1392)\n1523 – Gerard David, Flemish painter (b. 1460)\n1608 – Giambologna, Italian sculptor (b. 1529)\n1617 – Johann Jakob Grynaeus, Swiss clergyman and theologian (b. 1540)\n1667 – Jeremy Taylor, Irish bishop and saint (b. 1613)\n1686 – Louis Maimbourg, French priest and historian (b. 1610)\n1721 – Jacques Lelong, French priest and author (b. 1665)\n1744 – John Cruger, Danish-American businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of New York City (b. 1678)\n1749 – Johann Elias Schlegel, German poet and critic (b. 1719)\n1766 – Margaret Fownes-Luttrell, English painter (b. 1726)\n1826 – René Laennec, French physician, invented the stethoscope (b. 1781)\n1863 – Eugène Delacroix, French painter and lithographer (b. 1798)\n1865 – Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian physician and obstetrician (b. 1818)\n1910 – Florence Nightingale, Italian-English nurse and theologian (b. 1820)\n1912 – Jules Massenet, French composer (b. 1842)\n1917 – Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860)\n1934 – Mary Hunter Austin, American author and playwright (b. 1868)\n1946 – H. G. Wells, English novelist, historian, and critic (b. 1866)\n1954 – Demetrius Constantine Dounis, Greek violinist and mandolin player (b. 1886)\n1958 – Francis J. McCormick, American football, basketball player, and coach (b. 1903)\n1963 – Louis Bastien, French cyclist and fencer (b. 1881)\n1965 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899)\n1971 – W. O. Bentley, English race car driver and engineer, founded Bentley Motors Limited (b. 1888)\n1975 – Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (b. 1901)\n1978 – Lonnie Mayne, American wrestler (b. 1944)\n1979 – Andrew Dasburg, American painter and sculptor (b. 1887)\n1984 – Tigran Petrosian, Georgian-Armenian chess player (b. 1929)\n1986 – Helen Mack, American actress (b. 1913)\n1989 – Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955)\n 1989 – Larkin I. Smith, American police officer and politician (b. 1944)\n1991 – James Roosevelt, American general and politician (b. 1907)\n1995 – Alison Hargreaves, English mountaineer (b. 1963)\n* 1995 – Jan Křesadlo, Czech-English psychologist and author (b. 1926)\n* 1995 – Mickey Mantle, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1931)\n1996 – António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (b. 1910)\n1998 – Nino Ferrer, Italian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1934)\n* 1998 – Edward Ginzton, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (b. 1915)\n* 1998 – Julien Green, American author (b. 1900)\n* 1998 – Rafael Robles, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1947)\n1999 – Ignatz Bubis, German Jewish religious leader (b. 1927)\n 1999 – Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and lawyer (b. 1960)\n2001 – Otto Stuppacher, Austrian race car driver (b. 1947)\n 2001 – Jim Hughes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1923)\n2003 – Ed Townsend, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929)\n2004 – Julia Child, American chef, author, and television host (b. 1912)\n2005 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1916)\n 2005 – David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1942)\n2006 – Tony Jay, English actor and singer (b. 1933)\n2007 – Brian Adams, American wrestler (b. 1964)\n* 2007 – Brooke Astor, American philanthropist and socialite (b. 1902)\n* 2007 – Phil Rizzuto, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1917)\n2008 – Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (b. 1904)\n 2008 – Bill Gwatney, American politician (b. 1959)\n* 2008 – Jack Weil, American businessman (b. 1901)\n2009 – Lavelle Felton, American basketball player (b. 1980)\n 2009 – Les Paul, American musician (b. 1915)\n2010 – Panagiotis Bachramis, Greek footballer (b. 1976)\n 2010 – Lance Cade, American wrestler (b. 1981)\n* 2010 – Edwin Newman, American journalist and author (b. 1919)\n2011 – Tareque Masud, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1957)\n 2011 – Mishuk Munier, Bangladeshi journalist and cinematographer (b. 1959)\n2012 – Hugo Adam Bedau, American philosopher and academic (b. 1926)\n 2012 – Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (b. 1922)\n* 2012 – Ray Jordon, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1937)\n* 2012 – Johnny Pesky, American baseball player and manager (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Joan Roberts, American actress and singer (b. 1917)\n2013 – Lothar Bisky, German politician (b. 1941)\n 2013 – Aaron Selber, Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1927)\n* 2013 – Jean Vincent, French footballer and manager (b. 1930)\n2014 – Frans Brüggen, Dutch flute player and conductor (b. 1934)\n 2014 – Eduardo Campos, Brazilian politician, 14th Brazilian Minister of Science and Technology (b. 1965)\n* 2014 – Martino Finotto, Italian race car driver (b. 1933)\n* 2014 – Süleyman Seba, Turkish footballer and manager (b. 1926)\n2015 – Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Interior (b. 1952)\n 2015 – Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b. 1920)\n* 2015 – Om Prakash Munjal, Indian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Hero Cycles (b. 1928)\n2016 – Kenny Baker, English actor and musician (b. 1934) \n 2016 – Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian Hindu leader (b. 1921)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nBenedetto Sinigardi\nBenildus Romançon\nCassian of Imola\nCentola and Helen\nClara Maass (Lutheran Church)\nFachtna of Rosscarbery\nFlorence Nightingale, Octavia Hill (Lutheran Church)\nHerulph\nHippolytus of Rome\nJohn Berchmans\nJunian of Mairé\nBlessed Marco d'Aviano\nMaximus the Confessor\nNerses Glaietsi (Roman Catholic Church)\nPope Pontian\nRadegunde\nJeremy Taylor (Anglican Communion)\nWigbert\nAugust 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nIndependence Day (Central African Republic), celebrates the independence of Central African Republic from France in 1960.\nInternational Lefthanders Day (International)\nWomen's Day, commemorates the enaction of Tunisian Code of Personal Status in 1956. (Tunisia)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Holidays and observances", "External links", "References" ]	August 13
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Avicenna''' or '''Ibn Sīnā''' (; – June 1037) was a Persian polymath who is regarded as one of the most significant physicians, astronomers, thinkers and writers of the Islamic Golden Age.\nHe has been described as the father of early modern medicine.\nOf the 450 works he is known to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.\n\nHis most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'', a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and ''The Canon of Medicine'', a medical encyclopedia which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and remained in use as late as 1650. In 1973, Avicenna's ''Canon Of Medicine'' was reprinted in New York.\n\nBesides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics and poetry.\n", "'''' is a Latin corruption of the Arabic patronym ''Ibn Sīnā'' (), meaning \"Son of Sina\", a rare Persian masculine given name of uncertain etymology. However, Avicenna was not the son, but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina. His full name was '''Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Sīnā''' ().\n", "Ibn Sina created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Mid- and Neo-Platonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine. The Samanid dynasty in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan and Central Asia as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad as a cultural capital of the Islamic world.\n\nThe study of the Quran and the Hadith thrived in such a scholarly atmosphere. Philosophy, Fiqh and theology (kalaam) were further developed, most noticeably by Avicenna and his opponents. Al-Razi and Al-Farabi had provided methodology and knowledge in medicine and philosophy. Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarezm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan. Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that he debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Aruzi Samarqandi describes how before Avicenna left Khwarezm he had met Al-Biruni (a famous scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Iraqi (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl Masihi (a respected philosopher) and Abu al-Khayr Khammar (a great physician).\n", "\n===Early life===\nAvicenna was born in Afshana, a village near Bukhara (in present-day Uzbekistan), the capital of the Samanids, a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan. His mother, named Sitāra, was from Bukhara; his father, Abdullāh, was a respected Ismaili scholar from Balkh, an important town of the Samanid Empire, in what is today Balkh Province, Afghanistan. His father worked in the government of Samanid in the village Kharmasain, a Sunni regional power. After five years, his younger brother, Mahmoud, was born. Avicenna first began to learn the Quran and literature in such a way that when he was ten years old he had essentially learned all of them.\n\nAccording to his autobiography, Avicenna had memorised the entire Quran by the age of 10. He learned Indian arithmetic from an Indian greengrocer,ءMahmoud Massahi and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young. He also studied Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) under the Sunni Hanafi scholar Ismail al-Zahid. Avicenna was taught some extent of philosophy books such as Introduction (Isagoge)'s Porphyry (philosopher), Euclid's Elements, Ptolemy's Almagest by an unpopular philosopher, Abu Abdullah Nateli, who claimed philosophizing.\n\nAs a teenager, he was greatly troubled by the ''Metaphysics'' of Aristotle, which he could not understand until he read al-Farabi's commentary on the work. For the next year and a half, he studied philosophy, in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then go to the mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties. Deep into the night, he would continue his studies, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty times, it is said, he read through the ''Metaphysics'' of Aristotle, till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by Farabi, which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhams. So great was his joy at the discovery, made with the help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor.\n\nHe turned to medicine at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but also by gratuitous attendance of the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of treatment. The teenager achieved full status as a qualified physician at age 18, and found that \"Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like mathematics and metaphysics, so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies.\" The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment.\n\nA number of theories have been proposed regarding Avicenna's madhab (school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence). Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) considered Avicenna to be a follower of the Brethren of Purity. On the other hand, Dimitri Gutas along with Aisha Khan and Jules J. Janssens demonstrated that Avicenna was a Sunni Hanafi. However, the 14th century Shia faqih Nurullah Shushtari according to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, maintained that he was most likely a Twelver Shia. Conversely, Sharaf Khorasani, citing a rejection of an invitation of the Sunni Governor Sultan Mahmoud Ghazanavi by Avicenna to his court, believes that Avicenna was an Ismaili. Similar disagreements exist on the background of Avicenna's family, whereas some writers considered them Sunni, some more recent writers contested that they were Shia.\n\n===Adulthood===\n\nA drawing of Avicenna from 1271\n\nIbn Sina's first appointment was that of physician to the emir, Nuh II, who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997). Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal library of the Samanids, well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labors, but still found time to write some of his earliest works.\n\nWhen Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004. Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud of Ghazni, and proceeded westwards to Urgench in modern Turkmenistan, where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for his talents. Qabus, the generous ruler of Tabaristan, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find asylum, was on about that date (1012) starved to death by his troops who had revolted. Ibn Sina himself was at this time stricken by a severe illness. Finally, at Gorgan, near the Caspian Sea, Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on logic and astronomy. Several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written for this patron; and the commencement of his ''Canon of Medicine'' also dates from his stay in Hyrcania.\n\nIbn Sina subsequently settled at Rey, in the vicinity of modern Tehran, the home town of Rhazes; where Majd Addaula, a son of the last Buwayhid emir, was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother (Seyyedeh Khatun). About thirty of Ibn Sina's shorter works are said to have been composed in Rey. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, Shams al-Daula, however, compelled the scholar to quit the place. After a brief sojourn at Qazvin he passed southwards to Hamadãn where Shams al-Daula, another Buwayhid emir, had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The emir decreed that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in sheikh Ahmed Fadhel's house, until a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina persevered with his studies and teaching. Every evening, extracts from his great works, the ''Canon'' and the ''Sanatio'', were dictated and explained to his pupils. On the death of the emir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works.\n\nMeanwhile, he had written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of the dynamic city of Isfahan, offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina was hiding, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in 1024 the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Tajik mercenaries. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the emir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labors. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favorite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped from the city in the dress of a Sufi ascetic. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honorable welcome from the prince.\n\n===Later life and death===\nThe first page of a manuscript of Avicenna's ''Canon'', dated 1596/7 (Yale, Medical Historical Library, Cushing Arabic ms. 5)\nGravestone of Avicenna, Hamedan, Iran\nThe remaining ten or twelve years of Ibn Sīnā's life were spent in the service of the Kakuyid ruler Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar (also known as Ala al-Dawla), whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns.\n\nDuring these years he began to study literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. A severe colic, which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadan, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadan, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate.\n\nHis friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately. He refused, however, stating that: ''\"I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length\"''. On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and read through the Quran every three days until his death. He died in June 1037, in his fifty-eighth year, in the month of Ramadan and was buried in Hamadan, Iran.\n", "\nIbn Sīnā wrote extensively on early Islamic philosophy, especially the subjects logic, ethics, and metaphysics, including treatises named ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics''. Most of his works were written in Arabic – then the language of science in the Middle East – and some in Persian. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language (particularly the Danishnamah-yi 'Ala', Philosophy for Ala' ad-Dawla'). Ibn Sīnā's commentaries on Aristotle often criticized the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad.\n\nAvicenna's Neoplatonic scheme of \"emanations\" became fundamental in the ''Kalam'' (school of theological discourse) in the 12th century.\n\nHis ''Book of Healing'' became available in Europe in partial Latin translation some fifty years after its composition, under the title ''Sufficientia'', and some authors have identified a \"Latin Avicennism\" as flourishing for some time, paralleling the more influential Latin Averroism, but suppressed by the Parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215.\nAvicenna's psychology and theory of knowledge influenced William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris and Albertus Magnus, while his metaphysics influenced the thought of Thomas Aquinas.\n\n===Metaphysical doctrine===\n\nEarly Islamic philosophy and Islamic metaphysics, imbued as it is with Islamic theology, distinguishes more clearly than Aristotelianism between essence and existence. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Ibn Sīnā, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a definitive Islamic philosophy separate from Occasionalism can be seen in what is left of his work.\n\nFollowing al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (''Mahiat'') and existence (''Wujud''). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.\n\nAvicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency, and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (''mumkin bi-dhatihi'') has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary existent due to what is other than itself' (''wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi''). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (''wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi'') is true in itself, while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists.\n\nThe Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence (''mahiyya'') other than existence (''wujud''). Furthermore, It is 'One' (''wahid ahad'') since there cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other than themselves'; and this is contradictory. However, if no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then there is no sense in which these 'Existents' are not one and the same. Avicenna adds that the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (''jins''), nor a definition (''hadd''), nor a counterpart (''nadd''), nor an opposite (''did''), and is detached (''bari'') from matter (''madda''), quality (''kayf''), quantity (''kam''), place (''ayn''), situation (''wad''), and time (''waqt'').\n\nAvicenna's theology on metaphysical issues (''ilāhiyyāt'') has been criticized by some Islamic scholars, among them al-Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyya, and Ibn al-Qayyim. While discussing the views of the theists among the Greek philosophers, namely Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle in ''Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal'' (\"Deliverance from Error\"), al-Ghazali noted that the Greek philosophers \"must be taxed with unbelief, as must their partisans among the Muslim philosophers, such as Ibn Sina and al-Farabi and their likes.\" He added that \"None, however, of the Muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting Aristotle's lore\nas did the two men just mentioned. ... The sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of Aristotle, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, can be reduced to three parts: a part which must be branded as unbelief; a part which must be stigmatized as innovation; and a part which need not be repudiated at all.\n\n===Argument for God's existence===\n\nAvicenna made an argument for the existence of God which would be known as the \"Proof of the Truthful\" (Arabic: ''al-burhan al-siddiqin''). Avicenna argued that there must be a \"necessary existent\" (Arabic: ''wajib al-wujud''), an entity that cannot ''not'' exist, and through a series of argument, he identified it with God of Islam. Present-day historian of philosophy Peter Adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.\n\n===Al-Biruni correspondence===\nCorrespondence between Ibn Sina (with his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi) and Al-Biruni has survived in which they debated Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school. Abu Rayhan began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's ''On the Heavens''.\n\n===Theology===\nAvicenna was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. His aim was to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic. Avicenna's views on Islamic theology (and philosophy) were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century. Avicenna wrote a number of short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets (whom he viewed as \"inspired philosophers\"), and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his own philosophical system. In general these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.\n\nThere are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works however that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory, if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.\n\nLater interpretations of Avicenna's philosophy split into three different schools; those (such as al-Tusi) who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances; those (such as al-Razi) who considered Avicenna's theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns; and those (such as al-Ghazali) who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means. It was the theological interpretation championed by those such as al-Razi which eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs.\n\nAvicenna memorized the Quran by the age of ten, and as an adult, he wrote five treatises commenting on suras from the Quran. One of these texts included the ''Proof of Prophecies'', in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.\n\n===Thought experiments===\n\nWhile he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous \"Floating Man\" – literally falling man – thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul. Avicenna believed his \"Floating Man\" thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance, and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness, even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input. The thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argued that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. Because it is conceivable that a person, suspended in air while cut off from sense experience, would still be capable of determining his own existence, the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection, independent of the body, and an immaterial substance. The conceivability of this \"Floating Man\" indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually, which entails the soul's separateness from the body. Avicenna referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Following is an English translation of the argument:\n\n\n\nHowever, Avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation. Sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal Agent Intellect. The first knowledge of the flying person would be \"I am,\" affirming his or her essence. That essence could not be the body, obviously, as the flying person has no sensation. Thus, the knowledge that \"I am\" is the core of a human being: the soul exists and is self-aware. Avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. The body is unnecessary; in relation to it, the soul is its perfection. In itself, the soul is an immaterial substance.\n", "\n12th-century manuscript of the ''Canon'', kept at the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences.\nAvicenna authored a five-volume medical encyclopedia: ''The Canon of Medicine'' (''Al-Qanun fi't-Tibb''). It was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th century. The ''Canon'' still plays an important role in Unani medicine.\n", "Avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes. He used the example of polydactyly to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events. This view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the Enlightenment by seven centuries.\n", "\n\n\n===Earth sciences===\nIbn Sīnā wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in ''The Book of Healing''. While discussing the formation of mountains, he explained:\n\n\n\n===Philosophy of science===\nIn the ''Al-Burhan'' (''On Demonstration'') section of ''The Book of Healing'', Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discusses Aristotle's ''Posterior Analytics'' and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of \"How does one acquire the first principles of a science?\" He asked how a scientist would arrive at \"the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?\" He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a \"relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty.\" Avicenna then adds two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (''istiqra''), and the method of examination and experimentation (''tajriba''). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that \"it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide.\" In its place, he develops a \"method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry.\"\n\n===Logic===\nAn early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna. Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between ''temporalis'' and the implication. Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times. Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus and William of Ockham. Avicenna endorsed the law of noncontradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, \"Anyone who denies the law of noncontradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned.\"\n\n===Physics===\nIn mechanics, Ibn Sīnā, in ''The Book of Healing'', developed a theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (''mayl'') transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease. He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance.\n\nThe theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by Buridan in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.\n\nIn optics, Ibn Sina was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that \"if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite.\" He also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. Carl Benjamin Boyer described Avicenna's (\"Ibn Sīnā\") theory on the rainbow as follows:\n\n\n\nIn 1253, a Latin text entitled ''Speculum Tripartitum'' stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on heat:\n\n\n\n===Psychology===\nAvicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the ''Kitab al-nafs'' parts of his ''Kitab al-shifa'' (''The Book of Healing'') and ''Kitab al-najat'' (''The Book of Deliverance''). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises \"on the soul\"). Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the \"flying man\" argument in the Psychology of ''The Cure'' I.1.7 as defense of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's ''cogito'' argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an \"''epoche''\").\n\nAvicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.\n\nThe soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process requires a concrete particular (material) to be abstracted into the universal intelligible (immaterial). The material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a \"divine light\" containing the intelligible forms. The Active Intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes color available to our eyes.\n", "\n===Astronomy and astrology===\nAvicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled ''Resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām al-nojūm'', in which he cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future. He believed that each planet had some influence on the earth, but argued against astrologers being able to determine the exact effects.\n\nAvicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than Alhazen or Al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology. He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous. He claimed to have observed Venus as a spot on the Sun. This is possible, as there was a transit on May 24, 1032, but Avicenna did not give the date of his observation, and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in Ptolemaic cosmology, i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth in the prevailing geocentric model.\n\nHe also wrote the ''Summary of the Almagest'', (based on Ptolemy's ''Almagest''), with an appended treatise \"to bring that which is stated in the Almagest and what is understood from Natural Science into conformity\". For example, Avicenna considers the motion of the solar apogee, which Ptolemy had taken to be fixed.\n\n===Chemistry===\nIbn Sīnā invented steam distillation and used it to produce essential oils such as rose essence, forming the foundation of what later became aromatherapy.\n\nUnlike, for example, al-Razi, Ibn Sīnā explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists:\n\n\n\nFour works on alchemy attributed to Avicenna were translated into Latin as:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (''The Book of Minerals'') is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the ''Kitab al-Shifa'' (''Book of the Remedy'').\nIbn Sina classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir. The ''epistola de Re recta'' is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.\n\n===Poetry===\nAlmost half of Ibn Sīnā's works are versified. His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to Omar Khayyám, and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā:\n\n\n", "\n===Middle Ages and Renaissance===\nInside view of the Avicenna Mausoleum, designed by Hooshang Seyhoun in 1945–1950.\n\nAs early as the 13th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his ''Divine Comedy'' such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato, and Saladin, Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West, as one of the great figures in intellectual history.\n\nGeorge Sarton, the author of ''The History of Science'', described Ibn Sīnā as \"one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history\"(cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997). Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan.) and called him \"the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times.\" He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine.\nAlong with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis, and al-Ibadi, Ibn Sīnā is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge. Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the ''Canon of Medicine'' (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the ''Canon'' was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, (\"prince of physicians\").\n\n===Modern reception===\nIn modern Iran, he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived. A monument was erected outside the Bukhara museum. The Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum in Hamadan was built in 1952. Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran),\nAvicenna Research Institute in Tehran (Iran), the ''ibn Sīnā'' Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences at Aligarh, India, Avicenna School in Karachi and Avicenna Medical College in Lahore, Pakistan Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of Balkh in Afghanistan, Ibni Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University Ankara, Turkey, the main classroom building (the Avicenna Building) of the Sharif University of Technology, and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour. His portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the University of Paris. There is also a crater on the Moon named Avicenna and a plant genus ''Avicennia''.\nA monument to Avicenna in Qakh (city), Azerbaijan\n\nIn 1980, the Soviet Union, which then ruled his birthplace Bukhara, celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Avicenna's birth by circulating various commemorative stamps with artistic illustrations, and by erecting a bust of Avicenna based on anthropological research by Soviet scholars.\nNear his birthplace in Qishlak Afshona, some north of Bukhara, a training college for medical staff has been named for him.\nOn the grounds is a museum dedicated to his life, times and work.\n\nImage of Avicenna on the Tajikistani somoni\nThe Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups in the field of ethics in science. The prize was established in 2003 and named after Avicenna.\nThe aim of the award is to promote ethical reflection on issues raised by advances in science and technology, and to raise global awareness of the importance of ethics in science.\n\nIn March 2008, it was announced that Avicenna's name would be used for new Directories of education institutions for health care professionals, worldwide. The Avicenna Directories will list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The project team stated \"Why Avicenna? Avicenna ... was ... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.\"\n\nThe statue of Avicenna in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of the Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran\nIn June 2009 Iran donated a \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" to United Nations Office in Vienna which is placed in the central Memorial Plaza of the Vienna International Center. The \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" at United Nations in Vienna, Austria is featuring the statues of four prominent Iranian figures. Highlighting the Iranian architectural features, the pavilion is adorned with Persian art forms and includes the statues of renowned Iranian scientists Avicenna, Al-Biruni, Zakariya Razi (Rhazes) and Omar Khayyam.\n\nThe 1982 Soviet film ''Youth of Genius'' () by recounts Avicenna's younger years. The film is set in Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.\n\nIn Louis L'Amour's 1985 historical novel ''The Walking Drum'', Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's ''The Canon of Medicine''.\n\nIn his book ''The Physician'' (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, ''The Physician'', in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.\n", "The treatises of Ibn Sīnā influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.\nHis most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'', and ''The Canon of Medicine''.\n\nIbn Sīnā wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His ''Logic'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine, though ''Metaphysics'' demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Ibn Sīnā's world;\nArabic philosophers have hinted at the idea that Ibn Sīnā was attempting to \"re-Aristotelianise\" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.\n\nThe ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495, and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836). Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, ''Al-Shifa''' (''Sanatio''), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the ''De Anima'' appeared at Pavia (1490) as the ''Liber Sextus Naturalium'', and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (''Liberatio''). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a (''hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya'', in Latin ''Philosophia Orientalis''), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.\n\n===List of works===\nThis is the list of some of Avicenna's well-known works:\n* ''Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is'' (''The Life of Ibn Sina''), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Ibn Sina's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, ''Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works'', Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)\n* ''Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat'' (''Remarks and Admonitions''), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.\n* ''Al-Qanun fi'l-tibb'' (''The Canon of Medicine''), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.) manuscript, Latin translation, Flores Avicenne, Michael de Capella, 1508, Modern text. Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.\n* ''Risalah fi sirr al-qadar'' (''Essay on the Secret of Destiny''), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.\n* ''Danishnama-i 'ala'i'' (''The Book of Scientific Knowledge''), ed. and trans. P. Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.\n* ''Kitab al-Shifa''' (''The Book of Healing''). (Ibn Sina's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020.) Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour.\n* ''Kitab al-Najat'' (''The Book of Salvation''), trans. F. Rahman, ''Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.)\n* ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' a Persian myth. A novel called ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'', based on Avicenna's story, was later written by Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) in the 12th century and translated into Latin and English as ''Philosophus Autodidactus'' in the 17th and 18th centuries respectively. In the 13th century, Ibn al-Nafis wrote his own novel ''Fadil ibn Natiq'', known as ''Theologus Autodidactus'' in the West, as a critical response to ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan''.\n", "\nAvicenna's most important Persian work is the ''Danishnama-i 'Alai'' (, \"the Book of Knowledge for Prince 'Ala ad-Daulah\"). Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977. The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.\n\n''Andar Danesh-e Rag'' (, \"On the Science of the Pulse\") contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.\n\nPersian poetry from Ibn Sina is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as ''Nozhat al-Majales''.\n", "\n* Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi\n* Al-Qumri\nAbdol Hamid Khosro Shahi\n Avicennia, a genus of mangrove named after Ibn Sīnā\n* Avicenna Research Institute, a biotechnology research institute named after Ibn Sīnā\n* Avicenna Prize\nAvicennism\n Ibn Sina Peak – named after the Scientist\n* Islamic scholars\n* Mumijo\n* Philosophy\n Eastern philosophy\n Iranian philosophy\nIslamic philosophy\n Contemporary Islamic philosophy\n* Science in medieval Islam\n List of Muslim scientists\n Sufi philosophy\n* Science and technology in Iran\n Ancient Iranian Medicine\n List of Iranian scientists and scholars\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n===Encyclopedic articles===\n \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n* ( PDF version)\n* Avicenna entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''\n\n===Primary literature===\n* For an old list of other extant works, C. Brockelmann's ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'' (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452–458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)\n* For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section \"Philosophy\".\n* \n\n Avicenne: ''Réfutation de l'astrologie''. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) .\n* William E. Gohlam (ed.), ''The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation'', Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.\n* For Ibn Sina's life, see Ibn Khallikan's ''Biographical Dictionary'', translated by de Slane (1842); F. Wüstenfeld's ''Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher'' (Göttingen, 1840).\n* Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics. A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of Shahrastani's Kitab al-Musara'a.\n\n===Secondary literature===\n* \n** This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western. ... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A. M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, ''The Philosophical Review'', Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp. 255–259)\n* \n** This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) (A.D. 980–1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author. ... (Ian Richard Netton, ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp. 263–264)\n* \n* Y. T. Langermann (ed.), ''Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy'', Brepols Publishers, 2010, \n* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, ''Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd''. ''Editio princeps'' d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) .\n* \n** This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies. ... (Amos Bertolacci, ''Isis'', Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p. 649)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958–59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.\n\n===Medicine===\n* Browne, Edward G.. ''Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919–1920'', reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2001. \n* Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. ''Medieval Islamic Medicine'', Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.\n* Prioreschi, Plinio. ''Byzantine and Islamic Medicine'', A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.\n\n===Philosophy===\n* Amos Bertolacci, ''The Reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought'', Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an ''Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order'').\n* Dimitri Gutas, ''Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works'', Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.\n* Jon Mc Ginnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) ''Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'', Leiden: Brill, 2004.\n* Michot, Jean R., ''La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne'', Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, .\n* Nader El-Bizri, ''The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger'', Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna and Essentialism,\" ''Review of Metaphysics'', Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753–778.\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna's ''De Anima'' between Aristotle and Husserl,\" in ''The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp. 67–89.\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology,\" in ''Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm'', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp. 243–261.\n* Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn Sīnā's Ontology and the Question of Being', ''Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook'' 2 (2011), 222–237\n* Nader El-Bizri, 'Philosophising at the Margins of 'Sh'i Studies': Reflections on Ibn Sīnā's Ontology', in ''The Study of Sh'i Islam. History, Theology and Law'', eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), pp. 585–597.\n* Reisman, David C. (ed.), ''Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'', Leiden: Brill, 2003.\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Name", "Circumstances", "Biography", "Philosophy", "''The Canon of Medicine''", " ''Liber Primus Naturalium'' ", "''The Book of Healing''", "Other contributions", "Legacy", "Arabic works", "Persian works", "See also", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Avicenna
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''The Ashes''' is a Test cricket series played between England and Australia. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the Test series. If the test series is drawn, the team that currently holds the Ashes, retains the trophy. The term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, ''The Sporting Times'', immediately after Australia's 1882 victory at The Oval, their first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and \"the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia\". The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 1882–83 series played in Australia, before which the English captain Ivo Bligh had vowed to \"regain those ashes\". The English media therefore dubbed the tour ''the quest to regain the Ashes''.\n\nAfter England had won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh by a group of Melbourne women including Florence Morphy, whom Bligh married within a year. The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail, and were humorously described as \"the ashes of Australian cricket\". It is not clear whether that \"tiny silver urn\" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to the MCC by Bligh's widow after his death in 1927.\n\nThe urn has never been the official trophy of the Ashes series, having been a personal gift to Bligh. However, replicas of the urn are often held aloft by victorious teams as a symbol of their victory in an Ashes series. Since the 1998–99 Ashes series, a Waterford Crystal representation of the Ashes urn (called the Ashes Trophy) has been presented to the winners of an Ashes series as the official trophy of that series. Irrespective of which side holds the tournament, the urn remains in the MCC Museum at Lord's; it has however been taken to Australia to be put on touring display on two occasions: as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988, and to accompany the Ashes series in 2006–07.\n\nAn Ashes series is traditionally of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia at least once every four years. , England holds the Ashes, having won three of the five Tests in the 2015 Ashes series. Australia and England have won 32 series each and five series have been drawn.\n", "\nFred Spofforth, \"The Demon Bowler\", was instrumental in Australia's 1882 victory over England with 14 wickets for 90.\nThe first Test match between England and Australia was played in Melbourne, Australia, in 1877, though the Ashes legend started later, after the ninth Test, played in 1882. On their tour of England that year the Australians played just one Test, at the Oval in London. It was a low-scoring affair on a difficult wicket. Australia made a mere 63 runs in its first innings, and England, led by A. N. Hornby, took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In their second innings, the Australians, boosted by a spectacular 55 runs off 60 deliveries from Hugh Massie, managed 122, which left England only 85 runs to win. The Australians were greatly demoralised by the manner of their second-innings collapse, but fast bowler Fred Spofforth, spurred on by the gamesmanship of his opponents, in particular W. G. Grace, refused to give in. \"This thing can be done,\" he declared. Spofforth went on to devastate the English batting, taking his final four wickets for only two runs to leave England just eight runs short of victory.\n\nWhen Ted Peate, England's last batsman, came to the crease, his side needed just ten runs to win, but Peate managed only two before he was bowled by Harry Boyle. An astonished Oval crowd fell silent, struggling to believe that England could possibly have lost to a colony on home soil. When it finally sank in, the crowd swarmed onto the field, cheering loudly and chairing Boyle and Spofforth to the pavilion.\n\nWhen Peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by his captain for not allowing his partner, Charles Studd (one of the best batsman in England, having already hit two centuries that season against the colonists), to get the runs. Peate humorously replied, \"I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best.\"\n\nThe momentous defeat was widely recorded in the British press, which praised the Australians for their plentiful \"pluck\" and berated the Englishmen for their lack thereof. A celebrated poem appeared in ''Punch'' on Saturday, 9 September. The first verse, quoted most frequently, reads:\n\n\n\nWell done, Cornstalks! Whipt us\nFair and square,\nWas it luck that tript us?\nWas it scare?\nKangaroo Land's 'Demon', or our own\nWant of 'devil', coolness, nerve, backbone?\n\n\nOn 31 August, in the Charles Alcock-edited magazine ''Cricket: A Weekly Record of The Game'', there appeared a mock obituary:\n\n:''SACRED TO THE MEMORY''\n:''OF''\n:''ENGLAND'S SUPREMACY IN THE''\n:''CRICKET-FIELD''\n:''WHICH EXPIRED''\n:''ON THE 29TH DAY OF AUGUST, AT THE OVAL''\n:''\"ITS END WAS PEATE\"''\n\nThe death notice that appeared in ''The Sporting Times''\nOn 2 September a more celebrated mock obituary, written by Reginald Shirley Brooks, appeared in ''The Sporting Times''. It read:\n\n:''In Affectionate Remembrance''\n:''of''\n:''ENGLISH CRICKET,''\n:''which died at the Oval''\n:''on''\n:''29 August 1882,''\n:''Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing''\n:''friends and acquaintances''\n\n:''R.I.P.''\n\n:''N.B.—The body will be cremated and the''\n:''ashes taken to Australia.''\n\nIvo Bligh promised that on 1882–83 tour of Australia, he would, as England's captain, \"recover those Ashes\". He spoke of them several times over the course of the tour, and the Australian media quickly caught on. The three-match series resulted in a two-one win to England, notwithstanding a fourth match, won by the Australians, whose status remains a matter of ardent dispute.\n\nIn the 20 years following Bligh's campaign the term \"the Ashes\" largely disappeared from public use. There is no indication that this was the accepted name for the series, at least not in England. The term became popular again in Australia first, when George Giffen, in his memoirs (''With Bat and Ball'', 1899), used the term as if it were well known.\n\nThe true and global revitalisation of interest in the concept dates from 1903, when Pelham Warner took a team to Australia with the promise that he would regain \"the ashes\". As had been the case on Bligh's tour 20 years before, the Australian media latched fervently onto the term and, this time, it stuck. Having fulfilled his promise, Warner published a book entitled ''How We Recovered the Ashes''. Although the origins of the term are not referred to in the text, the title served (along with the general hype created in Australia) to revive public interest in the legend. The first mention of \"the Ashes\" in Wisden Cricketers' Almanack occurs in 1905, while ''Wisden'''s first account of the legend is in the 1922 edition.\n", "\nThe earliest published photo of the Ashes urn, from ''The Illustrated London News'', 1921\nRupertswood outside Melbourne, where the urn was presented to Bligh\nAs it took many years for the name \"the Ashes\" to be given to ongoing series between England and Australia, there was no concept of there being a representation of the ashes being presented to the winners. As late as 1925 the following verse appeared in ''The Cricketers Annual'':\n\n\n\nSo here's to Chapman, Hendren and Hobbs,\nGilligan, Woolley and Hearne\nMay they bring back to the Motherland,\nThe ashes which have no urn!\n\n\nNevertheless, several attempts had been made to embody the Ashes in a physical memorial. Examples include one presented to Warner in 1904, another to Australian captain M. A. Noble in 1909, and another to Australian captain W. M. Woodfull in 1934.\n\nThe oldest, and the one to enjoy enduring fame, was the one presented to Bligh, later Lord Darnley, during the 1882–83 tour. The precise nature of the origin of this urn is matter of dispute. Based on a statement by Darnley in 1894, it was believed that a group of Victorian ladies, including Darnley's later wife Florence Morphy, made the presentation after the victory in the Third Test in 1883. More recent researchers, in particular Ronald Willis and Joy Munns have studied the tour in detail and concluded that the presentation was made after a private cricket match played over Christmas 1882 when the English team were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property \"Rupertswood\", in Sunbury, Victoria. This was before the matches had started. The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.\n\nIn August 1926 Ivo Bligh (now Lord Darnley) displayed the Ashes urn at the ''Morning Post'' Decorative Art Exhibition held in the Central Hall, Westminster. He made the following statement about how he was given the urn:\n\n\n\nA more detailed account of how the Ashes were given to Ivo Bligh was outlined by his wife, the Countess of Darnley, in 1930 during a speech at a cricket luncheon. Her speech was reported by the London Times as follows:\n\n\n\nThere is another statement which is not totally clear made by Lord Darnley in 1921 about the timing of the presentation of the urn. He was interviewed in his home at Cobham Hall by Montague Grover and the report of this interview was as follows:\n\n\n\nHe made a similar statement in 1926. The report of this statement in the Brisbane Courier was as follows:\n\n\n\nThe contents of the urn are also problematic; they were variously reported to be the remains of a stump, bail or the outer casing of a ball, but in 1998 Darnley's 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law's veil, casting a further layer of doubt on the matter. However, during the tour of Australia in 2006/7, the MCC official accompanying the urn said the veil legend had been discounted, and it was now \"95% certain\" that the urn contains the ashes of a cricket bail. Speaking on Channel Nine TV on 25 November 2006, he said x-rays of the urn had shown the pedestal and handles were cracked, and repair work had to be carried out. The urn is made of terracotta and is about tall and may originally have been a perfume jar.\n\nThe full version of the song from the ''Melbourne Punch'', the fourth verse of which is pasted onto the urn\nA label containing a six-line verse is pasted on the urn. This is the fourth verse of a song-lyric published in the ''Melbourne Punch'' on 1 February 1883:\n\n\n\nWhen Ivo goes back with the urn, the urn;\nStudds, Steel, Read and Tylecote return, return;\nThe welkin will ring loud,\nThe great crowd will feel proud,\nSeeing Barlow and Bates with the urn, the urn;\nAnd the rest coming home with the urn.\n\n\nIn February 1883, just before the disputed Fourth Test, a velvet bag made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of Dublin, was given to Bligh to contain the urn.\n\nDuring Darnley's lifetime there was little public knowledge of the urn, and no record of a published photograph exists before 1921. ''The Illustrated London News'' published this photo in January 1921 (shown above).\n\nWhen Darnley died in 1927 his widow presented the urn to the Marylebone Cricket Club and that was the key event in establishing the urn as the physical embodiment of the legendary ashes. MCC first displayed the urn in the Long Room at Lord's and since 1953 in the MCC Cricket Museum at the ground. MCC's wish for it to be seen by as wide a range of cricket enthusiasts as possible has led to its being mistaken for an official trophy.\n\nIt is in fact a private memento, and for this reason it is never awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum where it can be seen together with the specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match.\n\nBecause the urn itself is so delicate, it has been allowed to travel to Australia only twice. The first occasion was in 1988 for a museum tour as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations; the second was for the 2006/7 Ashes series. The urn arrived on 17 October 2006, going on display at the Museum of Sydney. It then toured to other states, with the final appearance at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery on 21 January 2007.\n\nIn the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes and the popular acceptance of the Darnley urn as \"the Ashes\", the idea was mooted that the victorious team should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. As its condition is fragile and it is a prized exhibit at the MCC Cricket Museum, the MCC would not agree. Furthermore, in 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the Earldom of Darnley, argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia because it belonged to his family and was given to the MCC only for safe keeping.\n\nAs a compromise, the MCC commissioned a trophy in the form of a larger replica of the urn in Waterford Crystal, to award to the winning team of each series from 1998–99. This is known as the Ashes Trophy. This did little to diminish the status of the Darnley urn as the most important icon in cricket, the symbol of this old and keenly fought contest.\n", "\n:''See also: List of Ashes series for a full listing of all the Ashes series.''\n\n===Quest to \"recover those ashes\"===\n\nThe Honourable Ivo Bligh\nLater in 1882, following the famous Australian victory at The Oval, Bligh led an England team to Australia, as he said, to \"recover those ashes\". Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the First Test by nine wickets, but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the Third Test, England were generally considered to have \"won back the Ashes\" 2–1. A fourth match was played, against a \"United Australian XI\", which was arguably stronger than the Australian sides that had competed in the previous three matches; this game, however, is not generally considered part of the 1882–83 series. It \"is\" counted as a Test, but as a standalone. This match ended in a victory for Australia.\n\n===1884 to 1896===\nAfter Bligh's victory, there was an extended period of English dominance. The tours generally had fewer Tests in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, the first five-Test series taking place only in 1894–95. England lost only four Ashes Tests in the 1880s out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested.\n\nThere was more chopping and changing in the teams, given that there was no official board of selectors for each country (in 1887–88, two separate English teams were on tour in Australia) and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking their first series win since 1882 with a 2–1 victory in 1891–92. But England dominated, winning the next three series to 1896 despite continuing player disputes.\n\nThe 1894–95 series began in sensational fashion when England won the First Test at Sydney by just 10 runs having followed on. Australia had scored a massive 586 (Syd Gregory 201, George Giffen 161) and then dismissed England for 325. But England responded with 437 and then dramatically dismissed Australia for 166 with Bobby Peel taking 6 for 67. At the close of the second last day's play, Australia were 113–2, needing only 64 more runs. But heavy rain fell overnight and next morning the two slow left-arm bowlers, Peel and Johnny Briggs, were all but unplayable. England went on to win the series 3–2 after it had been all square before the Final Test, which England won by 6 wickets. The English heroes were Peel, with 27 wickets in the series at an average of 26.70, and Tom Richardson, with 32 at 26.53.\n\nIn 1896 England under the captaincy of W. G. Grace won the series 2–1, and this marked the end of England's longest period of Ashes dominance.\n\n===1897 to 1902===\nAustralia resoundingly won the 1897–98 series by 4–1 under the captaincy of Harry Trott. His successor Joe Darling won the next three series in 1899, 1901–02 and the classic 1902 series, which became one of the most famous in the history of Test cricket.\n\nFive matches were played in 1902 but the first two were drawn after being hit by bad weather. In the First Test (the first played at Edgbaston), after scoring 376 England bowled out Australia for 36 (Wilfred Rhodes 7/17) and reduced them to 46–2 when they followed on. Australia won the Third and Fourth Tests at Bramall Lane and Old Trafford respectively. At Old Trafford, Australia won by just 3 runs after Victor Trumper had scored 104 on a \"bad wicket\", reaching his hundred before lunch on the first day. England won the last Test at The Oval by one wicket. Chasing 263 to win, they slumped to 48–5 before Jessop's 104 gave them a chance. He reached his hundred in just 75 minutes. The last-wicket pair of George Hirst and Rhodes were required to score 15 runs for victory. When Rhodes joined him, Hirst reportedly said: \"We'll get them in singles, Wilfred.\" In fact, they scored thirteen singles and a two.\n\nThe period of Darling's captaincy saw the emergence of outstanding Australian players such as Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, James Kelly, Monty Noble, Clem Hill, Hugh Trumble and Ernie Jones.\n\n===Reviving the legend===\nAfter what the MCC saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903–04. England won it against the odds, and Plum Warner, the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book ''How We Recovered The Ashes''. The title of this book revived the Ashes legend and it was after this that England v Australia series were customarily referred to as \"The Ashes\".\n\n===1905 to 1912===\nEngland and Australia were evenly matched until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Five more series took place between 1905 and 1912. In 1905 England's captain Stanley Jackson not only won the series 2–0, but also won the toss in all five matches and headed both the batting and the bowling averages. Monty Noble led Australia to victory in both 1907–08 and 1909. Then England won in 1911–12 by four matches to one. Jack Hobbs establishing himself as England's first-choice opening batsman with three centuries, while Frank Foster (32 wickets at 21.62) and Sydney Barnes (34 wickets at 22.88) formed a formidable bowling partnership.\n\nEngland retained the Ashes when they won the 1912 Triangular Tournament, which also featured South Africa. The Australian touring party had been severely weakened by a dispute between the board and players that caused Clem Hill, Victor Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, Tibby Cotter, Sammy Carter and Vernon Ransford to be omitted.\n\n===1920 to 1933===\nAfter the war, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. For the first time, the tactic of using two express bowlers in tandem paid off as Jack Gregory and Ted McDonald crippled the English batting on a regular basis. Australia recorded overwhelming victories both in England and on home soil. They won the first eight matches in succession including a 5–0 whitewash in 1920–1921 at the hands of Warwick Armstrong's team.\n\nThe ruthless and belligerent Armstrong led his team back to England in 1921 where his men lost only two games late in the tour to narrowly miss out of being the first team to complete a tour of England without defeat.\n\nHerbert Sutcliffe sweeps Arthur Mailey during the first Ashes Test in Sydney, 1924.\nEngland won only one Test out of 15 from the end of the war until 1925.\n\nIn a rain-hit series in 1926, England managed to eke out a 1–0 victory with a win in the final Test at The Oval. Because the series was at stake, the match was to be \"timeless\", i.e., played to a finish. Australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22. Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe took the score to 49–0 at the end of the second day, a lead of 27. Heavy rain fell overnight, and next day the pitch soon developed into a traditional sticky wicket. England seemed doomed to be bowled out cheaply and to lose the match. In spite of the very difficult batting conditions, however, Hobbs and Sutcliffe took their partnership to 172 before Hobbs was out for exactly 100. Sutcliffe went on to make 161 and England won the game comfortably. Australian captain Herbie Collins was stripped of all captaincy positions down to club level, and some accused him of throwing the match.\n\nAustralia's ageing post-war team broke up after 1926, with Collins, Charlie Macartney and Warren Bardsley all departing, and Gregory breaking down at the start of the 1928–29 series.\n\nDespite the debut of Donald Bradman, the inexperienced Australians, led by Jack Ryder, were heavily defeated, losing 4–1. England had a very strong batting side, with Wally Hammond contributing 905 runs at an average of 113.12, and Hobbs, Sutcliffe and Patsy Hendren all scoring heavily; the bowling was more than adequate, without being outstanding.\n\nIn 1930, Bill Woodfull led an extremely inexperienced team to England.\n\nBradman fulfilled his promise in the 1930 series when he scored 974 runs at 139.14, which remains a world record Test series aggregate. A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying \"I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side, and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches. My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia.\" In the Headingley Test, he made 334, reaching 309* at the end of the first day, including a century before lunch. Bradman himself thought that his 254 in the preceding match, at Lord's, was a better innings. England managed to stay in contention until the deciding final Test at The Oval, but yet another double hundred by Bradman, and 7/92 by Percy Hornibrook in England's second innings, enabled Australia to win by an innings and take the series 2–1. Clarrie Grimmett's 29 wickets at 31.89 for Australia in this high-scoring series were also important.\n\nAustralia had one of the strongest batting line-ups ever in the early 1930s, with Bradman, Archie Jackson, Stan McCabe, Bill Woodfull and Bill Ponsford. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's 1932–33 captain Douglas Jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory, better known as Bodyline.\n\nBill Woodfull evades a ball from Harold Larwood with Bodyline field settings.\n\nJardine instructed his fast bowlers, most notably Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, thus providing easy catches to a stacked leg-side field. Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it \"leg theory\" but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it \"Bodyline\" (from \"on the line of the body\"). Although England decisively won the Ashes 4–1, Bodyline caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the MCC eventually changed the Laws of cricket to curtail the number of leg side fielders.\n\nJardine's comment was: \"I've not travelled 6,000 miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes\".\n\nSome of the Australians wanted to use Bodyline in retaliation, but Woodfull flatly refused. He famously told England manager Pelham Warner, \"There are two teams out there. One is playing cricket; the other is making no attempt to do so\" after the latter had come into the Australian rooms to express sympathy for a Larwood bouncer had struck the Australian skipper in the heart and felled him.\n\n===1934 to 1953===\nOn the batting-friendly wickets that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the Second World War still gave results. It should be borne in mind that Tests in Australia prior to the war were all played to a finish. Many batting records were set in this period.\n\nThe 1934 Ashes series began with the notable absence of Larwood, Voce and Jardine. The MCC had made it clear, in light of the revelations of the bodyline series, that these players would not face Australia. It should be noted that the MCC, although it had earlier condoned and encouraged bodyline tactics in the 1932–33 series, laid the blame on Larwood when relations turned sour. Larwood was forced by the MCC to either apologise or be removed from the Test side. He went for the latter.\n\nAustralia recovered the Ashes in 1934 and held them until 1953, though no Test cricket was played during the Second World War.\n\nAs in 1930, the 1934 series was decided in the final Test at The Oval. Australia, batting first, posted a massive 701 in the first innings. Bradman (244) and Ponsford (266) were in record-breaking form with a partnership of 451 for the second wicket. England eventually faced a massive 707-run target for victory and failed, Australia winning the series 2–1. This made Woodfull the only captain to regain the Ashes and he retired upon his return to Australia.\n\nIn 1936–37 Bradman succeeded Woodfull as Australian captain. He started badly, losing the first two Tests heavily after Australia were caught on sticky wickets. However, the Australians fought back and Bradman won his first series in charge 3–2.\n\nThe 1938 series was a high-scoring affair with two high-scoring draws, resulting in a 1–1 result, Australia retaining the Ashes. After the first two matches ended in stalemate and the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to rain. Australia then scraped home by five wickets inside three days in a low-scoring match at Headingley to retain the urn. In the timeless Fifth Test at The Oval, the highlight was Len Hutton's then world-record score of 364 as England made 903-7 declared. Bradman and Jack Fingleton injured themselves during Hutton's marathon effort, and with only nine men, Australia fell to defeat by an innings and 579 runs, the heaviest in Test history.\n\nThe Ashes resumed after the war when England toured in 1946–47 and, as in 1920–21, found that Australia had made the better post-war recovery. Still captained by Bradman and now featuring the potent new-ball partnership of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller, Australia were convincing 3–0 winners.\n\nAged 38 and having been unwell during the war, Bradman had been reluctant to play. He batted unconvincingly and reached 28 when he hit a ball to Jack Ikin; England believed it was a catch, but Bradman stood his ground, believing it to be a bump ball. The umpire ruled in the Australian captain's favour and he appeared to regain his fluency of yesteryear, scoring 187. Australia promptly seized the initiative, won the First Test convincingly and inaugurated a dominant post-war era. The controversy over the Ikin catch was one of the biggest disputes of the era.\n\nIn 1948 Australia set new standards, completely outplaying their hosts to win 4–0 with one draw. This Australian team, led by Bradman, who turned 40 during his final tour of England, has gone down in history as ''The Invincibles''. Playing 34 matches on tour—three of which were not first-class—and including the five Tests, they remained unbeaten, winning 27 and drawing 7.\n\nBradman's men were greeted by packed crowds across the country, and records for Test attendances in England were set in the Second and Fourth Tests at Lord's and Headingley respectively. Before a record attendance of spectators at Headingley, Australia set a world record by chasing down 404 on the last day for a seven-wicket victory.\n\nThe 1948 series ended with one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman played his final innings for Australia in the Fifth Test at The Oval, needing to score only four runs to end with a career batting average of exactly 100. However, Bradman made a second-ball duck, bowled by an Eric Hollies googly that sent him into retirement with a career average of 99.94.\n\nBradman was succeeded as Australian captain by Lindsay Hassett, who led the team to a 4–1 series victory in 1950–51. The series was not as one-sided as the number of wins suggest, with several tight matches.\n\nThe tide finally turned in 1953 when England won the final Test at The Oval to take the series 1–0, having narrowly avoided defeat in the preceding Test at Headingley. This was the beginning of one of the greatest periods in English cricket history with players such as captain Len Hutton, batsmen Denis Compton, Peter May, Tom Graveney, Colin Cowdrey, bowlers Fred Trueman, Brian Statham, Alec Bedser, Jim Laker, Tony Lock, wicket-keeper Godfrey Evans and all-rounder Trevor Bailey.\n\n===1954 to 1971===\nPeter May driving Bill Johnston on his way to a century at Sydney.\nIn 1954–55, Australia's batsmen had no answer to the pace of Frank Tyson and Statham. After winning the First Test by an innings after being controversially sent in by Hutton, Australia lost its way and England took a hat-trick of victories to win the series 3–1.\n\nA dramatic series in 1956 saw a record that will probably never be beaten: off-spinner Jim Laker's monumental effort at Old Trafford when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take 19 out of 20 possible Australian wickets in the Fourth Test. It was Australia's second consecutive innings defeat in a wet summer, and the hosts were in strong positions in the two drawn Tests, in which half the playing time was washed out. Bradman rated the team that won the series 2–1 as England's best ever.\n\nEngland's dominance was not to last. Australia won 4–0 in 1958–59, having found a high-quality spinner of their own in new skipper Richie Benaud, who took 31 wickets in the five-Test series, and paceman Alan Davidson, who took 24 wickets at 19.00. The series was overshadowed by the furore over various Australian bowlers, most notably Ian Meckiff, whom the English management and media accused of illegally throwing Australia to victory.\n\nAustralia consolidated their status as the leading team in world cricket with a hard-fought 2–1 away series. After narrowly winning the Second Test at Lord's, dubbed \"The Battle of the Ridge\" because of a protrusion on the pitch that caused erratic bounce, Australia mounted a comeback on the final day of the Fourth Test at Old Trafford and sealed the series after a heavy collapse during the English runchase.\n\nThe tempo of the play changed over the next four series in the 1960s, held in 1962–63, 1964, 1965–66 and 1968. The powerful array of bowlers that both countries boasted in the preceding decade moved into retirement, and their replacements were of lesser quality, making it more difficult to force a result. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face than risk losing. Of the 20 Tests played during the four series, Australia won four and England three. As they held the Ashes, Australian captains Bob Simpson and Bill Lawry were happy to adopt safety-first tactics and their strategy of sedate batting saw many draws. During this period, spectator attendances dropped and media condemnation increased, but Simpson and Lawry flatly disregarded the public dissatisfaction.\n\nIt was in the 1960s that the bipolar dominance of England and Australia in world cricket was seriously challenged for the first time. West Indies defeated England twice in the mid-1960s and South Africa, in two series before they were banned for apartheid, completely outplayed Australia 3–1 and 4–0. Australia had lost 2–1 during a tour of the West Indies in 1964–65, the first time they had lost a series to any team other than England.\n\nIn 1970–71, Ray Illingworth led England to a 2–0 win in Australia, mainly due to John Snow's fast bowling, and the prolific batting of Geoffrey Boycott and John Edrich. It was not until the last session of what was the 7th Test (one match having been abandoned without a ball bowled) that England's success was secured. Lawry was sacked after the Sixth Test after the selectors finally lost patience with Australia's lack of success and dour strategy. Lawry was not informed of the decision privately and heard his fate over the radio.\n\n===1972 to 1987===\nThe 1972 series finished 2–2, with England under Illingworth retaining the Ashes.\n\nIn the 1974–75 series, with the England team breaking up and their best batsman Geoff Boycott refusing to play, Australian pace bowlers Jeff Thomson and Dennis Lillee wreaked havoc. A 4–1 result was a fair reflection as England were left shell shocked. England then lost the 1975 series 0–1, but at least restored some pride under new captain Tony Greig.\n\nAustralia won the 1977 Centenary Test which was not an Ashes contest, but then a storm broke as Kerry Packer announced his intention to form World Series Cricket. WSC affected all Test-playing nations but it weakened Australia especially as the bulk of its players had signed up with Packer; the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) would not select WSC-contracted players and an almost completely new Test team had to be formed. WSC came after an era during which the duopoly of Australian and English dominance dissipated; the Ashes had long been seen as a cricket world championship but the rise of the West Indies in the late 1970s challenged that view. The West Indies would go on to record resounding Test series wins over Australia and England and dominated world cricket until the 1990s.\n\nWith Greig having joined WSC, England appointed Mike Brearley as their captain and he enjoyed great success against Australia. Largely assisted by the return of Boycott, Brearley's men won the 1977 series 3–0 and then completed an overwhelming 5–1 series win against an Australian side missing its WSC players in 1978–79. Allan Border made his Test debut for Australia in 1978–79.\n\nBrearley retired from Test cricket in 1979 and was succeeded by Ian Botham, who started the 1981 series as England captain, by which time the WSC split had ended. After Australia took a 1–0 lead in the first two Tests, Botham was forced to resign or was sacked (depending on the source). Brearley surprisingly agreed to be reappointed before the Third Test at Headingley. This was a remarkable match in which Australia looked certain to take a 2–0 series lead after they had forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. England, despite being 135 for 7, produced a second innings total of 356, Botham scoring 149. Chasing just 130, Australia were sensationally dismissed for 111, Bob Willis taking 8–43. It was the first time since 1894–95 that a team following on had won a Test match. Under Brearley's leadership, England went on to win the next two matches before a drawn final match at The Oval.\n\nIn 1982–83 Australia had Greg Chappell back from WSC as captain, while the England team was weakened by the enforced omission of their South African tour rebels, particularly Graham Gooch and John Emburey. Australia went 2–0 up after three Tests, but England won the Fourth Test by 3 runs (after a 70-run last wicket stand) to set up the final decider, which was drawn.\n\nIn 1985 David Gower's England team was strengthened by the return of Gooch and Emburey as well as the emergence at international level of Tim Robinson and Mike Gatting. Australia, now captained by Allan Border, had themselves been weakened by a rebel South African tour, the loss of Terry Alderman being a particular factor. England won 3–1.\n\nDespite suffering heavy defeats against the West Indies during the 1980s, England continued to do well in the Ashes. Mike Gatting was the captain in 1986–87 but his team started badly and attracted some criticism. Then Chris Broad scored three hundreds in successive Tests and bowling successes from Graham Dilley and Gladstone Small meant England won the series 2–1.\n\n===1989 to 2003===\nMelbourne Cricket Ground Boxing Day Test 1998\nThe Australian team of 1989 was comparable to the great Australian teams of the past, and resoundingly defeated England 4–0. Well led by Allan Border, the team included the young cricketers Mark Taylor, Merv Hughes, David Boon, Ian Healy and Steve Waugh, who were all to prove long-serving and successful Ashes competitors. England, now led once again by David Gower, suffered from injuries and poor form. During the Fourth Test news broke that prominent England players had agreed to take part in a \"rebel tour\" of South Africa the following winter; three of them (Tim Robinson, Neil Foster and John Emburey) were playing in the match, and were subsequently dropped from the England side.\n\nAustralia reached a cricketing peak in the 1990s and early 2000s, coupled with a general decline in England's fortunes. After re-establishing its credibility in 1989, Australia underlined its superiority with victories in the 1990–91, 1993, 1994–95, 1997, 1998–99, 2001 and 2002–03 series, all by convincing margins.\n\nGreat Australian players in the early years included batsmen Border, Boon, Taylor and Steve Waugh. The captaincy passed from Border to Taylor in the mid-1990s and then to Steve Waugh before the 2001 series. In the latter part of the 1990s Waugh himself, along with his twin brother Mark, scored heavily for Australia and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Jason Gillespie made a serious impact, especially the former. The wicketkeeper-batsman position was held by Ian Healy for most of the 1990s and by Adam Gilchrist from 2001 to 2006–07. In the 2000s, batsmen Justin Langer, Damien Martyn and Matthew Hayden became noted players for Australia. But the most dominant Australian player was leg-spinner Shane Warne, whose first delivery in Ashes cricket in 1993, to dismiss Mike Gatting, became known as the Ball of the Century.\n\nAustralia's record between 1989 and 2005 had a significant impact on the statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, the win-loss ratio was almost even, with 87 test wins for Australia to England's 86, 74 tests having been drawn. By the 2005 series Australia's test wins had increased to 115 whereas England's had increased to only 93 (with 82 draws). In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times; Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws. Only a single England victory had come in a match in which the Ashes were still at stake, namely the First Test of the 1997 series. All others were consolation victories when the Ashes had been secured by Australia.\n\n===2005 to present===\nFlintoff reaches 100 at Trent Bridge.\nEngland were undefeated in Test matches through the 2004 calendar year. This elevated them to second in the ICC Test Championship. Hopes that the 2005 Ashes series would be closely fought proved well-founded, the series remaining undecided as the closing session of the final Test began. Experienced journalists including Richie Benaud rated the series as the most exciting in living memory. It has been compared with the great series of the distant past, such as 1894–95 and 1902.\n\nThe First Test at Lord's was convincingly won by Australia, but in the remaining four matches the teams were evenly matched and England fought back to win the Second Test by 2 runs, the smallest winning margin in Ashes history, and the second-smallest in all Tests. The rain-affected Third Test ended with the last two Australian batsmen holding out for a draw; and England won the Fourth Test by three wickets after forcing Australia to follow-on for the first time in 191 Tests being a period of 17 years. A draw in the final Test gave England victory in an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years and their first Ashes victory at home since 1985.\n\nAustralia regained the Ashes on their home turf in the 2006–07 series with a convincing 5–0 victory, only the second time an Ashes series has been won by that margin. Glenn McGrath, Shane Warne and Justin Langer retired from Test cricket after that series, while Damien Martyn retired during the series.\n\nChris Tremlett bowls Michael Beer to complete England's 3–1 Ashes victory on 7 January 2011\n\nThe 2009 series began with a tense draw in the First Test at SWALEC Stadium in Cardiff, with England's last-wicket batsmen James Anderson and Monty Panesar surviving 69 balls. England then achieved its first Ashes win at Lord's since 1934 to go 1–0 up. After a rain-affected draw at Edgbaston, the fourth match at Headingley was convincingly won by Australia by an innings and 80 runs to level the series. Finally, England won the Fifth Test at The Oval by a margin of 197 runs to regain the Ashes. Andrew Flintoff retired from Test cricket soon afterwards.\n\nThe 2010–11 series was played in Australia. The First Test at Brisbane ended in a draw, but England won the Second Test, at Adelaide, by an innings and 71 runs. Australia came back with a victory at Perth in the Third Test. In the Fourth Test at Melbourne Cricket Ground, England batting second scored 513 to defeat Australia (98 and 258) by an innings and 157 runs. This gave England an unbeatable 2–1 lead in the series and so they retained the Ashes. England went on to win the series 3–1, beating Australia by an innings and 83 runs at Sydney in the Fifth Test. Australia, captained by Michael Clarke, batted first on a cloudy day after winning the toss and were bowled out for 280. England made 644, their highest innings total since 1938. England then bowled Australia out again for 281. England's series victory was its first on Australian soil for 24 years. The 2010–11 Ashes series was the only one in which a team had won three Tests by innings margins and it was the first time England had scored 500 or more four times in a single series.\n\nAustralia's build-up to the 2013 Ashes series was far from ideal. Darren Lehmann took over as coach from Mickey Arthur following a string of poor results. A batting line-up weakened by the previous year's retirements of former captain Ricky Ponting and Mike Hussey, was also shorn of opener David Warner, who was suspended for the start of the series following an off-field incident. The tourists put those issues behind them to bowl England out for 215 after losing the toss in the First Test at Trent Bridge. In the face of high-class swing bowling from James Anderson, who ended with 10 wickets in the match, Australia collapsed to 117–9. However, debutant 19-year-old Ashton Agar made a world-record 98 for a number 11 and Phil Hughes an unbeaten 81 to secure an unlikely lead of 65. England's second-innings total of 375 set Australia a target of 311, against which they fell short by only 14 runs in a tense finish. In the Second Test, England beat Australia by 347 runs in a very one-sided contest. In the Third Test, held at a newly refurbished Old Trafford, Australia won the toss and elected to bat first. They amassed a commanding score of 527–7, led by captain Michael Clarke's 187. The pressure was then on the home side to avoid the follow-on. England scored 368 with a century for Kevin Pietersen. Australia's second innings score was 172–7 at the end of Day 4, characterised by batting order changes to achieve a fast run rate to allow enough time to bowl England out amid inclement weather forecasts. Australia declared overnight to post England a target of 332 to win. Contrary to expectations, play resumed with only a minor delay on Day 5, and with captain Alastair Cook being bowled out for 0 (his first duck in 26 innings as captain), Australia looked to be in with a significant chance of a win, keeping their series hopes alive. By lunch England were 37–3, but on resumption of play only 3 balls were bowled before rain stopped play. This rain persisted and, at 16:40, the captains shook hands and the match was declared a draw. With England 2–0 up with two tests to play, England retained the Ashes on 5 August 2013.\n\nIn the Fourth Test, England won the toss and batted first, putting on 238 runs, Australia took a narrow lead scoring 270 in their first innings. In the second innings England scored 330, Ian Bell top-scoring with 113. Needing only 298 runs to win Australia was in a strong position at 138/2, only 160 short with eight wickets in hand. Following a rain delay, Australia crashed to a 74-run defeat, losing all eight wickets for only 86 runs. England had taken 9 wickets in the final session of the fourth day. Stuart Broad was England's top wicket-taker in the match with 11 wickets. England held a 3–0 lead going into the final Fifth Test at The Oval.\n\nThe final Test was drawn. On the fourth day no play was possible due to rain, but on the final day after an aggressive Australian declaration, England came close to achieving its first 4–0 victory in an Ashes series. Play was abandoned, owing to bad light, denying a thrilling finish to the large crowd of spectators. There was media criticism of the new ICC rules requiring umpires to stop play when failing light was measured at a specified level.\n\nCelebrations at the SCG after Australia won the Ashes 5-0 in 2014\nIn the second of two Ashes series held in 2013 (the series ended in 2014), this time hosted by Australia, the home team won the series five test matches to nil. This was the third time Australia has completed a clean sweep (or \"whitewash\") in Ashes history, a feat never matched by England. All six specialist Australian batsmen scored more runs than any Englishman with 10 centuries between them, with only debutant Ben Stokes scoring a century for England. Mitchell Johnson took 37 English wickets at 13.97 and Ryan Harris 22 wickets at 19.31 in the 5-Test series . Only Stuart Broad and all-rounder Stokes bowled effectively for England, with their spinner Graeme Swann retiring due to a chronic elbow injury after the decisive Third Test.\n\nAustralia came into the next Ashes series in England as favourites to retain the Ashes. Although England won the first Test in Cardiff, Australia won comfortably in the second Test at Lords. In the next two Tests, the Australian batsmen struggled, being bowled out for 136 in the first innings at Edgbaston , with England proceeding to win by eight wickets. This was followed by Australia being bowled out for 60 as Stuart Broad took fastest five wickets and finished the spell with 8 for 15 in the first innings at Trent Bridge, the quickest - in terms of balls faced - a team has been bowled out in the first innings of a Test match. With victory by an innings and 78 runs on the morning of the third day of the Fourth Test, England regained the Ashes.\n\nAustralia will host the 2017–18 Ashes series with the second test at Adelaide Oval being the first day/night Ashes Test.\n", ":''See also: List of Ashes series for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.''\n\n\nA team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes.\n\nAshes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four-match series (1938; 1975) and six-match series (1970–71; 1974–75; 1978–79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997).\n\n69 series have been played, with Australia winning 32 and England 32. The remaining five series were drawn. , the win–loss ratio in Ashes Tests (from 1882) stands at 130 wins for Australia to 106 wins for England, with 89 draws.\n\nIn the 132 years since 1883, Australia have held the Ashes for approximately 78.5 years, and England for 53.5 years.\n\nAustralians have made 264 centuries in Ashes Tests, of which 23 have been scores over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which 10 have been over 200. Australians have taken 10 wickets in a match on 41 occasions, Englishmen 38 times.\n\nSeries results, up to and including the 2015 Ashes series:\n\n\nOverall Series Results\n\nNation !!Series !!Won !!Lost !!Drawn\n\n Australia \n 69 \n 32 \n 32\n 5\n\n England \n 69 \n 32 \n 32 \n 5\n\n", "The series alternates between the United Kingdom and Australia, and within each country each of the usually five matches is held at a different cricket ground.\n\nIn Australia, the grounds currently used are the Gabba in Brisbane (first staged an England–Australia Test in the 1932–33 season), Adelaide Oval (1884–85), the WACA in Perth (1970–71), the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) (1876–77), and the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) (1881–82). A single Test was held at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground in 1928–29. Traditionally, Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test and Sydney hosts the New Year Test. Cricket Australia proposed that the 2010–11 series consist of six Tests, with the additional game to be played at Bellerive Oval in Hobart. The England and Wales Cricket Board declined and the series was played over five Tests.\n\nIn England and Wales, the grounds used are: Old Trafford in Manchester (1884), The Oval in Kennington, South London (1884); Lord's in St John's Wood, North London (1884); Trent Bridge at West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire (1899), Headingley in Leeds (1899); Edgbaston in Birmingham (1902); Sophia Gardens in Cardiff, Wales (2009); and the Riverside Ground in Chester-le-Street, County Durham (2013); Rose Bowl will host it in 2023. One Test was held at Bramall Lane in Sheffield in 1902. Traditionally the final Test of the series is played at the Oval.\n", "the Ashes Urn\n\nThe popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to other sports or games, and/or their followers, using the name \"Ashes\" for contests between England and Australia. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the rugby league rivalry between Great Britain and Australia (see rugby league \"Ashes\"). Use of the name \"Ashes\" was suggested by the Australian team when rugby league matches between the two countries commenced in 1908. Other examples included the television game shows ''Gladiators'' and ''Sale of the Century'', both of which broadcast special editions containing contestants from the Australian and English versions of the shows competing against each other.\n\nThe term became further genericised in Australia in the first half of the twentieth century, and was used to describe many sports rivalries or competitions outside the context of Australia vs England. The Australian rules football interstate carnival, and the small silver casket which served as its trophy, were symbolically known as \"the Ashes\" of Australian football, and was spoken of as such until at least the 1940s. The soccer rivalry between Australia and New Zealand was described as \"the soccer ashes of Australasia\" until as late as the 1950s; ashes from cigars smoked by the two countries' captains were put into a casket in 1923 to make the trophy literal. The interstate rugby league rivalry between Queensland and New South Wales was known for a time as Australia's rugby league ashes, and bowls competitions between the two states also regularly used the term. Even some local rivalries, such as southern Western Australia's annual Great Southern Football Carnival, were locally described as \"the ashes\". This genericised usage is no longer common, and \"the Ashes\" would today be assumed only to apply to a contest between Australia and England.\n\nThe Ashes featured in the film ''The Final Test'', released in 1953, based on a television play by Terence Rattigan. It stars Jack Warner as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film includes cameo appearances of English captain Len Hutton and other players who were part of England's 1953 triumph.\n\nDouglas Adams's 1982 science fiction comedy novel ''Life, the Universe and Everything'' – the third part of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' series – features the urn containing the Ashes as a significant element of its plot. The urn is stolen by alien robots, as the burnt stump inside is part of a key needed to unlock the \"Wikkit Gate\" and release an imprisoned world called Krikkit.\n\n''Bodyline'', a fictionalised television miniseries based on the \"Bodyline\" Ashes series of 1932–33, was screened in Australia in 1984. The cast included Gary Sweet as Donald Bradman and Hugo Weaving as England captain Douglas Jardine.\n", "\n History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883\n* History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889\n* History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Willis, R. ''Cricket's Biggest Mystery: The Ashes'', The Lutterworth Press (1987), .\n* \n;Other\n* ''Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions)\n", "\n\n* Cricinfo's Ashes website\n* The Origin of the Ashes – Rex Harcourt\n* Listen to a young Don Bradman speaking after the 1930 Ashes tour\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "1882 origins", "Urn", "Series and matches", "Summary of results and statistics", "Match venues", "Cultural references", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	The Ashes
[ "\n\n'''Analysis''' is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though ''analysis'' as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.\n\nThe word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (''analysis'', \"a breaking up\", from ''ana-'' \"up, throughout\" and ''lysis'' \"a loosening\").\n\nAs a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Alhazen, René Descartes (''Discourse on the Method''), and Galileo Galilei. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name).\n", "\n===Science===\nA clinical chemistry analyzer; hand shows size\n\nThe field of chemistry uses analysis in at least three ways: to identify the components of a particular chemical compound (qualitative analysis), to identify the proportions of components in a mixture (quantitative analysis), and to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter. For an example of its use, analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor, so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a device. Chemical analysis is an important element of national security among the major world powers with materials measurement and signature intelligence (MASINT) capabilities.\n\n====Isotopes====\n\nChemists can use isotope analysis to assist analysts with issues in anthropology, archeology, food chemistry, forensics, geology, and a host of other questions of physical science. Analysts can discern the origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity.\n\n===Business===\n* Financial statement analysis – the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm\n* Fundamental analysis – a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis\n* Technical analysis – the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices\n* Business analysis – involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems\n* Price analysis – involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure\n* Market analysis – consists of suppliers and customers, and price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand\n* Wireless Opportunity analysis - consists of customers trends within the wireless telephone industry, customer demand and experience determine purchasing behavior\n\n===Computer science===\n* Requirements analysis – encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.\n* Competitive analysis (online algorithm) – shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms\n* Lexical analysis – the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols\n* Object-oriented analysis and design – à la Booch\n* Program analysis (computer science) – the process of automatically analyzing the behavior of computer programs\n* Semantic analysis (computer science) – a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks\n* Static code analysis – the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that\n* Structured systems analysis and design methodology – à la Yourdon\n* Syntax analysis – a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing\n* Worst-case execution time – determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run\n\n===Economics===\n* Agroecosystem analysis\n* Input-output model if applied to a region, is called Regional Impact Multiplier System\n\n===Engineering===\n\nAnalysts in the field of engineering look at requirements, structures, mechanisms, systems and dimensions. Electrical engineers analyse systems in electronics. Life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers. It is also looking at different factors incorporated within the design.\n\n===Intelligence===\n\nThe field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. Intelligence agencies may use heuristics, inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis, link analysis, and brainstorming to sort through problems they face. Military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory, Red Teaming, and wargaming. Signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers. Business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace. Law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis.\n\n===Linguistics===\n\nLinguistics look at individual languages and language in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: theory, sounds and their meaning, utterance usage, word origins, the history of words, the meaning of words and word combinations, sentence construction, basic construction beyond the sentence level, stylistics, and conversation. It examines the above using statistics and modeling, and semantics. It analyses language in context of anthropology, biology, evolution, geography, history, neurology, psychology, and sociology. It also takes the applied approach, looking at individual language development and clinical issues.\n\n===Literature===\nLiterary criticism is the analysis of literature. The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of Homer or Freud. While not all literary-critical methods are primarily analytical in nature, the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the mid-twentieth century, literary formal analysis or close reading, is. This method, rooted in the academic movement labelled The New Criticism, approaches texts - chiefly short poems such as sonnets, which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis - as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves, without reference to biographical or historical frameworks. This method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in a study of prosody (the formal analysis of meter) and phonic effects such as alliteration and rhyme, and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures, figurative language, and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects.\n\n===Mathematics===\n\n\nModern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes. It is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus. It can be applied in the study of classical concepts of mathematics, such as real numbers, complex variables, trigonometric functions, and algorithms, or of non-classical concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors.\n\nFlorian Cajori explains in ''A History of Mathematics'' (1893) the difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis, as distinct from logical analysis, as follows:\n\nThe terms ''synthesis'' and ''analysis'' are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic. In ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have. The oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in appended to Euclid, XIII. 5, which in all probability was framed by Eudoxus: \"Analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth; synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it.\" \n\n\n\nThe analytic method is not conclusive, unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible. To remove all doubt, the Greeks, as a rule, added to the analytic process a synthetic one, consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis. Thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions.\n\n\nJames Gow uses a similar argument as Cajori, with the following clarification, in his ''A Short History of Greek Mathematics'' (1884):\n\n\nThe synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished ''theoretic'' from ''problematic'' analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To ''prove'' that A is B, ''assume'' first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible, then the reverse process, A is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem.\n\n\n===Music===\n* Musical analysis – a process attempting to answer the question \"How does this music work?\"\n* Schenkerian analysis\n\n===Philosophy===\n* Philosophical analysis – a general term for the techniques used by philosophers\n* ''Analysis'' is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy.\n\n===Psychotherapy===\n* Psychoanalysis – seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes\n* Transactional analysis\n\n===Public Policy===\n* Policy Analysis – The use of statistical data to predict the effects of policy decisions made by governments and agencies\n* Qualitative Analysis– The use of anecdotal evidence to predict the effects of policy decisions or, more generally, influence policy decisions\n\n===Signal processing===\n* Finite element analysis – a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis\n* Independent component analysis\n* Link quality analysis – the analysis of signal quality\n* Path quality analysis\n* Fourier analysis\n\n===Statistics===\nIn statistics, the term ''analysis'' may refer to any method used\nfor data analysis. Among the many such methods, some are:\n* Analysis of variance (ANOVA) – a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts\n* Boolean analysis – a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample, mostly used in exploratory data analysis\n* Cluster analysis – techniques for grouping objects into a collection of groups (called clusters), based on some measure of proximity or similarity\n* Factor analysis – a method to construct models describing a data set of observed variables in terms of a smaller set of unobserved variables (called factors)\n* Meta-analysis – combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses\n* Multivariate analysis – analysis of data involving several variables, such as by factor analysis, regression analysis, or principal component analysis\n* Principal component analysis – transformation of a sample of correlated variables into uncorrelated variables (called principal components), mostly used in exploratory data analysis\n* Regression analysis – techniques for analyzing the relationships between several variables in the data\n* Scale analysis (statistics) – methods to analyze survey data by scoring responses on a numeric scale\n* Sensitivity analysis – the study of how the variation in the output of a model depends on variations in the inputs\n* Sequential analysis – evaluation of sampled data as it is collected, until the criterion of a stopping rule is met\n* Spatial analysis – the study of entities using geometric or geographic properties\n* Time-series analysis – methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals\n\n===Other===\n* Aura analysis – a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is analysed\n* Bowling analysis – Analysis of the performance of cricket players\n* Lithic analysis – the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques\n* Protocol analysis – a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task\n", "\n* List of thinking-related topics\n* Formal analysis\n* Methodology\n* Scientific method\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Applicants", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Analysis
[ "\n\n\n'''Abner Doubleday''' (June 26, 1819January 26, 1893) was a career United States Army officer and Union general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society. Doubleday has been historically credited with inventing baseball, although this is untrue.\n", "Doubleday, the son of Ulysses F. Doubleday and Hester Donnelly, was born in Ballston Spa, New York, in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the American Revolutionary War. His maternal grandfather Thomas Donnelly joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for George Washington. His great grandfather Peter Donnelly was a Minuteman. His father, Ulysses F. Doubleday, fought in the War of 1812, published newspapers and books, and represented Auburn, New York for four years in the United States Congress. Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to Cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military Academy in 1838. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore, the daughter of a local lawyer.\n", "\n===Early commands and Fort Sumter===\nDoubleday photo displayed at Fort Sumter National Monument in Charleston harbor\nFort Sumter Medal bearing the likeness of Major Robert Anderson which was presented to Abner Doubleday\nDoubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848 and the Seminole Wars from 1856 to 1858. In 1858 he was transferred to Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor serving under Colonel John L. Gardner. By the start of the Civil War, he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at Fort Sumter, under Major Robert Anderson. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the Confederate bombardment on April 12, 1861. He subsequently referred to himself as the \"hero of Sumter\" for this role.\n\n===Brigade and division command in Virginia===\nDoubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the Shenandoah Valley from June to August, and then the artillery for Major General Nathaniel Banks's division of the Army of the Potomac. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the Peninsula Campaign. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps of the Army of Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. In the actions at Brawner's farm, just before the Second Battle of Bull Run, he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brigadier General John Gibbon's brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. (Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. Rufus King, was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brigadier General John P. Hatch.) His men were routed when they encountered Major General James Longstreet's corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army.\n\nDoubleday again led the division, now assigned to the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac, after South Mountain, where Hatch was wounded again. At Antietam, he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a \"gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle.\" He was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to major general of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862. At Fredericksburg in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve.\n\n===Gettysburg===\nBirthplace in Ballston Spa\nDoubleday and his wife, Mary\nAt the start of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863, Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford. When his corps commander, Major General John F. Reynolds, was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 10:50 am. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of Gettysburg to the relative safety of Cemetery Hill south of town. It was Doubleday's finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. On Cemetery Hill, however, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty, and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units consolidated into other corps.\n\nOn July 2, 1863, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Doubleday with Major General John Newton, a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a false report by XI Corps commander Major General Oliver O. Howard that Doubleday's corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service. He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.\n\nDoubleday's indecision as a commander in the war resulted in his uncomplimentary nickname \"Forty-Eight Hours.\"\n\n===Washington===\nDoubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of Washington, D.C., where he was in charge of courts martial, which gave him legal experience that he used after the war. His only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg. While in Washington, Doubleday remained a loyal Republican and staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln. Doubleday rode with Lincoln on the train to Gettysburg for the Gettysburg Address and Col. and Mrs. Doubleday attended events with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in Washington.\n", "After the Civil War, Doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry in September 1867. He was stationed in San Francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there, receiving a charter for its operation, but signing away his rights when he was reassigned. In 1871 he commanded the 24th U.S. Infantry, an all African-American regiment with headquarters at Fort McKavett, Texas. He retired in 1873\n\nIn the 1870s, he was listed in the New York business directory as lawyer.\n\nDoubleday spent much of his time writing. He published two important works on the Civil War: ''Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie'' (1876), and ''Chancellorsville and Gettysburg'' (1882), the latter being a volume of the series ''Campaigns of the Civil War''.\n", "In the summer of 1878, Doubleday lived in Mendham Township, New Jersey, and became a prominent member of the Theosophical Society. When two of the founders of that society, Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the president of the American body. Another prominent member was Thomas A. Edison.\n", "Doubleday's tombstone in Arlington National Cemetery\nDoubleday died of heart disease. Doubleday's body was laid in state in New York's City Hall and then was taken to Washington by train from Mendham Township, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia.\n", "\n\nAlthough Doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, he is more widely remembered as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\n\nThe Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on December 30, 1907, stated, in part, that \"the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\" It concluded by saying, \"in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday's fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army.\"\n\nHowever, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a \"myth\". He wrote, \"Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.\" At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game, and his ''New York Times'' obituary did not mention the game at all. Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday's body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable; a few years later, he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life. Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839.\n\nDespite the lack of solid evidence linking Doubleday to the origins of baseball, Cooperstown, New York became the new home of what is today the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1937.\n\nThere may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday. While the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s, it was the scattering of New Yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country, that spread not only baseball, but also the \"New York Rules\", thereby harmonizing the rules, and being a catalyst for its growth. Doubleday was a high-ranking officer, whose duties included seeing to provisions for the US Army fighting throughout the south and border states. For the morale of the men, he is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the men.\n", "Abner Doubleday monument in Ballston Spa\nThere is a monument to Doubleday at Gettysburg erected by his men, admirers, and the state of New York. There is a obelisk monument at Arlington National Cemetery where he is buried, located about behind the Lee Mansion. There was a movement to petition the postmaster general to issue a U.S. postage stamp for him in 2011, commemorating the 150th anniversary of Fort Sumter. Doubleday Field is a minor league baseball stadium named for Abner Doubleday, located in Cooperstown, New York, near the Baseball Hall of Fame. It hosted the annual Hall of Fame Game, an exhibition game between two major league teams that was played from 1940 until 2008.\n\nThe Auburn Doubledays are a minor league baseball team based in Doubleday's hometown of Auburn, New York.\n\nDoubleday Field at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where the Army Black Knights play at Johnson Stadium, is named in Doubleday's honor.\n\nThe Abner Doubleday Little League and Babe Ruth Fields in Ballston Spa, New York, the town of his birth. The house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on Front Street.\n\nA sign at the Doubleday Hill Monument, erected in Williamsport, Maryland to commemorate Doubleday's occupation of a hill there during the Civil War, claims he invented the game in 1835.\n\nMendham Borough, NJ and Mendham Township, NJ held a municipal holiday known as \"Abner Doubleday Day\" for numerous years in the General's honor and commissioned a plaque near the sight of his home in the borough in 1998, even though the borough was known as Mendham Township back then.\n\nIn 2004 the Abner Doubleday Society erected a monument to Doubleday in Iron Spring Park, Ballston Spa, near his birthplace.\n\n\n", "In the movie ''The Ridiculous 6'', Doubleday is portrayed by John Turturro. The character organizes the first game of baseball between the six main characters and a group of Chinese immigrants, creating the rules as he goes, primarily to allow him to win.\n\nIn the 23rd episode of the anime ''Samurai Champloo'', titled \"Baseball Blues\", Doubleday and Alexander Cartwright are featured as American naval officers who engage the main characters and local Japanese people into a baseball game, which the Americans lose.\n", "\n* List of American Civil War generals\n* William Webb Ellis, sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing rugby football\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* Gomes, Michael. \" Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879-1884\". ''Sunrise'', April/May 1991.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \" Doubleday, Abner\" in ''The Handbook of Texas''.\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* Biography at Arlington Cemetery\n* ''Defense of Madame Blavatsky''\n* Baseball Hall of Fame\n* Ulysses Freeman Doubleday - McLean County Museum of History\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early years", "Military career", "Postbellum career", "Theosophy", "Death", "Baseball", "Namesakes and honors", "In popular culture", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Abner Doubleday
[ "\n\n\nthumb'''''America's National Game''''' is a book by Albert Spalding, published in 1911 detailing the early history of the sport of baseball. Much of the story is told first-hand, since Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a player and later an administrator, since the 1850s. In addition to his personal recollections, he had access to the records of Henry Chadwick, the game's first statistician and archivist. Spalding was, however, known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball's history.\n", "*History of baseball\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References" ]	America's National Game
[ "\n'''Amplitude modulation''' ('''AM''') is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the waveform being transmitted. That waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be reproduced by a loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels. This technique contrasts with frequency modulation, in which the frequency of the carrier signal is varied, and phase modulation, in which its phase is varied.\n\nAM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It was developed during the first two decades of the 20th century beginning with Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. It remains in use today in many forms of communication; for example it is used in portable two-way radios, VHF aircraft radio, Citizen's Band Radio, and in computer modems (in the form of QAM). \"AM\" is often used to refer to mediumwave AM radio broadcasting.\n\nFig 1: An audio signal (top) may be carried by a alt=Animation of audio, AM and FM modulated carriers.\n", "\nIn electronics and telecommunications, modulation means varying some aspect of a higher frequency continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images, so the carrier will \"carry\" the information. When it reaches its destination, the information signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation.\n\nIn amplitude modulation, the amplitude or \"strength\" of the carrier oscillations is what is varied. For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal (a sinusoidal carrier wave) has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. The audio waveform modifies the amplitude of the carrier wave and determines the ''envelope'' of the waveform. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called \"double-sideband amplitude modulation\" (DSB-AM) to distinguish it from more sophisticated modulation methods also based on AM.\n\nOne disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques (not only standard AM) is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received signal-to-noise ratio, say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to frequency modulation (FM) and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio etc.).\n\nAnother disadvantage of AM is that it is inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection, providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex and costly. The receiver may regenerate a copy of the carrier frequency (usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency) from a greatly reduced \"pilot\" carrier (in reduced-carrier transmission or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier totally eliminated in double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, carrier regeneration is possible using a Costas phase-locked loop. This doesn't work however for single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic \"Donald Duck\" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single sideband is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications both due to its power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in medium wave and short wave broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience.\n\nAn additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the automatic gain control (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is ''no'' transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called ''fast attack, slow decay'' circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where compression of the audio aids intelligibility. However it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected.\n\nA trivial form of AM which can be used for transmitting binary data is on-off keying, the simplest form of ''amplitude-shift keying'', in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On-off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit Morse code where it is known as continuous wave (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly \"continuous.\" A more complex form of AM, Quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth.\n\n===ITU designations===\n\nIn 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation:\n\n\nDesignation!!Description\n\nA3E\ndouble-sideband a full-carrier - the basic Amplitude modulation scheme\n\nR3E\nsingle-sideband reduced-carrier\n\nH3E\nsingle-sideband full-carrier\n\nJ3E\nsingle-sideband suppressed-carrier\n\nB8E\nindependent-sideband emission\n\nC3F\nvestigial-sideband\n\nLincompex\nlinked compressor and expander\n\n", "arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone ''(cone shape)'' in the antenna lead. \nOne of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter. \n\nAlthough AM was used in a few crude experiments in multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s, the practical development of amplitude modulation is synonymous with the development between 1900 and 1920 of \"radiotelephone\" transmission, that is, the effort to send sound (audio) by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called spark gap transmitters, transmitted information by wireless telegraphy, using different length pulses of carrier wave to spell out text messages in Morse code. They couldn't transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, that sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated.\n\n===Continuous waves===\nThe first AM transmission was made by Canadian researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10 kHz interrupter, over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km) at Cobb Island, Maryland, USA. His first transmitted words were, \"Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?\". The words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark.\n\nFessenden was a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He was one of the first researchers to realize, from experiments like the above, that the existing technology for producing radio waves, the spark transmitter, was not usable for amplitude modulation, and that a new kind of transmitter, one that produced sinusoidal ''continuous waves'', was needed. This was a radical idea at the time, because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves, and Fessenden was ridiculed. He invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters - the Alexanderson alternator, with which he made what is considered the first AM public entertainment broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906. He also discovered the principle on which AM is based, heterodyning, and invented one of the first detectors able to rectify and receive AM, the electrolytic detector or \"liquid baretter\", in 1902. Other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy, such as the Fleming valve (1904) and the crystal detector (1906) also proved able to rectify AM signals, so the technological hurdle was generating AM waves; receiving them was not a problem.\n\n===Early technologies===\nEarly experiments in AM radio transmission, conducted by Fessenden, Valdemar Poulsen, Ernst Ruhmer, Quirino Majorana, Charles Harrold, and Lee De Forest, were hampered by the lack of a technology for amplification. The first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on either the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906-1910, or versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter (arc converter), invented in 1903. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire; its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna. The limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones; many of the microphones were water-cooled.\n\n===Vacuum tubes===\nThe discovery in 1912 of the amplifying ability of the Audion vacuum tube, invented in 1906 by Lee De Forest, solved these problems. The vacuum tube feedback oscillator, invented in 1912 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner, was a cheap source of continuous waves and could be easily modulated to make an AM transmitter. Modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube, so the microphone or other audio source didn't have to handle high power. Wartime research greatly advanced the art of AM modulation, and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. The vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of AM radio broadcasting around 1920, the first electronic mass entertainment medium. Amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War 2.\n\nAt the same time as AM radio began, telephone companies such as AT&T were developing the other large application for AM: sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate carrier frequencies, called ''frequency division multiplexing''.\n\n===Single-sideband===\nJohn Renshaw Carson in 1915 did the first mathematical analysis of amplitude modulation, showing that a signal and carrier frequency combined in a nonlinear device would create two sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency, and passing the modulated signal through another nonlinear device would extract the original baseband signal. His analysis also showed only one sideband was necessary to transmit the audio signal, and Carson patented single-sideband modulation (SSB) on 1 December 1915. This more advanced variant of amplitude modulation was adopted by AT&T for longwave transatlantic telephone service beginning 7 January 1927. After WW2 it was developed by the military for aircraft communication.\n", "Illustration of Amplitude Modulation\nConsider a carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency ''fc'' and amplitude ''A'' given by:\n\n:.\n\nLet ''m''(''t'') represent the modulation waveform. For this example we shall take the modulation to be simply a sine wave of a frequency ''fm'', a much lower frequency (such as an audio frequency) than ''fc'':\n\n:,\n\nwhere ''M'' is the amplitude of the modulation. We shall insist that ''M''1 then overmodulation occurs and reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original signal. Amplitude modulation results when the carrier ''c(t)'' is multiplied by the positive quantity ''(1+m(t))'':\n\n:{\|\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIn this simple case ''M'' is identical to the modulation index, discussed below. With ''M''=0.5 the amplitude modulated signal ''y''(''t'') thus corresponds to the top graph (labelled \"50% Modulation\") in Figure 4.\n\nUsing prosthaphaeresis identities, ''y''(''t'') can be shown to be the sum of three sine waves:\n\n:\n\nTherefore, the modulated signal has three components: the carrier wave ''c(t)'' which is unchanged, and two pure sine waves (known as sidebands) with frequencies slightly above and below the carrier frequency ''fc''.\n", "alt=Diagrams of an AM signal, with formulas\nOf course a useful modulation signal ''m(t)'' will generally not consist of a single sine wave, as treated above. However, by the principle of Fourier decomposition, ''m(t)'' can be expressed as the sum of a number of sine waves of various frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Carrying out the multiplication of ''1+m(t)'' with ''c(t)'' as above then yields a result consisting of a sum of sine waves. Again the carrier ''c(t)'' is present unchanged, but for each frequency component of ''m'' at ''fi'' there are two sidebands at frequencies ''fc + fi'' and ''fc - fi''. The collection of the former frequencies above the carrier frequency is known as the upper sideband, and those below constitute the lower sideband. In a slightly different way of looking at it, we can consider the modulation ''m(t)'' to consist of an equal mix of positive and negative frequency components (as results from a formal Fourier transform of a real valued quantity) as shown in the top of Fig. 2. Then one can view the sidebands as that modulation ''m(t)'' having simply been shifted in frequency by ''fc'' as depicted at the bottom right of Fig. 2 (formally, the modulated signal also contains identical components at negative frequencies, shown at the bottom left of Fig. 2 for completeness).\n\nFig 3: The alt=Sonogram of an AM signal, showing the carrier and both sidebands vertically\nIf we just look at the short-term spectrum of modulation, changing as it would for a human voice for instance, then we can plot the frequency content (horizontal axis) as a function of time (vertical axis) as in Fig. 3. It can again be seen that as the modulation frequency content varies, at any point in time there is an upper sideband generated according to those frequencies shifted ''above'' the carrier frequency, and the same content mirror-imaged in the lower sideband below the carrier frequency. At all times, the carrier itself remains constant, and of greater power than the total sideband power.\n", "The RF bandwidth of an AM transmission (refer to Figure 2, but only considering positive frequencies) is twice the bandwidth of the modulating (or \"baseband\") signal, since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency. Although the bandwidth of an AM signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation (FM), it is twice as wide as single-sideband techniques; it thus may be viewed as spectrally inefficient. Within a frequency band, only half as many transmissions (or \"channels\") can thus be accommodated. For this reason analog television employs a variant of single-sideband (known as vestigial sideband, somewhat of a compromise in terms of bandwidth) in order to reduce the required channel spacing.\n\nAnother improvement over standard AM is obtained through reduction or suppression of the carrier component of the modulated spectrum. In Figure 2 this is the spike in between the sidebands; even with full (100%) sine wave modulation, the power in the carrier component is twice that in the sidebands, yet it carries no unique information. Thus there is a great advantage in efficiency in reducing or totally suppressing the carrier, either in conjunction with elimination of one sideband (single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission) or with both sidebands remaining (double sideband suppressed carrier). While these suppressed carrier transmissions are efficient in terms of transmitter power, they require more sophisticated receivers employing synchronous detection and regeneration of the carrier frequency. For that reason, standard AM continues to be widely used, especially in broadcast transmission, to allow for the use of inexpensive receivers using envelope detection. Even (analog) television, with a (largely) suppressed lower sideband, includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection. But for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized, suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed.\n", "The AM modulation index is a measure based on the ratio of the modulation excursions of the RF signal to the level of the unmodulated carrier. It is thus defined as:\n: \nwhere and are the modulation amplitude and carrier amplitude, respectively; the modulation amplitude is the peak (positive or negative) change in the RF amplitude from its unmodulated value. Modulation index is normally expressed as a percentage, and may be displayed on a meter connected to an AM transmitter.\n\nSo if , carrier amplitude varies by 50% above (and below) its unmodulated level, as is shown in the first waveform, below. For , it varies by 100% as shown in the illustration below it. With 100% modulation the wave amplitude sometimes reaches zero, and this represents full modulation using standard AM and is often a target (in order to obtain the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio) but mustn't be exceeded. Increasing the modulating signal beyond that point, known as overmodulation, causes a standard AM modulator (see below) to fail, as the negative excursions of the wave envelope cannot become less than zero, resulting in distortion (\"clipping\") of the received modulation. Transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation, and/or a compressor circuit (especially for voice communications) in order to still approach 100% modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise. Such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad.\n\nHowever it is possible to talk about a modulation index exceeding 100%, without introducing distortion, in the case of double-sideband reduced-carrier transmission. In that case, negative excursions beyond zero entail a reversal of the carrier phase, as shown in the third waveform below. This cannot be produced using the efficient high-level (output stage) modulation techniques (see below) which are widely used especially in high power broadcast transmitters. Rather, a special modulator produces such a waveform at a low level followed by a linear amplifier. What's more, a standard AM receiver using an envelope detector is incapable of properly demodulating such a signal. Rather, synchronous detection is required. Thus double-sideband transmission is generally ''not'' referred to as \"AM\" even though it generates an identical RF waveform as standard AM as long as the modulation index is below 100%. Such systems more often attempt a radical reduction of the carrier level compared to the sidebands (where the useful information is present) to the point of double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission where the carrier is (ideally) reduced to zero. In all such cases the term \"modulation index\" loses its value as it refers to the ratio of the modulation amplitude to a rather small (or zero) remaining carrier amplitude.\n\nalt=Graphs illustrating how signal intelligibility increases with modulation index, but only up to 100% using standard AM.\n", "\nAnode (plate) modulation. A tetrode's plate and screen grid voltage is modulated via an audio transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias; both the input and output are tuned circuits with inductive coupling.\n\nModulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they modulate in a low-power domain—followed by amplification for transmission—or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal).\n\n===Low-level generation===\nIn modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital-to-analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion).\nThis low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers.\n\nAM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section.\n\n===High-level generation===\nHigh-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage.\n\nOlder designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter’s final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors):\n\n* '''Plate modulation:''' In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power.\n* '''Heising (constant-current) modulation:''' RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a “choke” (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency.\n* '''Control grid modulation:''' The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion.\n* '''Clamp tube (screen grid) modulation:''' The screen-grid bias may be controlled through a “clamp tube”, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system.\n* '''Doherty modulation:''' One tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low.\n* '''Outphasing modulation:''' Two tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted.\n* '''Pulse width modulation (PWM) or Pulse duration modulation (PDM):''' A highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by Hilmer Swanson and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality.\n", "The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity.\n", "* AM radio\n* AM stereo\n* Mediumwave band used for AM broadcast radio\n* Longwave band used for AM broadcast radio\n* Frequency modulation\n* Shortwave radio almost universally uses AM, narrow FM occurring above 25 MHz.\n* Modulation, for a list of other modulation techniques\n* Amplitude modulation signalling system (AMSS), a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an AM signal.\n* Sideband, for some explanation of what this is.\n* Types of radio emissions, for the emission types designated by the ITU\n* Airband\n* Citizen's Band Radio\n* Quadrature amplitude modulation\nDSB-SC\n", ";Notes\n\n;Sources\n Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), ''The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications'' (81st ed.), pp. 15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. .\n", "* '' Amplitude Modulation'' by Jakub Serych, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.\n* Amplitude Modulation, by S Sastry.\n* Amplitude Modulation, an introduction by Federation of American Scientists.\n* Amplitude Modulation tutorial video with example transmitter circuit.\n* Amplitude Modulation tutorial including related topics of modulators, demodulators, etc...\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Forms of amplitude modulation", "History", "Simplified analysis of standard AM", "Spectrum", "Power and spectrum efficiency", "Modulation index", "{{anchor\|AM modulation methods}}Modulation methods", "{{anchor\|AM demodulation methods}}Demodulation methods", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Amplitude modulation
[ "\n\n\n'''Augustin-Jean Fresnel''' ( ; ; 10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French engineer and physicist who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of wave optics. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally.\n\nHe is perhaps best known as the inventor of the Fresnel lens, first adopted in lighthouses while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. His equations on waves and reflectivity, the Fresnel equations, also form the basis for many applications in computer graphics today – for instance, the rendering of water.\n", "Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at Broglie (in present-day Eure). He received a rigorous Catholic upbringing from his parents, who were involved in the Jansenist movement. His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the École des Ponts et Chaussées.\n\nHe made many contributions to the development of the field of optical science. Some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences until many years after his death. But as he wrote to Young in 1824: in himself \"that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory\" had been blunted. \"All the compliments,\" he says, \"that I have received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment\".\n\nFresnel has been described as a man with interest in religious questions and deep faith in God. As a form of consolation, he took religion very seriously especially during his illness.\n\nHe spent much of his life in Paris, and died of tuberculosis at Ville-d'Avray, near Paris. His is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The writer Prosper Mérimée (1803-1870) was his first cousin.\n", "Bust of Augustin Fresnel by David d'Angers.\nFirst-order lighthouse Fresnel lens, on display at the Point Arena Lighthouse Museum, Point Arena Lighthouse, Mendocino County, California \nHe served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Vilaine; but having supported the Bourbons in 1814 he lost his appointment on Napoleon's return to power. He appears to have begun his research in optics around 1814, when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light, although it was never published. In 1815, on the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in Paris.\n\nIn 1818 he wrote a treatise on diffraction, for which he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris the following year. He was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a Fresnel lens, as a substitute for mirrors in lighthouses. In 1819, he was nominated to be a commissioner of lighthouses. In 1823 he was unanimously elected a member of the academy. In 1825 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1827, the time of his last illness, the Royal Society of London awarded him the Rumford Medal.\n\nHis discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by Thomas Young, extended the wave theory of light to a large class of optical phenomena, especially, to the double-refraction property of Iceland Spar, or calcite.\n\nIn 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that polarization could be explained only if light was ''entirely'' transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. He proposed the aether drag hypothesis to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory.\n\n===Fresnel bright spot===\n\n\nThe ''Fresnel bright spot'', also referred to as the \"Poisson spot\", or the \"Spot of Arago\", is a bright point that appears at the center of a circular object's shadow due to Fresnel diffraction. The experimental demonstration of the existence of Fresnel's spot, predicted to be a consequence of Fresnel's 1818 wave theory by Poisson, played an key role in the proof of the wave nature of light, and is a common way to demonstrate that light behaves as a wave.\n\n===Polarized light research===\n A diagram of a Fresnel rhomb (blue). Incoming light, if linearly polarized at 45° with respect to the plane of incidence (along the page) has the relative phase of its ''s'' and ''p'' polarization components altered at two reflections, outputting a circularly polarized beam.\nWith François Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as a Fresnel rhomb, having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°. The Fresnel–Arago laws are three laws which summarise some of the more important properties of interference between light of different states of polarization. The laws are as follows:\n* Two orthogonal, coherent linearly polarized waves cannot interfere.\n* Two parallel coherent linearly polarized waves will interfere in the same way as natural light.\n* The two constituent orthogonal linearly polarized states of natural light cannot interfere to form a readily observable interference pattern, even if rotated into alignment (because they are incoherent).\n\nThe Fresnel equations describe the behaviour of light when moving between media of differing refractive indices. When light moves from a medium of a given refractive index ''n''1 into a second medium with refractive index ''n''2, both reflection and refraction of the light may occur.\n\nThe Fresnel diffraction equation is an approximation of Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction that can be applied to the propagation of waves in the near field. It is used to calculate the diffraction pattern created by waves passing through an aperture or around an object, when viewed from relatively close to the object. In contrast the diffraction pattern in the far field region is given by the Fraunhofer diffraction equation.\n", "\n", "* \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Personal life and education", "Career", "References", "External links" ]	Augustin-Jean Fresnel
[ "\n\n\nSt. Dominic of Silos enthroned as abbot (Hispano-Flemish Gothic 15th century)\n\n'''Abbot''', meaning father, is an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not the head of a monastery. The female equivalent is abbess.\n", "The title had its origin in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria, spread through the eastern Mediterranean, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. The word is derived from the Aramaic ''av'' meaning \"father\" or ''abba'', meaning \"my father\". In the Septuagint, it was written as \"abbas\". At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the ''Abbas palatinus'' (\"of the palace\"') and ''Abbas castrensis'' (\"of the camp\") were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns’ court and army respectively. The title abbot came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests.\n", "Coptic icon of St. Pachomius, the founder of cenobitic monasticism.\nCarving of St. Benedict of Nursia, holding an abbot's crozier and his Rule for Monasteries (Münsterschwarzach, Germany).\nThomas Schoen, abbot at Bornem Abbey\nBenedictine Abbot Schober in Prelate Dress and Cappa Magna\nAn abbot (from Old English ''abbod'', ''abbad'', from Latin ''abbas'' (“father”), from Ancient Greek ''ἀββᾶς'' (abbas), from Aramaic ''ܐܒܐ''/''אבא'' (’abbā, “father”); confer German ''Abt''; French ''abbé'') is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East ''hegumen'' or ''archimandrite''. The English version for a female monastic head is abbess. \n\n===Early history===\nIn Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint John Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the Cluniac reforms, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized.\n\nMonks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the first Council of Constantinople, AD 448, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops.\n\nThe second Council of Nicaea, AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate, a power usually reserved to bishops.\n\nAbbots used to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Pope Gregory the Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an ''imperium in imperio,'' and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese.\n\n===Later Middle Ages===\n\nIn the 12th century, the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and sandals.\n\nIt has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, ''Liturgische Gewandung'', p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmunds, St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, and St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster and then Ramsey. Elsewhere, the mitred abbots that sat in the Estates of Scotland were of Arbroath, Cambuskenneth, Coupar Angus, Dunfermline, Holyrood, Iona, Kelso, Kilwinning, Kinloss, Lindores, Paisley, Melrose, Scone, St Andrews Priory and Sweetheart. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff (the crosier) should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.\n\nThe adoption of certain episcopal insignia (pontificalia) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran council, AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, AD 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.\n\nThe power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canon law. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.\n\n====Appointments====\nWhen a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the convent, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house for at least 10 years, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontré and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop, and also in England it was for a term of 8–12 years.\n\nThe ceremony of the formal admission of a Benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the nave, he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary, and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his staff of office. He then put on his shoes in the vestry, and a chapter was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon.\n", "Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the Rule of St Benedict appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. Because this permission opened the door to luxurious living, Synods of Aachen (816–819), decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory, and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.\n\nArms of a Roman Catholic abbot are distinguished by a gold crozier with a veil attached and a black galero with twelve tassels (the galero of a territorial abbot would be green)\nThe ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. Some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of Leicester, c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits. This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of Glastonbury, judicially murdered by Henry VIII, that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The abbots of Cluny and Vendôme were, by virtue of their office, cardinals of the Roman church.\n\nIn the process of time, the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the Carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king, '''', or military chaplain of the emperor, '''' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at Genoa was called ''''.\n\nLay abbots (M. Lat. '''', '''', '''', '''', '''' or '''', '''', or sometimes simply '''') were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of commendation, by which—to meet a contemporary emergency—the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,\nearly suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held ''in commendam.''\n\nDuring the Carolingian epoch, the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices, and by the 10th century, before the great Cluniac reform, the system was firmly established. Even the abbey of St Denis was held in commendam by Hugh Capet. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as dean (decanus), but also as abbot (''abbas legitimas'', ''monasticus'', ''regularis'').\n\nWhen the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, with the head of the community retaining the title of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, patriarch of Antioch, at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, ''bencficiarii,'' for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.\n\nGiraldus Cambrensis reported (''Itinerary'', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:\n\n\nIn conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.\n", "In the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of the term (some orders of monks, as the Carthusians for instance, have no abbots, only priors). A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the Pope, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability—a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has.\n\nAbbot Francis Michael and Prior Anthony Delisi (on the left) of Monastery of the Holy Spirit, a Trappist monastery in Conyers, Georgia, USA.\nThe abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre, the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority- it is not a further degree of Holy Orders (although some abbots have been ordained to the episcopacy).\n\nOnce he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of \"exempt religious\" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the Pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop.\n\nThe abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross.\n\nTerritorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the Pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible.\n", "In some monastic families, there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the \"mother\" of several \"daughter\" abbeys founded as dependent priories of the \"mother.\" In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as \"congregations.\" Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order.\n\n* The abbot of Sant'Anselmo di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the \"abbot primate,\" and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of St. Benedict (O.S.B.)\n* An abbot president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of St. Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, The American Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians (O. Cist.)\n* An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, Saint Vincent Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania)\n* Mauro-Giuseppe Lepori O. Cist. is the current Abbot General of the Cistercians of the Common Observance.\n", "The title abbé (French; Ital. ''abate''), as commonly used in the Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English \"Father\" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X and Francis I (1516), to appoint ''abbés commendataires'' to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed—''abbés de cour'' they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) ''abbés de sainte espérance'', (abbés of holy hope; or the jeu de mots, of St. Hope)—came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing a distinctive dress—a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.\n", "\n\nIn the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the abbot is referred to as the ''hegumen''. The Superior of a convent of nuns is called the ''Hēguménē''. The title of ''archimandrite'' (literally the head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar.\n\nIn the East, the principle set forth in the ''Corpus Juris Civilis'' still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being ''stauropegiac'' will be subject only to a primate or his Synod of Bishops and not the local bishop.\n", "Although currently in the Western Church the title \"abbot\" is given only abbots of monasteries, the title archimandrite is given to \"monastics\" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of monsignor in the Western/Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church. In the Orthodox Church, only monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of Archpriest or Protopresbyter. Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been widowed. Since the time of Catherine II the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery.\n\nIn the German Evangelical Church, the German title of ''Abt'' (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French ''abbé'', as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.\nOf these the most noteworthy is Loccum Abbey in Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was ''ex officio'' a member of the consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the \"convent\" of ''Stiftsherren'' (canons).\n\nIn the Church of England, the Bishop of Norwich, by royal decree given by Henry VIII, also holds the honorary title of \"Abbot of St. Benet.\" This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, deposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.\n\nAdditionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there is a threefold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury, once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of All England, and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury.\n\nThere are several Benedictine Abbeys throughout the Anglican Communion. Most of them have mitred abbots.\n", "\"The Abbot\", from the ''Dance of Death'', by Hans Holbein the Younger\n\"The Abbot\" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of ''Danse Macabre''.\n\nThe lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to Christian hagiography, one of the most well-known being the ''Life of St. Benedict of Nursia'' by St. Gregory the Great.\n\nDuring the years 1106–1107 A.D., a Russian Orthodox abbot named Daniel made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia, and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive. Saint Joseph, Abbot of Volokolamsk, Russia (1439–1515), wrote a number of influential works against heresy, and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian philanthropy.\n\nIn the ''Tales of Redwall'' series, the creatures of Redwall are led by an Abbot or Abbess. These \"abbots\" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care, much like real abbots.\n\n\"The Abbot\" was a nickname of RZA from the Wu-Tang Clan.\n", "Abbé\nAbbé Pierre\nAbbot (Buddhism)\nAbthain\nCommendatory abbot\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n\n Russian Orthodox Abbot of Valaam Monastery\n* ''The Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "Monastic history", "General information", "Modern practices", "Abbatial hierarchy", "Modern abbots not as superior", "Eastern Christian", "Honorary and other uses of the title", "Abbots in art and literature", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Abbot
[ "\n\n'''''Ardipithecus''''' is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during Late Miocene and Early Pliocene in Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the main ape lineage, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate. Two fossil species are described in the literature: ''A. ramidus'', which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and ''A. kadabba'', dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). Behavioral analysis showed that ''Ardipithecus'' could be very similar to chimpanzees, indicating that the early human ancestors were very chimpanzee-like in behaviour.\n", "\n\n''A. ramidus'' was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (G.A.T.C.) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (D.A.B.T.). The name ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' stems mostly from the Afar language, in which ''Ardi'' means \"ground/floor\" (borrowed from the Semitic root in either Amharic or Arabic) and ''ramid'' means \"root\". The ''pithecus'' portion of the name is from the Greek word for \"ape\".\n\nLike most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how much other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well. Like later hominins, ''Ardipithecus'' had reduced canine teeth.\n\nIn 1992–1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first ''A. ramidus'' fossils—seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones—from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of ''Australopithecus'', but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, ''Ardipithecus''. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine ''A. ramidus'' individuals at As Duma in the Gona Western Margin of Ethiopia's Afar Region. The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old.\nMap showing discovery locations.\n''Ardipithecus ramidus'' had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350 cm3. This is slightly smaller than a modern bonobo or female common chimpanzee brain, but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines like Lucy (~400 to 550 cm3) and roughly 20% the size of the modern ''Homo sapiens'' brain. Like common chimpanzees, ''A. ramidus'' was much more prognathic than modern humans.\n\nThe teeth of ''A. ramidus'' lacked the specialization of other apes, and suggest that it was a generalized omnivore and frugivore (fruit eater) with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage, fibrous plant material (roots, tubers, etc.), or hard and or abrasive food. The size of the upper canine tooth in ''A. ramidus'' males was not distinctly different from that of females. Their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size, as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth. The features of the upper canine in ''A. ramidus'' contrast with the sexual dimorphism observed in common chimpanzees, where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females.\n\nThe less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in ''A. ramidus'' has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition \"compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition.\"\n\n''A. ramidus'' existed more recently than the most recent common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (CLCA or ''Pan''-''Homo'' LCA) and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor. Nevertheless, it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees, suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee. After the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged, both underwent substantial evolutionary change. Chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees; ''A. ramidus'' feet are better suited for walking. The canine teeth of ''A. ramidus'' are smaller, and equal in size between males and females, which suggests reduced male-to-male conflict, increased pair-bonding, and increased parental investment. \"Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools,\" the research team concluded.\n\n=== Ardi ===\n\nOn October 1, 2009, paleontologists formally announced the discovery of the relatively complete ''A. ramidus'' fossil skeleton first unearthed in 1994. The fossil is the remains of a small-brained 50-kilogram (110 lb) female, nicknamed \"Ardi\", and includes most of the skull and teeth, as well as the pelvis, hands, and feet. It was discovered in Ethiopia's harsh Afar desert at a site called Aramis in the Middle Awash region. Radiometric dating of the layers of volcanic ash encasing the deposits suggest that Ardi lived about 4.3-4.5 million years ago. This date, however, has been questioned by others. Fleagle and Kappelman suggest that the region in which Ardi was found is difficult to date radiometrically, and they argue that Ardi should be dated at 3.9 million years.\n\nThe fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known, more than a million years before Lucy (''Australopithecus afarensis''), the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 3.2 million years ago, and was discovered in 1974 just away from Ardi's discovery site. However, because the \"Ardi\" skeleton is no more than 200,000 years older than the earliest fossils of ''Australopithecus'', and may in fact be younger than they are, some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of ''Australopithecus''.\n\nSome researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her abductable hallux, that \"Ardi\" was a facultative biped: bipedal when moving on the ground, but quadrupedal when moving about in tree branches. ''A. ramidus'' had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and could not walk or run for long distances. The teeth suggest omnivory, and are more generalised than those of modern apes.\n\n\nFile:Ardipithecus (finger bones).jpg\|Casts of Ardi's finger bones.\nFile:Ardipithecis_Ramidus_skeleton_1994-1996.jpeg\|The recovered fragments of Ardi's skeleton\nFile:Ardipithecus ramidus, artistic reconstruction.jpg\|Scientific paleoartist Jay Matternes' rendition of Ardi.\n\n", "\n''Ardipithecus kadabba'' fossils.\n''Ardipithecus kadabba'' is \"known only from teeth and bits and pieces of skeletal bones\", and is dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago. It has been described as a \"probable chronospecies\" (i.e. ancestor) of ''A. ramidus''. Although originally considered a subspecies of ''A. ramidus'', in 2004 anthropologists Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Gen Suwa, and Tim D. White published an article elevating ''A. kadabba'' to species level on the basis of newly discovered teeth from Ethiopia. These teeth show \"primitive morphology and wear pattern\" which demonstrate that ''A. kadabba'' is a distinct species from ''A. ramidus''.\n\nThe specific name comes from the Afar word for \"basal family ancestor\".\n", "The toe and pelvic structure of ''A. ramidus'' suggest to some researchers that the organism walked erect.\n\nAccording to Scott Simpson, the Gona Project's physical anthropologist, the fossil evidence from the Middle Awash indicates that both ''A. kadabba'' and ''A. ramidus'' lived in \"a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes, swamps and springs nearby,\" but further research is needed to determine which habitat ''Ardipithecus'' at Gona preferred.\n", "\nDue to several shared characters with chimpanzees, its closeness to ape divergence period, and due to its fossil incompleteness, the exact position of ''Ardipithecus'' in the fossil record is a subject of controversy. Independent researcher such as Esteban E. Sarmiento of the Human Evolution Foundation in New Jersey, had systematically compared in 2010 the identifying characters of apes and human ancestral fossils in relation to ''Ardipithecus'', and concluded that the comparison data is not sufficient to support an exclusive human lineage. Sarmiento noted that ''Ardipithecus'' does not share any characters exclusive to humans and some of its characters (those in the wrist and basicranium) suggest it diverged from the common human/African ape stock prior to the human, chimpanzee and gorilla divergence His comparative (narrow allometry) study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths (which included living primates of similar body size) noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs, and metacarpals are reminiscent of humans, but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great ape-like. Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness. The ''Ardipithecus'' length measures, however, are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate ''Ardipithecus'' was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground. Its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare.\n\nHowever, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. Comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil tooth enamel revealed that ''Ardipithecus'' fed both arboreally (on trees) and on the ground in a more open habitat, unlike chimpanzees and extinct ape ''Sivapithecus'', thereby differentiating them from other apes. In 2014 it was reported that the hand bones of ''Ardipithecus'', ''Australopithecus sediba'' and ''A. afarensis'' consist of distinct human-lineage feature (which is the presence of third metacarpal styloid process, that is absent in other ape lineages). Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic, and a shortened, trapezoidal basioccipital element) in ''Ardipithecus'' are also found only ''Australopithecus'' and ''Homo'' clade. Comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'' also indicated strong resemblance, implying its correct inclusion in human lineage.\n\nIn a study that assumes the hominin status of ''Ardipithecus ramidus'', it has been argued the species represents a heterochronic alteration of the more general great ape body plan. In this study the resemblance of the species' craniofacial moprhology with that of subadult chimpanzees is attributed to dissociation of craniofacial growth from brain growth and associated life history trajectories such as eruption of the first molar and age of first birth. Consequently, it is argued the species represents a unique ontogeny unlike any extant ape. The reduced growth in the sub-nasal alveolar region of the face, which houses the projecting canine complex in chimpanzees, suggests the species had rates of growth and reproductive biology unlike any living primate species. In this sense the species may show the first trend towards human social, parenting and sexual psychology. Consequently, the authors argue it is no longer tenable to extrapolate from chimpanzees in reconstructions of early hominin social and mating behaviour, providing further evidence against the so-called 'chimpanzee referential model'. As the authors write when discussing the species unusual pattern of cranio-dental growth and the light it may throw on the origins of human sociality:\n\n'The contrast of humans with chimpanzees is instructive, for when humans start developing broader social bonds after the permanent dentition begins erupting, at the same developmental milestone, chimpanzee facial projection increases. In other words, humans seem to have replaced craniofacial growth with an extended and intensified period of socio-emotional development. As ''A. ramidus'' no longer has an ontogeny that results in the development of a prognathic jaw with a C/P3 complex (which is one of the most important means by which males vie for status within the mating hierarchies of other primate species), young and sub-adult members of the species must have pursued other avenues by which to become reproductively successful members of the social group. The implication of these interspecific differences is that ''A. ramidus'' would have most likely had a period of infant and juvenile socialisation different from that of chimpanzees. Consequently, it is possible that in ''A.ramidus'' we see the first, albeit incipient trend toward human forms of child socialisation and social organisation'.\n\nIt should be noted that this view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the ontogeny of ''A.ramidus''. The study also provides support for Stephen Jay Gould's theory in ''Ontogeny and Phylogeny'' that the paedomorphic form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from heterochronic dissociation of growth trajectories.\n", "\nA study published in ''Homo: Journal of Comparative Human Biology'' in 2017 claims that ''A.ramidus'' possessed an ontogeny and idiosyncratic skull morphology more conducive to the production of modulated vocalisations than any other species of extant great ape. This paper argued that erect posture, significant cervical lordosis, reduced facial projection as well as \"flexed\" cranial base architecture indicate this species possessed greater facility to modulate vocalisations than both chimpanzees and bonobos. This is a controversial finding as it pushes language origins back some 4.5Ma into the late Miocene and early Pliocene suggesting that human vocal capability may have much deeper roots in the hominin lineage than traditionally supposed. In integrating data on anatomical correlates of primate mating and social systems with studies of skull and vocal tract architecture that facilitate speech production, the authors argue that paleoanthropologists to date have failed to grasp the important relationship between early hominin social evolution and language capacity. As they write:\n\n\n\nWhile the skull of ''A.ramidus'', according to the authors, lacks the anatomical impediments to speech evident in chimpanzees, it is unclear what the vocal capabilities of this early hominin were. While they suggest ''A.ramidus'' - based on similar vocal tract ratios - may have had vocal capabilities equivalent to a modern human infant or very young child, they concede this is obviously a debatable and specualtive hypothesis. However, they do claim that changes in skull architecture through processes of social selection were a necessary prerequisite for language evolution. As they write:\n\n\n", "* Ardi\n* Chimpanzee-human last common ancestor\n* Lucy (Australopithecus), 3.2 million years extinct hominin\n* List of human evolution fossils ''(with images)''\n", "\n", "\n\n* Science Magazine: ''Ardipithecus'' special (requires free registration)\n* The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program:\n Ardipithecus kadabba\n Ardipithecus ramidus\n* ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' at Archaeology info\n* ''Explore Ardipithecus'' at NationalGeographic.com\n* ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' - Science Journal Article\n* Discovering Ardi - Discovery Channel\n* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' ", " ''Ardipithecus kadabba'' ", " Life-style ", " Alternative views and further studies ", " ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' and the evolution of human vocal ability ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Ardipithecus
[ "\nAn Airbus A321 on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport\nHyundai's car assembly line\n\nAn '''assembly line''' is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a ''progressive assembly'') in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.\n\nAssembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.\n", "Lotus Cars assembly line as of 2008\nAssembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation.\n\nAccording to Henry Ford:\n\n\n", "\nConsider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.\n\nIn an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the same time, each one at a different stage of its assembly.\n\nAfter finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.\n\nAssuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.\n", "Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).\n\nDivision of labor was practiced in China where state run monopolies mass-produced metal agricultural implements, china, armor,and weapons centuries before it appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book ''The Wealth of Nations'' (published in 1776).\n\nThe Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Venetian Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.\n\n===Industrial revolution===\n\nThe Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, horse-drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.\n\npulley block was the first manufacture to become fully automated at the Portsmouth Block Mills in the early 19th century.\n\nThe automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.\n\nProbably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.\n\nOne of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.\n\nBridgewater Foundry, pictured in 1839, one of the earliest factories to use an almost modern layout, workflow, and material-handling system.\n\nThe first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called 'The Long Shop' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.\n\n\n===Interchangeable parts===\n\nDuring the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw-cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.\n\n===Late 19th century steam and electric conveyors===\n\nSteam powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century. Hounshell (1984) shows a sketch of an electric powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.\n\nThe meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or dis-assembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.\n\n===20th century===\n\nmagneto assembly line was the first.\n1913 Experimenting with mounting body on Model T chassis. Ford tested various assembly methods to optimize the procedures before permanently installing the equipment. The actual assembly line used an overhead crane to mount the body.\nFord Model T assembly line circa 1919.\nFord Model T assembly line circa 1924.\nFord assembly line circa 1930.\nFord assembly line circa 1947.\nAccording to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash. Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.\n\nAt Ford Motor Company, the assembly line concept appears to have been introduced by William \"Pa\" Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the \"disassembly line\", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without himself moving caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40-acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.\n\nThe moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant, and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study. The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes by dividing the process into 45 steps. Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.\n\nIn 1922 Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:\n\n\n\nCharles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir ''My Forty Years with Ford'', presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual “inventors” as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:\n\n\n\nAs a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals, or six feet per minute. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.\n\nThe assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.\n\nFord's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called \"Fordism\", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.\n\nIn the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.\n\nThe massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty Ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford, GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, \"We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible.\"\n", "In his 1922 autobiography, Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:\n\nWorkers do no heavy lifting.\nNo stooping or bending over.\nNo special training required.\nThere are jobs that almost anyone can do.\nProvided employment to immigrants.\n\nThe gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that “every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963” in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.\n", "Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.\n\nOne of capitalism's most famous critics, Karl Marx, expressed in his ''Entfremdung'' theory the belief that in order to achieve job satisfaction workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be \"mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature.\" Marx viewed labour as a chance for us to externalize facets of our personality. Marxists argue that specialization makes it very difficult for any worker to feel they may be contributing to the real needs of humanity. The repetitive nature of specialized tasks causes, they say, a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Marx also argued that specialised jobs are insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.\n\nSince workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that beside being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move. Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.\n", "\nProduction line\nIndustrial engineering\nFordism\nModern Times (film)\n", "\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Works cited===\n\n \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* Homepage for assembly line optimization research\n* Assembly line optimization problems\n* History of the assembly line and its widespread effects\n* Cars Assembly Line\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Concepts", "Simple example", "History", "Improved working conditions", "Sociological problems", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Assembly line
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Alan Garner''' OBE (born 17 October 1934) is an English novelist best known for his children's fantasy novels and his retellings of traditional British folk tales. Much of his work is firmly rooted in the landscape, history and folklore of his native county of Cheshire, North West England, being set in the region and making use of the native Cheshire dialect.\n\nBorn in Congleton, Garner grew up around the nearby town of Alderley Edge, and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as 'The Edge', where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region. Studying at Manchester Grammar School and then briefly at Oxford University, in 1957 he moved to the nearby village of Blackden, where he bought and renovated an Early Modern building known as Toad Hall. His first novel, ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'', was published in 1960. A children's fantasy novel set on the Edge, it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters. Garner completed a sequel, ''The Moon of Gomrath'' (1963), but left the third book of the trilogy he had envisioned. Instead he produced a string of further fantasy novels, ''Elidor'' (1965), ''The Owl Service'' (1967) and ''Red Shift'' (1973).\n\nTurning away from fantasy as a genre, Garner produced ''The Stone Book Quartet'' (1979), a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family. He also published a series of British folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled ''Alan Garner's Fairy Tales of Gold'' (1979), ''Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales'' (1984) and ''A Bag of Moonshine'' (1986). In his subsequent novels, ''Strandloper'' (1996) and ''Thursbitch'' (2003), he continued writing tales revolving around Cheshire, although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work. In 2012, he finally published a third book in the Weirdstone trilogy, ''Boneland''.\n", "\n===Early life: 1934–56===\n\n\n\nGarner was born in the front room of his grandmother's house in Congleton, Cheshire, on 17 October 1934. He grew up nearby, in Alderley Edge, a well-to-do village that had effectively become a suburb of Manchester. His \"rural working-class family\", had been connected to Alderley Edge since at least the sixteenth century, and could be traced back to the death of William Garner in 1592. Garner claims that his family had passed on \"a genuine oral tradition\" involving folk tales about The Edge, which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it, guarded by a wizard. In the mid-nineteenth century Alan's great-great grandfather Robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well, known locally at that time as the Wizard's Well.\n\nRobert Garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen, and, according to Garner, each successive generation had tried to \"improve on, or do something different from, the previous generation\". Garner's grandfather, Joseph Garner, \"could read, but didn't and so was virtually unlettered\". Instead he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about The Edge. Garner later remarked that as a result he was \"aware of the Edge's magic\" as a child, and he and his friends often played there. The story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life, becoming, he explained, \"deeply embedded in my psyche\" and heavily influencing his later novels.\n\nGarner faced several life-threatening childhood illnesses, which left him bed ridden for much of the time. He went to a local village school, where he found that, despite being praised for his intelligence, he was punished for speaking in his native Cheshire dialect; for instance, when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water. Garner then won a place at Manchester Grammar School, where he received his secondary education; entry was means-tested, resulting in his school fees being waived. Rather than focusing his interest on creative writing, it was here that he excelled at sprinting. He used to go jogging along the highway, and later claimed that in doing so he was sometimes accompanied by the mathematician Alan Turing, who shared his fascination with the Disney film ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs''. Garner was then conscripted into national service, serving for a time with the Royal Artillery while posted to Woolwich in Southeast London.\n\nAt school, Garner had developed a keen interest in the work of Aeschylus and Homer, as well as the Ancient Greek language. Thus, he decided to pursue the study of Classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, passing his entrance exams in January 1953; at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic. He was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education, and he noted that this removed him from his \"cultural background\" and led to something of a schism with other members of his family, who \"could not cope with me, and I could not cope with\" them. Looking back, he remarked, \"I soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over irregular verbs\". In 1955, he joined the university theatrical society, playing the role of Mark Antony in a performance of William Shakespeare's ''Antony and Cleopatra'' where he co-starred alongside Dudley Moore and where Kenneth Baker was the stage manager. In August 1956, he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing, and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree; he left Oxford in late 1956. He nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained \"a permanent strength through all my life\".\n\n===''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'' and ''The Moon of Gomrath'': 1957–64===\n\nAged 22, Garner was out cycling when he came across a hand-painted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in Toad Hall – a Late Medieval building situated in Blackden, seven miles from Alderley Edge – was on sale for £510. Although he personally could not afford it, he was lent the money by the local Oddfellow lodge, enabling him to purchase and move into the cottage in June 1957. In the late nineteenth century the Hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers' cottages, but Garner was able to purchase the second for £150 about a year later; he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home.\n\nIn 1957, Garner purchased and began renovating Toad Hall at Blackden, Cheshire\n\nGarner had begun writing his first novel, ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A Tale of Alderley'', in September 1956. However it was while at Toad Hall that he finished the book. Set in Alderley Edge, it revolved around two children, Susan and Colin, who are sent to live in the area with their mother's old nurse maid, Bess, and her husband, Gowther Mossock. Setting about to explore the Edge, they discover a race of malevolent creatures, the ''svart alfar'', who dwell in the Edge's abandoned mines and who seem intent on capturing them, until they are rescued by the wizard Cadellin who reveals that the forces of darkness are massing at the Edge in search of the eponymous \"weirdstone of Brisingamen\". Whilst engaged in writing in his spare time, Garner attempted to gain employment as a teacher, but soon gave that up, believing that \"I couldn't write and teach; the energies were too similar\", and so began working as a general labourer for four years, remaining unemployed for much of that time.\n\nGarner sent his debut novel to the publishing company Collins, where it was picked up by the company's head, Sir William Collins, who was on the look out for new fantasy novels following on from the recent commercial and critical success of J.R.R. Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' (1954–55). Garner, who went on to become a personal friend of Collins, would later relate that \"Billy Collins saw a title with funny-looking words in it on the stockpile, and he decided to publish it.\" On its release in 1960, ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'' proved to be a critical and commercial success, later being described as \"a tour de force of the imagination, a novel that showed almost every writer who came afterwards what it was possible to achieve in novels ostensibly published for children.\" Garner himself however would later denounce this novel as \"a fairly bad book\" in 1968.\n\nWith his first book published, Garner abandoned his work as a labourer and gained a job as a freelance television reporter, living a \"hand to mouth\" lifestyle on a \"shoestring\" budget. He also worked on a sequel to ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'', which would be known as ''The Moon of Gomrath''. ''The Moon of Gomrath'' also revolves around the adventures of Colin and Susan, with the latter being possessed by a malevolent creature called the Brollachan who has recently entered the world. With the help of the wizard Cadellin, the Brollachan is exorcised, but Susan's soul also leaves her body, being sent to another dimension, leading Colin to find a way to bring it back. Critic Neil Philip characterised it as \"an artistic advance\" but \"a less satisfying story\". In a 1989 interview, Garner stated that he had left scope for a third book following the adventures of Colin and Susan, envisioning a trilogy, but that he had intentionally decided not to write it, instead moving on to write something different. However ''Boneland'', the conclusion to the sequence, was belatedly published in August 2012.\n\n===''Elidor'', ''The Owl Service'' and ''Red Shift'': 1964–73===\n\nIn 1962 Garner began work on a radio play named ''Elidor'', which would result in the completion of a novel of the same name. Set in contemporary Manchester, ''Elidor'' tells the story of four children who enter into a derelict Victorian church, in which they find a portal to the magical realm of Elidor. Here, they are entrusted by King Malebron to help rescue four treasures which have been stolen by the forces of evil who are attempting to take control of the kingdom. Successfully doing so, the children return to Manchester with the treasures, but are pursued by the malevolent forces who need them to seal their victory.\n\n\n\nBefore writing ''Elidor'', Garner had seen a dinner service set which could be arranged to make pictures of either flowers or owls. Inspired by this design, he produced his fourth novel, ''The Owl Service''. The story was also heavily influenced by the Medieval Welsh tale of Math fab Mathonwy from, the ''Mabinogion''. ''The Owl Service'' was critically acclaimed, winning both the Carnegie Medal and Guardian Children's Fiction Prize. It also sparked discussions among critics as to whether Garner should properly be considered a children's writer, given that this book in particular was deemed equally suitable for an adult readership.\n\nIt took Garner six years to write his next novel, ''Red Shift''. In this, he provided three intertwined love stories, one set in the present, another during the English Civil War, and the third in the second century CE. Philip referred to it as \"a complex book but not a complicated one: the bare lines of story and emotion stand clear\".\nAcademic specialist in children's literature Maria Nikolajeva characterised ''Red Shift'' as \"a difficult book\" for an unprepared reader, identifying its main themes as those of \"loneliness and failure to communicate\". Ultimately, she thought that repeated re-readings of the novel bring about the realisation that \"it is a perfectly realistic story with much more depth and psychologically more credible than the most so-called \"realistic\" juvenile novels.\"\n\n===''The Stone Book'' series and folkloric collections: 1974–94===\n\nFrom 1976 to 1978, Garner published a series of four novellas, which have come to be collectively known as ''The Stone Book'' quartet: ''The Stone Book'', ''Granny Reardun'', ''The Aimer Gate'', and ''Tom Fobble's Day''. Each focused on a day in the life of a child in the Garner family, each from a different generation.\nIn a 1989 interview, Garner noted that although writing ''The Stone Book Quartet'' had been \"exhausting\", it had been \"the most rewarding of everything\" he'd done to date. Philip described the quartet as \"a complete command of the material he had been working and reworking since the start of his career\".\nGarner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading \"Sir Gawain and the Green Knight\": the footnotes would not have been needed by his father.\n\nIn 1981, the literary critic Neil Philip published an analysis of Garner's novels as ''A Fine Anger'', which was based on his doctoral thesis, produced for the University of London in 1980. In this study he noted that \"''The Stone Book'' quartet marks a watershed in Garner's writing career, and provides a suitable moment for an evaluation of his work thus far.\"\n\n===''Strandloper'', ''Thursbitch'' and ''Boneland'': 1995–present===\n\nGarner at his home in Blackden, 2011\n\nIn 1996, Garner's novel ''Strandloper'' was published. His collection of essays and public talks, ''The Voice That Thunders'', contains much autobiographical material (including an account of his life with bipolar disorder), as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. In ''The Voice That Thunders'' he reveals the commercial pressure placed upon him during the decade-long drought which preceded ''Strandloper'' to 'forsake \"literature\", and become instead a \"popular\" writer, cashing in on my established name by producing sequels to, and making series of, the earlier books'. Garner feared that \"making series ... would render sterile the existing work, the life that produced it, and bring about my artistic and spiritual death\" and felt unable to comply.\n\nGarner's novel, ''Thursbitch'', was published in 2003. Garner's novel, ''Boneland'', was published in 2012, nominally completing a trilogy begun some 50 years earlier with ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen''.\n", "\nWith his first wife Anne Cook he had three children. In 1972 he married for a second time, this time to Griselda Greaves, a teacher and critic with whom he had two children. In a 2014 interview conducted with Mike Pitts for ''British Archaeology'' magazine, Garner stated that \"I don't have anything to do with the literary world. I avoid writers. I don't like them. Most of my close personal friends are professional archaeologists.\"\n", "\n\n\nAlthough Garner's early work is often labelled as \"children's literature\", Garner himself rejects such a description, informing one interviewer that \"I certainly have never written for children\" but that instead he has always written purely for himself. Neil Philip, in his critical study of Garner's work (1981), commented that up till that point, \"Everything Alan Garner has published has been published for children\", although he went on to relate that \"It may be that Garner's is a case\" where the division between children's and adult's literature is \"meaningless\" and that his fiction is instead \"enjoyed by a type of person, no matter what their age.\"\n\nPhilip offered the opinion that the \"essence of his work\" was \"the struggle to render the complex in simple, bare terms; to couch the abstract in the concrete and communicate it directly to the reader\". He added that Garner's work is \"intensely autobiographical, in both obvious and subtle ways\". Highlighting Garner's use of mythological and folkloric sources, Philip stated that his work explores \"the disjointed and troubled psychological and emotional landscape of the twentieth century through the symbolism of myth and folklore.\" He also expressed the opinion that \"Time is Garner's most consistent theme\".\n\nThe English author and academic Charles Butler noted that Garner was attentive to the \"geological, archaeological and cultural history of his settings, and careful to integrate his fiction with the physical reality beyond the page.\" As a part of this, Garner had included maps of Alderley Edge in both ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'' and ''The Moon of Gomrath''. Garner has spent much time investigating the areas that he deals with in his books; writing in the ''Times Literary Supplement'' in 1968, Garner commented that in preparation for writing his book ''Elidor'':\n\n:I had to read extensively textbooks on physics, Celtic symbolism, unicorns, medieval watermarks, megalithic archaeology; study the writings of Jung; brush up my Plato; visit Avebury, Silbury and Coventry Cathedral; spend a lot of time with demolition gangs on slum clearance sites; and listen to the whole of Britten's ''War Requiem'' nearly every day.\n", "\nThe Medicine House, an Early Modern building that was moved to Blackden by Garner.\n\nIn a paper published in the ''Children's Literature Association Quarterly'', Maria Nikolajeva characterised Garner as \"one of the most controversial\" authors of modern children's literature.\n\nIn the fiftieth anniversary edition of ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'', published by HarperCollins in 2010, several notable British fantasy novelists praised Garner and his work. Susan Cooper related that \"The power and range of Alan Garner's astounding talent has grown with every book he's written\", whilst David Almond called him one of Britain's \"greatest writers\" whose works \"really matter\". Philip Pullman, the author of the ''His Dark Materials'' trilogy, went further when he remarked that:\n\n:\"Garner is indisputably the great originator, the most important British writer of fantasy since Tolkien, and in many respects better than Tolkien, because deeper and more truthful... Any country except Britain would have long ago recognised his importance, and celebrated it with postage stamps and statues and street-names. But that's the way with us: our greatest prophets go unnoticed by the politicians and the owners of media empires. I salute him with the most heartfelt respect and admiration.\"\n\nAnother British fantasy writer, Neil Gaiman, claimed that \"Garner's fiction is something special\" in that it was \"smart and challenging, based in the here and the now, in which real English places emerged from the shadows of folklore, and in which people found themselves walking, living and battling their way through the dreams and patterns of myth.\" Praise also came from Nick Lake, the editorial director of HarperCollins Children's Books, who proclaimed that \"Garner is, quite simply, one of the greatest and most influential writers this country has ever produced.\"\n\n===Awards===\n\nThe biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Garner was the sole runner-up for the writing award in 1978.\n\nGarner was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to literature in the 2001 New Year's Honours list. He received the British Fantasy Society's occasional Karl Edward Wagner Award in 2003 and the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2012. In January 2011, the University of Warwick awarded the degree of Doctor of Letters (honoris causa). On that occasion he gave a half-hour interview about his work.\n\nHe has been recognised several times for particular works.\n* ''The Owl Service'' (1967) won both the Carnegie Medal and the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, For the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie in 2007 it was named one of the top ten Medal-winning works, selected by a panel to compose the ballot for a public election of the all-time favourite.\n* ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'' (1960) was named to the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list by the University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Education in 1970, denoting that it \"belongs on the same shelf\" with the 1865 classic ''Alice in Wonderland'' and its sequel.\n* ''The Stone Book'' (1976), first in the Stone Book series, won the 1996 Phoenix Award as the best English-language children's book that did not win a major award when it was originally published twenty years earlier.\n* The 1981 film ''Images'' won First Prize at the Chicago International Film Festival\n", "\n* ''Elidor'' was read in instalments by John Stride for the BBC's Jackanory programme in June 1968.\n* ''The Owl Service '' (1969), a British TV series transmitted by Granada Television based on Garner's novel of the same name.\n* A second adaptation of ''Elidor'' was read on a BBC Radio 4 in July 1972.\n* ''Red Shift'' (BBC, transmitted 17 January 1978); directed by John Mackenzie; part of the BBC's ''Play for Today'' series.\n* ''To Kill a King'' (1980), part of the BBC series of plays on supernatural themes, ''Leap in the Dark'': an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writer's block. The hero's home appears to be Garner's own house.\n* ''The Keeper'' (ITV, transmitted 13 June 1983), an episode of the ITV children's series ''Dramarama: Spooky'' series\n* Garner and Don Webb adapted ''Elidor'' as a BBC children's television series shown in 1995, comprising six half-hour episodes starring Damian Zuk as Roland and Suzanne Shaw as Helen.\n", "\n\n\n===Novels===\n* ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'', 1960\n* ''The Moon of Gomrath'', 1963\n* ''Elidor'', 1965\n* ''The Owl Service'', 1967\n* ''Red Shift'', 1973\n* ''Strandloper'', 1996\n* ''Thursbitch'', 2003\n* ''Boneland'', 2012\n\n\n===Short story collections===\n* ''The Guizer: A Book of Fools'', 1975\n* ''The Stone Book Quartet'', 1979\n* ''The Lad of the Gad'', 1980\n* ''Fairytales of Gold'', 1980, (Illustrated by Michael Foreman).\n* ''Book of British Fairy Tales'', 1984, (Illustrated by Derek Collard).\n* ''A Bag of Moonshine'', 1986, (Illustrated by P. J. Lynch).\n* ''Once Upon a Time'', 1993\n* ''Collected Folk Tales'', 2011\n\n\n===Other books===\n* ''Holly from the Bongs: A Nativity Play'', 1966\n* ''The Old Man of Mow'', 1967\n* ''The Breadhorse'', 1975\n* ''Jack and the Beanstalk'', 1992, (Illustrated by Julek Heller).\n* ''The Little Red Hen'', 1997\n* ''The Well of the Wind'', 1998\n* ''Grey Wolf, Prince Jack and the Firebird'', 1998\n* ''The Voice That Thunders'', 1997\n\n", "\n \n", "\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n\n", "* \n\n", "* Alan Garner coverage by ''The Guardian''\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Personal life", "Literary style", "Recognition and legacy", "Television and radio adaptations", "Works", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alan Garner
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n", "338 BC – A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea, securing Macedonian hegemony in Greece and the Aegean.\n216 BC – The Carthaginian army led by Hannibal defeats a numerically superior Roman army at the Battle of Cannae.\nAD 70 – The armies of Titus destroy the Second Temple as the final blow of the Siege of Jerusalem. \n 461 – Majorian is arrested near Tortona (northern Italy) and deposed by the Suebian general Ricimer as puppet emperor.\n1274 – Edward I of England returns from the Ninth Crusade and is crowned King seventeen days later.\n1343 – After the execution of her husband, Jeanne de Clisson sells her estates and raises a force of men with which to attack French shipping and ports.\n1377 – Russian troops are defeated by forces of the Blue Horde Khan Arapsha in the Battle on Pyana River.\n1415 – Thomas Grey, conspirator against King Henry V, beheaded.\n1610 – During Henry Hudson's search for the Northwest Passage, he sails into what is now known as Hudson Bay.\n1776 – The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence took place.\n1790 – The first United States Census is conducted.\n1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of the Nile concludes in a British victory.\n1830 – Charles X of France abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson Henri.\n1869 – Japan's Edo society class system is abolished as part of the Meiji Restoration reforms.\n1870 – Tower Subway, the world's first underground tube railway, opens in London, England, United Kingdom.\n1873 – The Clay Street Hill Railroad begins operating the first cable car in San Francisco's famous cable car system.\n1897 – Anglo-Afghan War: The Siege of Malakand ends when a relief column is able to reach the British garrison in the Malakand states.\n1903 – The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising against the Ottoman Empire begins.\n1914 – The German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I begins.\n1916 – World War I: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship ''Leonardo da Vinci'' in Taranto.\n1918 – The first general strike in Canadian history takes place in Vancouver.\n1922 – A typhoon hits Shantou, Republic of China killing more than 50,000 people.\n1923 – Vice President Calvin Coolidge becomes U.S. President upon the death of President Warren G. Harding.\n1932 – The positron (antiparticle of the electron) is discovered by Carl D. Anderson.\n1934 – Gleichschaltung: Adolf Hitler becomes ''Führer'' of Germany following the death of President Paul von Hindenburg.\n1937 – The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 is passed in America, the effect of which is to render marijuana and all its by-products illegal.\n1939 – Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard write a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, urging him to begin the Manhattan Project to develop a nuclear weapon.\n1943 – Jewish prisoners stage a revolt at Treblinka, one of the deadliest of Nazi death camps where approximately 900,000 persons were murdered in less than 18 months.\n* 1943 – World War II: The Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 is rammed by the Japanese destroyer ''Amagiri'' and sinks. Lt. John F. Kennedy, future U.S. President, saves all but two of his crew.\n1944 – ASNOM: Birth of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, celebrated as Day of the Republic in the Republic of Macedonia.\n 1944 – World War II: The largest trade convoy of the world wars arrives safely in the Western Approaches.\n1945 – World War II: End of the Potsdam Conference. \n1947 – A British South American Airways Avro Lancastrian airliner crashes into a mountain during a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina to Santiago, Chile. The wreckage would not be found until 1998.\n1968 – An earthquake hits Casiguran, Aurora, Philippines killing more than 270 people and wounding 261.\n1973 – A flash fire kills 51 people at the Summerland amusement centre at Douglas, Isle of Man.\n1980 – A bomb explodes at the railway station in Bologna, Italy, killing 85 people and wounding more than 200.\n1985 – Delta Air Lines Flight 191, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, crashes at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport killing 137.\n1989 – Pakistan is re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations after having restored democracy for the first time since 1972.\n 1989 – A massacre is carried out by an Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka killing 64 ethnic Tamil civilians.\n1990 – Iraq invades Kuwait, eventually leading to the Gulf War.\n1999 – The Gaisal train disaster claims 285 lives in Assam, India.\n2005 – Air France Flight 358 lands at Toronto Pearson International Airport and runs off the runway, causing the plane to burst into flames leaving 12 injuries and no fatalities.\n2014 – At least 146 people were killed and more than 114 injured in a factory explosion in Kunshan, Jiangsu, China.\n", "1260 – Kyawswa of Pagan, last ruler of the Pagan Kingdom (d. 1299)\n1455 – John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1499)\n1533 – Theodor Zwinger, Swiss physician and scholar (d. 1588)\n1549 – Mikołaj Krzysztof \"the Orphan\" Radziwiłł, Polish nobleman (d. 1616)\n1612 – Saskia van Uylenburgh, Dutch model and wife of Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1642)\n1627 – Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Dutch painter (d. 1678)\n1630 – Estephan El Douaihy, Maronite patriarch (d. 1704)\n1646 – Jean-Baptiste du Casse, French admiral and buccaneer (d. 1715)\n1672 – Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss paleontologist and scholar (d. 1733)\n1674 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1723)\n1696 – Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1754)\n1702 – Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769)\n1703 – Lorenzo Ricci, Italian religious leader, 18th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1775)\n1740 – Jean Baptiste Camille Canclaux, French general (d. 1817)\n1754 – Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French-American architect and engineer, designed Washington, D.C. (d. 1825)\n1788 – Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (d. 1853)\n1815 – Adolf Friedrich von Schack, German poet and historian (d. 1894)\n1820 – John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and mountaineer (d. 1893)\n1828 – Manuel Pavía y Rodríguez de Alburquerque, Spanish general (d. 1895)\n1834 – Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, French sculptor, designed the Statue of Liberty (d. 1904)\n1835 – Elisha Gray, American businessman, co-founded Western Electric (d. 1901)\n1861 – Prafulla Chandra Ray Indian chemist and academic (d. 1944)\n1865 – Irving Babbitt, American academic and critic (d. 1933)\n 1865 – John Radecki, Australian stained glass artist (d. 1955)\n1867 – Ernest Dowson, English poet, novelist, and short story writer (d. 1900)\n1868 – Constantine I of Greece (d. 1923)\n1870 – Marianne Weber, German sociologist and suffragist (d. 1954)\n1871 – John French Sloan, American painter and illustrator (d. 1951)\n1872 – George E. Stewart, Australian-American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1946)\n1876 – Pingali Venkayya, Indian geologist, designed the Flag of India (d. 1963)\n1877 – Ravishankar Shukla, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh (d. 1956)\n1878 – Aino Kallas, Finnish-Estonian author (d. 1956)\n1880 – Arthur Dove, American painter and educator (d. 1946)\n1882 – Red Ames, American baseball player and manager (d. 1936)\n* 1882 – Albert Bloch, American painter and academic (d. 1961)\n1884 – Rómulo Gallegos, Venezuelan author and politician, 46th President of Venezuela (d. 1969)\n1886 – John Alexander Douglas McCurdy Canadian pilot and politician, 20th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (d. 1961)\n1887 – Oskar Anderson, Bulgarian-German mathematician and statistician (d. 1960)\n1891 – Arthur Bliss, English composer and conductor (d. 1975)\n* 1891 – Viktor Zhirmunsky, Russian linguist and historian (d. 1971)\n1892 – Jack L. Warner, Canadian-born American production manager and producer, co-founded Warner Bros. (d. 1978)\n1894 – Bertha Lutz, Brazilian feminist and scientist\n1895 – Matt Henderson, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1970)\n1897 – Karl-Otto Koch, German SS officer (d. 1945)\n* 1897 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 1974)\n1898 – Ernő Nagy, Hungarian fencer (d. 1977)\n1899 – Charles Bennett, English director and screenwriter (d. 1995)\n1900 – Holling C. Holling, American author and illustrator (d. 1973)\n 1900 – Helen Morgan, American actress and singer (d. 1941)\n1902 – Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria (d. 1971)\n1905 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer (d. 1963)\n* 1905 – Myrna Loy, American actress (d. 1993)\n1907 – Mary Hamman, American journalist and author (d. 1984)\n1910 – Roger MacDougall, Scottish director, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1993)\n1911 – Ann Dvorak, American actress (d. 1979)\n1912 – Palle Huld, Danish actor (d. 2010)\n* 1912 – Håkon Stenstadvold, Norwegian painter, illustrator, and critic (d. 1977)\n* 1912 – Vladimir Žerjavić, Croatian economist and author (d. 2001)\n1913 – Xavier Thaninayagam, Sri Lankan scholar and academic (d. 1980)\n1914 – Félix Leclerc, Canadian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (d. 1988)\n* 1914 – Big Walter Price, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2012)\n* 1914 – Beatrice Straight, American actress (d. 2001)\n1915 – Gary Merrill, American actor (d. 1990)\n1916 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (d. 1990)\n1919 – Nehemiah Persoff, Israeli-American actor \n1920 – Louis Pauwels, French journalist and author (d. 1997)\n* 1920 – Augustus Rowe, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013)\n1921 – Alan Whicker, Egyptian-English journalist (d. 2013)\n1922 – Betsy Bloomingdale, American philanthropist and socialite (d. 2016)\n* 1922 – Geoffrey Dutton, Australian historian and author (d. 1998)\n1923 – Shimon Peres, Polish-Israeli lawyer and politician, 9th President of Israel (d. 2016)\n 1923 – Ike Williams, American boxer (d. 1994)\n1924 – James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1987)\n 1924 – Joe Harnell, American pianist and composer (d. 2005)\n* 1924 – Carroll O'Connor, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)\n1925 – K. Arulanandan, Ceylon-American engineer and academic (d. 2004)\n 1925 – John Dexter, English director and producer (d. 1990)\n* 1925 – John McCormack, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)\n* 1925 – Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentinian general and politician, 43rd President of Argentina (d. 2013)\n1927 – Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, English mathematician and academic\n1928 – Malcolm Hilton, English cricketer (d. 1990)\n1929 – Roy Crimmins, English trombonist and composer (d. 2014)\n 1929 – John Gale, English director and producer\n* 1929 – Vidya Charan Shukla, Indian politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (d. 2013)\n* 1929 – David Waddington, Baron Waddington, English lawyer and politician, Governor of Bermuda (d. 2017)\n1930 – Vali Myers, Australian painter and dancer (d. 2003)\n1931 – Pierre DuMaine, American bishop and academic\n* 1931 – Eddie Fuller, South African cricketer (d. 2008)\n* 1931 – Karl Miller, English journalist and critic (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Viliam Schrojf, Czech footballer (d. 2007)\n1932 – Lamar Hunt, American businessman, co-founded the American Football League and World Championship Tennis (d. 2006)\n 1932 – Peter O'Toole, British-Irish actor and producer (d. 2013)\n1933 – Ioannis Varvitsiotis, Greek politician, Greek Minister of Defence\n1934 – Valery Bykovsky, Russian general and astronaut\n1935 – Hank Cochran, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)\n1936 – Anthony Payne, English composer and author\n1937 – Ron Brierley, New Zealand businessman\n 1937 – Billy Cannon, American football player and dentist\n* 1937 – Garth Hudson, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter, and producer \n1938 – Dave Balon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2007)\n 1938 – Pierre de Bané, Israeli-Canadian lawyer and politician\n* 1938 – Terry Peck, Falkland Islander soldier (d. 2006)\n1939 – Benjamin Barber, American theorist, author, and academic\n 1939 – Wes Craven, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)\n* 1939 – John W. Snow, American businessman and politician, 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury\n1940 – Angel Lagdameo, Filipino archbishop\n 1940 – Beko Ransome-Kuti, Nigerian physician and activist (d. 2006)\n* 1940 – Will Tura, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1941 – Doris Coley, American singer (d. 2000)\n 1941 – Jules A. Hoffmann, Luxembourgian-French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1941 – François Weyergans, Belgian director and screenwriter\n1942 – Isabel Allende, Chilean-American novelist, essayist, essayist\n 1942 – Juan Formell, Cuban singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014)\n* 1942 – Nell Irvin Painter, American author and historian\n1943 – Herbert M. Allison, American lieutenant and businessman (d. 2013)\n 1943 – Tom Burgmeier, American baseball player and coach\n* 1943 – Jon R. Cavaiani, English-American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2014)\n* 1943 – Rose Tremain, English novelist and short story writer\n1944 – Jim Capaldi, English drummer and singer-songwriter (d. 2005)\n 1944 – Naná Vasconcelos, Brazilian singer and berimbau player (d. 2016)\n1945 – Joanna Cassidy, American actress\n 1945 – Alex Jesaulenko, Austrian-Australian footballer and coach\n* 1945 – Bunker Roy, Indian educator and activist\n* 1945 – Eric Simms, Australian rugby league player and coach\n1946 – James Howe, American journalist and author\n1947 – Ruth Bakke, Norwegian organist and composer\n* 1947 – Lawrence Wright, American journalist, author, and screenwriter\n1948 – Andy Fairweather Low, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n 1948 – Dennis Prager, American radio host and author\n* 1948 – James Street, American football and baseball player (d. 2013)\n* 1948 – Snoo Wilson, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n1949 – James Fallows, American journalist and author\n 1949 – Bertalan Farkas, Hungarian general and astronaut\n1950 – Jussi Adler-Olsen, Danish author and publisher\n 1950 – Ted Turner, British guitarist (Wishbone Ash)\n1951 – Andrew Gold, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011)\n 1951 – Steve Hillage, English singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1951 – Joe Lynn Turner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1951 – Per Westerberg, Swedish businessman and politician, Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden\n1953 – Donnie Munro, Scottish singer and guitarist \n 1953 – Anthony Seldon, English historian and author\n1954 – Sammy McIlroy, Northern Irish footballer and manager\n1955 – Caleb Carr, American historian and author\n* 1955 – Tony Godden, English footballer and manager\n* 1955 – Butch Vig, American drummer, songwriter, and record producer \n1956 – Fulvio Melia, Italian-American physicist, astrophysicist, and author\n1959 – Victoria Jackson, American actress and singer\n* 1959 – Johnny Kemp, Bahamian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2015)\n* 1959 – Apollonia Kotero, American singer and actress \n1960 – Linda Fratianne, American figure skater\n 1960 – Neal Morse, American singer and keyboard player \n* 1960 – David Yow, American singer-songwriter \n1961 – Pete de Freitas, Spanish drummer and producer (d. 1989)\n1962 – Lee Mavers, English singer, songwriter and guitarist \n1963 – Laura Bennett, American architect and fashion designer\n 1963 – Uğur Tütüneker, Turkish footballer and manager\n1964 – Frank Biela, German race car driver\n 1964 – Mary-Louise Parker, American actress\n1965 – Joe Hockey, Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Treasurer of Australia\n 1965 – Hisanobu Watanabe, Japanese baseball player and coach\n1966 – Takashi Iizuka, Japanese wrestler\n 1966 – Grainne Leahy, Irish cricketer\n* 1966 – Tim Wakefield, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1967 – Aaron Krickstein, American tennis player\n 1967 – Aline Brosh McKenna, American screenwriter and producer\n1968 – Stefan Effenberg, German footballer and sportscaster\n 1968 – John Stanier, American drummer \n1969 – Jan Axel Blomberg, Norwegian drummer and songwriter \n 1969 – Cedric Ceballos, American basketball player\n* 1969 – Fernando Couto, Portuguese footballer and manager\n1970 – Tony Amonte, American ice hockey player and coach\n 1970 – Kevin Smith, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1970 – Philo Wallace, Barbadian cricketer\n1971 – Jason Bell, Australian rugby league player\n 1971 – Michael Hughes, Irish footballer and manager\n1972 – Mohamed Al-Deayea, Saudi Arabian footballer\n 1972 – Jacinda Barrett, Australian model and actress\n1973 – Hiroyuki Goto, Japanese game designer, created ''Kotoba no Puzzle: Mojipittan''\n 1973 – Danie Keulder, Namibian cricketer\n* 1973 – Miguel Mendonca, Zimbabwean journalist and author\n* 1973 – Susie O'Neill, Australian swimmer\n1974 – Phil Williams, English journalist and radio host\n1975 – Mineiro, Brazilian footballer\n* 1975 – Xu Huaiwen, Chinese-German badminton player and coach\n* 1975 – Tamás Molnár, Hungarian water polo player\n1976 – Reyes Estévez, Spanish runner\n 1976 – Jay Heaps, American soccer player and coach \n* 1976 – Michael Weiss, American figure skater\n* 1976 – Sam Worthington, English-Australian actor and producer\n* 1976 – Mohammad Zahid, Pakistani cricketer\n1977 – Edward Furlong, American actor \n 1977 – Mark Velasquez, American photographer\n1978 – Goran Gavrančić, Serbian footballer\n 1978 – Matt Guerrier, American baseball player\n* 1978 – Deividas Šemberas, Lithuanian footballer\n* 1978 – Dragan Vukmir, Serbian footballer\n1979 – Marco Bonura, Italian footballer\n 1979 – Reuben Kosgei, Kenyan runner\n1980 – Ivica Banović, Croatian footballer\n 1980 – Dingdong Dantes, Filipino actor, singer, director, and producer\n1981 – Alexander Emelianenko, Russian mixed martial artist and boxer\n 1981 – Tim Murtagh, English cricketer\n1982 – Hélder Postiga, Portuguese footballer\n 1982 – Kerry Rhodes, American football player\n* 1982 – Grady Sizemore, American baseball player\n1983 – Michel Bastos, Brazilian footballer\n 1983 – Kim Jung-ah, South Korean singer, dancer, and actress \n1984 – Giampaolo Pazzini, Italian footballer\n1985 – Stephen Ferris, Irish rugby player\n* 1985 – David Hart Smith, Canadian wrestler\n* 1985 – Britt Nicole (Brittany Nicole Waddell), American Christian pop artist\n1986 – Mathieu Razanakolona, Canadian skier\n1988 – Rob Kwiet, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1988 – Alice Moran, Canadian actress and screenwriter\n1989 – Nacer Chadli, Belgian footballer\n1990 – Ima Bohush, Belarusian tennis player\n1992 – Hallie Eisenberg, American actress\n1994 – Laura Pigossi, Brazilian tennis player\n* 1994 – Laremy Tunsil, American football player\n1995 – Kristaps Porziņģis, Latvian basketball player\n\n", "216 – Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, Roman consul\n* 216 – Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Roman consul and general\n* 216 – Marcus Minucius Rufus, Roman consul\n* 257 – Pope Stephen I\n* 640 – Pope Severinus\n* 686 – Pope John V (b. 635)\n* 855 – Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Arab theologian and jurist (b. 780)\n* 924 – Ælfweard of Wessex (b. 904)\n1075 – Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople\n1100 – William II of England (b. 1056)\n1222 – Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (b. 1156)\n1277 – Mu'in al-Din Sulaiman Pervane, Chancellor and Regent of the Sultanate of Rum\n1316 – Louis of Burgundy (b. 1297)\n1332 – King Christopher II of Denmark (b. 1276)\n1445 – Oswald von Wolkenstein, Austrian poet and composer (b. 1376)\n1451 – Elizabeth of Görlitz (b. 1390)\n1511 – Andrew Barton, Scottish admiral (b. 1466)\n1512 – Alessandro Achillini, Italian physician and philosopher (b. 1463)\n1546 – Peter Faber, French priest and theologian, co-founded the Society of Jesus (b. 1506)\n1589 – Henry III of France (b. 1551)\n1605 – Richard Leveson, English admiral (b. c. 1570)\n1611 – Katō Kiyomasa, Japanese daimyo (b. 1562)\n1667 – Francesco Borromini, Swiss architect, designed San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and Sant'Agnese in Agone (b. 1599)\n1696 – Robert Campbell of Glenlyon (b. 1630)\n1769 – Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1689)\n1788 – Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (b. 1727)\n1815 – Guillaume Brune, French general and politician (b. 1763)\n1823 – Lazare Carnot, French mathematician, general, and politician, President of the National Convention (b. 1753)\n1834 – Harriet Arbuthnot, English diarist (b. 1793)\n1849 – Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman Albanian commander (b. 1769)\n1854 – Heinrich Clauren, German author (b. 1771)\n1859 – Horace Mann, American educator and politician (b. 1796)\n1876 – \"Wild Bill\" Hickok, American sheriff (b. 1837)\n1889 – Eduardo Gutiérrez, Argentinian author (b. 1851)\n1890 – Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet and author (b. 1813)\n1903 – Eduard Magnus Jakobson, Estonian missionary and engraver (b. 1847)\n* 1903 – Edmond Nocard, French veterinarian and microbiologist (b. 1850)\n1913 – Ferenc Pfaff, Hungarian architect and academic, designed Zagreb Central Station (b. 1851)\n1915 – John Downer, Australian politician, 16th Premier of South Australia (b. 1843)\n1917 – Jaan Mahlapuu, Estonian military pilot (b. 1894)\n1921 – Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1873)\n1922 – Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-Canadian engineer, invented the telephone (b. 1847)\n1923 – Warren G. Harding, American journalist and politician, 29th President of the United States (b. 1865)\n1934 – Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 2nd President of Germany (b. 1847)\n1937 – Artur Sirk, Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1900)\n1939 – Harvey Spencer Lewis, American mystic and author (b. 1883)\n1945 – Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and educator (b. 1863)\n1955 – Alfred Lépine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1901)\n 1955 – Wallace Stevens, American poet and educator (b. 1879)\n1963 – Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (b. 1901)\n1967 – Walter Terence Stace, English-American epistemologist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1886)\n1970 – Angus MacFarlane-Grieve, English academic, mathematician, rower, and soldier (b. 1891)\n1972 – Brian Cole, American bass player (b. 1942)\n* 1972 – Paul Goodman, American psychotherapist and author (b. 1911)\n* 1972 – Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (b. 1887)\n1973 – Jean-Pierre Melville, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917)\n1974 – Douglas Hawkes, English race car driver and businessman (b. 1893)\n1976 – László Kalmár, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1905)\n 1976 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1890)\n1978 – Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer and conductor (b. 1899)\n 1978 – Antony Noghès, French businessman, founded the Monaco Grand Prix (b. 1890)\n1979 – Thurman Munson, American baseball player (b. 1947)\n1981 – Stefanie Clausen, Danish diver (b. 1900)\n1986 – Roy Cohn, American lawyer and politician (b. 1927)\n1988 – Joe Carcione, American activist and author (b. 1914)\n* 1988 – Raymond Carver, American short story writer and poet (b. 1938)\n1990 – Norman Maclean, American short story writer and essayist (b. 1902)\n 1990 – Edwin Richfield, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1921)\n1992 – Michel Berger, French singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)\n1996 – Michel Debré, French lawyer and politician, 150th Prime Minister of France (b. 1912)\n* 1996 – Obdulio Varela, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b. 1917)\n1997 – William S. Burroughs, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1914)\n 1997 – Fela Kuti, Nigerian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1938)\n1998 – Shari Lewis, American television host and puppeteer (b. 1933)\n1999 – Willie Morris, American writer (b. 1934)\n2003 – Peter Safar, Austrian-American physician and academic (b. 1924)\n2004 – Ferenc Berényi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1929)\n* 2004 – François Craenhals, Belgian illustrator (b. 1926)\n* 2004 – Heinrich Mark, Estonian lawyer and politician, 5th Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1911)\n2005 – Steven Vincent, American journalist and author (b. 1955)\n2007 – Chauncey Bailey, American journalist (b. 1950)\n2008 – Fujio Akatsuka, Japanese illustrator (b. 1935)\n2011 – José Sanchis Grau, Spanish author and illustrator (b. 1932)\n2012 – Gabriel Horn, English biologist and academic (b. 1927)\n 2012 – Magnus Isacsson, Canadian director and producer (b. 1948)\n* 2012 – Jimmy Jones, American singer-songwriter (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – John Keegan, English historian and journalist (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – Bernd Meier, German footballer (b. 1972)\n* 2012 – Marguerite Piazza, American soprano (b. 1920)\n2013 – Julius L. Chambers, American lawyer and activist (b. 1936)\n 2013 – Richard E. Dauch, American businessman, co-founded American Axle (b. 1942)\n* 2013 – Alla Kushnir, Russian–Israeli chess player (b. 1941)\n2014 – Ed Joyce, American journalist (b. 1932)\n 2014 – Billie Letts, American author and educator (b. 1938)\n* 2014 – Barbara Prammer, Austrian social worker and politician (b. 1954)\n* 2014 – James Thompson, American-Finnish author (b. 1964)\n2015 – Forrest Bird, American pilot and engineer (b. 1921)\n 2015 – Giovanni Conso, Italian jurist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1922)\n* 2015 – Piet Fransen, Dutch footballer (b. 1936)\n* 2015 – Jack Spring, American baseball player (b. 1933)\n2016 – Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (b. 1930)\n 2016 – David Huddleston, American actor (b. 1930)\n* 2016 – Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (b. 1927)\n* 2016 – Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1946)\n\n", "Airmobile Forces Day (Ukraine)\nChristian feast day:\nBasil Fool for Christ (Russian Orthodox Church)\nBlessed Justin Russolillo\nEusebius of Vercelli\nPeter Faber\nPeter Julian Eymard\nPope Stephen I\nOur Lady of the Angels of the Portiuncula (Franciscan Order)\nSamuel David Ferguson (Episcopal Church) \n*August 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nDay of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)\nOur Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)\nParatroopers Day (Russia)\nRepublic Day (Republic of Macedonia)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 2
[ "\n\nThe '''Atlantic Ocean''' is the second largest of the world's oceans.\n\n'''Atlantic''' may also refer to:\n\n", "===In Canada===\n* Atlantic, Nova Scotia\n* Atlantic Canada\n===In the United States===\n* Atlantic, Iowa\n* Atlantic, Massachusetts\n* Atlantic, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in eastern Carteret County\n* Atlantic, Pennsylvania\n* Atlantic, Seattle, a neighborhood in Washington state\n* Atlantic, Virginia\n* Atlantic City, New Jersey \n* Atlantic County, New Jersey\n", "===Companies and labels===\n* Atlantic Books, an independent British publishing house\n* Atlantic Entertainment Group, a defunct movie studio company\n* Atlantic FM, a radio station serving Cornwall, United Kingdom\n* Atlantic Records, a record company\n\n===Music===\n====Groups====\n* The Atlantic, a post-hardcore band from Chicago, now known as Paper Cities\n* The Atlantics, an Australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s\n\n====Albums====\n* ''Atlantic'' (Dufresne album)\n* ''Atlantic'' (Theatre album)\n\n====Songs====\n* \"Atlantic\" (song), by Keane\n* \"Atlantic\", a song by Björk from ''Vessel (DVD)''\n* \"Atlantic\", a song by Thrice from ''Vheissu''\n\n===Other art, entertainment, and media===\n* ''Atlantic'' (film), a black and white British film\n''The Atlantic'', an American magazine founded as ''The Atlantic Monthly'' in 1857\n", " Atlantic (company), an Italian toy manufacturer\n* Atlantic (supermarkets), a supermarket chain in Greece\n* A&P (The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company), an American and Canadian supermarket chain \n* Atlantic Broadband, a cable company in Massachusetts\n* Atlantic LNG, a liquefied natural gas producing company based in Trinidad and Tobago\n* Atlantic Philanthropies, a private foundation\n* Atlantic Superstore, a Canadian supermarket chain\n* Atlantic University, Virginia Beach, Virginia\n* Groupe Atlantic, a French climate control engineering company\n", "* Atlantic Championship, developmental open-wheel racing series in North America\n* Atlantic League of Professional Baseball, an American professional baseball league\n", "* Atlantic Building aka Edificio Atlantic, a condominium building in Havana, Cuba\n* The Atlantic (Atlanta), a skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, United States\n", "===Airlines===\n* Air Atlantic, a Canadian airline\n* Atlantic Airways, a Faroese airline company\n\n===Motor vehicles===\n* Atlantic (1921 automobile), an obsolete automobile company\n* Austin Atlantic, a British car produced by the Austin Motor Company from 1949 to 1952\n* Fisker Atlantic, a plug-in electric car\n\n===Railroads and trains===\n* ''Atlantic'' (locomotive), name of an early steam-powered locomotive of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad with a 0-4-0 wheel arrangement\n* Atlantic (Los Angeles Metro station)\n* Atlantic (Staten Island Railway station)\n* ''Atlantic'' (train), a named passenger train operated by Canadian Pacific Railway and later Via Rail\n* Atlantic, a type of steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 wheel arrangement (UIC classification 2B1), \n===Ships===\n* ''Atlantic'' (1783), 18th century merchant ship\n* ''Atlantic'' (1848), steamboat that sank on Lake Erie after a collision with the steamer Ogdensburg on 20 August 1852\n* ''Atlantic'' (yacht), a three-masted gaff-rigged schooner\n* Atlantic 85 class lifeboats, lifeboats that serve the shores of the United Kingdom and Ireland as a part of the RNLI inshore fleet\n* RMS ''Atlantic'', a steamship that sank off Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1873\n", "* Atlantic (period) of palaeoclimatology\n* Atlantic languages (formerly West Atlantic), a language family in West Africa\n", "* Atlantic Beach (disambiguation)\n* Atlantic Bridge (disambiguation)\n* Atlantik (disambiguation)\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Places", "Art, entertainment, and media", "Enterprises and organizations", "Sports", "Structures", "Transportation", "Other uses", "See also" ]	Atlantic (disambiguation)
[ "\n\nAn '''algebraic number''' is any complex number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with rational coefficients (or equivalently – by clearing denominators – with integer coefficients). All integers and rational numbers are algebraic, as are all roots of integers. The same is not true for all real and complex numbers because they also include transcendental numbers such as and e. Almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental.\n", "The rational numbers, expressed as the quotient of two integers ''a'' and ''b'', ''b'' not equal to zero, satisfy the above definition because is the root of .\nThe quadratic surds (irrational roots of a quadratic polynomial with integer coefficients ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'') are algebraic numbers. If the quadratic polynomial is monic () then the roots are quadratic integers.\nThe constructible numbers are those numbers that can be constructed from a given unit length using straightedge and compass. These include all quadratic surds, all rational numbers, and all numbers that can be formed from these using the basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of square roots. (Note that by designating cardinal directions for 1, −1, ''i'', and −''i'', complex numbers such as are considered constructible.)\nAny expression formed from algebraic numbers using any combination of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of ''n''th roots gives another algebraic number.\nPolynomial roots that ''cannot'' be expressed in terms of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of ''n''th roots (such as the roots of ). This happens with many, but not all, polynomials of degree 5 or higher.\nGaussian integers: those complex numbers where both ''a'' and ''b'' are integers are also quadratic integers.\nTrigonometric functions of rational multiples of (except when undefined): that is, the trigonometric numbers. For example, each of , , satisfies . This polynomial is irreducible over the rationals, and so these three cosines are ''conjugate'' algebraic numbers. Likewise, , , , all satisfy the irreducible polynomial , and so are conjugate algebraic integers.\nSome irrational numbers are algebraic and some are not:\nThe numbers and are algebraic since they are roots of polynomials and , respectively.\nThe golden ratio ''φ'' is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial .\n*The numbers and ''e'' are not algebraic numbers (see the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem); hence they are transcendental.\n", "\nAlgebraic numbers on the complex plane colored by degree (red=1, green=2, blue=3, yellow=4)\nThe set of algebraic numbers is countable (enumerable).\nHence, the set of algebraic numbers has Lebesgue measure zero (as a subset of the complex numbers), i.e. \"almost all\" complex numbers are not algebraic.\nGiven an algebraic number, there is a unique monic polynomial (with rational coefficients) of least degree that has the number as a root. This polynomial is called its minimal polynomial. If its minimal polynomial has degree ''n'', then the algebraic number is said to be of ''degree n''. An algebraic number of degree 1 is a rational number. A real algebraic number of degree 2 is a quadratic irrational.\nAll algebraic numbers are computable and therefore definable and arithmetical.\nThe set of real algebraic numbers is linearly ordered, countable, densely ordered, and without first or last element, so is order-isomorphic to the set of rational numbers.\nFor real numbers ''a'' and ''b'', the complex number ''a'' + ''bi'' is algebraic if and only if both ''a'' and ''b'' are algebraic.\n", "Algebraic numbers colored by degree (blue=4, cyan=3, red=2, green=1). The unit circle is black.\nThe sum, difference, product and quotient (if the denominator is nonzero) of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic (this fact can be demonstrated using the resultant), and the algebraic numbers therefore form a field '''Q''' (sometimes denoted by '''A''', though this usually denotes the adele ring). Every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are ''algebraic numbers'' is again algebraic. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the algebraic closure of the rationals.\n\nThe set of ''real'' algebraic numbers itself forms a field.\n", "\n===Numbers defined by radicals===\nAll numbers that can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of integer additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and taking ''n''th roots where ''n'' is a positive integer (i.e., radical expressions) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers that cannot be obtained in this manner. All of these numbers are roots of polynomials of degree ≥5. This is a result of Galois theory (see Quintic equations and the Abel–Ruffini theorem). An example of such a number is the unique real root of the polynomial (which is approximately 1.167304).\n\n===Closed-form number===\n\nAlgebraic numbers are all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, starting from the rational numbers. One may generalize this to \"closed-form numbers\", which may be defined in various ways. Most broadly, all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms are called \"elementary numbers\", and these include the algebraic numbers, plus some transcendental numbers. Most narrowly, one may consider numbers ''explicitly'' defined in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms – this does not include all algebraic numbers, but does include some simple transcendental numbers such as ''e'' or log(2).\n", "\nAlgebraic numbers colored by leading coefficient (red signifies 1 for an algebraic integer)\nAn '''algebraic integer''' is an algebraic number that is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients with leading coefficient 1 (a monic polynomial). Examples of algebraic integers are , , and Note, therefore, that the algebraic integers constitute a proper superset of the integers, as the latter are the roots of monic polynomials for all In this sense, algebraic integers are to algebraic numbers what integers are to rational numbers.\n\nThe sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a ring. The name ''algebraic integer'' comes from the fact that the only rational numbers that are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers. If ''K'' is a number field, its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in ''K'', and is frequently denoted as ''OK''. These are the prototypical examples of Dedekind domains.\n", "Algebraic solution\nGaussian integer\nEisenstein integer\nQuadratic irrational\nFundamental unit\nRoot of unity\nGaussian period\nPisot–Vijayaraghavan number\nSalem number\n", "\n", "\nHardy, G.H. and Wright, E.M. 1978, 2000 (with general index) ''An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers: 5th Edition'', Clarendon Press, Oxford UK, \n\n\nNiven, Ivan 1956. ''Irrational Numbers'', Carus Mathematical Monograph no. 11, Mathematical Association of America.\nOre, Øystein 1948, 1988, ''Number Theory and Its History'', Dover Publications, Inc. New York, (pbk.)\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Examples", "{{anchor\|Degree of an algebraic number}} Properties", "The field of algebraic numbers", "Related fields", "Algebraic integers", "Special classes of algebraic number", "Notes", "References" ]	Algebraic number
[ "In mathematics, an '''automorphism''' is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the '''automorphism group'''. It is, loosely speaking, the symmetry group of the object.\n", "The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of \"mathematical object\" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an \"isomorphism\" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called category theory. Category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects.\n\nIn category theory, an automorphism is an endomorphism (i.e., a morphism from an object to itself) which is also an isomorphism (in the categorical sense of the word).\n\nThis is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren't necessarily functions and objects aren't necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.\n\nIn the context of abstract algebra, for example, a mathematical object is an algebraic structure such as a group, ring, or vector space. An isomorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism. (The definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example, group homomorphism, ring homomorphism, and linear operator).\n\nThe identity morphism (identity mapping) is called the '''trivial automorphism''' in some contexts. Respectively, other (non-identity) automorphisms are called '''nontrivial automorphisms'''.\n", "If the automorphisms of an object form a set (instead of a proper class), then they form a group under composition of morphisms. This group is called the '''automorphism group''' of .\n;Closure: Composition of two automorphisms is another automorphism.\n;Associativity: It is part of the definition of a category that composition of morphisms is associative.\n;Identity: The identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself, which is an automorphism.\n;Inverses: By definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism.\n\nThe automorphism group of an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' is denoted Aut''C''(''X''), or simply Aut(''X'') if the category is clear from context.\n", "* In set theory, an arbitrary permutation of the elements of a set ''X'' is an automorphism. The automorphism group of ''X'' is also called the symmetric group on ''X''.\n* In puzzles, automorphism exists when elements of the puzzle have a type of symmetry among the elements and their positions, such as an automorphic Sudoku.\n* In elementary arithmetic, the set of integers, '''Z''', considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a ring, however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any abelian group, but not of a ring or field.\n* A group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group ''G'' there is a natural group homomorphism ''G'' → Aut(''G'') whose image is the group Inn(''G'') of inner automorphisms and whose kernel is the center of ''G''. Thus, if ''G'' has trivial center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group.\n* In linear algebra, an endomorphism of a vector space ''V'' is a linear operator ''V'' → ''V''. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on ''V''. When the vector space is finite-dimensional, the automorphism group of ''V'' is the same as the general linear group, GL(''V'').\n* An example of an automorphism is a similarity transform, which leaves the geometrical form of a figure unchanged.\n* A field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself. In the cases of the rational numbers ('''Q''') and the real numbers ('''R''') there are no nontrivial field automorphisms. Some subfields of '''R''' have nontrivial field automorphisms, which however do not extend to all of '''R''' (because they cannot preserve the property of a number having a square root in '''R'''). In the case of the complex numbers, '''C''', there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends '''R''' into '''R''': complex conjugation, but there are infinitely (uncountably) many \"wild\" automorphisms (assuming the axiom of choice). Field automorphisms are important to the theory of field extensions, in particular Galois extensions. In the case of a Galois extension ''L''/''K'' the subgroup of all automorphisms of ''L'' fixing ''K'' pointwise is called the Galois group of the extension.\n* The automorphism group of the quaternions ('''H''') as a ring are the inner automorphisms, by the Skolem–Noether theorem: maps of the form .\n* In graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.\n* In geometry, an automorphism may be called a motion of the space. Specialized terminology is also used:\n In metric geometry an automorphism is a self-isometry. The automorphism group is also called the isometry group.\n In the category of Riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a bijective biholomorphic map (also called a conformal map), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the Riemann sphere are Möbius transformations.\n An automorphism of a differentiable manifold ''M'' is a diffeomorphism from ''M'' to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(''M'').\n In topology, morphisms between topological spaces are called continuous maps, and an automorphism of a topological space is a homeomorphism of the space to itself, or self-homeomorphism (see homeomorphism group). In this example it is ''not sufficient'' for a morphism to be bijective to be an isomorphism.\n", "One of the earliest group automorphisms (automorphism of a group, not simply a group of automorphisms of points) was given by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in 1856, in his icosian calculus, where he discovered an order two automorphism, writing:\nso that is a new fifth root of unity, connected with the former fifth root by relations of perfect reciprocity.\n", "\nIn some categories—notably groups, rings, and Lie algebras—it is possible to separate automorphisms into two types, called \"inner\" and \"outer\" automorphisms.\n\nIn the case of groups, the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element ''a'' of a group ''G'', conjugation by ''a'' is the operation given by (or ''a''−1''ga''; usage varies). One can easily check that conjugation by ''a'' is a group automorphism. The inner automorphisms form a normal subgroup of Aut(''G''), denoted by Inn(''G''); this is called Goursat's lemma.\n\nThe other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms. The quotient group is usually denoted by Out(''G''); the non-trivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms.\n\nThe same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where ''a'' is any invertible element. For Lie algebras the definition is slightly different.\n", "* Antiautomorphism\n* Automorphism (in Sudoku puzzles)\n* Characteristic subgroup\n* Endomorphism ring\n* Frobenius automorphism\n* Morphism\n* Order automorphism (in order theory).\n* Relation-preserving automorphism\n* Fractional Fourier transform\n", "\n\n", "* ''Automorphism'' at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics\n* \n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", "Automorphism group", "Examples", "History", "Inner and outer automorphisms", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Automorphism
[ "\n\n\nThe Brazilian Forró Accordionist Dominguinhos\n\n'''Accordions''' (from 19th century German ''Akkordeon'', from ''Akkord''—\"musical chord, concord of sounds\") are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type, colloquially referred to as a squeezebox. A person who plays the accordion is called an ''accordionist''. The concertina and bandoneón are related; the harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family.\n\nThe instrument is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing ''pallets'' to open, which allow air to flow across strips of brass or steel, called ''reeds''. These vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instrument's reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block. The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the right-hand manual, and the accompaniment, consisting of bass and pre-set chord buttons, on the left-hand manual.\n\nThe accordion is widely spread across the world. In some countries (for example Brazil, Colombia and Mexico) it is used in popular music (for example Forró, Sertanejo and B-Pop in Brazil), whereas in other regions (such as Europe, North America and other countries in South America) it tends to be more used for dance-pop and folk music and as well as in regional and is often used in folk music in Europe, North America and South America. Nevertheless, in Europe and North America, some popular music acts also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is also used in cajun, zydeco, jazz music and in both solo and orchestra performances of classical music.\nThe piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco, California. Many conservatories in Europe have classical accordion departments. The oldest name for this group of instruments is ''harmonika'', from the Greek ''harmonikos'', meaning ''harmonic, musical''. Today, native versions of the name ''accordion'' are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion patented by Cyrill Demian, which concerned \"automatically coupled chords on the bass side\".\n", "A diatonic button accordion being played.\nAccordions have many configurations and types. What may be technically possible to do with one accordion could be impossible with another:\n* Some accordions are ''bisonoric'', producing different pitches depending on the direction of bellows movement\n* Others are ''unisonoric'' and produce the same pitch in both directions. The pitch also depends on its size\n* Some use a chromatic buttonboard for the right-hand manual\n* Others use a diatonic buttonboard for the right-hand manual\n* Yet others use a piano-style musical keyboard for the right-hand manual\n* Some can play in different registers\n* Craftsmen and technicians may tune the same registers differently, \"personalizing\" the end result, such as an organ technician might voice a particular instrument\n\n=== Universal components ===\n\n==== Bellows ====\n\nThe bellows is the most recognizable part of the instrument, and the primary means of articulation. Similar to a violin's bow, the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the player. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to create pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibration, applied pressure increasing the volume.\n\nThe keyboard touch is not expressive and does not affect dynamics: all expression is effected through the bellows: some bellows effects as illustrated below:\n# Bellows used for volume control/fade\n# Repeated change of direction (\"bellows shake\"), which has been popularized by Luiz Gonzaga and is extensively used in Forró and called \"resfulengo\" in Brazil.\n# Constant bellows motion while applying pressure at intervals\n# Constant bellows motion to produce clear tones with no resonance\n# Using the bellows with the silent air button gives the sound of air moving, which is sometimes used in contemporary compositions particularly for this instrument\n\n==== Body ====\nThe accordion's body consists of two wood boxes joined together by the bellows. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals, respectively. Each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the sound to better project. The grille for the right-hand manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is normally used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment, however skilled players can reverse these roles.\n\nThe size and weight of an accordion varies depending on its type, layout and playing range, which can be as small as to have only one or two rows of basses and a single octave on the right-hand manual, to the standard 120-bass accordion and through to large and heavy 160-bass free-bass converter models.\n\n==== Pallet mechanism ====\nThe accordion is an aerophone. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it:\n\nA side view of the pallet mechanism in a piano accordion. As the key is pressed down the pallet is lifted, allowing for air to enter the tone chamber in either direction and excite the reeds; air flow direction depends on the direction of bellows movement. A similar mechanical pallet movement is used in button accordions, as well as for bass mechanisms such as the Stradella ''bass machine'' that translates a single button press into multiple pallet openings for the notes of a chord.\n\n=== Variable components ===\nThere is a wide range of instruments that are called ''accordion''. The different types have varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format. Not all have switches. The most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres. Another type of accordion is the button accordion, which is used in several musical traditions, including Cajun, Conjunto and Tejano music, Swiss and Austro-German Alpine music, Argentinian tango music and many other folk genres.\n\n==== Right-hand manual systems ====\nA Weltmeister piano accordion\nDifferent systems exist for the right-hand manual of an accordion, which is normally used for playing the melody. Some use a button layout arranged in one way or another, while others use a piano-style keyboard. Each system has different claimed benefits by those who prefer it. They are also used to define one accordion or another as a different \"type\":\n* Chromatic button accordions and the bayan, a Russian variant, use a buttonboard where notes are arranged chromatically. Two major systems exist, referred to as the B-system and the C-system (there are also regional variants.)\n* Diatonic button accordions use a buttonboard designed around the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys. The keys are often arranged in one row for each key available. Chromatic scales may be available by combining notes from different rows. The adjective \"diatonic\" is also commonly used to describe bisonic or bisonoric accordions—that is, instruments whose right-hand-manual (and in some instances even bass) keys each sound two different notes depending on the direction of the bellows (for instance, producing major triad sequences while closing the bellows and dominant seventh or 7-9 while opening). Such is the case, for instance, with the Argentinian bandoneon, the Austro-German steirische Harmonika, the Italian organetto, the Swiss Schwyzerörgeli and the Anglo concertina. \n* Piano accordions use a musical keyboard similar to a piano, at right angles to the cabinet, the tops of the keys inward toward the bellows\n* 6-plus-6 accordions use a buttonboard with three rows of buttons in a 'uniform' or 'whole-tone' arrangement. The chromatic scale consists of two rows. The third row is a repetition of the first row. So there is the same fingering in all twelve scales. These accordions are produced only in special editions e. g. the 'logicordion' produced by HARMONA.\n\n==== Left-hand manual systems ====\nTypical 120-button Stradella bass system. This is the left-hand manual system found on most unisonoric accordions today\nDifferent systems are also in use for the left-hand manual, which is normally used for playing the accompaniment. These almost always use distinct bass buttons and often have buttons with concavities or studs to help the player navigate the layout despite not being able to see the buttons while playing. There are three general categories:\n* The Stradella bass system, also called ''standard bass'', is arranged in a circle of fifths and uses single buttons for chords\n* The Belgian bass system is a variation used in Belgian chromatic accordions. It is also arranged in a circle of fifths but in reverse order. This system has 3 rows of basses, 3 rows of chord buttons allowing easier fingering for playing melodies, combined chords, better use of fingers 1 and 5, and more space between the buttons. This system was poorly traded outside of native Belgium\n* Various free-bass systems for greater access to playing melodies on the left-hand manual and to forming one's own chords. These are often chosen for playing jazz and classical music. Some models can convert between free-bass and Stradella bass; this is called \"converter bass\". The free-bass left hand notes are arranged chromatically in three rows with one additional duplicate row of buttons.\n\n==== Reed ranks and switches ====\n\nreed ranks with closeup of reeds\n\nInside the accordion are the reeds that generate the instrument tones. These are organized in different sounding ''banks'', which can be further combined into ''registers'' producing differing ''timbres''. All but the smaller accordions are equipped with switches that control which combination of reed banks operate, organized from high to low registers. Each register stop produces a separate sound timbre. See the accordion reed ranks and switches article for further explanation and audio samples.\n\nAll but the smallest accordions usually have treble switches. The larger and more expensive accordions often also have bass switches.\n\n==== Classification of chromatic and piano type accordions ====\nIn describing/pricing an accordion, the first factor is size, expressed in number of keys on either side. For a piano type, this could for one example be 37/96, meaning 37 keys (3 octaves plus one note) on the treble side and 96 bass keys. After size, the price and weight of an accordion is largely dependent on the number of reed ranks on either side, either on a cassotto or not, and to a lesser degree on the number of combinations available through register switches. Typically, these could be announced as '''Reeds: 5 + 3''', meaning five reeds on the treble side and three on the bass, and '''Registers: 13 + M, 7''', meaning 13 register buttons on the treble side plus a special \"master\" that activates all ranks, like the \"tutti\" on an organ, and seven register switches on the bass side.\nAccordion player in a street in the historic centre of Quito, Ecuador.\n\n==== Straps ====\nThe larger piano and chromatic button accordions are usually heavier than other smaller squeezeboxes, and are equipped with two shoulder straps to make it easier to balance the weight and increase bellows control while sitting, and avoid dropping the instrument while standing.\n\nOther accordions, such as the diatonic button accordion, have only a single shoulder strap and a right hand thumb strap. All accordions have a (mostly adjustable) leather strap on the left-hand manual to keep the player's hand in position while drawing the bellows. There are also straps above and below the bellows to keep it securely closed when the instrument is not playing.\n\n=== Unusual accordions ===\nGarmon player\nVarious hybrid accordions have been created between instruments of different buttonboards and actions. Many remain curiosities — only a few have remained in use:\nThe Schrammel accordion, used in Viennese chamber music and klezmer, which has the treble buttonboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass buttonboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion\nThe Steirische Harmonika is a type of bisonoric diatonic button accordion particular to the alpine folk music of Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, the German state of Bavaria, and the Italian South Tyrol\nThe schwyzerörgeli or Swiss organ, which usually has a 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement — a subset of the Stradella system in reverse order like the Belgian bass – that travel parallel to the bellows motion\nThe trikitixa of the Basque people has a two-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass\nIn Scotland, the favoured diatonic accordion is the instrument known as the British Chromatic Accordion. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered the German manufactured Shand Morino, produced by Hohner with the input of Sir Jimmy Shand\n, a type of accordion used sometimes in Polish folk music, has a pair of pump organ-like bellows attached.\n", "\nThe accordion is a free reed instrument and is in the same family as other instruments such as the sheng and khaen. The sheng and khaen are both much older than the accordion and this type of reed did inspire the kind of free reeds in use in the accordion as we know it today.\n\n8-key bisonoric diatonic accordion (c. 1830)\n\nThe accordion's basic form is believed to have been invented in Berlin in 1822 by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann, although one instrument has been recently discovered that appears to have been built earlier.\n\nZitat Dillner Akkordeon\n\nThe earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in Tula, Russia by Timofey Vorontsov from 1820, and Ivan Sizov from 1830. By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread; together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production rate was over 700,000. By the 1860s, Novgorod, Vyatka and Saratov Governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included Oryol, Ryazan, Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Simbirsk and others, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument.\n\nThe accordion is one of several European inventions of the early 19th century that used free reeds driven by a bellows. An instrument called ''accordion'' was first patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian, of Armenian origin, in Vienna\n\nDemian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments. It only had a left hand buttonboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. One key feature for which Demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key; one for each bellows direction (a ''bisonoric'' action).\n\nThe piano accordion was first played in German-speaking regions, and then spread over Europe. Some early portable instrument with piano keys had been invented in 1821, but it started to actually be played much later, and built its reputation from there.\n\nAt that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with ''Kanzellen'' (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that contemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough for travelers to take with them and used to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.\n\nBy 1831 at least the accordion had appeared in Britain. The instrument was noted in ''The Times'' of that year as one new to British audiences and not favourably reviewed, but nevertheless it soon became popular. It had also become popular with New Yorkers by the mid-1840s at the latest.\n\nAfter Demian's invention, other accordions appeared, some featuring only the righthanded keyboard for playing melodies. It took English inventor Charles Wheatstone to squeeze both chords and keyboard together in one squeezebox. His 1844 patent for what he called a “concertina” also featured the ability to easily tune the reeds from the outside with a simple tool.\n\nThe first pages in Adolph Müller's accordion book\nThe musician Adolph Müller described a great variety of instruments in his 1833 book, ''Schule für Accordion''. At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.\n\nJeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and tone color, but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today.\n\nFurther innovations followed and continue to the present. Various buttonboard and keyboard systems have been developed, as well as voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves), with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance, and different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability.\n", "\nThe accordion has traditionally been used to perform folk or ethnic music, popular music, and transcriptions from the operatic and light-classical music repertoire. Today the instrument is sometimes heard in contemporary pop styles, such as rock, pop-rock, etc., and occasionally even in serious classical music concerts, as well as advertisements.\n\n=== Use in traditional music ===\n\n\nInvented in 1829, its popularity spread rapidly: it has mostly been associated with the common people, and was spread by Europeans who emigrated around the world. The accordion in both button and piano forms became a favorite of folk musicians and has been integrated into traditional music styles all over the world: see the list of music styles that incorporate the accordion.\n\nThis is a button key accordion made by the company Marrazza in Italy. It was brought by Italian immigrants to Australia as a reminder of their homeland.\n\n=== Use in popular music ===\n\n\n\nThe accordion appeared in popular music from the 1900s to the 1960s. This half-century is often called the \"Golden Age of the Accordion\". Five players, Pietro Frosini, the two brothers Count Guido Deiro and Pietro Deiro and Slovenian brothers Vilko Ovsenik and Slavko Avsenik, Charles Magnante were major influences at this time.\n\nMost vaudeville theaters closed during the Great Depression, but accordionists during the 1930s–1950s taught and performed for radio. Included among this group was the concert virtuoso John Serry, Sr. During the 1950s through the 1980s the accordion received significant exposure on television with performances by Myron Floren on ''The Lawrence Welk Show''. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accordion declined in popularity due to the rise of rock 'n' roll. The first Accordionist to appear and perform at the Newport Jazz Festival was Angelo DiPippo. He can be seen playing his accordion in the motion picture \"The Godfather.\" He also composed and performed with his Accordion on part of the soundtrack of Woody Allen's movie \"To Rome With Love.\" He was featured twice on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson. \nA folk accordionist 2009\n\nRichard Galliano is an internationally known jazz accordionist. Some popular acts do use the instrument in their distinctive sounds. A notable example is Grammy Award-winning parodist \"Weird Al\" Yankovic, who plays the accordion on many of his musical tracks, particularly his polkas. Yankovic was trained in the accordion as a child.\n\n=== Use in classical music ===\n\n\nAlthough best known as a folk instrument, it has grown in popularity among classical composers. The earliest surviving concert piece is '''', written in 1836 by Miss Louise Reisner of Paris. Other composers, including the Russian Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, the Italian Umberto Giordano, and the American Charles Ives (1915), wrote works for the diatonic button accordion.\n\nThe first composer to write specifically for the chromatic accordion was Paul Hindemith. In 1922, the Austrian Alban Berg included an accordion in ''Wozzeck'', Op. 7. In 1937 the first Accordion concerto was composed in Russia. Other notable composers have written for the accordion during the first half of the 20th century American composer William P. Perry featured the accordion in his orchestral suite ''Six Title Themes in Search of a Movie'' (2008). The experimental composer Howard Skempton began his musical career as an accordionist, and has written numerous solo works for it. In his work ''Drang'' (1999), British composer John Palmer has pushed the expressive possibilities of the accordion/bayan to the limits of virtuosity. \nAccordionists like Geir Draugsvoll, Mogens Ellegaard, Joseph Macerollo, Friedrich Lips, Stefan Hussong, Teodoro Anzellotti, Mie Miki, encouraged composers to write new music for the accordion (solo and chamber music) and also started playing baroque music (Bach, Scarlatti) on the free bass accordion.\n\nFrench composer Henri Dutilleux used an accordion in both his late song cycles ''Correspondances'' (2003) and ''Le Temps l'Horloge'' (2009). Russian-born composer Sofia Gubaidulina has composed solos, concertos, and chamber works for accordion. Astor Piazzolla's concert tangos are performed widely. Piazzolla performed on the bandoneon, but his works can be performed on either bandoneon or accordion.\n\n===Bosnia and Herzegovina===\nThe accordion is a traditional instrument in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the dominant instrument used in sevdalinka, a traditional genre of folk music from Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is also considered a national instrument of the country.\n\n=== Brazil ===\nThe accordion is widely used in Brazil, in traditional as well as pop music. Compared to many other countries, the instrument enjoys in Brazil high popularity in mainstream pop music. In some parts of the country, such as the North-East it is the most popular melodic instrument. As opposed to most European folk, a very dry tuning is usually used in Brazil.\n\nThe accordion (predominantly the piano accordion) is used in almost all styles of Forró (in particular in the subgenres of Xote and Baião) as principal instrument, Luiz Gonzaga (the King of the Baião) and Dominguinhos being among the notable musicians in this style. In this musical style the typical combination is a trio of accordion, triangle and zabumba (a type of drum). This style has gained popularity recently, in particular among the student population of the South-East of the country (in the Forró Universitário genre, with important exponents today being Falamansa, and trios such as Trio Dona Zefa, Trio Virgulino and Trio Alvorada). Moreover, the accordion is the principal instrument in Junina music (music of the São João Festival), with Mario Zan having been a very important exponent of this music.\n\nIt is an important instrument in Sertanejo (and Caipira) music, which originated in the Centre-west and South-east of Brazil and subsequently has gained popularity throughout the country. In the South of the country (where there is a preponderance of the button accordion), in particular in Rio Grande do Sul, it used in the Brazilian Gaúcho musical style, an important exponent of this music being Renato Borghetti.\n\n=== Colombia ===\nThe accordion is also a traditional instrument in Colombia, commonly associated with the vallenato and cumbia genres. The accordion has been used by tropipop musicians such as Carlos Vives, Andrés Cabas, Fonseca (singer) and Bacilos, as well as rock musicians such as Juanes and pop musicians as Shakira. Vallenato, which emerged in the early twentieth century in a city known as Valledupar, has come to symbolize the folk music of Colombia. The legend of the accordion's arrival in Colombia comes from a story of a ship wreck that was coming from Germany to Argentina. The wreck happened over the Magdalena river in the Atlantic coast.\n\nEvery year in April, Colombia holds one of the most important musical festivals in the country: the Vallenato Legend Festival. The festival holds contests for best accordion player. Once every decade, the King of Kings accordion competition takes place, when winners of the previous festivals compete for the highest possible award for a vallenato accordion player: the ''Pilonera Mayor'' prize. This is the world's largest competitive accordion festival.\n\n=== Mexico ===\n\nNorteño heavily relies on the accordion, it is a genre related to polka. Ramón Ayala known in Mexico as the \"King of the Accordion\" is a norteño musician. Cumbia which features the accordion is also popular with musicians such as Celso Piña creating a more contemporary style.\n\nU.S. born Mexican musician Julieta Venegas incorporates the sound of the instrument into rock, pop and folk. She was influenced by her fellow Chicanos Los Lobos who also use the music of the accordion.\n\n=== North Korea ===\nThe accordion is widely taught in North Korea. It is known as the \"National Instrument.\" All North Korean student are expected to learn the accordion throughout their elementary and secondary education. On Kim Jong-il's birthday, the most important public holiday in North Korea, revolutionary songs like \"Sea of Blood\" and \"Song of Comradeship\" are often played on the accordion.\n\n=== Use in heavy metal music ===\nAccordionists in heavy metal make their most extensive appearances in the folk metal subgenre, and are otherwise generally rare. Full-time accordionists in folk metal seem even rarer, but they are still utilized for studio work, as flexible keyboardists are usually more accessible for live performances.\n\nNotably, the Finnish symphonic folk-metal band Turisas has always had a full-time accordionist, employing classical and polka-style sensibilities alongside a violinist. Another Finnish metal band, Korpiklaani, invokes a type of Finnish polka called humppa, and also has a full-time accordionist. Sarah Kiener, the former hurdy-gurdy player for the Swiss melodic-death/folk metal band Eluveitie, played a Helvetic accordion known as a ''zugerörgeli'', which could be a distant relative (in one way or another) to the Swiss schwyzerörgeli, as both are indigenous to and very rare outside of Switzerland.\n", "\n\nThe best accordions are always fully hand-made, particularly the reeds; completely hand-made reeds have a far better tonal quality than even the best automatically-manufactured ones. Some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of low-end instruments, such as the ones improved by Yutaka Usui, a Japanese-born craftsman.\n\nThe manufacture of an accordion is only a partly automated process. In a sense, all accordions are handmade, since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required. The general process involves making the individual parts, assembling the subsections, assembling the entire instrument, and final decorating and packaging.\n\nFamous centres of production are the Italian cities of Stradella and Castelfidardo, with many small and medium size manufacturers especially at the latter. Castelfidardo honours the memory of Paolo Soprani who was one of the first large-scale producers. The French town of Tulle has hosted Maugein Freres since 1919, and the company is now the last complete-process manufacturer of accordions in France. German companies such as Hohner and Weltmeister made large numbers of accordions, but production had diminished by the end of the 20th century. Hohner still manufactures its top-end models in Germany, and Weltmeister instruments are still handmade by HARMONA Akkordeon GmbH in Klingenthal. Cheaper /student models are often made in China.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "* Bandoneon\n* List of accordionists\n* Steirische Harmonika\n* Schwyzerörgeli\n* Concertina\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Construction ", " History ", " Use in various music genres ", " Manufacturing process ", " Other audio samples ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Accordion
[ "\n''' Afro Celt Sound System''' is a musical group who fuse electronic music with traditional Irish and West African music. Afro Celt Sound System was formed in 1995 by producer-guitarist Simon Emmerson, and feature a wide range of guest artists.\n\nTheir albums have been released through Peter Gabriel's Real World Records, and they have frequently performed at WOMAD festivals worldwide. Their sales on the label are exceeded only by Gabriel himself. Their recording contract with Real World was for five albums, of which ''Volume 5: Anatomic'' was the last.\n\n\nAfter a number of festival dates in 2007, the band went on hiatus. In 2010, they regrouped to play a number of shows (including a return to WOMAD), releasing a re-mastered retrospective titled ''Capture.''\n\nOn 20 May 2014 Afro Celt Sound System announced the upcoming release of a new album, ''Born''. In January 2016, a posting to that website revealed that due to a dispute with Emmerson, who announced his departure from the band in 2015, there were two active versions of the band, a version led by Emmerson and a separate line-up headed by James McNally and Martin Russell. Emmerson's version of the band released the album ''The Source'' in 2016.\n\nThe dispute ended on December 21, 2016, with an announcement on social media.\n", "The inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a Grammy Award-nominated British producer and guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star Baaba Maal. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician Davy Spillane told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two countries' musical affinities.\n\nIn an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought two members of Baaba Maal's band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. \"People thought I was mad when I touted the idea,\" Emmerson told Jim Carroll of ''The Irish Times''. \"At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary\".\n\nJamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel's recording facilities in Wiltshire, England, the diverse group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week. This album, ''Volume 1: Sound Magic'', was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System.\n\n\"Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work,\" musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. \"We were strangers who didn't even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language.\" McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played whistles, keyboards, piano, bodhran, and bamboo flute.\n\n''Sound Magic'' has now sold over 300,000 copies. The band performed at festivals, raves, and dance clubs and regularly included two African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drum and djembe and N'Faly Kouyate on vocals, kora and balafon.\n\nJust as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group's core musicians, 27-year-old keyboardist Jo Bruce (son of Cream bass player Jack Bruce), died suddenly of an asthma attack. The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Then Irish pop star Sinéad O'Connor came to the rescue, collaborating with the band and helping them cope with their loss. \"O'Connor blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful,\" McNally told Katz. \"We had this track we didn't know what to do with. Sinéad scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up.\" So taken was the band with O'Connor's song, \"Release,\" that they used the name for the title of their album. ''Volume 2: Release'' hit the music stores in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide.\n\nIn 2000 the group was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (England, Senegal, Guinea, Ireland, France and Kenya), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. \"We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we're at home,\" McNally told Patrick MacDonald of The Seattle Times''. \"We're breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other's traditions. And it's changed our lives\".\n\nIn 2001 the group released ''Volume 3: Further in Time'', which climbed to number one on Billboard's Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and Robert Plant, the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. \"On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation,\" Emmerson told the Irish Times's Carroll. \"For this one, we wanted to have more African vocals and input than we'd done before.\" Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine praised the album as \"a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music.\" The single \"When You're Falling\", with vocals by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States.\n\nIn 2003, for the ''Seed'' album, they temporarily changed their name to the simpler '''Afrocelts'''; this was subsequently regarded as a mistake, and they reverted to the longer and more familiar band name for their subsequent albums, ''Pod'', a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, ''Volume 5: Anatomic'' (their fifth studio album), and ''Capture - Afro Celt Sound System 1995-2010\".\n\nThey played a number of shows to promote ''Volume 5: Anatomic'' in 2006 and summer 2007, ending with a gig in Korea, before taking an extended break to work on side projects, amongst them ''The Imagined Village'' featuring Simon Emmerson and Johnny Kalsi. Starting in the summer of 2010, the band performed a series of live shows to promote a new 2-CD album, ''Capture - Afro Celt Sound System 1995-2010'', released on 6 September 2010 on Real World Records. Further performances continue to the present day, and a new album-in-progress titled ''Born'' was announced on their website in 2014.\n", "\nDuring the year 2015, the band had split into two formations, one of them including Simon Emmerson, N'Faly Kouyate and Johnny Kalsi, the other one James McNally and Martin Russell. The split was announced on the band's website in January 2016. The dispute officially ended with an announcement on social media on December 21, 2016. \"Simon Emmerson, James McNally and Martin Russell are pleased to announce that they have been able to set aside their differences and come to an amicable agreement to bring their dispute to an end. Going forward, McNally, Russell and Emmerson have agreed that Emmerson will continue to perform as Afro Celt Sound System and McNally and Russell will work under a new name to be announced in due course.\nWhile McNally, Russell and Emmerson will no longer be performing or working together they recognise, and are grateful for each other's contribution to Afro Celt Sound System over the past two decades and will be working with the extensive community of musicians that make up the long standing Afro Celt Sound System family.\"\n", "When Afro Celt Sound System began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the Real World Recording Week, the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent. However, over time, a combination of people became most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System (while ''Volume 5: Anatomic'' only lists Emmerson, McNally, Ó Lionáird and Russell as regulars). The divided grouping of the band into two versions, both operating under the name Afro Celt Sound System, began in January 2016 and was resolved in December 2016 after McNally and Russell agreed to work under a different name from Emmerson.\n \nSimon Emmerson\nN'Faly Kouyate\nJohnny Kalsi\nMoussa Sissokho\nGriogair Labhruidh\nRonan Browne\nEmer Mayock\nDavy Spillane\n\n'''Russell/McNally version'''\nMartin Russell\nJames McNally\nIan Markin\nTim Bradshaw\nBabara Bangoura\nDorothee Munyaneza\nKadially Kouyaté\nDav Daheley\n\nOther musicians who have performed or recorded with Afro Celt Sound System include: Jimmy Mahon, Demba Barry, Babara Bangoura, Iarla Ó Lionáird, Peter Gabriel, Robert Plant, Pete Lockett, Sinéad O'Connor, Pina Kollar, Dorothee Munyaneza, Sevara Nazarkhan, Simon Massey, Jesse Cook, Martin Hayes, Eileen Ivers, Mundy, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Ciarán Tourish of Altan, Ronan Browne, Michael McGoldrick, Myrdhin, Shooglenifty, Mairead Nesbitt, Davy Spillane, Jonas Bruce, Heather Nova, Julie Murphy and Ayub Ogada, Ross Ainslie.\n", "* ''Volume 1: Sound Magic'' (1996)\n* ''Volume 2: Release'' (1999)\n* ''Volume 3: Further in Time'' (2001)\n* ''Seed'' (2003)\n* ''Pod'' (Remix album) (2004)\n* ''Volume 5: Anatomic'' (2005)\n* ''Capture (1995–2010)'' (2010) (compilation)\n* \"When You're Falling\" featuring Peter Gabriel (2012) (Single from Volume 3)\n* ''The Source'' (2016)\n\nThey also recorded the soundtrack for the PC game ''Magic and Mayhem'', released in 1998.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Real World Records page\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Formation", " Split ", "Members", " Discography ", "References", "External links" ]	Afro Celt Sound System
[ "\n\n\n\nThis page lists some links to '''ancient philosophy'''. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.\n", "Genuinely philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.\n", "\n\nChinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the East Asian cultural sphere that share a common language, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.\n\n===Schools of thought===\n\n====Hundred Schools of Thought====\n\nThe Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin Dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:\n* Confucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ''ren'' and ''yi''.\n* Legalism, which maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the common people.\n* Taoism, a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.\n* Mohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that \"everyone is equal before heaven\", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.\n* Naturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of yin-yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.\n* Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as \"working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached.\"\n* The Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.\n* The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal Alliances, which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics, and debate and lobbying skill. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters and tacticians.\n* The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.\n* The School of \"Minor-talks\", which was not a unique school of thought, but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street.\n* Another group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the \"Ten Schools\" defined by Hanshu.\n\n====Early Imperial China====\nThe founder of the Qin Dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han Dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.\n\nConfucianism was particularly strong during the Han Dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination ''Old Text'') that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.\n\nThe 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the ''Xuanxue'' (mysterious learning), also called ''Neo-Taoism''. The most important philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ''ming'' and ''wuming''). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of ''feng liu'' (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.\n\nBuddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang Dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. At the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.\n\n===Philosophers===\n* Taoism\n Laozi (5th–4th century BCE)\n Zhuangzi (4th century BCE)\n Zhang Daoling\n Zhang Jue (died 184 CE)\n** Ge Hong (283 – 343 CE)\n* Confucianism\n Confucius\n Mencius\n** Xun Zi (c. 312 – 230 BCE)\n* Legalism\n Li Si\n Li Kui\n Han Fei\n Mi Su Yu\n Shang Yang\n Shen Buhai\n** Shen Dao\n* Mohism\n Mozi\n Song Xing\n* Logicians\n Deng Xi\n Hui Shi (380–305 BCE)\n** Gongsun Long (c. 325 – c. 250 BCE)\n* Agrarianism\n** Xu Xing\n* Naturalism\n** Zou Yan (305 – 240 BCE)\n* Neotaoism\n Wang Bi\n Guo Xiang\n** Xiang Xiu\n* School of Diplomacy\n Guiguzi\n Su Qin (380 – 284 BCE)\n Zhang Yi (bef. 329 – 309 BCE)\n Yue Yi\n** Li Yiji (268 – 204 BCE)\n* School of the Military\n Sunzi (c. 500 BCE)\n Sun Bin (died 316 BCE)\n", "\nGraphical relationship among the various pre-socratic philosophers and thinkers; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.\nRaphael's School of Athens, depicting an array of ancient Greek philosophers engaged in discussion.\n\n===Philosophers===\n\n====Presocratic philosophers====\n* Milesian School\n:Thales (624 – c 546 BCE)\n:Anaximander (610 – 546 BCE)\n:Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 585 – c. 525 BCE)\n* Pythagoreans\n:Pythagoras (582 – 496 BCE)\n:Philolaus (470 – 380 BCE)\n:Alcmaeon of Croton\n:Archytas (428 – 347 BCE)\n* Heraclitus (535 – 475 BCE)\n* Eleatic School\n:Xenophanes (570 – 470 BCE)\n:Parmenides (510 – 440 BCE)\n:Zeno of Elea (490 – 430 BCE)\n:Melissus of Samos (c. 470 BCE – ?)\n* Pluralists\n:Empedocles (490 – 430 BCE)\n:Anaxagoras (500 – 428 BCE)\n* Atomists\n:Leucippus (first half of 5th century BCE)\n:Democritus (460 – 370 BCE)\n:Metrodorus of Chios (4th century BCE)\n* Pherecydes of Syros (6th century BCE)\n* Sophists\n:Protagoras (490 – 420 BCE)\n:Gorgias (487 – 376 BCE)\n:Antiphon (480 – 411 BCE)\n:Prodicus (465/450 – after 399 BCE)\n:Hippias (middle of the 5th century BCE)\n:Thrasymachus (459 – 400 BCE)\n:Callicles\n:Critias\n:Lycophron\n* Diogenes of Apollonia (c. 460 BCE – ?)\n\n====Classical Greek philosophers====\n* '''Socrates''' (469 – 399 BCE)\n* Euclid of Megara (450 – 380 BCE)\n* Antisthenes (445 – 360 BCE)\n* Aristippus (435 – 356 BCE)\n* '''Plato''' (428 – 347 BCE)\n* Speusippus (407 – 339 BCE)\n* Diogenes of Sinope (400 – 325 BCE)\n* Xenocrates (396 – 314 BCE)\n* '''Aristotle''' (384 – 322 BCE)\n* Stilpo (380 – 300 BCE)\n* Theophrastus (370 – 288 BCE)\n\n====Hellenistic philosophy====\n* Pyrrho (365 – 275 BCE)\n* Epicurus (341 – 270 BCE)\n* Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331 – 278 BCE)\n* Zeno of Citium (333 – 263 BCE)\n* Cleanthes (c. 330 – c. 230 BCE)\n* Timon (320 – 230 BCE)\n* Arcesilaus (316 – 232 BCE)\n* Menippus (3rd century BCE)\n* Archimedes (c. 287 – 212 BCE)\n* Chrysippus (280 – 207 BCE)\n* Carneades (214 – 129 BCE)\n* Clitomachus (187 – 109 BCE)\n* Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BCE)\n* Philo of Larissa (160 – 80 BCE)\n* Posidonius (135 – 51 BCE)\n* Antiochus of Ascalon (130 – 68 BCE)\n* Aenesidemus (1st century BCE)\n* Agrippa (1st century CE)\n\n===Hellenistic schools of thought===\n* Cynicism\n* Eclecticism\n* Epicureanism\n* Middle Platonism\n* Neo-Platonism\n* Neopythagoreanism\n* Peripatetic School\n* Pyrrhonism\n* Stoicism\n* Sophism\n\n===Early Roman and Christian philosophy===\nSee also: ''Christian philosophy''\n* School of the Sextii\n\n===Philosophers during Roman times===\nPlotinus\n* '''Cicero''' (106 – 43 BCE)\n* Lucretius (94 – 55 BCE)\n* '''Seneca''' (4 BCE – 65 CE)\n* Musonius Rufus (30 – 100 CE)\n* Plutarch (45 – 120 CE)\n* '''Epictetus''' (55 – 135 CE)\n* Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180 CE)\n* Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 CE)\n* Alcinous (philosopher) (2nd century CE)\n* Sextus Empiricus (3rd century CE)\n* Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century CE)\n* Ammonius Saccas (3rd century CE)\n* ''' Plotinus''' (205 – 270 CE)\n* Porphyry (232 – 304 CE)\n* Iamblichus (242 – 327 CE)\n* Themistius (317 – 388 CE)\n* Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE)\n* Proclus (411 – 485 CE)\n* Damascius (462 – 540 CE)\n* '''Boethius''' (472 – 524 CE)\n* Simplicius of Cilicia (490 – 560 CE)\n* John Philoponus (490 – 570 CE)\n", "\n\n\nThe ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions : Sramana tradition and Vedic tradition.\n\n===Vedic philosophy===\nIndian philosophy begins with the ''Vedas'' where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic ''Hymn of Creation'' (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet says:\nVyasa, at middle of the picture\n: \"Whence all creation had its origin,\n: he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,\n: he, who surveys it all from highest heaven,\n: he knows—or maybe even he does not know.\"\n\nIn the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (''Purusha''). This leads to the inquiry into ''the one being'' that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed ''rta'' and causal law by ''karma''. Nature (''prakriti'') is taken to have three qualities (''sattva'', ''rajas'', and ''tamas'').\n* Vedas\n* Upanishads\n* Hindu philosophy\n\n===Sramana philosophy===\n\nJainism and Buddhism are continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.\n\n===Classical Indian philosophy===\nIn classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:\n* What is the ontological nature of consciousness?\n* How is cognition itself experienced?\n* Is mind (''chit'') intentional or not?\n* Does cognition have its own structure?\n\nThe Six schools of Indian philosophy are:\n* Nyaya\n* Vaisheshika\n* Samkhya\n* Yoga\n* Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)\n* Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)\n\n===Ancient Indian philosophers===\n\n\n====1st millennium BCE====\n* Parashara — writer of ''Viṣṇu Purāṇa''.\n\n====Philosophers of Vedic Age (2000–600 BCE)====\n* Rishi Narayana — seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.\n* Seven Rishis — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.\n* Other Vedic Rishis — Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.\n* Rishaba — Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by later followers.\n* Yajnavalkya — one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought.\n* Angiras — one of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka Upanishad.\n* Uddalaka Aruni — an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.\n* Ashvapati — a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.\n* Ashtavakra — an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored Ashtavakra Gita.\n\n====Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)====\n* Kanada (c. 600 BCE), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism\n* Mahavira (599–527 BCE) — heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.\nBuddha.\n* Pāṇini (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi\n* Kapila (c. 500 BCE), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy.\n* Badarayana (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) — Author of Brahma Sutras.\n* Pingala (c. 500 BCE), author of the ''Chandas shastra''\n* Gautama Buddha (c. 480 – c. 400 BCE), founder of Buddhist school of thought\n* Chanakya (c. 350 – c. 275 BCE), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University\n* Patañjali (c. 200 BCE), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras.\n* Shvetashvatara — Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.\n\n====Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)====\n* Gotama (c. 2nd–3rd century CE), wrote Jaimini, author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras.\n* Dignāga (c. 500), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic.\n* Asanga (c. 300), exponent of the Yogacara\n* Bhartrihari (c 450–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory\n* Bodhidharma (c. 440–528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism\n* Siddhasena Divākara (5th Century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Nyāyāvatāra (on Logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)\n* Vasubandhu (c. 300 CE), one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school.\n* Kundakunda (2nd Century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine)\n* Nagarjuna (c. 150 – 250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.\n* Umāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd Century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.\n", "Zarathustra as depicted in Raphael's The School of Athens beside Raphael who appears as the ancient painter Apelles of Kos.\n\nSee also: ''Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)''\n\nWhile there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.\n\n===Schools of thought===\nIdeas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram (\"Selections of Zātspram\") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his \"direct teachings\".\n\n====Zoroastrianism====\n* Zarathustra\n* Jamasp\n* Ostanes\n* Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan\n* Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan\n* Adurbad Emedan\n* ''Avesta''\n* ''Gathas''\nAnacharsis\n\n====Pre-Manichaean thought====\n* Bardesanes\n\n====Manichaeism====\n* Mani (c. 216 – 276 CE)\n* Ammo\n\n====Mazdakism====\n* Mazdak the Elder\n* Mazdak (died c. 524 or 528 CE)\n\n====Zurvanism====\n* Aesthetic Zurvanism\n* Materialist Zurvanism\n* Fatalistic Zurvanism\n\n===Philosophy and the Empire===\n* Political philosophy\n** Tansar\n* University of Gundishapur\n Borzouye\n Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri\n* Emperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses\n** Paul the Persian\n\n===Literature===\n* Pahlavi literature\n", "See also: ''Jewish philosophy''\n\n===First Temple (c. 900 BCE to 587 BCE)===\n* Joel (9th–5th century BCE)\n* Amos (8th century BCE)\n* Hosea (8th century BCE)\n* Micah (8th century BCE)\n* Proto-Isaiah (8th century BCE)\n* Ezekiel (7th century BCE)\n* Habbakuk (7th century BCE)\n* Jeremiah (7th century BCE)\n* Nahum (7th century BCE)\n* Zephaniah (7th century BCE)\n\n===Assyrian exile (587 BCE to 516 BCE)===\n* Deutero-Isaiah (6th century BCE)\n* Haggai (6th century BCE)\n* Obadiah (6th century BCE)\n* Trito-Isaiah (6th century BCE)\n* Zechariah (6th century BCE)\n\n===Second Temple (516 BCE to 70 CE)===\n* Malachi (5th century BCE)\n* Koheleth (5th – 2nd century BCE)\n* Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira (2nd century BCE)\n* Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BCE – 10CE)\n* Philo of Alexandria (30 BCE – 45 CE)\n\n===Early Roman exile (70 CE to c. 600 CE)===\n* Rabbi Akiva (c. 40 – c. 137 CE)\n", "Index of ancient philosophy articles\n", "\n", "\nLuchte, James, ''Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn'', in series, ''Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy'', Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011. \n", "* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Introduction", "Ancient Chinese philosophy", "Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy", " Ancient Indian philosophy ", "Ancient Iranian philosophy", "Ancient Jewish philosophy", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ancient philosophy
[ "\n\n'''Anaximander''' (; ''Anaximandros''; was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus, a city of Ionia (in modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils.\n\nLittle of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies, although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.\n\nHe was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long. Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander's philosophy included contributions to many disciplines. In astronomy, he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. He was also involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies.\n", "Detail of Raphael's painting ''The School of Athens'', 1510–1511. This could be a representation of Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras on his left.\n\nAnaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in the third year of the 42nd Olympiad (610 BC). According to Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547–546 BC), and died shortly afterwards.\n\nEstablishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references. Themistius, a 4th-century Byzantine rhetorician, mentions that he was the \"first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature.\" Therefore, his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor Theophrastus and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales' theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus, with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with Anaximenes. 3rd-century Roman rhetorician Aelian depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to Apollonia on the Black Sea coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed, ''Various History'' (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony’s allegiance.\n", "Anaximander's theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales – the father of philosophy – as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East (especially by the Babylonian astrologers). All these were elaborated rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed, like traditional religion, the existence of a cosmic order; and in elaborating his ideas on this he used the old mythical language which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere, therefore they could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system.\n\nSome scholars see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek city-states. This has given rise to the phrase \"Greek miracle\". But if we follow carefully the course of Anaximander's ideas, we will notice that there was not such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed that constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies – Hesiod (8th – 7th century BC) and Pherecydes (6th century BC) – Zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony, (the Titans). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric and this causes the equilibrium of the earth which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature. In this space there is ''isonomy'' (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferrable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of ''demos'' in the ''agora'' which is lying in the middle of the city.\n\nThe same ''rational'' way of thought led him to introduce the abstract ''apeiron'' (indefinite, infinite, boundless, unlimited) as an origin of the universe, a concept that is probably influenced by the original Chaos (gaping void, abyss, formless state) of the mythical Greek cosmogony from which everything else appeared. It also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements. Origin, then, must be something else unlimited in its source, that could create without experiencing decay, so that genesis would never stop.\n\n===Apeiron===\n\n\nThe ''Refutation'' attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word ''apeíron'' ( \"infinite\" or \"limitless\") to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term ''archế'' (), which until then had meant beginning or origin. For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. The indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in Homer (indefinite sea) and as in Xenophanes (6th century BC) who said that the earth went down indefinitely (to ''apeiron'') i.e. beyond the imagination or concept of men.\n\nAristotle writes (''Metaphysics'', I III 3–4) that the Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales and air for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (''apeiron''), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived. He proposed the theory of the ''apeiron'' in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality and Anaximander's description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This ''arche'' is called \"eternal and ageless\". (Hippolytus (?), ''Refutation'', I,6,I;DK B2)\n\nFor Anaximander, the principle of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth. Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature — for example, water can only be wet, never dry — and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the ''apeiron'' as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.\n\nAnaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal chaos. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in \"all the worlds\" (for he believed there were many).\n\nAnaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (''apeiron''). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander's writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements:\n\n\nWhence things have their origin,\nThence also their destruction happens,\nAccording to necessity;\nFor they give to each other justice and recompense\nFor their injustice\nIn conformity with the ordinance of Time.\n\n\nSimplicius mentions that Anaximander said all these \"in poetic terms\", meaning that he used the old mythical language. The goddess Justice (Dike) keeps the cosmic order.\nThis concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle, and by the Greek tragedian Euripides: \"what comes from earth must return to earth.\" Friedrich Nietzsche, in his ''Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks'', stated that Anaximander viewed \"... all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance.\" Physicist Max Born, in commenting upon Werner Heisenberg's arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of quantum mechanics are to be seen as different manifestations, different quantum states, of one and the same “primordial substance,”' proposed that this primordial substance be called ''apeiron''.\n\n===Cosmology===\nMap of Anaximander's universe\n\nAnaximander's bold use of non-mythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as Hesiod. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demystify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the Universe and the origins of life; for this he is often called the \"Father of Cosmology\" and founder of astronomy. However, pseudo-Plutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities.\n\nAnaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains \"in the same place because of its indifference\", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in ''On the Heavens''. Its curious shape is that of a cylinder with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass.\n\nAnaximander's realization that the Earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking. Karl Popper calls this idea \"one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking.\" Such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under the Earth, opening the way to Greek astronomy.\n\nIllustration of Anaximander's models of the universe. On the left, daytime in summer; on the right, nighttime in winter. However, Anaximander pictured the earth as a truncated cylinder, not as a sphere as shown.\n\nAt the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources) and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer, followed the same model.\n\nAnaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a celestial sphere. This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the Zodiac as the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder reports in ''Natural History'' (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term ecliptic, but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The doxographer and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity.\n\n===Multiple worlds===\nAccording to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds, similar to atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and later philosopher Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, \"for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction\".\n\nIn addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus reports Anaximander's claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within, which are often infinite in quantity). Cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds.\n\nThis theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras and Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles and Diogenes).\n\n===Meteorological phenomena===\nAnaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes. In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.\n\nHe saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth. A part of that mass evaporated under the sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant. He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun. For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's ''Meteorology'' (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion.\n\n===Origin of humankind===\nAnaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life. Taking into account the existence of fossils , he claimed that animals sprang out of the sea long ago. The first animals were born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and break. As the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. The 3rd century Roman writer Censorinus reports:\n\n\n\nAnaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales. He thought that, considering humans' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently.\n", "\n===Cartography===\nPossible rendering of Anaximander's world map\n\nBoth Strabo and Agathemerus (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer Eratosthenes, Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after Homer.\n\nMaps were produced in ancient times, also notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BC but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.\n\nSuch an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons. First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between Miletus's colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, Thales would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian city-states to join in a federation in order to push the Median threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one.\n\nSurely aware of the sea's convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or “navel” of the world ( ''omphalós gẽs'') could have been Delphi, but is more likely in Anaximander's time to have been located near Miletus. The Aegean Sea was near the map's centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. Europe was bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and was separated from Asia by the Black Sea, the Lake Maeotis, and, further east, either by the Phasis River (now called the Rioni) or the Tanais. The Nile flowed south into the ocean, separating Libya (which was the name for the part of the then-known African continent) from Asia.\n\n===Gnomon===\nThe ''Suda'' relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes. Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude.\n\nIn his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip’s position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.\n\nThe invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the Babylonians. It is they, according to Herodotus' Histories (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the ''Suda'' seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes.\n\n===Prediction of an earthquake===\nIn his philosophical work De Divinatione (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near. The city collapsed when the top of the Taygetus split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an \"admirable inspiration\", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination.\n", "Bertrand Russell in the ''History of Western Philosophy'' interprets Anaximander's theories as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate.\n\nFriedrich Nietzsche, in ''Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks'', claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed \"...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance\". (''Ibid.'', § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.\n\nMartin Heidegger lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled \"Anaximander's Saying\" which was subsequently included in ''Off the Beaten Track''. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or ''Dasein'' in the context of the Anaximander fragment. Heidegger's lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.\n", "According to the ''Suda'':\n\n* ''On Nature'' ( / ''Perì phúseôs'')\n* ''Rotation of the Earth'' ( / ''Gễs períodos'')\n* ''On Fixed stars'' ( / ''Perì tỗn aplanỗn'')\n* ''The Celestial Sphere'' ( / ''Sphaĩra'')\n", "\n* Material monism\n* Indefinite monism\n", "\n", "\n===Primary sources===\n* Aelian: ''Various History'' (III, 17)\n* Aëtius: ''De Fide'' (I-III; V)\n* Agathemerus: ''A Sketch of Geography in Epitome'' (I, 1)\n* Aristotle: ''Meteorology'' (II, 3) Translated by E. W. Webster\n* Aristotle: ''On Generation and Corruption'' (II, 5) Translated by H. H. Joachim\n* Aristotle: ''On the Heavens'' (II, 13) Translated by J. L. Stocks\n* (III, 5, 204 b 33–34)\n* Censorinus: ''De Die Natali'' (IV, 7) See original text at LacusCurtius\n* (I, 50, 112)\n* Cicero: ''On the Nature of the Gods'' (I, 10, 25)\n* \n* Euripides: ''The Suppliants'' (532) Translated by E. P. Coleridge\n* Eusebius of Caesarea: ''Preparation for the Gospel'' (X, 14, 11) Translated by E.H. Gifford\n* Heidel, W.A. ''Anaximander's Book'': PAAAS, vol. 56, n.7, 1921, pp. 239–288.\n* Herodotus: ''Histories'' (II, 109) See original text in Perseus project\n* Hippolytus (?): ''Refutation of All Heresies'' (I, 5) Translated by Roberts and Donaldson\n* Pliny the Elder: ''Natural History'' (II, 8) See original text in Perseus project\n* Pseudo-Plutarch: ''The Doctrines of the Philosophers'' (I, 3; I, 7; II, 20–28; III, 2–16; V, 19)\n* Seneca the Younger: ''Natural Questions'' (II, 18)\n* Simplicius: ''Comments on Aristotle's Physics'' (24, 13–25; 1121, 5–9)\n* Strabo: ''Geography'' (I, 1) Books 1‑7, 15‑17 translated by H. L. Jones\n* Themistius: ''Oratio'' (36, 317)\n* ''The Suda'' ( ''Suda On Line'')\n\n===Secondary sources===\n\n\n* The default source; anything not otherwise attributed should be in Conche.\n* \n* \n\n \n* \n* \n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n* \n\n\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* ''Philoctete'' – Anaximandre: Fragments ((Grk icon)) \n* ''The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' – Anaximander\n* Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie\n* \n* Anaximander entry by John Burnet contains fragments of Anaximander\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Theories", "Other accomplishments", "Interpretations", "Works", "See also", "Footnotes", "References", "External links" ]	Anaximander
[ "\n'''APL''' is an abbreviation, acronym, or initialism that may refer to:\n\n\n", "Aden Protectorate Levies, a militia force for local defense of the Aden Protectorate\nAdvanced Production and Loading, a Norwegian marine engineering company formed in 1993\nAmateur Poker League, US amateur poker league\nAmerican Premier League, A Twenty20 cricket league in United States of America\nAmerican President Lines, a container transportation and shipping company\nAmerican Protective League, a World War I era pro-war organization\nApplied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University\nAssociation of Pension Lawyers, UK\nIrish Anti-Partition League, a Northern Ireland political organisation\nAurora Public Library (disambiguation), several Aurora Public Libraries use the APL abbreviation\n", "Abductor pollicis longus muscle, in the human hand\nAcute promyelocytic leukemia, a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia\nAPL, US Navy hull classification for barracks craft\n132524 APL, an asteroid\nNampula Airport, Mozambique, IATA code\n''Applied Physics Letters'', a physics journal also abbreviated as Appl. Phys. Lett.\n", "* Address Prefix List, a DNS record type\n'apl', file extension of the Monkey's Audio metadata file\n APL (programming language), created by Kenneth E. Iverson\n* AMD Performance Library, renamed Framewave, a computer compiler library, in the languages C and C++\n\n===Software licences===\n* Adaptive Public License, an Open Source license from the University of Victoria, Canada\n* AROS Public License, license of AROS Research Operating System, formerly Amiga Research Operating System\n* Arphic Public License, a free font license\n", "*apl.de.ap (born 1974), pseudonym of Allan Pineda Lindo, a member of hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Organizations", "Science and technology", "Computers", "Other uses" ]	APL
[ " \n\n\nAn '''architect''' is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. To ''practice architecture'' means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use. Etymologically, ''architect'' derives from the Latin ''architectus'', which derives from the Greek (''arkhi-'', chief + ''tekton'', builder), i.e., '''chief builder'''.\n\nProfessionally, an architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a ''practicum'' (or ''internship'') for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction (see below).\n\nThe terms '''architect''' and '''architecture''' are also used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture, and often information technology (for example a network architect or software architect). In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms \"architect\" and \"landscape architect\" are legally protected.\n", "\nThroughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles ''architect'' and ''engineer'' were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably.\n\nIt is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional 'gentleman' architect, separate from the hands-on craftsman. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century but became increasingly available after 1500. Pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals. Concurrently, the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a three-dimensional building in two dimensions, together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy, helped building designers communicate their ideas. However, the development was gradual. Until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects.\n", "Filippo Brunelleschi is revered as one of the most inventive and gifted architects in history.\nIn most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, often governmental may legally practice architecture. Such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. The use of terms and titles and the representation of oneself as an architect is restricted to licensed individuals by law, although in general, derivatives such as ''architectural designer'' are not legally protected.\n\nTo practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision. The term ''building design professional'' (or ''Design professional)'', by contrast, is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession, such as engineering professionals, or those who assist in the practice architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect, such as ''architectural technologists'' and ''intern architects''. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses and other smaller structures.\n", "In the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the driving force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client. The commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building. Throughout the project (planning to occupancy), the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, who must ensure that the work is co-ordinated to construct the design.\n\n===Design role===\nThe architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements and nuances of the planned project. Often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make early proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief. The program or brief is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs of the owner — it is a guide for the architect in creating the design concept.\n\nIt is generally expected that the design proposal(s) is both imaginative as well as pragmatic, but the precise extent and nature of these expectations will vary, depending on the place, time, finance, culture, and available crafts and technology in which the design takes place.\n\nDesign buildings is a very complex and demanding undertaking, no matter what the scale of the project might be. A strong degree of foresight is a prerequisite. Any design concept must at a very early stage in its generation take into account a great number of issues and variables which include qualities of space(s), the end-use and life-cycle of these proposed spaces, connections, relations, and aspects between spaces including how they are put together as well as the impact of proposals on the immediate and wider locality. Selection of appropriate materials and technology must be considered, tested and reviewed at an early stage in the design to ensure there are no setbacks (such as higher-than-expected costs) which may occur later. The site and its environs, as well as the culture and history of the place, will also influence the design. The design must also countenance increasing concerns with environmental sustainability. The architect may introduce (intentionally or not), to greater or lesser degrees, aspects of mathematics and architecture, new or current architectural theory, or references to architectural history.\n\nA key part of design is that the architect often consults with engineers, surveyors and other specialists throughout the design, ensuring that aspects such as the structural supports and air conditioning elements are coordinated in the scheme as a whole. The control and planning of construction costs are also a part of these consultations. Coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication, including advanced computer technology such as BIM (Building Information Management), CAD, and cloud-based technologies.\n\nAt all times in the design, the architect reports back to the client who may have reservations or recommendations, introducing a further variable into the design.\n\nArchitects deal with local and federal jurisdictions about regulations and building codes. The architect might need to comply with local planning and zoning laws, such as required setbacks, height limitations, parking requirements, transparency requirements (windows), and land use. Some established jurisdictions require adherence to design and historic preservation guidelines. Health and safety risks form a vital part of current design, and in many jurisdictions, design reports and records are required which include ongoing considerations such as materials and contaminants, waste management and recycling, traffic control and fire safety.\n\n===Means of design===\n\nPreviously, architects employed drawings to illustrate and generate design proposals. While conceptual sketches are still widely used by architects, computer technology has now become the industry standard. However, design may include the use of photos, collages, prints, linocuts, and other media in design production. \nIncreasingly, computer software such as BIM is shaping how architects work. BIM technology allows for the creation of a virtual building that serves as an information database for the sharing of design and building information throughout the life-cycle of the building's design, construction and maintenance.\n\n===Environmental role===\nAs current buildings are now known to be high emitters of carbon into the atmosphere, increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions, increase energy efficiency, and make use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources may be developed within the proposed building or via local or national renewable energy providers. As a result, the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations which are continually tightening. Some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use.\nHowever, the architect is also increasingly required to provide initiatives in a wider environmental sense, such as making provision for low-energy transport, natural daylighting instead of artificial lighting, natural ventilation instead of air conditioning, pollution, and waste management, use of recycled materials and employment of materials which can be easily recycled in the future.\n\n===Construction role===\nAs the design becomes more advanced and detailed, specifications and detail designs are made of all the elements and components of the building. Techniques in the production of building are continually advancing which places a demand on the architect to ensure that he or she remains up to date with these advances.\n\nDepending on the client's needs and the jurisdiction's requirements, the spectrum of the architect's services during construction stages may be extensive (detailed document preparation and construction review) or less involved (such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable design-build functions).\n\nArchitects typically put projects to tender on behalf of their clients, advise on the award of the project to a general contractor, facilitate and then administer a contract of agreement which is often between the client and the contractor. This contract is legally binding and covers a very wide range of aspects including the insurances and commitments of all stakeholders, the status of the design documents, provisions for the architect's access, and procedures for the control of the works as they proceed. Depending on the type of contract utilized, provisions for further sub-contract tenders may be required. The architect may require that some elements are covered by a warranty which specifies the expected life and other aspects of the material, product or work.\n\nIn most jurisdictions, prior notification to the relevant local authority must be given before commencement on site, thus giving the local authority notice to carry out independent inspections. The architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority.\n\nThe architect will typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals, prepare and issue site instructions, and provide Certificates for Payment to the contractor (see also Design-bid-build) which is based on the work done to date as well as any materials and other goods purchased or hired. In the United Kingdom and other countries, a quantity surveyor is often part of the team to provide cost consulting. With very large, complex projects, an independent construction manager is sometimes hired to assist in design and to manage construction.\n\nIn many jurisdictions, mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of works is required. This demand for certification entails a high degree of risk - therefore, regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that is in compliance with the design itself as well as with all relevant statutes and permissions.\n\n===Alternate practice and specializations===\nRecent decades have seen the rise of specializations within the profession. Many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types (for example, healthcare, retail, public housing, event management), technological expertise or project delivery methods. Some architects specialize as building code, building envelope, sustainable design, technical writing, historic preservation(US) or conservation (UK), accessibility and other forms of specialist consultants.\n\nMany architects elect to move into real estate (property) development, corporate facilities planning, project management, construction management, interior design, or other related fields.\n", "\n\n\nAlthough there are variations from place to place, most of the world's architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. To do so, architects are typically required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.\n\nEducational requirements generally consist of a university degree in architecture. The experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship (usually two to three years, depending on jurisdiction). Finally, a Registration Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.\n\nProfessionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern times, there was no distinction between architects, engineers and often artists, and the title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of master builder or surveyor after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory.\n", "According to the American Institute of Architects, titles and job descriptions within American architectural offices might be as follows:\n\n\n\n Title\nDefinition\n\n Senior Principal / Partner\nTypically an owner or majority shareholder of the firm; may be the founder; titles may include managing director, president, chief executive officer, or managing principal/partner.\n\n Mid-level Principal / Partner\nPrincipal or partner; titles may include executive or senior vice president or director.\n\n Junior Principal / Partner\nRecently made a partner or principal of the firm; title may include vice president or associate director.\n\nDepartment head / Senior Manager\nSenior management architect or non-registered graduate; responsible for major department(s) or functions; reports to a principal or partner.\n\nProject Manager\nLicensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has overall project management responsibility for a variety of projects or project teams, including client contact, scheduling, and budgeting.\n\nSenior Architect / Designer\nLicensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has a design or technical focus and is responsible for significant project activities.\n\nArchitect / Designer III\nLicensed architect or non-registered graduate with 8–10 years of experience; responsible for significant aspects of projects.\n\nArchitect / Designer II\nLicensed architect or non-registered graduate with 6–8 years of experience, responsible for daily design or technical development of projects.\n\nArchitect / Designer I\nRecently licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 3–5 years of experience; responsible for particular parts of a project within parameters set by others.\n\nArchitectural Intern\nUnlicensed architecture school graduate participating in a defined internship program; develops design or technical solutions under supervision of an architect. In the U.S., no state allows the use of the title ''architect'' by anyone who is not licensed to provide architectural services.\n\n", "\nArchitects' fee structures are typically based on a percentage of construction value, as a rate per unit area of the proposed construction, hourly rates or a fixed lump sum fee. Combinations of these structures are also common. Fixed fees are usually based on a project's allocated construction cost and can range between 4 and 12% of new construction cost, for commercial and institutional projects, depending on a project's size and complexity. Residential projects range from 12 to 20%. Renovation projects typically command higher percentages, as high as 15-20%.\n\nOverall billings for architectural firms range widely, depending on location and economic climate. Billings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but, with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for larger international firms. Salaries also vary, depending on experience, position within the firm (staff architect, partner, or shareholder, etc.), and the size and location of the firm.\n", "\nA number of national professional organizations exist to promote career and business development in architecture.\n", "\nA wide variety of prizes is awarded by national professional associations and other bodies, recognizing accomplished architects, their buildings, structures, and professional careers.\n\nThe most lucrative award an architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize, sometimes termed the \"Nobel Prize for architecture.\" Other prestigious architectural awards are the Royal Gold Medal, the AIA Gold Medal (USA), AIA Gold Medal (Australia), and the Praemium Imperiale.\n\nArchitects in the UK, who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, might until 1971 be elected Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and can write FRIBA after their name if they feel so inclined. Those elected to chartered membership of the RIBA after 1971 may use the initials RIBA but cannot use the old ARIBA and FRIBA. An Honorary Fellow may use the initials Hon. FRIBA. and an International Fellow may use the initials Int. FRIBA. Architects in the US, who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, are elected Fellows of the American Institute of Architects and can write FAIA after their name. Architects in Canada, who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contribution to research, scholarship, public service, or professional standing to the good of architecture in Canada, or elsewhere, may be recognized as a Fellow of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada and can write FRAIC after their name. In Hong Kong, those elected to chartered membership may use the initial HKIA, and those who have made special contribution after nomination and election by The Hong Kong Institute of Architects (HKIA), may be elected as fellow members of HKIA and may use FHKIA after their name.\n\nArchitects in the Philippines and Filipino communities overseas (whether they are Filipinos or not), especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as ''Architect'', rather than ''Sir/Madam'' in speech or ''Mr./Mrs./Ms.'' (''G./Gng./Bb.'' in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.\n", "\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "Architecture", "Practice", "Professional requirements", "Professional title distinctions", "Fees", "Professional organizations", "Prizes, awards, and titles", "See also", "References" ]	Architect
[ "\n\nExample of Latin text with abbreviations\n\nAn '''abbreviation''' (from Latin ''brevis'', meaning ''short'') is a shortened form of a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word ''abbreviation'' can itself be represented by the abbreviation ''abbr.'', ''abbrv.'', or ''abbrev.''\n\nIn strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions, crasis, acronyms, or initialisms, with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all four are connected by the term \"abbreviation\" in loose parlance.An abbreviation is a shortening by any method; a contraction is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts. A contraction of a word is made by omitting certain letters or syllables and bringing together the first and last letters or elements; an abbreviation may be made by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part. A contraction is an abbreviation, but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction. Acronyms and initialisms are regarded as subsets of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors). They are abbreviations that consist of the initial letters or parts of words.\n", "\n\nAbbreviations have a long history, created so that spelling out a whole word could be avoided. This might be done to save time and space, and also to provide secrecy. Shortened words were used and initial letters were commonly used to represent words in specific applications. In classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was common. In Roman inscriptions, \"Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation.\" However, \"some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, ''A'' can be an abbreviation for many words, such as ''ager'', ''amicus'', ''annus'', ''as'', ''Aulus'', ''Aurelius'', ''aurum'' and ''avus''.)\"\n\nAbbreviations in English were frequently used from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example ''7'' or ''&'' for ''and'', and ''y'' for ''since'', so that \"not much space is wasted\". The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviations. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for ''master'' and ‹exacɔbate› for ''exacerbate''. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503:\n\n\n\nThe Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, had abbreviations like ''ye'' for ''Þe'', used for the word ''the'': \"hence, by later misunderstanding, Ye Olde Tea Shoppe.\"\n\nDuring the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. The use of abbreviation for the names of J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and other members of the Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.\n\nAfter World War II, the British greatly reduced the use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organisation of secret agents called the \"Special Operations, Executive\"—\"S.O.,E\"—which is not found in histories written after about 1960.\n\nBut before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is ''not'' the last letter of its antecedent: \"M.\" is the abbreviation for \"monsieur\" while \"Mme\" is that for \"madame\". Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.\n\nOver the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to use periods in two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations.\n\nMinimization of punctuation in typewritten material became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film ribbons since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.\n\nWidespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant- and text messaging. SMS, for instance, supports message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set). This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated. More recently Twitter, a popular social networking service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.\n", "\nIn modern English, there are several conventions for abbreviations, and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be ''consistent'', and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Questions which arise include those in the following subsections.\n\n=== Lowercase letters ===\n\nIf the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for ''Leviticus''. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for ''year-to-date'', PCB for ''printed circuit board'' and FYI for ''for your information''. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.\n\n=== Periods (full stops) and spaces ===\n\nA period (full stop) is often used to signify an abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen.\n\nAccording to Hart's Rules, the traditional rule is that abbreviations (in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending, and not the middle, dropped) terminate with a full stop, whereas contractions (in the sense of words missing a middle part) do not, but there are exceptions. Fowler's Modern English Usage says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions, but recommends against this practice: advising them only for abbreviations and lower-case initialisms and not for upper-case initialisms and contractions.\n\n\n\nExample\nCategory\nShort form\nSource\n\nDoctor\nContraction\nDr\nD——r\n\nProfessor\nAbbreviation\nProf.\nProf...\n\nThe Reverend\nAbbreviation\nRev.\nRev...\n\nThe Reverend\nContraction\nRevd\nRev——d\n\nThe Right Honourable\nContraction and Abbreviation\nRt Hon.\nR——t Hon...\n\n\nIn American English, the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction, e.g. ''Dr.'' or ''Mrs.''. In some cases, periods are optional, as in either ''US'' or ''U.S.'' for ''United States'', ''EU'' or ''E.U.'' for ''European Union'', and ''UN'' or ''U.N.'' for ''United Nations''. There are some house styles, however—American ones included—that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:\n* The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, ''\"Northwest Blvd\"'', ''\"W. Jefferson\"'', and ''\"PED XING\"'' all follow this recommendation.) \n* AMA style, used in many medical journals, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus eg, ie, vs, et al., Dr, Mr, MRI, ICU, and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are \"No.\" (to avoid the appearance of \"No\"); initials within persons' names (such as \"George R. Smith\"); and \"St.\" within persons' names when the person prefers it (such as \"Emily R. St. Clair\") (but not in city names such as ''St Louis'' or ''St Paul''). (AMA style also forgoes italic on terms long since naturalized into English from Latin, New Latin, other languages, or ISV; thus, no italic for eg, ie, vs, et al., in vivo, in vitro, or in situ.)\n\nAcronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, snafu, and scuba.\n\nToday, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters \"U. S.\"\n\nWhen an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: ''The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C''.\n\n=== Plural forms ===\n\nThere is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations, particularly acronyms. Often a writer will add an 's' following an apostrophe, as in \"PC's\". However, this style is not preferred by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings, allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms \"only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters\". Turabian would therefore prefer \"DVDs\" and \"URLs\" and \"Ph.D.'s\", while the Modern Language Association explicitly says, \"do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation\". Also, the American Psychological Association specifically says, \"without an apostrophe\".\n\nHowever, the 1999 style guide for the New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring \"PC's, TV's and VCR's\".\n\nFollowing those who would generally omit the apostrophe, to form the plural of run batted in, simply add an s to the end of RBI.\n\nRBIs\n\nFor all other rules, see below:\n\nTo form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase ''s'' to the end. Apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common.\n A group of MPs\n* The roaring 20s\n* Mind your Ps and Qs\n\nTo indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure, the same form is used as in the singular.\n* 1 lb or 20 lb\n* 1 ft or 16 ft\n* 1 min or 45 min\n\nWhen an abbreviation contains more than one full point, ''Hart's Rules'' recommends putting the ''s'' after the final one.\n* Ph.D.s\n* M.Phil.s\n* the d.t.s\nHowever, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:\n* PhDs\n* MPhils\n* the DTs. (This is the recommended form in the ''New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors''.)\n\nAccording to ''Hart's Rules'', an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.\n* The x's of the equation\n* Dot the i's and cross the t's\nHowever, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:\n* The ''x''s of the equation\n* Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's\n\nIn Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.\n\n\n\nSingular abbreviation\nWord/phrase\nPlural abbreviation\nDiscipline\n\nd.\n didot\ndd.\n typography\n\nf.\n following line or page\nff.\nnotes\n\nF.\n folio\nFf.\nliterature\n\nh.\n hand\nhh.\n horse height\n\nJ.\n Justice\nJJ.\nlaw (job title)\n\nl.\n line\nll.\nnotes\n\nMS\n manuscript\nMSS\nnotes\n\nop.\n opus (plural: opera)\nopp.\nnotes\n\np.\npage\npp.\nnotes\n\nQ.\n quarto\nQq.\nliterature\n\ns. (or §)\nsection\nss. (or §§)\nnotes\n\nv.\nvolume\nvv.\nnotes\n\n\n=== Conventions followed by publications and newspapers ===\n\n==== United States ====\n\nPublications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of ''The Chicago Manual of Style'' and the Associated Press. The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. The National Institute of Standards and Technology sets the style for abbreviations of units.\n\n==== United Kingdom ====\n\nMany British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:\n* For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and ''The Guardian'', have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:\n Social titles, e.g. Ms or Mr (though these would usually have not had full stops—see above) Capt, Prof, ''etc.;''\n Two-letter abbreviations for countries (''\"US\"'', not ''\"U.S.\"'');\n Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);\n Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (''\"PR\"'', instead of ''\"p.r.\"'', or ''\"pr\"'')\n Names (''\"FW de Klerk\"'', ''\"GB Whiteley\"'', ''\"Park JS\"''). A notable exception is ''The Economist'' which writes ''\"Mr F. W. de Klerk\"''.\n Scientific units (see Measurement below).\n* Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation can be abbreviated as ''\"Nato\"'' or ''\"NATO\"'', and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as ''\"Sars\"'' or ''\"SARS\"'' (compare with ''\"laser\"'' which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).\n* Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the ''\"British Broadcasting Corporation\"'' is abbreviated to ''\"BBC\"'', never ''\"Bbc\"''. An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word.\n* When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)\n\n==== Miscellaneous and general rules ====\n\n* A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double \"l\" is a separate sound: \"Ll. George\" for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George.\n* Some titles, such as \"Reverend\" and \"Honourable\", are spelt out when preceded by \"the\", rather than as \"Rev.\" or \"Hon.\" respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.\n* A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage. Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.\n", "Road sign in China—\"km\" is a symbol, not an abbreviation, as it is not a contraction of a Chinese word\n\nWriters often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as \"in\" for \"inch\" or can be a symbol such as \"km\" for \"kilometre\".\n\nThe shorthand \"in\" applies to English only—in Afrikaans for example, the shorthand \"dm\" is used for the equivalent Afrikaans word \"duim\". Since both \"in\" and \"dm\" are contractions of the same word, but in different languages, they are abbreviations. A symbol on the other hand, defined as \"Mark or character taken as the conventional sign of some object or idea or process\" applies the appropriate shorthand by ''substitution'' rather than by ''contraction''. Since the shorthand for kilometre (''quilômetro'' in Portuguese or ''χιλιόμετρο'' in Greek) is \"km\" in both languages and the letter \"k\" does not appear in the expansion of either translation, \"km\" is a symbol as it is a substitution rather than a contraction. It is a logogram rather than an abbreviation.\n\nIn the International System of Units (SI) manual the word \"symbol\" is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also defines the way in which units should be written, the principal rules being:\nThe conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed—for example 1 MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000,000 mW (milliwatts).\nNo periods should be inserted between letters—for example \"m.s\" (which is an approximation of \"m·s\", which correctly uses middle dot) is the symbol for \"metres multiplied by seconds\", but \"ms\" is the symbol for milliseconds.\nNo periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).\nThe singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical—not all languages use the letter \"s\" to denote a plural.\n", "\nA syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words, such as ''Interpol'' = '''''Inter'''national'' + '''''pol'''ice''. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each.\n\n=== Usage ===\n\nSyllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English. The United States Navy, however, often uses syllabic abbreviations, as described below, and some UK government ministries such as Ofcom ('''''Of'''fice of '''Com'''munications'') and Oftel ('''''Of'''fice of '''Tel'''ecommunications'') use this style.\n\nNew York City has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation, such as Tribeca ('''''Tri'''angle '''be'''low '''Ca'''nal Street'') and SoHo ('''''So'''uth of '''Ho'''uston Street''). This usage has spread into other American cities, giving SoMa, San Francisco ('''''So'''uth of '''Ma'''rket'') and LoDo, Denver ('''''Lo'''wer '''Do'''wntown''), among others. New Orleans, Louisiana is often abbreviated as NOLA, while Northern Virginia is known as NOVA.\n\n==== Languages other than English====\n\nOn the other hand, they prevailed in Germany under the Nazis and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organisations. For example, ''Gestapo'' stands for '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats-'''Po'''lizei'', or \"secret state police\". Similarly, Leninist organisations such as the ''Comintern'' (''Communist International'') and ''Komsomol'' ('''''Kom'''munisticheskii '''So'''yuz '''Mol'''odyozhi'', or \"Communist youth union\") used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. This has given syllabic abbreviations negative connotations in some countries, (as in Orwell's Newspeak), notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in Germany even before the Nazis came to power, e.g., ''Schupo'' for ''Schutzpolizei'', and are still used, e.g. ''Kripo'' for ''Kriminalpolizei''.\n\nSyllabic abbreviations were also typical for the German language used in the German Democratic Republic, e.g. ''Stasi'' for '''''Sta'''ats'''si'''cherheit'' (\"state security\", the secret police) or ''Vopo'' for ''Volkspolizist'' (\"people's policeman\"). Other uses are in company or product names such as Aldi, from the name of the founder, Theo '''Al'''brecht, and the German word '''''Di'''skont'' (discount) or Haribo, from the name of the founder and the headquarters of the company, '''Ha'''ns '''Ri'''egl '''Bo'''nn.\n\nSyllabic abbreviations are ''de rigueur'' in Spanish; examples abound in organization names such as Pemex for '''''Pe'''tróleos '''Mex'''icanos'' (\"Mexican Petroleums\") or Fonafifo for '''''Fo'''ndo '''Na'''cional de '''Fi'''nancimiento '''Fo'''restal'' (National Forestry Financing Fund).\n\nEast Asian languages whose writing systems use Chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, ''kokusai rengō'' (国際連合) is often abbreviated to ''kokuren'' (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese; see also Japanese abbreviated and contracted words). The syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities: for instance, ''Běidà'' (北大) for ''Běijīng Dàxué'' (北京大学, Peking University) and ''Tōdai'' (東大) for ''Tōkyō daigaku'' (東京大学, University of Tokyo). The English phrase \"Gung ho\" originated as a Chinese abbreviation.\n\n==== Organizations ====\n\n\nPartially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence ''DESRON 6'' is used (in the full capital form) to mean \"Destroyer Squadron 6\", while ''COMNAVAIRLANT'' would be \"Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic.\"\n", "\n* Clipping (morphology)\n* List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions\n* List of abbreviations in photography\n* List of acronyms\n* List of classical abbreviations\n* List of medieval abbreviations\n* The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary\n* Abbreviation (music)\n* Numeronym\n", "\n\n", "\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Style conventions in English ", " Measurement shorthand—symbol or abbreviation ", " Syllabic abbreviation ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Abbreviation
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Aphrodite''' ( ; ''Aphrodite'') is the Greek goddess of love, beauty, pleasure, and procreation. She is identified with the planet Venus; her Roman equivalent is the goddess . Myrtle, roses, doves, sparrows and swans were sacred to her. \n\nIn Hesiod's ''Theogony'', Aphrodite was created from the sea foam (''aphros'') produced by Uranus's genitals, which had been severed by Cronus.\nIn Homer's ''Iliad'', however, she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. In Plato (''Symposium'', 180e), these two origins are said to be of hitherto separate entities: Aphrodite Ourania (a transcendent, \"Heavenly\" Aphrodite) and Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite common to \"all the people\"). She had many other names, each emphasizing a different aspect of the same goddess, or used by a different local cult. Thus she was also known as '''Cytherea''' (''Lady of Cythera'') and '''Cypris''' (''Lady of Cyprus''), both of which claimed to be her place of birth. \n\nIn Greek mythology, the other gods feared that Aphrodite's beauty might lead to conflict and war, through rivalry for her favours; so Zeus married her off to Hephaestus. Despite this, Aphrodite followed her own inclinations, and had many lovers — both gods, such as Ares, and men, such as Anchises. She played a role in the Eros and Psyche legend, and was both lover and surrogate mother of Adonis.\n", "Hesiod derives ''Aphrodite'' from ''aphrós'' (ἀφρός) \"sea-foam\", interpreting the name as \"risen from the foam\". Michael Janda, accepting this as genuine, claims the story of a birth from the foam as an Indo-European mytheme. The second part of the compound has been variously analyzed as ''-odítē'' \"wanderer\" or ''-dítē'' \"bright\". Janda, agreeing with the latter, interprets the meaning of the name as \"she who shines from the foam (of the ocean)\", supposing the name as an epithet of Eos, the dawn goddess. Likewise, Witczak proposes an Indo-European compound '''' \"very\" and '''' \"to shine\", also referring to Eos. Other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely since Aphrodite's attributes are entirely different from those of both Eos and the Vedic deity Ushas. Janda disputes this assumption.\n\nA number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have been suggested in scholarship. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian ''barīrītu'', the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts. Hammarström looks to Etruscan, comparing ''(e)prϑni'' \"lord\", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις. This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, \"the lady\". Hjalmar Frisk and Robert Beekes reject this etymology as implausible, especially since Aphrodite actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form ''Apru'' (from Greek ''Aphrō'', clipped form of ''Aphrodite'').\n\nThe medieval ''Etymologicum Magnum'' (c. 1150) offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving ''Aphrodite'' from the compound ''habrodíaitos'' (), \"she who lives delicately\", from ''habrós'' and ''díaita''. The alteration from ''b'' to ''ph'' is explained as a \"familiar\" characteristic of Greek \"obvious from the Macedonians\", despite the fact that the name cannot be of Macedonian origin.\n", "===Near Eastern love goddess===\n\n\nThe cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia, which, in turn, was derived from the cult of the Babylonian goddess Ishtar, which itself was largely derived from the cult of the Sumerian goddess Inanna. Pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the Assyrians, after the Assyrians, the Paphians of Cyprus, and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of Cythera.\n\nClassical nineteenth-century scholars viewed the notion of a Near Eastern origin for Aphrodite with skepticism. Authors such as A. Enmann (''Kypros und der Ursprung des Aphroditekultes'' 1881) attempted to portray the cult of Aphrodite as a native Greek development. Scholarly opinion on this question has shifted significantly since the 1980s, notably due to Walter Burkert (1984). The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular, is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century BC, when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.\n\nHans Georg Wunderlich has drawn a connection between Aphrodite and the Minoan snake goddess. This theory is supported by the fact that the Egyptian snake goddess Wadjet was associated with the city known to the Greeks as ''Aphroditopolis'', which means \"City of Aphrodite.\"\n\nIn native Greek tradition, the planet Venus had two names: ''Hesperos'' as the evening star and ''Eosphoros'' as the morning star. The Greeks adopted the identification of the morning and the evening stars, as well as its identification as Ishtar/Aphrodite, during the 4th century BC, along with other items of Babylonian astrology, such as the zodiac (Eudoxus of Cnidus).\n\nThe ancient Greeks also identified Aphrodite with the ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor.\n\n===Indo-European dawn goddess===\nIt has long been accepted in comparative mythology that Aphrodite preserves some aspects of the Indo-European dawn goddess ''Haéusōs'' (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, Sanskrit Ushas). Janda etymologizes her name as \"she who rises from the foam of the ocean\" and points to Hesiod's ''Theogony'' account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas.\n", "\n\nThe Birth of Venus'' by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (circa 1879)\n\nBy the late 5th century BC, Platonists distinguished two separate \"Aphrodites\". ''Aphrodite Ourania'', the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, was thought the older form; she also inspired homosexual male desire or, more specifically, ephebic eros. The \"younger\" ''Aphrodite Pandemos'', the common Aphrodite \"of all the folk\", born from the union of Zeus and Dione, inspired all love for women.\n\nAmong the neo-Platonists and, later, their Christian interpreters, Aphrodite Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Aphrodite Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Aphrodite Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by Phidias for Elis, known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer Pausanias).\n", "\n\nShe was also called ''Kypris'' or ''Cytherea'' after her birth-places in Cyprus and Cythera, respectively, both centers of her cult. She was associated with Hesperia and frequently accompanied by the Oreads, nymphs of the mountains. She was also often depicted with the sea, dolphins, doves, swans, pomegranates, sceptres, apples, myrtle, rose trees, lime trees, clams, scallop shells, and pearls.\n\nHer festival, ''Aphrodisia'', was celebrated across Greece, but particularly in Athens and Corinth. At the temple of Aphrodite on the summit of Acrocorinth (before the Roman destruction of the city in 146 BC), intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshiping Aphrodite. This temple was not rebuilt when the city was re-established under Roman rule in 44 BC, but the fertility rituals likely continued in the main city near the agora.\n\nPausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as ''Areia'', which means \"warlike.\" This epithet stresses Aphrodite's connections to Ares, with whom she had extramarital relations. Pausanias also records that, in Sparta and on Cythera, there were extremely ancient cult statues of Aphrodite portraying her bearing arms.\n\nThe cult of Aphrodite may have involved ritual prostitution. The Greek euphemism for a sacred prostitute is ''hierodoule'', meaning \"sacred slave\". Ritual prostitution is attested in association with Aphrodite in Corinth and on the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and Sicily, but it is not attested in Athens. Ritual prostitution was an inherent part of the rituals owed to Aphrodite's Near Eastern forebears, Sumerian Inanna and Akkadian Ishtar, whose temple priestesses were the \"women of Ishtar,\" ''ishtaritum''. Ritual prostitution has been documented in Babylon, Syria, and Palestine, in Phoenician cities and the Tyrian colony Carthage. Aphrodite was everywhere the patroness of the ''hetaera'' and courtesan. In Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor, ''hierodoulai'' served in the temple of Artemis.\n\n===Modern worship===\nPottery vessel in the shape of Aphrodite inside a shell; from Attica, Classical Greece, discovered in the Phanagoria cemetery, Taman Peninsula (Bosporan Kingdom, southern Russia), 1st quarter of 4th century BC, Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg\n\nAs one of the Twelve Olympians of the Greek pantheon and thus a major deity, worship of Aphrodite or ''Aphrodíti'' as a living goddess is one of the more prominent devotionals in ''Hellenismos'' (Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism), the revival of ancient Greek religious practices in the present day.\n\nHellenic polytheists of today celebrate their religious devotion to Aphrodite on two annual and monthly festival days. Aphrodisia is her main festival day, which is celebrated on the 4th day of ''Hekatombaion'' in the Attic calendar, falling in the months of July and August in the Gregorian calendar, depending on the year. Adonia, a joint festival of Aphrodite and her partner Adonis, is celebrated on the first full moon following the Northern spring equinox, often roughly as the same week the Christian festival of Easter is celebrated. The fourth day of each month is considered a sacred day of both Aphrodite and her son Eros.\n\nDevotional offerings to Aphrodite can include incense, fruit (particularly apples and pomegranates), flowers (particularly fragrant roses), sweet dessert wine (particularly ''Commandaria'' wine from Cyprus), and cakes made with honey.\n", "\n=== Birth ===\n''The Birth of Venus'' by Sandro Botticelli (circa 1485)\n\nPetra tou Romiou (\"The rock of the Greek\"), Aphrodite's legendary birthplace in Paphos, Cyprus\n\nAphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship, Paphos, on the island of Cyprus, which is why she is sometimes called \"Cyprian\", especially in the poetic works of Sappho. However, other versions of her myth have her born near the island of Cythera, hence another of her names, \"Cytherea\". Cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and the Peloponesus, so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of Aphrodite's cult from the Middle East to mainland Greece.\n\nAccording to the version of her birth recounted by Hesiod in his ''Theogony'', Cronus severed Uranus' genitals and threw them behind him into the sea. The foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite (hence her name, meaning \"foam-arisen\"), while the Giants, the Erinyes (furies), and the Meliae emerged from the drops of his blood. Hesiod states that the genitals \"were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew.\" The girl, Aphrodite, floated ashore on a scallop shell. This iconic representation of Aphrodite as a mature \"Venus rising from the sea\" (''Venus Anadyomene'') was made famous in a much-admired painting by Apelles, now lost, but described in the ''Natural History'' of Pliny the Elder.\n\nAccording to the ''Iliad'', Aphrodite was considered a daughter of Zeus and Dione, the mother goddess whose oracle was at Dodona.\n\n===Adulthood===\nMosaic from Roman Syria depicting Aphrodite and Ares. Shahba, Syria\n\nAphrodite is consistently portrayed as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult, having had no childhood. She is often depicted nude. In many of the later myths, she is portrayed as vain, ill-tempered, and easily offended. Although she is married—she is one of the few gods in the Greek Pantheon who is—she is frequently unfaithful to her husband.\n\nAccording to one version of Aphrodite's story, because of her immense beauty Zeus fears that the other gods will become violent with each other in their rivalry to possess her. To forestall this, he forces her to marry Hephaestus, the dour, humorless god of smithing. In another version of the story, his mother, Hera casts him off Olympus, deeming him too ugly and deformed to inhabit the home of the gods. His revenge is to trap his mother in a magic throne. In return for her release, he demands to be given Aphrodite's hand in marriage.\n\nHephaestus is overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty, and forges her beautiful jewelry, including a ''strophion'' known as the ''kestos imas'', a saltire-shaped undergarment (usually translated as \"girdle\"), which accentuated her breasts and made her even more irresistible to men. Such ''strophia'' were commonly used in depictions of the Near Eastern goddesses Ishtar and Atargatis.\n\nAphrodite is a major figure in the Trojan War legend. She is a contestant in the \"Judgement of Paris\" (see below), which leads to the war. She had been the lover of the Trojan Anchises, and mother of his son Aeneas. Later, during the war, she saves Aeneas from Diomedes, who wounds her.\n\nIn Book Eight of the ''Odyssey'', the blind singer Demodocus tells of how Aphrodite committed adultery with Ares, the god of war. The sun-god Helios saw Aphrodite and Ares having sex in Hephaestus's bed and warned Hephaestus, who fashioned a net of gold. The next time Ares and Aphrodite had sex together, the net trapped them both. Hephaestus brought all the gods into the bedchamber to laugh at the captured adulterers, but Apollo, Hermes, and Poseidon had sympathy for Ares and Poseidon agreed to pay Hephaestus for Ares's release. Humiliated, Aphrodite returned to Cyprus, where she was attended by the Charites. This narrative probably originated as a Greek folk tale, originally independent of the ''Odyssey''.\n\n===Adonis===\n''Venus and Adonis'' by Titian (circa 1554)\n\n\nAdonis was the son of Myrrha, who was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus, after Myrrha's mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess. Driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree, but still gave birth to Adonis.\n\nAphrodite found the baby, and took him to the underworld to be fostered by Persephone. She returned for him once he was grown and discovered him to be strikingly handsome. Persephone wanted to keep Adonis; Zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that Adonis would spend one third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third with whomever he chose. Adonis chose Aphrodite, and they remained constantly together.\n\nAdonis, who loved to hunt, was wounded by a wild boar, and bled to death in Aphrodite's arms. As she mourned his death, she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell, and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death. According to Lucian's ''De Dea Syria'', the river Adonis in Lebanon ran red with blood. The myth of Aphrodite and Adonis is probably derived from the Near Eastern legend of Ishtar and Tammuz.\n\n===The Judgement of Paris===\n\nAncient Greek mosaic from Antioch dating to the second century AD, depicting the Judgement of Paris\n\nThe gods are all invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles), except Eris, goddess of discord. In revenge, Eris makes a golden Apple of Discord inscribed ''kallistēi'' (\"to the fairest one\"), which she throws among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claim it.\n\nZeus delegates the choice to a mortal, Paris. The goddesses offer him bribes. Hera offers him supreme power and Athena offers him wisdom, fame, and glory in battle. Aphrodite offers him Helen of Troy, the most beautiful mortal woman in the world, as a wife. As the goddess of desire, she causes Paris to become inflamed with desire for Helen at first sight, and he awards the Apple of Discord to her. Helen is already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. The other two goddesses are enraged by this, and through Helen's abduction by Paris, they bring about the Trojan War.\n\n===Other myths===\n\n''Aphrodite Ourania'', draped rather than nude, with her foot resting on a tortoise (Musée du Louvre)\n\nIn one version of the legend of Hippolytus, Aphrodite is the cause of his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite, preferring Artemis. Aphrodite caused his stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. This led to Phaedra's suicide, and the death of Hippolytus.\n\nGlaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite. During the chariot race at the funeral games of King Pelias, she drove his horses mad and they tore him apart.\n\nPolyphonte was a young woman who chose virginal life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were transformed into birds of ill omen.\n", "Venus in a bikini\", from the house of Julia Felix, Pompeii, Italy actually depicts her Greek counterpart Aphrodite as she is about to untie her sandal, with a small Eros squatting beneath her left arm, 1st-century AD\n\n# Hephaestus\n# Ares\n## Phobos\n## Deimos\n## Harmonia\n## Adrestia\n## The Erotes, viz.\n### Eros\n### Anteros\n### Himeros\n### Pothos\n# Poseidon\n## Rhodos\n# Hermes\n## Tyche (possibly)\n## Hermaphroditos\n# Dionysus\n## The Charites (Graces) (possibly), viz.\n### Thalia\n### Euphrosyne\n### Aglaea\n## Priapus\n# Zeus \n## Tyche (possibly)\n#Adonis\n##Beroe\n##Golgos\n## Priapus \n# Phaethon (son of Eos)\n## Astynoos\n# Anchises\n## Aeneas\n## Lyrus\n# Butes\n## Eryx\n## Meligounis + several more unnamed daughters\n## Peitho\n", "\nFile:CallipygianVenus.jpg\|''The Venus Kallipygos.'' ''Aphrodite Kallipygos'' (\"Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks\"), is a type of nude female statue of the Hellenistic era. It depicts a partially draped woman raising her light peplos to uncover her hips and buttocks, and looking back and down over her shoulder, perhaps to evaluate them.\nFile:Cnidus Aphrodite Altemps Inv8619.jpg\|The Ludovisi ''Cnidian Aphrodite'', Roman marble copy (torso and thighs) with restored head, arms, legs and drapery support. The ''Aphrodite of Cnidus'' was one of the most famous works of the Attic sculptor Praxiteles (4th century BC).\nFile:Venere di Milo 02.JPG\|''Aphrodite of Milos'' (c.100 BC), Louvre\nFile:Venus pudica Massimo.jpg\|''Aphrodite of Menophantos'', a Venus Pudica signed by Menophantos, 1st century BC, found at San Gregorio al Celio, Rome (Museo Nazionale Romano), of the Capitoline Venus type\nFile:Aphrodite Heyl (2).jpg\|''Aphrodite Heyl'', terracotta statuette of very high quality, probably from Myrina, 2nd century BC\nFile:Aphrodite Anadyomene from Pompeii cropped.jpg\|The Venus Anadyomene, from Pompeii, believed to be a copy of a lost work by Apelles\nFile:Ludovisi throne Altemps Inv8570.jpg\|The Ludovisi Throne (460 BC?) is believed to be a classical Greek bas-relief, although it has also been alleged to be a 19th-century forgery.\nFile:Aphrodite swan BM D2.jpg\|Aphrodite riding a swan: Attic white-ground red-figured ''kylix'', c. 460, found at Kameiros (Rhodes)\n\n", "\n Hellenismos\n* Lucifer\n", "\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge (1994). ''L'Aphrodite grecque: contribution à l'étude de ses cultes et de sa personnalité dans le panthéon archaïque et classique,'' (Athènes : Centre international d'étude de la religion grecque antique (Kernos. Supplément ; 4))\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* Theoi Project, Aphrodite information from classical literature, Greek and Roman art\n* The Glory which Was Greece from a Female Perspective\n* Sappho's Hymn to Aphrodite, with a brief explanation`\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", "Origins", "Forms of Aphrodite", "Worship", "Mythology", "Consorts and children", "Gallery", " See also ", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Aphrodite
[ "\nIn mathematics, a binary relation ''R'' on a set ''X'' is '''anti-symmetric''' if there is no pair of distinct elements of ''X'' each of which is related by ''R'' to the other. More formally, ''R'' is anti-symmetric precisely if for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''X''\n:if ''R(a,b)'' and ''R(b,a)'', then ''a'' = ''b'',\nor, equivalently,\n:if ''R(a,b)'' with ''a'' ≠ ''b'', then ''R(b,a)'' must not hold.\n\nAs a simple example, the divisibility order on the natural numbers is an anti-symmetric relation. In this context, anti-symmetry means that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if ''n'' and ''m'' are distinct and ''n'' is a factor of ''m'', then ''m'' cannot be a factor of ''n''.\n\nIn mathematical notation, this is:\n\n:\n\nor, equivalently,\n\n\n:\n\nThe usual order relation ≤ on the real numbers is anti-symmetric: if for two real numbers ''x'' and ''y'' both inequalities ''x'' ≤ ''y'' and ''y'' ≤ ''x'' hold then ''x'' and ''y'' must be equal. Similarly, the subset order ⊆ on the subsets of any given set is anti-symmetric: given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', if every element in ''A'' also is in ''B'' and every element in ''B'' is also in ''A'', then ''A'' and ''B'' must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal:\n:\n\nPartial and total orders are anti-symmetric by definition. A relation can be both symmetric and anti-symmetric (e.g., the equality relation), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric (e.g., the \"preys on\" relation on biological species).\n\nAnti-symmetry is different from asymmetry, which requires both anti-symmetry and irreflexivity.\n", "The relation \"''x'' is even, ''y'' is odd\" between a pair (''x'', ''y'') of integers is anti-symmetric:\n::Even and odd antisymmetric relation\n\nEvery asymmetric relation is also an anti-symmetric relation.\n", "* Symmetric relation\n* Asymmetric relation\n* Symmetry in mathematics\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Examples", "See also", "References" ]	Antisymmetric relation
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Aleister Crowley''' (; born '''Edward Alexander Crowley'''; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist, and mountaineer. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.\n\nBorn to a wealthy Plymouth Brethren family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected this fundamentalist Christian faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism. He was educated at the University of Cambridge, where he focused his attentions on mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898 he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. Moving to Boleskine House by Loch Ness in Scotland, he went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. He married Rose Edith Kelly and in 1904 they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named Aiwass, who provided him with ''The Book of the Law'', a sacred text that served as the basis for Thelema. Announcing the start of the Æon of Horus, ''The Book'' declared that its followers should \"Do what thou wilt\" and seek to align themselves with their True Will through the practice of magick.\n\nAfter an unsuccessful attempt to climb Kanchenjunga and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and George Cecil Jones co-founded a Thelemite order, the A∴A∴, through which they propagated the religion. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order, the German-based Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), rising to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through the O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the First World War in the United States, where he took up painting and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain, later revealing that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920 he established the Abbey of Thelema, a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death.\n\nCrowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a recreational drug experimenter, bisexual and an individualist social critic. He was denounced in the popular press as \"the wickedest man in the world\" and a Satanist. Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture, and continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema.\n", "\n===Youth: 1875–94===\nAleister Crowley was born as Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, on 12 October 1875.\n\nCrowley was born as Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, on 12 October 1875. His father, Edward Crowley (1834–87), was trained as an engineer, but his share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley's Alton Ales, had allowed him to retire before his son was born. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848–1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son; she described him as \"the Beast\", a name that he revelled in. The couple had been married at London's Kensington Registry Office in November 1874, and were evangelical Christians. Crowley's father had been born a Quaker, but had converted to the Exclusive Brethren, a faction of a Christian fundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren, with Emily joining him upon marriage. Crowley's father was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day. Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill, Surrey. At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H.T. Habershon's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings, and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge, run by the Reverend Henry d'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.\n\nIn March 1887, when Crowley was 11, his father died of tongue cancer. Crowley described this as a turning point in his life, and he always maintained an admiration of his father, describing him as \"his hero and his friend\". Inheriting a third of his father's wealth, he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney; Crowley's family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria. He then attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School, both of which he despised and left after a few terms. He became increasingly sceptical regarding Christianity, pointing out inconsistencies in the Bible to his religious teachers, and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea. Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in Eastbourne, he undertook chemistry courses at Eastbourne College. Crowley developed interests in chess, poetry, and mountain climbing, and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining the Scottish Mountaineering Club. The following year he returned to the Bernese Alps, climbing the Eiger, Trift, Jungfrau, Mönch, and Wetterhorn.\n\n===Cambridge University: 1895–98===\n\nHaving adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered. Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player. Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley. Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as ''The Granta'', ''Cambridge Magazine'', and ''Cantab''. He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein, and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.\n\n\n\nCrowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896. Several biographers, including Lawrence Sutin, Richard Kaczynski, and Tobias Churton, believed that this was the result of Crowley's first same-sex sexual experience, which enabled him to recognise his bisexuality. At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life with women—largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he caught syphilis—but eventually he took part in same-sex activities, despite their illegality. In October 1897, Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt, president of the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, and the two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley's increasing interest in Western esotericism, a breakup that Crowley would regret for many years.\n\nIn 1897, Crowley travelled to St Petersburg in Russia, later claiming that he was trying to learn Russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there. Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton suggested that Crowley had done so as an intelligence agent under the employ of the British secret service, speculating that he had been enlisted while at Cambridge.\n\nIn October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and \"the futility of all human endeavour\", and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult. In March 1898, he obtained A.E. Waite's ''The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts'' (1898), and then Karl von Eckartshausen's ''The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary'' (1896), furthering his occult interests.\nIn 1898 Crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem ''Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In'', but it was not a particular success. That same year he published a string of other poems, including ''White Stains'', a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities. In July 1898, he left Cambridge, not having taken any degree at all despite a \"first class\" showing in his 1897 exams and consistent \"second class honours\" results before that.\n\n===The Golden Dawn: 1898–99===\nGolden Dawn garb\nIn August 1898, Crowley was in Zermatt, Switzerland, where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker, and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy. Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones, Baker's brother in-law, and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which had been founded in 1888. Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn's Isis-Urania Temple held at London's Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name \"Frater Perdurabo\", which he interpreted as \"I shall endure to the end\". Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley joined the Order under the command of the British secret services to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a Carlist.\n\nCrowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67–69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, Allan Bennett, to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the ''Goetia'', until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism. In November 1899, Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the \"Laird of Boleskine\", and took to wearing traditional highland dress, even during visits to London. He continued writing poetry, publishing ''Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems'', ''Tales of Archais'', ''Songs of the Spirit'', ''Appeal to the American Republic'', and ''Jephthah'' in 1898–99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although ''Jephthah'' was considered a particular critical success.\n\nCrowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group's inner Second Order. He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation, and he had developed feuds with some of the members, including W.B. Yeats. When the Golden Dawn's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade. A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule. Acting under Mathers' orders, Crowley – with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson – attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington, from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space's rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group. Spence suggested that the entire scenario was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers' authority.\n\n===Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900–03===\n\nIn 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in Mexico City and taking a local woman as his mistress. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with John Dee's Enochian invocations. He later claimed to have been initiated into Freemasonry while there, and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner's ''Tannhäuser'' as well as a series of poems, published as ''Oracles'' (1905). Eckenstein joined him later that year, and together they climbed several mountains, including Iztaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, and Colima, the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption. Spence has suggested that the purpose of the trip might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence. Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the ''Nippon Maru''. On the ship he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; saying he had fallen in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as ''Alice: An Adultery'' (1903).\n\nCrowley during the K2 Expedition\nBriefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying Shaivism. The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition, travelling to Burma to do so. Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of ''raja yoga'', from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of ''dhyana''. He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madura. At this time he also composed and also wrote poetry which was published as ''The Sword of Song'' (1904). He contracted malaria, and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon. In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. Together the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted K2, which had never been climbed. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with influenza, malaria, and snow blindness, and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of before turning back.\n\nHaving arrived in Paris in November 1902 he socialised with friend and future brother-in-law, the painter Gerald Kelly, and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene. Whilst there, Crowley wrote a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor Auguste Rodin. These poems were later published as ''Rodin in Rime'' (1907). One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham, who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel ''The Magician'' (1908). Returning to Boleskine in April 1903, in August Crowley wed Gerald's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a \"marriage of convenience\" to prevent her entering an arranged marriage; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as ''Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs'' (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire ''Why Jesus Wept'' (1904).\n", "\n===Egypt and ''The Book of the Law'': 1904===\n\nIn February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo. Claiming to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic. According to Crowley's later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him \"they are waiting for you.\" On 18 March, she explained that \"they\" were the god Horus, and on 20 March proclaimed that \"the Equinox of the Gods has come\". She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit's number was 666, the number of the beast in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the \"Stele of Revealing.\"\n\nAccording to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice that claimed to be that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it ''Liber L vel Legis'' or ''The Book of the Law''. The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, \"Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law,\" and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion, Thelema. Crowley said that at the time he had been unsure what to do with ''The Book of the Law''. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world's languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript away and ignoring it.\n\n===Kangchenjunga and China: 1905–06===\nReturning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers had begun using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down. On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley's first child, a daughter named Lilith, with Crowley writing the pornographic ''Snowdrops From a Curate's Garden'' to entertain his recuperating wife. He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among its first publications were Crowley's ''Collected Works'', edited by Ivor Back. His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of £100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller, a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, ''The Star in the West'' (1907), heralded Crowley's poetry as some of the greatest ever written.\n\nKangchenjunga, as seen from Darjeeling\n\nCrowley decided to climb Kangchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognised as the world's most treacherous mountain. Assembling a team consisting of Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley's control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley's warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.\n\nSpending time in Moharbhanj, where he took part in big game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work ''The Scented Garden'', Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after shooting dead a native man who tried to mug him. Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose. Spence has suggested that this trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region's opium trade. Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang, Tali, Yunnanfu, and then Hanoi. On the way he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the \"Bornless Ritual\", an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel, on a daily basis.\n\nWhile Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by ''The Book of the Law''; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kangchenjunga. Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon, something he later blamed on Rose's increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations. He began short-lived romances with actress Vera \"Lola\" Neville (née Snepp) and author Ada Leverson, while Rose gave birth to Crowley's second daughter, Lola Zaza, in February 1907.\n\n===The A∴A∴ and the Holy Books of Thelema: 1907–09===\nWith his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon, Surrey. Crowley claimed that in doing so he attained ''samadhi'', or union with Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life. Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals, he wrote an essay on \"The Psychology of Hashish\" (1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism. He also claimed to have been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him, \"Liber VII\" and \"Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente\", both of which were later classified in the corpus of Holy Books of Thelema. Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including \"Liber LXVI\", \"Liber Arcanorum\", \"Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X\", \"Liber Tau\", \"Liber Trigrammaton\" and \"Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita\", which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source. Crowley stated that in June 1909, when the manuscript of ''The Book of the Law'' was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth.\n\nCrowley's inheritance was running out. Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the Earl of Tankerville, to help protect him from witchcraft; recognising Bennett's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate. In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice. Victor Neuburg, whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier, Morocco. The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism. Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as ''Ambergris'', ''Clouds Without Water'', and ''Konx Om Pax'', as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, ''The World's Tragedy''. Recognising the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published, and he also published several articles in ''Vanity Fair'', a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris. He also wrote ''Liber 777'', a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.\n\n\n\nIn November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the A∴A∴. The group's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis. Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist Austin Osman Spare, Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and Charles Stansfeld Jones. In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled ''The Equinox''. He billed this periodical, which was to become the \"Official Organ\" of the A∴A∴, as \"The Review of Scientific Illuminism\".\n\nCrowley had become increasingly frustrated with Rose's alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose's care; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a result she was institutionalised in September 1911.\n\n===Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: 1909–11===\nIn November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria, touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale, Bou Saâda, and then Dā'leh Addin, with Crowley reciting the Quran on a daily basis. During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic, with Neuburg recording the results, later published in ''The Equinox'' as ''The Vision and the Voice''. Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual, Crowley also performed an invocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice, considering the results to be a watershed in his magical career. Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in ''The Equinox''; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame. Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.\n\nThe publicity attracted new members to the A∴A∴, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram. The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley's lover. Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A∴A∴ members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A∴A∴ headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the Rites of Eleusis, at Caxton Hall, Westminster; this time press reviews were mixed. Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of ''The Looking Glass'' newspaper, who called him \"one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times\". Fenton's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel. Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal, and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.\n\n''The Equinox'' continued publishing, and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley's ''Ambergris'', ''The Winged Beetle'', and ''The Scented Garden'', as well as Neuburg's ''The Triumph of Pan'' and Ethel Archer's ''The Whirlpool''. In 1911, Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny-sur-Loing, where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stories, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, including the two final Holy Books of Thelema. In Paris, he met Mary Desti, who became his next \"Scarlet Woman\", with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz; Crowley believed that one of the Secret Chiefs, Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through her. Based on Desti's statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume ''Book 4'' (1912–13) and at the time developed the spelling \"magick\" in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists.\n\n===Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working: 1912–14===\nCrowley in ceremonial garb, 1912\nIn early 1912, Crowley published ''The Book of Lies'', a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as \"his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus\". The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, the Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), within ''The Book''. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of the O.T.O's British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed \"X° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons\". With Reuss' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on Freemasonry; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by the O.T.O's emphasis on sex magic, Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who had been initiated into the eleventh degree.\n\nIn March 1913 Crowley acted as producer for ''The Ragged Ragtime Girls'', a group of female violinists led by Waddell, as they performed at London's Old Tivoli theatre. They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler. In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including \"Hymn to Pan\", and the Gnostic Mass, a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy. Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city. In January 1914 Crowley and Neuburg settled into an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein's new monument to Oscar Wilde. Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week \"Paris Working\", a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley wrote ''Liber Agapé'', a treatise on sex magic. Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him.\n\n===United States: 1914–19===\nBy 1914 Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A∴A∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O. In May he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons, and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the First World War broke out.\nAfter recuperating from a bout of phlebitis, Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the ''RMS Lusitania'' in October 1914. Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of ''Vanity Fair'' and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams. In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.\n\n''May Morn'', one of Crowley's paintings from his time in the US He explained it thus: \"The painting represents the dawning of the day following a witches' celebration as described in ''Faust''. The witch is hanged, as she deserves, and the satyr looks out from behind a tree.\"\nProfessing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York's pro-German movement, and in January 1915 German spy George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, ''The Fatherland'', which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict. In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action. In reality, Crowley was a double agent, working for the British intelligence services to infiltrate and undermine Germany's operation in New York. Many of his articles in ''The Fatherland'' were hyperbolic, for instance comparing Kaiser Wilhelm II to Jesus Christ; in July 1915 he orchestrated a publicity stunt – reported on by ''The New York Times'' – in which he declared independence for Ireland in front of the Statue of Liberty; the real intention was to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public. It has been argued that he encouraged the German Navy to destroy the ''Lusitania'', informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would bring the US into the war on Britain's side.\n\nCrowley entered into a relationship with Jeanne Robert Foster, with whom he toured the West Coast. In Vancouver, headquarters of the North American O.T.O., he met with Charles Stansfeld Jones and Wilfred Talbot Smith to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the continent. In Detroit he experimented with anhalonium at Parke-Davis, then visited Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, and the Grand Canyon, before returning to New York. There he befriended Ananda Coomaraswamy and his wife Alice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex magic in April 1916, following which she became pregnant and then miscarried. Later that year he took a \"magical retirement\" to a cabin by Lake Pasquaney owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself \"Master Therion\". He also wrote several short stories based on J.G. Frazer's ''The Golden Bough'' and a work of literary criticism, ''The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw''.\n\nIn December he moved to New Orleans, his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in Titusville, Florida. Returning to New York City, he moved in with artist and A∴A∴ member Leon Engers Kennedy in May, learning of his mother's death. After the collapse of ''The Fatherland'', Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal ''The International''. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication. He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, which Crowley called \"The Amalantrah Workings\", he believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Lam. The relationship soon ended.\n\nIn 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of Esopus Island on the Hudson River. Here, he began a translation of the ''Tao Te Ching'', painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and – he later claimed – experienced past life memories of being Ge Xuan, Pope Alexander VI, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Eliphas Levi. Back in New York City, he moved to Greenwich Village, where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman. He took up painting as a hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of the ''New York Evening World''. With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived ''The Equinox'' with the first issue of volume III, known as \"The Blue Equinox\". He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holiday in Montauk before returning to London in December.\n\n===Abbey of Thelema: 1920–23===\n\nNow destitute and back in London, Crowley came under attack from the tabloid ''John Bull'', which labelled him traitorous \"scum\" for his work with the German war effort; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue, but he decided not to. When he was suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, to which he soon became addicted. In January 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in Fontainebleau with Leah Hirsig; they were soon joined in a ''ménage à trois'' by Ninette Shumway, and also by Leah's newborn daughter Anne \"Poupée\" Leah. Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de Thélème in François Rabelais' satire ''Gargantua and Pantagruel''. After consulting the ''I Ching'', he chose Cefalù (on Sicily, Italy) as a location, and after arriving there, began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April.\n\nThe dilapidated Abbey of Thelema in 2004\nMoving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their children Hansi, Howard, and Poupée, Crowley described the scenario as \"perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven.\" They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests. Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on ''The Book of the Law'', and revised the third part of ''Book 4''. He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic. He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity. There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary. Poupée died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.\n\nNew followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star Jane Wolfe, who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A∴A∴ and became Crowley's secretary. Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year. More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey. In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction. He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in ''The English Review'' criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel, ''Diary of a Drug Fiend'', completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the ''Sunday Express'', which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints.\n\nSubsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life at the commune. She later said that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun \"I\". Loveday drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press. ''John Bull'' proclaimed Crowley \"the wickedest man in the world\" and \"a man we'd like to hang\", and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, ''John Bull'' continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America. The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley's activities and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.\n", "\n===Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923–29===\n\nCrowley and Hirsig went to Tunis, where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin, and began writing what he termed his \"autohagiography\", ''The Confessions of Aleister Crowley''. They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd, who became Crowley's public relations consultant. Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta, where they performed sex magic together. In January 1924, Crowley travelled to Nice, France, where he met with Frank Harris, underwent a series of nasal operations, and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man and had a positive opinion of its founder, George Gurdjieff. Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar, before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote ''To Man'' (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity. After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote ''The Heart of the Master'' (1938) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance. In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.\n\nAccording to Crowley, Reuss had named him head of the O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O., Heinrich Tränker. Tränker called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia, Germany, which Crowley attended. There, prominent members like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed Crowley's leadership, but other key figures like Albin Grau, Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it, resulting in a split in the O.T.O. Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic. Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions. In 1928, Crowley was introduced to young Englishman Israel Regardie, who embraced Thelema and became Crowley's secretary for the next three years. That year, Crowley also met Gerald Yorke, who began organising Crowley's finances but never became a Thelemite. He also befriended Thomas Driberg; Driberg did not accept Thelema either. It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, ''Magick in Theory and Practice'', which received little attention at the time.\n\nIn December 1928 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez. Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent. So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929. Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel ''Moonchild'' and book of short stories ''The Stratagem''. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley's ''Confessions'' could be published. Mandrake's owner P.R. Stephenson meanwhile wrote ''The Legend of Aleister Crowley'', an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.\n\n===Berlin and London: 1930–38===\nIn April 1930, Crowley moved to Berlin, where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled. In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation. He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann-Nierendorf. Crowley's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable. In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another. He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city, and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler. After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.\n\n\n\nCrowley left Busch and returned to London, where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman. Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research. In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed had libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett's ''Laughing Torso'' (1932) – a book he thought libelled him – but lost the case. The court case added to Crowley's financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley had been spending three times his income for several years.\n\nCrowley developed a platonic friendship with Deidre Patricia O'Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk. Crowley continued to socialise with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them. In 1936, he published his first book in six years, ''The Equinox of the Gods'', which contained a facsimile of ''The Book of the Law'' and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of ''The Equinox'' periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run. In 1937 he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho. Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the O.T.O.'s Agape Lodge in California, led by rocket scientist John Whiteside \"Jack\" Parsons. Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician.\n\n===Second World War and death: 1939–47===\nCrowley specified that Grady McMurtry succeed his chosen successor as Head of O.T.O., Karl Germer.\nWhen the Second World War broke out, Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain's intelligence community at the time, including Dennis Wheatley, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and Maxwell Knight, and claimed to have been behind the \"V for Victory\" sign first used by the BBC; this has never been proven.\nIn 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted. As the Blitz hit London, Crowley relocated to Torquay, where he was briefly hospitalised with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club. Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry, to whom Crowley awarded the title of \"Hymenaeus Alpha\". He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of the O.T.O. after the latter's death. With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris, Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as ''The Book of Thoth'' by Chiswick Press in 1944. To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, ''Liber Oz'', and a poem for the liberation of France, ''Le Gauloise''. Crowley's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, ''Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song''. Another of his projects, ''Aleister Explains Everything'', was posthumously published as ''Magick Without Tears''.\n\nIn April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire, where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard, before relocating to Hastings in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house. He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary, paying him in magical teaching rather than wages. He was also introduced to John Symonds, whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing negative biographies of him. Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther, it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain's ailing O.T.O. Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler, who interviewed Crowley for her book ''The Myth of the Magus''. Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley's son Aleister Atatürk. On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72. His funeral was held at a Brighton crematorium on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, ''The Book of the Law'', and \"Hymn to Pan\". The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids. Crowley's ashes were sent to Karl Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in Hampton, New Jersey.\n", "\n\n\nAleister Crowley's rendition of the Unicursal Hexagram, the symbol of Thelema\n\nCrowley's belief system, Thelema, has been described by scholars as a religion, and more specifically as both a new religious movement, and as a \"magico-religious doctrine\". It has also been characterised as a form of esotericism and modern Paganism. Although holding ''The Book of the Law''—which was composed in 1904—as its central text, Thelema took shape as a complete system in the years after 1904.\n\nIn his autobiography, Crowley claimed that his purpose in life had been to \"bring oriental wisdom to Europe and to restore paganism in a purer form\", although what he meant by \"paganism\" was unclear.\nCrowley's thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, scientific naturalism, and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremonial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot. He was steeped in the esoteric teachings he had learned from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, although pushed further with his own interpretations and strategies than the Golden Dawn had done. Crowley incorporated concepts and terminology from South Asian religious traditions like yoga and Tantra into his Thelemic system, believing that there was a fundamental underlying resemblance between Western and Eastern spiritual systems.\nThe historian Alex Owen noted that Crowley adhered to the \"modus operandi\" of the Decadent movement throughout his life.\n\nCrowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship. He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus, and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon. Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe. Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be \"the Great Work\" or the attaining of the \"knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel\". His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire. The moral code of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.\n\n===Magick and theology===\n\nCrowley believed in the objective existence of magic, which he chose to spell \"Magick\", an older archaic spelling of the word. He provided various different definitions of this term over his career. In his book ''Magick in Theory and Practice'', Crowley defined Magick as \"the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will\". He also told his disciple Karl Germer that \"Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level.\" Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giving ''The Equinox'' the subtitle of \"The Method of Science; the Aim of Religion\". Within that journal he expressed positive sentiments toward science and the scientific method, and urged magicians to keep detailed records of their magical experiments, \"The more scientific the record is, the better\". His understanding of magic was also influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, in particular the view that magic was a precursor to science in a cultural evolutionary framework. Unlike Frazer however, Crowley did not see magic as a survival from the past that required eradication, but rather he believed that magic had to be adapted to suit the new age of science.\n\n\n\nSexuality played an important role in Crowley's ideas about magick and his practice of it, and has been described as being central to Thelema. He outlined three forms of sex magick—the autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual—and argued that such acts could be used to focus the magician's will onto a specific goal such as financial gain or personal creative success. For Crowley, sex was treated as a sacrament, with the consumption of sexual fluids interpreted as a Eucharist. This was often manifested as the Cakes of Light, a biscuit containing either menstrual blood or a mixture of semen and vaginal fluids. The Gnostic Mass is the central religious ceremony within Thelema.\n\nCrowley's theological beliefs were not clear. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that some of Crowley's writings could be used to argue that he was an atheist, while some support the idea that he was a polytheist, and others would bolster the idea that he was a mystical monotheist. On the basis of the teachings in ''The Book of the Law'', Crowley described a pantheon of three deities taken from the ancient Egyptian pantheon: Nuit, Hadit, and Ra-Hoor-Khuit. In 1928, he made the claim that all \"true\" deities were \"derived\" from this trinity.\n\nBoth during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship Satan, as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist. He nevertheless utilised Satanic imagery, for instance by describing himself as \"the Beast 666\" and referring to the Whore of Babylon in his work, while in later life he sent \"Antichristmas cards\" to his friends. In his writings, Crowley occasionally identified Aiwass as Satan and designated him as \"Our Lord God the Devil\" at one occasion. The scholar of religion Gordan Djurdjevic stated that Crowley \"was emphatically not\" a Satanist, \"if for no other reason than simply because he did not identify himself as such\". Crowley nevertheless expressed anti-Christian sentiment, stating that he hated Christianity \"as Socialists hate soap\", an animosity likely stemming from his experiences among the Plymouth Brethren. He was also accused of advocating human sacrifice, largely because of a passage in ''Book 4'' in which he stated that \"A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim\" and added that he had sacrificed about 150 every year. This was a tongue-in-cheek reference to ejaculation, something not realised by his critics, thus reflecting their own \"ignorance and prejudice\" toward Crowley.\n", "Crowley considered himself to be one of the outstanding figures of his time. The historian Ronald Hutton stated that in Crowley's youth, he was \"a self-indulgent and flamboyant young man\" who \"set about a deliberate flouting and provocation of social and religious norms\", while being shielded from an \"outraged public opinion\" by his inherited wealth. Hutton also described Crowley as having both an \"unappeasable desire\" to take control of any organisation that he belonged to, and \"a tendency to quarrel savagely\" with those who challenged him. Crowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley was \"self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel\". Similarly, Richard Spence noted that Crowley was \"capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty\". Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited \"courage, skill, dauntless energy, and remarkable focus of will\" while at the same time showing a \"blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, and contempt for the abilities of his fellow men\". The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley \"was by no means perfect\" and \"often alienated those who loved him dearest.\"\n\nCrowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality, with John Symonds noting that he \"was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time\". Crowley's political thought was studied by academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones. Pasi argued that it was difficult to classify Crowley as being either on the political left or right but he was perhaps best categorised as a \"conservative revolutionary\" despite not being affiliated with the German-based conservative revolutionary movement. Pasi noted that Crowley sympathised with extreme ideologies like Nazism and Marxism-Leninism, in that they wished to violently overturn society and hoped that both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union might adopt Thelema. Crowley described democracy as an \"imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness,\" and commented that ''The Book of the Law'' proclaimed that \"there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the 'lone wolf' and the herd\". In this attitude he was influenced by the work of Friedrich Nietzsche and by Social Darwinism. Although he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy, he regarded himself as an aristocrat and styled himself as Laird Boleskine, once describing his ideology as \"aristocratic communism\".\n\nCrowley was bisexual, and exhibited a sexual preference for women, with his homosexual relationships being fewer and clustered in the early part of his life. In particular he had an attraction toward \"exotic women\", and claimed to have fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated that \"when he loved, he did so with his whole being, but the passion was typically short-lived\". Even in later life, Crowley was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma. During homosexual anal intercourse, he usually played the passive role, which Booth believed \"appealed to his masochistic side\". Crowley argued that homosexual and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation, commenting that a person \"must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise.\" On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one.\n\n===Views on race and gender===\n\nBiographer Lawrence Sutin stated that \"blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings\". Sutin thought Crowley \"a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries\", noting that he \"embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of society, coupled with a fascination with people of colour\". Crowley insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg using anti-Semitic slurs and he had mixed opinions about Jews as a group. Although he praised their \"sublime\" poetry and stated that they exhibited \"imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity\", he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jews to exhibit \"avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest\". He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a \"spiritual superiority\" to the English, and praised Muslims for exhibiting \"manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and self-respect\".\n\nCrowley also exhibited a \"general misogyny\" that Booth believed arose from his bad relationship with his mother. Sutin noted that Crowley \"largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility\". Crowley described women as \"moral inferiors\" who had to be treated with \"firmness, kindness and justice\".\n", "\n\n\nCrowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley seventy-third in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons. Richard Cavendish has written of him that \"In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the best-equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century.\" The scholar of esotericism Egil Asprem described him as \"one of the most well-known figures in modern occultism\". The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of \"the dark side of the occult\", adding that he was \"the most notorious occultist magician of the twentieth century\". The philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a \"Modern Master\" when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff, P.D. Ouspensky, Rudolf Steiner, or Helena Blavatsky, also describing him as a \"living embodiment\" of Oswald Spengler's \"Faustian Man\".\nBiographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley \"a pioneer of consciousness research\". Hutton noted that Crowley had \"an important place in the history of modern Western responses to Oriental spiritual traditions\", while Sutin thought that he had made \"distinctly original contributions\" to the study of yoga in the West.\n\nThelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley's death. In 1969, the O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry; in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta.\nAnother American Thelemite was the filmmaker Kenneth Anger, who had been influenced by Crowley's writings from a young age. In the United Kingdom, Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the Typhonian Order.\nAlso in Britain, an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley's son; this has been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado claimed to be propagating.\n\nSeveral Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley, with Djurdjevic observing that \"Crowley's influence on twentieth-century and contemporary esotericism has been enormous\". Gerald Gardner, founder of Gardnerian Wicca, made use of much of Crowley's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy, and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley's ideas. More widely, Crowley became \"a dominant figure\" in the modern Pagan community. L. Ron Hubbard, the American founder of Scientology, was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s (with Jack Parsons), and it has been argued that Crowley's ideas influenced some of Hubbard's work. The scholars of religion Asbjørn Dyrendel, James R. Lewis, and Jesper Petersen noted that despite the fact that Crowley was not a Satanist, he \"in many ways embodies the pre-Satanist esoteric discourse on Satan and Satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy\", with his \"image and ought\" becoming an \"important influence\" on the later development of religious Satanism. For instance, two prominent figures in religious Satanism, Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino, were influenced by Crowley's work.\n\nCrowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles' album ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' (1967), and his motto of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album ''Led Zeppelin III'' (1970). Led Zeppelin co-founder Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the band's film ''The Song Remains the Same'' was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992. David Bowie made reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song \"Quicksand\" (1971), while Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled \"Mr Crowley\" (1980). Crowley began to receive scholarly attention from academics in the late 1990s.\n", "\n\n", "\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n: \n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* Aleister Crowley Collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin\n* The Libri of Aleister Crowley Many of the writings of Crowley have been published for free online.\n* Aleister Crowley Foundation Dedicated to perpetuating the teachings of Aleister Crowley and Thelema.\n* Photos of the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù.\n* ''Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?)'' A film on the Abbey of Thelema by Carlos Atanes.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Developing Thelema", "Later life", "Beliefs and thought", "Personal life", "Legacy and influence", "Bibliography", "References", "External links" ]	Aleister Crowley
[ "\n\n\nThe '''afterlife''' (also referred to as '''life after death''' or the '''hereafter''') is the belief that an essential part of an individual's identity or the stream of consciousness continues to manifest after the death of the physical body. According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit, of an individual, which carries with it and may confer personal identity or, on the contrary, may not, as in Indian nirvana. Belief in an afterlife, which may be naturalistic or supernatural, is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death.\n\nIn some popular views, this continued existence often takes place in a spiritual realm, and in other popular views, the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or Otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism and metaphysics.\n\nSome belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a specific plane of existence after death, as determined by God, or other divine judgment, based on their actions or beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of reincarnation, such as those in the Indian religions, the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life, rather than through the decision of another being.\n\n", "Theists generally believe some type of afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions tend to believe in an afterlife, but without reference to a deity. The Sadducees were an ancient Jewish sect that generally believed that there was a God but no afterlife.\n\nMany religions, whether they believe in the soul's existence in another world like Christianity, Islam and many pagan belief systems, or in reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe that one's status in the afterlife is a reward or punishment for their conduct during life.\n\n===Reincarnation===\n\nReincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of the Saṃsāra doctrine of cyclic existence. It is a central tenet of all major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism. The idea of reincarnation is found in many ancient cultures, and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by Greek historic figures, such as Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato. It is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as Spiritism, Theosophy, and Eckankar and is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.\n\nAlthough the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze, and the Rosicrucians. The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of Neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research. Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation.\n\nRosicrucians speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment, more akin to a final review or end report over one's life.\n\n===Heaven and Hell===\n\nHeaven, the heavens, seven heavens, pure lands, Tian, Jannah, Valhalla, or the Summerland, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, jinn, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to Heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases enter Heaven alive.\n\nHeaven is often described as a \"higher place\", the holiest place, a Paradise, in contrast to Hell or the Underworld or the \"low places\", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith or other virtues or right beliefs or simply the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a Heaven on Earth in a World to Come.\n\nIn Indian religions, Heaven is considered as ''Svarga loka'', and the soul is again subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its ''karma''. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves ''Moksha'' or ''Nirvana''. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (Heaven, Hell, or other) is referred to as ''otherworld.''\n\nHell, in many religious and folkloric traditions, is a place or state of torment and punishment in an afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hells as eternal destinations while Religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations. Typically these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the Earth's surface and often include entrances to Hell from the land of the living. Other afterlife destinations include Heaven, Purgatory, Paradise, and Limbo.\n\nOther traditions, which do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward, merely describe hell as an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place located under the surface of Earth (for example, see sheol and Hades).\n", "\n===Ancient Egyptian religion===\n\nThe afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as ''ka'' (body double) and the ''ba'' (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased.\n\nArriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords and formulae of the Book of the Dead. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the ''Shu'' feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at. If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit.\n\nEgyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian \"coffin\" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs) was the only way to have an afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewellery, and 'curses'. They also used the \"opening of the mouth\".\n\nAncient Egyptian civilization was based on religion; their belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind their funeral practices. Death was simply a temporary interruption, rather than complete cessation, of life, and that eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through mummification, and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the ''ka'', the ''ba'', and the ''akh''. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm.\n\nOn March 30, 2010, a spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User, a powerful adviser to the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a 'door to the Afterlife'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in Roman Egypt.\n\n===Ancient Greek and Roman religions===\n\nThe Greek god Hades is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld, a place where souls live after death. The Greek god Hermes, the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River Styx, the river between life and death.\n\nCharon, also known as the ferry-man, would take the soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: Upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased's tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by Aeacus, Rhadamanthus and King Minos. The soul would be sent to Elysium, Tartarus, Asphodel Fields, or the Fields of Punishment. The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods, or were simply rebellious and consciously evil.\n\nThe Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls: Those whose sins equalled their goodness, were indecisive in their lives, or were not judged. The Fields of Punishment were for people that had sinned often, but not so much as to be deserving of Tartarus. In Tartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava, or stretched on racks. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto. In the ancient Greek myth about the Labours of Heracles, the hero Heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks.\n\nIn ''Dream of Scipio'', Cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience, of the soul traveling high above the Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away.\n\nIn Book VI of Virgil's ''Aeneid'', the hero, Aeneas, travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas' former lover, the warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of Pluto, and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, Lethe, which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of the future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city.\n\n===Norse religion===\n\n\nThe Poetic and Prose Eddas, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are:\n* Valhalla: (lit. \"Hall of the Slain\" i.e. \"the Chosen Ones\") Half the warriors who die in battle join the god Odin who rules over a majestic hall called Valhalla in Asgard.\n* Fólkvangr: (lit. \"Field of the Host\") The other half join the goddess Freyja in a great meadow known as Fólkvangr.\n* Hel: (lit. \"The Covered Hall\") This abode is somewhat like Hades from Ancient Greek religion: there, something not unlike the Asphodel Meadows can be found, and people who have neither excelled in that which is good nor excelled in that which is bad can expect to go there after they die and be reunited with their loved ones.\n* Niflhel: (lit. \"The Dark\" or \"Misty Hel\") This realm is roughly analogous to Greek Tartarus. It is the deeper level beneath Hel, and those who break oaths and commit other vile things will be sent there to be among their kind to suffer harsh punishments.\n", "\n===Judaism===\n\n\n====She'ol====\nShe'ol, in the Hebrew Bible, is a place of darkness to which all the dead go, both the righteous and the unrighteous, regardless of the moral choices made in life, a place of stillness and darkness cut off from life and from God.\n\nThe inhabitants of Sheol are the \"shades\" (''rephaim''), entities without personality or strength. Under some circumstances they are thought to be able to be contacted by the living, as the Witch of Endor contacts the shade of Samuel for Saul, but such practices are forbidden (Deuteronomy 18:10).\n\nWhile the Hebrew Bible appears to describe Sheol as the permanent place of the dead, in the Second Temple period (roughly 500 BC–70 AD) a more diverse set of ideas developed. In some texts, Sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked, separated into respective compartments; in others, it was considered a place of punishment, meant for the wicked dead alone. When the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek in ancient Alexandria around 200 BC, the word \"Hades\" (the Greek underworld) was substituted for Sheol. This is reflected in the New Testament where Hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents.\n'' Rapid Transit to Sheol – Where We Are All Going According to the Reverend Dr. Morgan Dix'', by Joseph Keppler, 1888.\n\n====World to Come====\nThe Talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives enter immediately into the ''Olam Haba'' or world to come. Most do not enter the world to come immediately, but now experience a period of review of their earthly actions and they are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as being a \"re-schooling\", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period to include spiritual discomfort for past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the world to come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of \"eternal damnation\", so prevalent in other religions, is not a tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders, either whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms, or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil.\n\nMaimonides describes the ''Olam Haba'' in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle, unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being, a soul now separated from the body in which it was \"housed\" during its earthly existence.\n\nThe Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls.\n\n====Reincarnation in Jewish tradition====\nAlthough there is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings, according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments and stories, are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism, the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in the Zohar the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure.\n\nShraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea of reincarnation is intimated in Deut. 25:5-10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6.\n\nYirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation is an \"ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism\". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos, a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, \"Let Reuben live and not die ...\" (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly, and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, Nachmanides (Ramban 1195–1270), attributed Job's suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job's saying \"God does all these things twice or three times with a man, to bring back his soul from the pit to ... the light of the living' (Job 33:29,30).\"\n\nReincarnation, called ''gilgul'', became popular in folk belief, and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 13th century, and also among many mystics in the late 16th century. Martin Buber's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives.\n\nAmong well known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, the Rosh and Leon de Modena. Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth (Hebrew: \"beliefs and opinions\") concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While refuting reincarnation, Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox.\n\nOther well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom, Abraham Isaac Kook, Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter, and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti and Rabbenu Bachya.\n\nAmong the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His ''Shaar HaGilgulim'', \"The Gates of Reincarnation\", is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism.\n\nRabbi Naftali Silberberg of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute notes that \"Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews.\"\n\n===Christianity===\n\n\nMainstream Christianity professes belief in the Nicene Creed, and English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: \"We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come.\" Although punishments are made part of certain Christian conceptions of the afterlife, the prevalent concept of \"eternal damnation\" is a tenet of the Christian afterlife.\n\nWhen questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead (in a context relating to who one's spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), Jesus said that marriage will be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in heaven.\n\nJesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who were in the tombs would come out, who have done good deeds to the resurrection of life, but those who have done wicked deeds to the resurrection of condemnation.\n\nThe Book of Enoch describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise, the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day. It should be noted that the Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all denominations of Judaism.\n\nThe book of 2 Maccabees gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment, plus prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin.\n\nDomenico Beccafumi's ''Inferno'': a Christian vision of hell\nThe author of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man, which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets, and the transfiguration.\n\nThe non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead, so that they might be \"translated to a state of happiness\".\n\nHippolytus of Rome pictures the underworld (Hades) as a place where the righteous dead, awaiting in the bosom of Abraham their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect, while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the \"lake of unquenchable fire\" into which they are destined to be cast.\n\nGregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before believed possibility of purification of souls after death.\n\nPope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa that the saved suffer purification after death, in connection with which he wrote of \"purgatorial flames\".\n\nThe noun \"purgatorium\" (Latin: place of cleansing) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life. The same word in adjectival form (''purgatorius -a -um'', cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing, was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and Pope Gregory I to refer to an after-death cleansing.\n\nDuring the Age of Enlightenment, theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs. A notable example is Emanuel Swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is ''Heaven and Hell''. His report of life there covers a wide range of topics, such as marriage in heaven (where all angels are married), children in heaven (where they are raised by angel parents), time and space in heaven (there are none), the after-death awakening process in the World of Spirits (a place halfway between Heaven and Hell and where people first wake up after death), the allowance of a free will choice between Heaven or Hell (as opposed to being sent to either one by God), the eternity of Hell (one could leave but would never want to), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth.\n\nOn the other hand, the enlightenment produced more rationalist philosophies such as deism. Many deist freethinkers held that belief in an afterlife with reward and punishment was a necessity of reason and good morals.\n\nSome Christians deny that entry into Heaven can be properly earned, rather it is a gift that is solely God's to give through his unmerited grace. They underlie this belief to a passage from St. Paul: ''For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God, not by works, so that no one can boast.'' Since the Protestant Reformation, Lutheran and Calvinist theological traditions emphasize the necessity of God's undeserved grace for salvation, and reject so-called Pelagianism, which would make man earn salvation through good works. Other Christians do not accept this doctrine, leading to many controversies on grace and free will, and the idea of predestination. In particular, the belief that heaven is a reward for good behavior is a common folk belief in Christian societies, even among members of churches which reject that belief.\n\nSome Christian believers have come to downplay the punishment of hell. Universalists teach that salvation is for all. Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh-day Adventists teach that sinners are destroyed rather than tortured forever. John 3:16 says that only those that accept Jesus will be given eternal life, so the people that do not accept him cannot burn in hell for eternity because Jesus has not given them eternal life, instead it says they will perish.\n\nIn American pop culture depictions of Heaven, particularly in vintage cartoons such as those by Looney Tunes in the mid-20th century, the souls of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into angels. However, this is not in accordance with the orthodox Christian theology. Christianity depicts a sharp distinction between ''angels'', divine beings created by God before the creation of humanity and are used as messengers, and ''saints'', the souls of humans who have received immortality from the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ of Nazareth, who dwell in Heaven with God.\n\nLatter Day Saints believe that the soul existed before earth life and will exist in the hereafter. Angels are either spirits that have not yet come to earth to experience their mortality, or spirits or resurrected beings that have already passed through mortality and do the will of God. See Job 38:4-7, D&C 93:29. According to LDS Doctrine, Michael the Archangel became the first man on earth, Adam, to experience his mortality. The Angel of Moroni visited the boy, Joseph Smith, after living out his mortal life in ancient America. Later, he received Angelic administrations from the Apostles Peter, James, and John, John the Baptist, and others.\n\n====The Catholic Church====\nThe Catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies, the soul is judged, the righteous and free of sin enter Heaven. However, those who die in unrepented mortal sin go to hell. In the 1990s, the Catechism of the Catholic Church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner's self-exclusion from God. Unlike other Christian groups, the Catholic Church teaches that those who die in a state of grace, but still carry venial sin go to a place called Purgatory where they undergo purification to enter Heaven.\n\n=====Limbo=====\n\nDespite popular opinion, Limbo, which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, was never recognized as a dogma of the Catholic Church, yet, at times, it has been a very popular theological theory within the Church. Limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls, such as those of infants, virtuous individuals who lived before Jesus Christ was born on earth, or those that die before baptism exist in neither Heaven or Hell proper. Therefore, these souls neither merit the beatific vision, nor are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal sin although they have not received baptism, so still bear original sin. So they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural, but not supernatural, happiness, until the end of time.\n\nIn other Christian denominations it has been described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect.\n\n=====Purgatory=====\n\nThe notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the Catholic Church. In the Catholic Church, all those who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned. The tradition of the church, by reference to certain texts of scripture, speaks of a \"cleansing fire\" although it is not always called purgatory.\n\nAnglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, believed in an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead and in the possibility of \"continuing to grow in holiness there\", but Methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of helping by prayer any who may be in that state.\n\n====Orthodox Christianity====\nThe Orthodox Church is intentionally reticent on the afterlife, as it acknowledges the mystery especially of things that have not yet occurred. Beyond the second coming of Jesus, bodily resurrection, and final judgment, all of which is affirmed in the Nicene Creed (325 CE), Orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner. Unlike Western forms of Christianity, however, Orthodoxy is traditionally non-dualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell, but instead acknowledges that \"the 'location' of one’s final destiny—heaven or hell—as being figurative.\" Instead, Orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is simply one's uniform encounter with divine love and mercy, but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed, partaken of divinity, and is therefore compatible or incompatible with God. \"The monadic, immutable, and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of God, his glory which infuses the heavenly temple, and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience.\" For instance, St. Isaac the Syrian observes that \"those who are punished in Gehenna, are scourged by the scourge of love. ... The power of love works in two ways: it torments sinners . . . as bitter regret. But love inebriates the souls of the sons of Heaven by its delectability.\" In this sense, the divine action is always, immutably, and uniformly love and if one experiences this love negatively, the experience is then one of self-condemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by God. Orthodoxy therefore uses the description of Jesus' judgment in John 3:19-21 as their model: \"19 And this is the judgment: the light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil. 20 For everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, lest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever does what is true comes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God.\" As a characteristically Orthodox understanding, then, Fr. Thomas Hopko writes, \"It is precisely the presence of God’s mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked. God does not punish; he forgives. . . . In a word, God has mercy on all, whether all like it or not. If we like it, it is paradise; if we do not, it is hell. Every knee will bend before the Lord. Everything will be subject to Him. God in Christ will indeed be \"all and in all,\" with boundless mercy and unconditional pardon. But not all will rejoice in God’s gift of forgiveness, and that choice will be judgment, the self-inflicted source of their sorrow and pain.\"\n\nMoreover, Orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of ''apokatastasis'', or the restoration of all things in the end. This has been taught most notably by Origen, but also many other Church fathers and Saints, including Gregory of Nyssa. The Second Council of Constantinople (553 C.E.) affirmed the orthodoxy of Gregory of Nyssa while simultaneously condemning Origen's brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our pre-existent state, which Orthodoxy doesn't teach. It is also a teaching of such eminent Orthodox theologians as Olivier Clément, Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, and Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev. Although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a theologoumena, it is no less a teaching of the Orthodox Church than its rejection. As Met. Kallistos Ware explains, \"It is heretical to say that all must be saved, for this is to deny free will; but, it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved,\" as insisting on torment without end also denies free will.\n\n====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints====\n\nPlan of Salvation in LDS Religion\n\nJoseph F. Smith of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints presents an elaborate vision of the afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darkness—a spirit prison or \"hell\" where the spirits of the dead remain until judgment. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. Together these are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham's Bosom; see Luke 16:19-25). They believe that Christ visited spirit prison (1 Peter 3:18-20) and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. This is similar to the Harrowing of Hell doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths. Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned \"permanently\" to three degrees of heavenly glory, determined by how they lived– Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial.(1 Cor 15:44-42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) Sons of Perdition, or those who have known and seen God and deny it, will be sent to the realm of Satan, which is called Outer Darkness, where they shall live in misery and agony forever.\n\nThe Celestial Kingdom is believed to be a place where we can live eternally with our families. Progression does not end once one has entered the Celestial Kingdom, but it extends eternally. According to True to the Faith, (A handbook on doctrines in the LDS faith) \"The celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have \"received the testimony of Jesus\" and been \"made perfect through Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood\" (D&C 76:51, 69). To inherit this gift, we must receive the ordinances of salvation, keep the commandments, and repent of our sins.\"\n\n====Jehovah's Witnesses====\nJehovah's Witnesses occasionally use terms such as \"afterlife\" to refer to any hope for the dead, but they understand Ecclesiastes 9:5 to preclude belief in an immortal soul. Individuals judged by God to be wicked, such as in the Great Flood or at Armageddon, are given no hope of an afterlife. However, they believe that after Armageddon there will be a bodily resurrection of \"both righteous and unrighteous\" dead (but not the \"wicked\"). Survivors of Armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to gradually restore earth to a paradise. After Armageddon, unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death (non-existence).\n\n====Seventh-day Adventists====\nThe Seventh-day Adventist Church, teaches that the first death, or death brought about by living on a planet with sinful conditions (sickness, old age, accident, etc.) is a sleep of the soul. Adventists believe that the body + the breath of God = a living soul. Like Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists use key phrases from the Bible, such as \"For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, neither have they any more a reward; for the memory of them is forgotten\" (Eccl. 9:5 KJV). Adventists also point to the fact that the wage of sin is death and God alone is immortal. Adventists believe God will grant eternal life to the redeemed who are resurrected at Jesus' second coming. Until then, all those who have died are \"asleep\". When Jesus the Christ, who is the Word and the Bread of Life, comes a second time, the righteous will be raised incorruptible and will be taken in the clouds to meet their Lord. The righteous will live in heaven for a thousand years (the millennium) where they will sit with God in judgment over the unredeemed and the fallen angels. During the time the redeemed are in heaven, the Earth will be devoid of human and animal inhabitation. Only the fallen angels will be left alive. The second resurrection is of the unrighteous, when Jesus brings the New Jerusalem down from heaven to relocate to Earth. Jesus will call to life all those who are unrighteous. Satan and his angels will convince the unrighteous to surround the city, but hell fire and brimstone will fall from heaven and consume them, thus cleansing Earth of all sin. The universe will be then free from sin forever. This is called the second death. On the new earth God will provide an eternal home for all the redeemed and a perfect environment for everlasting life, where Eden will be restored. The great controversy will be ended and sin will be no more. God will reign in perfect harmony forever.(Rom. 6:23; 1 Tim. 6:15, 16; Eccl. 9:5, 6; Ps. 146:3, 4; John 11:11-14; Col. 3:4; 1 Cor. 15:51-54; 1 Thess. 4:13-17; John 5:28, 29; Rev. 20:1-10; Rev. 20; 1 Cor. 6:2, 3; Jer. 4:23-26; Rev. 21:1-5; Mal. 4:1; Eze. 28:18, 19; 2 Peter 3:13; Isa. 35; 65:17-25; Matt. 5:5; Rev. 21:1-7; 22:1-5; 11:15.)\n\n===Islam===\n\nThe Islamic belief in the afterlife as stated in the Quran is descriptive. The Arabic word for Paradise is ''Jannah'' and Hell is ''Jahannam''. Their level of comfort while in the grave depends wholly on their level of ''Iman'' or faith in the one almighty creator or supreme being God or Allah. In order for one to achieve proper, firm and healthy Iman one must practice righteous deeds or else his level of Iman chokes and shrinks and eventually can wither away if one does not practice Islam long enough, hence the depth of practicing Islam is good deeds. One may also acquire ''Tasbih'' and recite the names of Allah in such manner as \"SubahannAllah\" or Glory be to Allah over and over again to acquire good deeds.\n\nIslam teaches that the purpose of Man's entire creation is to worship the Creator of the Heavens and Earth (Allah) alone that includes being kind to other human beings and life including bugs, and to trees, by not oppressing them. Islam teaches that the life we live on Earth is nothing but a test for us and to determine each individual's ultimate abode be it punishment or ''Jannat'' in the afterlife, which is eternal and everlasting.\n\n''Jannah'' and ''Jahannam'' both have different levels. ''Jannah'' has eight gates and seven levels. The higher the level the better it is and the happier you are. ''Jahannam'' possess 7 deep terrible layers. The lower the layer the worse it is. Individuals will arrive at both everlasting homes during Judgment Day, which commences after the Angel Israfil blows the trumpet the second time. Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Muslims believe there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.\n\nIn the 20th century, discussions about the afterlife address the interconnection between human action and divine judgment, the need for moral rectitude, and the eternal consequences of human action in this life and world.\n\nA central doctrine of the Quran is the Last Day, on which the world will be destroyed and Allah will raise all people and jinn from the dead to be judged. The Last Day is also called the Day of Standing Up, Day of Separation, Day of Reckoning, Day of Awakening, Day of Judgment, The Encompassing Day or The Hour.\n\nUntil the Day of Judgment, deceased souls remain in their graves awaiting the resurrection. However, they begin to feel immediately a taste of their destiny to come. Those bound for hell will suffer in their graves, while those bound for heaven will be in peace until that time.\n\nThe resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body (17:100: \"Could they not see that God who created the heavens and the earth is able to create the like of them\"?).\n\nOn the Last Day, resurrected humans and jinn will be judged by Allah according to their deeds. One's eternal destination depends on balance of good to bad deeds in life. They are either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity. The day of judgment is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge in order to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will remain in Hell forever.\n\n====Ahmadiyya====\nAhmadi Muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of Ahmadiyya sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an \"embryonic soul\" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own's rights over that of other's becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.\n\n====Sufi====\nThe Sufi scholar Ibn 'Arabi defined Barzakh as the intermediate realm or \"isthmus\". It is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits, and is a means of contact between the two worlds. Without it, there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist. He described it as simple and luminous, like the world of spirits, but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can. In broader terms Barzakh, \"is anything that separates two things\". It has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death.\n\n===Bahá'í Faith===\n\nThe teachings of the Bahá'í Faith state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those living, just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the womb. The Bahá'í writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it attains God's presence. In Bahá'í belief, souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with, such as their spouses.\n\nThe Bahá'í scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife, and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions. It is explained that those souls that have turned toward God will experience gladness, while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost. Also, in the Baha'i view, souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves, but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them.\n", "\n===Hinduism===\n\n\nThe Upanishads describe reincarnation (''punarjanma'') (see also: samsara). The Bhagavad Gita, an important Hindu script, talks extensively about the afterlife. Here, the Lord Krishna says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the soul discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is nothing but a shell, the soul inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is called \"Mukti\" (Sanskrit: मुक्ति) and staying finally with supreme God forever; is \"Moksha\" (Sanskrit: मोक्ष) or salvation.\n\nThe Garuda Purana deals solely with what happens to a person after death. The God of Death Yama sends his representatives to collect the soul from a person's body whenever he is due for death and they take the soul to Yama. A record of each person's timings & deeds performed by him is kept in a ledger by Yama's assistant, Chitragupta.\n\nAccording to the Garuda Purana, a soul after leaving the body travels through a very long and dark tunnel towards the South. This is why an oil lamp is lit and kept beside the head of the corpse, to light the dark tunnel and allow the soul to travel comfortably.\n\nThe soul, called \"Atman\" leaves the body and reincarnates itself according to the deeds or Karma performed by one in last birth. Rebirth would be in form of animals or other lower creatures if one performed bad Karmas and in human form in a good family with joyous lifetime if the person was good in last birth. In between the two births a human is also required to either face punishments for bad Karmas in \"naraka\" or hell or enjoy for the good karmas in \"svarga\" or heaven for good deeds. Whenever his or her punishments or rewards are over he or she is sent back to earth, also known as \"Mrutyulok\" or human world. A person stays with the God or ultimate power when he discharges only & only yajna karma (means work done for satisfaction of supreme lord only) in last birth and the same is called as \"Moksha\" or \"Nirvana\", which is the ultimate goal of a self realised soul. Atma moves with \"Parmatma\" or the greatest soul. According to Bhagavad Gita an \"Atma\" or soul never dies, what dies is the body only made of five elements—Earth, Water, Fire, Air, and Sky. Soul is believed to be indestructible. None of the five elements can harm or influence it. Hinduism through Garuda Purana also describes in detail various types of \"Narkas\" or Hells where a person after death is punished for his bad Karmas and dealt with accordingly.\n\nHindus also believe in ''Karma''. 'Karma' is the accumulated sums of one's good or bad deeds. Satkarma means good deeds, vikarma means bad deeds. According to Hinduism the basic concept of Karma is 'As you sow, you shall reap'. So, if a person has lived a good life, they will be rewarded in the afterlife. Similarly their sum of bad deeds will be mirrored in their next life. Good 'Karma' brings good rewards and bad 'karmas' lead to bad results. There is no judgment here. People accumulate karma through their actions and even thoughts. In Bhagavad Gita when Arjuna hesitates to kill his kith and kin the lord reprimands him saying thus \"Do you believe that you are the doer of the action. No. You are merely an instrument in MY hands. Do you believe that the people in front of you are living? Dear Arjuna, they are already dead. As a ''kshatriya'' (warrior) it is your duty to protect your people and land. If you fail to do your duty, then you are not adhering to dharmic principles.\"\n\n===Buddhism===\n\n\nBuddhists maintain that rebirth takes place without an unchanging self or soul passing from one form to another. The type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the person's actions (kamma or karma). For example, if a person has committed harmful actions of body, speech and mind based on greed, hatred and delusion, rebirth in a lower realm, i.e. an animal, a ghost or a hell realm, is to be expected. On the other hand, where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity, loving-kindness (metta), compassion and wisdom, rebirth in a happy realm, i.e. human or one of the many heavenly realms, can be expected.\n\nYet the mechanism of rebirth with kamma is not deterministic. It depends on various levels of kamma. The most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment. At that moment, heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed, if not then near death kamma, if not then habitual kamma, finally if none of the above happened, then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen. According to Theravada Buddhism, there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into.\n\nPure Land Buddhism of Mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called Pure Land. It is believed that each Buddha has their own pure land, created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a Buddha there. Thus the main practice of pure land Buddhism is to chant a Buddha's name.\n\nIn Tibetan Buddhism the Tibetan Book of the Dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different Buddhas who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the Dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings.\n\n\"Life is cosmic energy of the universe and after death it merges in universe again and as the time comes to find the suitable place for the entity died in the life condition it gets born. There are 10 life states of any life: Hell, hunger, anger, animality, rapture, humanity, learning, realization, bodhisatva and buddhahood. The life dies in which life condition it reborn in the same life condition.\"\n\n===Sikhism===\n\nSikhism has a very strong belief in the afterlife. They believe that the soul belongs to the spiritual universe which has its origins in God. However it's been a matter of great debate amongst the Sikhs about Sikhism's belief in afterlife. Many believe that Sikhism endorses the afterlife and the concept of reward and punishment as there are verses given in ''Guru Granth Sahib'', but a large number of Sikhs believe otherwise and treat those verses as metaphorical or poetic.\n\nBut if one analyses the Sikh Scriptures carefully, one may find that on many occasions the afterlife and the existence of heaven and hell are mentioned in ''Guru Granth Sahib'' and in ''Dasam granth'', so from that it can been concluded that Sikhism does believe in the existence of heaven and hell; however, heaven and hell are created to temporarily reward and punish, and one will then take birth again until one merges in God. According to the Sikh scriptures, the human form is the closet form to God and the best opportunity for a human being to attain salvation and merge back with God. Sikh Gurus said that nothing dies, nothing is born, everything is ever present, and it just changes forms. Like standing in front of a wardrobe, you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it. You wear another one. Thus, in the view of Sikhism, your soul is never born and never dies. Your soul is a part of God and hence lives forever.\n", "===Traditional African religions===\nTraditional African religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. Hunter-gatherer societies such as the Hadza have no particular belief in an afterlife, and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence. Ancestor cults are found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, including cultures like the Yombe, Beng, Yoruba and Ewe, \"The belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to children....What is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul. For each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul.\" The Yoruba, Dogon and LoDagoa have eschatological ideas similar to Abrahamic religions, \"but in most African societies, there is a marked absence of such clear-cut notions of heaven and hell, although there are notions of God judging the soul after death.\" In some societies like the Mende, multiple beliefs coexist. The Mende believe that people die twice: once during the process of joining the secret society, and again during biological death after which they become ancestors. However, some Mende also believe that after people are created by God they live ten consecutive lives, each in progressively descending worlds. One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly.\n\n===Shinto===\n\nIt is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called ''yomi'' (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This ''yomi'' very closely resembles the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Okuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called ''kegare''. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ojin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death.\n\n===Unitarian Universalism===\nSome Unitarian Universalists believe in universalism: that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell. Unitarian Universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue. Although Unitarians historically believed in a literal hell, and Universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven, modern Unitarian Universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven, reincarnation and oblivion. Most Unitarian Universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife.\n\n===Spiritualism===\nAccording to Edgar Cayce, the afterlife consisted of nine realms equated with the nine planets of astrology. The first, symbolized by Saturn, was a level for the purification of the souls. The second, Mercury's realm, gives us the ability to consider problems as a whole. The third of the nine soul realms is ruled by Earth and is associated with the Earthly pleasures. The fourth realm is where we find out about love and is ruled by Venus. The fifth realm is where we meet our limitations and is ruled by Mars. The sixth realm is ruled by Neptune, and is where we begin to use our creative powers and free ourselves from the material world. The seventh realm is symbolized by Jupiter, which strengthens the soul's ability to depict situations, to analyze people and places, things, and conditions. The eighth afterlife realm is ruled by Uranus and develops psychic ability. The ninth afterlife realm is symbolized by Pluto, the astrological realm of the unconscious. This afterlife realm is a transient place where souls can choose to travel to other realms or other solar systems, it is the souls liberation into eternity, and is the realm that opens the doorway from our solar system into the cosmos.\n\nMainstream Spiritualists postulate a series of seven realms that are not unlike Edgar Cayce's nine realms ruled by the planets. As it evolves, the soul moves higher and higher until it reaches the ultimate realm of spiritual oneness. The first realm, equated with hell, is the place where troubled souls spend a long time before they are compelled to move up to the next level. The second realm, where most souls move directly, is thought of as an intermediate transition between the lower planes of life and hell and the higher perfect realms of the universe. The third level is for those who have worked with their karmic inheritance. The fourth level is that from which evolved souls teach and direct those on Earth. The fifth level is where the soul leaves human consciousness behind. At the sixth plane, the soul is finally aligned with the cosmic consciousness and has no sense of separateness or individuality. Finally, the seventh level, the goal of each soul, is where the soul transcends its own sense of \"soulfulness\" and reunites with the World Soul and the universe.\n\n===Wicca===\nThe Wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as The Summerland. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Many Wiccans see The Summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions. It is not a place of reward, but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations.\n\n===Zoroastrianism===\n\n\nZoroastrianism states that the ''urvan'', the disembodied spirit, lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by Yima. For the three days that it rests on Earth, righteous souls sit at the head of their body, chanting the Ustavaiti Gathas with joy, while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse, wails and recites the Yasna. Zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls, a beautiful maiden, which is the personification of the soul's good thoughts, words and deeds, appears. For a wicked person, a very old, ugly, naked hag appears. After three nights, the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon Vizaresa (Vīzarəša), to Chinvat bridge, and is made to go to darkness (hell).\n\nYima is believed to have been the first king on earth to rule, as well as the first man to die. Inside of Yima's realm, the spirits live a shadowy existence, and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on Earth. Their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them, through rituals done on earth.\n\nRituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important, as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld. After three days, the soul crosses Chinvat bridge which is the Final Judgment of the soul. Rashnu and Sraosha are present at the final judgment. The list is expanded sometimes, and include Vahman and Ormazd. Rashnu is the yazata who holds the scales of justice. If the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad, the soul is worthy of paradise. If the bad deeds outweigh the good, the bridge narrows down to the width of a blade-edge, and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms, and takes it down to hell with her.\n\nMisvan Gatu is the 'place of the mixed ones' where the souls lead a gray existence, lacking both joy and sorrow. A soul goes here if his/her good deeds and bad deeds are equal, and Rashnu's scale is equal.\n", "\n\n\nThe Society for Psychical Research was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like William Crookes, and philosophers such as Henry Sidgwick and William James.\n\nParapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of haunting, apparitions of the deceased, instrumental trans-communication, electronic voice phenomena, and mediumship. But also the study of the near death experience. Scientists who have worked in this area include Raymond Moody, Susan Blackmore, Charles Tart, William James, Ian Stevenson, Michael Persinger, Pim van Lommel and Penny Sartori among others.\n\nA study conducted in 1901 by physician Duncan MacDougall sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the soul \"departed the body\" upon death. MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. Although MacDougall's results varied considerably from \"21 grams\", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass. The title of the 2003 movie ''21 Grams'' is a reference to MacDougall's findings. His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.\n\nFrank Tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality, though such arguments are not falsifiable and thus do not qualify, in Karl Popper's views, as science.\n\nAfter 25 years of parapsychological research, Susan Blackmore came to the conclusion that there is no empirical evidence for an afterlife.\n", "\n===Modern philosophy===\nThere is still the position, based on the philosophical question of personal identity, termed open individualism, and in some ways similar to the old belief of monopsychism, that concludes that individual existence is illusory, and our consciousness continues existing after death in other conscious beings. Positions regarding existence after death were supported by some notable physicists such as Erwin Schrödinger and Freeman Dyson.\n\nCertain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death. Peter van Inwagen, in his argument regarding resurrection, notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity. John Hick also raises some questions regarding personal identity in his book, ''Death and Eternal Life'' using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another. If the replica had all the same experiences, traits, and physical appearances of the first person, we would all attribute the same identity to the second, according to Hick.\n\n===Process philosophy===\nIn the panentheistic model of process philosophy and theology the writers Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne rejected that the universe was made of substance, instead reality is composed of living experiences (occasions of experience). According to Hartshorne people do not experience subjective (or personal) immortality in the afterlife, but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in God, who contains all that was. However other process philosophers such as David Ray Griffin have written that people may have subjective experience after death.\n", "\nRegarding the mind–body problem, most neuroscientists take a physicalist position according to which consciousness derives from and/or is reducible to physical phenomena such as neuronal activity occurring in the brain. The implication of this premise is that once the brain stops functioning at brain death, consciousness fails to survive and ceases to exist. In general, scientists and philosophers tend to practice increased skepticism when it comes to belief in life after death. \n\nPsychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition, cultural learning, and as an intuitive religious idea. In one study, children were able to recognize the ending of physical, mental, and perceptual activity in death, but were hesitant to conclude the ending of will, self, or emotion in death.\n", "\n=== Film ===\n* ''Ghost'' with Patrick Swayze, Demi Moore, and Whoopi Goldberg\n* ''Flatliners'' with Julia Roberts, Kiefer Sutherland and Kevin Bacon\n* ''Ghost Whisperer''\n* ''Hereafter'' by Clint Eastwood\n* ''What Dreams May Come'' with Robin Williams, Cuba Gooding Jr., and Annabella Sciorra\n* ''The Sixth Sense'' with Bruce Willis\n* ''The Frighteners'' with Michael J. Fox\n* ''Dead Like Me''\n* ''Defending Your Life''\n\n=== Television ===\n\n* ''The Good Place''\n* ''Afterlife (TV series)''\n", "\n* Akhirah\n* Allegory of the long spoons\n* Bardo\n* Brig of Dread (Bridge of Dread)\n* Cognitivism\n* Cryonics\n* Dimethyltryptamine\n* Empiricism\n* Epistemology\n* Eternal oblivion\n* Exaltation (Mormonism)\n* Fate of the unlearned\n* Logical positivism\n* Mictlan\n* Mind uploading\n* Omega Point\n* Parapsychology\n* Phowa\n* Pre-existence\n* Rebecca Hensler\n* Soul retrieval\n* Suspended animation\n* Undead\n\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n", "* ''Afterlife: A History of Life after Death'' by Philip C Almond(London and Ithaca NY: I B Tauris and Cornell University Press, 2015).\n* ''Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions'' edited by Hiroshi Obayashi, Praeger, 1991.\n* ''Beyond Death: Theological and Philosophical Reflections on Life after Death'' edited by Dan Cohn-Sherbok and Christopher Lewis, Pelgrave-MacMillan, 1995.\n* ''The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection'' by Jane Idelman Smith and Yazbeck Haddad, Oxford UP, 2002.\n* ''Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion'' by Alan F. Segal, Doubleday, 2004.\n* ''Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul'' by John J. McGraw, Aegis Press, 2004.\n* ''Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions'' by Christopher M. Moreman, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.\n* ''Is there an afterlife: a comprehensive overview of the evidence'' by David Fontana, O Books 2005.\n* ''Death and the Afterlife'', by Robert A. Morey. Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1984. 315 p. \n* ''Conceptions of the Afterlife in Early Civilizations: Universalism, Constructivism and Near-Death Experience'' by Gregory Shushan, New York & London, Continuum, 2009. .\n* ''The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death'' edited by Michael Martin and Keith Augustine, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. .\n* ''A Traveler's Guide to the Afterlife: Traditions and Beliefs on Death, Dying, and What Lies Beyond'' by Mark Mirabello, Ph.D. Inner Traditions. Release Date : September 26, 2016 \n", "\n\n \n\n* Islamic view on life after death\n* Catholic view on life after death\n* Catholic opinion on the idea of limbo\n* Stewart Salmond, ''Christian Doctrine of Immortality''\n* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Death and Immortality''\n* \n* (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger)\n* Online version of Swedenborg's ''Heaven and Hell'' (Swedenborg Foundation 1949, new translation 2002)\n* Online searchable copy of Swedenborg's ''Heaven and Hell'' also known as the underworld in Ancient Greece\n* Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Different metaphysical models", "Ancient religions", "Abrahamic religions", "Indian religions", "Others", "Parapsychology", "Philosophy", "Science", " Popular culture ", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Afterlife
[ "Illustration of the use of interferometry in the optical wavelength range to determine precise positions of stars. ''Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech''\n\n'''Astrometry''' is the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. The information obtained by astrometric measurements provides information on the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and our galaxy, the Milky Way.\n", "Concept art for the TAU spacecraft, a 1980s era study which would have used an interstellar precursor probe to expand the baseline for calculating stellar parallax in support of Astrometry\nThe history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earth's precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today. Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions. Hipparchus's successor, Ptolemy, included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the ''Almagest'', giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.\n\nIn the 10th century, Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes and star color, and gave drawings for each constellation, in his ''Book of Fixed Stars''. Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Simon Newcomb's investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations inspired Laplace's ''Obliquity of the Ecliptic'' and ''Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn''. In the 15th century, the Timurid astronomer Ulugh Beg compiled the ''Zij-i-Sultani'', in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Beg's catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc.\n\nIn the 16th century, Tycho Brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15–35 arcsec. Taqi al-Din measured the right ascension of the stars at the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din using the \"observational clock\" he invented. When telescopes became commonplace, setting circles sped measurements\n\nJames Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the Earth's axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by Friedrich Bessel, the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 arcsec for the binary star 61 Cygni.\n\nBeing very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the filar micrometer. Astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues. In the 1980s, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond. This technology made astrometry less expensive, opening the field to an amateur audience.\n\nIn 1989, the European Space Agency's Hipparcos satellite took astrometry into orbit, where it could be less affected by mechanical forces of the Earth and optical distortions from its atmosphere. Operated from 1989 to 1993, Hipparcos measured large and small angles on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes. During its 4-year run, the positions, parallaxes, and proper motions of 118,218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy. A new \"Tycho catalog\" drew together a database of 1,058,332 to within 20-30 mas (milliarcseconds). Additional catalogues were compiled for the 23,882 double/multiple stars and 11,597 variable stars also analyzed during the Hipparcos mission.\n\nToday, the catalogue most often used is USNO-B1.0, an all-sky catalogue that tracks proper motions, positions, magnitudes and other characteristics for over one billion stellar objects. During the past 50 years, 7,435 Schmidt camera plates were used to complete several sky surveys that make the data in USNO-B1.0 accurate to within 0.2 arcsec.\n", "Diagram showing how a smaller object (such as an extrasolar planet) orbiting a larger object (such as a star) could produce changes in position and velocity of the latter as they orbit their common center of mass (red cross).\nbarycenter of solar system relative to the Sun.\nApart from the fundamental function of providing astronomers with a reference frame to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like celestial mechanics, stellar dynamics and galactic astronomy. In observational astronomy, astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping time, in that UTC is basically the atomic time synchronized to Earth's rotation by means of exact observations. Astrometry is an important step in the cosmic distance ladder because it establishes parallax distance estimates for stars in the Milky Way.\n\nAstrometry has also been used to support claims of extrasolar planet detection by measuring the displacement the proposed planets cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. Although, as of 2009, none of the extrasolar planets detected by ground-based astrometry has been verified in subsequent studies, astrometry is expected to be more accurate in space missions that are not affected by the distorting effects of the Earth's atmosphere. NASA's planned Space Interferometry Mission (SIM PlanetQuest) (now cancelled) was to utilize astrometric techniques to detect terrestrial planets orbiting 200 or so of the nearest solar-type stars, and the European Space Agency's Gaia Mission, launched in 2013, which will be applying astrometric techniques in its stellar census.\n\nAstrometric measurements are used by astrophysicists to constrain certain models in celestial mechanics. By measuring the velocities of pulsars, it is possible to put a limit on the asymmetry of supernova explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.\n\nAstronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of near-Earth objects. Astrometry is responsible for the detection of many record-breaking Solar System objects. To find such objects astrometrically, astronomers use telescopes to survey the sky and large-area cameras to take pictures at various determined intervals. By studying these images, they can detect Solar System objects by their movements relative to the background stars, which remain fixed. Once a movement per unit time is observed, astronomers compensate for the parallax caused by Earth’s motion during this time and the heliocentric distance to this object is calculated. Using this distance and other photographs, more information about the object, including its orbital elements, can be obtained.\n\n50000 Quaoar and 90377 Sedna are two Solar System objects discovered in this way by Michael E. Brown and others at Caltech using the Palomar Observatory's Samuel Oschin telescope of and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.\n", "\nA fundamental aspect of astrometry is error correction. Various factors introduce errors into the measurement of stellar positions, including atmospheric conditions, imperfections in the instruments and errors by the observer or the measuring instruments. Many of these errors can be reduced by various techniques, such as through instrument improvements and compensations to the data. The results are then analyzed using statistical methods to compute data estimates and error ranges.\n", "* XParallax viu (Free application for Windows)\n* Astrometrica (Application for Windows)\n* Astrometry.net (Online blind astrometry)\n", "\n* In ''Star Trek: Voyager'', the '''Astrometrics''' lab is the set for various scenes.\n* In Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series) an Astrometrics lab is stated in dialogue multiple times.\n", "\n", "\n\n===Further reading===\n* \n* \n* \n", "* MPC Guide to Minor Body Astrometry\n* Astrometry Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory\n** USNO Astrometric Catalog and related Products\n* \n* Planet-Like Body Discovered at Fringes of Our Solar System (2004-03-15)\n\n* Mike Brown's Caltech Home Page\n* Scientific Paper describing Sedna's discovery\n* The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission — on ESA\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Applications", " Statistics ", " Computer programs ", " In fiction ", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]	Astrometry
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Athena''' (; Attic Greek: , ''Athēnā'', or , ''Athēnaia''; Epic: , ''Athēnaiē''; Doric: , ''Athānā'') or '''Athene''' (; Ionic: , ''Athēnē''), often given the epithet '''Pallas''' (; ), is the goddess of wisdom, craft, and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology. In later times, Athena was syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva.\n\nIn ancient Greek literature, Athena is portrayed as the astute companion of heroes and as the patron goddess of heroic endeavour. Athena probably takes her name from the city of Athens, of which she was the patron. The Athenians constructed the Parthenon atop their Acropolis as a temple to Athena; it takes its name from her epithet ''Parthenos'', which means \"Virgin\". Throughout the Greek world, Athena was venerated as the protectress of the city (''polis''); she was known as ''Polias'' and ''Poliouchos'' and her temples were usually located atop the fortified Acropolis in the central part of the city.\n", "Athena is associated with the city of Athens. The name of the city in ancient Greek is ''Ἀθῆναι'' (''Athenai''), a plural toponym, designating the place where—according to myth—she presided over her sisterhood, the ''Athenai''. In ancient times, scholars argued whether Athena was named after Athens or Athens after Athena. Now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city; the ending -''ene'' is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. Testimonies from different cities in ancient Greece attest that similar city goddesses were worshipped in other cities and, like Athena, took their names from the cities where they were worshipped. For example, in Mycenae there was a goddess called Mykene, whose sisterhood was known as ''Mykenai'', whereas at Thebes an analogous deity was called Thebe, and the city was known under the plural form ''Thebai'' (or Thebes, in English, where the ‘s’ is the plural formation). The name ''Athenai'' is likely of Pre-Greek origin because it contains the presumably Pre-Greek morpheme ''-ān-''.\n\nIn his dialogue ''Cratylus'', the Greek philosopher Plato (428–347 BC) gives some rather imaginative etymologies of Athena's name, based on the theories of the ancient Athenians and his own etymological speculations:\n\n\n\nThus, Plato believed that Athena's name was derived from Greek , ''Atheonóa''—which the later Greeks rationalised as from the deity's (θεός, ''theós'') mind (νοῦς, ''noũs''). Other Greek authors attempted to derive natural symbols from the etymological roots of Athena's names to be ''aether'', ''air'', ''earth'', and ''moon''.\n", "Athena was originally the Aegean goddess of the palace, who presided over household crafts and protected the king. A single Mycenaean Greek inscription ''a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja'' /Athana potnia/ appears at Knossos in the Linear B tablets from the Late Minoan II-era \"Room of the Chariot Tablets\"; these comprise the earliest Linear B archive anywhere. Although ''Athana potnia'' often is translated ''Mistress Athena'', it could also mean \"the ''Potnia'' of Athana\", and thus perhaps ''the Lady of Athens''. However, any connection to the city of Athens in the Knossos inscription is uncertain. In the still undeciphered corpus of Linear A tablets—written in the unclassified Minoan language—a sign series ''a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja'' is to be found. This could be connected with the Linear B Mycenaean expressions ''a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja'' and ''di-u-ja'' or ''di-wi-ja'' (''Diwia'', \"of Zeus\" or, possibly, related to a homonymous goddess), resulting in a translation \"Athena of Zeus\" or \"divine Athena\". Similarly, in the Greek mythology and epic tradition, Athena figures as a daughter of Zeus (Διός θυγάτηρ; ''cfr.'' Dyeus). However, the inscription quoted seems to be very similar to \"a-ta-nū-tī wa-ya\", quoted as SY Za 1 by Jan Best. Best translates the initial ''a-ta-nū-tī'', which is recurrent in line beginnings, as \"I have given\".\n\nIn a Mycenean fresco, there is a composition of two women extending their hands towards a central figure, who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield; this may depict the warrior-goddess with her palladium, or her palladium in an aniconic representation. In the \"Procession Fresco\" at Knossos, which was reconstructed by the Mycenaeans, two rows of figures carrying vessels seem to meet in front of a central figure, which is probably the Minoan precursor to Athena. The early twentieth-century scholar Martin Persson Nilsson argued that the Minoan snake goddess figurines are early representations of Athena.\n\nMarble Greek copy signed \"Antiokhos\", a 1st-century BC variant of Phidias' 5th century ''Athena Promachos'' that stood on the Acropolis\n\nNilsson and others have claimed that, in early times, Athena was either an owl herself or a bird goddess in general. In the third book of the ''Odyssey'', she takes the form of a sea-eagle. Proponents of this view argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl-mask before she lost her wings. \"Athena, by the time she appears in art,\" Jane Ellen Harrison remarks, \"has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings.\"\n\nIt is generally agreed that the cult of Athena preserves some aspects of the Proto-Indo-European transfunctional goddess. The cult of Athena may have also been influenced by those of Near Eastern warrior goddesses such as the East Semitic Ishtar and the Ugaritic Anat, both of whom were often portrayed bearing arms.\n\nMiriam Robbins Dexter has suggested that, at least at some point in her history, Athena was a solar deity. Athena bears traits common with Indo-European solar goddesses, including the possession of a mirror and the invention of weaving, characteristics which are also held by the Baltic goddess Saulė. Athena's association with Medusa, who is also suspected of being a solar goddess, adds further solar iconography to her cultus. Athena was later syncretized with Sulis, a Celtic goddess whose name is derived from the common Proto-Indo-European root for many solar deities. Though the sun in Greek myth is personified as the male Helios, several relictual solar goddesses are known, such as Alectrona.\n\nPlato notes that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess known as Neith, whom he identifies with Athena. Neith was the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and hunting, who was also associated with weaving; her worship began during the Egyptian Pre-Dynastic period. In Greek mythology, Athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in North Africa, including Libya's Triton River and the Phlegraean plain. Based on these similarities, the sinologist Martin Bernal created the \"Black Athena\" hypothesis, which claimed that Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with \"an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia\". The \"Black Athena\" hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century, but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars.\n", "Athenian tetradrachm representing the goddess Athena\nA new ''peplos'' was woven for Athena and ceremonially brought to dress her cult image (British Museum).\nIn her aspect of ''Athena Polias'', Athena was venerated as the goddess of the city and the protectress of the citadel. In Athens, the Plynteria, or \"Feast of the Bath\", was observed every year at the end of the month of Thargelion. The festival lasted for five days. During this period, the priestesses of Athena, or ''plyntrídes'', performed a cleansing ritual within the Erechtheion, a sanctuary devoted to Athena and Poseidon. Here Athena's statue was undressed, her clothes washed, and body purified.\n\nAthena was worshipped at festivals such as Chalceia as ''Athena Ergane'', the patroness of various crafts, especially weaving. She was also the patron of metalworkers and was believed to aid in the forging of armor and weapons. During the late 5th century BC, the role of goddess of philosophy became a major aspect of Athena's cult.\n\nAs ''Athena Promachos'', she was believed to lead soldiers into battle. Athena represented the disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother Ares, the patron of violence, bloodlust, and slaughter—\"the raw force of war\". Athena was believed to only support those fighting for a just cause and was thought to view war primarily as a means to resolve conflict. In this aspect, Athena was also known as ''Parthenos'', which means \"virgin\", because she was believed to have never married or taken a lover. Athena was especially worshipped in this role during the festivals of the Panathenaea and Pamboeotia, both of which prominently featured displays of athletic and military prowess. As the patroness of heroes and warriors, Athena was believed to favor those who used cunning and intelligence rather than brute strength.\n\nAthena depicted on a coin of Attalus I, ruler of Pergamon, c.200 BC\n\nAthena was not only the patron goddess of Athens, but also other cities, including Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa. The various cults of Athena were all branches of her panhellenic cult and often proctored various initiation rites of Grecian youth, such as the passage into citizenship by young men or the passage of young women into marriage. These cults were portals of a uniform socialization, even beyond mainland Greece.\n\nAthena was frequently equated with Aphaea, a local goddess of the island of Aegina, originally from Crete and also associated with Artemis and the nymph Britomartis. In Arcadia, she was assimilated with the ancient goddess Alea and worshiped as Athena Alea. Sanctuaries dedicated to Athena Alea were located in the Laconian towns of Mantineia and Tegea. The temple of Athena Alea in Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece. The geographer Pausanias was informed that the ''temenos'' had been founded by Aleus. Votive bronzes at the site from the Geometric and Archaic periods take the forms of horses and deer; there are sealstone and fibulae. In the Archaic period, the nine villages that underlie Tegea banded together in a synoecism to form one city. Tegea was listed in Homer's Catalogue of Ships as one of the cities that contributed ships and men for the Achaean assault on Troy.\n\nIn Sparta, the temple of Athena ''Khalkíoikos'' (Athena \"of the Brazen House\", often latinized as ''Chalcioecus'') was the grandest and located on the Spartan acropolis; presumably it had a roof of bronze. The forecourt of the Brazen House was the place where the most solemn religious functions in Sparta took place.\n", "\nBust of the Velletri Pallas type, copy after a votive statue of Kresilas in Athens (c.425 BC)\n\nAthena was known as '''Atrytone''' ( \"the Unwearying\"), '''Parthenos''' ( \"Virgin\"), and '''Promachos''' ( \"she who fights in front\"). The epithet '''Polias''' (Πολιάς \"of the city\"), refers to Athena's role as protectress of the city. The epithet '''Ergane''' (Εργάνη \"the Industrious\") pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. After serving as the judge at the trial of Orestes in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother Clytemnestra, Athena won the epithet '''Areia''' (Αρεία).\n\nThe owl of Athena, surrounded by an olive wreath. Reverse of an Athenian silver tetradrachm, c. 175 BC\n\nIn Homer's epic works, Athena's most common epithet is '''Glaukopis''' (), which usually is translated as, \"bright-eyed\" or \"with gleaming eyes\". The word is a combination of ''glaukós'' (, meaning \"gleaming, silvery\", and later, \"bluish-green\" or \"gray\") and ''ṓps'' (, \"eye, face\"). The word ''glaúx'' (, \"little owl\") is from the same root, presumably according to some, because of the bird's own distinctive eyes. Athena was clearly associated with the owl from very early on; in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her hand. Through its association with Athena, the owl evolved into the national mascot of the Athenians and eventually became a symbol of wisdom.\n\nOther epithets include Ageleia, Itonia and '''Aethyia''' under which she was worshiped in Megara. The word ''aíthyia'' () signifies a \"diver\", also some diving bird species (possibly the shearwater) and figuratively, a \"ship\", so the name must reference Athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation. In a temple at Phrixa in Elis, reportedly built by Clymenus, she was known as '''Cydonia''' (Κυδωνία), which is possibly connected to Greek ''kũdos'' (κῦδος \"glory\").\n\nIn the ''Iliad'' (4.514), the Homeric Hymns, and in Hesiod's ''Theogony'', Athena is also given the curious epithet '''Tritogeneia''' (Τριτογένεια), whose significance remains unclear. It could mean various things, including \"Triton-born\", perhaps indicating that the homonymous sea-deity was her parent according to some early myths. In fact there is a myth relating the foster father relationship of this Triton towards the half-orphan Athena, whom he raised besides his own daughter Pallas. Karl Kerényi suggests that \"Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally.\" In Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' Athena is occasionally referred to as \"Tritonia\".\n\nCult statue of Athena with the face of the Carpegna type (late 1st century BC to early 1st century AD), from the Piazza dell'Emporio, Rome\n\nAnother possible meaning may be \"triple-born\" or \"third-born\", which may refer to a triad or to her status as the third daughter of Zeus or the fact she was born from Metis, Zeus, and herself; various legends list her as being the first child after Artemis and Apollo, though other legends identify her as Zeus' first child. Several scholars have suggested a connection to the Rigvedic god Trita, who was sometimes grouped in a body of three mythological poets. Michael Janda has connected the myth of Trita to the scene in the ''Iliad'' in which the \"three brothers\" Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades divide the world between them, receiving the \"broad sky\", the sea, and the underworld respectively. Janda further connects the myth of Athena being born of the head (i. e. the uppermost part) of Zeus, understanding ''Trito-'' (which perhaps originally meant \"the third\") as another word for \"the sky\". In Janda's analysis of Indo-European mythology, this heavenly sphere is also associated with the mythological body of water surrounding the inhabited world (''cfr.'' Triton's mother, Amphitrite).\n\nShe was given the epithet '''Hippia''' (Ἵππια \"of the horses\", \"equestrian\"), as the inventor of the chariot, and was worshiped under this title at Athens, Tegea and Olympia. As Athena Hippia she was given an alternative parentage: Poseidon and Polyphe, daughter of Oceanus. In each of these cities her temple frequently was the major temple on the acropolis.\n\nThe Greek biographer Plutarch (46–120 AD) refers to an instance during the Parthenon's construction of her being called '''Athena Hygieia''' (Ὑγίεια, i. e. personified \"Health\"):\n\n\n\nIn Macedonia Athena was also given the surname Alcis, meaning 'the strong'.\n", "\n===Birth===\nMetis, as he grasps the clothing of Eileithyia on the right; black-figured amphora, 550–525 BC, Louvre.\n\nAlthough Athena appears before Zeus at Knossos—in Linear B, as , ''a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja'', \"Mistress Athena\"—in the Classical Olympian pantheon, Athena was remade as the favourite daughter of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead. The story of her birth comes in several versions. In the version recounted by Hesiod in his ''Theogony'', Zeus lay with Metis, the goddess of crafty thought and wisdom, but he immediately feared the consequences because Gaia and Ouranos had prophesized that Metis would bear children wiser than he himself. In order to prevent this, Zeus swallowed Metis, but it was too late because Metis had already conceived.\n\nEventually Zeus experienced an enormous headache; Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, or Palaemon (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus’ head with the double-headed Minoan axe, the ''labrys''. Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed, with a shout—\"and pealed to the broad sky her clarion cry of war. And Ouranos trembled to hear, and Mother Gaia…\" Plato, in the ''Laws'', attributes the cult of Athena to the culture of Crete, introduced, he thought, from Libya during the dawn of Greek culture. Classical myths thereafter note that Hera was so annoyed at Zeus for having produced a child that she conceived and bore Hephaestus by herself, but in ''Imagines'' 2. 27 (trans. Fairbanks), the third-century AD Greek rhetorician Philostratus the Elder writes that Hera \"rejoices\" at Athena's birth \"as though Athena were her daughter also.\"\nIn accordance with this mythological tradition, Plato, in ''Cratylus'' (407B), gives the etymology of her name as signifying \"the mind of god\", ''theou noesis''. The second-century AD Christian apologist Justin Martyr takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of Kore, whom he interprets as Athena:\n\nThey said that Athena was the daughter of Zeus not from intercourse, but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word (''logos'') his first thought was Athena.\n\n====Other tales====\n''Atena farnese'', Roman copy of a Greek original from Phidias' circle, c.430 AD, Museo Archeologico, Naples\n\nA ''scholium'' on the ''Iliad'' makes Athena the daughter of Brontes the Cyclops, who seduced Metis and impregnated her, prompting Zeus to swallow her. The ''Etymologicum Magnum'' instead deems Athena the daughter of the Daktyl Itonos. Fragments attributed by the Christian Eusebius of Caesarea to the semi-legendary Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, which Eusebius thought had been written before the Trojan war, make Athena instead the daughter of Cronus, a king of Byblos who visited 'the inhabitable world' and bequeathed Attica to Athena. Sanchuniathon's account would make Athena the sister of Zeus and Hera, not Zeus' daughter.\n\n===Pallas Athena===\nThe tradition regarding Athena's parentage involves some of her more mysterious epithets: Pallas, as in the ancient-Greek (also Pallantias) and Tritogeneia (also Trito, Tritonis, Tritoneia, Tritogenes). A distant archaic separate entity named Pallas is invoked as Athena's father, sister, foster sister, companion, or opponent in battle. One of these is Pallas, a daughter of Triton (a sea god) and, according to some later sources, a childhood friend of Athena.\n\nIn every case, Athena kills Pallas, accidentally, and thereby gains the name for herself. In one telling, they practice the arts of war together until one day they have a falling out. As Pallas is about to strike Athena, Zeus intervenes. With Pallas stunned by a blow from Zeus, Athena takes advantage and kills her. Distraught over what she has done, Athena takes the name Pallas for herself.\n\nWhen Pallas is Athena's father, the events, including her birth, are located near a body of water named Triton or Tritonis. When Pallas is Athena's sister or foster-sister, Athena's father or foster-father is Triton, the son and herald of Poseidon. Athena may be called the daughter of Poseidon and a nymph named Tritonis, without involving Pallas. Likewise, Pallas may be Athena's father or opponent, without involving Triton. On this topic, Walter Burkert says \"she is the Pallas of Athens, ''Pallas Athenaie'', just as Hera of Argos is ''Here Argeie''. Burkert notes that the Athenians sometimes simply called Athena \"the Goddess\", ''hē theós'' (ἡ θεός), certainly an ancient title.\n\nIn fact, \"Pallas\" is derived either from , \"brandish\" (as a weapon), or, more likely, from and related words, \"youth, young woman.\" The story that Athena kills a friend or relation called \"Pallas\" and takes the name to honor her is only attested quite late, in Apollodorus and Philodemus. It seems to have been invented to explain the name.\n\nThe Parthenon, Temple of Athena Parthenos\n\n===Athena Parthenos===\n\n\nAthena never had a consort or lover and is thus known as ''Athena Parthenos'', \"Virgin Athena\". Her most famous temple, the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens takes its name from this title. It is not merely an observation of her virginity, but a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery. Even beyond recognition, the Athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity as it upheld a rudiment of female behavior in the patriarchal society. Kerényi's study and theory of Athena accredits her virginal epithet to be a result of the relationship to her father Zeus and a vital, cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages.\n\nThis role is expressed in a number of stories about Athena. Marinus of Neapolis reports that when Christians removed the statue of the Goddess from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to Proclus, a devotee of Athena, and announced that the ''\"Athenian Lady\"'' wished to dwell with him.\n\nThe ''Athena Giustiniani'', a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena with her serpent, Erichthonius\n\n====Erichthonius====\nThe ancient mythographer Pseudo-Apollodorus records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh. Athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnating Gaia and causing her to give birth to Erichthonius, whom Athena adopted as her own child. The Roman mythographer Hyginus records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born. Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married, but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.\n\nThe geographer Pausanias records that Athena placed the infant Erichthonius into a small chest (''cista''), which she entrusted to the care of the three daughters of Cecrops: Herse, Pandrosos, and Aglauros of Athens. She warned the three sisters not the open the chest, but did not explain to them why or what was in it. Aglauros, and possibly one of the other sisters, opened the chest. Differing reports say that they either found that the child itself was a serpent, that it was guarded by a serpent, that it was guarded by two serpents, or that it had the legs of a serpent. In Pausanias's story, the two sisters were driven mad by the sight of the chest's contents and hurled themselves off the Acropolis, dying instantly, but an Attic vase painting shows them being chased by the serpent off the edge of the cliff instead. Erichthonius was one of the most important founding heroes of Athens and the legend of the daughters of Cecrops was a cult myth linked to the rituals of the Arrhephoria festival.\n\n\nAnother version of the myth of the Athenian maidens is told in ''Metamorphoses'' by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC17 AD); in this late variant Hermes falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaulus, and Pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaulus to seduce Herse. Aglaulus demands money in exchange. Hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to Athena. As punishment for Aglaulus's greed, Athena asks the goddess Envy to make Aglaulus jealous of Herse. When Hermes arrives to seduce Herse, Aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed. He turns her to stone.\n\n====Medusa and Tiresias====\nClassical Greek depiction of Medusa from the fourth century BC\n\nIn a late myth, Medusa, unlike her sister Gorgons, came to be viewed by the Greeks of the 5th century as a beautiful mortal that served as priestess in Athena's temple. Poseidon lusted after Medusa, and decided to rape her in the temple of Athena, refusing to allow her vow of chastity to stand in his way. Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena changed Medusa's form to match that of her sister Gorgons as punishment. Medusa's hair turned into snakes, her lower body was transformed also, and meeting her gaze would turn any living man to stone. In the earliest myths, there is only one Gorgon, but there are two snakes that form a belt around her waist.\n\nIn one version of the Tiresias myth, Tiresias stumbled upon Athena bathing, and he was struck blind by her to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see but having lost his eyesight, he was given a special gift—to be able to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future.\n\n===Lady of Athens===\n''The Dispute of Minerva and Neptune'' by René-Antoine Houasse (circa 1689 or 1706)\n\nIn a founding myth reported by Pseudo-Apollodorus, Athena competed with Poseidon for the patronage of Athens. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that Cecrops, the king of Athens, would determine which gift was better. Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring sprang up; this gave the Athenians access to trade and water. Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the Persian fleet at the Battle of Salamis—but the water was salty and undrinkable. In an alternative version of the myth from Vergil's ''Georgics'', Poseidon instead gave the Athenians the first horse.\n\nAthena offered the first domesticated olive tree. Cecrops accepted this gift and declared Athena the patron goddess of Athens. The olive tree brought wood, oil, and food, and became a symbol of Athenian economic prosperity. Robert Graves was of the opinion that \"Poseidon's attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths\", which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.\n\nAttic red-figure kylix, 480–470 BC\n\n===Counselor===\n Silver coin showing Athena with Scylla decorated helmet and Heracles fighting the Nemean lion (Heraclea Lucania, 390-340 BC)\n\nAccording to Pseudo-Apollodorus's ''Bibliotheca'', Athena guided the hero Perseus in his quest to behead Medusa. Other late sources report that she instructed Heracles to skin the Nemean Lion by using its own claws to cut through its thick hide. She also helped Heracles to defeat the Stymphalian Birds, and to navigate the underworld so as to capture Cerberus.\n\nIn ''The Odyssey'', Odysseus' cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins Athena's favour. For the first part of the poem, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from ''afar'', mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the \"protectress of heroes,\" or, as mythologian Walter Friedrich Otto dubbed her, the \"goddess of nearness,\" due to her mentoring and motherly probing. It is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the Phaeacians, where Nausicaa is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance. She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca.\n\nAthena appears to Odysseus upon his arrival, disguised as a herdsman; she initially lies and tells him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead, but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself. Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know in order to win back his kingdom. She disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or Penelope, and helps him to defeat the suitors.\n\nAthena also appears to Odysseus's son Telemachos. Her actions lead him to travel around to Odysseus's comrades and ask about his father. He hears stories about some of Odysseus's journey. Athena's push for Telemachos's journey helps him grow into the man role, that his father once held.\n\nShe also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors' relatives. She instructs Laertes to throw his spear and to kill Eupeithes, the father of Antinous.\n\n===Judgment of Paris===\n\n''Urteil des Paris'' by Anton Raphael Mengs, c.1857. Paris is awarding the golden apple to Aphrodite; Athena is the one on the right with the scowl, shown facing away.\n\nIn one myth, all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, \"for the fairest\"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.\n\nThe goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince. After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision. The goddesses undressed before him to be evaluated, either at his request or by their own choice.\n\nStill, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with control over all Asia and Europe, while Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite came forth and whispered to Paris that if he were to choose her as the fairest he would have the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was Helen, who was, unfortunately for Paris, already married to King Menelaus of Sparta. The other two goddesses were enraged by this and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.\n\n===Roman fable of Arachne===\n\n''Minerva and Arachne'' by René-Antoine Houasse (1706)\n\nThe fable of Arachne is a late Roman addition to Classical Greek mythology that does not appear in any Greek texts from the Classical Era or in the myth repertoire of the Attic vase-painters. Arachne's name means ''spider'' in ancient Greek. Arachne was the daughter of a famous dyer in Tyrian purple in Hypaipa of Lydia, and a weaving student of Athena. She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself.\n\nAthena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities. Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.\n\nAthena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon that had inspired her patronage of Athens. According to Ovid's Latin narrative, Arachne's tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the infidelity of the deities, including Zeus being unfaithful with Leda, with Europa, and with Danaë. Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne's offensive choice of subjects that displayed the failings and transgressions of the deities. Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle.\n\nAthena then struck Arachne with her staff, which changed her into a spider. In some versions, the destruction of her loom leads Arachne to hang herself in despair; Athena takes pity on her, and transforms her into a spider. In the aforementioned version, Arachne weaved scenes of joy while Athena weaved scenes of horror.\n\nThe fable suggests that the origin of weaving lay in imitation of spiders and that it was considered to have been perfected first in Asia Minor.\n", "Restoration of the polychrome decoration of the Athena statue from the Aphaea temple at Aegina, c.490 BC (from the exposition \"Bunte Götter\" by the Munich Glyptothek)\n\nClassically, Athena is portrayed wearing a full-length chiton, and sometimes in armor, with her helmet raised high on the forehead to reveal the image of Nike. Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) in the center and snakes around the edge. It is in this standing posture that she was depicted in Phidias's famous lost gold and ivory statue of her, 36 m tall, the ''Athena Parthenos'' in the Parthenon. Athena also often is depicted with an owl sitting on one of her shoulders.\n\nThe ''Mourning Athena'' is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 BC and portrays a weary Athena resting on a staff. In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in black-figure pottery, the goddess retains some of her Minoan-Mycenaean character, such as great bird wings although this is not true of archaic sculpture such as those of Aphaean Athena, where Athena has subsumed an earlier, invisibly numinous—''Aphaea''—goddess with Cretan connections in her ''mythos''.\n\nApart from her attributes, there seems to be a relative consensus in late sculpture from the Classical period, the 5th century onward, as to what Athena looked like. Most noticeable in the face is perhaps the full round strong, chin with a high nose that has a high bridge as a natural extension of the forehead. The eyes typically are somewhat deeply set. The unsmiling lips are usually full, but the mouth is depicted fairly narrow, usually just slightly wider than the nose. The neck is somewhat long. The net result is a serene, serious, somewhat aloof, and very classical beauty.\n\n\nFile:Mosaique Athena Gorgone Museo Pio-Clementino.jpg\|Classical mosaic from a villa at Tusculum, 3rd century AD, now at Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican\nImage:StonePaletteMythologicalScene.jpg\|Mythological scene with Athena (left) and Herakles (right), on a stone palette of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, India\n\n", "''Minerva and the Triumph of Jupiter'' by René-Antoine Houasse (1706)\nEuro coin commemorating 60 years of the Second Republic of Austria, featuring Athena Promachos\n\nEarly Christian writers such as Clement of Alexandria and Firmicus denigrated Athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism; they condemned her as \"immodest and immoral\". During the Middle Ages, however, many attributes of Athena were given to the Virgin Mary, who, in fourth century portrayals, was often depicted wearing the Gorgoneion. Some even viewed the Virgin Mary as a warrior maiden, much like Athena Parthenos; one anecdote tells that the Virgin Mary once appeared upon the walls of Constantinople when it was under siege by the Avars, clutching a spear and urging the people to fight. During the Middle Ages, Athena became widely used as a Christian symbol and allegory; she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses.\n\nDuring the Renaissance, Athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor; allegorical paintings involving Athena were a favorite of the Italian Renaissance painters. During the French Revolution, statues of pagan gods were torn down all throughout France, but statues of Athena were not. Instead, Athena was transformed into the personification of freedom and the republic and a statue of the goddess stood in the center of the Place de la Revolution in Paris. In the years following the Revolution, artistic representations of Athena proliferated.\n\nFor over a century, a full-scale replica of the Parthenon has stood in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1990, the curators added a gilded forty-two foot (12.5 m) tall replica of Phidias's ''Athena Parthenos'', built from concrete and fiberglass. The state seal of California features an image of Athena (or Minerva) kneeling next to a brown grizzly bear.\n\nRotterdam, the Netherlands\n\nAthena is a natural patron of universities: she is the symbol of the Darmstadt University of Technology, in Germany, and the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil. Her image can be found in the shields of the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters and the Faculty of Sciences of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where her owl is the symbol of the Faculty of Chemistry. Her helmet appears upon the shield of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. At Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania a statue of Athena (a replica of the original bronze one in the arts and archaeology library) resides in the Great Hall. It is traditional at exam time for students to leave offerings to the goddess with a note asking for good luck, or to repent for accidentally breaking any of the college's numerous other traditions. Athena's owl also serves as the mascot of the college, and one of the college hymns is \"Pallas Athena\". Pallas Athena is the tutelary goddess of the international social fraternity Phi Delta Theta. Her owl is also a symbol of the fraternity.\n\nJean Boucher's statue of the seated skeptical thinker Ernest Renan caused great controversy when it was installed in Tréguier, Brittany in 1902. Renan's 1862 biography of Jesus had denied his divinity, and he had written the \" Prayer on the Acropolis\" addressed to the goddess Athena. The statue was placed in the square fronted by the cathedral. Renan's head was turned away from the building, while Athena, beside him, was depicted raising her arm, which was interpreted as indicating a challenge to the church during an anti-clerical phase in French official culture. The installation was accompanied by a mass protest from local Roman Catholics and a religious service against the growth of skepticism and secularism.\n\nAthena has been used numerous times as a symbol of a republic by different countries and appears on currency as she did on the ancient drachma of Athens.\nAthena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific commemorative coin. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by weight) coin ever produced by the U.S. Mint. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in 1997. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the 1915 is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n Athenaeum (disambiguation)\n* Palladium (mythology)\n", "\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n====Ancient sources====\n\n* Apollodorus, ''Library, 3,180''\n* Augustine, ''De civitate dei xviii.8–9''\n* Cicero, ''De natura deorum iii.21.53, 23.59''\n* Eusebius, ''Chronicon 30.21–26, 42.11–14''\n* Homer, ''The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Homer; ''The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes''. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Hesiod, ''Theogony'', in ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White'', Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.\n* Lactantius, ''Divinae institutions i.17.12–13, 18.22–23''\n* Livy, ''Ab urbe condita libri vii.3.7''\n* Lucan, ''Bellum civile ix.350''\n\n\n====Modern sources====\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Harrison, Jane Ellen, 1903. ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion''.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Telenius, Seppo Sakari, (2005) 2006. ''Athena-Artemis'' (Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan).\n* \n* Ventris, Michael and John Chadwick, 1973. ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' (Cambridge).\n* Friel, Brian, 1980. ''Translations''\n* Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873). \"Athe'na\"\n\n", "\n\n* Theoi.com Cult of Athena—Extracts of classical texts\n* Roy George, \"Athena: The sculptures of the goddess\"—A repertory of Greek and Roman types\n* Temples of Athena\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Origins", "Cult and patronages", "Epithets and attributes", "Mythology", "Classical art", "Post-classical culture", "Genealogy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Athena
[ "\n\nThe '''''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game''''' is a role-playing game created and written by Erick Wujcik, set in the fictional universe created by author Roger Zelazny for his ''Chronicles of Amber''. The game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster, is used to determine how situations are resolved.\n\n''Amber DRPG'' was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most ''Amber'' characters are members of the two ruling classes in the ''Amber'' multiverse, and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This often means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue.\n", "The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by Phage Press, covering material from the first five novels (the \"Corwin Cycle\") and some details – sorcery and the Logrus – from the remaining five novels (the \"Merlin Cycle\"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice – for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which Merlin says is impossible; and players' psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.\n\nCover of ''Shadow Knight''\nA 256-page companion volume, ''Shadow Knight'', was published in 1993. This supplemental rule book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story \"The Salesman's Tale,\" and some unpublished material cut from ''Prince of Chaos'', notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin.\n\nBoth books were translated into French and published by Jeux Descartes in 1994 and 1995.\n\nA third book, ''Rebma'', was promised. Cover art was commissioned and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos. The publishing rights to the ''Amber DRPG'' games were acquired in 2004 by Guardians of Order, who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game. However, no new edition was released before Guardians of Order went out of business in 2006. The two existing books are now out-of-print, but they have been made available as PDF downloads.\n\nIn June 2007 a new publishing company, headed by Edwin Voskamp and Eric Todd, was formed with the express purpose of bringing ''Amber DRPG'' back into print. The new company is named ''Diceless by Design''.\n\nIn May 2010, ''Rite Publishing'' secured a license from Diceless by Design to use the rules system with a new setting in the creation of a new product to be written by industry and system veteran Jason Durall. The project '''Lords of Gossamer & Shadow (Diceless)''' was funded via Kickstarter in May 2013. In Sept 2013 the project was completed, and on in Nov 2013 Lords of Gossamer and Shadow (Diceless) was released publicly in full-color Print and PDF, along with additional supplements and continued support.\n", "\nThe game is set in the multiverse described in Zelazny's ''Chronicles of Amber''. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the Patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, ''The Courts of Chaos'', but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. The ''Amber'' multiverse consists of '''Amber''', a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the Pattern, the symbol of Order; The '''Courts of Chaos''', an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the Logrus, the manifestation of Chaos, and the Abyss, the source or end of all reality; and '''Shadow''', the collection of all possible universes (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.\n\nIt is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books – the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites – or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death ''before'' the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an \"Amethyst\" game. A third option is to have the players portray Corwin's children, in an Amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an \"Argent\" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is Silver.\n", "\n===Attributes===\nCharacters in ''Amber DRPG'' are represented by four attributes: ''Psyche'', ''Strength'', ''Endurance'' and ''Warfare''.\n'''Psyche''' is used for feats of willpower or magic\n'''Strength''' is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat\n'''Endurance''' is used for feats of endurance\n'''Warfare''' is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies\nThe attributes run from −25 (normal human level), through −10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are \"ranked\", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered \"superior\" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. All else being equal, a character with a higher rank in an attribute will always win a contest based on that attribute.\n\n====The Attribute Auction====\nA character's ability scores are purchased during character creation in an auction; players get 100 character points, and bid on each attribute in turn. The character who bids the most for an attribute is \"ranked\" first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is \"superior\" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. Instead, lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid, the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.\n\nThe Auction simulates a 'history' of competition between the descendants of Oberon for player characters who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other. Through the competitive Auction, characters may begin the game vying for standings. The auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice, cards, or other randomizing devices. A player may intend, for example, to create a character who is a strong, mighty warrior, but being \"outplayed\" in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated, therefore necessitating a change of character concept. Since a player cannot control another player's bids, and since all bids are non-refundable, the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players. A willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking, but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers and objects. In a hotly contested auction, such as for the important attribute of warfare, the most valuable skill is the ability to force one's opponents to back down. With two or more equally determined players, this can result in a \"bidding war\" where the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums. An alternative strategy is to try to cow other players into submission with a high opening bid. Most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses. A high enough opening bid could signal a player's determination to be first ranked in that attribute, thereby dissuading others from competing.\n\n====Psyche in ''Amber DRPG'' compared to the ''Chronicles''====\nCharacters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities, being able to hypnotise and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to three scenes in the ''Chronicles'': first, when Eric paralyzes Corwin with an attack across the Trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated; second, when Corwin faces the demon Strygalldwir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and third, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic or Trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power; the combination of Brand's \"living trump\" powers and his high Psyche (as presented in the roleplaying game) would have guaranteed him victory over Corwin. ''Shadow Knight'' does address this inconsistency somewhat, by presenting the \"living trump\" abilities as somewhat limited.\n\n===Powers===\nCharacters in ''Amber DRPG'' have access to the powers seen in the ''Chronicles of Amber'': ''Pattern'', ''Logrus'', ''Shape-shifting'', ''Trump'', and ''magic''.\n\n'''Pattern:''' A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability.\n'''Logrus:''' A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow.\n'''Shape-shifting:''' Shape-shifters can alter their physical form and abilities.\n'''Trump:''' Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel. The book features Trump portraits of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style – and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's.\n'''Magic:''' Three types of magic are detailed: '''Power Words''', with a quick, small effect; '''Sorcery''', with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and '''Conjuration''', the creation of small objects.\n\nEach of the first four powers is available in an advanced form.\n\n===Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs===\nWhile a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues – unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character's legend, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) \"real\" and therefore useful. The expansion, ''Shadow Knight'', adds Constructs – artifacts with connections to shadows.\n\n===Stuff===\nUnspent character points become '''good stuff''' – a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming '''bad stuff''' – bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. Stuff governs how non-player characters perceive and respond to the character: characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions, while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility.\n\nAs well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.\n\n===Conflict resolution===\nIn any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key words here are ''fair'' and ''eventually'' – if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail. Close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.\n\n===The 'Golden Rule'===\n''Amber DRPG'' advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit – even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.\n", "Despite the game's out-of-print status, a thriving convention scene exists supporting the game. Amber conventions, known as ''Ambercons'', are held yearly in Massachusetts, Michigan, Portland (United States), Milton Keynes (England) and Modena, Italy. Additionally, Phage Press published 12 volumes of a dedicated ''Amber DRPG'' magazine called ''Amberzine''. Some ''Amberzine'' issues are still available from Phage Press.\n", "\n Review \n", "* The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum\n* Phage Press was the original publisher for the ''Amber RPG''.\n* Westray, an ''Amber DRPG'' fansite.\n* MaBarry's ''Amber'' links, a wiki-based catalog of ''Amber'' sites on the net. It has a strong focus on RPG related sites.\n* AmberCons, information regarding international ''Amber DRPG'' conventions\n* Epoch's Amber Tips, information and advice for setup and running a game, pitfalls of the rules, canon tone translated to actual play (original page now offline; link updated to archived copy from October 16, 2013, version)\n* compared: ''Amber DRPG'' Attributes & Zelazny’s ''Chronicles'', essay on comparison/analysis of canon text and game attributes\n* Game PDF Drive-thru RPG Site for purchase of game PDF\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Setting", "System", "Community", "References", " External links " ]	Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game
[ "\n'''Athene''' or Athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in Greek mythology.\n\n'''Athene''' may also refer to:\n881 Athene, a main-belt asteroid\n''Athene'' (owl), a genus of small owls\nAthene Glacier, a glacier in Antarctica\nHMS ''Athene'', an aircraft transport\nUSS ''Athene'' (AKA-22), an ''Artemis''-class attack cargo ship\nBachir Boumaaza or Athene (born 1980), Belgian YouTube personality and social activist\n", "Athene Seyler (1889–1990), English actress\n", "Altena (disambiguation)\nAtena (disambiguation)\nAthen (disambiguation)\nAthena (disambiguation)\nAthens (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "People with the given name", "See also" ]	Athene (disambiguation)
[ "\n\nWood's metal, a eutectic, low melting point alloy of bismuth, lead, tin, and cadmium\n\nAn '''alloy''' is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types (see also: Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle for information on classifying bonding in binary compounds).\n\nAlloys are used in a wide variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze and amalgams.\n\nThe alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic.\n", "Liquid bronze, being poured into molds during casting.\nA brass lamp.\n\nAn alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture.\nThe mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (malleable), such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.\n\nAlthough the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other phase has. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and form a second phase that serve to reinforce the crystals internally. \nSome alloys, such as electrum which is an alloy consisting of silver and gold, occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different elements.\n", "A gate valve, made from Inconel.\n\nAs a noun, the term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent is a metal. When used as a verb, the term refers to the act of mixing a metal with other elements. The primary metal is called the ''base'', the ''matrix'', or the ''solvent''. The secondary constituents are often called ''solutes''. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms (not counting impurities) such as a copper-nickel alloy, then it is called a ''binary alloy.'' If there are three types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ''ternary alloy.'' An alloy with four constituents is a ''quaternary alloy,'' while a five-part alloy is termed a ''quinary alloy.'' Because the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire range of possible variations is called a ''system''. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a ''binary system,'' while all of the alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium, is called a ''ternary system''.\n\nAlthough an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term \"impurities\" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called \"impure metals\" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.\n\nIn practice, some alloys are used so predominantly with respect to their base metals that the name of the primary constituent is also used as the name of the alloy. For example, 14 karat gold is an alloy of gold with other elements. Similarly, the silver used in jewelry and the aluminium used as a structural building material are also alloys.\n\nThe term \"alloy\" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply \"alloy wheels\", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like wheels, barrels, or girders, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: \"bronze wheel\", \"plastic barrel\", or \"wood girder\").\n", "Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength, ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.\nSome alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the bronze age. It was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.\n\nUnlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.\n", "Allotropes of iron, (alpha iron and gamma iron) showing the differences in atomic arrangement.\nPhotomicrographs of steel. Top photo: Annealed (slowly cooled) steel forms a heterogeneous, lamellar microstructure called pearlite, consisting of the phases cementite (light) and ferrite (dark). Bottom photo: Quenched (quickly cooled) steel forms a single phase called martensite, in which the carbon remains trapped within the crystals, creating internal stresses.\n\nAlloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering, bending, extruding, etcetera, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel.\n\nThe base metal iron of the iron-carbon alloy known as steel, undergoes a change in the arrangement (allotropy) of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature (usually between and , depending on carbon content). This allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal. When this diffusion happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in ''solution'' in the iron, forming a particular single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope. During slow cooling, the carbon atoms will no longer be as soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into a more concentrated form of iron carbide (Fe3C) in the spaces between the pure iron crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, as it is formed of two phases, the iron-carbon phase called cementite (or carbide), and pure iron ferrite. Such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft. If the steel is cooled quickly, however, the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide, but will be trapped within the iron crystals. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile (more brittle).\n\nWhile the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented (forming martinsite), most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, but then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases (carbide and ferrite), precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneously, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.\n", "Different atomic mechanisms of alloy formation, showing pure metal, substitutional, interstitial, and a combination of the two.\nWhen a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called ''atom exchange'' and the ''interstitial mechanism''. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a ''substitutional alloy''. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively. In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms of the crystal matrix, called the ''interstices''. This is referred to as an ''interstitial alloy''. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.\n", "\n===Meteoric iron===\nA meteorite and a hatchet that was forged from meteoric iron.\n\nThe use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites which occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.\n\n===Bronze and brass===\n Bronze axe 1100 BC\nBronze doorknocker\nIron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper, and tin from ore, and, around 2500 BC, began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. Arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.\n\n===Amalgams===\nMercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for gilding objects such as armor and mirrors with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.\n\n===Precious-metal alloys===\nElectrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins.\n\nMany ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of \"Eureka!\" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.\n\n===Pewter===\nThe term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, during the Bronze age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, due to this it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewelry, cutlery, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips.\n\nThe earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in shinto shrines.\n\n===Steel and pig iron===\nThe first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.\n\nWhile the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.\n\nWith the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, pig iron was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel. Once the Bessemer process began to gain widespread use, other alloys of steel began to follow. Mangalloy, an alloy of steel and manganese exhibiting extreme hardness and toughness, was one of the first alloy steels, and was created by Robert Hadfield in 1882.\n\n===Precipitation-hardening alloys===\nIn 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and magnesium, Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first \"age hardening\" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.\n", "* CALPHAD\n* Ideal mixture\n* List of alloys\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Introduction", "Terminology", "Theory", "Heat-treatable alloys", "Substitutional and interstitial alloys", "History and examples", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Alloy
[ "\nThroughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called '''artistic revolutions'''. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. See also cultural movements.\n", "\nThe role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism, balance, or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful. So as times change, art changes. If changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions. The best artists have predated society's changes due not to any prescience, but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their talent of seeing.\n\nArtists who succeeded enough to portray visions that future generations could live to see, often had to navigate an often treacherous path between their own capacity to see and execute what lesser artists could not, while still appealing to powerful patrons who could finance their visions. For example, paintings glorified aristocracy in the early 17th century when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings, but later as leadership became oppressive, satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind.\n\nNo art owes quite as much to state power as French painting does. It was in the age of absolute monarchy launched by Louix XIV in the 17th century that the likes of Poussin and Le Brun put France in the forefront of European art. Versailles found its stately mirror in the powerful idea of classicism – a painting style, enduring in later artists like Ingres, whose austerity and grandeur express the authority of a world where Jove is very much in his throne.\n\nExamples of revolutionary art in conjunction with cultural and political movements:\n\nTrotskyist & Diego Rivera\nBlack Panther Party & Emory Douglas\nCuban Poster art\nSocial realism & Ben Shahn\nFeminist art & the Guerrilla Girls\nIndustrial Workers of the World & Woody Guthrie\n* Revolutionary Tides\n", "\n Here is an example of an Artistic Revolution Pieces\n", "\nBut not all artistic revolutions were political. Sometimes, science and technological innovations have brought about unforeseen transformations in the works of artists. The stylistic revolution known as Impressionism, by painters eager to more accurately capture the changing colors of light and shadow, is inseparable from discoveries and inventions in the mid-19th century in which the style was born.\n\nEugene Chevreul, a French chemist hired as director of dyes at a French tapestry works, began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics. Chevreul realized It was the eye, and not the dye, that had the greatest influence on color, and from this, he revolutionized color theory by grasping what came to be called the law of simultaneous contrast: that colors mutually influence one another when juxtaposed, each imposing its own complementary color on the other. The French painter Eugène Delacroix, who had been experimenting with what he called broken tones, embraced Chevreul's book, \"The Law of Contrast of Color (1839) with its explanations of how juxtaposed colors can enhance or diminish each other, and his exploration of all the visible colors of the spectrum. Inspired by Chevreul’s 1839 treatise, Delacroix passed his enthusiasm on to the young artists who were inspired by him. It was Chevreul who led the Impressionists to grasp that they should apply separate brushstrokes of pure color to a canvas and allow the viewer’s eye to combine them optically.\n\nThey were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself. Since the Renaissance, painters had to grind pigment, add oil and thus create their own paints; these time-consuming paints also quickly dried out, making studio painting a necessity for large works, and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a time and fill in an entire area using just that one color before it dried out. in 1841, a little-known American painter named John G. Rand invented a simple improvement without which the Impressionist movement could not have occurred: the small, flexible tin tube with removable cap in which oil paints could be stored. Oil paints kept in such tubes stayed moist and usable -- and quite portable. For the first time since the Renaissance, painters were not trapped by the time frame of how quickly oil paint dried.\n\nPaints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world, to directly observe the play of color and natural light, in shadow and movement, to paint in the moment. Selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments - chrome yellow, cadmium blue - invented by 19th century industrial chemists. The tubes freed the Impressionists to paint quickly, and across an entire canvas, rather than carefully delineated single-color sections at a time; in short, to sketch directly in oil - racing across the canvas in every color that came to hand and thus inspiring their name of \"impressionists\" - since such speedy, bold brushwork and dabs of separate colors made contemporary critics think their paintings were mere impressions, not finished paintings, which were to have no visible brush marks at all, seamless under layers of varnish.\n\nPierre-Auguste Renoir said, “Without colors in tubes, there would be no Cézanne, no Monet, no Pissarro, and no Impressionism.”\n\nFinally, the careful, hyper-realistic techniques of French neo-classicism were seen as stiff and lifeless when compared to the remarkable new vision of the world as seen through the new invention of photography by the mid-1850s. It was not merely that the increasing ability of this new invention, particularly by the French inventor Daguerre, made the realism of the painted image redundant as he deliberately competed in the Paris diorama with large-scale historical paintings. The neo-classical subject matter, limited by Academic tradition to Greek and Roman legends, historical battles and Biblical stories, seemed oppressively cliched and limited to artists eager to explore the actual world in front of their own eyes revealed by the camera - daily life, candid groupings of everyday people doing simple things, Paris itself, rural landscapes and most particularly the play of captured light - not the imaginary lionizing of unseen past events. Early photographs influenced Impressionist style by its use of asymmetry, cropping and most obviously the blurring of motion, as inadvertently captured in the very slow speeds of early photography.\n\n Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir - in their framing, use of color, light and shadow, subject matter - put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning.\n", "\nTheir initial break with realism into an exploration of light, color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the Abstract Expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape, color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the second world war. At first thought of as primitive, inept works - as in \"my four year old could do that\"—these works were misunderstood and neglected until given critical and support by the rise of art journalists and critics who championed their work in the 1940s and 50's, expressing the power of such work in aesthetic terms the artists themselves seldom used, or even understood. Jackson Pollock who pioneered splatter painting, dispensing with a paint brush altogether, soon became lionized as the angry young man in a large spread in Life Magazine.\n\nIn fact, in a deliberate, secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones, abstract expressionists like Pollack, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko, while seemingly difficult, pathbreaking artists, were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the C.I.A. in a Cold War policy begun in 1947 to prove that the United States could foster more artistic freedom than the Soviet bloc. \"It was recognized that Abstract Expressionism was the kind of art that made Socialist Realism look even more stylized and rigid and confined than it was, \" said former C.I.A. case worker Donald Jameson, who finally broke the silence on this program in 1995. Ironically, the covert C.I.A. support for these radical works was required because an attempt to use government funds for a European tour of these works during the Truman administration led to a public uproar in conservative McCarthy-era America, with Truman famously remarking, \"If that's art, I'm a Hottentot.\" Thus the program was hidden under the guise of fabricated foundations and the support of wealthy patrons who were actually using C.I.A. funds, not their own, to sponsor traveling exhibitions of American abstract expressionists all over the world, publish books and articles praising them and to purchase and exhibit Abstract Expressionist works in major American and British museums. Thomas Braden, in charge of these cultural programs for the C.I.A.. in the early years of the Cold War, had formerly been executive secretary of the Museum of Modern Art, America's leading institution for 20th Century art and the charges of collusion between the two echoed for many years after this program was revealed, though most of the artists involved had no idea they were being used in this way and were furious when they found out.\n", "\n=== Ancient & Classical Art ===\nKey dates: 15000 BCE / 400 BCE-200CE / 350 CE-450CE\nAncient - There are few remaining examples with early art often favouring drawing over colour. Work has been found recently in tombs, Egyptian frescoes, pottery and metalwork.\nClassical - Relating to or from ancient Roman or Greek architecture and art. Mainly concerned with geometry and symmetry rather than individual expression.\nByzantine - A religious art characterised by large domes, rounded arches and mosaics from the eastern Roman Empire in the 4th Century.\n\n===Medieval & Gothic===\nKey dates: 400CE\nMedieval - A highly religious art beginning in the 5th Century in Western Europe. It was characterised by iconographic paintings illustrating scenes from the bible.\nGothic - This style prevailed between the 12th century and the 16th century in Europe. Mainly an architectural movement, Gothic was characterised by its detailed ornamentation most noticeably the pointed archways and elaborate rib vaulting.\nFirst developed in France, Gothic was intended as a solution to the inadequacies of Romanesque architecture. It allowed for cathedrals to be built with thinner walls and it became possible to introduce stained glass windows instead of traditional mosaic decorations. Some of the finest examples of the style include the cathedrals of Chartres, Reims and Amiens. The term was also used to describe sculpture and painting that demonstrated a greater degree of naturalism.\n\n===Renaissance===\nKey dates: 14th century\nThis movement began in Italy in the 14th century and the term, literally meaning rebirth, describes the revival of interest in the artistic achievements of the Classical world. Initially in a literary revival Renaissance was determined to move away from the religion-dominated Middle Ages and to turn its attention to the plight of the individual man in society. It was a time when individual expression and worldly experience became two of the main themes of Renaissance art. The movement owed a lot to the increasing sophistication of society, characterised by political stability, economic growth and cosmopolitanism. Education blossomed at this time, with libraries and academies allowing more thorough research to be conducted into the culture of the antique world. In addition, the arts benefited from the patronage of such influential groups as the Medici family of Florence, the Sforza family of Milan and Popes Julius II and Leo X. The works of Petrarch first displayed the new interest in the intellectual values of the Classical world in the early 14th century and the romance of this era as rediscovered in the Renaissance period can be seen expressed by Boccaccio. Leonardo da Vinci was the archetypal Renaissance man representing the humanistic values of the period in his art, science and writing. Michelangelo and Raphael were also vital figures in this movement, producing works regarded for centuries as embodying the classical notion of perfection. Renaissance architects included Alberti, Brunelleschi and Bramante. Many of these artists came from Florence and it remained an important centre for the Renaissance into the 16th century eventually to be overtaken by Rome and Venice. Some of the ideas of the Italian Renaissance did spread to other parts of Europe, for example to the German artist Albrecht Dürer of the 'Northern Renaissance'. But by the 16th century Mannerism had overtaken the Renaissance and it was this style that caught on in Europe. \nRepresentative artists:\nLeonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, Filippo Brunelleschi, Raphael da Urbino, Titian, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and Donatello Bardi.\n\n===Mannerism===\nKey dates: 1520-1600\nArtists of the Early Renaissance and the High Renaissance developed their characteristic styles from the observation of nature and the formulation of a pictorial science. When Mannerism matured after 1520(The year Raphael died), all the representational problems had been solved. A body of knowledge was there to be learned. Instead of nature as their teacher, Mannerist artists took art. While Renaissance artists sought nature to find their style, the Mannerists looked first for a style and found a manner. In Mannerist paintings, compositions can have no focal point, space can be ambiguous, figures can be characterized by an athletic bending and twisting with distortions, exaggerations, an elastic elongation of the limbs, bizarre posturing on one hand, graceful posturing on the other hand, and a rendering of the heads as uniformly small and oval. The composition is jammed by clashing colors, which is unlike what we've seen in the balanced, natural, and dramatic colors of the High Renaissance. Mannerist artwork seeks instability and restlessness. There is also a fondness for allegories that have lascivious undertones. \nRepresentative artists:\nAndrea del Sarto, Jacopo da Pontormo, Correggio\n\n===Baroque===\nKey dates: 17th century\nBaroque Art emerged in Europe around 1600, as a reaction against the intricate and formulaic Mannerist style which dominated the Late Renaissance. Baroque Art is less complex, more realistic and more emotionally affecting than Mannerism.\nThis movement was encouraged by the Catholic Church, the most important patron of the arts at that time, as a return to tradition and spirituality.\nOne of the great periods of art history, Baroque Art was developed by Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, and Gianlorenzo Bernini, among others. This was also the age of Rubens, Rembrandt, Velázquez, and Vermeer.\nIn the 18th century, Baroque Art was replaced by the more elegant and elaborate Rococo style.\nRepresentative artists:\nCaravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Gianlorenzo Bernini, Rubens, Rembrandt, Nicolas Poussin\n\n===Rococo===\nKey dates: 18th century\nThroughout the 18th century in France, a new wealthy and influential middle-class was beginning to rise, even though the royalty and nobility continued to be patrons of the arts. Upon the death of Louis XIV and the abandonment of Versailles, the Paris high society became the purveyors of style. This style, primarily used in interior decoration, came to be called Rococo. The term Rococo was derived from the French word \"rocaille\", which means pebbles and refers to the stones and shells used to decorate the interiors of caves. Therefore, shell forms became the principal motif in Rococo. The society women competed for the best and most elaborate decorations for their houses. Hence the Rococo style was highly dominated by the feminine taste and influence.\nFrançois Boucher was the 18th century painter and engraver whose works are regarded as the perfect expression of French taste in the Rococo period. Trained by his father who was a lace designer, Boucher won fame with his sensuous and light-hearted mythological paintings and landscapes. He executed important works for both the Queen of France and Mme. de Pompadour, Louis XV's mistress, who was considered the most powerful woman in France at the time. Boucher was Mme. de Pompadour's favorite artist and was commissioned by her for numerous paintings and decorations. Boucher also became the principal designer for the royal porcelain factory and the director of the Gobelins tapestry factory. The Vulcan Presenting Venus with Arms for Aeneas is a template for a tapestry made by this factory. \nCharacterized by elegant and refined yet playful subject matters, Boucher's style became the epitome of the court of Louis XV. His style consisted of delicate colors and gentle forms painted within a frivolous subject matter. His works typically utilized delightful and decorative designs to illustrate graceful stories with Arcadian shepherds, goddesses and cupids playing against a pink and blue sky. These works mirrored the frolicsome, artificial and ornamented decadence of the French aristocracy of the time.\nThe Rococo is sometimes considered a final phase of the Baroque period.\nRepresentative artists:\nFrançois Boucher, William Hogarth, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Angelica Kauffman, Giovanni Antonio Canaletto, Velázquez Vermeer\n\n===Neo-classical===\nKey dates: 1750-1880\nA nineteenth-century French art style and movement that originated as a reaction to the Baroque. It sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art. Neoclassic artists used classical forms to express their ideas about courage, sacrifice, and love of country. David and Canova are examples of neo-classicists.\nRepresentative artists:\nJacques-Louis David, Sir Henry Raeburn, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Thomas Gainsborough, Antonio Canova, Arnold Bocklin\n\n===Romanticism===\nKey dates: 1800-1880\nRomanticism was basically a reaction against Neoclassicism, it is a deeply felt style which is individualistic, beautiful, exotic, and emotionally wrought.\nAlthough Romanticism and Neoclassicism were philosophically opposed, they were the dominant European styles for generations, and many artists were affected to a greater or lesser degree by both. Artists might work in both styles at different times or even mix the styles, creating an intellectually Romantic work using a Neoclassical visual style, for example.\nGreat artists closely associated with Romanticism include J.M.W. Turner, Caspar David Friedrich, John Constable, and William Blake.\nIn the United States, the leading Romantic movement was the Hudson River School of dramatic landscape painting.\nObvious successors of Romanticism include the Pre-Raphaelite movement and the Symbolists. But Impressionism, and through it almost all of 20th-century art, is also firmly rooted in the Romantic tradition. \nRepresentative artists:\nGeorge Stubbs, William Blake, John Martin, Francisco Goya, Sir Thomas Lawrence, John Constable, Eugène Delacroix, Sir Edwin landseer, Caspar David Friedrich, JMW Turner\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Artistic revolution and political revolutions ", " Artistic revolution of style ", " Scientific and Technological ", " Faking revolution: the C.I.A. and Abstract Expressionism ", " Artistic Movements ", "References" ]	Artistic revolution
[ "'''Agrarianism''' is a social philosophy or political philosophy which values rural society as superior to urban society, the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values. It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life.\n", "M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets:\nFarming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self-sufficiency.\nUrban life, capitalism, and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness.\nThe agricultural community, with its fellowship of labor and co-operation, is the model society.\nThe farmer has a solid, stable position in the world order. He \"has a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial.\" The harmony of his life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society.\nCultivation of the soil \"has within it a positive spiritual good\" and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of \"honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality.\" They result from a direct contact with nature and, through nature, a closer relationship to God. The agrarian is blessed in that he follows the example of God in creating order out of chaos.\n", "\nThe philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. In societies influenced by Confucianism, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon. That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay, an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy. The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era, formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism.\n\nUnited States president (1801–1809) Thomas Jefferson was a representative agrarian who built Jeffersonian democracy around the notion that farmers are “the most valuable citizens” and the truest republicans.\n", "\nPeasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910, when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society, and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers. Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it. They also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements. Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity.\n\nPeasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era, especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. For a while, in the 1920s and the 1930s, there was a Green International (International Agrarian Bureau) based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Serbia. It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities.\n\n===Africa===\n\n====Tunisia====\n\n\nThe Farmers' Voice Party won a seat in the district of Jendouba after the parliamentary election of 2014.\n\n===Europe===\n\n====Bulgaria====\nIn Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS) was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives. BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic, social, and legal reforms. However, conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (1879–1923). BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989, when it reorganized as a genuine party.\n\n====Czechoslovakia====\nIn Czechoslovakia, the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as a partner in the five-party pětka coalition. The party's leader, Antonin Svehla (1873–1933), was prime minister several times. It was consistently the strongest party, forming and dominating coalitions. It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle-class voters.The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War.\n\n====France====\nIn France, the Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition party is a moderate conservative, agrarianist party, reaching a peak of 4,23% in the French presidential election, 2002. It would later on become affiliated to France's main conservative party, Union for a Popular Movement.\n\n====Ireland====\n\nIn the late 19th century, the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on. The \"Land War\" of 1878–1909 led to the Irish Land Acts, ending such iniquities as absentee landlords, ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers.\n\nPost-independence, the Farmers' Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922, folding into the National Centre Party in 1932. It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland.\n\nClann na Talmhan (Family of the Land; also called the ''National Agricultural Party'') were founded in 1938. They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west, supporting land reclamation, afforestation, social democracy and rates reform. They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dáil and Government of the 15th Dáil. Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other party and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965.\n\n====Latvia====\nIn Latvia, the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large-scale farming: Nature is threatened by development, while small farms are threatened by large industrial-scale farms.\n\n====Lithuania====\nIn Lithuania, as of 2017, the government is led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union, under the leadership of industrial farmer Ramūnas Karbauskis.\n\n====Poland====\nIn Poland, the Polish People's Party traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Galician Poland. After the fall of the communist regime, PPP's biggest success came in 1993 elections, where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats. Since then, PPP's support has steadly declined.\n\n====Romania====\nIn Romania, older parties from Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants' Party in 1926. Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953) was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928–1930 and briefly in 1932–1933, but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible. The communist regime dissolved the party in 1947, but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power.\n\nThe reformed party, which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology, governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention between 1996–2000.\n\n====Serbia====\nIn Serbia, Nikola Pašić (1845–1926) and his People's Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903. The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929. During the dictatorship of the 1930s, the prime minister was from that party.\n\n====Ukraine====\nIn Ukraine, the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs \"with a pitchfork\". The party advocates a number of traditional left-wing positions (lower salary taxes, a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market, a tenfold increase in budget spending on health, setting up primary health centres in every village\n), and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments.\n\n===Oceania===\n\n====Australia====\nHistorian F.K. Crowley finds that:\n: Australian farmers and their spokesman have always considered that life on the land is inherently more virtuous, as well as more healthy, more important and more productive, than life in the towns and cities....The farmers complained that something was wrong with an electoral system which produced parliamentarians who spent money beautifying vampire-cities instead of developing the interior.\n\nThe National Party of Australia (formerly called the Country Party), from the 1920s to the 1970s, promulgated its version of agrarianism, which it called \"countrymindedness\". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep ranches) and small farmers and justified subsidies for them.\n\n====New Zealand====\nThe New Zealand Liberal Party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday (1891–1912). The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called \"populism.\" Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: \"It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand.\" The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported Liberal ideals. The Liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions. In 1893, it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to do so.\n\nTo obtain land for farmers, the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased of Maori land. The government also purchased from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act (1894) provided low-interest mortgages, and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, anti-monopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal Party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903, the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in Parliament.\n", "Agrarianism is similar to but not identical with the back-to-the-land movement. Agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth, on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living, even when the shift involves questioning the \"progressive\" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus, agrarianism is not industrial farming, with its specialization on products and industrial scale.\n", "\n\nAgrarian Justice\nAgrarian socialism\nAgrarian society\nAgrarian system\nAgroecology\nPhysiocrats, 18th-century French thinkers\nInternational Agrarian Bureau\nNordic agrarian parties\nYeoman, English farmers\nPermaculture\n\n", "\n", "\n=== Agrarian values ===\n Brass, Tom. ''Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth'' (2000) \n* Brass, Tom. ''Class, Culture and the Agrarian Myth'' (2014)\n* Danbom, David B. \"Romantic Agrarianism in Twentieth-Century America,\" ''Agricultural History'', Vol. 65#4 (Autumn, 1991), pp. 1–12 in JSTOR\n* Grampp, William D. \"John Taylor: Economist of Southern Agrarianism,\" ''Southern Economic Journal'', Vol. 11#3 (Jan., 1945), pp. 255–268 in JSTOR\n* Hofstadter, Richard. \"Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition,\" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 2, No. 4 (Oct., 1941), pp. 391–400 in JSTOR\n* Inge, M. Thomas. ''Agrarianism in American Literature'' (1969)\n* Kolodny, Annette. ''The Land before Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630–1860'' (1984). onlin edition\n* Marx, Leo. ''The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America'' (1964).\n* Murphy, Paul V. ''The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought'' (2000)\n* Parrington, Vernon. ''Main Currents in American Thought'' (1927), 3-vol online\n* Quinn, Patrick F. \"Agrarianism and the Jeffersonian Philosophy,\" ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 2#1 (Jan., 1940), pp. 87–104 in JSTOR\n* Thompson, Paul, and Thomas C. Hilde, eds. ''The Agrarian Roots of Pragmatism'' (2000)\n\n===Primary sources===\n* Sorokin, Pitirim A. et al., eds. ''A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology'' (3 vol. 1930) vol 1 pp. 1–146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800\n\n=== Europe ===\n* Batory, Agnes, and Nick Sitter. \"Cleavages, competition and coalition building: Agrarian parties and the European question in Western and East Central Europe\" ''European Journal of Political Research,'' (2004) Vol. 43, pp. 523–546. \n* Bell, John D. ''Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, 1899–1923''(1923)\n* Donnelly, James S. ''Captain Rock: The Irish Agrarian Rebellion of 1821–1824'' (2009)\n* Donnelly, James S. ''Irish Agrarian Rebellion, 1760–1800'' (2006)\n* Gross, Feliks, ed. ''European Ideologies: A Survey of 20th Century Political Ideas'' (1948) pp. 391–481 online edition, on Russia and Bulgaria\n* Kubricht, Andrew Paul. \"The Czech Agrarian Party, 1899-1914: a study of national and economic agitation in the Habsburg monarchy\" (PhD thesis, Ohio State University Press, 1974)\n* \n* Narkiewicz, Olga A. ''The Green Flag: Polish Populist Politics, 1867–1970'' (1976).\n* Oren, Nissan. ''Revolution Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria'' (1973), focus is post 1945\n* Paine, Thomas. ''Agrarian Justice'' (1794)\n* Patterson, James G. ''In the Wake of the Great Rebellion: Republican, Agrarianism and Banditry in Ireland After 1798'' (2008)\n* Roberts, Henry L. ''Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State'' (1951).\n* Zagorin, Perez. ''Rebels and Rulers, 1500–1660: Volume 1, Agrarian and Urban Rebellions : Society, States and Early Modern Revolution'' (1982)\n\n=== North America ===\n* Eisinger, Chester E. \"The Influence of Natural Rights and Physiocratic Doctrines on American Agrarian Thought during the Revolutionary Period,\" ''Agricultural History'' (1947) 21#1 pp. 13–23 in JSTOR\n* Griswold, A. Whitney. \"The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson,\" ''American Political Science Review'' (1946) 40#4 pp. 657–681 in JSTOR\n* Goodwyn, Lawrence. ''The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America'' (1978), 1880s and 1890s in U.S.\n* Hofstadter, Richard. \"Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition,\" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' (1941) 2#4 pp. 391–400 in JSTOR\n* Johnson, Jeffrey K. \"The Countryside Triumphant: Jefferson's Ideal of Rural Superiority in Modern Superhero Mythology.\" ''Journal of Popular Culture'' 43#4 (2010): 720-737. online\n* Lipset, Seymour Martin. ''Agrarian socialism: the Coöperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan'' (1950), 1930s-1940s\n* McConnell, Grant. ''The decline of agrarian democracy''(1953), 20th century U.S.\n* Mark, Irving. ''Agrarian conflicts in colonial New York, 1711–1775'' (1940)\n* Ochiai, Akiko. ''Harvesting Freedom: African American Agrarianism in Civil War Era South Carolina'' (2007)\n* Robison, Dan Merritt. ''Bob Taylor and the agrarian revolt in Tennessee'' (1935)\n* Stine, Harold E. ''The agrarian revolt in South Carolina;: Ben Tillman and the Farmers' Alliance'' (1974)\n* Summerhill, Thomas. ''Harvest of Dissent: Agrarianism in Nineteenth-Century New York'' (2005)\n* Szatmary, David P. ''Shay's Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection'' (1984), 1787 in Massachusetts\n* Woodward, C. Vann. '' Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel'' (1938) online edition\n* Woodward, C. Vann. \"Tom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics,\" ''The Journal of Southern History,'' (1938) 4#1 pp. 14–33 in JSTOR\n\n=== Global South ===\n* Brass, Tom (ed.). ''New Farmers' Movements in India'' (1995) 304 pages.\n* Brass, Tom (ed.). ''Latin American Peasants'' (2003) 432 pages.\n* Ginzberg, Eitan. \"State Agrarianism versus Democratic Agrarianism: Adalberto Tejeda's Experiment in Veracruz, 1928–32,\" ''Journal of Latin American Studies'', Vol. 30#2 (May, 1998), pp. 341–372 in JSTOR\nHandy, Jim. ''Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954'' (1994)\n Jacoby, Erich H. ''Agrarian unrest in Southeast Asia'' (1949)\n* Newbury, David, and Catharine Newbury. \"Bringing the peasants back in: Agrarian themes in the construction and corrosion of statist historiography in Rwanda.\" ''American Historical Review'' (2000): 832-877. in JSTOR\n* Paige, Jeffery M. '' Agrarian revolution: social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world'' (1978) 435 pages excerpt and text search\n* Sanderson, Steven E. '' Agrarian populism and the Mexican state: the struggle for land in Sonora'' (1981)\nStokes, Eric. ''The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India'' (1980)\nSpringer, S. (2012). \"Illegal evictions? Overwriting possession and orality with law’s violence in Cambodia.\" Journal of Agrarian Change.\n* Tannenbaum, Frank. ''The Mexican Agrarian Revolution'' (1930)\n", "* Writings of a Deliberate Agrarian\n* The New Agrarian\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Philosophy ", "History", "Agrarian parties", " Back-to-the-land movement ", "See also", "References", " Further reading ", "External links" ]	Agrarianism
[ "\n\n'''Atomic''' may refer to:\n\n* Of or relating to the atom, the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties\n* Atomic physics, the study of the atom\n* Atomic Age, also known as the \"Atomic Era\"\n* ''Atomic'' (magazine), an Australian computing and technology magazine\n* Atomic Skis, an Austrian ski producer\n* Atomic (band), a Norwegian jazz quintet\n* ''Atomic'' (EP), a 2013 extended play by \n* ''Atomic'' (Lit album), a 2001 album by Lit\n* \"Atomic\" (song), a 1979 song by Blondie\n* \"Atomic\", a song by Tiger Army from ''Tiger Army III: Ghost Tigers Rise''\n* Atom (order theory), in mathematics\n* ''Atomic, Living in Dread and Promise'', a 2015 documentary by Mark Cousins\n* ''Atomic'' (Mogwai album), a 2016 soundtrack by Mogwai to the above documentary\nThe \"Atomic Kid\" Buddy Wayne, American professional wrestler from All Star Wrestling\n", " ''Alton Atomic'', a video game Spiritual Successor to Duke Nukem series as Developers and Publishers from PS5, 3DS's Successor 2018 and Switch.\n* Atomic Runner, a video game Published by Data East (Formerly)\n* Atomic Punk, a video game Published by Hudson Soft (Formerly)\n", "* Atom (disambiguation)\n* Atomicity (database systems)\n* Nuclear (disambiguation)\n* Atomism, philosophy about the basic building blocks of reality\n* Atomic formula, a formula without subformulas\n* Atomic number, the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom\n* \"Atomic Dog\", a 1982 song written and performed by George Clinton\n* Atomic Kitten, an English all-female pop group\n* Atomic Rooster, a British progressive rock band\n* Atomic chess, a chess variant\n* Atomic coffee machine, a 1950s stovetop coffee machine\n* Atomic operation, in computer science\n* Atomic TV, a channel launched in 1997 in Poland\n* Nuclear power\n* Nuclear weapon\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " video game ", " See also " ]	Atomic
[ "\n\n\n\nAn angle formed by two rays emanating from a vertex.\nIn planar geometry, an '''angle''' is the figure formed by two rays, called the ''sides'' of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the ''vertex'' of the angle.\nAngles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane. Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. These are called dihedral angles. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the spherical angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles.\n\n''Angle'' is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation. This measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of a geometric angle, the arc is centered at the vertex and delimited by the sides. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation.\n\nThe word ''angle'' comes from the Latin word ''angulus'', meaning \"corner\"; cognate words are the Greek ''(ankylοs)'', meaning \"crooked, curved,\" and the English word \"ankle\". Both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root ''ank-'', meaning \"to bend\" or \"bow\".\n\n\nEuclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by Eudemus, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative.\n", "In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters (α, β, γ, θ, φ, . . . ) to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle. (To avoid confusion with its other meaning, the symbol is typically not used for this purpose.) Lower case Roman letters (''a'', ''b'', ''c'', . . . ) are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples.\n\nIn geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB and AC (i.e. the lines from point A to point B and point A to point C) is denoted ∠BAC (in Unicode ) or . Sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex (\"angle A\").\n\nPotentially, an angle denoted, say, ∠BAC might refer to any of four angles: the clockwise angle from B to C, the anticlockwise angle from B to C, the clockwise angle from C to B, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B, where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign (see Positive and negative angles). However, in many geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant, and no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from B to C, and ∠CAB to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from C to B.\n", "\n\n\n=== Individual angles ===\nRight angle.\nReflex angle.\nAcute (a), obtuse (b), and straight (c) angles. The acute and obtuse angles are also known as oblique angles.\n\nAngles smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) are called ''acute angles'' (\"acute\" meaning \"sharp\").\nAn angle equal to turn (90° or radians) is called a ''right angle''. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be ''normal'', ''orthogonal'', or ''perpendicular''.\nAngles larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle (between 90° and 180°) are called ''obtuse angles'' (\"obtuse\" meaning \"blunt\").\nAn angle equal to turn (180° or radians) is called a ''straight angle''.\nAngles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn (between 180° and 360°) are called ''reflex angles''.\nAn angle equal to 1 turn (360° or 2 radians) is called a ''full angle'', ''complete angle'', or a ''perigon''.\nAngles that are not right angles or a multiple of a right angle are called ''oblique angles''.\n\nThe names, intervals, and measured units are shown in a table below:\n\n\n '''Name''' \n acute\n right angle\n obtuse\n straight\n reflex\n perigon\n\n Interval\n\n '''Turns''' \n (0, )\n \n (, )\n \n (, 1)\n 1\n\n '''Radians'''\n (0, '''')\n ''''\n ('''', '''')\n ''''\n ('''', 2'''')\n 2''''\n\n '''Degrees''' \n (0, 90)°\n 90°\n (90, 180)°\n 180°\n (180, 360)°\n 360°\n\n '''Gons''' \n (0, 100)g\n 100g\n (100, 200)g\n 200g\n (200, 400)g\n 400g\n\n\n\n=== Equivalence angle pairs ===\nAngles that have the same measure (i.e. the same magnitude) are said to be ''equal'' or ''congruent''. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle (e.g. all ''right angles'' are equal in measure).\nTwo angles which share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn, are called ''coterminal angles''.\nA ''reference angle'' is the acute version of any angle determined by repeatedly subtracting or adding straight angle ( turn, 180°, or radians), to the results as necessary, until the magnitude of result is an acute angle, a value between 0 and turn, 90°, or radians. For example, an angle of 30 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees, and an angle of 150 degrees also has a reference angle of 30 degrees (180 – 150). An angle of 750 degrees has a reference angle of 30 degrees (750 – 720).\n\n=== Vertical and adjacent angle pairs ===\nAngles A and B are a pair of vertical angles; angles C and D are a pair of vertical angles.\n\nWhen two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Pairwise these angles are named according to their location relative to each other.\nA pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an \"X\"-like shape, are called ''vertical angles'' or ''opposite angles'' or ''vertically opposite angles''. They are abbreviated as ''vert. opp. ∠s''.\n:The equality of vertically opposite angles is called the ''vertical angle theorem''. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed the proof to Thales of Miletus. The proposition showed that since both of a pair of vertical angles are supplementary to both of the adjacent angles, the vertical angles are equal in measure. According to a historical Note, when Thales visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as: all straight angles are equal, equals added to equals are equal, and equals subtracted from equals are equal.\n\n:In the figure, assume the measure of Angle ''A'' = ''x''. When two adjacent angles form a straight line, they are supplementary. Therefore, the measure of Angle ''C'' = 180 − ''x''. Similarly, the measure of Angle ''D'' = 180 − ''x''. Both Angle ''C'' and Angle ''D'' have measures equal to 180 − ''x'' and are congruent. Since Angle ''B'' is supplementary to both Angles ''C'' and ''D'', either of these angle measures may be used to determine the measure of Angle ''B''. Using the measure of either Angle ''C'' or Angle ''D'' we find the measure of Angle ''B'' = 180 − (180 − ''x'') = 180 − 180 + ''x'' = ''x''. Therefore, both Angle ''A'' and Angle ''B'' have measures equal to ''x'' and are equal in measure.\n\nAngles ''A'' and ''B'' are adjacent.\n\n''Adjacent angles'', often abbreviated as ''adj. ∠s'', are angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points. In other words, they are angles that are side by side, or adjacent, sharing an \"arm\". Adjacent angles which sum to a right angle, straight angle or full angle are special and are respectively called ''complementary'', ''supplementary'' and ''explementary'' angles (see \"Combine angle pairs\" below).\n\nA transversal is a line that intersects a pair of (often parallel) lines and is associated with ''alternate interior angles'', ''corresponding angles'', ''interior angles'', and ''exterior angles''.\n\n=== Combining angle pairs ===\n\nThere are three special angle pairs which involve the summation of angles:\n\n'''Complementary angles''' are angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle ( turn, 90°, or radians). If the two complementary angles are adjacent their non-shared sides form a right angle. In Euclidean geometry, the two acute angles in a right triangle are complementary, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, and the right angle itself accounts for ninety degrees.\n:The adjective complementary is from Latin ''complementum'', associated with the verb ''complere'', \"to fill up\". An acute angle is \"filled up\" by its complement to form a right angle.\n:The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the ''complement'' of the angle.\n:If angles ''A'' and ''B'' are complementary, the following relationships hold:\n:: \n:: \n:(The tangent of an angle equals the cotangent of its complement and its secant equals the cosecant of its complement.)\n:The prefix \"co-\" in the names of some trigonometric ratios refers to the word \"complementary\".\n\nTwo angles that sum to a straight angle ( turn, 180°, or radians) are called '''supplementary angles'''.\n:If the two supplementary angles are adjacent (i.e. have a common vertex and share just one side), their non-shared sides form a straight line. Such angles are called a '''linear pair of angles'''. However, supplementary angles do not have to be on the same line, and can be separated in space. For example, adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary, and opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral (one whose vertices all fall on a single circle) are supplementary.\n:If a point P is exterior to a circle with center O, and if the tangent lines from P touch the circle at points T and Q, then ∠TPQ and ∠TOQ are supplementary.\n:The sines of supplementary angles are equal. Their cosines and tangents (unless undefined) are equal in magnitude but have opposite signs.\n:In Euclidean geometry, any sum of two angles in a triangle is supplementary to the third, because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is a straight angle.\n\nTwo angles that sum to a complete angle (1 turn, 360°, or 2 radians) are called '''explementary angles''' or '''conjugate angles'''.\n:The difference between an angle and a complete angle is termed the ''explement'' of the angle or ''conjugate'' of an angle.\n\n\n\nThe ''complementary'' angles a and b (b is the ''complement'' of a, and a is the complement of b).\nA reflex angle and its conjugate are ''explementary'' angles, and their sum is a ''complete'' angle.\nThe angles a and b are ''supplementary'' angles.\n\n\n\n=== Polygon related angles ===\nInternal and external angles.\nAn angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an ''interior angle'' if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon. A simple concave polygon has at least one interior angle that is a reflex angle.\n:In Euclidean geometry, the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to radians, 180°, or turn; the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex quadrilateral add up to 2 radians, 360°, or 1 turn. In general, the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex polygon with ''n'' sides add up to (''n'' − 2) radians, or 180(''n'' − 2) degrees, (2''n'' − 4) right angles, or ( − 1) turn.\nThe supplement of an interior angle is called an ''exterior angle'', that is, an interior angle and an exterior angle form a linear pair of angles. There are two exterior angles at each vertex of the polygon, each determined by extending one of the two sides of the polygon that meet at the vertex; these two angles are vertical angles and hence are equal. An exterior angle measures the amount of rotation one has to make at a vertex to trace out the polygon. If the corresponding interior angle is a reflex angle, the exterior angle should be considered negative. Even in a non-simple polygon it may be possible to define the exterior angle, but one will have to pick an orientation of the plane (or surface) to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure.\n:In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the exterior angles of a simple convex polygon will be one full turn (360°). The exterior angle here could be called a ''supplementary exterior angle''. Exterior angles are commonly used in Logo Turtle Geometry when drawing regular polygons. \nIn a triangle, the bisectors of two exterior angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent (meet at a single point).\nIn a triangle, three intersection points, each of an external angle bisector with the opposite extended side, are collinear.\n In a triangle, three intersection points, two of them between an interior angle bisector and the opposite side, and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended, are collinear.\nSome authors use the name ''exterior angle'' of a simple polygon to simply mean the ''explement exterior angle'' (''not'' supplement!) of the interior angle. This conflicts with the above usage.\n\n=== Plane related angles ===\nThe angle between two planes (such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is called a ''dihedral angle''. It may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes.\nThe angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is normal to the plane.\n\n==Measuring angles==\nThe size of a geometric angle is usually characterized by the magnitude of the smallest rotation that maps one of the rays into the other. Angles that have the same size are said to be ''equal'' or ''congruent'' or ''equal in measure''.\n\nIn some contexts, such as identifying a point on a circle or describing the ''orientation'' of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full turn are effectively equivalent. In other contexts, such as identifying a point on a spiral curve or describing the ''cumulative rotation'' of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by a non-zero multiple of a full turn are not equivalent.\n\nThe measure of angle θ (in radians) is the quotient of s and r.\n\nIn order to measure an angle θ, a circular arc centered at the vertex of the angle is drawn, e.g. with a pair of compasses. The ratio of the length s of the arc by the radius r of the circle is the measure of the angle in radians.\n\nThe measure of the angle in another angular unit is then obtained by multiplying its measure in radians by the scaling factor , where ''k'' is the measure of a complete turn in the chosen unit (for example 360 for degrees or 400 for gradians):\n\n:\n\nThe value of θ thus defined is independent of the size of the circle: if the length of the radius is changed then the arc length changes in the same proportion, so the ratio ''s''/''r'' is unaltered. (Proof. The formula above can be rewritten as One turn, for which units, corresponds to an arc equal in length to the circle's circumference, which is 2''r'', so . Substituting ''n'' for ''θ'' and 2''r'' for ''s'' in the formula, results in ) \n\n===Angle addition postulate ===\n\nThe angle addition postulate states that if B is in the interior of angle AOC, then\n\n:\n\nThe measure of the angle AOC is the sum of the measure of angle AOB and the measure of angle BOC.\nIn this postulate it does not matter in which unit the angle is measured as long as each angle is measured in the same unit.\n\n===Units===\n\n\n\nUnits used to represent angles are listed below in descending magnitude order. Of these units, the ''degree'' and the ''radian'' are by far the most commonly used. Angles expressed in radians are dimensionless for the purposes of dimensional analysis.\n\nMost units of angular measurement are defined such that one ''turn'' (i.e. one full circle) is equal to ''n'' units, for some whole number ''n''. The two exceptions are the radian and the diameter part.\n\n;Turn (''n'' = 1): The ''turn'', also ''cycle'', ''full circle'', ''revolution'', and ''rotation'', is complete circular movement or measure (as to return to the same point) with circle or ellipse. A turn is abbreviated , ''cyc'', ''rev'', or ''rot'' depending on the application, but in the acronym ''rpm'' (revolutions per minute), just ''r'' is used. A ''turn'' of ''n'' units is obtained by setting in the formula above. The equivalence of 1 ''turn'' is 360°, 2 rad, 400 grad, and 4 right angles. The symbol can also be used as a mathematical constant to represent 2 radians. Used in this way () allows for radians to be expressed as a fraction of a turn. For example, half a turn is .\n\n;Quadrant (''n'' = 4): The ''quadrant'' is of a turn, i.e. a ''right angle''. It is the unit used in Euclid's Elements. 1 quad. = 90° = rad = turn = 100 grad. In German the symbol ∟ has been used to denote a quadrant.\n\n;Sextant (''n'' = 6): The ''sextant'' (''angle of the equilateral triangle'') is of a turn. It was the unit used by the Babylonians, and is especially easy to construct with ruler and compasses. The degree, minute of arc and second of arc are sexagesimal subunits of the Babylonian unit. 1 Babylonian unit = 60° = /3 rad ≈ 1.047197551 rad.\nθ = s/r rad = 1 rad.\n\n;Radian (''n'' = 2 = 6.283 . . . ): The ''radian'' is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius. The case of radian for the formula given earlier, a ''radian'' of ''n'' = 2 units is obtained by setting ''k'' = = 1. One turn is 2 radians, and one radian is degrees, or about 57.2958 degrees. The radian is abbreviated ''rad'', though this symbol is often omitted in mathematical texts, where radians are assumed unless specified otherwise. When radians are used angles are considered as dimensionless. The radian is used in virtually all mathematical work beyond simple practical geometry, due, for example, to the pleasing and \"natural\" properties that the trigonometric functions display when their arguments are in radians. The radian is the (derived) unit of angular measurement in the SI system.\n\n;Clock position (''n'' = 12): A clock position is the relative direction of an object described using the analogy of a 12-hour clock. One imagines a clock face lying either upright or flat in front of oneself, and identifies the twelve hour markings with the directions in which they point.\n\n;Hour angle (''n'' = 24): The astronomical ''hour angle'' is of a turn. Since this system is amenable to measuring objects that cycle once per day (such as the relative position of stars), the sexagesimal subunits are called ''minute of time'' and ''second of time''. Note that these are distinct from, and 15 times larger than, minutes and seconds of arc. 1 hour = 15° = rad = quad. = ''turn'' = grad.\n\n;(Compass) point or wind (''n'' = 32): The ''point'', used in navigation, is of a turn. 1 point = of a right angle = 11.25° = 12.5 grad. Each point is subdivided in four quarter-points so that 1 turn equals 128 quarter-points.\n\n;Hexacontade (''n'' = 60): The ''hexacontade'' is a unit of 6° that Eratosthenes used, so that a whole turn was divided into 60 units.\n\n;Pechus (''n'' = 144–180): –The ''pechus'' was a Babylonian unit equal to about 2° or °.\n\n;Binary degree (''n'' = 256): The ''binary degree'', also known as the ''binary radian'' (or ''brad''), is of a turn. The binary degree is used in computing so that an angle can be efficiently represented in a single byte (albeit to limited precision). Other measures of angle used in computing may be based on dividing one whole turn into 2''n'' equal parts for other values of ''n''.\n\n;Degree (''n'' = 360): The ''degree'', denoted by a small superscript circle (°), is 1/360 of a turn, so one ''turn'' is 360°. The case of degrees for the formula given earlier, a ''degree'' of ''n'' = 360° units is obtained by setting ''k'' = . One advantage of this old sexagesimal subunit is that many angles common in simple geometry are measured as a whole number of degrees. Fractions of a degree may be written in normal decimal notation (e.g. 3.5° for three and a half degrees), but the \"minute\" and \"second\" sexagesimal subunits of the \"degree-minute-second\" system are also in use, especially for geographical coordinates and in astronomy and ballistics:\n\n;Diameter part (''n'' = 376.99 . . . ): The ''diameter part'' (occasionally used in Islamic mathematics) is radian. One \"diameter part\" is approximately 0.95493°. There are about 376.991 diameter parts per turn.\n\n;Grad (''n'' = 400): The ''grad'', also called ''grade'', ''gradian'', or ''gon'', is of a turn, so a right angle is 100 grads. It is a decimal subunit of the quadrant. A kilometre was historically defined as a centi-grad of arc along a great circle of the Earth, so the kilometer is the decimal analog to the sexagesimal nautical mile. The grad is used mostly in triangulation.\n\n;Mil (''n'' = 6000–6400): The ''mil'' is any of several units that are ''approximately'' equal to a milliradian. There are several definitions ranging from 0.05625 to 0.06 degrees (3.375 to 3.6 minutes), with the milliradian being approximately 0.05729578 degrees (3.43775 minutes). In NATO countries, it is defined as of a circle. Its value is approximately equal to the angle subtended by a width of 1 metre as seen from 1 km away ( = 0.0009817 . . . ≈ ).\n\n;Minute of arc (''n'' = 21,600): The ''minute of arc'' (or ''MOA'', ''arcminute'', or just ''minute'') is of a degree = turn. It is denoted by a single prime ( ′ ). For example, 3° 30′ is equal to 3 × 60 + 30 = 210 minutes or 3 + = 3.5 degrees. A mixed format with decimal fractions is also sometimes used, e.g. 3° 5.72′ = 3 + degrees. A nautical mile was historically defined as a minute of arc along a great circle of the Earth.\n\n;Second of arc (''n'' = 1,296,000): The ''second of arc'' (or ''arcsecond'', or just ''second'') is of a minute of arc and of a degree. It is denoted by a double prime ( ″ ). For example, 3° 7′ 30″ is equal to 3 + + degrees, or 3.125 degrees.\n\n===Positive and negative angles===\nAlthough the definition of the measurement of an angle does not support the concept of a negative angle, it is frequently useful to impose a convention that allows positive and negative angular values to represent orientations and/or rotations in opposite directions relative to some reference.\n\nIn a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, an angle is typically defined by its two sides, with its vertex at the origin. The ''initial side'' is on the positive x-axis, while the other side or ''terminal side'' is defined by the measure from the initial side in radians, degrees, or turns. With ''positive angles'' representing rotations toward the positive y-axis and ''negative angles'' representing rotations toward the negative y-axis. When Cartesian coordinates are represented by ''standard position'', defined by the x-axis rightward and the y-axis upward, positive rotations are anticlockwise and negative rotations are clockwise.\n\nIn many contexts, an angle of −''θ'' is effectively equivalent to an angle of \"one full turn minus ''θ''\". For example, an orientation represented as −45° is effectively equivalent to an orientation represented as 360° − 45° or 315°. Although the final position is the same, a physical rotation (movement) of −45° is not the same as a rotation of 315° (for example, the rotation of a person holding a broom resting on a dusty floor would leave visually different traces of swept regions on the floor).\n\nIn three-dimensional geometry, \"clockwise\" and \"anticlockwise\" have no absolute meaning, so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined relative to some reference, which is typically a vector passing through the angle's vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie.\n\nIn navigation, bearings are measured relative to north. By convention, viewed from above, bearing angles are positive clockwise, so a bearing of 45° corresponds to a north-east orientation. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so a north-west orientation corresponds to a bearing of 315°.\n\n===Alternative ways of measuring the size of an angle===\nThere are several alternatives to measuring the size of an angle by the angle of rotation.\nThe ''grade of a slope'', or ''gradient'' is equal to the tangent of the angle, or sometimes (rarely) the sine. A gradient is often expressed as a percentage. For very small values (less than 5%), the grade of a slope is approximately the measure of the angle in radians.\n\nIn rational geometry the ''spread'' between two lines is defined at the square of the sine of the angle between the lines. Since the sine of an angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same, any angle of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same value for the spread between the lines.\n\n===Astronomical approximations===\nAstronomers measure angular separation of objects in degrees from their point of observation.\n 0.5° is approximately the width of the sun or moon.\n* 1° is approximately the width of a little finger at arm's length.\n* 10° is approximately the width of a closed fist at arm's length.\n* 20° is approximately the width of a handspan at arm's length.\n\nThese measurements clearly depend on the individual subject, and the above should be treated as rough rule of thumb approximations only.\n", "The angle between the two curves at P is defined as the angle between the tangents A and B at P.\nThe angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—''amphicyrtic'' (Gr. , on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or ''cissoidal'' (Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; ''xystroidal'' or ''sistroidal'' (Gr. ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; ''amphicoelic'' (Gr. κοίλη, a hollow) or ''angulus lunularis'', biconcave.\n", "\n\nThe ancient Greek mathematicians knew how to bisect an angle (divide it into two angles of equal measure) using only a compass and straightedge, but could only trisect certain angles. In 1837 Pierre Wantzel showed that for most angles this construction cannot be performed.\n", "In the Euclidean space, the angle ''θ'' between two Euclidean vectors '''u''' and '''v''' is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula\n\n:\n\nThis formula supplies an easy method to find the angle between two planes (or curved surfaces) from their normal vectors and between skew lines from their vector equations.\n\n===Inner product===\nTo define angles in an abstract real inner product space, we replace the Euclidean dot product ( '''·''' ) by the inner product , i.e.\n\n:\n\nIn a complex inner product space, the expression for the cosine above may give non-real values, so it is replaced with\n\n:\n\nor, more commonly, using the absolute value, with\n\n:\n\nThe latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors and thus describes the angle between one-dimensional subspaces and spanned by the vectors and correspondingly.\n\n===Angles between subspaces===\nThe definition of the angle between one-dimensional subspaces and given by\n\n:\n\nin a Hilbert space can be extended to subspaces of any finite dimensions. Given two subspaces , with , this leads to a definition of angles called canonical or principal angles between subspaces.\n\n===Angles in Riemannian geometry===\nIn Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents. Where ''U'' and ''V'' are tangent vectors and ''g''''ij'' are the components of the metric tensor ''G'',\n\n:\n\n===Hyperbolic angle===\nA hyperbolic angle is an argument of a hyperbolic function just as the '''circular angle''' is the argument of a circular function. The comparison can be visualized as the size of the openings of a hyperbolic sector and a circular sector since the areas of these sectors correspond to the angle magnitudes in each case. Unlike the circular angle, the hyperbolic angle is unbounded. When the circular and hyperbolic functions are viewed as infinite series in their angle argument, the circular ones are just alternating series forms of the hyperbolic functions. This weaving of the two types of angle and function was explained by Leonhard Euler in ''Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite''.\n", "In geography, the location of any point on the Earth can be identified using a ''geographic coordinate system''. This system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the centre of the Earth, using the equator and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as references.\n\nIn astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several ''astronomical coordinate systems'', where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the ''angular separation'' of two stars by imagining two lines through the centre of the Earth, each intersecting one of the stars. The angle between those lines can be measured, and is the angular separation between the two stars.\n\nIn both geography and astronomy, a sighting direction can be specified in terms of a vertical angle such as altitude /elevation with respect to the horizon as well as the azimuth with respect to north.\n\nAstronomers also measure the ''apparent size'' of objects as an angular diameter. For example, the full moon has an angular diameter of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth. One could say, \"The Moon's diameter subtends an angle of half a degree.\" The small-angle formula can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio.\n", "\nAngle bisector\nAngular velocity\nArgument (complex analysis)\nAstrological aspect\nCentral angle\nClock angle problem\nDihedral angle\nExterior angle theorem\nGreat circle distance\nInscribed angle\nIrrational angle\nPhase angle\nProtractor\nSolid angle for a concept of angle in three dimensions.\nSpherical angle\nTranscendent angle\nTrisection\nZenith angle \n\n", "\n\n", "\n.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Attribution'''\n \n", "\n\n* \n* Proximity construction of an angle in decimal degrees with the third intercept theorem\n* Angle Bisectors in a Quadrilateral at cut-the-knot\n* Constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors at cut-the-knot\n* Various angle constructions with compass and straightedge\n* Complementary Angles animated demonstration. With interactive applet\n* Supplementary Angles animated demonstration. With interactive applet\n* Angle definition pages with interactive applets that are also useful in a classroom setting. Math Open Reference\n* Construction of an angle Site geometry\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Identifying angles", "Types of angles", "Angles between curves", "Bisecting and trisecting angles", "Dot product and generalisations", "Angles in geography and astronomy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Angle
[ "\n\n'''Asa''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Asa (name), a given name (including a list of persons with the name)\n* Asa people, an ethnic group of Tanzania\n* Asa language, of the Asa people\n* Asa, god of the Kamba people ethnic group in Kenya\n* Aṣa (born 1982), Nigerian French singer-songwriter and recording artist\n* Asa of Judah, a king of Judah according to the Bible\n* Asa (rapper) (born 1980), Finnish rapper\n* Asa Keisar (born 1973), an Israeli Jewish advocate for veganism\n", "* Asa, Iran, in South Khorasan Province\n* Asa, Kwara, a Local Government Area in Kwara State, Nigeria\n* Asa River (disambiguation), multiple rivers with the name\n", "* Asa Shigure, character in the ''Shuffle!'' media franchise\n* ''Asa'' (album), 2013 Falkenbach album\n* Asa (raga), Indian format of musical rules\n* Ása, genitive of Æsir, the predominant group among the Norse gods\n* Asa Station, Japanese railway station in San'yō-Onoda, Yamaguchi\n* Asa, or naboot, a staff used in Egyptian stick fencing\n* Asa. a song by Catfish and the Bottlemen\n", "* ASA (disambiguation)\n* Åsa (disambiguation)\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " People ", " Places ", " Other ", "See also" ]	Asa
[ "\nArtificial omni-directional sound source in an anechoic chamber\n\n'''Acoustics''' is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an '''acoustician''' while someone working in the field of acoustics technology may be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control industries.\n\nHearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, and speech is one of the most distinctive characteristics of human development and culture. Accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound and hearing as a key element of mating rituals or marking territories. Art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsay's 'Wheel of Acoustics' is a well accepted overview of the various fields in acoustics.\n\nThe word \"acoustic\" is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός (''akoustikos''), meaning \"of or for hearing, ready to hear\" and that from ἀκουστός (''akoustos''), \"heard, audible\", which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω (''akouo''), \"I hear\".\n\nThe Latin synonym is \"sonic\", after which the term '''sonics''' used to be a synonym for acoustics and later a branch of acoustics. Frequencies above and below the audible range are called \"ultrasonic\" and \"infrasonic\", respectively.\n", "\n=== Early research in acoustics ===\nfundamental and the first 6 overtones of a vibrating string. The earliest records of the study of this phenomenon are attributed to the philosopher Pythagoras in the 6th century BC.\n\nIn the 6th century BC, the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras wanted to know why some combinations of musical sounds seemed more beautiful than others, and he found answers in terms of numerical ratios representing the harmonic overtone series on a string. He is reputed to have observed that when the lengths of vibrating strings are expressible as ratios of integers (e.g. 2 to 3, 3 to 4), the tones produced will be harmonious, and the smaller the integers the more harmonious the sounds. If, for example, a string of a certain length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length (other factors being equal). In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of musical tuning, the tones in between are then given by 16:9 for D, 8:5 for E, 3:2 for F, 4:3 for G, 6:5 for A, and 16:15 for B, in ascending order.\n\nAristotle (384-322 BC) understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which \"falls upon and strikes the air which is next to it...\", a very good expression of the nature of wave motion.\n\nIn about 20 BC, the Roman architect and engineer Vitruvius wrote a treatise on the acoustic properties of theaters including discussion of interference, echoes, and reverberation—the beginnings of architectural acoustics. In Book V of his ''De architectura'' (''The Ten Books of Architecture'') Vitruvius describes sound as a wave comparable to a water wave extended to three dimensions, which, when interrupted by obstructions, would flow back and break up following waves. He described the ascending seats in ancient theaters as designed to prevent this deterioration of sound and also recommended bronze vessels of appropriate sizes be placed in theaters to resonate with the fourth, fifth and so on, up to the double octave, in order to resonate with the more desirable, harmonious notes.\n\nRoman theatre in the city of Amman.\n\nThe physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the Scientific Revolution. Mainly Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) but also Marin Mersenne (1588–1648), independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating strings (completing what Pythagoras and Pythagoreans had started 2000 years earlier). Galileo wrote \"Waves are produced by the vibrations of a sonorous body, which spread through the air, bringing to the tympanum of the ear a stimulus which the mind interprets as sound\", a remarkable statement that points to the beginnings of physiological and psychological acoustics. Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne. Meanwhile, Newton (1642–1727) derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical acoustics (Principia, 1687).\n\n=== Age of Enlightenment and onward ===\nThe eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. In the nineteenth century the major figures of mathematical acoustics were Helmholtz in Germany, who consolidated the field of physiological acoustics, and Lord Rayleigh in England, who combined the previous knowledge with his own copious contributions to the field in his monumental work ''The Theory of Sound'' (1877). Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics.\n\nThe twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, and many others followed. Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War. Sound recording and the telephone played important roles in a global transformation of society. Sound measurement and analysis reached new levels of accuracy and sophistication through the use of electronics and computing. The ultrasonic frequency range enabled wholly new kinds of application in medicine and industry. New kinds of transducers (generators and receivers of acoustic energy) were invented and put to use.\n", "\n\n\n=== Definition ===\nAcoustics is defined by ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013 as \"(a) Science of sound, including its production, transmission, and effects, including biological and psychological effects. (b) Those qualities of a room that, together, determine its character with respect to auditory effects.\"\n\nThe study of acoustics revolves around the generation, propagation and reception of mechanical waves and vibrations.\n\n::'''The fundamental acoustical process'''\n\nThe steps shown in the above diagram can be found in any acoustical event or process. There are many kinds of cause, both natural and volitional. There are many kinds of transduction process that convert energy from some other form into sonic energy, producing a sound wave. There is one fundamental equation that describes sound wave propagation, the acoustic wave equation, but the phenomena that emerge from it are varied and often complex. The wave carries energy throughout the propagating medium. Eventually this energy is transduced again into other forms, in ways that again may be natural and/or volitionally contrived. The final effect may be purely physical or it may reach far into the biological or volitional domains. The five basic steps are found equally well whether we are talking about an earthquake, a submarine using sonar to locate its foe, or a band playing in a rock concert.\n\nThe central stage in the acoustical process is wave propagation. This falls within the domain of physical acoustics. In fluids, sound propagates primarily as a pressure wave. In solids, mechanical waves can take many forms including longitudinal waves, transverse waves and surface waves.\n\nAcoustics looks first at the pressure levels and frequencies in the sound wave and how the wave interacts with the environment. This interaction can be described as either a diffraction, interference or a reflection or a mix of the three. If several media are present, a refraction can also occur. Transduction processes are also of special importance to acoustics.\n\n=== Wave propagation: pressure levels ===\n\n\nSpectrogram of a young girl saying \"oh, no\"\nIn fluids such as air and water, sound waves propagate as disturbances in the ambient pressure level. While this disturbance is usually small, it is still noticeable to the human ear. The smallest sound that a person can hear, known as the threshold of hearing, is nine orders of magnitude smaller than the ambient pressure. The loudness of these disturbances is related to the sound pressure level (SPL) which is measured on a logarithmic scale in decibels.\n\n=== Wave propagation: frequency ===\nPhysicists and acoustic engineers tend to discuss sound pressure levels in terms of frequencies, partly because this is how our ears interpret sound. What we experience as \"higher pitched\" or \"lower pitched\" sounds are pressure vibrations having a higher or lower number of cycles per second. In a common technique of acoustic measurement, acoustic signals are sampled in time, and then presented in more meaningful forms such as octave bands or time frequency plots. Both of these popular methods are used to analyze sound and better understand the acoustic phenomenon.\n\nThe entire spectrum can be divided into three sections: audio, ultrasonic, and infrasonic. The audio range falls between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. This range is important because its frequencies can be detected by the human ear. This range has a number of applications, including speech communication and music. The ultrasonic range refers to the very high frequencies: 20,000 Hz and higher. This range has shorter wavelengths which allow better resolution in imaging technologies. Medical applications such as ultrasonography and elastography rely on the ultrasonic frequency range. On the other end of the spectrum, the lowest frequencies are known as the infrasonic range. These frequencies can be used to study geological phenomena such as earthquakes.\n\nAnalytic instruments such as the spectrum analyzer facilitate visualization and measurement of acoustic signals and their properties. The spectrogram produced by such an instrument is a graphical display of the time varying pressure level and frequency profiles which give a specific acoustic signal its defining character.\n\n=== Transduction in acoustics ===\nAn inexpensive low fidelity 3.5 inch '''driver''', typically found in small radios\nA transducer is a device for converting one form of energy into another. In an electroacoustic context, this means converting sound energy into electrical energy (or vice versa). Electroacoustic transducers include loudspeakers, microphones, hydrophones and sonar projectors. These devices convert a sound pressure wave to or from an electric signal. The most widely used transduction principles are electromagnetism, electrostatics and piezoelectricity.\n\nThe transducers in most common loudspeakers (e.g. woofers and tweeters), are electromagnetic devices that generate waves using a suspended diaphragm driven by an electromagnetic voice coil, sending off pressure waves. Electret microphones and condenser microphones employ electrostatics—as the sound wave strikes the microphone's diaphragm, it moves and induces a voltage change. The ultrasonic systems used in medical ultrasonography employ piezoelectric transducers. These are made from special ceramics in which mechanical vibrations and electrical fields are interlinked through a property of the material itself.\n", "\nAn acoustician is an expert in the science of sound.\n\n===Education===\nThere are many types of acoustician, but they usually have a Bachelor's degree or higher qualification. Some possess a degree in acoustics, while others enter the discipline via studies in fields such as physics or engineering. Much work in acoustics requires a good grounding in Mathematics and science. Many acoustic scientists work in research and development. Some conduct basic research to advance our knowledge of the perception (e.g. hearing, psychoacoustics or neurophysiology) of speech, music and noise. Other acoustic scientists advance understanding of how sound is affected as it moves through environments, e.g. Underwater acoustics, Architectural acoustics or Structural acoustics. Others areas of work are listed under subdisciplines below. Acoustic scientists work in government, university and private industry laboratories. Many go on to work in Acoustical Engineering. Some positions, such as Faculty (academic staff) require a Doctor of Philosophy.\n", "These subdisciplines are a slightly modified list from the PACS (Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme) coding used by the Acoustical Society of America.\n\n===Archaeoacoustics===\n\nThe Divje Babe flute\nArchaeoacoustics is the study of sound within archaeology. This typically involves studying the acoustics of archaeological sites and artefacts.\n\n===Aeroacoustics===\n\n\nAeroacoustics is the study of noise generated by air movement, for instance via turbulence, and the movement of sound through the fluid air. This knowledge is applied in acoustical engineering to study how to quieten aircraft. Aeroacoustics is important to understanding how wind musical instruments work.\n\n===Acoustic signal processing===\n\n\nAcoustic signal processing is the electronic manipulation of acoustic signals. Applications include: active noise control; design for hearing aids or cochlear implants; echo cancellation; music information retrieval, and perceptual coding (e.g. MP3 or Opus).\n\n===Architectural acoustics===\n\nSymphony Hall Boston where auditorium acoustics began\n\nArchitectural acoustics (also known as building acoustics) involves the scientific understanding of how to achieve a good sound within a building. It typically involves the study of speech intelligibility, speech privacy and music quality in the built environment.\n\n===Bioacoustics===\n\n\nBioacoustics is the scientific study of the hearing and calls of animal calls, as well as how animals are affected by the acoustic and sounds of their habitat.\n\n===Electroacoustics===\n\n\nThis subdiscipline is concerned with the recording, manipulation and reproduction of audio using electronics. This might include products such as mobile phones, large scale public address systems or virtual reality systems in research laboratories.\n\n===Environmental noise and soundscapes===\n\n\n\nEnvironmental acoustics is concerned with noise and vibration caused by railways, road traffic, aircraft, industrial equipment and recreational activities. The main aim of these studies is to reduce levels of environmental noise and vibration. Research work now also has a focus on the positive use of sound in urban environments: soundscapes and tranquility.\n\n===Musical acoustics===\n\nThe primary auditory cortex is one of the main areas associated with superior pitch resolution.\nMusical acoustics is the study of the physics of acoustic instruments; the audio signal processing used in electronic music; the computer analysis of music and composition, and the perception and cognitive neuroscience of music.\n\n===Psychoacoustics===\n\n\nPsychoacoustics explains how humans respond to sounds.\n\n===Speech===\n\n\nAcousticians study the production, processing and perception of speech. Speech recognition and Speech synthesis are two important areas of speech processing using computers. The subject also overlaps with the disciplines of physics, physiology, psychology, and linguistics.\n\n===Ultrasonics===\n\nUltrasound image of a fetus in the womb, viewed at 12 weeks of pregnancy (bidimensional-scan)Ultrasonics deals with sounds at frequencies too high to be heard by humans. Specialisms include medical ultrasonics (including medical ultrasonography), sonochemistry, material characterisation and underwater acoustics (Sonar).\n\n===Underwater acoustics===\n\n\nUnderwater acoustics is the scientific study of natural and man-made sounds underwater. Applications include sonar to locate submarines, underwater communication by whales, climate change monitoring by measuring sea temperatures acoustically, sonic weapons, and marine bioacoustics.\n\n===Vibration and dynamics===\n\n\nThis is the study of how mechanical systems vibrate and interact with their surroundings. Applications might include: ground vibrations from railways; vibration isolation to reduce vibration in operating theatres; studying how vibration can damage health (vibration white finger); vibration control to protect a building from earthquakes, or measuring how structure-borne sound moves through buildings.\n", "The Acoustical Society Of America (ASA)\nInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)\nInstitute of Acoustics (IoA UK)\nThe Audio Engineering Society (AES)\nAmerican Society of Mechanical Engineers, Noise Control and Acoustics Division (ASME-NCAD)\nInternational Commission for Acoustics (ICA)\nAmerican Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Aeroacoustics (AIAA)\nInternational Computer Music Association (ICMA)\n", "\n* Acta Acustica united with Acustica\n* Applied Acoustics\n* Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA)\n* Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Express Letters (JASA-EL)\n* Journal of the Audio Engineering Society\n* Journal of Sound and Vibration (JSV)\n* Journal of Vibration and Acoustics American Society of Mechanical Engineers\n* Ultrasonics (journal)\n", "\nAcoustic attenuation\nAcoustic emission\nAcoustic engineering\nAcoustic impedance\nAcoustic levitation\nAcoustic location\nAcoustic phonetics\nAcoustic streaming\nAcoustic tags\nAcoustic thermometry\nAcoustic wave\nAudiology\nAuditory illusion\nDiffraction\nDoppler effect\nFisheries acoustics\nHelioseismology\nLamb wave\nLinear elasticity\n''The Little Red Book of Acoustics'' (in the UK)\nLongitudinal wave\nMusic therapy\nNoise pollution\nPhonon\nPicosecond ultrasonics\nRayleigh wave\nShock wave\nSeismology\nSonification\nSonochemistry\nSoundproofing\nSoundscape\nSonic boom\nSonoluminescence\nSurface acoustic wave\nThermoacoustics\nTransverse wave\nWave equation\n\n\n", "\n", "* \n* S.V. Biryukov, Y.V. Gulyaev, V.V. Krylov and V.P. Plessky (1995). ''Surface Acoustic Waves in Inhomogeneous Media'', Springer.\n* M. Crocker (editor), 1994. ''Encyclopedia of Acoustics'' (Interscience).\n* \n* F. Fahy and P. Gardonio (2007). ''Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation, Transmission and Response'', 2nd Edition, Academic Press. \n* M.C. Junger and D. Feit (1986). ''Sound, Structures and Their Interaction'', 2nd Edition, MIT Press. \n* L. E. Kinsler, A. R. Frey, A. B. Coppens, and J. V. Sanders, 1999. ''Fundamentals of Acoustics,'' fourth edition (Wiley).\n* Mason W.P., Thurston R.N. ''Physical Acoustics'' (1981)\n* Philip M. Morse and K. Uno Ingard, 1986. ''Theoretical Acoustics'' (Princeton University Press). \n* Allan D. Pierce, 1989. ''Acoustics: An Introduction to its Physical Principles and Applications'' (Acoustical Society of America). \n* D. R. Raichel, 2006. ''The Science and Applications of Acoustics,'' second edition (Springer). \n* \n* E. Skudrzyk, 1971. ''The Foundations of Acoustics: Basic Mathematics and Basic Acoustics'' (Springer).\n* \n* \n", "\n\n\n* Acoustical Society of America\n* Institute of Acoustic in UK\n* National Council of Acoustical Consultants\n* International Commission for Acoustics\n* Institute of Noise Control Engineers\n* Laboratoire d'Acoustique de l'Université du Maine\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Fundamental concepts of acoustics ", "Acoustician", " Subdisciplines ", "Professional societies", "Academic journals", " See also ", " Notes and references ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Acoustics
[ "\n\n'''Atomic physics''' is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus and\nthe processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term ''atom'' includes ions.\n\nThe term ''atomic physics'' can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of ''atomic'' and ''nuclear'' in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics — which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons — and nuclear physics, which considers atomic nuclei alone.\n\nAs with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of ''atomic, molecular, and optical physics''. Physics research groups are usually so classified.\n", "Atomic physics primarily considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles.\n\nWhile modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics, even though both deal with very large numbers of atoms.\n", "Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are normally in a ground state but can be excited by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically ions or other electrons).\n\nIn the Bohr model, the transition of an electron with n=3 to the shell n=2 is shown, where a photon is emitted. An electron from shell (n=2) must have been removed beforehand by ionization Electrons that populate a shell are said to be in a bound state. The energy necessary to remove an electron from its shell (taking it to infinity) is called the binding energy. Any quantity of energy absorbed by the electron in excess of this amount is converted to kinetic energy according to the conservation of energy. The atom is said to have undergone the process of ionization.\n\nIf the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will be transferred to an excited state. After a certain time, the electron in an excited state will \"jump\" (undergo a transition) to a lower state. In a neutral atom, the system will emit a photon of the difference in energy, since energy is conserved.\n\nIf an inner electron has absorbed more than the binding energy (so that the atom ionizes), then a more outer electron may undergo a transition to fill the inner orbital. In this case, a visible photon or a characteristic x-ray is emitted, or a phenomenon known as the Auger effect may take place, where the released energy is transferred to another bound electron, causing it to go into the continuum. The Auger effect allows one to multiply ionize an atom with a single photon.\n\nThere are rather strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light — however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes.\n", "\nThe majority of fields in physics can be divided between theoretical work and experimental work,\nand atomic physics is no exception. It is usually the case, but not always, that progress goes\nin alternate cycles from an experimental observation, through to a theoretical explanation\nfollowed by some predictions that may or may not be confirmed by experiment, and so on. Of course, the current state of technology at any given time can put limitations on what can be achieved experimentally and theoretically so it may take considerable time for theory to be refined.\n\nOne of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed\nof ''atoms''. It forms a part of the texts written in 6th century BC to 2nd century BC such as those of Democritus or Vaisheshika Sutra written by Kanad. This theory was later developed in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk). The invention of the periodic system of elements by Mendeleev was another great step forward.\n\nThe true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical model of matter was revealed. As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i.e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry\n(quantum chemistry) and spectroscopy.\n\nSince the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a rapid pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology, which has allowed larger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes. Similar technological advances in accelerators, detectors, magnetic field generation and lasers have greatly assisted experimental work.\n\n", "\n", "Particle physics\nIsomeric shift\nAtomic engineering\n", "\n", " \n* \n\n \n* \n* \n", "\n* MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms\n* Joint Quantum Institute at University of Maryland and NIST\n* Atomic Physics on the Internet\n* JILA (Atomic Physics)\n* ORNL Physics Division\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Isolated atoms", "Electronic configuration", "History and developments", "Significant atomic physicists", "See also", "References", " Bibliography ", "External links" ]	Atomic physics
[ "\n\n\n\n'''American Sign Language''' ('''ASL''') is a natural language that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of Anglophone Canada. Besides North America, dialects of ASL and ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world, including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language (LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language of LSF, although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such as agglutinative morphology.\n\nASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf (ASD) in Hartford, Connecticut, from a situation of language contact. Since then, ASL use has propagated widely via schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations. Despite its wide use, no accurate count of ASL users has been taken, though reliable estimates for American ASL users range from 250,000 to 500,000 persons, including a number of children of deaf adults. ASL users face stigma due to beliefs in the superiority of oral language to sign language, compounded by the fact that ASL is often glossed in English due to the lack of a standard writing system.\n\nASL signs have a number of phonemic components, including movement of the face and torso as well as the hands. ASL is not a form of pantomime, but iconicity does play a larger role in ASL than in spoken languages. English loan words are often borrowed through fingerspelling, although ASL grammar is unrelated to that of English. ASL has verbal agreement and aspectual marking and has a productive system of forming agglutinative classifiers. Many linguists believe ASL to be a subject–verb–object (SVO) language, but there are several alternative proposals to account for ASL word order.\n", "Travis Dougherty explains and demonstrates the ASL alphabet. Voice-over interpretation by Gilbert G. Lensbower.\n\nASL emerged as a language in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded in 1817. This school brought together Old French Sign Language, various village sign languages, and home sign systems; ASL was created in this situation of language contact. ASL was influenced by its forerunners but distinct from all of them.\n\nThe influence of French Sign Language (LSF) on ASL is readily apparent; for example, it has been found that about 58% of signs in modern ASL are cognate to Old French Sign Language signs. However, this is far less than the standard 80% measure used to determine whether related languages are actually dialects. This suggests that nascent ASL was highly affected by the other signing systems brought by the ASD students, despite the fact that the school's original director Laurent Clerc taught in LSF. In fact, Clerc reported that he often learned the students' signs rather than conveying LSF:\n\n\nIt has been proposed that ASL is a creole with LSF as the superstrate language and with the native village sign languages as substrate languages. However, more recent research has shown that modern ASL does not share many of the structural features that characterize creole languages. ASL may have begun as a creole and then undergone structural change over time, but it is also possible that it was never a creole-type language. There are modality-specific reasons that sign languages tend towards agglutination, for example the ability to simultaneously convey information via the face, head, torso, and other body parts. This might override creole characteristics such as the tendency towards isolating morphology. Additionally, Clerc and Gallaudet may have used an artificially constructed form of manually coded language in instruction rather than true LSF.\n\nAlthough the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia share English as a common oral and written language, ASL is not mutually intelligible with British Sign Language (BSL) or Auslan. All three languages show degrees of borrowing from English, but this alone is not sufficient for cross-language comprehension. It has been found that a relatively high percentage (37–44%) of ASL signs have similar translations in Auslan, which for oral languages would suggest that they belong to the same language family. However, this does not seem justified historically for ASL and Auslan, and it is likely that this resemblance is due to the higher degree of iconicity in sign languages in general, as well as contact with English.\n\nAmerican Sign Language is growing in popularity among many states. Many people in high school and colleges wanting to take it as a foreign language, but until recently, it was not a creditable foreign language elective. The issue was that many didn't consider it a foreign language. ASL users, however, have a very distinct culture and way they interact when talking. Their facial expressions and hand movements reflect what they are conveying. They also have their own sentence structure which sets the language apart.\n\n\n", "A sign language interpreter at a presentation\nPrior to the birth of ASL, sign language had been used by various communities in the United States. In the United States, as elsewhere in the world, hearing families with deaf children have historically employed ad-hoc home sign, which often reaches much higher levels of sophistication than gestures used by hearing people in spoken conversation. As early as 1541 at first contact by Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, there were reports that the Plains Indians had developed a sign language to communicate between tribes of different languages.\n\nIn the 19th century, a \"triangle\" of village sign languages developed in New England: one in Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts; one in Henniker, New Hampshire, and one in Sandy River Valley, Maine. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL), which was particularly important for the history of ASL, was used mainly in Chilmark, Massachusetts. Due to intermarriage in the original community of English settlers of the 1690s, and the recessive nature of genetic deafness, Chilmark had a high 4% rate of genetic deafness. MVSL was used even by hearing residents whenever a deaf person was present.\n\nASL is thought to have originated in the American School for the Deaf (ASD), founded in Hartford, Connecticut in 1817. Originally known as ''The American Asylum, At Hartford, For The Education And Instruction Of The Deaf And Dumb'', the school was founded by the Yale graduate and divinity student Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet. Gallaudet, inspired by his success in demonstrating the learning abilities of a young deaf girl Alice Cogswell, traveled to Europe in order to learn deaf pedagogy from European institutions. Ultimately, Gallaudet chose to adopt the methods of the French Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris, and convinced Laurent Clerc, an assistant to the school's founder Charles-Michel de l'Épée, to accompany him back to the United States. Upon his return, Gallaudet founded the ASD on April 15, 1817.\n\nThe largest group of students during the first seven decades of the school were from Martha's Vineyard, and they brought MVSL with them. There were also 44 students from around Henniker, New Hampshire, and 27 from the Sandy River valley in Maine, each of which had their own village sign language. Other students brought knowledge of their own home signs. Laurent Clerc, the first teacher at ASD, taught using French Sign Language (LSF), which itself had developed in the Parisian school for the deaf established in 1755. From this situation of language contact, a new language emerged, now known as ASL.\n\nAustin, Texas\nMore schools for the deaf were founded after ASD, and knowledge of ASL spread to these schools. In addition, the rise of Deaf community organizations bolstered the continued use of ASL. Societies such as the National Association of the Deaf and the National Fraternal Society of the Deaf held national conventions that attracted signers from across the country. This all contributed to ASL's wide use over a large geographical area, atypical of a sign language.\n\nUp to the 1950s, the predominant method in deaf education was oralism – acquiring oral language comprehension and production. Linguists did not consider sign language to be true \"language\", but rather something inferior. Recognition of the legitimacy of ASL was achieved by William Stokoe, a linguist who arrived at Gallaudet University in 1955 when this was still the dominant assumption. Aided by the civil rights movement of the 1960s, Stokoe argued for manualism, the use of sign language in deaf education. Stokoe noted that sign language shares the important features that oral languages have as a means of communication, and even devised a transcription system for ASL. In doing so, Stokoe revolutionized both deaf education and linguistics. In the 1960s, ASL was sometimes referred to as \"Ameslan\", but this term is now considered obsolete.\n", "Counting the number of ASL signers is difficult because ASL users have never been counted by the American census. The ultimate source for current estimates of the number of ASL users in the United States is a report for the National Census of the Deaf Population (NCDP) by Schein and Delk (1974). Based on a 1972 survey of the NCDP, Schein and Delk provided estimates consistent with a signing population between 250,000 and 500,000. The survey did not distinguish between ASL and other forms of signing; in fact, the name \"ASL\" was not yet in widespread use.\n\nIncorrect figures are sometimes cited for the population of ASL speakers in the United States based on misunderstandings of known statistics. Demographics of the deaf population have been confused with those of ASL use, since adults who become deaf late in life rarely use ASL in the home. This accounts for currently cited estimations which are greater than 500,000; such mistaken estimations can reach as high as 15,000,000. A 100,000-person lower bound has been cited for ASL users; the source of this figure is unclear, but it may be an estimate of prelingual deafness, which is correlated with but not equivalent to signing.\n\nASL is sometimes incorrectly cited as the third- or fourth-most-spoken language in the United States. These figures misquote Schein and Delk (1974), who actually concluded that ASL speakers constituted the third-largest population ''requiring an interpreter in court''. Although this would make ASL the third-most used language among monolinguals other than English, it does not imply that it is the fourth-most-spoken language in the United States, since speakers of other languages may also speak English.\n", "ASL is used throughout Anglo-America. This contrasts with Europe, where a variety of sign languages are used within the same continent. The unique situation of ASL seems to have been caused by the proliferation of ASL through schools influenced by the American School for the Deaf, wherein ASL originated, and the rise of community organizations for the Deaf.\n\nThroughout West Africa, ASL-based sign languages are spoken by educated Deaf adults. These languages, imported by boarding schools, are often considered by associations to be the official sign languages of their countries, and are named accordingly, e.g. Nigerian Sign Language, Ghanaian Sign Language. Such signing systems are found in Benin, Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Liberia, Mauritania, Mali, Nigeria, and Togo. Due to lack of data, it is still an open question how similar these sign languages are to the variety of ASL used in America.\n\nIn addition to the aforementioned West African countries, ASL is reported to be used as a first language in Barbados, Bolivia, Cambodia, the Central African Republic, Chad, China (Hong Kong), the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Jamaica, Kenya, Madagascar, the Philippines, Singapore, and Zimbabwe. ASL is also used as a lingua franca throughout the deaf world, widely learned as a second language.\n", "\n\nVarieties of ASL are found throughout the world. There is little difficulty in comprehension among the varieties of the United States and Canada.\n\n\n\nMutual intelligibility among these ASL varieties is high, and the variation is primarily lexical. For example, there are three different words for English ''about'' in Canadian ASL; the standard way, and two regional variations (Atlantic and Ontario), as shown in the videos on the right. Variation may also be phonological, meaning that the same sign may be signed in a different way depending on the region. For example, an extremely common type of variation is between the handshapes /1/, /L/, and /5/ in signs with one handshape.\n\nThere is also a distinct variety of ASL used by the Black Deaf community. Black ASL evolved as a result of racially segregated schools in some states, which included the residential schools for the deaf. Black ASL differs from standard ASL in vocabulary, phonology, and some grammatical structure. While African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is generally viewed as more innovating than standard English, Black ASL is more conservative than standard ASL, preserving older forms of many signs. Black sign language speakers use more two-handed signs than in mainstream ASL, are less likely to show assimilatory lowering of signs produced on the forehead (e.g. KNOW) and use a wider signing space. Modern Black ASL borrows a number of idioms from AAVE; for instance, the AAVE idiom \"I feel you\" is calqued into Black ASL.\n\nASL is used internationally as a lingua franca, and a number of closely related sign languages derived from ASL are used in many different countries. Even so, there have been varying degrees of divergence from standard ASL in these imported ASL varieties. Bolivian Sign Language is reported to be a dialect of ASL, no more divergent than other acknowledged dialects. On the other hand, it is also known that some imported ASL varieties have diverged to the extent of being separate languages. For example, Malaysian Sign Language, which has ASL origins, is no longer mutually comprehensible with ASL and must be considered its own language. For some imported ASL varieties, such as those used in West Africa, it is still an open question how similar they are to American ASL.\n\nWhen communicating with hearing English speakers, ASL-speakers often use what is commonly called Pidgin Signed English (PSE) or 'contact signing', a blend of English structure with ASL. Various types of PSE exist, ranging from highly English-influenced PSE (practically relexified English) to PSE which is quite close to ASL lexically and grammatically, but may alter some subtle features of ASL grammar. Fingerspelling may be used more often in PSE than it is normally used in ASL. There have been some constructed sign languages, known as Manually Coded English (MCE), which match English grammar exactly and simply replace spoken words with signs; these systems are not considered to be varieties of ASL.\n\nTactile ASL (TASL) is a variety of ASL used throughout the United States by and with the deaf-blind. It is particularly common among those with Usher's syndrome. This syndrome results in deafness from birth followed by loss of vision later in life; consequently, those with Usher's syndrome often grow up in the Deaf community using ASL, and later transition to TASL. TASL differs from ASL in that signs are produced by touching the palms, and there are some grammatical differences from standard ASL in order to compensate for the lack of non-manual signing.\n", "In 2013 the White House published a response to a petition that gained over 37,000 signatures to ''officially recognize American Sign Language as a community language and a language of instruction in schools''. The response is titled \"there shouldn't be any stigma about American Sign Language\" and addressed that ASL is a vital language for the Deaf and hard of hearing. Stigmas associated with sign languages and the use of sign for educating children often lead to the absence of sign during periods in children's lives when they can access languages most effectively. Scholars such as Beth S. Benedict advocate not only for bilingualism (using ASL and English training) but also for early childhood intervention for children who are deaf. York University psychologist Ellen Bialystok has also campaigned for bilingualism, arguing that those who are bilingual acquire cognitive skills that may help to prevent dementia later in life.\n\nThe majority of children born to deaf parents are hearing. These children, known as CODAs (\"Children Of Deaf Adults\") are often more culturally Deaf than deaf children, the majority of whom are born to hearing parents. Unlike many deaf children, CODAs acquire ASL as well as Deaf cultural values and behaviors from birth. These bilingual hearing children may be mistakenly labeled as being \"slow learners\" or as having \"language difficulties\" due to preferential attitudes towards spoken language.\n", "The ASL phrase \"American Sign Language\", written in Stokoe notation\nThe ASL phrase \"American Sign Language\", written in Sutton SignWriting\nASL signs for counting\nAlthough there is no well-established writing system for ASL, written sign language dates back almost two centuries. The first systematic writing system for a sign language seems to be that of Roch-Ambroise Auguste Bébian, developed in 1825. However, written sign language remained marginal among the public. In the 1960s, linguist William Stokoe created Stokoe notation specifically for ASL. It is alphabetic, with a letter or diacritic for every phonemic (distinctive) hand shape, orientation, motion, and position, though it lacks any representation of facial expression, and is better suited for individual words than for extended passages of text. Stokoe used this system for his 1965 ''A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles''.\n\nSignWriting, proposed in 1974 by Valerie Sutton, is the first writing system to gain use among the public and the first writing system for sign languages to be included in the Unicode Standard. SignWriting consists of more than 5000 distinct iconic graphs/glyphs. Currently, it is in use in many schools for the Deaf, particularly in Brazil, and has been used in international sign language forums with speakers and researchers in more than 40 countries, including Brazil, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Slovenia, Tunisia, and the United States. Sutton SignWriting has both a printed and an electronically produced form so that persons can use the system anywhere that oral languages are written (personal letters, newspapers, and media, academic research). The systematic examination of the International Sign Writing Alphabet (ISWA) as an equivalent usage structure to the International Phonetic Alphabet for spoken languages has been proposed. According to some researchers, SignWriting is not a phonemic orthography and does not have a one-to-one map from phonological forms to written forms. This assertion has been disputed and the process for each country to look at the ISWA and create a phonemic/morphemic assignment of features of each sign language was proposed by researchers Msc. Roberto Cesar Reis da Costa and Madson Barreto in a thesis forum on June 23, 2014. The SignWriting community has an open project on Wikimedia Labs to support the various Wikimedia projects on Wikimedia Incubator and elsewhere involving SignWriting. The ASL Wikipedia request was marked as eligible in 2008 and the test ASL Wikipedia has 50 articles written in ASL using SignWriting.\n\nThe most widely used transcription system among academics is HamNoSys, developed at the University of Hamburg. Based on Stokoe Notation, HamNoSys was expanded to about 200 graphs in order to allow transcription of any sign language. Phonological features are usually indicated with single symbols, though the group of features that make up a handshape is indicated collectively with a symbol.\n\nComparison of ASL writing systems. Sutton SignWriting is on the left, followed by Si5s, then Stokoe notation in the center, with SignFont and its simplified derivation ASL-phabet on the right.\n\nSeveral additional candidates for written ASL have appeared over the years, including SignFont, ASL-phabet, and Si5s.\n\nFor English-speaking audiences, ASL is often glossed using English words. These glosses are typically all-capitalized and are arranged in ASL order. For example, the ASL sentence DOG NOW CHASE>IX=3 CAT, meaning \"the dog is chasing the cat\", uses NOW to mark ASL progressive aspect and shows ASL verbal inflection for the third person (written with >IX=3). However, glossing is not used to write the language for speakers of ASL.\n", "\n\n\nEach sign in ASL is composed of a number of distinctive components. A sign may use one hand or both. Each hand assumes a handshape with a particular orientation in a particular location on the body or in the \"signing space\", and may involve movement. Changing any one of these may change the meaning of a sign, as illustrated by the ASL signs THINK and DISAPPOINTED:\n\n\n\n+ THINK\n handshape\n closed fist with index finger extended\n\n orientation\n facing signer's body\n\n location\n tip of finger in contact with forehead\n\n movement\n unidirectional single contacting movement\n\n\n\n+ DISAPPOINTED\n handshape\n (as for THINK)\n\n orientation\n (as for THINK)\n\n location\n tip of finger in contact with chin\n\n movement\n (as for THINK)\n\n\n\nThere are also meaningful non-manual signals in ASL. This may include movement of the eyebrows, the cheeks, the nose, the head, the torso, and the eyes.\n\nWilliam Stokoe proposed that these components are analogous to the phonemes of spoken languages. There has also been a proposal that these are analogous to classes like place and manner of articulation. As in spoken languages, these phonological units can be split into distinctive features. For instance, the handshapes /2/ and /3/ are distinguished by the presence or absence of the feature ± closed thumb, as illustrated to the right. ASL has processes of allophony and phonotactic restrictions. There is ongoing research into whether ASL has an analog of syllables in spoken language.\n", "\nTwo men and a woman signing\n\n===Morphology===\nASL has a rich system of verbal inflection. This involves both grammatical aspect—how the action of verbs flows in time—and agreement marking. Aspect can be marked by changing the manner of movement of the verb; for example, continuous aspect is marked by incorporating rhythmic, circular movement, while punctual aspect is achieved by modifying the sign so that it has a stationary hand position. Verbs may agree with both the subject and the object, and are marked for number and reciprocity. Reciprocity is indicated by using two one-handed signs; for example, the sign SHOOT, made with an L-shaped handshape with inward movement of the thumb, inflects to SHOOTreciprocal, articulated by having two L-shaped hands \"shooting\" at each other.\n\nASL has a productive system of classifiers, which are used to classify objects and their movement in space. For example, a rabbit running downhill would use a classifier consisting of a bent V classifier handshape with a downhill-directed path; if the rabbit is hopping, the path is executed with a bouncy manner. In general, classifiers are composed of a \"classifier handshape\" bound to a \"movement root\". The classifier handshape represents the object as a whole, incorporating such attributes as surface, depth, and shape, and is usually very iconic. The movement root consists of a path, a direction and a manner.\n\n====Fingerspelling====\n\nThe American manual alphabet. Letters with asterisks are shown from the side (L left or R right), rather than as the viewer would see them.\nASL possesses a set of 26 signs known as the American manual alphabet, which can be used to spell out words from the English language. These signs make use of the 19 handshapes of ASL. For example, the signs for 'p' and 'k' use the same handshape but different orientations. A common misconception is that ASL consists only of fingerspelling; although such a method (Rochester Method) has been used, it is not ASL.\n\nFingerspelling is a form of borrowing, a linguistic process wherein words from one language are incorporated into another. In ASL, fingerspelling is used for proper nouns and for technical terms with no native ASL equivalent. There are also some other loan words which are fingerspelled, either very short English words or abbreviations of longer English words, e.g. ''O-N'' from English 'on', and ''A-P-T'' from English 'apartment'. Fingerspelling may also be used to emphasize a word that would normally be signed otherwise.\n\n===Syntax===\nThe basic word order of ASL is disputed. Most linguists agree that ASL is a subject–verb–object (SVO) language with various phenomena affecting this basic word order. Basic SVO sentences are signed without any pauses:\n\nHowever, other word orders may also occur, as ASL allows the topic of a sentence to be moved to sentence-initial position, a phenomenon known as topicalization. In object-subject-verb (OSV) sentences, the object is topicalized, marked by a forward head-tilt and a pause:\n\n\nEven more, word orders can be obtained through the phenomenon of subject copy. In subject copy, the subject is repeated at the end of the sentence, accompanied by head nodding, either for clarification or emphasis:\n\nASL also allows null subject sentences, where the subject is implied rather than stated explicitly. Subjects can be copied even in a null subject sentence, in which the subject is omitted from its original position, yielding a verb–object–subject (VOS) construction:\n\nTopicalization, accompanied with a null subject and a subject copy, can produce yet another word order, object–verb–subject (OVS).\n\nThese properties of ASL allow it a variety of word orders, leading many to question which is the true, underlying, \"basic\" order. There are several other proposals that attempt to account for the flexibility of word order in ASL. One proposal is that languages like ASL are best described with a topic–comment structure, where words are ordered by their importance in the sentence rather than by their syntactic properties. Another hypothesis is that ASL exhibits free word order, in which syntax is not encoded in word order whatsoever, but can be encoded by other means (e.g. head nods, eyebrow movement, body position).\n", "\nA common misconception is that signs are iconically self-explanatory, that they are a transparent imitation of what they mean, or even that they are pantomime. In fact, many signs bear no resemblance to their referent, either because they were originally arbitrary symbols or because their iconicity has been obscured over time. Even so, in ASL iconicity plays a significant role; a high percentage of signs resemble their referents in some way. This may be due to the fact that the medium of sign—three-dimensional space—naturally allows more iconicity than oral language.\n\nIn the era of the influential linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, it was assumed that the mapping between form and meaning in language must be completely arbitrary. Although onomatopoeia is a clear exception, since words like 'choo-choo' bear clear resemblance to the sounds that they mimic, the Saussurean approach was to treat these as marginal exceptions. ASL, with its significant inventory of iconic signs, directly challenges this theory.\n\nResearch on acquisition of pronouns in ASL has shown that children do not always take advantage of the iconic properties of signs when interpreting their meaning. It has been found that when children acquire the pronoun \"you\", the iconicity of the point (at the child) is often confused, being treated more like a name. This is a similar finding to research in oral languages on pronoun acquisition. It has also been found that iconicity of signs does not affect immediate memory and recall; less iconic signs are remembered just as well as highly iconic signs.\n", "* American Sign Language literature\n* Bimodal bilingualism\n* Great ape language, of which ASL has been one attempted mode\n* Legal recognition of sign languages\n* Sign name\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n Accessible American Sign Language dictionary\n* One-stop resource American Sign Language and video dictionary\n* National Institute of Deafness ASL section\n* National Association of the Deaf ASL information\n* American Sign Language\n* The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project\n* Video Dictionary of ASL\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Classification", "History", "Population", "Geographic distribution", "Varieties", "Stigma", "Writing systems", "Phonology", "Grammar", "Iconicity", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	American Sign Language
[ "\nIn computing, an '''applet''' is any small application that performs one specific task that runs within the scope of a dedicated widget engine or a larger program, often as a plug-in. The term is frequently used to refer to a Java applet, a program written in the Java programming language that is designed to be placed on a web page. Applets are typical examples of transient and auxiliary applications that don't monopolize the user's attention. Applets are not full-featured application programs, and are intended to be easily accessible.\n", "The word ''applet'' was first used in 1990 in PC Magazine. However, the concept of an applet, or more broadly a small interpreted program downloaded and executed by the user, dates at least to RFC 5 (1969) by Jeff Rulifson, which described the Decode-Encode Language (DEL), which was designed to allow remote use of the oN-Line System (NLS) over ARPANET, by downloading small programs to enhance the interaction. This has been specifically credited as a forerunner of Java's downloadable programs in RFC 2555.\n", "In some cases, an applet does not run independently. These applets must run either in a container provided by a host program, through a plugin, or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model.\n\n=== Web-based Applets ===\nApplets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by HTML alone. They can capture mouse input and also have controls like buttons or check boxes. In response to the user action an applet can change the provided graphic content. This makes applets well suitable for demonstration, visualization, and teaching. There are online applet collections for studying various subjects, from physics to heart physiology. Applets are also used to create online game collections that allow players to compete against live opponents in real-time.\n\nAn applet can also be a text area only, providing, for instance, a cross platform command-line interface to some remote system. If needed, an applet can leave the dedicated area and run as a separate window. However, applets have very little control over web page content outside the applet dedicated area, so they are less useful for improving the site appearance in general (while applets like news tickers or WYSIWYG editors are also known). Applets can also play media in formats that are not natively supported by the browser\n\nHTML pages may embed parameters that are passed to the applet. Hence the same applet may appear differently depending on the parameters that were passed.\n\nExamples of Web-based Applets include:\n\n* QuickTime movies\n* Flash movies\n* Windows Media Player applets, used to display embedded video files in Internet Explorer (and other browsers that support the plugin)\n* 3D modeling display applets, used to rotate and zoom a model\n* Browser games can be applet-based, though some may develop into fully functional applications that require installation.\n\n===Applet Vs. Subroutine===\nA larger application distinguishes its applets through several features:\n\n* Applets execute only on the \"client\" platform environment of a system, as contrasted from \"servlet\". As such, an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container (the browser).\n* The container restricts applets' capabilities.\n* Applets are written in a language different from the scripting or HTML language that invokes it. The applet is written in a compiled language, whereas the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language, hence the greater performance or functionality of the applet. Unlike a subroutine, a complete web component can be implemented as an applet.\n", "\n\nA Java Applet is a java program that is launched from HTML and run in a web browser. It can provide web applications with interactive features that cannot be provided by HTML. Since Java's bytecode is platform-independent, Java applets can be executed by browsers running under many platforms, including Windows, Unix, macOS, and Linux. When a Java technology-enabled web browser processes a page that contains an applet, the applet's code is transferred to the client's system and executed by the browser's Java Virtual Machine (JVM). An HTML page references an applet either via the deprecated tag or via its replacement, the tag.\n", "Recent developments in the coding of applications including mobile and embedded systems have led to the awareness of the security of applets.\n\n===Open Platform Applets===\nApplets in an open platform environment should provide secure interactions between different applications. A compositional approach can be used to provide security for open platform applets. Advanced compositional verification methods have been developed for secure applet interactions.\n\n===Java Applets===\nA Java applet contains different security models: unsigned Java applet security, signed Java applet security, and self signed Java applet security.\n\n===Web-based Applets===\nIn an applet-enabled web browser, many methods can be used to provide applet security for malicious applets. A malicious applet can infect a computer system in many ways, including denial of service, invasion of privacy, and annoyance. A typical solution for malicious applets is to make the web browser to monitor applets' activities. This will result in a web browser that will enable the manual or automatic stopping of malicious applets. To illustrate this method, AppletGuard was used to observe and control any applet in a browser successfully.\n", " \n* Application posture\n* Bookmarklet\n* Java applet\n* Widget engine\n* Abstract Window Toolkit\n", "\n", "\n* Applets API (Sun Developer Network)\n* Applets Tutorial (Sun Microsystems)\n* Free Applet Development Kit (JavaCOS Team)\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Applet as an extension of other software", "Java Applet", "Security", " See also ", " References ", "External links" ]	Applet
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alternate history''' or '''alternative history''' (British English), sometimes abbreviated as '''AH''', is a genre of fiction consisting of stories in which one or more historical events occur differently. These stories usually contain \"what if\" scenarios at crucial points in history and present outcomes other than those in the historical record. The stories are conjectural, but are sometimes based on fact. Alternate history can be seen as a subgenre of literary fiction, science fiction, or historical fiction; alternate history works may use tropes from any or all of these genres. Another term occasionally used for the genre is \"allohistory\" (literally \"other history\").\n\nSince the 1950s, this type of fiction has, to a large extent, merged with science fiction tropes involving time travel between alternate histories, psychic awareness of the existence of one universe by the people in another, or time travel that results in history splitting into two or more timelines. Cross-time, time-splitting, and alternate history themes have become so closely interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another.\n\nIn French, Italian, Spanish, Catalan and German, the genre of alternate history is sometimes called ''uchronie / ucronia / ucronía / Uchronie'', which has given rise to the term ''Uchronia'' in English. This neologism is based on the prefix (which in Ancient Greek means \"not/not any/no\") and the Greek , meaning \"time.\" A ''uchronia'' means literally \"(in) no time.\" This term apparently also inspired the name of the alternate history book list, ''uchronia.net''.\n", "The Collins English Dictionary defines alternative history as \"a genre of fiction in which the author speculates on how the course of history might have been altered if a particular historical event had had a different outcome.\" According to Steven H Silver, an American science fiction editor, alternate history requires three things: a point of divergence from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing, a change that would alter history as it is known, and an examination of the ramifications of that change.\n\nSeveral genres of fiction have been misidentified as alternate history. Science fiction set in what was the future but is now the past, like Arthur C. Clarke's ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' or George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', is not alternate history because the author did not make the choice to change the past at the time of writing. Secret history, which can take the form of fiction or nonfiction, documents events that may or may not have happened historically but did not have an effect on the overall outcome of history, and so is not to be confused with alternate history. \n\nAlternate history is related to, but distinct from, counterfactual history. This term is used by some professional historians to describe the practice of using thoroughly researched and carefully reasoned speculations on \"what might have happened if...\" as a tool of academic historical research, as opposed to a literary device.\n", "\n===Antiquity and medieval===\nCastilian-language translation of Joanot Martorell's ''Tirant lo Blanch''\nThe earliest example of alternate (or counterfactual) history is found in Livy's ''Ab Urbe Condita Libri'' (book IX, sections 17–19). Livy contemplated an alternative 4th century BC in which Alexander the Great had expanded his empire westward instead of eastward; he asked, \"What would have been the results for Rome if she had been engaged in a war with Alexander?\" Livy concluded that the Romans would likely have defeated Alexander.\n\nAnother example is Joanot Martorell's 1490 epic romance ''Tirant lo Blanch'', which was written when the loss of Constantinople to the Turks was still a recent and traumatic memory for Christian Europe. It tells the story of the knight Tirant the White from Brittany who travels to the embattled remnants of the Byzantine Empire. He becomes a Megaduke and commander of its armies and manages to fight off the invading Ottoman armies of . He saves the city from Islamic conquest, and even chases the Turks deeper into lands they had previously conquered.\n\n===19th century===\nThough ''The Book of Mormon'' (1830) is regarded by those in the Latter Day Saint movement as a sacred text, Mitch Horowitz has characterized the document as alternate history. ''The Book of Mormon'' depicts a variation on a commonly-believed theme in early 19th-century America: the idea that the Americas had been settled by immigrants from the Old World who had established an advanced culture that fell into decline and was thus vanished by the arrival of Europeans in the 1490s and later.\n\nOne of the earliest works of alternate history published in large quantities for the reception of a large audience may be Louis Geoffroy's ''Histoire de la Monarchie universelle: Napoléon et la conquête du monde (1812–1832)'' (History of the Universal Monarchy: Napoleon And The Conquest Of The World) (1836), which imagines Napoleon's First French Empire emerging victorious in the French invasion of Russia in 1811 and in an invasion of England in 1814, later unifying the world under Bonaparte's rule.\n\nIn the English language, the first known complete alternate history is Nathaniel Hawthorne's short story \"P.'s Correspondence\", published in 1845. It recounts the tale of a man who is considered \"a madman\" due to his perceptions of a different 1845, a reality in which long-dead famous people, such as the poets Robert Burns, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats, the actor Edmund Kean, the British politician George Canning, and even Napoleon Bonaparte, are still alive.\n\nThe first novel-length alternate history in English would seem to be Castello Holford's ''Aristopia'' (1895). While not as nationalistic as Louis Geoffroy's ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812–1823'', ''Aristopia'' is another attempt to portray a Utopian society. In ''Aristopia'', the earliest settlers in Virginia discover a reef made of solid gold and are able to build a Utopian society in North America.\n\n===Early 20th century and the era of the pulps===\nA number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see, for example, Charles Petrie's ''If: A Jacobite Fantasy'' 1926). In 1931, British historian Sir John Squire collected a series of essays from some of the leading historians of the period for his anthology ''If It Had Happened Otherwise''. In this work, scholars from major universities (as well as important non-university-based authors) turned their attention to such questions as \"If the Moors in Spain Had Won\" and \"If Louis XVI Had Had an Atom of Firmness\". The essays range from serious scholarly efforts to Hendrik Willem van Loon's fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan. Among the authors included were Hilaire Belloc, André Maurois, and Winston Churchill.\n\nA 1952 world map from the universe of Ward Moore's ''Bring the Jubilee'', where the Confederacy wins the \"War of Southern Independence\"—the counterfactual American Civil War\nOne of the entries in Squire's volume was Churchill's \"If Lee Had Not the Battle of Gettysburg\", written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the Confederate States of America had won the American Civil War. The entry considers what would have happened if the North had been victorious (in other words, a character from an alternate world imagines a world more like the real one we live in, although not identical in every detail). Speculative work that narrates from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as \"recursive alternate history\", a \"double-blind what-if\", or an \"alternate-alternate history\". Churchill's essay was one of the influences behind Ward Moore's alternate history novel ''Bring the Jubilee'', in which General Robert E. Lee won the Battle of Gettysburg, paving the way for the eventual victory of the Confederacy in the American Civil War (named the \"War of Southron Independence\" in this timeline). The protagonist, autodidact Hodgins Backmaker, travels back to the aforementioned battle and inadvertently changes history, resulting in the emergence of our own timeline and the consequent victory of the Union instead.\n\nAmerican humorist author James Thurber parodied alternate history stories about the American Civil War in his 1930 story \"If Grant had been drinking at Appomattox\", which he accompanied with this very brief introduction: \"''Scribner's'' magazine is publishing a series of three articles: 'If Booth Had Missed Lincoln', 'If Lee Had Won the Battle of Gettysburg', and 'If Napoleon Had Escaped to America'. This is the fourth.\".\n\nAnother example of alternate history from this period (and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) is H.G. Wells' ''Men Like Gods'' (1923), in which several Englishmen are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross-time machine into an alternate universe featuring a seemingly pacifistic and utopian Britain. When the Englishmen, led by a satiric figure based on Winston Churchill, try to seize power, the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else's universe. Wells describes a multiverse of alternative worlds, complete with the paratime travel machines that would later become popular with U.S. pulp writers. However, since his hero experiences only a single alternate world, this story is not very different from conventional alternate history.\n\nIn the 1930s, alternate history moved into a new arena. The December 1933 issue of ''Astounding'' published Nat Schachner's \"Ancestral Voices\", which was quickly followed by Murray Leinster's \"Sidewise in Time\". While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straightforward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his \"World gone mad\", pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows Professor Minott and his students from a fictitious Robinson College as they wander through analogues of worlds that followed a different history.\n\nFatherland'' where the Germans won World War II.\n\nA somewhat similar approach was taken by Robert A. Heinlein in his 1941 novelette ''Elsewhen'', in which a professor trains his mind to move his body across timelines. He then hypnotizes his students so they can explore more of them. Eventually each settles into the reality most suitable for him or her. Some of the worlds they visit are mundane, some very odd; others follow science fiction or fantasy conventions.\n\nWorld War II produced alternate history for propaganda: both British and American authors wrote works depicting Nazi invasions of their respective countries as cautionary tales.\n\n====Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences====\nThe period around World War II also saw the publication of the time travel novel ''Lest Darkness Fall'' by L. Sprague de Camp, in which an American academic travels to Italy at the time of the Byzantine invasion of the Ostrogoths. De Camp's time traveler, Martin Padway, is depicted as making permanent historical changes and implicitly forming a new time branch, thereby making the work an alternate history.\n\nTime travel as the cause of a point of divergence (POD), which can denote either the bifurcation of a historical timeline or a simple replacement of the future that existed before the time traveling event, has continued to be a popular theme. In Ward Moore's ''Bring the Jubilee'', the protagonist lives in an alternate history in which the Confederacy has won the American Civil War; he travels backward through time, and brings about a Union victory in the Battle of Gettysburg.\n\nWhen a story's assumptions about the nature of time travel lead to the complete replacement of the visited time's future rather than just the creation of an additional time line, the device of a \"time patrol\" is often used, most notably in Poul Anderson's \"Time Patrol\" collection—where guardians race uptime and downtime to preserve the \"correct\" history. In the most celebrated of this series, ''Delenda Est'', the interference of time traveling outlaws causes Carthage to win the Second Punic War and destroy Rome with massive consequences for the present day.\n\nA more recent example is ''Making History'' by Stephen Fry, in which a time machine is used to alter history so that Adolf Hitler was never born. This ironically results in a more competent leader of the Third Reich, resulting in the country's ascendancy and longevity in this altered timeline.\n\n===Cross-time stories===\nH.G. Wells' \"cross-time\" or \"many universes\" variant (see above) was fully developed by Murray Leinster in his 1934 short story \"Sidewise in Time\", in which sections of the Earth's surface begin changing places with their counterparts in alternate timelines.\n\nFredric Brown employed this subgenre to satirize the science fiction pulps and their adolescent readers—and fears of foreign invasion—in the classic ''What Mad Universe'' (1949). In Clifford D. Simak's ''Ring Around the Sun'' (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed but a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding McCarthyism and the Cold War.\n\n====Paratime themes====\n\nAn illustration of Schrödinger's cat, showing the branching of parallel universes according to a many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics\nIn the late 1940s and the 1950s, however, writers such as H. Beam Piper, Sam Merwin, Jr. and Andre Norton wrote thrillers set in a multiverse in which all alternate histories are co-existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and/or paratime capsules. These authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and/or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of James Bond-style secret agents (Piper called them the \"paratime police\").\n\nThis concept provided a convenient framing for packing a smörgåsbord of historical alternatives (and even of timeline \"branches\") into a single novel, either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain(s) through multiple worlds or (less artfully) via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors (or between paratime agents and new recruits) regarding the histories of such worlds.\n\nThe paratime theme is sometimes used without the police; Poul Anderson dreamed up the Old Phoenix tavern as a nexus between alternate histories. A character from a modern American alternate history ''Operation Chaos'' can thus appear in the English Civil War setting of ''A Midsummer's Tempest''. In this context, the distinction between an alternate history and a parallel universe with some points in common but no common history may not be feasible, as the writer may not provide enough information to distinguish.\n\nParatime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics (first formulated by Hugh Everett III in 1957) to account for the differing worlds. Some science fiction writers interpret the splitting of worlds to depend on human decision-making and free will, while others rely on the butterfly effect from chaos theory to amplify random differences at the atomic or subatomic level into a macroscopic divergence at some specific point in history; either way, science fiction writers usually have all changes flow from a particular historical point of divergence (often abbreviated 'POD' by fans of the genre). Prior to Everett, science-fiction writers drew on higher dimensions and the speculations of P. D. Ouspensky to explain their characters' cross-time journeys.\n\n====Quantum theory of many worlds====\nWhile many justifications for alternate histories involve a multiverse, the \"many world\" theory would naturally involve many worlds, in fact a continually exploding array of universes. In quantum theory, new worlds would proliferate with every quantum event, and even if the writer uses human decisions, every decision that could be made differently would result in a different timeline. A writer's fictional multiverse may, in fact, preclude some decisions as humanly impossible, as when, in ''Night Watch'', Terry Pratchett depicts a character informing Vimes that while anything that can happen, has happened, nevertheless there is no history whatsoever in which Vimes has ever murdered his wife. When the writer explicitly maintains that ''all'' possible decisions are made in all possible ways, one possible conclusion is that the characters were neither brave, nor clever, nor skilled, but simply lucky enough to happen on the universe in which they did not choose the cowardly route, take the stupid action, fumble the crucial activity, etc.; few writers focus on this idea, although it has been explored in stories such as Larry Niven's story ''All the Myriad Ways'', where the reality of all possible universes leads to an epidemic of suicide and crime because people conclude their choices have no moral import.\n\nIn any case, even if it is true that every possible outcome occurs in some world, it can still be argued that traits such as bravery and intelligence might still affect the relative frequency of worlds in which better or worse outcomes occurred (even if the total number of worlds with each type of outcome is infinite, it is still possible to assign a different measure to different infinite sets). The physicist David Deutsch, a strong advocate of the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics, has argued along these lines, saying that \"By making good choices, doing the right thing, we thicken the stack of universes in which versions of us live reasonable lives. When you succeed, all the copies of you who made the same decision succeed too. What you do for the better increases the portion of the multiverse where good things happen.\" This view is perhaps somewhat too abstract to be explored directly in science fiction stories, but a few writers have tried, such as Greg Egan in his short story ''The Infinite Assassin'', where an agent is trying to contain reality-scrambling \"whirlpools\" that form around users of a certain drug, and the agent is constantly trying to maximize the consistency of behavior among his alternate selves, attempting to compensate for events and thoughts he experiences, he guesses are of low measure relative to those experienced by most of his other selves.\n\nMany writers—perhaps the majority—avoid the discussion entirely. In one novel of this type, H. Beam Piper's ''Lord Kalvan of Otherwhen'', a Pennsylvania State Police officer, who knows how to make gunpowder, is transported from our world to an alternate universe where the recipe for gunpowder is a tightly held secret and saves a country that is about to be conquered by its neighbors. The paratime patrol members are warned against going into the timelines immediately surrounding it, where the country ''will'' be overrun, but the book never depicts the slaughter of the innocent thus entailed, remaining solely in the timeline where the country is saved.\n\nThe cross-time theme was further developed in the 1960s by Keith Laumer in the first three volumes of his ''Imperium'' sequence, which would be completed in ''Zone Yellow'' (1990). Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by Michael Kurland and Jack Chalker in the 1980s; Chalker's ''G.O.D. Inc'' trilogy (1987–89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural. Kurland's ''Perchance'' (1988), the first volume of the never-completed \"Chronicles of Elsewhen\", presents a multiverse of secretive cross-time societies that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers. Harry Turtledove has launched the Crosstime Traffic series for teenagers featuring a variant of H. Beam Piper's paratime trading empire.\n\n====Rival paratime worlds====\nThe concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in Fritz Leiber's Change War series, starting with the Hugo Award winning ''The Big Time'' (1958); followed by Richard C. Meredith's ''Timeliner'' trilogy in the 1970s, Michael McCollum's ''A Greater Infinity'' (1982) and John Barnes' ''Timeline Wars'' trilogy in the 1990s.\n\nSuch \"paratime\" stories may include speculation that the laws of nature can vary from one universe to the next, providing a science fictional explanation—or veneer—for what is normally fantasy. Aaron Allston's ''Doc Sidhe'' and ''Sidhe Devil'' take place between our world, the \"grim world\" and an alternate \"fair world\" where the Sidhe retreated to. Although technology is clearly present in both worlds, and the \"fair world\" parallels our history, about fifty years out of step, there is functional magic in the fair world. Even with such explanation, the more explicitly the alternate world resembles a normal fantasy world, the more likely the story is to be labelled fantasy, as in Poul Anderson's \"House Rule\" and \"Loser's Night\". In both science fiction and fantasy, whether a given parallel universe is an alternate history may not be clear. The writer might allude to a POD only to explain the existence and make no use of the concept, or may present the universe without explanation of its existence.\n\n=== Major writers explore alternate histories ===\nKeith Laumer's ''Worlds of the Imperium'' is one of the earliest alternate history novels: It was published by ''Fantastic Stories of the Imagination'' in 1961 in magazine form, and reprinted by Ace Books in 1962 as one half of an Ace Double. Besides our world. Laumer describes a world in which the American Revolution never happened, ruled by Britain; and a world ruled by a ruthless dictatorship.\n\n''The Man in the High Castle'' TV series, based on Philip K. Dick's ''The Man in the High Castle''\n\nIn 1962, Philip K. Dick published ''The Man in the High Castle'', an alternate history in which Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan won World War II. This book contained an example of \"alternate-alternate\" history, in that one of its characters is the author of a book depicting a reality in which the Allies won the war, itself divergent from real-world history in several aspects.\n\nIt was followed by Vladimir Nabokov's ''Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle'' (1969), a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia, and that borrows from Dick's idea of \"alternate-alternate\" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a \"counter-earth\" that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in ''Ada'' is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels). Strikingly, the characters in ''Ada'' seem to acknowledge their own world as the copy or negative version, calling it \"Anti-Terra\" while its mythical twin is the real \"Terra.\" Not only history but science has followed a divergent path on Anti-Terra: it boasts all the same technology as our world, but all based on water instead of electricity, when a character in ''Ada'' makes a long-distance call, all the toilets in the house flush at once to provide hydraulic power.\n\nIsaac Asimov's short story ''What If—'' is about a couple who can explore alternate realities by means of a television-like device. This idea can also be found in Asimov's 1955 novel ''The End of Eternity''. In that novel, the \"Eternals\" can change the realities of the world, without people being aware of it.\n\nGuido Morselli described the defeat of Italy (and subsequently France) in World War I in his 1975 novel ''Past Conditional'' ('''') where the static Alpine front line which divided Italy from Austria during that war collapses when the Germans and the Austrians forsake trench warfare and adopt blitzkrieg twenty years in advance.\n\nKingsley Amis set his 1976 novel ''The Alteration'' in the 20th century, but major events in the Reformation did not take place, and Protestantism is limited to the breakaway Republic of New England. Martin Luther was reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church and later became Pope Germanian I.\n\n2002 saw Kim Stanley Robinson publish ''The Years of Rice and Salt'', starting at the point of divergence with Timur turning his army away from Europe, where the Black Death has killed 99% of Europe's population, instead of only a third. Robinson explores world history from that point in AD 1405 (807 AH) to about AD 2045 (1467 AH). Rather than following the Great Man theory of history, focusing on leaders, wars, and major events, Robinson writes more about social history, similar to the Annales School of history theory and Marxist historiography, focusing on the lives of ordinary people living in their time and place.\n\n''The Plot Against America'' (2004) by Philip Roth looks at an America where Franklin D. Roosevelt is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and Charles Lindbergh is elected, leading to a U.S. that features increasing fascism and anti-Semitism.\n\nMichael Chabon, occasionally an author of speculative fiction, contributed to the genre with his 2007 novel ''The Yiddish Policemen's Union''. This book explores a world in which the State of Israel was destroyed in its infancy and many of the world's Jews instead live in a small strip of Alaska set aside by the US government for Jewish settlement. The story follows a Jewish detective solving a murder case in the Yiddish-speaking semi-autonomous city state of Sitka. Stylistically, Chabon borrows heavily from the noir and detective fiction genres, while exploring social issues related to Jewish history and culture. Apart from the alternate history of the Jews and Israel, Chabon also plays with other common tropes of AH Fiction; in the book, Germany actually loses the war even ''harder'' than they did in reality, getting hit with a nuclear bomb instead of just simply losing a ground war (subverting the common \"what if Germany won WWII?\" trope).\n\n===Contemporary alternate history in popular literature===\nThe world of 1942, as depicted at the start of S. M. Stirling's ''The Domination'' series\nWorld War I from Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory (\"Timeline 191\") series\nThe late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of the prolific alternate history author Harry Turtledove, as well as the development of the steampunk genre and two series of anthologies—the ''What Might Have Been'' series edited by Gregory Benford and the ''Alternate ...'' series edited by Mike Resnick. This period also saw alternate history works by S. M. Stirling, Kim Stanley Robinson, Harry Harrison, Howard Waldrop, and others.\n\nSince the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history and has been given the title \"Master of Alternate History\" by some. His books include those of Timeline 191 (a.k.a. Southern Victory, also known as TL-191), in which, while the Confederate States of America won the American Civil War, the Union and Imperial Germany defeat the Entente Powers in the two \"Great War\"s of the 1910s and 1940s (with a Nazi-esque Confederate government attempting to exterminate its Black population), and the Worldwar series, in which aliens invaded Earth during World War II. Other stories by Turtledove include ''A Different Flesh'', in which America was not colonized from Asia during the last ice age; ''In the Presence of Mine Enemies'', in which the Nazis won World War II; and ''Ruled Britannia'', in which the Spanish Armada succeeded in conquering Britain in the Elizabethan era, with William Shakespeare being given the task of writing the play that will motivate the Britons to rise up against their Spanish conquerors. He also co-authored a book with actor Richard Dreyfuss, ''The Two Georges'', in which the United Kingdom retained the American colonies, with George Washington and King George III making peace. He did a two-volume series in which the Japanese not only bombed Pearl Harbor but also invaded and occupied the Hawaiian Islands.\n\nPerhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focuses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis and/or Axis Powers conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a \"Fortress America\" exists under siege; while in others, there is a Nazi/Japanese Cold War comparable to the US/Soviet equivalent in 'our' timeline. ''Fatherland'' (1992), by Robert Harris, is set in Europe following the Nazi victory. Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel, for instance James P. Hogan's ''The Proteus Operation''. Norman Spinrad wrote ''The Iron Dream'' in 1972, which is intended to be a science fiction novel written by Adolf Hitler after fleeing from Europe to North America in the 1920s.\n\nIn Jo Walton's \"Small Change\" series, the United Kingdom made peace with Hitler before the involvement of the United States in World War II, and fascism slowly strangled the UK. Former House Speaker Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen have written a novel, ''1945'', in which the U.S. defeated Japan but not Germany in World War II, resulting in a Cold War with Germany rather than the Soviet Union. Gingrich and Forstchen neglected to write the promised sequel; instead, they wrote a trilogy about the American Civil War, starting with ''Gettysburg: A Novel of the Civil War'', in which the Confederates win a victory at the Battle of Gettysburg - however, after Lincoln responds by bringing Grant and his forces to the eastern theater, the Army of Northern Virginia is soon trapped and destroyed in Maryland, and the war ends within weeks. Also from that general era, Martin Cruz Smith, in his first novel, posited an independent American Indian nation following the defeat of Custer in ''The Indians Won'' (1970).\n\nBeginning with ''The Probability Broach'' in 1980, L. Neil Smith wrote several novels that postulated the disintegration of the U.S. Federal Government after Albert Gallatin joins the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 and eventually leads to the creation of a libertarian utopia.\n\nA recent time traveling splitter variant involves entire communities being shifted elsewhere to become the unwitting creators of new time branches. These communities are transported from the present (or the near-future) to the past or to another time-line via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong. S. M. Stirling wrote the ''Island in the Sea of Time'' trilogy, in which Nantucket Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to Bronze Age times to become the world's first superpower. In Eric Flint's 1632 series, a small town in West Virginia is transported to 17th century central Europe and drastically changes the course of the Thirty Years' War, which was then underway. John Birmingham's ''Axis of Time'' trilogy deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the Empire of Japan and the Germans (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons). Similarly, Robert Charles Wilson's ''Mysterium'' depicts a failed U.S. government experiment which transports a small American town into an alternative version of the U.S. run by believers in a form of Christianity known as Gnosticism, who are engaged in a bitter war with the \"Spanish\" in Mexico (the chief scientist at the laboratory where the experiment occurred is described as a Gnostic, and references to Christian Gnosticism appear repeatedly in the book).\n\n===In the contemporary fantasy genre===\nThe Angevin Empire in 1172, before the point of divergence of Randall Garrett's \"Lord Darcy\" series\nMany fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Some posit points of divergence, but some also feature magic altering history all along. One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is Poul Anderson's ''Three Hearts and Three Lions'' in which the Matter of France is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author provides a point of divergence is Randall Garrett's \"Lord Darcy\" series: a monk systemizing magic rather than science, so the use of foxglove to treat heart disease is called superstition. The other great point of divergence in this timeline occurs in 1199, when Richard the Lionheart survives the Siege of Chaluz and returns to England, making the Angevin Empire so strong it survives into the 20th century.\n\n''Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell'' takes place in an alternative version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed in Northumbria for over 300 years. In Patricia Wrede's Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in Poul Anderson's ''A Midsummer Tempest'' William Shakespeare is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of Oliver Cromwell and Charles I, with an alternate outcome for the English Civil War and an earlier Industrial Revolution.\n\n''The Tales of Alvin Maker'' series by Orson Scott Card (a parallel to the life of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement) takes place in an alternate America, beginning in the early 19th century. Prior to that time, a POD occurred: England, under the control of Oliver Cromwell, had banished \"makers\", or anyone else demonstrating \"knacks\" (an ability to perform seemingly supernatural feats) to the North American continent. Thus the early American colonists embraced as perfectly ordinary these gifts, and counted on them as a part of their daily lives. The political division of the continent is considerably altered, with two large English colonies bookending a smaller \"American\" nation, one aligned with England, and the other governed by exiled Cavaliers. Actual historical figures are seen in a much different light: Ben Franklin is revered as the continent's finest \"maker\", George Washington was executed at the hands of an English army, and \"Tom\" Jefferson is the first president of \"Appalachia\", the result of a compromise between the Continentals and the British.\n\nOn the other hand, when the \"Old Ones\" still manifest themselves in England in Keith Roberts's ''Pavane'', which takes place in a technologically backward world after a Spanish assassination of Elizabeth I allowed the Spanish Armada to conquer England, the possibility that the fairies were real but retreated from modern advances makes the POD possible: the fairies really were present all along, in a secret history. Again, in the English Renaissance fantasy ''Armor of Light'' by Melissa Scott and Lisa A. Barnett, the magic used in the book, by Dr. John Dee and others, actually was practiced in the Renaissance; positing a secret history of effective magic makes this an alternate history with a POD, Sir Philip Sidney's surviving the Battle of Zutphen in 1586, and shortly thereafter saving the life of Christopher Marlowe.\n\nMany works of fantasy posit a world in which known practitioners of magic were able to make it function, and where the consequences of such reality would not, in fact, disturb history to such an extent as to make it plainly alternate history. Many ambiguous alternate/secret histories are set in Renaissance or pre-Renaissance times, and may explicitly include a \"retreat\" from the world, which would explain the current absence of such phenomena.\n\nWhen the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, the distinction becomes clear between alternate history on the one hand and contemporary fantasy, using in effect a form of secret history (as when Josepha Sherman's ''Son of Darkness'' has an elf living in New York City, in disguise) on the other. In works such as Robert A. Heinlein's ''Magic, Incorporated'' where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and Poul Anderson's ''Operation Chaos'' and its sequel ''Operation Luna'', where djinns are serious weapons of war—with atomic bombs—the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history—although references in ''Operation Chaos'' to degaussing the effects of cold iron make it possible that it is the result of a POD. The sequel clarifies this as the result of a collaboration of Einstein and Planck in 1901, resulting in the theory of \"rhea tics\". Henry Moseley applies this theory to \"degauss the effects of cold iron and release the goetic forces.\" This results in the suppression of ferromagnetism and the re-emergence of magic and magical creatures.\n\nAlternate history shades off into other fantasy subgenres when the use of actual, though altered, history and geography decreases, although a culture may still be clearly the original source; Barry Hughart's ''Bridge of Birds'' and its sequels take place in a fantasy world, albeit one clearly based on China, and with allusions to actual Chinese history, such as the Empress Wu. Richard Garfinkle's ''Celestial Matters'' incorporates ancient Chinese physics and Greek Aristotelian physics, using them as if factual.\n\nA fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer Diana Wynne Jones in her ''Chrestomanci'' quartet (1977–1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, ''Witch Week'' stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the \"normal\" history of most worlds visited by the wizard).\n\nTerry Pratchett's works include several references to alternate histories of Discworld. ''Men At Arms'' observes that in millions of universes, Edward d'Eath became an obsessive recluse rather than the instigator of the plot that he is in the novel. In ''Jingo'', Vimes accidentally picks up a pocket organizer that should have gone down another leg of the Trousers of Time, and so can hear the organizer reporting on the deaths that would have occurred had his decision gone otherwise. Indeed, Discworld contains an equivalent of the Time Patrol in its History Monks. ''Night Watch'' revolves around a repair of history after a time traveller’s murder of an important figure in Vimes's past. ''Thief of Time'' presents them functioning as a full-scale Time Patrol, ensuring that history occurs at all.\n\nAlternate history has long been a staple of Japanese speculative fiction with such authors as Futaro Yamada and Ryō Hanmura writing novels set in recognizable historical settings with supernatural or science fiction elements present. In 1973, Ryō Hanmura wrote ''Musubi no Yama Hiroku'' which recreated 400 years of Japan's history from the perspective of a secret magical family with psychic abilities. The novel has since come to be recognized as a masterpiece of Japanese speculative fiction. Twelve years later, author Hiroshi Aramata wrote the groundbreaking ''Teito Monogatari'' which reimagined the history of Tokyo across the 20th century in a world heavily influenced by the supernatural.\n\nThe TV show ''Sliders'' explores different possible alternate realities by having the protagonist \"slide\" into different parallel dimensions of the same planet Earth.\n\nThe two-part Theatre play \"Harry Potter and the Cursed Child\" contains alternate timelines set within the world of Harry Potter.\n\nIn ''World of Winx,'' the seven fairies- Bloom, Stella, Musa, Tecna, Flora, Aisha and Roxy- live on Earth, where humans are ignorant of the existence of fairies or belief in magic; much unlike the fourth season of ''Winx Club'', where they had brought all magic back to Earth by releasing its terrestrial fairies.\n\n===Video games===\nFor the same reasons that this genre is explored by role-playing games, alternate history is also an intriguing backdrop for the storylines of many video games. A famous example of an alternate history game is ''Command & Conquer: Red Alert''. Released in 1996, the game presents a point of divergence in 1946 where Albert Einstein goes back in time to prevent World War II from ever taking place by erasing Adolf Hitler from time after he is released from Landsberg Prison in 1924. He is successful in his mission, but in the process allows Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union to become powerful enough to launch a massive campaign to conquer Europe.\n\nIn the ''Civilization'' series, the player guides a civilization from prehistory to the present day, creating radically altered versions of history on a long time-scale. Several scenarios recreate a particular period which becomes the \"point of divergence\" in an alternate history shaped by the player's actions. Popular examples in ''Sid Meier's Civilization IV'' include ''Desert War'', set in the Mediterranean theatre of World War II and featuring scripted events tied to possible outcomes of battles; ''Broken Star'', set in a hypothetical Russian civil war in 2010; and ''Rhye's and Fall of Civilization'', an 'Earth simulator' designed to mirror a history as closely as possible but incorporating unpredictable elements to provide realistic alternate settings.\n\nIn some games such as the ''Metal Gear'' and ''Resident Evil'' series, events that were originally intended to represent the near future at the time the games were originally released later ended up becoming alternate histories in later entries in those franchises. For example, ''Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake'' (1990), set in 1999, depicted a near future that ended up becoming an alternate history in ''Metal Gear Solid'' (1998). Likewise, ''Resident Evil'' (1996) and ''Resident Evil 2'' (1998), both set in 1998, depicted near-future events that had later become an alternative history by the time ''Resident Evil 4'' (2005) was released.\n\nIn the 2009 steampunk shooter, ''Damnation'' is set on an alternate version of planet Earth, in the early part of the 20th century after the American Civil War, which had spanned over several decades, where steam engines replace combustion engines. The game sees the protagonists fighting off a rich industrialist who wants to do away with both the Union and Confederacy in one swift movement and turn the United States of America into a country called the \"American Empire\" with a totalitarian dictatorship.\n\nA balkanized 1930s North America from the ''Crimson Skies'' franchise\n''Crimson Skies'' is one example of an alternate history spawning multiple interpretations in multiple genres. The stories and games in ''Crimson Skies'' take place in an alternate 1930s United States, where the nation crumbled into many hostile states following the effects of the Great Depression, the Great War, and Prohibition. With the road and railway system destroyed, commerce took to the skies, which led to the emergence of air pirate gangs who plunder the aerial commerce.\n\nThe game ''Freedom Fighters'' portrays a situation similar to that of the movie ''Red Dawn'' and ''Red Alert 2'', though less comically than the latter. The point of divergence is during World War II, where the Soviet Union develops an atomic bomb first and uses it on Berlin. With the balance of power and influence tipped in Russia's favor, history diverges; brief summaries at the beginning of the game inform the player of the Communist bloc's complete takeover of Europe by 1953, a different ending to the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the spread of Soviet influence into South America and Mexico.\n\nSimilarly, the 2007 video game ''World in Conflict'' is set in 1989, with the Soviet Union on the verge of collapse. The point of divergence is several months before the opening of the game, when Warsaw Pact forces staged a desperate invasion of Western Europe. As the game begins, a Soviet invasion force lands in Seattle, taking advantage of the fact that most of the US military is in Europe.\n\nThe game ''Battlestations: Pacific'', released in 2008, offered in alternate history campaign for the Imperial Japanese Navy, wherein Japan destroys all three carriers in the Battle of Midway, which follows with a successful invasion of the island. Because of this, the United States lacked any sort of aerial power to fight the Japanese, and is continuously forced into the defense.\n\n''Turning Point: Fall of Liberty'', released in February 2008, is an alternate history first person shooter where Winston Churchill died in 1931 from being hit by a taxi cab. Because of this, Great Britain lacks the charismatic leader needed to keep the country together and Nazi Germany successfully conquers Great Britain via Operation Sea Lion in 1940. Germany later conquers the rest of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East while mass-producing their wunderwaffe. The Axis launch a surprise invasion of an isolationist United States' Eastern Seaboard in 1953, which forces the country to surrender and submit to a puppet government.\n\nPromotional booth for ''Fallout: New Vegas'' from PAX 2010\nAnother alternate history game involving Nazis is ''War Front: Turning Point'' in which Hitler died during the early days of World War II and thus, a much more effective leadership rose to power. Under the command of a new Führer (who is referred to as \"Chancellor\", and his real name is never revealed), Operation Sealion succeeds and the Nazis successfully conquer Britain, sparking a cold war between the Allied Powers and Germany.\n\nThe ''Fallout'' series of computer role-playing games is set in a divergent America, where history after World War II diverges from the real world to follow a retro-futuristic timeline. For example, fusion power was invented quite soon after the end of the war, but the transistor was never developed. The result was a future that has a 1950s 'World of Tomorrow' feel to it, with extremely high technology such as artificial intelligence implemented with thermionic valves and other technologies now considered obsolete.\n\nMany game series by Swedish developer Paradox Interactive start off at a concise point in history, allowing the player to immerse in the role of a contemporary leader and alter the course of in-game history. The most prominent game with this setting is ''Crusader Kings II''.\n\n''S.T.A.L.K.E.R.'' games have an alternate history at the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, where a special area called \"The Zone\" is formed.\n\n''Wolfenstein: The New Order'' is set in an alternate 1960 in which the Nazis won the Second World War, also thanks to their acquisition of high technology. The sequel ''Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus'' continues this, although being set in the conquered United States of America.\n", "Fans of alternate history have made use of the internet from a very early point to showcase their own works and provide useful tools for those fans searching for anything alternate history, first in mailing lists and usenet groups, later in web databases and forums.\n\nThe \"Usenet Alternate History List\" was first posted on April 11, 1991, to the Usenet newsgroup rec.arts.sf-lovers. In May 1995, the dedicated newsgroup ''soc.history.what-if'' was created for showcasing and discussing alternate histories. Its prominence declined with the general migration from unmoderated usenet to moderated web forums, most prominently ''AlternateHistory.com'', today the self-described \"largest gathering of alternate history fans on the internet\" with over 25,000 members.\n\nIn addition to these discussion forums, in 1997 Uchronia: The Alternate History List was created as an online repository, now containing over 2,900 alternate history novels, stories, essays, and other printed materials in several different languages. Uchronia was selected as the Sci Fi Channel's \"Sci Fi Site of the Week\" twice.\n\nCollaborative attempts by several amateur writers have led to notable accomplishments. The contributors at Ill Bethisad have made two constructed languages: Brithenig and Wenedyk.\n", "* 20th century in science fiction\n* Alien space bats\n* Alternate ending\n* Alternative future\n* American Civil War alternate histories\n* Dieselpunk\n* Fictional universe\n* Future history\n* Historical revisionism\n* Hypothetical Axis victory in World War II\n* Invasion literature\n* Jonbar hinge\n* List of alternate history fiction\n* Retrofuturism\n* Ruritanian romance\n* Sidewise Award for Alternate History\n* Steampunk\n", "\n", "* Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). ''Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction''. Mellen, 2003.\n* Collins, William Joseph. ''Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History''. University of California at Davis 1990.\n* Darius, Julian. \"58 Varieties: Watchmen and Revisionism\". In '' Minutes to Midnight: Twelve Essays on Watchmen''. Sequart Research & Literacy Organization, 2010. Focuses on Watchmen as alternate history.\n* Robert Cowley (ed.), ''What If? Military historians imagine what might have been''. Pan Books, 1999.\n* Gevers, Nicholas. ''Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy''. University of Cape Town, 1997\n* Hellekson, Karen. ''The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time''. Kent State University Press, 2001\n* Keen, Antony G. \"Alternate Histories of the Roman Empire in Stephen Baxter, Robert Silverberg and Sophia McDougall\". ''Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction'' 102, Spring 2008.\n* McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. ''Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre''. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1994.\n* Nedelkovh, Aleksandar B. ''British and American Science Fiction Novel 1950–1980 with the Theme of Alternative History (an Axiological Approach)''. 1994 , 1999 .\n* Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. ''The World Hitler Never Made. Alternate History and the Memory of Nazism''. 2005\n* Rosenfeld, Gavriel David. \"Why Do We Ask 'What If?' Reflections on the Function of Alternate History.\" ''History and Theory'' 41, Theme Issue 41 (December 2002), 90–103\n* Schneider-Mayerson, Matthew. \" What Almost Was: The Politics of the Contemporary Alternate History Novel.\" ''American Studies'' 30, 3–4 (Summer 2009), 63–83.\n", "\n\n\n* AlternateHistory.com—The largest English-language Alternate History community on the Internet.\n* Changing The Times, is an Alternate History Electronic Magazine written and maintained by alternate historians. It contains a discussion board.\n* \"For Want of a Genre\", article by Christopher M. Cevasco.\n* Histalt.com is author Richard J. (Rick) Sutcliffe's collection of Alternate History links.\n* The Sidewise Award for Alternate History lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration.\n* Uchronia has an introduction to the topic, and lists over 2000 works of alternate history.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", "History of literature", "Online", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alternate history
[ "The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals are: 1s, 2s, 2p''x'', 2p''y'', and 2p''z''. The two colors show the phase or sign of the wave function in each region. These are graphs of functions which depend on the coordinates of one electron. To see the elongated shape of functions that show probability density more directly, see the graphs of d-orbitals below.\n\nIn quantum mechanics, an '''atomic orbital''' is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. The term, atomic orbital, may also refer to the physical region or space where the electron can be calculated to be present, as defined by the particular mathematical form of the orbital.\n\nEach orbital in an atom is characterized by a unique set of values of the three quantum numbers , , and , which respectively correspond to the electron's energy, angular momentum, and an angular momentum vector component (the magnetic quantum number). Each such orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons, each with its own spin quantum number . The simple names '''s orbital''', '''p orbital''', '''d orbital''' and '''f orbital''' refer to orbitals with angular momentum quantum number and respectively. These names, together with the value of , are used to describe the electron configurations of atoms. They are derived from the description by early spectroscopists of certain series of alkali metal spectroscopic lines as '''s'''harp, '''p'''rincipal, '''d'''iffuse, and '''f'''undamental. Orbitals for > 3 continue alphabetically, omitting j (g, h, i, k, …) because some languages do not distinguish between the letters \"i\" and \"j\".\n\nAtomic orbitals are the basic building blocks of the '''atomic orbital model''' (alternatively known as the electron cloud or wave mechanics model), a modern framework for visualizing the submicroscopic behavior of electrons in matter. In this model the electron cloud of a multi-electron atom may be seen as being built up (in approximation) in an electron configuration that is a product of simpler hydrogen-like atomic orbitals. The repeating ''periodicity'' of the blocks of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements within sections of the periodic table arises naturally from the total number of electrons that occupy a complete set of '''s''', '''p''', '''d''' and '''f''' atomic orbitals, respectively, although for higher values of the quantum number , particularly when the atom in question bears a positive charge, the energies of certain sub-shells become very similar and so the order in which they are said to be populated by electrons (e.g. Cr = Ar4''s''13''d''5 and Cr2+ = Ar3''d''4) can only be rationalized somewhat arbitrarily.\n", "With the development of quantum mechanics and experimental findings (such as the two slits diffraction of electrons), it was found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus could not be fully described as particles, but needed to be explained by the wave-particle duality. In this sense, the electrons have the following properties:\n\nWave-like properties:\n# The electrons do not orbit the nucleus in the manner of a planet orbiting the sun, but instead exist as standing waves. Thus the lowest possible energy an electron can take is similar to the fundamental frequency of a wave on a string. Higher energy states are similar to harmonics of that fundamental frequency.\n# The electrons are never in a single point location, although the probability of interacting with the electron at a single point can be found from the wave function of the electron.\n\nParticle-like properties:\n# There is always an integer number of electrons orbiting the nucleus.\n# Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon.\n# The electrons retain particle-like properties such as: each wave state has the same electrical charge as the electron particle. Each wave state has a single discrete spin (spin up or spin down). This can depend upon its superposition.\n\nThus, despite the popular analogy to planets revolving around the Sun, electrons cannot be described simply as solid particles. In addition, atomic orbitals do not closely resemble a planet's elliptical path in ordinary atoms. A more accurate analogy might be that of a large and often oddly shaped \"atmosphere\" (the electron), distributed around a relatively tiny planet (the atomic nucleus). Atomic orbitals exactly describe the shape of this \"atmosphere\" only when a single electron is present in an atom. When more electrons are added to a single atom, the additional electrons tend to more evenly fill in a volume of space around the nucleus so that the resulting collection (sometimes termed the atom's \"electron cloud\") tends toward a generally spherical zone of probability describing where the atom’s electrons will be found. This is due to the uncertainty principle.\n\n=== Formal quantum mechanical definition ===\nAtomic orbitals may be defined more precisely in formal quantum mechanical language. Specifically, in quantum mechanics, the state of an atom, i.e., an eigenstate of the atomic Hamiltonian, is approximated by an expansion (see configuration interaction expansion and basis set) into linear combinations of anti-symmetrized products (Slater determinants) of one-electron functions. The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called atomic orbitals. (When one considers also their spin component, one speaks of '''atomic spin orbitals'''.) A state is actually a function of the coordinates of all the electrons, so that their motion is correlated, but this is often approximated by this independent-particle model of products of single electron wave functions. (The London dispersion force, for example, depends on the correlations of the motion of the electrons.)\n\nIn atomic physics, the atomic spectral lines correspond to transitions (quantum leaps) between quantum states of an atom. These states are labeled by a set of quantum numbers summarized in the term symbol and usually associated with particular electron configurations, i.e., by occupation schemes of atomic orbitals (for example, 1s2 2s2 2p6 for the ground state of neon—term symbol: 1S0).\n\nThis notation means that the corresponding Slater determinants have a clear higher weight in the configuration interaction expansion. The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated with a given transition. For example, one can say for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital. Nevertheless, one has to keep in mind that electrons are fermions ruled by the Pauli exclusion principle and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one-determinant wave function at all. This is the case when electron correlation is large.\n\nFundamentally, an atomic orbital is a one-electron wave function, even though most electrons do not exist in one-electron atoms, and so the one-electron view is an approximation. When thinking about orbitals, we are often given an orbital vision which (even if it is not spelled out) is heavily influenced by this Hartree–Fock approximation, which is one way to reduce the complexities of molecular orbital theory.\n\n=== Types of orbitals ===\nHeat maps of some hydrogen-like atomic orbitals showing the probability density ('''f''' orbitals and higher are not shown)\nAtomic orbitals can be the hydrogen-like \"orbitals\" which are exact solutions to the Schrödinger equation for a hydrogen-like \"atom\" (i.e., an atom with one electron). Alternatively, atomic orbitals refer to functions that depend on the coordinates of one electron (i.e., orbitals) but are used as starting points for approximating wave functions that depend on the simultaneous coordinates of all the electrons in an atom or molecule. The coordinate systems chosen for atomic orbitals are usually spherical coordinates in atoms and cartesians in polyatomic molecules. The advantage of spherical coordinates (for atoms) is that an orbital wave function is a product of three factors each dependent on a single coordinate: . The angular factors of atomic orbitals generate s, p, d, etc. functions as real combinations of spherical harmonics (where and are quantum numbers). There are typically three mathematical forms for the radial functions which can be chosen as a starting point for the calculation of the properties of atoms and molecules with many electrons:\n\n# The ''hydrogen-like atomic orbitals'' are derived from the exact solution of the Schrödinger Equation for one electron and a nucleus, for a hydrogen-like atom. The part of the function that depends on the distance ''r'' from the nucleus has nodes (radial nodes) and decays as .\n# The Slater-type orbital (STO) is a form without radial nodes but decays from the nucleus as does the hydrogen-like orbital.\n# The form of the Gaussian type orbital (Gaussians) has no radial nodes and decays as .\n\nAlthough hydrogen-like orbitals are still used as pedagogical tools, the advent of computers has made STOs preferable for atoms and diatomic molecules since combinations of STOs can replace the nodes in hydrogen-like atomic orbital. Gaussians are typically used in molecules with three or more atoms. Although not as accurate by themselves as STOs, combinations of many Gaussians can attain the accuracy of hydrogen-like orbitals.\n", "\n\nThe term \"orbital\" was coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for ''one-electron orbital wave function''. However, the idea that electrons might revolve around a compact nucleus with definite angular momentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier by Niels Bohr, and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Nagaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic behavior as early as 1904. Explaining the behavior of these electron \"orbits\" was one of the driving forces behind the development of quantum mechanics.\n\n=== Early models ===\nWith J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897, it became clear that atoms were not the smallest building blocks of nature, but were rather composite particles. The newly discovered structure within atoms tempted many to imagine how the atom's constituent parts might interact with each other. Thomson theorized that multiple electrons revolved in orbit-like rings within a positively charged jelly-like substance, and between the electron's discovery and 1909, this \"plum pudding model\" was the most widely accepted explanation of atomic structure.\n\nShortly after Thomson's discovery, Hantaro Nagaoka predicted a different model for electronic structure. Unlike the plum pudding model, the positive charge in Nagaoka's \"Saturnian Model\" was concentrated into a central core, pulling the electrons into circular orbits reminiscent of Saturn's rings. Few people took notice of Nagaoka's work at the time, and Nagaoka himself recognized a fundamental defect in the theory even at its conception, namely that a classical charged object cannot sustain orbital motion because it is accelerating and therefore loses energy due to electromagnetic radiation. Nevertheless, the Saturnian model turned out to have more in common with modern theory than any of its contemporaries.\n\n=== Bohr atom ===\nIn 1909, Ernest Rutherford discovered that the bulk of the atomic mass was tightly condensed into a nucleus, which was also found to be positively charged. It became clear from his analysis in 1911 that the plum pudding model could not explain atomic structure. In 1913 as Rutherford's post-doctoral student, Niels Bohr proposed a new model of the atom, wherein electrons orbited the nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized in units ''h''/2π. This constraint automatically permitted only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state (by declaring that there was no state below this), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.\n\nRutherford–Bohr model of the hydrogen atom.\nAfter Bohr's use of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect to relate energy levels in atoms with the wavelength of emitted light, the connection between the structure of electrons in atoms and the emission and absorption spectra of atoms became an increasingly useful tool in the understanding of electrons in atoms. The most prominent feature of emission and absorption spectra (known experimentally since the middle of the 19th century), was that these atomic spectra contained discrete lines. The significance of the Bohr model was that it related the lines in emission and absorption spectra to the energy differences between the orbits that electrons could take around an atom. This was, however, ''not'' achieved by Bohr through giving the electrons some kind of wave-like properties, since the idea that electrons could behave as matter waves was not suggested until eleven years later. Still, the Bohr model's use of quantized angular momenta and therefore quantized energy levels was a significant step towards the understanding of electrons in atoms, and also a significant step towards the development of quantum mechanics in suggesting that quantized restraints must account for all discontinuous energy levels and spectra in atoms.\n\nWith de Broglie's suggestion of the existence of electron matter waves in 1924, and for a short time before the full 1926 Schrödinger equation treatment of hydrogen-like atom, a Bohr electron \"wavelength\" could be seen to be a function of its momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its half-wavelength (this physically incorrect Bohr model is still often taught to beginning students). The Bohr model for a short time could be seen as a classical model with an additional constraint provided by the 'wavelength' argument. However, this period was immediately superseded by the full three-dimensional wave mechanics of 1926. In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model is called a semi-classical model because of its quantization of angular momentum, not primarily because of its relationship with electron wavelength, which appeared in hindsight a dozen years after the Bohr model was proposed.\n\nThe Bohr model was able to explain the emission and absorption spectra of hydrogen. The energies of electrons in the ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, etc. states in the Bohr model match those of current physics. However, this did not explain similarities between different atoms, as expressed by the periodic table, such as the fact that helium (two electrons), neon (10 electrons), and argon (18 electrons) exhibit similar chemical inertness. Modern quantum mechanics explains this in terms of electron shells and subshells which can each hold a number of electrons determined by the Pauli exclusion principle. Thus the ''n'' = 1 state can hold one or two electrons, while the ''n'' = 2 state can hold up to eight electrons in 2s and 2p subshells. In helium, all ''n'' = 1 states are fully occupied; the same for ''n'' = 1 and ''n'' = 2 in neon. In argon the 3s and 3p subshells are similarly fully occupied by eight electrons; quantum mechanics also allows a 3d subshell but this is at higher energy than the 3s and 3p in argon (contrary to the situation in the hydrogen atom) and remains empty.\n\n=== Modern conceptions and connections to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle ===\nImmediately after Heisenberg discovered his uncertainty principle, Bohr noted that the existence of any sort of wave packet implies uncertainty in the wave frequency and wavelength, since a spread of frequencies is needed to create the packet itself. In quantum mechanics, where all particle momenta are associated with waves, it is the formation of such a wave packet which localizes the wave, and thus the particle, in space. In states where a quantum mechanical particle is bound, it must be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the packet and its minimum size implies a spread and minimal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momentum and energy. In quantum mechanics, as a particle is localized to a smaller region in space, the associated compressed wave packet requires a larger and larger range of momenta, and thus larger kinetic energy. Thus, the binding energy to contain or trap a particle in a smaller region of space, increases without bound, as the region of space grows smaller. Particles cannot be restricted to a geometric point in space, since this would require an infinite particle momentum.\n\nIn chemistry, Schrödinger, Pauling, Mulliken and others noted that the consequence of Heisenberg's relation was that the electron, as a wave packet, could not be considered to have an exact location in its orbital. Max Born suggested that the electron's position needed to be described by a probability distribution which was connected with finding the electron at some point in the wave-function which described its associated wave packet. The new quantum mechanics did not give exact results, but only the probabilities for the occurrence of a variety of possible such results. Heisenberg held that the path of a moving particle has no meaning if we cannot observe it, as we cannot with electrons in an atom.\n\nIn the quantum picture of Heisenberg, Schrödinger and others, the Bohr atom number ''n'' for each orbital became known as an ''n-sphere'' in a three dimensional atom and was pictured as the mean energy of the probability cloud of the electron's wave packet which surrounded the atom.\n", "Orbitals are given names in the form:\n:\nwhere ''X'' is the energy level corresponding to the principal quantum number , '''type''' is a lower-case letter denoting the shape or subshell of the orbital and it corresponds to the angular quantum number , and is the number of electrons in that orbital.\n\nFor example, the orbital 1s2 (pronounced \"one ess two\") has two electrons and is the lowest energy level () and has an angular quantum number of . In X-ray notation, the principal quantum number is given a letter associated with it. For , the letters associated with those numbers are K, L, M, N, O, … respectively.\n", "\n\nThe simplest atomic orbitals are those that are calculated for systems with a single electron, such as the hydrogen atom. An atom of any other element ionized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the orbitals take the same form. In the Schrödinger equation for this system of one negative and one positive particle, the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian operator for the energy. They can be obtained analytically, meaning that the resulting orbitals are products of a polynomial series, and exponential and trigonometric functions. (see hydrogen atom).\n\nFor atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are ''qualitatively'' similar to those of hydrogen, and in the simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical approximations must be used.\n\nA given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three quantum numbers: , , and . The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the electron configuration of the atoms and the periodic table.\n\nThe stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbitals. However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital. Electron states are best represented by time-depending \"mixtures\" (linear combinations) of multiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method.\n\nThe quantum number first appeared in the Bohr model where it determines the radius of each circular electron orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus; all electrons with the same value of ''n'' lie at the same average distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value of ''n'' are said to comprise a \"shell\". Orbitals with the same value of ''n'' and also the same value of are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a \"subshell\".\n", "\n\nBecause of the quantum mechanical nature of the electrons around a nucleus, atomic orbitals can be uniquely defined by a set of integers known as quantum numbers. These quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values, and their physical interpretation changes depending on whether real or complex versions of the atomic orbitals are employed.\n\n=== Complex orbitals ===\nIn physics, the most common orbital descriptions are based on the solutions to the hydrogen atom, where orbitals are given by the product between a radial function and a pure spherical harmonic. The quantum numbers, together with the rules governing their possible values, are as follows:\n\nThe principal quantum number describes the energy of the electron and is always a positive integer. In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with each value of ''n''; these orbitals together are sometimes called ''electron shells''.\n\nThe azimuthal quantum number describes the orbital angular momentum of each electron and is a non-negative integer. Within a shell where is some integer , ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation . For instance, the shell has only orbitals with , and the shell has only orbitals with , and . The set of orbitals associated with a particular value of are sometimes collectively called a ''subshell''.\n\nThe magnetic quantum number, , describes the magnetic moment of an electron in an arbitrary direction, and is also always an integer. Within a subshell where is some integer , ranges thus: .\n\nThe above results may be summarized in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of available in that subshell. Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist.\n\n\n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n …\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n \n 0 \n −1, 0, 1\n \n \n \n\n\n \n 0 \n −1, 0, 1 \n −2, −1, 0, 1, 2\n \n \n\n\n \n 0 \n −1, 0, 1 \n −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 \n −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3\n \n\n\n \n 0 \n −1, 0, 1 \n −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 \n −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 \n −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4\n\n\n …\n … \n … \n … \n … \n … \n …\n\n\nSubshells are usually identified by their - and -values. is represented by its numerical value, but is represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may speak of the subshell with and as a '2s subshell'.\n\nEach electron also has a spin quantum number, '''s''', which describes the spin of each electron (spin up or spin down). The number '''s''' can be + or −.\n\nThe Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same values of all four quantum numbers. If there are two electrons in an orbital with given values for three quantum numbers, (n, l, m), these two electrons must differ in their spin.\n\nThe above conventions imply a preferred axis (for example, the ''z'' direction in Cartesian coordinates), and they also imply a preferred direction along this preferred axis. Otherwise there would be no sense in distinguishing from . As such, the model is most useful when applied to physical systems that share these symmetries. The Stern–Gerlach experiment — where an atom is exposed to a magnetic field — provides one such example.\n\n=== Real orbitals ===\nAn atom that is embedded in a crystalline solid feels multiple preferred axes, but no preferred direction. Instead of building atomic orbitals out of the product of radial functions and a single spherical harmonic, linear combinations of spherical harmonics are typically used, designed so that the imaginary part of the spherical harmonics cancel out. These '''real orbitals''' are the building blocks most commonly shown in orbital visualizations.\n\nIn the real hydrogen-like orbitals, for example, and have the same interpretation and significance as their complex counterparts, but is no longer a good quantum number (though its absolute value is). The orbitals are given new names based on their shape with respect to a standardized Cartesian basis. The real hydrogen-like p orbitals are given by the following\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nwhere , , and , are the complex orbitals corresponding to .\n\nThe equations for the px and py orbitals depend on the phase convention used for the spherical harmonics. The above equations suppose that the spherical harmonics are defined by . However some quantum physicists include a phase factor (-1)m in these definitions, which has the effect of relating the px orbital to a ''difference'' of spherical harmonics and the py orbital to the corresponding ''sum''. (For more detail, see Spherical harmonics#Conventions).\n", "Cross-section of computed hydrogen atom orbital () for the 6s orbital. The s orbitals, though spherically symmetrical, have radially placed wave-nodes for . Only s orbitals invariably have a center anti-node; the other types never do.\n\nSimple pictures showing orbital shapes are intended to describe the angular forms of regions in space where the electrons occupying the orbital are likely to be found. The diagrams cannot show the entire region where an electron can be found, since according to quantum mechanics there is a non-zero probability of finding the electron (almost) anywhere in space. Instead the diagrams are approximate representations of boundary or contour surfaces where the probability density has a constant value, chosen so that there is a certain probability (for example 90%) of finding the electron within the contour. Although as the square of an absolute value is everywhere non-negative, the sign of the wave function is often indicated in each subregion of the orbital picture.\n\nSometimes the function will be graphed to show its phases, rather than the which shows probability density but has no phases (which have been lost in the process of taking the absolute value, since is a complex number). orbital graphs tend to have less spherical, thinner lobes than graphs, but have the same number of lobes in the same places, and otherwise are recognizable. This article, in order to show wave function phases, shows mostly graphs.\n\nThe lobes can be viewed as standing wave interference patterns between the two counter rotating, ring resonant travelling wave \"\" and \"\" modes, with the projection of the orbital onto the xy plane having a resonant \"\" wavelengths around the circumference. Though rarely depicted the travelling wave solutions can be viewed as rotating banded tori, with the bands representing phase information. For each there are two standing wave solutions and . For the case where the orbital is vertical, counter rotating information is unknown, and the orbital is z-axis symmetric. For the case where there are no counter rotating modes. There are only radial modes and the shape is spherically symmetric. For any given , the smaller is, the more radial nodes there are. Loosely speaking ''n'' is energy, is analogous to eccentricity, and is orientation. In the classical case, a ring resonant travelling wave, for example in a circular transmission line, unless actively forced, will spontaneously decay into a ring resonant standing wave because reflections will build up over time at even the smallest imperfection or discontinuity.\n\nGenerally speaking, the number determines the size and energy of the orbital for a given nucleus: as increases, the size of the orbital increases. When comparing different elements, the higher nuclear charge of heavier elements causes their orbitals to contract by comparison to lighter ones, so that the overall size of the whole atom remains very roughly constant, even as the number of electrons in heavier elements (higher ) increases.\nExperimentally imaged 1''s'' and 2''p'' core-electron orbitals of Sr, including the effects of atomic thermal vibrations and excitation broadening, retrieved from energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDX) in scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM).\nAlso in general terms, determines an orbital's shape, and its orientation. However, since some orbitals are described by equations in complex numbers, the shape sometimes depends on also. Together, the whole set of orbitals for a given and fill space as symmetrically as possible, though with increasingly complex sets of lobes and nodes.\n\nThe single s-orbitals () are shaped like spheres. For it is roughly a solid ball (it is most dense at the center and fades exponentially outwardly), but for or more, each single s-orbital is composed of spherically symmetric surfaces which are nested shells (i.e., the \"wave-structure\" is radial, following a sinusoidal radial component as well). See illustration of a cross-section of these nested shells, at right. The s-orbitals for all numbers are the only orbitals with an anti-node (a region of high wave function density) at the center of the nucleus. All other orbitals (p, d, f, etc.) have angular momentum, and thus avoid the nucleus (having a wave node ''at'' the nucleus). Recently, there has been an effort to experimentally image the 1''s'' and 2''p'' orbitials in a SrTiO3 crystal using scanning transmission electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. Because the imaging was conducted using an electron beam, Coulombic beam-orbital interaction that is often termed as the impact parameter effect is included in the final outcome (see the figure at right).\n\nThe shapes of p, d and f-orbitals are described verbally here and shown graphically in the ''Orbitals table'' below. The three p-orbitals for have the form of two ellipsoids with a point of tangency at the nucleus (the two-lobed shape is sometimes referred to as a \"dumbbell\"—there are two lobes pointing in opposite directions from each other). The three p-orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as determined by their respective linear combination of values of . The overall result is a lobe pointing along each direction of the primary axes.\n\nFour of the five d-orbitals for look similar, each with four pear-shaped lobes, each lobe tangent at right angles to two others, and the centers of all four lying in one plane. Three of these planes are the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes—the lobes are between the pairs of primary axes—and the fourth has the centres along the x and y axes themselves. The fifth and final d-orbital consists of three regions of high probability density: a torus with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its z axis. The overall total of 18 directional lobes point in every primary axis direction and between every pair.\n\nThere are seven f-orbitals, each with shapes more complex than those of the d-orbitals.\n\nAdditionally, as is the case with the s orbitals, individual p, d, f and g orbitals with values higher than the lowest possible value, exhibit an additional radial node structure which is reminiscent of harmonic waves of the same type, as compared with the lowest (or fundamental) mode of the wave. As with s orbitals, this phenomenon provides p, d, f, and g orbitals at the next higher possible value of (for example, 3p orbitals vs. the fundamental 2p), an additional node in each lobe. Still higher values of further increase the number of radial nodes, for each type of orbital.\n\nThe shapes of atomic orbitals in one-electron atom are related to 3-dimensional spherical harmonics. These shapes are not unique, and any linear combination is valid, like a transformation to cubic harmonics, in fact it is possible to generate sets where all the d's are the same shape, just like the and are the same shape.\n\nThe 1s, 2s, & 2p orbitals of a sodium atom.\nIt should be noted that while individual orbitals are most often shown independent of each other, the orbitals coexist around the nucleus at the same time.\n\n=== Orbitals table ===\nThis table shows all orbital configurations for the real hydrogen-like wave functions up to 7s, and therefore covers the simple electronic configuration for all elements in the periodic table up to radium. \"ψ\" graphs are shown with '''−''' and '''+''' wave function phases shown in two different colors (arbitrarily red and blue). The orbital is the same as the orbital, but the and are formed by taking linear\ncombinations of the and orbitals (which is why they are listed under the label). Also, the and are not\nthe same shape as the , since they are pure spherical harmonics.\n\n\n\n\n s ()\np ()\nd ()\nf ()\n\n\n \n \n\n \n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n ''s''\n ''p''''z''\n ''p''''x''\n ''p''''y''\n ''d''''z2''\n ''d''''xz''\n ''d''''yz''\n ''d''''xy''\n ''d''''x2−y2''\n ''f''''z3''\n ''f''''xz2''\n ''f''''yz2''\n ''f''''xyz''\n ''f''''z(x2−y2)''\n ''f''''x(x2−3y2)''\n ''f''''y(3x2−y2)''\n\n\n 50px\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n\n\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n\n\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n 50px\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n\n\n 50px\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n '''. . .'''\n\n\n=== Qualitative understanding of shapes ===\nThe shapes of atomic orbitals can be understood qualitatively by considering the analogous case of standing waves on a circular drum. To see the analogy, the mean vibrational displacement of each bit of drum membrane from the equilibrium point over many cycles (a measure of average drum membrane velocity and momentum at that point) must be considered relative to that point's distance from the center of the drum head. If this displacement is taken as being analogous to the probability of finding an electron at a given distance from the nucleus, then it will be seen that the many modes of the vibrating disk form patterns that trace the various shapes of atomic orbitals. The basic reason for this correspondence lies in the fact that the distribution of kinetic energy and momentum in a matter-wave is predictive of where the particle associated with the wave will be. That is, the probability of finding an electron at a given place is also a function of the electron's average momentum at that point, since high electron momentum at a given position tends to \"localize\" the electron in that position, via the properties of electron wave-packets (see the Heisenberg uncertainty principle for details of the mechanism).\n\nThis relationship means that certain key features can be observed in both drum membrane modes and atomic orbitals. For example, in all of the modes analogous to '''s''' orbitals (the top row in the animated illustration below), it can be seen that the very center of the drum membrane vibrates most strongly, corresponding to the antinode in all '''s''' orbitals in an atom. This antinode means the electron is most likely to be at the physical position of the nucleus (which it passes straight through without scattering or striking it), since it is moving (on average) most rapidly at that point, giving it maximal momentum.\n\nA mental \"planetary orbit\" picture closest to the behavior of electrons in '''s''' orbitals, all of which have no angular momentum, might perhaps be that of a Keplerian orbit with the orbital eccentricity of 1 but a finite major axis, not physically possible (because particles were to collide), but can be imagined as a limit of orbits with equal major axes but increasing eccentricity.\n\nBelow, a number of drum membrane vibration modes and the respective wave functions of the hydrogen atom are shown. A correspondence can be considered where the wave functions of a vibrating drum head are for a two-coordinate system and the wave functions for a vibrating sphere are three-coordinate .\n\n\nFile:Drum vibration mode01.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Drum vibration mode02.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Drum vibration mode03.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Phi 1s.gif\|Wave function of 1s orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\nFile:Phi 2s.gif\|Wave function of 2s orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\nFile:Phi 3s.gif\|Wave function of 3s orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\n\n\nNone of the other sets of modes in a drum membrane have a central antinode, and in all of them the center of the drum does not move. These correspond to a node at the nucleus for all non-'''s''' orbitals in an atom. These orbitals all have some angular momentum, and in the planetary model, they correspond to particles in orbit with eccentricity less than 1.0, so that they do not pass straight through the center of the primary body, but keep somewhat away from it.\n\nIn addition, the drum modes analogous to '''p''' and '''d''' modes in an atom show spatial irregularity along the different radial directions from the center of the drum, whereas all of the modes analogous to '''s''' modes are perfectly symmetrical in radial direction. The non radial-symmetry properties of non-'''s''' orbitals are necessary to localize a particle with angular momentum and a wave nature in an orbital where it must tend to stay away from the central attraction force, since any particle localized at the point of central attraction could have no angular momentum. For these modes, waves in the drum head tend to avoid the central point. Such features again emphasize that the shapes of atomic orbitals are a direct consequence of the wave nature of electrons.\n\n\nFile:Drum vibration mode11.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Drum vibration mode12.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Drum vibration mode13.gif\|Drum mode \nFile:Phi 2p.gif\|Wave function of 2p orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\nFile:Phi 3p.gif\|Wave function of 3p orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\nFile:Phi 4p.gif\|Wave function of 4p orbital (real part, 2D-cut, )\n\n\n\nFile:Drum vibration mode21.gif\|Mode (3d orbital)\nFile:Drum vibration mode22.gif\|Mode (4d orbital)\nFile:Drum vibration mode23.gif\|Mode (5d orbital)\n\n", "\nIn atoms with a single electron (hydrogen-like atoms), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons in the orbital) is determined exclusively by . The orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom. Each successively higher value of has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as increases. For high , the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom. In single electron atoms, all levels with different within a given are (to a good approximation) degenerate, and have the same energy. This approximation is broken to a slight extent by the effect of the magnetic field of the nucleus, and by quantum electrodynamics effects. The latter induce tiny binding energy differences especially for '''s''' electrons that go nearer the nucleus, since these feel a very slightly different nuclear charge, even in one-electron atoms; see Lamb shift.\n\nIn atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital, but also on its interactions with the other electrons. These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution, and so the energy levels of orbitals depend not only on but also on . Higher values of are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2p state is higher than the 2s state. When , the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the s-orbital in the next higher shell; when the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher. The filling of the 3d orbitals does not occur until the 4s orbitals have been filled.\n\nThe increase in energy for subshells of increasing angular momentum in larger atoms is due to electron–electron interaction effects, and it is specifically related to the ability of low angular momentum electrons to penetrate more effectively toward the nucleus, where they are subject to less screening from the charge of intervening electrons. Thus, in atoms of higher atomic number, the of electrons becomes more and more of a determining factor in their energy, and the principal quantum numbers of electrons becomes less and less important in their energy placement.\n\nThe energy sequence of the first 35 subshells (e.g., 1s, 2p, 3d, etc.) is given in the following table. Each cell represents a subshell with and given by its row and column indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the sequence. For a linear listing of the subshells in terms of increasing energies in multielectron atoms, see the section below.\n\n\n\n\n s\n p\n d\n f\n g\n h\n\n 1\n 1 \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 2\n 2 \n 3 \n \n \n \n\n\n 3\n 4 \n 5 \n 7 \n \n \n\n\n 4\n 6 \n 8 \n 10 \n 13 \n \n\n\n 5\n 9 \n 11 \n 14 \n 17 \n ''21'' \n\n\n 6\n12 \n 15 \n 18 \n ''22'' \n ''26'' \n ''31''\n\n 7\n16 \n 19 \n ''23'' \n ''27'' \n ''32'' \n ''37''\n\n 8\n''20'' \n ''24'' \n ''28'' \n ''33'' \n ''38'' \n ''44''\n\n 9\n''25'' \n ''29'' \n ''34'' \n ''39'' \n ''45'' \n ''51''\n\n 10\n''30'' \n ''35'' \n ''40'' \n ''46'' \n ''52'' \n ''59''\n\n\n''Note: empty cells indicate non-existent sublevels, while numbers in italics indicate sublevels that could (potentially) exist, but which do not hold electrons in any element currently known.''\n", " Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals ('''left''') is arranged by increasing energy (see Madelung rule). ''Note that atomic orbits are functions of three variables (two angles, and the distance from the nucleus). These images are faithful to the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely representative of the orbital as a whole.''\n\nAtomic orbitals and periodic table construction\n\n\n\nSeveral rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (''electron configuration''). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the Pauli exclusion principle). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals, as well as , or spin quantum number. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of . However, ''only'' two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.\n\nAdditionally, an electron always tends to fall to the lowest possible energy state. It is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this condition is unstable. The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a photon) and drop into the lower orbital. Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above.\n\nThis behavior is responsible for the structure of the periodic table. The table may be divided into several rows (called 'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods. If a certain period has number ''i'', it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the ''i''th shell. Niels Bohr was the first to propose (1923) that the periodicity in the properties of the elements might be explained by the periodic filling of the electron energy levels, resulting in the electronic structure of the atom.\n\nThe periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same -state (but the associated with that -state depends upon the period). For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell.\n\nThe following is the order for filling the \"subshell\" orbitals, which also gives the order of the \"blocks\" in the periodic table:\n\n:'''1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p'''\n\nThe \"periodic\" nature of the filling of orbitals, as well as emergence of the '''s''', '''p''', '''d''' and '''f''' \"blocks\", is more obvious if this order of filling is given in matrix form, with increasing principal quantum numbers starting the new rows (\"periods\") in the matrix. Then, each subshell (composed of the first two quantum numbers) is repeated as many times as required for each pair of electrons it may contain. The result is a compressed periodic table, with each entry representing two successive elements:\n\n\n\n\n1s\n2s 2p 2p 2p\n3s 3p 3p 3p\n4s 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d 4p 4p 4p\n5s 4d 4d 4d 4d 4d 5p 5p 5p\n6s 4f 4f 4f 4f 4f 4f 4f 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d 6p 6p 6p\n7s 5f 5f 5f 5f 5f 5f 5f 6d 6d 6d 6d 6d 7p 7p 7p\n\n\n\nAlthough this is the general order of orbital filling according to the Madelung rule, there are exceptions, and the actual electronic energies of each element are also dependent upon additional details of the atoms (see Electron configuration#Atoms: Aufbau principle and Madelung rule).\n\nThe number of electrons in an electrically neutral atom increases with the atomic number. The electrons in the outermost shell, or ''valence electrons'', tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties.\n\n=== Relativistic effects ===\n\n\nFor elements with high atomic number , the effects of relativity become more pronounced, and especially so for s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high- atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wavelength and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d orbitals (by comparison to corresponding s and d electrons in lighter elements in the same column of the periodic table); this results in 6s valence electrons becoming lowered in energy.\n\nExamples of significant physical outcomes of this effect include the lowered melting temperature of mercury (which results from 6s electrons not being available for metal bonding) and the golden color of gold and caesium (which results from narrowing of 6s to 5d transition energy to the point that visible light begins to be absorbed).\n\nIn the Bohr Model, an electron has a velocity given by , where is the atomic number, is the fine-structure constant, and is the speed of light. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, therefore, any atom with an atomic number greater than 137 would require its 1s electrons to be traveling faster than the speed of light. Even in the Dirac equation, which accounts for relativistic effects, the wave function of the electron for atoms with is oscillatory and unbounded. The significance of element 137, also known as untriseptium, was first pointed out by the physicist Richard Feynman. Element 137 is sometimes informally called feynmanium (symbol Fy). However, Feynman's approximation fails to predict the exact critical value of due to the non-point-charge nature of the nucleus and very small orbital radius of inner electrons, resulting in a potential seen by inner electrons which is effectively less than . The critical value which makes the atom unstable with regard to high-field breakdown of the vacuum and production of electron-positron pairs, does not occur until is about 173. These conditions are not seen except transiently in collisions of very heavy nuclei such as lead or uranium in accelerators, where such electron-positron production from these effects has been claimed to be observed. See Extension of the periodic table beyond the seventh period.\n\nThere are no nodes in relativistic orbital densities, although individual components of the wave function will have nodes.\n", "\nBound quantum states have discrete energy levels. When applied to atomic orbitals, this means that the energy differences between states are also discrete. A transition between these states (i.e., an electron absorbing or emitting a photon) can thus only happen if the photon has an energy corresponding with the exact energy difference between said states.\n\nConsider two states of the hydrogen atom:\n\nState 1) , , and \n\nState 2) , , and \n\nBy quantum theory, state 1 has a fixed energy of , and state 2 has a fixed energy of . Now, what would happen if an electron in state 1 were to move to state 2? For this to happen, the electron would need to gain an energy of exactly . If the electron receives energy that is less than or greater than this value, it cannot jump from state 1 to state 2. Now, suppose we irradiate the atom with a broad-spectrum of light. Photons that reach the atom that have an energy of exactly will be absorbed by the electron in state 1, and that electron will jump to state 2. However, photons that are greater or lower in energy cannot be absorbed by the electron, because the electron can only jump to one of the orbitals, it cannot jump to a state between orbitals. The result is that only photons of a specific frequency will be absorbed by the atom. This creates a line in the spectrum, known as an absorption line, which corresponds to the energy difference between states 1 and 2.\n\nThe atomic orbital model thus predicts line spectra, which are observed experimentally. This is one of the main validations of the atomic orbital model.\n\nThe atomic orbital model is nevertheless an approximation to the full quantum theory, which only recognizes many electron states. The predictions of line spectra are qualitatively useful but are not quantitatively accurate for atoms and ions other than those containing only one electron.\n", "\n\n* 3D hydrogen orbitals on Wikimedia Commons\n* Atomic electron configuration table\n* Condensed matter physics\n* Electron configuration\n* Energy level\n* Hund's rules\n* Molecular orbital\n* Quantum chemistry\n* Quantum chemistry computer programs\n* Solid state physics\n* Orbital resonance\n* Wave function collapse\n\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Guide to atomic orbitals\n* Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure\n* Animation of the time evolution of an hydrogenic orbital\n* The Orbitron, a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g\n* Grand table Still images of many orbitals\n* David Manthey's Orbital Viewer renders orbitals with ''n'' ≤ 30\n* Java orbital viewer applet\n* What does an atom look like? Orbitals in 3D\n* Atom Orbitals v.1.5 visualization software\n* Crystal-Style Orbital Viewer\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Electron properties ", " History ", " Orbital names ", " Hydrogen-like orbitals ", " Quantum numbers ", " Shapes of orbitals ", " Orbital energy ", " Electron placement and the periodic table ", " Transitions between orbitals ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Atomic orbital
[ "\n\n\nThe structure of an alpha amino acid in its un-ionized form\n\n'''Amino acids''' are organic compounds containing amine (-NH2) and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in many ways. They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups' locations as alpha- (α-), beta- (β-), gamma- (γ-) or delta- (δ-) amino acids; other categories relate to polarity, pH level, and side chain group type (aliphatic, acyclic, aromatic, containing hydroxyl or sulfur, etc.). In the form of proteins, amino acid residues form the second-largest component (water is the largest) of human muscles and other tissues. Beyond their role as residues in proteins, amino acids participate in a number of processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis.\n\nIn biochemistry, amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first (alpha-) carbon atom have particular importance. They are known as '''2-, alpha-,''' or '''α-amino acids''' (generic formula H2NCHRCOOH in most cases, where R is an organic substituent known as a \"side chain\"); often the term \"amino acid\" is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22 proteinogenic (\"protein-building\") amino acids, which combine into peptide chains (\"polypeptides\") to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins. These are all L-stereoisomers (\"left-handed\" isomers), although a few D-amino acids (\"right-handed\") occur in bacterial envelopes, as a neuromodulator (D-serine), and in some antibiotics. \n\nTwenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as \"standard\" amino acids. The other two (\"non-standard\" or \"non-canonical\") are selenocysteine (present in many prokaryotes as well as most eukaryotes, but not coded directly by DNA), and pyrrolysine (found only in some archea and one bacterium). Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons; for example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element. ''N''-formylmethionine (which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts) is generally considered as a form of methionine rather than as a separate proteinogenic amino acid. Codon–tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to \"expand\" the genetic code and form novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non-proteinogenic amino acids.\n\nMany important proteinogenic and non-proteinogenic amino acids have biological functions. For example, in the human brain, glutamate (standard glutamic acid) and gamma-amino-butyric acid (\"GABA\", non-standard gamma-amino acid) are, respectively, the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Hydroxyproline, a major component of the connective tissue collagen, is synthesised from proline. Glycine is a biosynthetic precursor to porphyrins used in red blood cells. Carnitine is used in lipid transport.\n\nNine proteinogenic amino acids are called \"essential\" for humans because they cannot be produced from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food. Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions. Essential amino acids may also differ between species.\n\nBecause of their biological significance, amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements, fertilizers, and food technology. Industrial uses include the production of drugs, biodegradable plastics, and chiral catalysts.\n", "The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century. In 1806, French chemists Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine, the first amino acid to be discovered. Cystine was discovered in 1810, although its monomer, cysteine, remained undiscovered until 1884. Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820. The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose, who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth.\n\nUsage of the term ''amino acid'' in the English language is from 1898. Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis. In 1902, Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister proposed that proteins are the result of the formation of bonds between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another, in a linear structure that Fischer termed \"peptide\".\n", "\nproteinogenic α-amino acids found in eukaryotes, grouped according to their side chains' pKa values and charges carried at physiological pH (7.4)\n\nIn the structure shown at the top of the page, '''R''' represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group (which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group) is called the α–carbon. Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as ''alpha amino acids''. These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines, which used to be often referred to as \"imino acids\".\n\n===Isomerism===\n\nThe alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature, but only when occurring in the L-isomer. The alpha carbon is a chiral carbon atom, with the exception of glycine which has two indistinguishable hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon. Therefore, all alpha amino acids but glycine can exist in either of two enantiomers, called L or D amino acids, which are mirror images of each other (''see also Chirality''). While L-amino acids represent all of the amino acids found in proteins during translation in the ribosome, D-amino acids are found in some proteins produced by enzyme posttranslational modifications after translation and translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum, as in exotic sea-dwelling organisms such as cone snails. They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria, and D-serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain. D-amino acids are used in racemic crystallography to create centrosymmetric crystals, which (depending on the protein) may allow for easier and more robust protein structure determination. The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can, in theory, be synthesized (D-glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory; L-glyceraldehyde is levorotatory).\nIn alternative fashion, the ''(S)'' and ''(R)'' designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry. Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are ''(S)'' at the α carbon, with cysteine being ''(R)'' and glycine non-chiral. Cysteine has its side chain in the same geometric position as the other amino acids, but the ''R/S'' terminology is reversed because of the higher atomic number of sulfur compared to the carboxyl oxygen gives the side chain a higher priority, whereas the atoms in most other side chains give them lower priority.\n\n===Side chains===\nLysine with carbon atoms labeled by position\n\nIn amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α–carbon (such as lysine, shown to the right) the carbons are labeled in order as α, β, γ, δ, and so on. In some amino acids, the amine group is attached to the β or γ-carbon, and these are therefore referred to as ''beta'' or ''gamma amino acids''.\n\nAmino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side chain into four groups. The side chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base, and a hydrophile if the side chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar. The chemical structures of the 22 standard amino acids, along with their chemical properties, are described more fully in the article on these proteinogenic amino acids.\n\nThe phrase \"branched-chain amino acids\" or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side chains that are non-linear; these are leucine, isoleucine, and valine. Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side-group links to the α-amino group and, thus, is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position. In chemical terms, proline is, therefore, an imino acid, since it lacks a primary amino group, although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature, and may also be called an \"N-alkylated alpha-amino acid\".\n\n===Zwitterions===\nAn amino acid in its (1) un-ionized and (2) zwitterionic forms\n\nThe α-carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid, meaning that it releases a hydron (such as a proton) at moderate pH values. In other words, carboxylic acid groups (−CO2H) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates (−CO2− ). The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group (mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2.2, see the table of amino acid structures above). In a complementary fashion, the α-amine of amino acids is a weak base, meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values. In other words, α-amino groups (NH2−) can be protonated to become positive α-ammonium groups (+NH3−). The positively charged α-ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α-ammonium group (mean for the 20 common α-amino acids is about 9.4).\n\nBecause all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, they share amphiprotic properties. Below pH 2.2, the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α-ammonium ion (net charge +1), and above pH 9.4, a negative carboxylate and neutral α-amino group (net charge −1). But at pH between 2.2 and 9.4, an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α-ammonium group, as shown in structure (2) on the right, so has net zero charge. This molecular state is known as a zwitterion, from the German '''Zwitter''' meaning ''hermaphrodite'' or ''hybrid''. The fully neutral form (structure (1) on the left) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range (less than 1 part in 107). Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase, and crystallize with salt-like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines.\n\n===Isoelectric point===\nComposite of titration curves of twenty proteinogenic amino acids grouped by side chain category\n\nThe variation in titration curves when the amino acids can be grouped by category. With the exception of tyrosine, using titration to distinguish among hydrophobic amino acids is problematic.\n\nAt pH values between the two pKa values, the zwitterion predominates, but coexists in dynamic equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions. At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values, the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance, so that average net charge of all forms present is zero. This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI, so pI = ½(pKa1 + pKa2). The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values, so have different isoelectric points. For amino acids with charged side chains, the pKa of the side chain is involved. Thus for Asp, Glu with negative side chains, pI = ½(pKa1 + pKaR), where pKaR is the side chain pKa. Cysteine also has potentially negative side chain with pKaR = 8.14, so pI should be calculated as for Asp and Glu, even though the side chain is not significantly charged at neutral pH. For His, Lys, and Arg with positive side chains, pI = ½(pKaR + pKa2). Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point, although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids. Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point and some amino acids (in particular, with non-polar side chains) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point.\n", "\n\n===Proteinogenic amino acids===\n \n\nAmino acids are the structural units (monomers) that make up proteins. They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins. These polymers are linear and unbranched, with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids. The process of making proteins encoded by DNA/RNA genetic material is called ''translation'' and involves the step-by-step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome. The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template, which is a RNA copy of one of the organism's genes.\n\nTwenty-two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids. Of these, 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code. The remaining 2, selenocysteine and pyrrolysine, are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms. Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element, which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon. Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane. It is coded for with the codon UAG, which is normally a stop codon in other organisms. This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence.\n\n===Non-proteinogenic amino acids===\n\n\nAside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids, many ''non-proteinogenic'' amino acids are known. Those either are not found in proteins (for example carnitine, GABA, Levothyroxine) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery (for example, hydroxyproline and selenomethionine).\n\nNon-proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post-translational modification, which is modification after translation during protein synthesis. These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein. For example, the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations, and collagen contains hydroxyproline, generated by hydroxylation of proline. Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A, through modification of a lysine residue. Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein, e.g., the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane.\n\nSome non-proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins. Examples include 2-aminoisobutyric acid and the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid. Non-proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example, ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle, part of amino acid catabolism (see below). A rare exception to the dominance of α-amino acids in biology is the β-amino acid beta alanine (3-aminopropanoic acid), which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), a component of coenzyme A.\n\n===D-amino acid natural abundance===\nD-isomers are uncommon in live organisms. For instance, gramicidin is a polypeptide made up from mixture of D- and L-amino acids. Other compounds containing D-amino acid are tyrocidine and valinomycin. These compounds disrupt bacterial cell walls, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria. Only 837 D-amino acids were found in Swiss-Prot database (187 million amino acids analysed).\n\n===Non-standard amino acids===\nThe 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called ''standard'' or ''canonical'' amino acids. A modified form of methionine (''N''-formylmethionine) is often incorporated in place of methionine as the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Other amino acids are called ''non-standard'' or ''non-canonical''. Most of the non-standard amino acids are also non-proteinogenic (i.e. they cannot be incorporated into proteins during translation), but two of them are proteinogenic, as they can be incorporated translationally into proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code.\n\nThe two non-standard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine (present in many non-eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes, but not coded directly by DNA) and pyrrolysine (found only in some archaea and one bacterium). The incorporation of these non-standard amino acids is rare. For example, 25 human proteins include selenocysteine (Sec) in their primary structure, and the structurally characterized enzymes (selenoenzymes) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites. Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons. For example, selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element.\n\n===In human nutrition===\nalt=Diagram showing the relative occurrence of different amino acids in blood serum as obtained from different diets\n\n\n\nWhen taken up into the human body from the diet, the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy. The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle. The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle. Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose, through gluconeogenesis. Of the 20 standard amino acids, nine (His, Ile, Leu, Lys, Met, Phe, Thr, Trp and Val) are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth, so they must be obtained from food. In addition, cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, and arginine are considered semiessential amino-acids in children (though taurine is not technically an amino acid), because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed. The amounts required also depend on the age and health of the individual, so it is hard to make general statements about the dietary requirement for some amino acids. Dietary exposure to the non-standard amino acid BMAA has been linked to human neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS.\n\n\n===Non-protein functions===\n\n\nIn humans, non-protein amino acids also have important roles as metabolic intermediates, such as in the biosynthesis of the neurotransmitter gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA). Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example:\n* Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin.\n* Tyrosine (and its precursor phenylalanine) are precursors of the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine and various trace amines.\n* Phenylalanine is a precursor of phenethylamine and tyrosine in humans. In plants, it is a precursor of various phenylpropanoids, which are important in plant metabolism.\n* Glycine is a precursor of porphyrins such as heme.\n* Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide.\n* Ornithine and S-adenosylmethionine are precursors of polyamines.\n* Aspartate, glycine, and glutamine are precursors of nucleotides. However, not all of the functions of other abundant non-standard amino acids are known.\n\nSome non-standard amino acids are used as defenses against herbivores in plants. For example, canavanine is an analogue of arginine that is found in many legumes, and in particularly large amounts in ''Canavalia gladiata'' (sword bean). This amino acid protects the plants from predators such as insects and can cause illness in people if some types of legumes are eaten without processing. The non-protein amino acid mimosine is found in other species of legume, in particular ''Leucaena leucocephala''. This compound is an analogue of tyrosine and can poison animals that graze on these plants.\n", "Amino acids are used for a variety of applications in industry, but their main use is as additives to animal feed. This is necessary, since many of the bulk components of these feeds, such as soybeans, either have low levels or lack some of the essential amino acids: lysine, methionine, threonine, and tryptophan are most important in the production of these feeds. In this industry, amino acids are also used to chelate metal cations in order to improve the absorption of minerals from supplements, which may be required to improve the health or production of these animals.\n\nThe food industry is also a major consumer of amino acids, in particular, glutamic acid, which is used as a flavor enhancer, and aspartame (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) as a low-calorie artificial sweetener. Similar technology to that used for animal nutrition is employed in the human nutrition industry to alleviate symptoms of mineral deficiencies, such as anemia, by improving mineral absorption and reducing negative side effects from inorganic mineral supplementation.\n\nThe chelating ability of amino acids has been used in fertilizers for agriculture to facilitate the delivery of minerals to plants in order to correct mineral deficiencies, such as iron chlorosis. These fertilizers are also used to prevent deficiencies from occurring and improving the overall health of the plants. The remaining production of amino acids is used in the synthesis of drugs and cosmetics.\n\nSimilarly, some amino acids derivatives are used in pharmaceutical industry. They include 5-HTP (5-hydroxytryptophan) used for experimental treatment of depression, L-DOPA (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine) for Parkinson's treatment, and eflornithine drug that inhibits ornithine decarboxylase and used in the treatment of sleeping sickness.\n\n===Expanded genetic code===\n\nSince 2001, 40 non-natural amino acids have been added into protein by creating a unique codon (recoding) and a corresponding transfer-RNA:aminoacyl – tRNA-synthetase pair to encode it with diverse physicochemical and biological properties in order to be used as a tool to exploring protein structure and function or to create novel or enhanced proteins.\n\n===Nullomers===\n\nNullomers are codons that in theory code for an amino acid, however in nature there is a selective bias against using this codon in favor of another, for example bacteria prefer to use CGA instead of AGA to code for arginine. This creates some sequences that do not appear in the genome. This characteristic can be taken advantage of and used to create new selective cancer-fighting drugs and to prevent cross-contamination of DNA samples from crime-scene investigations.\n\n===Chemical building blocks===\n\nAmino acids are important as low-cost feedstocks. These compounds are used in chiral pool synthesis as enantiomerically pure building-blocks.\n\nAmino acids have been investigated as precursors chiral catalysts, e.g., for asymmetric hydrogenation reactions, although no commercial applications exist.\n\n===Biodegradable plastics===\n\n\nAmino acids are under development as components of a range of biodegradable polymers. These materials have applications as environmentally friendly packaging and in medicine in drug delivery and the construction of prosthetic implants. These polymers include polypeptides, polyamides, polyesters, polysulfides, and polyurethanes with amino acids either forming part of their main chains or bonded as side chains. These modifications alter the physical properties and reactivities of the polymers. An interesting example of such materials is polyaspartate, a water-soluble biodegradable polymer that may have applications in disposable diapers and agriculture. Due to its solubility and ability to chelate metal ions, polyaspartate is also being used as a biodegradeable anti-scaling agent and a corrosion inhibitor. In addition, the aromatic amino acid tyrosine is being developed as a possible replacement for toxic phenols such as bisphenol A in the manufacture of polycarbonates.\n", "As amino acids have both a primary amine group and a primary carboxyl group, these chemicals can undergo most of the reactions associated with these functional groups. These include nucleophilic addition, amide bond formation, and imine formation for the amine group, and esterification, amide bond formation, and decarboxylation for the carboxylic acid group. The combination of these functional groups allow amino acids to be effective polydentate ligands for metal-amino acid chelates.\nThe multiple side chains of amino acids can also undergo chemical reactions. The types of these reactions are determined by the groups on these side chains and are, therefore, different between the various types of amino acid.\n\n===Chemical synthesis===\nalt=For the steps in the reaction, see the text.\n\nSeveral methods exist to synthesize amino acids. One of the oldest methods begins with the bromination at the α-carbon of a carboxylic acid. Nucleophilic substitution with ammonia then converts the alkyl bromide to the amino acid. In alternative fashion, the Strecker amino acid synthesis involves the treatment of an aldehyde with potassium cyanide and ammonia, this produces an α-amino nitrile as an intermediate. Hydrolysis of the nitrile in acid then yields a α-amino acid. Using ammonia or ammonium salts in this reaction gives unsubstituted amino acids, whereas substituting primary and secondary amines will yield substituted amino acids. Likewise, using ketones, instead of aldehydes, gives α,α-disubstituted amino acids. The classical synthesis gives racemic mixtures of α-amino acids as products, but several alternative procedures using asymmetric auxiliaries or asymmetric catalysts have been developed.\n\nAt the current time, the most-adopted method is an automated synthesis on a solid support (e.g., polystyrene beads), using protecting groups (e.g., Fmoc and t-Boc) and activating groups (e.g., DCC and DIC).\n\n===Peptide bond formation===\n\nThe condensation of two amino acids to form a ''dipeptide'' through a ''peptide bond''\|alt=Two amino acids are shown next to each other. One loses a hydrogen and oxygen from its carboxyl group (COOH) and the other loses a hydrogen from its amino group (NH2). This reaction produces a molecule of water (H2O) and two amino acids joined by a peptide bond (-CO-NH-). The two joined amino acids are called a dipeptide.\n\nAs both the amine and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids can react to form amide bonds, one amino acid molecule can react with another and become joined through an amide linkage. This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins. This condensation reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water. In cells, this reaction does not occur directly; instead, the amino acid is first activated by attachment to a transfer RNA molecule through an ester bond. This aminoacyl-tRNA is produced in an ATP-dependent reaction carried out by an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase. This aminoacyl-tRNA is then a substrate for the ribosome, which catalyzes the attack of the amino group of the elongating protein chain on the ester bond. As a result of this mechanism, all proteins made by ribosomes are synthesized starting at their N-terminus and moving toward their C-terminus.\n\nHowever, not all peptide bonds are formed in this way. In a few cases, peptides are synthesized by specific enzymes. For example, the tripeptide glutathione is an essential part of the defenses of cells against oxidative stress. This peptide is synthesized in two steps from free amino acids. In the first step, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase condenses cysteine and glutamic acid through a peptide bond formed between the side chain carboxyl of the glutamate (the gamma carbon of this side chain) and the amino group of the cysteine. This dipeptide is then condensed with glycine by glutathione synthetase to form glutathione.\n\nIn chemistry, peptides are synthesized by a variety of reactions. One of the most-used in solid-phase peptide synthesis uses the aromatic oxime derivatives of amino acids as activated units. These are added in sequence onto the growing peptide chain, which is attached to a solid resin support. The ability to easily synthesize vast numbers of different peptides by varying the types and order of amino acids (using combinatorial chemistry) has made peptide synthesis particularly important in creating libraries of peptides for use in drug discovery through high-throughput screening.\n\n===Biosynthesis===\n\nIn plants, nitrogen is first assimilated into organic compounds in the form of glutamate, formed from alpha-ketoglutarate and ammonia in the mitochondrion. In order to form other amino acids, the plant uses transaminases to move the amino group to another alpha-keto carboxylic acid. For example, aspartate aminotransferase converts glutamate and oxaloacetate to alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Other organisms use transaminases for amino acid synthesis, too.\n\nNonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, homocysteine is formed through the transsulfuration pathway or by the demethylation of methionine via the intermediate metabolite S-adenosyl methionine, while hydroxyproline is made by a posttranslational modification of proline.\n\nMicroorganisms and plants can synthesize many uncommon amino acids. For example, some microbes make 2-aminoisobutyric acid and lanthionine, which is a sulfide-bridged derivative of alanine. Both of these amino acids are found in peptidic lantibiotics such as alamethicin. However, in plants, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid that is a key intermediate in the production of the plant hormone ethylene.\n\n===Catabolism===\nCatabolism of proteinogenic amino acids. Amino acids can be classified according to the properties of their main products as either of the following:\n* ''Glucogenic'', with the products having the ability to form glucose by gluconeogenesis\n* ''Ketogenic'', with the products not having the ability to form glucose. These products may still be used for ketogenesis or lipid synthesis.\n* Amino acids catabolized into both glucogenic and ketogenic products.\nAmino acids must first pass out of organelles and cells into blood circulation via amino acid transporters, since the amine and carboxylic acid groups are typically ionized. Degradation of an amino acid, occurring in the liver and kidneys, often involves deamination by moving its amino group to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate. This process involves transaminases, often the same as those used in amination during synthesis. In many vertebrates, the amino group is then removed through the urea cycle and is excreted in the form of urea. However, amino acid degradation can produce uric acid or ammonia instead. For example, serine dehydratase converts serine to pyruvate and ammonia. After removal of one or more amino groups, the remainder of the molecule can sometimes be used to synthesize new amino acids, or it can be used for energy by entering glycolysis or the citric acid cycle, as detailed in image at right.\n", "The 20 amino acids encoded directly by the genetic code can be divided into several groups based on their properties. Important factors are charge, hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity, size, and functional groups. These properties are important for protein structure and protein–protein interactions. The water-soluble proteins tend to have their hydrophobic residues (Leu, Ile, Val, Phe, and Trp) buried in the middle of the protein, whereas hydrophilic side chains are exposed to the aqueous solvent. (Note that in biochemistry, a residue refers to a specific monomer within the polymeric chain of a polysaccharide, protein or nucleic acid.) The integral membrane proteins tend to have outer rings of exposed hydrophobic amino acids that anchor them into the lipid bilayer. In the case part-way between these two extremes, some peripheral membrane proteins have a patch of hydrophobic amino acids on their surface that locks onto the membrane. In similar fashion, proteins that have to bind to positively charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged amino acids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negatively charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine. There are different hydrophobicity scales of amino acid residues.\n\nSome amino acids have special properties such as cysteine, that can form covalent disulfide bonds to other cysteine residues, proline that forms a cycle to the polypeptide backbone, and glycine that is more flexible than other amino acids.\n\nMany proteins undergo a range of posttranslational modifications, when additional chemical groups are attached to the amino acids in proteins. Some modifications can produce hydrophobic lipoproteins, or hydrophilic glycoproteins. These type of modification allow the reversible targeting of a protein to a membrane. For example, the addition and removal of the fatty acid palmitic acid to cysteine residues in some signaling proteins causes the proteins to attach and then detach from cell membranes.\n\n===Table of standard amino acid abbreviations and properties===\n\n\n\n\n Amino acid\n 3-letter\n 1-letter\n Side chain \nclass\n Side chain \npolarity\n Side chain \ncharge (pH 7.4)\n Hydropathyindex\n Absorbance \nλmax(nm)\n ε at \nλmax (mM−1 cm−1)\n MW\n(weight)\nOccurrence \nin proteins\n\n(%)\n\n Alanine\n Ala\n A\n aliphatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 1.8\n \n\n 89.094\n8.76\n\n Arginine\n Arg\n R\n basic\n basic polar\n positive\n −4.5\n \n\n 174.203\n5.78\n\n Asparagine\n Asn\n N\n amide\n polar\n neutral\n −3.5\n \n\n 132.119\n3.93\n\n Aspartic acid\n Asp\n D\n acid\n acidic polar\n negative\n −3.5\n \n\n 133.104\n5.49\n\n Cysteine\n Cys\n C\n sulfur-containing\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 2.5\n 250\n 0.3\n 121.154\n1.38\n\n Glutamic acid\n Glu\n E\n acid\n acidic polar\n negative\n −3.5\n\n\n 147.131\n6.32\n\n Glutamine\n Gln\n Q\n amide\n polar\n neutral\n −3.5\n\n\n 146.146\n3.9\n\n Glycine\n Gly\n G\n aliphatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n −0.4\n\n\n 75.067\n7.03\n\n Histidine\n His\n H\n basic aromatic\n basic polar\n positive(10%)neutral(90%)\n −3.2\n 211\n 5.9\n 155.156\n2.26\n\n Isoleucine\n Ile\n I\n aliphatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 4.5\n\n\n 131.175\n5.49\n\n Leucine\n Leu\n L\n aliphatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 3.8\n\n\n 131.175\n9.68\n\n Lysine\n Lys\n K\n basic\n basic polar\n positive\n −3.9\n\n\n 146.189\n5.19\n\n Methionine\n Met\n M\n sulfur-containing\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 1.9\n\n\n 149.208\n2.32\n\n Phenylalanine\n Phe\n F\n aromatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 2.8\n 257, 206, 188\n 0.2, 9.3, 60.0\n 165.192\n3.87\n\n Proline\n Pro\n P\n cyclic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n −1.6\n\n\n 115.132\n5.02\n\n Serine\n Ser\n S\n hydroxyl-containing\n polar\n neutral\n −0.8\n\n\n 105.093\n7.14\n\n Threonine\n Thr\n T\n hydroxyl-containing\n polar\n neutral\n −0.7\n\n\n 119.119\n5.53\n\n Tryptophan\n Trp\n W\n aromatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n −0.9\n 280, 219\n 5.6, 47.0\n 204.228\n1.25\n\n Tyrosine\n Tyr\n Y\n aromatic\n polar\n neutral\n −1.3\n 274, 222, 193\n 1.4, 8.0, 48.0\n 181.191\n2.91\n\n Valine\n Val\n V\n aliphatic\n nonpolar\n neutral\n 4.2\n\n\n 117.148\n6.73\n\n\nTwo additional amino acids are in some species coded for by codons that are usually interpreted as stop codons:\n\n\n\n 21st and 22nd amino acids\n 3-letter\n 1-letter\n MW (weight)\n\n Selenocysteine\n Sec\n U\n 168.064\n\n Pyrrolysine\n Pyl\n O\n 255.313\n\n\nIn addition to the specific amino acid codes, placeholders are used in cases where chemical or crystallographic analysis of a peptide or protein cannot conclusively determine the identity of a residue. They are also used to summarise conserved protein sequence motifs. The use of single letters to indicate sets of similar residues is similar to the use of abbreviation codes for degenerate bases.\n\n\n\n Ambiguous amino acids\n 3-letter\n 1-letter\n\n\nAny / unknown\nXaa\nX\nAll\n\n Asparagine or aspartic acid\n Asx\n B\nD, N\n\n Glutamine or glutamic acid\n Glx\n Z\nE, Q\n\n Leucine or Isoleucine\n Xle\n J\nI, L\n\nHydrophobic\n\nΦ\nV, I, L, F, W, Y, M\n\nAromatic\n\nΩ\nF, W, Y, H\n\nAliphatic (non-aromatic)\n\nΨ\nV, I, L, M\n\nSmall\n\nπ\nP, G, A, S\n\nHydrophilic\n\nζ\nS, T, H, N, Q, E, D, K, R\n\nPositively charged\n\n +\nK, R, H\n\nNegatively charged\n\n −\nD, E\n\n\n'''Unk''' is sometimes used instead of '''Xaa''', but is less standard.\n\nIn addition, many non-standard amino acids have a specific code. For example, several peptide drugs, such as Bortezomib and MG132, are artificially synthesized and retain their protecting groups, which have specific codes. Bortezomib is Pyz-Phe-boroLeu, and MG132 is Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-al. To aid in the analysis of protein structure, photo-reactive amino acid analogs are available. These include photoleucine ('''pLeu''') and photomethionine ('''pMet''').\n", "\n* Amino acid dating\n* Beta-peptide\n* Degron\n* Erepsin\n* Homochirality\n* Hyperaminoacidemia\n* Leucines\n* Miller–Urey experiment\n* Nucleic acid sequence\n* Proteinogenic amino acid\n* Table of codons, 3-nucleotide sequences that encode each amino acid\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "General structure", "Occurrence and functions in biochemistry", "Uses in industry", "Reactions", "Physicochemical properties of amino acids", " See also ", "References and notes", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Amino acid
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Alan Mathison Turing''' (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English computer scientist, mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist.\n\nTuring was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general purpose computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science and artificial intelligence.\n\nDuring the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. For a time he led Hut 8, the section which was responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Here he devised a number of techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bombe method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. Turing played a pivotal role in cracking intercepted coded messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Nazis in many crucial engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic, and in so doing helped win the war. Counterfactual history is difficult with respect to the effect Ultra intelligence had on the length of the war, but at the upper end it has been estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over fourteen million lives.\n\nAfter the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed the ACE, among the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948 Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis, and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s.\n\nTuring was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts, when by the Labouchere Amendment, \"gross indecency\" was criminal in the UK. He accepted chemical castration treatment, with DES, as an alternative to prison. Turing died in 1954, 16 days before his 42nd birthday, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined his death as suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. In 2009, following an Internet campaign, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology on behalf of the British government for \"the appalling way he was treated.\" Queen Elizabeth II granted him a posthumous pardon in 2013. The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts.\n", "Turing was born in Maida Vale, London, while his father, Julius Mathison Turing (1873–1947), was on leave from his position with the Indian Civil Service (ICS) at Chhatrapur, Bihar and Orissa Province, in British India. Turing's father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet. Turing's mother, Julius' wife, was Ethel Sara (née Stoney; 1881–1976), daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways. The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford, while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare.\n\nJulius' work with the ICS brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army. However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain, so they moved to Maida Vale, London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the house of his birth, later the Colonnade Hotel. He had an elder brother, John (the father of Sir John Dermot Turing, 12th Baronet of the Turing baronets).\n\nTuring's father's civil service commission was still active and during Turing's childhood years Turing's parents travelled between Hastings in England and India, leaving their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple. At Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, now marked with a blue plaque. The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 2012, the centenary of Turing's birth.\n\nVery early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently. His parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque.\n", "\n===School===\nTuring's parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a day school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea, at the age of six. The headmistress recognised his talent early on, as did many of his subsequent teachers.\n\nBetween January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of Frant in Sussex (now East Sussex). In 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to Sherborne School, a boarding independent school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset. The first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike in Britain, but he was so determined to attend, that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied from Southampton to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn.\n\nTuring's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics. His headmaster wrote to his parents: \"I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming ''educated''. If he is to be solely a ''Scientific Specialist'', he is wasting his time at a public school\". Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus. In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert Einstein's work; not only did he grasp it, but it is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit.\n\n===Christopher Morcom===\nAt Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Morcom, who has been described as Turing's \"first love\". Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future endeavours, but it was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications of bovine tuberculosis, contracted after drinking infected cow's milk some years previously.\n\nThe event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to Morcom's mother Turing said:I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt a little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is what he would like me to do.\n\nSome have speculated that Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's atheism and materialism. Apparently, at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's mother, Turing said: Personally, I believe that spirit is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and body I consider that the body can hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding the spirit is gone and the spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps immediately.\n\n===University and work on computability===\nAfter Sherborne, Turing studied as an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934 at King's College, Cambridge, where he gained first-class honours in mathematics. In 1935, at the age of 22, he was elected a fellow of King's on the strength of a dissertation in which he proved the central limit theorem. Unknown to the committee, the theorem had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg.\n\nIn 1936, Turing published his paper \"On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the ''Entscheidungsproblem\"'' (1936). In this paper, Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines. The ''Entscheidungsproblem'' (decision problem) was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing proved that his \"universal computing machine\" would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the ''decision problem'' by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable: It is not possible to decide algorithmically whether a Turing machine will ever halt.\n\nKing's College, Cambridge, where Turing was a student in 1931 and became a Fellow in 1935. The computer room is named after him.\nAlthough Turing's proof was published shortly after Alonzo Church's equivalent proof using his lambda calculus, Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's. It also included a notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine), with the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the Church–Turing thesis, Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. John von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper. To this day, Turing machines are a central object of study in theory of computation.\n\nFrom September 1936 to July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University. In addition to his purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier. In June 1938, he obtained his PhD from Princeton; his dissertation, ''Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals'', introduced the concept of ordinal logic and the notion of relative computing, where Turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles, allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to hire him as his postdoctoral assistant, but he went back to England.\n\nWhen Turing returned to Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics. Remarkably, the lectures have been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other students, from students' notes. Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths, but rather invents them.\n", "During the Second World War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park. The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, \"You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that genius.\"\nFrom September 1938, Turing had been working part-time with the GC&CS, the British codebreaking organisation. He concentrated on cryptanalysis of the Enigma with Dilly Knox, a senior GC&CS codebreaker. Soon after the July 1939 Warsaw meeting at which the Polish Cipher Bureau had provided the British and French with the details of the wiring of Enigma rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma code messages, Turing and Knox started to work on a less fragile approach to the problem. The Polish method relied on an insecure indicator procedure that the Germans were likely to change, which they did in May 1940. Turing's approach was more general, using crib-based decryption for which he produced the functional specification of the bombe (an improvement of the Polish Bomba).\nTwo cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here in 1939 and 1940, before moving to Hut 8.\nOn 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS.\nSpecifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy; developing a statistical procedure for making much more efficient use of the bombes dubbed ''Banburismus''; developing a procedure for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40/42 (''Tunny'') dubbed ''Turingery'' and, towards the end of the war, the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was codenamed ''Delilah''.\n\nBy using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to the subject. He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled ''The Applications of Probability to Cryptography'' and ''Paper on Statistics of Repetitions'', which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012, shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, \"who identified himself only as Richard,\" said at the time that the fact that the contents had been restricted for some 70 years demonstrated their importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis: \n\nTuring had something of a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as 'Prof' and his treatise on Enigma was known as 'The Prof's Book'. Jack Good, a cryptanalyst who worked with him, is quoted by Ronald Lewin as having said of Turing:\n\n\n\nWhile working at Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented long-distance runner, occasionally ran the to London when he was needed for high-level meetings, and he was capable of world-class marathon standards. Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team, hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas Richards' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He was Walton Athletic Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone.\n\nIn 1946, Turing was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) by King George VI for his wartime services, but his work remained secret for many years.\n\n===Bombe===\nWithin weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park, Turing had specified an electromechanical machine that could help break Enigma more effectively than the Polish ''bomba kryptologiczna'', from which its name was derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman, became one of the primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages.\n\nJack Good opined:\n\n\nA complete and working replica of a bombe at the National Codes Centre at Bletchley ParkThe bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings), using a suitable ''crib'': a fragment of probable plaintext. For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 1019 states, or 1022 states for the four-rotor U-boat variant), the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically.\n\nThe bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into the same plaintext letter—this simply wasn't possible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940.\n\nBy late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman, Hugh Alexander, and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated. Building on the work of the Poles, they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but they only had a few people and a few bombes, so they did not have time to translate all the signals. In the summer, they had had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month, but they were still on a knife-edge. They badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but they were getting nowhere. Finally, breaking all the rules, on 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill spelling out their difficulties, with Turing as the first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces.\n\nAs Andrew Hodges, biographer of Turing, later wrote, \"This letter had an electric effect.\" Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay, which read: \"ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done.\" On 18 November, the chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken. The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry later recalled, \"All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth.\" More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war.\n\nStatue of Turing by Stephen Kettle at Bletchley Park, commissioned by Sidney Frank, built from half a million pieces of Welsh slate.\n\n===Hut 8 and the naval Enigma===\nTuring decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of German naval Enigma \"because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself\". In December 1939, Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services.\n\nThat same night, he also conceived of the idea of ''Banburismus'', a sequential statistical technique (what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis) to assist in breaking the naval Enigma, \"though I was not sure that it would work in practice, and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken.\" For this, he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ''ban''. ''Banburismus'' could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes.\n\nIn 1941, Turing proposed marriage to Hut 8 colleague Joan Clarke, a fellow mathematician and cryptanalyst, but their engagement was short-lived. After admitting his homosexuality to his fiancée, who was reportedly \"unfazed\" by the revelation, Turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage.\n\nTuring travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington; he also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio.\n\nTuring's reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic:\n\n\nDuring this trip, he also assisted at Bell Labs with the development of secure speech devices. He returned to Bletchley Park in March 1943. During his absence, Hugh Alexander had officially assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been ''de facto'' head for some time (Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section). Turing then became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.\n\nAlexander wrote this about Turing's contribution:\n\n\n===Turingery===\nIn July 1942, Turing devised a technique termed ''Turingery'' (or jokingly ''Turingismus'') for use against the Lorenz cipher messages produced by the Germans' new ''Geheimschreiber'' (secret writer) machine. This was a teleprinter rotor cipher attachment codenamed ''Tunny'' at Bletchley Park. Turingery was a method of ''wheel-breaking'', i.e., a procedure for working out the cam settings of Tunny's wheels. He also introduced the Tunny team to Tommy Flowers who, under the guidance of Max Newman, went on to build the Colossus computer, the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, which replaced a simpler prior machine (the Heath Robinson), and whose superior speed allowed the statistical decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the messages. Some have mistakenly said that Turing was a key figure in the design of the Colossus computer. Turingery and the statistical approach of Banburismus undoubtedly fed into the thinking about cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher, but he was not directly involved in the Colossus development.\n\n===Delilah===\nFollowing his work at Bell Labs in the US, Turing pursued the idea of electronic enciphering of speech in the telephone system, and in the latter part of the war, he moved to work for the Secret Service's Radio Security Service (later HMGCC) at Hanslope Park. There he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer Donald Bayley. Together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed ''Delilah''. It was intended for different applications, lacking capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and in any case, Delilah was completed too late to be used during the war. Though the system worked fully, with Turing demonstrating it to officials by encrypting and decrypting a recording of a Winston Churchill speech, Delilah was not adopted for use. Turing also consulted with Bell Labs on the development of SIGSALY, a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war.\n", "Hampton\nBetween 1945 and 1947, Turing lived in Hampton, London, while he worked on the design of the ACE (Automatic Computing Engine) at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). He presented a paper on 19 February 1946, which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer. Von Neumann's incomplete ''First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC'' had predated Turing's paper, but it was much less detailed and, according to John R. Womersley, Superintendent of the NPL Mathematics Division, it \"contains a number of ideas which are Dr. Turing's own\". Although ACE was a feasible design, the secrecy surrounding the wartime work at Bletchley Park led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned. In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a sabbatical year during which he produced a seminal work on ''Intelligent Machinery'' that was not published in his lifetime. While he was at Cambridge, the Pilot ACE was being built in his absence. It executed its first program on 10 May 1950, and a number of later computers around the world owe much to it, including the English Electric DEUCE and the American Bendix G-15. The full version of Turing's ACE was not built until after his death.\n\nAccording to the memoirs of the German computer pioneer Heinz Billing from the Max Planck Institute for Physics, published by Genscher, Düsseldorf, there was a meeting between Alan Turing and Konrad Zuse. It took place in Göttingen in 1947. The interrogation had the form of a colloquium. Participants were Womersley, Turing, Porter from England and a few German researchers like Zuse, Walther, and Billing (for more details see Herbert Bruderer, ''Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz'').\n\nIn 1948 Turing was appointed Reader in the Mathematics Department at the Victoria University of Manchester. In 1949, he became Deputy Director of the Computing Machine Laboratory there, working on software for one of the earliest stored-program computers—the Manchester Mark 1. During this time he continued to do more abstract work in mathematics, and in \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\" (''Mind'', October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence, and proposed an experiment that became known as the Turing test, an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called \"intelligent\". The idea was that a computer could be said to \"think\" if a human interrogator could not tell it apart, through conversation, from a human being. In the paper, Turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind, it would be better rather to produce a simpler one to simulate a child's mind and then to subject it to a course of education. A reversed form of the Turing test is widely used on the Internet; the CAPTCHA test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer.\n\nIn 1948 Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, D. G. Champernowne, began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist. By 1950, the program was completed and dubbed the Turochamp. In 1952, he tried to implement it on a Ferranti Mark 1, but lacking enough power, the computer was unable to execute the program. Instead, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move. The game was recorded. The program lost to Turing's colleague Alick Glennie, although it is said that it won a game against Champernowne's wife.\n\nHis Turing test was a significant, characteristically provocative and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence, which continues after more than half a century. He also invented the LU decomposition method in 1948, used today for solving matrix equations.\n", "In 1951, when Turing was 39 years old, he turned to mathematical biology, finally publishing his masterpiece \"The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis\" in January 1952. He was interested in morphogenesis, the development of patterns and shapes in biological organisms. Among other things, he wanted to understand Fibonacci phyllotaxis, the existence of Fibonacci numbers in plant structures. He suggested that a system of chemicals reacting with each other and diffusing across space, termed a reaction-diffusion system, could account for \"the main phenomena of morphogenesis\". He used systems of partial differential equations to model catalytic chemical reactions. For example, if a catalyst A is required for a certain chemical reaction to take place, and if the reaction produced more of the catalyst A, then we say that the reaction is autocatalytic, and there is positive feedback that can be modelled by nonlinear differential equations. Turing discovered that patterns could be created if the chemical reaction not only produced catalyst A, but also produced an inhibitor B that slowed down the production of A. If A and B then diffused through the container at different rates, then you could have some regions where A dominated and some where B did. In order to calculate the extent of this, Turing would have needed a powerful computer, but these were not so freely available in 1951, so he had to use linear approximations in order to solve the equations by hand. Fortunately these calculations gave the right qualitative results, and produced, for example, a uniform mixture that oddly enough had regularly spaced fixed red spots. The Russian biochemist Boris Belousov had performed experiments with similar results, but could not get his papers published because of the contemporary prejudice that any such thing violated the second law of thermodynamics. For a modern view of living organisms and the second law, see Second law of thermodynamics#Living organisms. Unfortunately Belousov was not aware of Turing's paper in the ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society''.\n\nAlthough published before the structure and role of DNA was understood, Turing's work on morphogenesis remains relevant today, and is considered a seminal piece of work in mathematical biology. One of the early applications of Turing's paper was the work by James Murray explaining spots and stripes on the fur of cats, large and small. Further research in the area suggests that Turing's work can partially explain the growth of \"feathers, hair follicles, the branching pattern of lungs, and even the left-right asymmetry that puts the heart on the left side of the chest.\" In 2012, Sheth, et al. found that in mice, removal of Hox genes causes an increase in the number of digits without an increase in the overall size of the limb, suggesting that Hox genes control digit formation by tuning the wavelength of a Turing-type mechanism. Later papers were not available until ''Collected Works of A. M. Turing'' was published in 1992.\n", "In January 1952, Turing, then 39, started a relationship with Arnold Murray, a 19-year-old unemployed man. Turing had met Murray just before Christmas outside the Regal Cinema when walking down Manchester's Oxford Road and invited him to lunch. On 23 January Turing's house was burgled. Murray told Turing that the burglar was an acquaintance of his, and Turing reported the crime to the police. During the investigation he acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray. Homosexual acts were criminal offences in the United Kingdom at that time, and both men were charged with gross indecency under Section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885. Initial committal proceedings for the trial were held on 27 February during which Turing's solicitor \"reserved his defence\", i.e. did not argue or provide evidence against the allegations.\n\nLater, convinced by the advice of his brother and his own solicitor, Turing entered a plea of guilty. The case, ''Regina v. Turing and Murray,'' was brought to trial on 31 March 1952. Turing was convicted and given a choice between imprisonment and probation, which would be conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal treatment designed to reduce libido. He accepted the option of treatment via injections of what was then called stilboestrol (now known as diethylstilbestrol or DES), a synthetic oestrogen; this treatment was continued for the course of one year. The treatment rendered Turing impotent and caused gynaecomastia, fulfilling in the literal sense Turing's prediction that \"no doubt I shall emerge from it all a different man, but quite who I've not found out\". Murray was given a conditional discharge.\n\nTuring's conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the British signals intelligence agency that had evolved from GC&CS in 1946 (though he kept his academic job). He was denied entry into the United States after his conviction in 1952, but was free to visit other European countries. Turing was never accused of espionage, but in common with all who had worked at Bletchley Park, he was prevented by the Official Secrets Act from discussing his war work.\n", "Alan Turing is credited with designing the first computer chess program in 1953. Turing first worked on the algorithm in 1948 The program did not run on a computer; Turing \"ran\" the program by flipping through the pages of the algorithm and carrying out its instructions on a chessboard. According to Garry Kasparov, Turing's program \"played a recognizable game of chess.\"\n", "On 8 June 1954, Turing's housekeeper found him dead. He had died the previous day. A post-mortem examination established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning. When his body was discovered, an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed, and although the apple was not tested for cyanide, it was speculated that this was the means by which a fatal dose was consumed. An inquest determined that he had committed suicide, and he was cremated at Woking Crematorium on 12 June 1954. Turing's ashes were scattered there, just as his father's had been. Andrew Hodges and another biographer, David Leavitt, have both suggested that Turing was re-enacting a scene from the Walt Disney film ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'' (1937), his favourite fairy tale, both noting that (in Leavitt's words) he took \"an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew.\"\n\nPhilosophy professor Jack Copeland has questioned various aspects of the coroner's historical verdict. He suggests an alternative explanation for the cause of Turing's death, this being the accidental inhalation of cyanide fumes from an apparatus for electroplating gold onto spoons, which uses potassium cyanide to dissolve the gold. Turing had such an apparatus set up in his tiny spare room. Copeland notes that the autopsy findings were more consistent with inhalation than with ingestion of the poison. Turing also habitually ate an apple before bed, and it was not unusual for it to be discarded half-eaten. In addition, Turing had reportedly borne his legal setbacks and hormone treatment (which had been discontinued a year previously) \"with good humour\" and had shown no sign of despondency prior to his death, even setting down a list of tasks he intended to complete upon return to his office after the holiday weekend. Turing's mother believed that the ingestion was accidental, resulting from her son's careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Biographer Andrew Hodges suggests Turing arranged the delivery of the equipment to deliberately allow his mother plausible deniability regarding any suicide claims.\nAlan Turing's OBE currently held in Sherborne School archives\n", "A biography published by the Royal Society shortly after Turing's death, while his wartime work was still subject to the Official Secrets Act, recorded:\n\nSince 1966, the Turing Award has been given annually by the Association for Computing Machinery for technical or theoretical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the computing world's highest honour, equivalent to the Nobel Prize.\n\nOn 23 June 1998, on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, his biographer, Andrew Hodges, unveiled an official English Heritage blue plaque at his birthplace and childhood home in Warrington Crescent, London, later the Colonnade Hotel. To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled on 7 June 2004 at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow, Cheshire.A blue plaque marking Turing's home at Wilmslow, Cheshire\n\nOn 13 March 2000, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines issued a set of postage stamps to celebrate the greatest achievements of the 20th century, one of which carries a portrait of Turing against a background of repeated 0s and 1s, and is captioned: \"1937: Alan Turing's theory of digital computing\". On 1 April 2003, Turing's work at Bletchley Park was named an IEEE Milestone. On 28 October 2004, a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by John W. Mills was unveiled at the University of Surrey in Guildford, marking the 50th anniversary of Turing's death; it portrays him carrying his books across the campus.\n\nTuring was one of four mathematicians examined in the BBC documentary entitled ''Dangerous Knowledge'' (2008). The ''Princeton Alumni Weekly'' named Turing the second most significant alumnus in the history of Princeton University, second only to President James Madison. A 1.5-ton, life-size statue of Turing was unveiled on 19 June 2007 at Bletchley Park. Built from approximately half a million pieces of Welsh slate, it was sculpted by Stephen Kettle, having been commissioned by the American billionaire Sidney Frank.\n\nTuring has been honoured in various ways in Manchester, the city where he worked towards the end of his life. In 1994, a stretch of the A6010 road (the Manchester city intermediate ring road) was named \"Alan Turing Way\". A bridge carrying this road was widened, and carries the name Alan Turing Bridge. A statue of Turing was unveiled in Manchester on 23 June 2001 in Sackville Park, between the University of Manchester building on Whitworth Street and Canal Street. The memorial statue depicts the \"father of computer science\" sitting on a bench at a central position in the park. Turing is shown holding an apple. The cast bronze bench carries in relief the text 'Alan Mathison Turing 1912–1954', and the motto 'Founder of Computer Science' as it could appear if encoded by an Enigma machine: 'IEKYF ROMSI ADXUO KVKZC GUBJ'.\nTuring memorial statue plaque in Sackville Park, Manchester\nA plaque at the statue's feet reads 'Father of computer science, mathematician, logician, wartime codebreaker, victim of prejudice'. There is also a Bertrand Russell quotation: \"Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty—a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture.\" The sculptor buried his own old Amstrad computer under the plinth as a tribute to \"the godfather of all modern computers\".\n\nIn 1999, ''Time'' magazine named Turing as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century and stated, \"The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine.\"\n\nIn 2002, Turing was ranked twenty-first on the BBC's poll of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. In 2006, British writer and mathematician Ioan James chose Turing as one of twenty people to feature in his book about famous historical figures who may have had some of the traits of Asperger syndrome. In 2010, actor/playwright Jade Esteban Estrada portrayed Turing in the solo musical, ''ICONS: The Lesbian and Gay History of the World, Vol. 4''. In 2011, in ''The Guardian''s \"My hero\" series, writer Alan Garner chose Turing as his hero and described how they had met while out jogging in the early 1950s. Garner remembered Turing as \"funny and witty\" and said that he \"talked endlessly\". In 2006, Alan Turing was named with online resources as an LGBT History Month Icon. In 2006, Boston Pride named Turing their Honorary Grand Marshal.\n\nAlan Turing memorial statue in Sackville Park, Manchester\n\nThe logo of Apple Inc. is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to Alan Turing, with the bite mark a reference to his death. Both the designer of the logo and the company deny that there is any homage to Turing in the design. Stephen Fry has recounted asking Steve Jobs whether the design was intentional, saying that Jobs' response was, \"God, we wish it were.\" In February 2011, Turing's papers from the Second World War were bought for the nation with an 11th-hour bid by the National Heritage Memorial Fund, allowing them to stay at Bletchley Park.\n\nIn 2012, Turing was inducted into the Legacy Walk, an outdoor public display that celebrates LGBT history and people.\n\nThe francophone singer-songwriter Salvatore Adamo made a tribute to Turing with his song \"Alan et la Pomme\". Turing's life and work featured in a BBC children's programme about famous scientists—''Absolute Genius with Dick and Dom''—first broadcast on 12 March 2014.\n\nOn 17 May 2014, the world's first work of public art to recognise Alan Turing as gay was commissioned in Bletchley, close by to Bletchley Park where his war-time work was carried out. The commission was announced by the owners of Milton Keynes-based LGBT venue and nightclub Pink Punters to mark International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia.\nThe work was unveiled at a ceremony on Turing's birthday, 23 June 2014, and is placed outside Pink Punter's alongside the busy Watling Street, the old main road to London, where Turing himself would have passed by on many occasions. On 22 October 2014, Turing was inducted into the NSA Hall of Honor.\n\n===Tributes by universities and research institutions===\n* The computer room at King's College, Cambridge, Alan Turing's alma mater, is called the Turing Room.\n* The Turing Room at the University of Edinburgh's School of Informatics houses a bust of Turing by Eduardo Paolozzi, and a set (No. 42/50) of his Turing prints (2000).\n* The University of Surrey has a statue of Turing on their main piazza and one of the buildings of Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences is named after him.\n* Istanbul Bilgi University organises an annual conference on the theory of computation called \"Turing Days\".\n* The University of Texas at Austin has an honours computer science programme named the Turing Scholars.\n* In the early 1960s, Stanford University named the sole lecture room of the Polya Hall Mathematics building \"Alan Turing Auditorium\".\n* One of the amphitheatres of the Computer Science department (LIFL) at the University of Lille in northern France is named in honour of Alan M. Turing (the other amphitheatre is named after Kurt Gödel).\nThe Alan Turing Building at the University of Manchester\n* The University of Washington has a computer laboratory named after Turing.\n* The University of Manchester, the Open University, Oxford Brookes University and Aarhus University (in Aarhus, Denmark) all have buildings named after Turing.\n* Alan Turing Road in the Surrey Research Park and the Alan Turing Way, part of the Manchester inner ring road are named after Alan Turing.\n* Carnegie Mellon University has a granite bench, situated in the Hornbostel Mall, with the name \"A. M. Turing\" carved across the top, \"Read\" down the left leg, and \"Write\" down the other.\n* The University of Oregon has a bust of Turing on the side of Deschutes Hall, the computer science building.\n* The École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne has a road and a square named after Alan Turing (Chemin Alan Turing and Place Alan Turing).\n* The Faculty of Informatics and Information Technologies Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia, has a lecture room named \"Turing Auditorium\".\n* The Paris Diderot University has a lecture room named \"Amphithéâtre Turing\".\n* The Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science at the University of Würzburg has a lecture hall named \"Turing Hörsaal\".\n* The Paul Sabatier University in Toulouse has a lecture room named \"Amphithéâtre Turing\" (Bâtiment U4).\n* The largest conference hall at the Amsterdam Science Park is named Turingzaal.\n* King's College London's School of Natural and Mathematical Sciences awards the Alan Turing Centenary Prize.\n* The University of Kent named the Turing College after him at their Canterbury campus.\n* The campus of the École polytechnique has a building named after Alan Turing; it is a research centre whose premises are shared by the École Polytechnique, the INRIA and Microsoft.\n* The University of Toronto developed the Turing programming language in 1982, named after Alan Turing.\n* The campus of State University of Campinas in Brazil has an avenue, one of its largest, named after Turing.\n* The Department of Computer Science at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile, the University of Buenos Aires, the Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico, Los Andes University in Bogotá, Colombia, King's College, Cambridge, Bangor University in Wales, the University of Mons in Belgium, the University of Turin (Università degli Studi di Torino), the University of Puerto Rico at Humacao, Keele University and the Faculty of Computer Science, Electronics and Telecommunications of AGH University of Science and Technology, have buildings named after Turing.\n* Ghent University named a computer room after Alan Turing, in their department of Computer Science and Applied Mathematics.\n", "\nIn August 2009, John Graham-Cumming started a petition urging the British Government to apologise for Turing's prosecution as a homosexual. The petition received more than 30,000 signatures. Prime Minister Gordon Brown acknowledged the petition, releasing a statement on 10 September 2009 apologising and describing the treatment of Turing as \"appalling\":\n John Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), was the first MP to formally submit a bill to pardon Turing. Leech said it was \"ultimately just embarrassing\" that the conviction still stood.\n\nIn December 2011, William Jones created an e-petition requesting the British Government pardon Turing for his conviction of \"gross indecency\":\n\n\nThe petition gathered over 37,000 signatures, but the request was discouraged by Lord McNally, who gave the following opinion in his role as the Justice Minister:\n\n\nJohn Leech, the MP for Manchester Withington (2005–15), submitted several bills to Parliament and campaigned with William Jones to secure the pardon. Leech made the case in the House of Commons that Turing's contribution to the war made him a national hero and that it was \"ultimately just embarrassing\" that the conviction still stood. Leech continued to take the bill through Parliament and campaigned for several years until it was passed.\n\nOn 26 July 2012, a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to grant a statutory pardon to Turing for offences under section 11 of the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, of which he was convicted on 31 March 1952. Late in the year in a letter to ''The Daily Telegraph'', the physicist Stephen Hawking and 10 other signatories including the Astronomer Royal Lord Rees, President of the Royal Society Sir Paul Nurse, Lady Trumpington (who worked for Turing during the war) and Lord Sharkey (the bill's sponsor) called on Prime Minister David Cameron to act on the pardon request. The Government indicated it would support the bill, and it passed its third reading in the Lords in October.\n\nBefore the bill could be debated in the House of Commons, the Government elected to proceed under the royal prerogative of mercy. On 24 December 2013, Queen Elizabeth II signed a pardon for Turing's conviction for gross indecency, with immediate effect. Announcing the pardon, Justice Secretary Chris Grayling said Turing deserved to be \"remembered and recognised for his fantastic contribution to the war effort\" and not for his later criminal conviction. The Queen officially pronounced Turing pardoned in August 2014. The Queen's action is only the fourth royal pardon granted since the conclusion of the Second World War. This case is unusual in that pardons are normally granted only when the person is technically innocent, and a request has been made by the family or other interested party. Neither condition was met in regard to Turing's conviction.\n\nIn a letter to Prime Minister David Cameron after announcement of the pardon, human rights advocate Peter Tatchell criticised the decision to single out Turing due to his fame and achievements, when thousands of others convicted under the same law have not received pardons. Tatchell also called for a new investigation into Turing's death:\n\n\n\nIn September 2016, the government announced its intention to expand this retroactive exoneration to other men convicted of similar historical indecency offences, in what was described as an \"Alan Turing law\". The Alan Turing law is now an informal term for the law in the United Kingdom, contained in the Policing and Crime Act 2017, which serves as an amnesty law to retroactively pardon men who were cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. The law applies in England and Wales.\n", "\nDavid Chalmers on stage for an Alan Turing Year conference at De La Salle University, Manila, 27 March 2012\nTo mark the 100th anniversary of Turing's birth, the Turing Centenary Advisory Committee (TCAC) co-ordinated the Alan Turing Year, a year-long programme of events around the world honouring Turing's life and achievements. The TCAC, chaired by S. Barry Cooper with Alan Turing's nephew Sir John Dermot Turing acting as Honorary President, worked with the University of Manchester faculty members and a broad spectrum of people from Cambridge University and Bletchley Park.\n\nOn 23 June 2012, Google featured an interactive doodle where visitors had to change the instructions of a Turing Machine, so when run, the symbols on the tape would match a provided sequence, featuring \"Google\" in Baudot-Murray code.\n\nThe Bletchley Park Trust collaborated with Winning Moves to publish an Alan Turing edition of the board game Monopoly. The game's squares and cards have been revised to tell the story of Alan Turing's life, from his birthplace in Maida Vale to Hut 8 at Bletchley Park. The game also includes a replica of an original hand-drawn board created by William Newman, son of Turing's mentor, Max Newman, which Turing played on in the 1950s.\n\nIn the Philippines, the Department of Philosophy at De La Salle University-Manila hosted Turing 2012, an international conference on philosophy, artificial intelligence, and cognitive science from 27 to 28 March 2012 to commemorate the centenary birth of Turing. Madurai, India held celebrations with a programme attended by 6,000 students.\n\n===UK celebrations===\nThe London 2012 Olympic Torch flame was passed on in front of Turing's statue in Manchester on his 100th birthday.\nThere was a three-day conference in Manchester in June, a two-day conference in San Francisco, organised by the ACM, and a birthday party and Turing Centenary Conference in Cambridge organised at King's College, Cambridge, and the University of Cambridge, the latter organised by the association Computability in Europe.\n\nThe Science Museum in London launched a free exhibition devoted to Turing's life and achievements in June 2012, to run until July 2013. In February 2012, the Royal Mail issued a stamp featuring Turing as part of its \"Britons of Distinction\" series. The London 2012 Olympic Torch flame was passed on in front of Turing's statue in Sackville Gardens, Manchester, on the evening of 23 June 2012, the 100th anniversary of his birth.\n\nOn 22 June 2012 Manchester City Council, in partnership with the Lesbian and Gay Foundation, launched the Alan Turing Memorial Award, which will recognise individuals or groups who have made a significant contribution to the fight against homophobia in Manchester.\n\nAt the University of Oxford, a new course in Computer Science and Philosophy was established to coincide with the centenary of Turing's birth.\n\nPrevious events have included a celebration of Turing's life and achievements, at the University of Manchester, arranged by the British Logic Colloquium and the British Society for the History of Mathematics on 5 June 2004.\n", "\n\n===Theatre===\nBenedict Cumberbatch portrayed Turing in the 2014 film ''The Imitation Game''\n* ''Breaking the Code'' is a 1986 play by Hugh Whitemore about Alan Turing. The play ran in London's West End beginning in November 1986 and on Broadway from 15 November 1987 to 10 April 1988. There was also a 1996 BBC television production (broadcast in the United States by PBS). In all three performances Turing was played by Derek Jacobi. The Broadway production was nominated for three Tony Awards including Best Actor in a Play, Best Featured Actor in a Play, and Best Direction of a Play, and for two Drama Desk Awards, for Best Actor and Best Featured Actor. Turing was again portrayed by Jacobi in the 1996 television film adaptation of ''Breaking the Code''.\n* In 2012, in honour of the Turing Centennial, American Lyric Theater commissioned an operatic exploration of the life and death of Alan Turing from composer Justine F. Chen and librettist David Simpatico. Titled ''The Life and Death(s) of Alan Turing'', the opera is a historical fantasia on the life of Turing. In November 2014, the opera and several other artistic works inspired by Turing's life were featured on Studio 360. The opera received its first public performance in January 2017.\n\n===Literature===\n* In William Gibson's ''Neuromancer'' the Turing police have jurisdiction over AIs. (1984)\n* Turing is featured in the Neal Stephenson novel ''Cryptonomicon'' (1999).\n* The 2006 novel ''A Madman Dreams of Turing Machines'' contrasts fictionalised accounts of the lives and ideas of Turing and Kurt Gödel.\n* The 2015 novel Speak, written by Louisa Hall, includes a series of fictional letters written from Turing to his best friend's mother throughout his life, detailing his research about artificial intelligence.\n* In the graphic novel series ''Über'', in which a fictionalized version of WWII plays out involving superhuman soldiers called \"Tank-Men\", Turing is one of the researchers as well as a Tank-Man himself.\n\n===Music===\n* Electronic music duo Matmos released an EP titled ''For Alan Turing'' in 2006, which was based on material commissioned by Dr. Robert Osserman and David Elsenbud of the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute. In one of its tracks, an original Enigma Machine is sampled.\n* In 2012, Spanish group Hidrogenesse dedicated their LP ''Un dígito binario dudoso. Recital para Alan Turing'' (''A dubious binary digit. Concert for Alan Turing'') to the memory of the mathematician.\n* A musical work inspired by Turing's life, written by Neil Tennant and Chris Lowe of the Pet Shop Boys, entitled ''A Man from the Future'', was announced in late 2013. It was performed by the Pet Shop Boys and Juliet Stevenson (narrator), the BBC Singers, and the BBC Concert Orchestra conducted by Dominic Wheeler at the BBC Proms in the Royal Albert Hall on 23 July 2014.\n* ''Codebreaker'' is also the title of a choral work by the composer James McCarthy. It includes settings of texts by the poets Wilfred Owen, Sara Teasdale, Walt Whitman, Oscar Wilde and Robert Burns that are used to illustrate aspects of Turing's life. It was premiered on 26 April 2014 at the Barbican Centre in London, where it was performed by the Hertfordshire Chorus, who commissioned the work, led by David Temple with the soprano soloist Naomi Harvey providing the voice of Turing's mother.\n\n===Film===\n* The historical drama film ''The Imitation Game'', directed by Morten Tyldum and starring Benedict Cumberbatch as Turing and Keira Knightley as Joan Clarke, was released in the UK on 14 November 2014 and released theatrically in the US on 28 November 2014. It is about Alan Turing breaking the Enigma code with other codebreakers in Bletchley Park.\n* ''Codebreaker'', original UK title '''''Britain's Greatest Codebreaker''''', is a TV film aired on 21 November 2011 by Channel 4 about Turing's life. It had a limited release in the U.S. beginning on 17 October 2012. The story is told as a discussion between Alan Turing and his psychiatrist Dr. Franz Greenbaum. The story is based on journals maintained by Greenbaum and others who have studied Turing's life as well as some of his colleagues.\n", "OBE 1946\n\nTuring was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1951. In addition, he has had several things named in his honour:\n* Good–Turing frequency estimation\n* Turing completeness\n* Turing degree\n* Turing Institute\n* Turing Lecture\n* Turing machine examples\n* Turing patterns\n* Turing reduction\n* Turing switch\n", "\n* List of pioneers in computer science\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Bruderer, Herbert: ''Konrad Zuse und die Schweiz. Wer hat den Computer erfunden? Charles Babbage, Alan Turing und John von Neumann'' Oldenbourg Verlag, München 2012, XXVI, 224 Seiten, \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n** in \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Petzold, Charles (2008). \"The Annotated Turing: A Guided Tour through Alan Turing's Historic Paper on Computability and the Turing Machine\". Indianapolis: Wiley Publishing. \n* Smith, Roger (1997). ''Fontana History of the Human Sciences''. London: Fontana.\n* \n* Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). ''Computer Power and Human Reason''. London: W.H. Freeman. \n* and \n* Turing's mother, who survived him by many years, wrote this 157-page biography of her son, glorifying his life. It was published in 1959, and so could not cover his war work. Scarcely 300 copies were sold (Sara Turing to Lyn Newman, 1967, Library of St John's College, Cambridge). The six-page foreword by Lyn Irvine includes reminiscences and is more frequently quoted. It was re-published by Cambridge University Press in 2012, to honour the centenary of his birth, and included a new foreword by Martin Davis, as well as a never-before-published memoir by Turing's older brother John F. Turing.\n* This 1986 Hugh Whitemore play tells the story of Turing's life and death. In the original West End and Broadway runs, Derek Jacobi played Turing and he recreated the role in a 1997 television film based on the play made jointly by the BBC and WGBH, Boston. The play is published by Amber Lane Press, Oxford, ASIN: B000B7TM0Q\n* Williams, Michael R. (1985) ''A History of Computing Technology'', Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, \n* \n\n", "\n===Articles===\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n===Books===\n* \n* (originally published in 1983); basis of the film ''The Imitation Game''\n* \n* \n\n===Works of Turing===\n* \n* \n* \n\n===Other===\n* Oral history interview with Nicholas C. Metropolis, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Metropolis was the first director of computing services at Los Alamos National Laboratory; topics include the relationship between Alan Turing and John von Neumann\n", "\n\n* How Alan Turing Cracked The Enigma Code Imperial War Museums\n* Alan Turing RKBExplorer\n* Alan Turing Year\n* CiE 2012: Turing Centenary Conference\n* Alan Turing site maintained by Andrew Hodges including a short biography\n* AlanTuring.net – Turing Archive for the History of Computing by Jack Copeland\n* The Turing Archive – contains scans of some unpublished documents and material from the King's College, Cambridge archive\n* Alan Turing Papers, University of Manchester Library, Manchester\n* \n* Happy 100th Birthday, Alan Turing by Stephen Wolfram.\n* Sherborne School Archives – holds papers relating to Alan Turing's time at Sherborne School\n* Alan Turing plaques recorded on openplaques.org\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Education", "Cryptanalysis", "Early computers and the Turing test", "Pattern formation and mathematical biology", "Conviction for indecency", "Chess algorithm", "Death", "Recognition and tributes", "Government apology and pardon", "Centenary celebrations", "Portrayal in adaptations", "Awards and honours", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Alan Turing
[ "\n\nThe combined area of these three shapes is approximately 15.57 squares.\n'''Area''' is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape, or planar lamina, in the plane. Surface area is its analog on the two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional object. Area can be understood as the amount of material with a given thickness that would be necessary to fashion a model of the shape, or the amount of paint necessary to cover the surface with a single coat. It is the two-dimensional analog of the length of a curve (a one-dimensional concept) or the volume of a solid (a three-dimensional concept).\n\nThe area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size. In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit of area is the square metre (written as m2), which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. A shape with an area of three square metres would have the same area as three such squares. In mathematics, the unit square is defined to have area one, and the area of any other shape or surface is a dimensionless real number.\n\nThere are several well-known formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and circles. Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles. For shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. Indeed, the problem of determining the area of plane figures was a major motivation for the historical development of calculus.\n\nFor a solid shape such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder, the area of its boundary surface is called the surface area. Formulas for the surface areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks, but computing the surface area of a more complicated shape usually requires multivariable calculus.\n\nArea plays an important role in modern mathematics. In addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry. In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure, though not every subset is measurable. In general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions.\n\nArea can be defined through the use of axioms, defining it as a function of a collection of certain plane figures to the set of real numbers. It can be proved that such a function exists.\n", "\nAn approach to defining what is meant by \"area\" is through axioms. \"Area\" can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures (termed measurable sets) to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties:\n* For all ''S'' in ''M'', ''a''(''S'') ≥ 0.\n* If ''S'' and ''T'' are in ''M'' then so are ''S'' ∪ ''T'' and ''S'' ∩ ''T'', and also ''a''(''S''∪''T'') = ''a''(''S'') + ''a''(''T'') − ''a''(''S''∩''T'').\n* If ''S'' and ''T'' are in ''M'' with ''S'' ⊆ ''T'' then ''T'' − ''S'' is in ''M'' and ''a''(''T''−''S'') = ''a''(''T'') − ''a''(''S'').\n* If a set ''S'' is in ''M'' and ''S'' is congruent to ''T'' then ''T'' is also in ''M'' and ''a''(''S'') = ''a''(''T'').\n* Every rectangle ''R'' is in ''M''. If the rectangle has length ''h'' and breadth ''k'' then ''a''(''R'') = ''hk''.\n* Let ''Q'' be a set enclosed between two step regions ''S'' and ''T''. A step region is formed from a finite union of adjacent rectangles resting on a common base, i.e. ''S'' ⊆ ''Q'' ⊆ ''T''. If there is a unique number ''c'' such that ''a''(''S'') ≤ c ≤ ''a''(''T'') for all such step regions ''S'' and ''T'', then ''a''(''Q'') = ''c''.\n\nIt can be proved that such an area function actually exists.\n", "A square metre quadrat made of PVC pipe.\nEvery unit of length has a corresponding unit of area, namely the area of a square with the given side length. Thus areas can be measured in square metres (m2), square centimetres (cm2), square millimetres (mm2), square kilometres (km2), square feet (ft2), square yards (yd2), square miles (mi2), and so forth. Algebraically, these units can be thought of as the squares of the corresponding length units.\n\nThe SI unit of area is the square metre, which is considered an SI derived unit.\n\n===Conversions===\nAlthough there are 10 mm in 1 cm, there are 100 mm2 in 1 cm2.\nCalculation of the area of a square whose length and width are 1 metre would be:\n\n1 metre x 1 metre = 1 m2\n\nand therefore, another square with different sides can be calculated as:\n\n3 metres x 2 metres = 6 m2. This is, however, equivalent to 6 million millimetres square. Following this,\n* 1 kilometre square = 1,000,000 metres square\n* 1 metre square= 10,000 centimetres square = 1,000,000 millimetres square\n* 1 centimetre square = 100 millimetres square\n\n==== Non-metric units ====\nIn non-metric units, the conversion between two square units is the square of the conversion between the corresponding length units.\n:1 foot = 12 inches,\nthe relationship between square feet and square inches is\n:1 square foot = 144 square inches,\nwhere 144 = 122 = 12 × 12. Similarly:\n* 1 square yard = 9 square feet\n* 1 square mile = 3,097,600 square yards = 27,878,400 square feet\nIn addition, conversion factors include:\n* 1 square inch = 6.4516 square centimetres\n* 1 square foot = square metres\n* 1 square yard = square metres\n* 1 square mile = square kilometres\n\n===Other units including historical===\n\nThere are several other common units for area. The \"Are\" was the original unit of area in the metric system, with;\n* 1 are = 100 square metres\nThough the are has fallen out of use, the hectare is still commonly used to measure land:\n* 1 hectare = 100 ares = 10,000 square metres = 0.01 square kilometres\nOther uncommon metric units of area include the tetrad, the hectad, and the myriad.\n\nThe acre is also commonly used to measure land areas, where\n* 1 acre = 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square feet.\nAn acre is approximately 40% of a hectare.\n\nOn the atomic scale, area is measured in units of barns, such that:\n* 1 barn = 10−28 square meters.\nThe barn is commonly used in describing the cross sectional area of interaction in nuclear physics.\n\nIn India,\n* 20 Dhurki = 1 Dhur\n* 20 Dhur = 1 Khatha\n* 20 Khata = 1 Bigha\n* 32 Khata = 1 Acre\n", "\n===Circle area===\n\nIn the 5th century BCE, Hippocrates of Chios was the first to show that the area of a disk (the region enclosed by a circle) is proportional to the square of its diameter, as part of his quadrature of the lune of Hippocrates, but did not identify the constant of proportionality. Eudoxus of Cnidus, also in the 5th century BCE, also found that the area of a disk is proportional to its radius squared.\n\nSubsequently, Book I of Euclid's ''Elements'' dealt with equality of areas between two-dimensional figures. The mathematician Archimedes used the tools of Euclidean geometry to show that the area inside a circle is equal to that of a right triangle whose base has the length of the circle's circumference and whose height equals the circle's radius, in his book ''Measurement of a Circle''. (The circumference is 2''r'', and the area of a triangle is half the base times the height, yielding the area ''r''2 for the disk.) Archimedes approximated the value of π (and hence the area of a unit-radius circle) with his doubling method, in which he inscribed a regular triangle in a circle and noted its area, then doubled the number of sides to give a regular hexagon, then repeatedly doubled the number of sides as the polygon's area got closer and closer to that of the circle (and did the same with circumscribed polygons).\n\nSwiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761 proved that π, the ratio of a circle's area to its squared radius, is irrational, meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two whole numbers. In 1794 French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre proved that π2 is irrational; this also proves that π is irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that π is transcendental (not the solution of any polynomial equation with rational coefficients), confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler.\n\n===Triangle area===\n\nHeron (or Hero) of Alexandria found what is known as Heron's formula for the area of a triangle in terms of its sides, and a proof can be found in his book, ''Metrica'', written around 60 CE. It has been suggested that Archimedes knew the formula over two centuries earlier, and since ''Metrica'' is a collection of the mathematical knowledge available in the ancient world, it is possible that the formula predates the reference given in that work.\n\nIn 499 Aryabhata, a great mathematician-astronomer from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy, expressed the area of a triangle as one-half the base times the height in the ''Aryabhatiya'' (section 2.6).\n\nA formula equivalent to Heron's was discovered by the Chinese independently of the Greeks. It was published in 1247 in ''Shushu Jiuzhang'' (\"Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections\"), written by Qin Jiushao.\n\n===Quadrilateral area===\n\nIn the 7th century CE, Brahmagupta developed a formula, now known as Brahmagupta's formula, for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle) in terms of its sides. In 1842 the German mathematicians Carl Anton Bretschneider and Karl Georg Christian von Staudt independently found a formula, known as Bretschneider's formula, for the area of any quadrilateral.\n\n===General polygon area===\n\nThe development of Cartesian coordinates by René Descartes in the 17th century allowed the development of the surveyor's formula for the area of any polygon with known vertex locations by Gauss in the 19th century.\n\n===Areas determined using calculus===\n\nThe development of integral calculus in the late 17th century provided tools that could subsequently be used for computing more complicated areas, such as the area of an ellipse and the surface areas of various curved three-dimensional objects.\n", "\n===Polygon formulas===\n\n\nFor a non-self-intersecting (simple) polygon, the Cartesian coordinates (''i''=0, 1, ..., ''n''-1) of whose ''n'' vertices are known, the area is given by the surveyor's formula:\n\n:\n\nwhere when ''i''=''n''-1, then ''i''+1 is expressed as modulus ''n'' and so refers to 0.\n\n====Rectangles====\nThe area of this rectangle is .\nThe most basic area formula is the formula for the area of a rectangle. Given a rectangle with length and width , the formula for the area is:\n\n: (rectangle).\nThat is, the area of the rectangle is the length multiplied by the width. As a special case, as in the case of a square, the area of a square with side length is given by the formula:\n: (square).\n\nThe formula for the area of a rectangle follows directly from the basic properties of area, and is sometimes taken as a definition or axiom. On the other hand, if geometry is developed before arithmetic, this formula can be used to define multiplication of real numbers.\n\nEqual area figures.\n\n====Dissection, parallelograms, and triangles====\n\n\nMost other simple formulas for area follow from the method of dissection.\nThis involves cutting a shape into pieces, whose areas must sum to the area of the original shape.\n\nFor an example, any parallelogram can be subdivided into a trapezoid and a right triangle, as shown in figure to the left. If the triangle is moved to the other side of the trapezoid, then the resulting figure is a rectangle. It follows that the area of the parallelogram is the same as the area of the rectangle:\n: (parallelogram).\nTwo equal triangles.However, the same parallelogram can also be cut along a diagonal into two congruent triangles, as shown in the figure to the right. It follows that the area of each triangle is half the area of the parallelogram:\n: (triangle).\nSimilar arguments can be used to find area formulas for the trapezoid as well as more complicated polygons.\n\n===Area of curved shapes===\n\n====Circles====\nsectors which rearrange to form an approximate parallelogram.\n\nThe formula for the area of a circle (more properly called the area enclosed by a circle or the area of a disk) is based on a similar method. Given a circle of radius , it is possible to partition the circle into sectors, as shown in the figure to the right. Each sector is approximately triangular in shape, and the sectors can be rearranged to form and approximate parallelogram. The height of this parallelogram is , and the width is half the circumference of the circle, or . Thus, the total area of the circle is :\n: (circle).\nThough the dissection used in this formula is only approximate, the error becomes smaller and smaller as the circle is partitioned into more and more sectors. The limit of the areas of the approximate parallelograms is exactly , which is the area of the circle.\n\nThis argument is actually a simple application of the ideas of calculus. In ancient times, the method of exhaustion was used in a similar way to find the area of the circle, and this method is now recognized as a precursor to integral calculus. Using modern methods, the area of a circle can be computed using a definite integral:\n:\n\n====Ellipses====\n\nThe formula for the area enclosed by an ellipse is related to the formula of a circle; for an ellipse with semi-major and semi-minor axes and the formula is:\n:\n\n====Surface area====\n\nArchimedes showed that the surface area of a sphere is exactly four times the area of a flat disk of the same radius, and the volume enclosed by the sphere is exactly 2/3 of the volume of a cylinder of the same height and radius.\nMost basic formulas for surface area can be obtained by cutting surfaces and flattening them out. For example, if the side surface of a cylinder (or any prism) is cut lengthwise, the surface can be flattened out into a rectangle. Similarly, if a cut is made along the side of a cone, the side surface can be flattened out into a sector of a circle, and the resulting area computed.\n\nThe formula for the surface area of a sphere is more difficult to derive: because a sphere has nonzero Gaussian curvature, it cannot be flattened out. The formula for the surface area of a sphere was first obtained by Archimedes in his work ''On the Sphere and Cylinder''. The formula is:\n: (sphere),\nwhere is the radius of the sphere. As with the formula for the area of a circle, any derivation of this formula inherently uses methods similar to calculus.\n\n===General formulas===\n\n====Areas of 2-dimensional figures====\n* A triangle: (where ''B'' is any side, and ''h'' is the distance from the line on which ''B'' lies to the other vertex of the triangle). This formula can be used if the height ''h'' is known. If the lengths of the three sides are known then ''Heron's formula'' can be used: where ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' are the sides of the triangle, and is half of its perimeter. If an angle and its two included sides are given, the area is where is the given angle and and are its included sides. If the triangle is graphed on a coordinate plane, a matrix can be used and is simplified to the absolute value of . This formula is also known as the shoelace formula and is an easy way to solve for the area of a coordinate triangle by substituting the 3 points ''(x1,y1)'', ''(x2,y2)'', and ''(x3,y3)''. The shoelace formula can also be used to find the areas of other polygons when their vertices are known. Another approach for a coordinate triangle is to use calculus to find the area.\n* A simple polygon constructed on a grid of equal-distanced points (i.e., points with integer coordinates) such that all the polygon's vertices are grid points: , where ''i'' is the number of grid points inside the polygon and ''b'' is the number of boundary points. This result is known as Pick's theorem.\n\n====Area in calculus====\nIntegration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined by ''f''(''x''), between two points (here ''a'' and ''b'').\nThe area between two graphs can be evaluated by calculating the difference between the integrals of the two functions\n* The area between a positive-valued curve and the horizontal axis, measured between two values ''a'' and ''b'' (b is defined as the larger of the two values) on the horizontal axis, is given by the integral from ''a'' to ''b'' of the function that represents the curve:\n:\n* The area between the graphs of two functions is equal to the integral of one function, ''f''(''x''), minus the integral of the other function, ''g''(''x''):\n: where is the curve with the greater y-value.\n* An area bounded by a function ''r'' = ''r''(θ) expressed in polar coordinates is:\n:\n* The area enclosed by a parametric curve with endpoints is given by the line integrals:\n::\n(see Green's theorem) or the ''z''-component of\n:\n\n====Bounded area between two quadratic functions====\nTo find the bounded area between two quadratic functions, we subtract one from the other to write the difference as\n:\nwhere ''f''(''x'') is the quadratic upper bound and ''g''(''x'') is the quadratic lower bound. Define the discriminant of ''f''(''x'')-''g''(''x'') as\n:\nBy simplifying the integral formula between the graphs of two functions (as given in the section above) and using Vieta's formula, we can obtain\n:\nThe above remains valid if one of the bounding functions is linear instead of quadratic.\n\n====Surface area of 3-dimensional figures====\n* Cone: , where ''r'' is the radius of the circular base, and ''h'' is the height. That can also be rewritten as or where ''r'' is the radius and ''l'' is the slant height of the cone. is the base area while is the lateral surface area of the cone.\n* cube: , where ''s'' is the length of an edge.\n* cylinder: , where ''r'' is the radius of a base and ''h'' is the height. The ''2r'' can also be rewritten as '' d'', where ''d'' is the diameter.\n* prism: 2B + Ph, where ''B'' is the area of a base, ''P'' is the perimeter of a base, and ''h'' is the height of the prism.\n* pyramid: , where ''B'' is the area of the base, ''P'' is the perimeter of the base, and ''L'' is the length of the slant.\n* rectangular prism: , where is the length, ''w'' is the width, and ''h'' is the height.\n\n====General formula for surface area====\nThe general formula for the surface area of the graph of a continuously differentiable function where and is a region in the xy-plane with the smooth boundary:\n: \nAn even more general formula for the area of the graph of a parametric surface in the vector form where is a continuously differentiable vector function of is:\n: \n\n===List of formulas===\n\n\n+ Additional common formulas for area:\n Shape\n Formula\n Variables\n\nRegular triangle (equilateral triangle)\n\n\n\n is the length of one side of the triangle.\n\nTriangle\n\n is half the perimeter, , and are the length of each side.\n\nTriangle\n\n and are any two sides, and is the angle between them.\n\nTriangle\n\n and are the base and altitude (measured perpendicular to the base), respectively.\n\nIsosceles triangle\n\n is the length of one of the two equal sides and is the length of a different side.\n\nRhombus/Kite\n\n and are the lengths of the two diagonals of the rhombus or kite.\n\nParallelogram\n\n is the length of the base and is the perpendicular height.\n\nTrapezoid\n\n and are the parallel sides and the distance (height) between the parallels.\n\nRegular hexagon\n\n is the length of one side of the hexagon.\n\nRegular octagon\n\n is the length of one side of the octagon.\n\n Regular polygon\n\n is the side length and is the number of sides.\n\n Regular polygon\n\n is the perimeter and is the number of sides.\n\n Regular polygon\n\n is the radius of a circumscribed circle, is the radius of an inscribed circle, and is the number of sides.\n\n Regular polygon\n\n is the number of sides, is the side length, is the apothem, or the radius of an inscribed circle in the polygon, and is the perimeter of the polygon.\n\nCircle\n\n is the radius and the diameter.\n\nCircular sector\n\n and are the radius and angle (in radians), respectively and is the length of the perimeter.\n\nEllipse\n\n and are the semi-major and semi-minor axes, respectively.\n\nTotal surface area of a cylinder\n\n and are the radius and height, respectively.\n\nLateral surface area of a cylinder\n\n and are the radius and height, respectively.\n\nTotal surface area of a sphere\n\n and are the radius and diameter, respectively.\n\nTotal surface area of a pyramid\n\n is the base area, is the base perimeter and is the slant height.\n\nTotal surface area of a pyramid frustum\n\n is the base area, is the base perimeter and is the slant height.\n\nSquare to circular area conversion\n\n is the area of the square in square units.\n\nCircular to square area conversion\n\n is the area of the circle in circular units.\n\n\n\nThe above calculations show how to find the areas of many common shapes.\n\nThe areas of irregular polygons can be calculated using the \"Surveyor's formula\".\n\n===Relation of area to perimeter===\n\nThe isoperimetric inequality states that, for a closed curve of length ''L'' (so the region it encloses has perimeter ''L'') and for area ''A'' of the region that it encloses,\n\n:\n\nand equality holds if and only if the curve is a circle. Thus a circle has the largest area of any closed figure with a given perimeter.\n\nAt the other extreme, a figure with given perimeter ''L'' could have an arbitrarily small area, as illustrated by a rhombus that is \"tipped over\" arbitrarily far so that two of its angles are arbitrarily close to 0° and the other two are arbitrarily close to 180°.\n\nFor a circle, the ratio of the area to the circumference (the term for the perimeter of a circle) equals half the radius ''r''. This can be seen from the area formula ''πr''2 and the circumference formula 2''πr''.\n\nThe area of a regular polygon is half its perimeter times the apothem (where the apothem is the distance from the center to the nearest point on any side).\n\n===Fractals===\n\nDoubling the edge lengths of a polygon multiplies its area by four, which is two (the ratio of the new to the old side length) raised to the power of two (the dimension of the space the polygon resides in). But if the one-dimensional lengths of a fractal drawn in two dimensions are all doubled, the spatial content of the fractal scales by a power of two that is not necessarily an integer. This power is called the fractal dimension of the fractal.\n\n", "\n\nThere are an infinitude of lines that bisect the area of a triangle. Three of them are the medians of the triangle (which connect the sides' midpoints with the opposite vertices), and these are concurrent at the triangle's centroid; indeed, they are the only area bisectors that go through the centroid. Any line through a triangle that splits both the triangle's area and its perimeter in half goes through the triangle's incenter (the center of its incircle). There are either one, two, or three of these for any given triangle.\n\nAny line through the midpoint of a parallelogram bisects the area.\n\nAll area bisectors of a circle or other ellipse go through the center, and any chords through the center bisect the area. In the case of a circle they are the diameters of the circle.\n", "Given a wire contour, the surface of least area spanning (\"filling\") it is a minimal surface. Familiar examples include soap bubbles.\n\nThe question of the filling area of the Riemannian circle remains open.\n\nThe circle has the largest area of any two-dimensional object having the same perimeter.\n\nA cyclic polygon (one inscribed in a circle) has the largest area of any polygon with a given number of sides of the same lengths.\n\nA version of the isoperimetric inequality for triangles states that the triangle of greatest area among all those with a given perimeter is equilateral.\n\nThe triangle of largest area of all those inscribed in a given circle is equilateral; and the triangle of smallest area of all those circumscribed around a given circle is equilateral.\n\nThe ratio of the area of the incircle to the area of an equilateral triangle, , is larger than that of any non-equilateral triangle.\n\nThe ratio of the area to the square of the perimeter of an equilateral triangle, is larger than that for any other triangle.\n", "* Brahmagupta quadrilateral, a cyclic quadrilateral with integer sides, integer diagonals, and integer area.\n* Equi-areal mapping\n* Heronian triangle, a triangle with integer sides and integer area.\n* List of triangle inequalities#Area\n* One-seventh area triangle, an inner triangle with one-seventh the area of the reference triangle.\n:Routh's theorem, a generalization of the one-seventh area triangle.\n Orders of magnitude (area)—A list of areas by size.\n* Pentagon#Derivation of the area formula\n* Planimeter, an instrument for measuring small areas, e.g. on maps.\n* Quadrilateral#Area of a convex quadrilateral\n* Robbins pentagon, a cyclic pentagon whose side lengths and area are all rational numbers.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Formal definition", "Units", "History", "Area formulas", "Area bisectors", "Optimization", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Area
[ "\n\n\n\n\nThe '''astronomical unit''' (symbol: au or ua) is a unit of length, roughly the distance from Earth to the Sun. However, that distance varies as Earth orbits the Sun, from a maximum (aphelion) to a minimum (perihelion) and back again once a year. Originally conceived as the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion, it is now defined as exactly metres (about 150 million kilometres, or 93 million miles). The astronomical unit is used primarily as a convenient yardstick for measuring distances within the Solar System or around other stars. However, it is also a fundamental component in the definition of another unit of astronomical length, the parsec.\n", "A variety of unit symbols and abbreviations have been in use for the astronomical unit. In a 1976 resolution, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) used the symbol ''A'' for the astronomical unit. In the astronomical literature, the symbol AU was (and remains) common. In 2006, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) recommended ua as the symbol for the unit. In the non-normative Annex C to ISO 80000-3 (2006), the symbol of the astronomical unit is \"ua\". In 2012, the IAU, noting \"that various symbols are presently in use for the astronomical unit\", recommended the use of the symbol \"au\". In the 2014 revision of the SI Brochure, the BIPM used the unit symbol \"au\".\n", "\n\nEarth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The semi-major axis of this elliptic orbit is defined to be half of the straight line segment that joins the perihelion and aphelion. The centre of the Sun lies on this straight line segment, but not at its midpoint. Because ellipses are well-understood shapes, measuring the points of its extremes defined the exact shape mathematically, and made possible calculations for the entire orbit as well as predictions based on observation. In addition, it mapped out exactly the largest straight-line distance that Earth traverses over the course of a year, defining times and places for observing the largest parallax (apparent shifts of position) in nearby stars. Knowing Earth's shift and a star's shift enabled the star's distance to be calculated. But all measurements are subject to some degree of error or uncertainty, and the uncertainties in the length of the astronomical unit only increased uncertainties in the stellar distances. Improvements in precision have always been a key to improving astronomical understanding. Throughout the twentieth century, measurements became increasingly precise and sophisticated, and ever more dependent on accurate observation of the effects described by Einstein's theory of relativity and upon the mathematical tools it used.\n\nImproving measurements were continually checked and cross-checked by means of our understanding of the laws of celestial mechanics, which govern the motions of objects in space. The expected positions and distances of objects at an established time are calculated (in AU) from these laws, and assembled into a collection of data called an ephemeris. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory provides one of several ephemeris computation services.\n\nIn 1976, in order to establish a yet more precise measure for the astronomical unit, the IAU formally adopted a new definition. Although directly based on the then-best available observational measurements, the definition was recast in terms of the then-best mathematical derivations from celestial mechanics and planetary ephemerides. It stated that \"the astronomical unit of length is that length (''A'') for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (''k'') takes the value when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time\". Equivalently, by this definition, one AU is the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an angular frequency of ; or alternatively that length for which the heliocentric gravitational constant (the product ''G'') is equal to ()2 AU3/d2, when the length is used to describe the positions of objects in the Solar System.\n\nSubsequent explorations of the Solar System by space probes made it possible to obtain precise measurements of the relative positions of the inner planets and other objects by means of radar and telemetry. As with all radar measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for photons to be reflected from an object. Because all photons move at the speed of light in vacuum, a fundamental constant of the universe, the distance of an object from the probe is basically the product of the speed of light and the measured time. However, for precision the calculations require adjustment for things such as the motions of the probe and object while the photons are transiting. In addition, the measurement of the time itself must be translated to a standard scale that accounts for relativistic time dilation. Comparison of the ephemeris positions with time measurements expressed in the TDB scale leads to a value for the speed of light in astronomical units per day (of ). By 2009, the IAU had updated its standard measures to reflect improvements, and calculated the speed of light at (TDB).\n\nIn 1983, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) modified the International System of Units (SI, or \"modern\" metric system) to make the metre independent of physical objects entirely, because other measurements had become too precise for reference to the prototype platinum metre to remain useful. Instead, the metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light in vacuum, which could be independently determined at need. The speed of light could then be expressed exactly as ''c''0 = , a standard also adopted by the IERS numerical standards. From this definition and the 2009 IAU standard, the time for light to traverse an AU is found to be τA = , more than 8 minutes. By multiplication, the best IAU 2009 estimate was ''A'' = ''c''0τA = , based on a comparison of JPL and IAA–RAS ephemerides.\n\nIn 2006, the BIPM reported a value of the astronomical unit as . In the 2014 revision of the SI Brochure, the BIPM recognised the IAU's 2012 redefinition of the astronomical unit as .\n\nThis estimate was still derived from observation and measurements subject to error, and based on techniques that did not yet standardize all relativistic effects, and thus were not constant for all observers. In 2012, finding that the equalization of relativity alone would make the definition overly complex, the IAU simply used the 2009 estimate to redefine the astronomical unit as a conventional unit of length directly tied to the metre (exactly ). The new definition also recognizes as a consequence that the astronomical unit is now to play a role of reduced importance, limited in its use to that of a convenience in some applications.\n\n:{\|\n\n1 astronomical unit \n= metres (exactly)\n\n≈ million miles\n\n≈ light-seconds\n\n≈ millionths () of a parsec\n\n≈ millionths () of a light-year\n\n\nThis definition makes the speed of light, defined as exactly , equal to exactly × ÷ or about AU/d, some 60 parts per trillion less than the 2009 estimate.\n", "With the definitions used before 2012, the astronomical unit was dependent on the heliocentric gravitational constant, that is the product of the gravitational constant ''G'' and the solar mass . Neither ''G'' nor can be measured to high accuracy separately, but the value of their product is known very precisely from observing the relative positions of planets (Kepler's Third Law expressed in terms of Newtonian gravitation). Only the product is required to calculate planetary positions for an ephemeris, so ephemerides are calculated in astronomical units and not in SI units.\n\nThe calculation of ephemerides also requires a consideration of the effects of general relativity. In particular, time intervals measured on Earth's surface (terrestrial time, TT) are not constant when compared to the motions of the planets: the terrestrial second (TT) appears to be longer during the Northern Hemisphere winter and shorter during the Northern Hemisphere summer when compared to the \"planetary second\" (conventionally measured in barycentric dynamical time, TDB). This is because the distance between Earth and the Sun is not fixed (it varies between and ) and, when Earth is closer to the Sun (perihelion), the Sun's gravitational field is stronger and Earth is moving faster along its orbital path. As the metre is defined in terms of the second and the speed of light is constant for all observers, the terrestrial metre appears to change in length compared to the \"planetary metre\" on a periodic basis.\n\nThe metre is defined to be a unit of proper length, but the SI definition does not specify the metric tensor to be used in determining it. Indeed, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) notes that \"its definition applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored\". As such, the metre is undefined for the purposes of measuring distances within the Solar System. The 1976 definition of the astronomical unit was incomplete because it did not specify the frame of reference in which time is to be measured, but proved practical for the calculation of ephemerides: a fuller definition that is consistent with general relativity was proposed, and \"vigorous debate\" ensued until in August 2012 the IAU adopted the current definition of 1 astronomical unit = metres.\n\nThe astronomical unit is typically used for stellar system scale distances, such as the size of a protostellar disk or the heliocentric distance of an asteroid, whereas other units are used for other distances in astronomy. The astronomical unit is too small to be convenient for interstellar distances, where the parsec and light-year are widely used. The parsec (parallax arcsecond) is defined in terms of the astronomical unit, being the distance of an object with a parallax of 1 arcsecond. The light-year is often used in popular works, but is not an approved non-SI unit and is rarely used by professional astronomers.\n\nWhen simulating a numerical model of the Solar System, the astronomical unit provides an appropriate scale that minimizes (overflow, underflow and truncation) errors in floating point calculations.\n", "According to Archimedes in the ''Sandreckoner'' (2.1), Aristarchus of Samos estimated the distance to the Sun to be times Earth's radius (the true value is about ). However, the book ''On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon'', which has long been ascribed to Aristarchus, says that he calculated the distance to the Sun to be between 18 and 20 times the distance to the Moon, whereas the true ratio is about 389.174. The latter estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the Sun, which he estimated as 87° (the true value being close to 89.853°). Depending on the distance that Van Helden assumes Aristarchus used for the distance to the Moon, his calculated distance to the Sun would fall between 380 and Earth radii.\n\nAccording to Eusebius of Caesarea in the ''Praeparatio Evangelica'' (Book XV, Chapter 53), Eratosthenes found the distance to the Sun to be \"σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας\" (literally \"of ''stadia'' myriads 400 and \" but with the additional note that in the Greek text the grammatical agreement is between ''myriads'' (not ''stadia'') on the one hand and both ''400'' and '''' on the other, as in Greek, unlike English, all three (or all four if one were to include ''stadia'') words are inflected. This has been translated either as ''stadia'' (1903 translation by Edwin Hamilton Gifford), or as ''stadia'' (edition of des Places\", dated 1974–1991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 to 190 metres, the former translation comes to to , which is far too low, whereas the second translation comes to 148.7 to 152.8 million kilometres (accurate within 2%). Hipparchus also gave an estimate of the distance of Earth from the Sun, quoted by Pappus as equal to 490 Earth radii. According to the conjectural reconstructions of Noel Swerdlow and G. J. Toomer, this was derived from his assumption of a \"least perceptible\" solar parallax of 7 arc minutes.\n\nA Chinese mathematical treatise, the ''Zhoubi Suanjing'' (c. 1st century BCE), shows how the distance to the Sun can be computed geometrically, using the different lengths of the noontime shadows observed at three places li apart and the assumption that Earth is flat.\n\n\n\n Distance to the Sunestimated by\n Estimate\n in AU\n\n Solarparallax\n Earthradii\n\n Archimedes \n 40″\n \n 0.426\n\n Aristarchus \n –\n 380-\n 0.016-0.065\n\n Hipparchus \n 7′\n 490\n 0.021\n\n Posidonius \n –\n \n 0.426\n\n Ptolemy \n 2′ 50″\n \n 0.052\n\n Godefroy Wendelin \n 15″\n \n 0.597\n\n Jeremiah Horrocks \n 15″\n \n 0.597\n\n Christiaan Huygens \n 8.6″\n \n 1.023\n\n Cassini & Richer \n 9″\n \n 0.925\n\n Jérôme Lalande \n 8.6″\n \n 1.023\n\n Simon Newcomb \n 8.80″\n \n 0.9994\n\n Arthur Hinks \n 8.807″\n \n 0.9985\n\n H. Spencer Jones \n 8.790″\n \n 1.0005\n\n modern Astronomy\n ″\n \n 1.0000\n\n ''Sources'':\n\n\nIn the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy estimated the mean distance of the Sun as times Earth's radius. To determine this value, Ptolemy started by measuring the Moon's parallax, finding what amounted to a horizontal lunar parallax of 1° 26′, which was much too large. He then derived a maximum lunar distance of 64 Earth radii. Because of cancelling errors in his parallax figure, his theory of the Moon's orbit, and other factors, this figure was approximately correct. He then measured the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon and concluded that the apparent diameter of the Sun was equal to the apparent diameter of the Moon at the Moon's greatest distance, and from records of lunar eclipses, he estimated this apparent diameter, as well as the apparent diameter of the shadow cone of Earth traversed by the Moon during a lunar eclipse. Given these data, the distance of the Sun from Earth can be trigonometrically computed to be Earth radii. This gives a ratio of solar to lunar distance of approximately 19, matching Aristarchus's figure. Although Ptolemy's procedure is theoretically workable, it is very sensitive to small changes in the data, so much so that changing a measurement by a few percent can make the solar distance infinite.\n\nAfter Greek astronomy was transmitted to the medieval Islamic world, astronomers made some changes to Ptolemy's cosmological model, but did not greatly change his estimate of the Earth–Sun distance. For example, in his introduction to Ptolemaic astronomy, al-Farghānī gave a mean solar distance of Earth radii, whereas in his ''zij'', al-Battānī used a mean solar distance of Earth radii. Subsequent astronomers, such as al-Bīrūnī, used similar values. Later in Europe, Copernicus and Tycho Brahe also used comparable figures ( and Earth radii), and so Ptolemy's approximate Earth–Sun distance survived through the 16th century.\n\nJohannes Kepler was the first to realize that Ptolemy's estimate must be significantly too low (according to Kepler, at least by a factor of three) in his ''Rudolphine Tables'' (1627). Kepler's laws of planetary motion allowed astronomers to calculate the relative distances of the planets from the Sun, and rekindled interest in measuring the absolute value for Earth (which could then be applied to the other planets). The invention of the telescope allowed far more accurate measurements of angles than is possible with the naked eye. Flemish astronomer Godefroy Wendelin repeated Aristarchus' measurements in 1635, and found that Ptolemy's value was too low by a factor of at least eleven.\n\nA somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the transit of Venus. By measuring the transit in two different locations, one can accurately calculate the parallax of Venus and from the relative distance of Earth and Venus from the Sun, the solar parallax ''α'' (which cannot be measured directly). Jeremiah Horrocks had attempted to produce an estimate based on his observation of the 1639 transit (published in 1662), giving a solar parallax of 15 arcseconds, similar to Wendelin's figure. The solar parallax is related to the Earth–Sun distance as measured in Earth radii by\n:\nThe smaller the solar parallax, the greater the distance between the Sun and Earth: a solar parallax of 15\" is equivalent to an Earth–Sun distance of Earth radii.\n\nChristiaan Huygens believed that the distance was even greater: by comparing the apparent sizes of Venus and Mars, he estimated a value of about Earth radii, equivalent to a solar parallax of 8.6\". Although Huygens' estimate is remarkably close to modern values, it is often discounted by historians of astronomy because of the many unproven (and incorrect) assumptions he had to make for his method to work; the accuracy of his value seems to be based more on luck than good measurement, with his various errors cancelling each other out.\n\nTransits of Venus across the face of the Sun were, for a long time, the best method of measuring the astronomical unit, despite the difficulties (here, the so-called \"black drop effect\") and the rarity of observations.\nJean Richer and Giovanni Domenico Cassini measured the parallax of Mars between Paris and Cayenne in French Guiana when Mars was at its closest to Earth in 1672. They arrived at a figure for the solar parallax of 9\", equivalent to an Earth–Sun distance of about Earth radii. They were also the first astronomers to have access to an accurate and reliable value for the radius of Earth, which had been measured by their colleague Jean Picard in 1669 as thousand ''toises''. Another colleague, Ole Rømer, discovered the finite speed of light in 1676: the speed was so great that it was usually quoted as the time required for light to travel from the Sun to the Earth, or \"light time per unit distance\", a convention that is still followed by astronomers today.\n\nA better method for observing Venus transits was devised by James Gregory and published in his ''Optica Promata'' (1663). It was strongly advocated by Edmond Halley and was applied to the transits of Venus observed in 1761 and 1769, and then again in 1874 and 1882. Transits of Venus occur in pairs, but less than one pair every century, and observing the transits in 1761 and 1769 was an unprecedented international scientific operation. Despite the Seven Years' War, dozens of astronomers were dispatched to observing points around the world at great expense and personal danger: several of them died in the endeavour. The various results were collated by Jérôme Lalande to give a figure for the solar parallax of 8.6″.\n\n\n\n Date\n Method\n ''A''/Gm\n Uncertainty\n\n 1895\n aberration\n 149.25\n 0.12\n\n 1941\n parallax\n 149.674\n 0.016\n\n 1964\n radar\n 149.5981\n 0.001\n\n 1976\n telemetry\n 149.597 870\n 0.000 001\n\n 2009\n telemetry\n 149.597 870 700\n 0.000 000 003\n\nAnother method involved determining the constant of aberration. Simon Newcomb gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80″ for the solar parallax (close to the modern value of ″), although Newcomb also used data from the transits of Venus. Newcomb also collaborated with A. A. Michelson to measure the speed of light with Earth-based equipment; combined with the constant of aberration (which is related to the light time per unit distance), this gave the first direct measurement of the Earth–Sun distance in kilometres. Newcomb's value for the solar parallax (and for the constant of aberration and the Gaussian gravitational constant) were incorporated into the first international system of astronomical constants in 1896, which remained in place for the calculation of ephemerides until 1964. The name \"astronomical unit\" appears first to have been used in 1903.\n\nThe discovery of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros and its passage near Earth in 1900–1901 allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement. Another international project to measure the parallax of 433 Eros was undertaken in 1930–1931.\n\nDirect radar measurements of the distances to Venus and Mars became available in the early 1960s. Along with improved measurements of the speed of light, these showed that Newcomb's values for the solar parallax and the constant of aberration were inconsistent with one another.\n", "\nThe ''astronomical unit'' is used as the baseline of the triangle to measure stellar parallaxes ''(distances in the image are not to scale)''.\n\nThe unit distance ''A'' (the value of the astronomical unit in metres) can be expressed in terms of other astronomical constants:\n:\nwhere ''G'' is the Newtonian gravitational constant, is the solar mass, ''k'' is the numerical value of Gaussian gravitational constant and ''D'' is the time period of one day.\nThe Sun is constantly losing mass by radiating away energy, so the orbits of the planets are steadily expanding outward from the Sun. This has led to calls to abandon the astronomical unit as a unit of measurement.\n\nAs the speed of light has an exact defined value in SI units and the Gaussian gravitational constant ''k'' is fixed in the astronomical system of units, measuring the light time per unit distance is exactly equivalent to measuring the product ''G'' in SI units. Hence, it is possible to construct ephemerides entirely in SI units, which is increasingly becoming the norm.\n\nA 2004 analysis of radiometric measurements in the inner Solar System suggested that the secular increase in the unit distance was much larger than can be accounted for by solar radiation, + metres per century.\n\nThe measurements of the secular variations of the astronomical unit are not confirmed by other authors and are quite controversial. \nFurthermore, since 2010, the astronomical unit is not yet estimated by the planetary ephemerides.\n", "The following table contains some distances given in astronomical units. It includes some examples with distances that are normally not given in astronomical units, because they are either too short or far too long. Distances normally change over time. Examples are listed by increasing distance.\n\n\n\n Object\n Length or distance (au)\n Range\n Comment and reference point\n Refs\n\n Earth's circumference \n 0.0003\n –\n circumference of Earth at the equator (about )\n –\n\n Light-second\n 0.002 \n –\n distance light travels in one second\n –\n\n Lunar distance\n 0.0026\n –\n average distance from Earth (which the Apollo missions took about 3 days to travel)\n –\n\n Solar radius\n 0.005 \n –\n radius of the Sun (, , ~110 times the radius of Earth or 10 times the average radius of Jupiter)\n –\n\n Lagrangian point\n 0.01 \n –\n The Lagrangian point L2 is about from Earth. Unmanned space missions, such as the James Webb Space Telescope, Planck and Gaia take advantage of this sun-shielded location.\n \n\n Light-minute\n 0.12 \n –\n distance light travels in one minute\n –\n\n Mercury\n 0.39 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Venus\n 0.72 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Earth\n 1.00 \n –\n average distance of Earth's orbit from the Sun (sunlight travels for 8 minutes and 19 seconds before reaching Earth)\n –\n\n Mars\n 1.52 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Ceres\n 2.77 \n –\n average distance from the Sun. The only dwarf planet in the asteroid belt.\n –\n\n Jupiter\n 5.20 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Betelgeuse\n 5.5 \n –\n star's mean diameter (It is a red supergiant with about solar radii.)\n –\n\n Light-hour\n 7.2 \n –\n distance light travels in one hour\n –\n\n NML Cygni\n 7.67 \n –\n radius of one of the largest known stars\n –\n\n UY Scuti\n 8.5 \n –\n radius of the largest star known (1708 solar radii)\n –\n\n Saturn\n 9.58 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Uranus\n 19.23 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Neptune\n 30.10 \n –\n average distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Kuiper belt\n 30 \n –\n begins at roughly that distance from the Sun\n \n\n ''New Horizons''\n 38.10 \n –\n spacecraft's distance from the Sun, \n \n\n Pluto\n 39.3 \n –\n average distance from the Sun (It varies by 9.6 AU due to orbital eccentricity.)\n –\n\n Scattered disc\n 45 \n –\n roughly begins at that distance from the Sun (it overlaps with the Kuiper belt.)\n –\n\n Kuiper belt\n 50 \n ± 3\n ends at that distance from the Sun\n –\n\n Eris\n 67.8 \n –\n its semi-major axis\n –\n\n 90377 Sedna\n 76 \n –\n closest distance from the Sun (perihelion)\n –\n\n 90377 Sedna\n 87 \n –\n distance from the Sun (It is an object of the scattered disc and takes years to orbit the Sun.)\n \n\n Termination shock\n 94 \n –\n distance from the Sun of boundary between solar winds/interstellar winds/interstellar medium\n –\n\n Eris\n 96.4 \n –\n distance from the Sun (Eris and its moon are currently the most distant known objects in the Solar System apart from long-period comets and space probes, and roughly three times as far as Pluto.)\n \n\n Heliosheath\n 100 \n –\n the region of the heliosphere beyond the termination shock, where the solar wind is slowed down, more turbulent and compressed due to the interstellar medium\n –\n\n ''Voyager 1''\n 140 \n –\n , the space probe is the furthest human-made object from the Sun. It is traveling at about 3.5 astronomical units per year.\n \n\n Light-day\n 173 \n –\n distance light travels in one day\n –\n\n 90377 Sedna\n 942 \n –\n farthest distance from the Sun (aphelion)\n –\n\n Hills cloud\n \n ± \n beginning of Hills cloud (It is the inner part of the Oort cloud and shaped like a disc or doughnut.)\n –\n\n Hills cloud\n \n –\n end of the inner Oort cloud, beginning of outer Oort cloud, which is weakly bound to the Sun and believed to have a spherical shape\n –\n\n Light-year\n \n –\n distance light travels in one Julian year (365.25 days)\n –\n\n Oort cloud\n \n ± \n distance of the outer limit of Oort cloud from the Sun (estimated, corresponds to 1.2 light-years)\n –\n\n Parsec\n \n –\n one parsec (The parsec is defined in terms of the astronomical unit, is used to measure distances beyond the scope of the Solar System and is about 3.26 light-years.)\n \n\n Hill/Roche sphere\n \n –\n maximum extent of the Sun's gravitational field, beyond this is true interstellar medium (~3.6 light-years)\n \n\n Proxima Centauri\n \n ± 126\n distance to the nearest star to the Solar System\n –\n\n Sirius\n \n –\n distance to the brightest star seen in Earth's night sky (~8.6 light-years)\n –\n\n Betelgeuse\n \n –\n distance to Betelgeuse in the constellation of Orion (~643 light-years)\n –\n\n Galactic Centre\n \n –\n distance from the Sun to the centre of the Milky Way\n –\n\n Note: figures in this table are generally rounded, estimates, often rough estimates, and may considerably differ from other sources. Table also includes other units of length for comparison.\n\n", "\nOrders of magnitude (length)\nLunar distance (astronomy)\nGigametre\n", "\n\n", "\n\n", "* The IAU and astronomical units\n* Recommendations concerning Units (HTML version of the IAU Style Manual)\n* Chasing Venus, Observing the Transits of Venus\n* Transit of Venus\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Symbol usage", "Development of unit definition", "Usage and significance", "History", "Developments", "Examples", "See also", " References ", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Astronomical unit
[ "\n\nJohann Wolfgang von Goethe, German artist known for his works of poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, visual arts, and science. \nAn '''artist''' is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse is a practitioner in the visual arts only. The term is often used in the entertainment business, especially in a business context, for musicians and other performers (less often for actors). \"Artiste\" (the French for artist) is a variant used in English only in this context. Use of the term to describe writers, for example, is valid, but less common, and mostly restricted to contexts like criticism.\n", "Wiktionary defines the noun 'artist' (Singular: artist; Plural: artists) as follows:\n# A person who creates art.\n# A person who makes and creates art as an occupation.\n# A person who is skilled at some activity.\n# A person whose trade or profession requires a knowledge of design, drawing, painting, etc.\nThe Oxford English Dictionary defines the older broad meanings of the term \"artist\":\n\n* A learned person or Master of Arts\n* One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry\n* A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice\n* A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic\n* One who makes their craft a fine art\n* One who cultivates one of the fine arts – traditionally the arts presided over by the muses\n", "The Greek word \"techně\", often translated as \"art,\" implies mastery of any sort of craft. The adjectival Latin form of the word, \"technicus\",\nbecame the source of the English words technique, technology, technical.\n\nIn Greek culture each of the nine Muses oversaw a different field of human creation:\n* Calliope (the 'beautiful of speech'): chief of the muses and muse of epic or heroic poetry\n* Clio (the 'glorious one'): muse of history\n* Erato (the 'amorous one'): muse of love or erotic poetry, lyrics, and marriage songs\n* Euterpe (the 'well-pleasing'): muse of music and lyric poetry\n* Melpomene (the 'chanting one'): muse of tragedy\n* Polyhymnia or Polymnia (the 'singer of many hymns'): muse of sacred song, oratory, lyric, singing, and rhetoric\n* Terpsichore (the 'one who delights in dance'): muse of choral song and dance\n* Thalia (the 'blossoming one'): muse of comedy and bucolic poetry\n* Urania (the 'celestial one'): muse of astronomy\n\nNo muse was identified with the visual arts of painting and sculpture. In ancient Greece sculptors and painters were held in low regard, somewhere between freemen and slaves, their work regarded as mere manual labour.\n\nThe word ''art'' derives from the Latin \"ars\" (stem ''art-''), which, although literally defined, means \"skill method\" or \"technique\", and conveys a connotation of beauty.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages the word ''artist'' already existed in some countries such as Italy, but the meaning was something resembling ''craftsman'', while the word ''artesan'' was still unknown. An artist was someone able to do a work better than others, so the skilled excellency was underlined, rather than the activity field. In this period some \"artisanal\" products (such as textiles) were much more precious and expensive than paintings or sculptures.\n\nThe first division into major and minor arts dates back at least to the works of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472): ''De re aedificatoria, De statua, De pictura'', which focused on the importance of the intellectual skills of the artist rather than the manual skills (even if in other forms of art there was a project behind).\n\nWith the Academies in Europe (second half of 16th century) the gap between fine and applied arts was definitely set.\n\nMany contemporary definitions of \"artist\" and \"art\" are highly contingent on culture, resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting beauty and the beautiful cannot be standardized easily without corruption into kitsch.\n", "''Artist'' is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an art. An artist also may be defined unofficially as \"a person who expresses him- or herself through a medium\". The word is also used in a qualitative sense of, a person creative in, innovative in, or adept at, an artistic practice.\n\nMost often, the term describes those who create within a context of the fine arts or 'high culture', activities such as drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, new media, photography, and music—people who use imagination, talent, or skill to create works that may be judged to have an aesthetic value. Art historians and critics define artists as those who produce art within a recognized or recognizable discipline. Contrasting terms for highly skilled workers in media in the applied arts or decorative arts include artisan, craftsman, and specialized terms such as potter, goldsmith or glassblower. Fine arts artists such as painters succeeded in the Renaissance in raising their status, formerly similar to these workers, to a decisively higher level, but in the 20th century the distinction became rather less relevant .\n\nThe term may also be used loosely or metaphorically to denote highly skilled people in any non-\"art\" activities, as well— law, medicine, mechanics, or mathematics, for example.\n\nOften, discussions on the subject focus on the differences among \"artist\" and \"technician\", \"entertainer\" and \"artisan\", \"fine art\" and \"applied art\", or what constitutes art and what does not. The French word ''artiste'' (which in French, simply means \"artist\") has been imported into the English language where it means a performer (frequently in Music Hall or Vaudeville). Use of the word \"artiste\" can also be a pejorative term.\n\nThe English word 'artiste' has thus a narrower range of meaning than the word 'artiste' in French.\n\nIn ''Living with Art'', Mark Getlein proposes six activities, services or functions of contemporary artists:\n#Create places for some human purpose.\n#Create extraordinary versions of ordinary objects.\n#Record and commemorate.\n#Give tangible form to the unknown.\n#Give tangible form to feelings.\n#Refresh our vision and help see the world in new ways.\n\nAfter looking at years of data on arts school graduates as well as policies & program outcomes regarding artists, arts, & culture, Elizabeth Lingo and Steven Tepper propose the divide between \"arts for art's sake\" artists and commercially successful artists is not as wide as may be perceived, and that \"this bifurcation between the commercial and the noncommercial, the excellent and the base, the elite and the popular, is increasingly breaking down\" (Eikhof & Haunschild, 2007). Lingo and Tepper point out:\n#arts ''consumers'' don't restrict themselves to either \"high\" or \"common\" arts; instead, they demonstrate \"omnivorous tastes, liking both reggae and Rachmaninoff\" (Peterson & Kern, 1996; Walker & Scott-Melnyk, 2002)\n#data indicates \"artists are willing to move across sectors and no longer see working outside the commercial sector as a badge of distinction or authenticity\" (Bridgstock, 2013; Ellmeier, 2003)\n#academic, policy, and government leaders are adapting—widening—programs & opportunities in recognition of \"the role of artists as drivers of economic growth and innovation\" (Bohm & Land, 2009; DCMS, 2006, 2008; Florida, 2012; Hesmondhalgh & Baker, 2010; Lloyd, 2010; Iyengar, 2013).\n#arts graduates name \"business and management skills\" as the \"number one area they wish they had been more exposed to in college\" (Strategic National Arts Alumni Project SNAAP, 2011; Tepper & Kuh, 2010).\n", "\n\n* Abstract Art: Wassily Kandinsky\n* Abstract expressionism: Jackson Pollock\n* Action painting: Willem de Kooning\n* Actor: Marlon Brando\n* Actress: Greta Garbo\n* Animation: Chuck Jones\n* Appropriation art: Marcel Duchamp\n* Architect: I.M. Pei\n* Art Deco: Erté\n* Art Nouveau: Louis Comfort Tiffany\n* Assemblage: Joseph Cornell\n* Ballet: Margot Fonteyn\n* Baroque Art: Caravaggio\n* BioArt: Hunter Cole\n* Book artist: Carol Barton\n* Calligraphy: Rudolf Koch\n* Cartoons: Carl Barks\n* Caricature: Honoré Daumier\n* Ceramic art: Peter Voulkos\n* Choreography: Martha Graham\n* Collage: Romare Bearden\n* Color Field: Mark Rothko\n* Colorist: Josef Albers\n* Comedy: Charlie Chaplin\n* Comics: Will Eisner\n* Composing: Giuseppe Verdi\n* Conceptual art: Sol LeWitt\n* Cubism: Pablo Picasso\n* Dada: Man Ray\n* Dance: Isadora Duncan\n* Decollage: Mimmo Rotella\n* Design: Arne Jacobsen\n* Digital art: David Em\n* Doll Maker: Greer Lankton\n* Etching: Csaba Markus\n* Expressionism: Edvard Munch\n* Fashion design: Yves Saint Laurent\n* Fashion illustration: Joel Resnicoff\n* Fauvist: Henri Matisse\n* Fiction writing: Virginia Woolf\n* Film director: Jean-Luc Godard\n* Fluxus: George Maciunas\n* Fumage: Burhan Dogancay\n* Video game design: Peter Molyneux\n* Geometric abstraction: Piet Mondrian\n* Genius: Leonardo da Vinci\n* Graphic design: Milton Glaser\n* Happening: Allan Kaprow\n* Hard-edge painting: Theo van Doesburg\n* Horticulture: André le Nôtre\n* Illustrations: Quentin Blake\n* Ikebana: sogetsu\n* Impressionist: Claude Monet\n* Industrial design: Frank Lloyd Wright\n* Installation art: Christo and Jeanne-Claude\n* Instrumental performance: André Rieu\n* Internet art: Aaron Koblin\n* Jewelry: Fabergé\n* Landscape architecture: Frederick Law Olmsted\n* Landscape art: John Constable\n* Light art: Dan Flavin\n* Mail art: Ray Johnson\n* Minimalist art: Donald Judd\n* Mosaics: Elaine M Goodwin\n* Murals: Diego Rivera\n* Musical Composer: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\n* Musical instrument assemblage: Antonio Stradivari\n* Musical Theatre: Stephen Sondheim\n* Musician: Miles Davis\n* Neo-impressionism: Paul Signac\n* Neo-figurative: Verónica Ruiz de Velasco\n* New Media art: Ken Feingold\n* Non Fiction writing: Maya Angelou\n* Op Art: Bridget Riley\n* Oration: Cicero\n* Ornithology: John James Audubon\n* Outsider art: Howard Finster\n* Painting: Rembrandt van Rijn\n* Performance Art: Carolee Schneemann\n* Performer: Al Jolson\n* Photography: Ansel Adams\n* Playwriting: Edward Albee\n* Poetry: Emily Dickinson\n* Pointillism: Georges Seurat\n* Pop Art: Andy Warhol\n* Posters: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec\n* Post-Impressionism: Vincent van Gogh\n* Pottery: Bernard Leach\n* Printmaking: Albrecht Dürer\n* Puppetry: Jim Henson\n* Realism: Ilya Repin\n* Renaissance art: Michelangelo Buonarroti\n* Rococo: Antoine Watteau\n* Sculpture: Auguste Rodin\n* Singing: Odetta\n* Songwriting: Joni Mitchell\n* Stand Up Comedy: Richard Pryor\n* Street Art: Banksy\n* Suprematism: Kazimir Malevich\n* Surrealism: Salvador Dali\n* Theatre: William Shakespeare\n* Theatre Arts: Robert Edmond Jones\n* Theatre Director: Peter Brook\n* Tragedy: Sophocles\n* Typography: Eric Gill\n* Ukiyo-e: Hokusai\n* Vedette: Susana Gimenez\n* Video Art: Bill Viola\n\n", "\n\n* Art\n* Art history\n* Arts by region\n* Artist in Residence\n* Fine art\n* Humanities\n* List of painters by name\n* List of painters\n* List of composers\n* List of sculptors\n* Mathematics and art\n* Social science\n\n", "\n", "\n\n* P.Galloni, Il sacro artefice. Mitologie degli artigiani medievali, Laterza, Bari, 1998\n* C. T. Onions (1991). The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Clarendon Press Oxford. \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Dictionary definitions", "History of the term", "The present day concept of an 'artist'", " Examples of art and artists ", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Artist
[ "\n\n'''Actaeon''' (; ''Aktaion''), in Greek mythology, son of the priestly herdsman Aristaeus and Autonoe in Boeotia, was a famous Theban hero. Like Achilles in a later generation, he was trained by the centaur Chiron.\n\nHe fell to the fatal wrath of Artemis, but the surviving details of his transgression vary: \"the only certainty is in what Aktaion suffered, his pathos, and what Artemis did: the hunter became the hunted; he was transformed into a stag, and his raging hounds, struck with a 'wolf's frenzy' (Lyssa), tore him apart as they would a stag.\" This is the iconic motif by which Actaeon is recognized, both in ancient art and in Renaissance and post-Renaissance depictions.\n", "Caserta\|left\nAmong others, John Heath has observed, \"The unalterable kernel of the tale was a hunter's transformation into a deer and his death in the jaws of his hunting dogs. But authors were free to suggest different motives for his death.\" In the version that was offered by the Hellenistic poet Callimachus, which has become the standard setting, Artemis was bathing in the woods when the hunter Actaeon stumbled across her, thus seeing her naked. He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty. Once seen, Artemis got revenge on Actaeon: she forbade him speech — if he tried to speak, he would be changed into a stag — for the unlucky profanation of her virginity's mystery. Upon hearing the call of his hunting party, he cried out to them and immediately transformed. At this he fled deep into the woods, and doing so he came upon a pond and, seeing his reflection, groaned. His own hounds then turned upon him and pursued him, not recognizing him. In an endeavour to save himself, he raised his eyes (and would have raised his arms, had he had them) toward Mount Olympus. The gods did not heed his plea, and he was torn to pieces. An element of the earlier myth made Actaeon the familiar hunting companion of Artemis, no stranger. In an embroidered extension of the myth, the hounds were so upset with their master's death, that Chiron made a statue so lifelike that the hounds thought it was Actaeon.\n\nThere are various other versions of his transgression: The Hesiodic ''Catalogue of Women'' and pseudo-Apollodoran ''Bibliotheke'' state that his offense was that he was a rival of Zeus for Semele, his mother's sister, whereas in Euripides' ''Bacchae'' he has boasted that he is a better hunter than Artemis:\n\n\n\n:\n:\n:\n:\n\n:Look at Actaeon's wretched fate\n:who by the man-eating hounds he had raised,\n:was torn apart, better at hunting\n:than Artemis he had boasted to be, in the meadows.\n\n\nAccording to the Latin version of the story told by the Roman Ovid having accidentally seen Diana (Artemis) on Mount Cithaeron while she was bathing, he was changed by her into a stag, and pursued and killed by his fifty hounds. This version also appears in Callimachus' Fifth Hymn, as a mythical parallel to the blinding of Tiresias after he sees Athena bathing.\n\nThe literary testimony of Actaeon's myth is largely lost, but Lamar Ronald Lacy, deconstructing the myth elements in what survives and supplementing it by iconographic evidence in late vase-painting, made a plausible reconstruction of an ancient Actaeon myth that Greek poets may have inherited and subjected to expansion and dismemberment. His reconstruction opposes a too-pat consensus that has an archaic Actaeon aspiring to Semele, a classical Actaeon boasting of his hunting prowess and a Hellenistic Actaeon glimpsing Artemis' bath. Lacy identifies the site of Actaeon's transgression as a spring sacred to Artemis at Plataea where Actaeon was a '' hero archegetes'' (\"hero-founder\") The righteous hunter, the companion of Artemis, seeing her bathing naked at the spring, was moved to try to make himself her consort, as Diodorus Siculus noted, and was punished, in part for transgressing the hunter's \"ritually enforced deference to Artemis\" (Lacy 1990:42).\n", "Volterra, Italy. Etruscan cinerary urn; Actaeon torn by the dogs of Diana, Volterra. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection \nThe following list is as given in Hyginus' ''Fabulae''. The first part of the list is taken from Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' (Book III, 206–235), and the second from an unknown source.\n\n''Note:'' In the first part of the list, Hyginus fails to correctly differentiate between masculine and feminine names.\n\n;According to Ovid\nDogs: Melampus, Ichnobates, Pamphagos, Dorceus, Oribasos, Nebrophonos, Laelaps, Theron, Pterelas, Hylaeus, Ladon, Dromas, Tigris, Leucon, Asbolos, Lacon, Aello, Thoos, Harpalos, Melaneus, Labros, Arcas, Argiodus, Hylactor.\n\nBitches: Agre, Nape, Poemenis, Harpyia, Canache, Sticte, Alce, Lycisce, Lachne, Melanchaetes, Therodamas, Oresitrophos.\n\n;Authors other than Ovid\nDogs: Acamas, Syrus, Leon, Stilbon, Agrius, Charops, Aethon, Corus, Boreas, Draco, Eudromus, Dromius, Zephyrus, Lampus, Haemon, Cyllopodes, Harpalicus, Machimus, Ichneus, Melampus, Ocydromus, Borax, Ocythous, Pachylus, Obrimus;\n\nBitches: Argo, Arethusa, Urania, Theriope, Dinomache, Dioxippe, Echione, Gorgo, Cyllo, Harpyia, Lynceste, Leaena, Lacaena, Ocypete, Ocydrome, Oxyrhoe, Orias, Sagnos, Theriphone, Volatos, Chediaetros.\n", "''Death of Actaeon'' by TitianIn the second century AD, the traveller Pausanias was shown a spring on the road in Attica leading to Plataea from Eleutherae, just beyond Megara \"and a little farther on a rock. It is called the bed of Actaeon, for it is said that he slept thereon when weary with hunting, and that into this spring he looked while Artemis was bathing in it.\"\n", "In the standard version of the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' (tablet vi) there is a parallel, in the series of examples Gilgamesh gives Ishtar of her mistreatment of her serial lovers:\n\"You loved the herdsman, shepherd and chief shepherd Who was always heaping up the glowing ashes for you, And cooked ewe-lambs for you every day. But you hit him and turned him into a wolf, His own herd-boys hunt him down\nAnd his dogs tear at his haunches.Actaeon, torn apart by dogs incited by Artemis, finds another Near Eastern parallel in the Ugaritic hero Aqht, torn apart by eagles incited by Anath who wanted his hunting bow.\n\nThe virginal Artemis of classical times is not directly comparable to Ishtar of the many lovers, but the mytheme of Artemis shooting Orion, was linked to her punishment of Actaeon by T.C.W. Stinton; the Greek context of the mortal's reproach to the amorous goddess is translated to the episode of Anchises and Aphrodite. Daphnis too was a herdsman loved by a goddess and punished by her: see Theocritus' First Idyll.\n", "\nIn Greek Mythology, Actaeon is thought by many, including Hans Biedermann, to symbolize ritual human sacrifice in attempt to please a God or Goddess. In the case of Actaeon, the dogs symbolize the sacrificers and Actaeon symbolizes the sacrifice. Actaeon also may symbolize a human curiosity or irreverence.\n\nThe myth is seen by Jungian psychologist Wolfgang Giegerich as a symbol for spiritual transformation and/or enlightenment.\n", "''Actaeon'' by Paul Manship\nThe two main scenes are Actaeon surprising Artemis/Diana, and his death. In classical art Actaeon is normally shown as fully human, even as his hounds are killing him (sometimes he has small horns), but in Renaissance art he is often given a deer's head with antlers even in the scene with Diana, and by the time he is killed he has at the list this head and has often completely transformed into the shape of a deer. \n\n Aeschylus and other tragic poets made use of the story, which was a favourite subject in ancient works of art.\n\n* There is a well-known small marble group in the British Museum illustrative of the story, in gallery 83/84.\nTwo paintings by the 16th century painter Titian (''Death of Actaeon'' and ''Diana and Actaeon'').\n''Actéon'', an operatic pastorale by Marc-Antoine Charpentier.\n* Percy Bysshe Shelley suggests a parallel between his alter-ego and Actaeon in his elegy for John Keats, Adonais, stanza 31 ('he had gazed on Nature's naked loveliness/ Actaeon-like, and now he fled astray/ .../ And his own thoughts, along that rugged way,/ Pursued, like raging hounds, their father and their prey.')\n* The aria \"Oft she visits this lone mountain\" from Purcell's ''Dido and Aeneas'', first performed in 1689 or earlier.\n* Giordano Bruno, \"Gli Eroici Furori\".\n* In canto V of Giambattista Marino's poem \"Adone\" the protagonist goes to theater to see a tragedy representing the myth of Actaeon. This episode foreshadows the protagonist's violent death at the end of the book.\n* In Act I Scene 2 of Jacques Offenbach's ''Orpheus in the Underworld'' Actaeon is Diana (Artemis)'s lover, and it is Jupiter who turns him into a stag, which puts Diana off hunting. His story is relinquished at this point, in favour of the other plots.\n* Ted Hughes wrote a version of the story in his ''Tales from Ovid''.\n* In Alexandre Dumas' novel ''La Reine Margot'', Charles IX of France, fond of the hunt, has a much-loved and ill-fated hunting dog named Actaeon.\n* Diane and Actéon Pas de Deux from Marius Petipa’s ballet, ''Le Roi Candaule'', to the music by Riccardo Drigo and Cesare Pugni, later incorporated into the second act of ''La Esmeralda (ballet)''.\nIn Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare, Orsino compares his unrequited love for Olivia to the fate of Actaeon. \"O, when mine eyes did see Olivia first, Methought she purged the air of pestilence, That instant was I turned into a hart, and my desires like fell and cruel hounds e'er since pursue me.\" Act 1 Scene 1.\nPaul Manship in 1925 created a set of copper statute of Diane and Actaeon, which in the Luce Lunder Smithsonian Institution.\n* ''Diana at Her Bath'' by Pierre Klossovski (1956)\n* Aktaion Energy is the name of a local conglomerate with ties to the Dome event and The Hounds of Diana is a Dome conspiracy/Aktaion Energy watchdog website run by a member of Aktaion's IT department who goes by the alias Dromas.\n* French based collective LFKs and his film/theatre director, writer and visual artist Jean Michel Bruyere produced a series of 600 shorts and \"medium\" films, an interactive 360° installation, ''Si poteris narrare licet'' (\"if you are able to speak of it, then you may do so\") in 2002, a 3D 360° installation ''La Dispersion du Fils'' (from 2008 to 2016) and an outdoor performance, \"Une Brutalité pastorale\" (2000) all about the myth of Diana and Actaeon.\n", "\n\n\n* Solid lines indicate descendants.\n* Dashed lines indicate marriages.\n* Dotted lines indicate extra-marital relationships or adoptions.\n* Kings of Thebes are numbered with '''bold''' names and a light purple background.\n** Joint rules are indicated by a number and lowercase letter, for example, 5a. '''Amphion''' shared the throne with 5b. '''Zethus'''.\n* Regents of Thebes are alphanumbered (format AN) with '''bold''' names and a light red background. \n The number N refers to the regency preceding the reign of the Nth king. Generally this means the regent served the Nth king but not always, as '''Creon''' (A9) was serving as regent to '''Laodamas''' (the 10th King) when he was slain by '''Lycus II''' (the usurping 9th king).\n The letter A refers to the regency sequence. \"A\" is the first regent, \"B\" is the second, etc.\n* Deities have a yellow background color and ''italic'' names.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", "\n''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' \"Actaeon\".\nOvid, ''Metamorphoses'', 3.138ff.\nEuripides, ''Bacchae'', 337–340.\nDiodorus Siculus, 4.81.4.\n", "\n* The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database: ca 230 images of Actaeon\n* Actaeon by Fabio F. Centamore\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "The plot", "Names of the dogs who devoured Actaeon", "The \"bed of Actaeon\"", "Parallels in Akkadian and Ugarit poems", "Symbolism regarding Actaeon", "Actaeon in art", "Royal House of Thebes family tree", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Actaeon
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anglicanism''' is a Western Christian tradition that evolved out of the practices, liturgy and identity of the Church of England following the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The word ''Anglican'' itself has its background in ''ecclesia anglicana'', a medieval Latin phrase dating to the 12th century or earlier, which means the \"English Church\".\n\nAdherents of Anglicanism are called \"Anglicans\". The majority of Anglicans are members of national or regional ecclesiastical provinces of the international Anglican Communion, which forms the third-largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. They are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, whom the communion refers to as its ''primus inter pares''. He calls the decennial Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, and the Anglican Consultative Council. Some churches that are not part of the Anglican Communion also consider themselves Anglican, including those that are part of the Continuing Anglican movement and the Anglican realignment movement.\n\nAnglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession (\"historic episcopate\"), and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity; having definitively declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism. These reforms in the Church of England were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism. By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles.\n\nIn the first half of the 17th century, the Church of England and its associated Church of Ireland were presented by some Anglican divines as comprising a distinct Christian tradition, with theologies, structures, and forms of worship representing a different kind of middle way, or ''via media'', between Protestantism and Roman Catholicism – a perspective that came to be highly influential in later theories of Anglican identity and expressed in the description of Anglicanism as \"Catholic and Reformed\". The degree of distinction between Protestant and Catholic tendencies within the Anglican tradition is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican churches and throughout the Anglican Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches have used for centuries, and is thus acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together.\n\nAfter the American Revolution, Anglican congregations in the United States and British North America (which would later form the basis for the modern country of Canada) were each reconstituted into autonomous churches with their own bishops and self-governing structures; these were known as the American Episcopal Church and the Church of England in the Dominion of Canada. Through the expansion of the British Empire and the activity of Christian missions, this model was adopted as the model for many newly formed churches, especially in Africa, Australasia, and Asia-Pacific. In the 19th century, the term ''Anglicanism'' was coined to describe the common religious tradition of these churches; as also that of the Scottish Episcopal Church, which, though originating earlier within the Church of Scotland, had come to be recognised as sharing this common identity.\n", "Jesus depicted in a stained glass window in Rochester Cathedral, Kent\nThe word ''Anglican'' originates in , a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the ''English Church''. Adherents of Anglicanism are called ''Anglicans''. As an adjective, \"Anglican\" is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion. The word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word ''Anglicanism'' came into being in the 19th century. The word originally referred only to the teachings and rites of Christians throughout the world in communion with the see of Canterbury, but has come to sometimes be extended to any church following those traditions rather than actual membership in the modern Anglican Communion.\n\nAlthough the term ''Anglican'' is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. In British parliamentary legislation referring to the English established church, there is no need for a description; it is simply the Church of England, though the word \"Protestant\" is used in many Acts specifying the succession to the Crown and qualifications for office. When the Union with Ireland Act created the United Church of England and Ireland, it is specified that it shall be one \"Protestant Episcopal Church\", thereby distinguishing its form of church government from the Presbyterian polity that prevails in the Church of Scotland.\n\nThe word ''Episcopal'' is preferred in the title of the Episcopal Church (the province of the Anglican Communion covering the United States) and the Scottish Episcopal Church, though the full name of the former is ''The Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America''. Elsewhere, however, the term \"Anglican Church\" came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity.\n\n===Definition===\nAnglicanism, in its structures, theology and forms of worship, is commonly understood as a distinct Christian tradition representing a middle ground between what are perceived to be the extremes of the claims of 16th-century Roman Catholicism and the Lutheran and Reformed varieties of Protestantism of that era. As such, it is often referred to as being a ''via media'' (or \"middle way\") between these traditions.\n\nThe faith of Anglicans is founded in the Scriptures and the Gospels, the traditions of the Apostolic Church, the historical episcopate, the first four ecumenical councils, and the early Church Fathers (among these councils, especially the premier four ones, and among these Fathers, especially those active during the five initial centuries of Christianity, according to the ''quinquasaecularist'' principle proposed by the English bishop Lancelot Andrewes and the Lutheran dissident Georg Calixtus). Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as \"containing all things necessary for salvation\" and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith. Reason and tradition are seen as valuable means to interpret scripture (a position first formulated in detail by Richard Hooker), but there is no full mutual agreement among Anglicans ''exactly how'' scripture, reason, and tradition interact (or ought to interact) with each other. Anglicans understand the Apostles' Creed as the baptismal symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.\n\nAnglicans believe the catholic and apostolic faith is revealed in Holy Scripture and the Catholic creeds and interpret these in light of the Christian tradition of the historic church, scholarship, reason and experience.\n\nAnglicans celebrate the traditional sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, the Lord's Supper or the Mass. The Eucharist is central to worship for most Anglicans as a communal offering of prayer and praise in which the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ are proclaimed through prayer, reading of the Bible, singing, giving God thanks over the bread and wine for the innumerable benefits obtained through the passion of Christ, the breaking of the bread, and reception of the bread and wine as representing the body and blood of Christ as instituted at the Last Supper. While many Anglicans celebrate the Eucharist in similar ways to the predominant western Catholic tradition, a considerable degree of liturgical freedom is permitted, and worship styles range from the simple to elaborate.\n\nUnique to Anglicanism is the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP), the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. It was called ''common prayer'' originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world.\n\nIn 1549, the first ''Book of Common Prayer'' was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Prayer Book is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind Anglicans together.\n", "\n\n===Early history===\nSaint Alban\nThe founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, and is commemorated in Glastonbury Abbey. Many of the early Church fathers wrote of the presence of Christianity in Roman Britain, with Tertullian stating \"those parts of Britain into which the Roman arms had never penetrated were become subject to Christ\". Saint Alban, who was executed in AD 209, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. The historian Heinrich Zimmer writes that \"Just as Britain was a part of the Roman Empire, so the British Church formed (during the fourth century) a branch of the Catholic Church of the West; and during the whole of that century, from the Council of Arles (316) onward, took part in all proceedings concerning the Church.\"\n\nAfter Roman troops withdrew from Britain, however, the \"absence of Roman military and governmental influence and overall decline of Roman imperial political power enabled Britain and the surrounding isles to develop distinctively from the rest of the West. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core. What resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices.\" The historian Charles Thomas, in addition to the Celticist Heinrich Zimmer, writes that the distinction between sub-Roman and post-Roman Insular Christianity, also known as Celtic Christianity, began to become apparent around AD 475, with the Celtic churches allowing married clergy, observing Lent and Easter according to their own calendar, and having a different tonsure; moreover, the Celtic churches operated independently of the Pope's authority, namely a result of their isolated development in the British Isles.\n\nAugustine of Canterbury\nIn what is known as the Gregorian mission, the Roman Catholic Pope Gregory I, sent Augustine of Canterbury to the British Isles in AD 596, with the purpose of evangelising the pagans there (who were largely Anglo-Saxons), as well as to reconcile the Celtic churches in the British Isles to the See of Rome. In Kent, Augustine persuaded the Anglo-Saxon king \"Æthelberht and his people to accept Christianity.\" Augustine, on two occasions, \"met in conference with members of the Celtic episcopacy, but no understanding was reached between them.\" Eventually, the \"Christian Church of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria convened the Synod of Whitby in 663/664 to decide whether to follow Celtic or Roman usages.\" This meeting, with King Oswiu as the final decision maker, \"led to the acceptance of Roman usage elsewhere in England and brought the English Church into close contact with the Continent.\" As a result of assuming Roman usages, the Celtic Church surrendered its independence and from this point on, the Church in England \"was no longer purely Celtic, but became Anglo-Roman-Celtic\". The theologian Christopher L. Webber writes that although \"the Roman form of Christianity became the dominant influence in Britain as in all of western Europe, Anglican Christianity has continued to have a distinctive quality because of its Celtic heritage.\"\n\nThe Church in England remained united with Rome until the English Parliament, through the Act of Supremacy (1534), declared King Henry VIII to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England to fulfill the \"English desire to be independent from continental Europe religiously and politically.\" Although now separate from Rome, the English Church, at this point in history, continued to maintain the Roman Catholic theology on many things, such as the sacraments. Under King Edward VI, however, the Church in England underwent what is known as the English Reformation, in the course of which it acquired a number of characteristics that would subsequently become recognised as constituting a distinct, Anglican, identity.\n\n===Development===\n\nBy the Elizabethan Settlement, the Protestant identity of the English and Irish churches was affirmed through parliamentary legislation which assumed allegiance and loyalty to the British Crown in all their members. However, from the first, the Elizabethan church began to develop distinct religious traditions; assimilating some of the theology of Reformed churches with the services in the ''Book of Common Prayer'' (which drew extensively on the Sarum Rite native to England), under the leadership and organisation of a continuing episcopate; and over the years these traditions themselves came to command adherence and loyalty. The Elizabethan Settlement stopped the radical Protestant tendencies under Edward VI by combining the more radical elements of the Second Prayer Book of 1552 with the conservative 'Catholic' First Prayer Book of 1549. From then on Protestantism was in a \"state of arrested development\" regardless of the attempts to detach the Church of England from its \"idiosyncratic anchorage in the medieval past\" by various groups which tried to push it towards a more Reformed theology and governance in the years 1560–1660. It has resolutely refused to identify decisively as Catholic or Protestant and sees it as a \"virtue\" rather than a \"handicap,\" indeed it prefers to see itself as both.\n\nQueen Elizabeth I\nAlthough two important constitutive elements of what later would emerge as Anglicanism, were present in 1559 – the historic episcopate and the ''Book of Common Prayer'' – neither the laypeople nor the clergy perceived themselves as Anglicans at the beginning of Elizabeth I's reign. Historical studies on the period 1560–1660 written before the late 1960s tended to project the predominant conformist spirituality and doctrine of the 1660s on the ecclesiastical situation one hundred years before, and there was also a tendency to take polemically binary partitions of reality claimed by contestants studied (such as the dichotomies Protestant-'Popish' or 'Laudian'-'Puritan') at face value. Since the late 1960s these interpretations have been criticised. Studies on the subject written during the last forty-five years have, however, not reached any consensus on how to interpret this period in English church history. The extent to which one or several positions concerning doctrine and spirituality existed alongside the more well-known and articulate Puritan movement and the Durham House Party, and the exact extent of continental Calvinism among the English elite and among the ordinary churchgoers from the 1560s to the 1620s are subjects of current and ongoing debate.\n\nIn 1662, under King Charles II, a revised ''Book of Common Prayer'' was produced, which was acceptable to high churchmen as well as some Puritans, and is still considered authoritative to this day.\n\nIn so far as Anglicans derived their identity from both parliamentary legislation and ecclesiastical tradition, a crisis of identity could result wherever secular and religious loyalties came into conflict – and such a crisis indeed occurred in 1776 with the American Declaration of Independence, most of whose signatories were, at least nominally, Anglican. For these American patriots, even the forms of Anglican services were in doubt, since the Prayer Book rites of Matins, Evensong and Holy Communion, all included specific prayers for the British Royal Family. Consequently, the conclusion of the War of Independence eventually resulted in the creation of two new Anglican churches, the Episcopal Church in the United States in those states that had achieved independence; and in the 1830s The Church of England in Canada became independent from the Church of England in those North American colonies which had remained under British control and to which many Loyalist churchmen had migrated.\n\nReluctantly, legislation was passed in the British Parliament (the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786) to allow bishops to be consecrated for an American church outside of allegiance to the British Crown (whereas no bishoprics had ever been established in the former American colonies). Both in the United States and in Canada, the new Anglican churches developed novel models of self-government, collective decision-making, and self-supported financing; that would be consistent with separation of religious and secular identities.\n\nIn the following century, two further factors acted to accelerate the development of a distinct Anglican identity. From 1828 and 1829, Dissenters and Catholics could be elected to the House of Commons, which consequently ceased to be a body drawn purely from the established churches of Scotland, England and Ireland; but which nevertheless, over the following ten years, engaged in extensive reforming legislation affecting the interests of the English and Irish churches; which by the Acts of Union of 1800, had been reconstituted as the United Church of England and Ireland. The propriety of this legislation was bitterly contested by the Oxford Movement (Tractarians), who in response developed a vision of Anglicanism as religious tradition deriving ultimately from the ecumenical councils of the patristic church. Those within the Church of England opposed to the Tractarians, and to their revived ritual practices, introduced a stream of bills in parliament aimed to control innovations in worship. This only made the dilemma more acute, with consequent continual litigation in the secular and ecclesiastical courts.\n\nOver the same period, Anglican churches engaged vigorously in Christian missions, resulting in the creation, by the end of the century, of over ninety colonial bishoprics; which gradually coalesced into new self-governing churches on the Canadian and American models. However, the case of John Colenso, Bishop of Natal, reinstated in 1865 by the English Judicial Committee of the Privy Council over the heads of the Church in South Africa, demonstrated acutely that the extension of episcopacy had to be accompanied by a recognised Anglican ecclesiology of ecclesiastical authority, distinct from secular power.\n\nConsequently, at the instigation of the bishops of Canada and South Africa, the first Lambeth Conference was called in 1867; to be followed by further conferences in 1878 and 1888, and thereafter at ten-year intervals. The various papers and declarations of successive Lambeth Conferences, have served to frame the continued Anglican debate on identity, especially as relating to the possibility of ecumenical discussion with other churches. This ecumenical aspiration became much more of a possibility, as other denominational groups rapidly followed the example of the Anglican Communion in founding their own transnational alliances: the Alliance of Reformed Churches, the Ecumenical Methodist Council, the International Congregational Council, and the Baptist World Alliance.\n\n===Theories===\n\n\nIn their rejection of absolute parliamentary authority, the Tractarians – and in particular John Henry Newman – looked back to the writings of 17th-century Anglican divines, finding in these texts the idea of the English church as a ''via media'' between the Protestant and Catholic traditions. This view was associated – especially in the writings of Edward Bouverie Pusey – with the theory of Anglicanism as one of three \"branches\" (alongside the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church) historically arising out of the common tradition of the earliest ecumenical councils. Newman himself subsequently rejected the theory of the ''via media'', as essentially historicist and static; and hence unable to accommodate any dynamic development within the church. Nevertheless, the aspiration to ground Anglican identity in the writings of the 17th-century divines, and in faithfulness to the traditions of the Church Fathers reflects a continuing theme of Anglican ecclesiology, most recently in the writings of Henry Robert McAdoo.\n\nThe Tractarian formulation of the theory of the ''via media'' was essentially a party platform, and not acceptable to Anglicans outside the confines of the Oxford Movement. However, the theory of the ''via media'' was reworked in the ecclesiological writings of Frederick Denison Maurice, in a more dynamic form that became widely influential. Both Maurice and Newman saw the Church of England of their day as sorely deficient in faith; but whereas Newman had looked back to a distant past when the light of faith might have appeared to burn brighter, Maurice looked forward to the possibility of a brighter revelation of faith in the future. Maurice saw the Protestant and Catholic strands within the Church of England as contrary but complementary, both maintaining elements of the true church, but incomplete without the other; such that a true catholic and evangelical church might come into being by a union of opposites.\n\nFrederick Denison Maurice\nCentral to Maurice's perspective was his belief that the collective elements of family, nation, and church represented a divine order of structures through which God unfolds his continuing work of creation. Hence, for Maurice, the Protestant tradition had maintained the elements of national distinction which were amongst the marks of the true universal church, but which had been lost within contemporary Roman Catholicism in the internationalism of centralised papal authority. Within the coming universal church that Maurice foresaw, national churches would each maintain the six signs of Catholicity: baptism, Eucharist, the creeds, Scripture, an episcopal ministry, and a fixed liturgy (which could take a variety of forms in accordance with divinely ordained distinctions in national characteristics). Not surprisingly, this vision of a becoming universal church as a congregation of autonomous national churches, proved highly congenial in Anglican circles; and Maurice's six signs were adapted to form the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888.\n\nIn the latter decades of the 20th century, Maurice's theory, and the various strands of Anglican thought that derived from it, have been criticised by Stephen Sykes; who argues that the terms ''Protestant'' and ''Catholic'' as used in these approaches are synthetic constructs denoting ecclesiastic identities unacceptable to those to whom the labels are applied. Hence, the Catholic Church does not regard itself as a party or strand within the universal church – but rather identifies itself as the universal church. Moreover, Sykes criticises the proposition, implicit in theories of ''via media'', that there is no distinctive body of Anglican doctrines, other than those of the universal church; accusing this of being an excuse not to undertake systematic doctrine at all.\n\nContrariwise, Sykes notes a high degree of commonality in Anglican liturgical forms, and in the doctrinal understandings expressed within those liturgies. He proposes that Anglican identity might rather be found within a shared consistent pattern of prescriptive liturgies, established and maintained through canon law, and embodying both a historic deposit of formal statements of doctrine, and also framing the regular reading and proclamation of scripture. Sykes nevertheless agrees with those heirs of Maurice who emphasise the incompleteness of Anglicanism as a positive feature, and quotes with qualified approval the words of Michael Ramsey:\n\n\n", "\n\n===\"Catholic and Reformed\"===\nIn the time of Henry VIII the nature of Anglicanism was based on questions of jurisdiction – specifically, the belief of the Crown that national churches should be autonomous – rather than theological disagreement. The effort was to create a national church in legal continuity with its traditions, but inclusive of certain doctrinal and liturgical beliefs of the Reformers. The result has been a movement with a distinctive self-image among Christian movements. The question often arises as to whether the Anglican Communion should be identified as a Protestant or Catholic church, or perhaps as a distinct branch of Christianity altogether.\n\nThe distinction between Reformed and Catholic, and the coherence of the two, is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the Oxford Movement of the mid-19th century, many churches of the communion have revived and extended liturgical and pastoral practices similar to Roman Catholicism. This extends beyond the ceremony of high-church services to even more theologically significant territory, such as sacramental theology (see Anglican sacraments). While Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have resurfaced and become more common within the tradition over the last century, there remain many places where practices and beliefs remain on the more Reformed or evangelical side (see Sydney Anglicanism).\n\n===Guiding principles===\nRichard Hooker (1554–1600), one of the most influential figures in shaping Anglican theology and self-identity\nFor high-church Anglicans, doctrine is neither established by a magisterium, nor derived from the theology of an eponymous founder (such as Calvinism), nor summed up in a confession of faith beyond the ecumenical creeds (such as the Lutheran Book of Concord). For them, the earliest Anglican theological documents are its prayer books, which they see as the products of profound theological reflection, compromise and synthesis. They emphasise the ''Book of Common Prayer'' as a key expression of Anglican doctrine. The principle of looking to the prayer books as a guide to the parameters of belief and practice is called by the Latin name ''lex orandi, lex credendi'' (\"the law of prayer is the law of belief\").\n\nWithin the prayer books are the fundamentals of Anglican doctrine: the Apostles' and Nicene creeds, the Athanasian Creed (now rarely used), the scriptures (via the lectionary), the sacraments, daily prayer, the catechism and apostolic succession in the context of the historic threefold ministry. For some low-church and evangelical Anglicans, the 16th-century Reformed Thirty-Nine Articles form the basis of doctrine.\n\n====Distinctives of Anglican belief====\nThe Thirty-Nine Articles played a significant role in Anglican doctrine and practice. Following the passing of the 1604 canons, all Anglican clergy had to formally subscribe to the articles. Today, however, the articles are no longer binding, but are seen as a historical document which has played a significant role in the shaping of Anglican identity. The degree to which each of the articles has remained influential varies.\n\nOn the doctrine of justification, for example, there is a wide range of beliefs within the Anglican Communion, with some Anglo-Catholics arguing for a faith with good works and the sacraments. At the same time, however, some evangelical Anglicans ascribe to the Reformed emphasis on ''sola fide'' (\"faith alone\") in their doctrine of justification (see Sydney Anglicanism). Still other Anglicans adopt a nuanced view of justification, taking elements from the early Church Fathers, Catholicism, Protestantism, liberal theology, and latitudinarian thought.\n\nArguably, the most influential of the original articles has been Article VI on the \"sufficiency of scripture\" which says that \"Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation.\" This article has informed Anglican biblical exegesis and hermeneutics since earliest times.\n\nAnglicans look for authority in their \"standard divines\" (see below). Historically, the most influential of these – apart from Cranmer – has been the 16th century cleric and theologian Richard Hooker who after 1660 was increasingly portrayed as the founding father of Anglicanism. Hooker's description of Anglican authority as being derived primarily from scripture, informed by reason (the intellect and the experience of God) and tradition (the practices and beliefs of the historical church), has influenced Anglican self-identity and doctrinal reflection perhaps more powerfully than any other formula. The analogy of the \"three-legged stool\" of scripture, reason, and tradition is often incorrectly attributed to Hooker. Rather Hooker's description is a hierarchy of authority, with scripture as foundational and reason and tradition as vitally important, but secondary, authorities.\n\nFinally, the extension of Anglicanism into non-English cultures, the growing diversity of prayer books and the increasing interest in ecumenical dialogue, has led to further reflection on the parameters of Anglican identity. Many Anglicans look to the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888 as the ''sine qua non'' of communal identity. In brief, the quadrilateral's four points are the scriptures, as containing all things necessary to salvation; the creeds (specifically, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds) as the sufficient statement of Christian faith; the dominical sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion; and the historic episcopate.\n\n===Anglican divines===\n\n\nThomas Cranmer\nWithin the Anglican tradition, \"divines\" are clergy of the Church of England whose theological writings have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship and spirituality and whose influence has permeated the Anglican Communion in varying degrees through the years. While there is no authoritative list of these Anglican divines, there are some whose names would likely be found on most lists – those who are commemorated in lesser feasts of the Anglican churches and those whose works are frequently anthologised.\n\nThe corpus produced by Anglican divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by scripture and the ''Book of Common Prayer'', thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of the Apostolic Fathers. On the whole, Anglican divines view the ''via media'' of Anglicanism not as a compromise, but as \"a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthly ''ecclesia Anglicana''.\"\n\nThese theologians regard scripture as interpreted through tradition and reason as authoritative in matters concerning salvation. Reason and tradition, indeed, is extant in and presupposed by scripture, thus implying co-operation between God and humanity, God and nature, and between the sacred and secular. Faith is thus regarded as incarnational and authority as dispersed.\n\nWilliam Laud\nAmongst the early Anglican divines of the 16th and 17th centuries, the names of Thomas Cranmer, John Jewel, Matthew Parker, Richard Hooker, Lancelot Andrewes, and Jeremy Taylor predominate. The influential character of Hooker's ''Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity'' cannot be overestimated. Published in 1593 and subsequently, Hooker's eight-volume work is primarily a treatise on church-state relations, but it deals comprehensively with issues of biblical interpretation, soteriology, ethics and sanctification. Throughout the work, Hooker makes clear that theology involves prayer and is concerned with ultimate issues and that theology is relevant to the social mission of the church.\n\nThe 18th century saw the rise of two important movements in Anglicanism: Cambridge Platonism, with its mystical understanding of reason as the \"candle of the Lord\" and the evangelical revival with its emphasis on the personal experience of the Holy Spirit. The Cambridge Platonist movement evolved into a school called Latitudinarianism, which emphasised reason as the barometer of discernment and took a stance of indifference towards doctrinal and ecclesiological differences.\n\nThe evangelical revival, influenced by such figures as John Wesley and Charles Simeon, re-emphasised the importance of justification through faith and the consequent importance of personal conversion. Some in this movement, such as Wesley and George Whitefield, took the message to the United States, influencing the First Great Awakening and creating an Anglo-American movement called Methodism that would eventually break away, structurally, from the Anglican churches after the American Revolution.\n\nBy the 19th century, there was a renewed interest in pre-Reformation English religious thought and practice. Theologians such as John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey and John Henry Newman had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics and theological and devotional works, not least because they largely repudiated the old high church tradition and replaced it with a dynamic appeal to antiquity which looked beyond the Reformers and Anglican formularies. Their work is largely credited with the development of the Oxford Movement, which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in Anglicanism.\n\nIn contrast to this movement, clergy such as the Bishop of Liverpool, J. C. Ryle, sought to uphold the distinctly Reformed identity of the Church of England. He was not a servant of the status quo, but argued for a lively religion which emphasised grace, holy and charitable living and the plain use of the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (interpreted in a partisan evangelical way) without additional rituals. Frederick Denison Maurice, through such works as ''The Kingdom of Christ'', played a pivotal role in inaugurating another movement, Christian socialism. In this, Maurice transformed Hooker's emphasis on the incarnational nature of Anglican spirituality to an imperative for social justice.\n\nIn the 19th century, Anglican biblical scholarship began to assume a distinct character, represented by the so-called \"Cambridge triumvirate\" of Joseph Lightfoot, F. J. A. Hort and Brooke Foss Westcott. Their orientation is best summed up by Lightfoot's observation that \"Life which Christ is and which Christ communicates, the life which fills our whole beings as we realise its capacities, is active fellowship with God.\"\n\nThe earlier part of the 20th century is marked by Charles Gore, with his emphasis on natural revelation, and William Temple's focus on Christianity and society, while from outside England, Robert Leighton, Archbishop of Glasgow, and several clergy from the United States have been suggested, such as William Porcher DuBose, John Henry Hobart (1775–1830, Bishop of New York 1816–30), William Meade, Phillips Brooks, and Charles Brent.\n\n===Churchmanship===\nAn eastward-facing Solemn High Mass, a Catholic liturgical phenomenon which re-emerged in Anglicanism following the Catholic Revival of the nineteenth century\n''Churchmanship'' can be defined as the manifestation of theology in the realms of liturgy, piety and, to some extent, spirituality. Anglican diversity in this respect has tended to reflect the diversity in the tradition's Reformed and Catholic identity. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses and provinces may identify more closely with one or the other, or some mixture of the two.\n\nThe range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century when some clergy were disciplined and even imprisoned on charges of ritual heresy while, at the same time, others were criticised for engaging in public worship services with ministers of Reformed churches. Resistance to the growing acceptance and restoration of traditional Catholic ceremonial by the mainstream of Anglicanism ultimately led to the formation of small breakaway churches such as the Free Church of England in England (1844) and the Reformed Episcopal Church in North America (1873).\n\nAnglo-Catholic (and some broad-church) Anglicans celebrate public liturgy in ways that understand worship to be something very special and of utmost importance. Vestments are worn by the clergy, sung settings are often used and incense may be used. Nowadays, in most Anglican churches, the Eucharist is celebrated in a manner similar to the usage of Catholics and some Lutherans though, in many churches, more traditional, \"pre–Vatican II\", models of worship are common, (e.g. an \"eastward orientation\" at the altar). Whilst many Anglo-Catholics derive much of their liturgical practice from that of the pre-Reformation English church, others more closely follow traditional Roman Catholic practices.\n\nThe Eucharist may sometimes be celebrated in the form known as High Mass, with a priest, deacon and subdeacon dressed in traditional vestments, with incense and sanctus bells and with prayers adapted from the Roman Missal or other sources by the celebrant. Such churches may also have forms of Eucharistic adoration such as Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. In terms of personal piety some Anglicans may recite the rosary and angelus, be involved in a devotional society dedicated to \"Our Lady\" (the Blessed Virgin Mary) and seek the intercession of the saints.\n\nIn recent years the prayer books of several provinces have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern Conciliarism (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and Oriental Orthodox elements in their liturgies, including introduction of the Trisagion and deletion of the filioque clause from the Nicene Creed.\n\nFor their part, those evangelical (and some broad-church) Anglicans who emphasise the more Protestant aspects of the Church stress the Reformation theme of salvation by grace through faith. They emphasise the two dominical sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist, viewing the other five as \"lesser rites\". Some evangelical Anglicans may even tend to take the inerrancy of scripture literally, adopting the view of Article VI that it contains all things necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. Worship in churches influenced by these principles tends to be significantly less elaborate, with greater emphasis on the Liturgy of the Word (the reading of the scriptures, the sermon and the intercessory prayers).\n\nThe Order for Holy Communion may be celebrated bi-weekly or monthly (in preference to the daily offices), by priests attired in choir habit, or more regular clothes, rather than Eucharistic vestments. Ceremony may be in keeping with their view of the provisions of the 17th-century Puritans – being a Reformed interpretation of the Ornaments Rubric – no candles, no incense, no bells and a minimum of manual actions by the presiding celebrant (such as touching the elements at the Words of Institution).\n\nIn recent decades there has been a growth of charismatic worship among Anglicans. Both Anglo-Catholics and evangelicals have been affected by this movement such that it is not uncommon to find typically charismatic postures, music, and other themes evident during the services of otherwise Anglo-Catholic or evangelical parishes.\n\nThe spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Many Anglicans locate themselves somewhere in the spectrum of the broad-church tradition and consider themselves an amalgam of evangelical and Catholic. Such Anglicans stress that Anglicanism is the \"''via media''\" (middle way) between the two major strains of Western Christianity and that Anglicanism is like a \"bridge\" between the two strains.\n\n===Sacramental doctrine and practice===\n\nIn accord with its prevailing self-identity as a ''via media'' or \"middle path\" of Western Christianity, Anglican sacramental theology expresses elements in keeping with its status as being both a church in the Catholic tradition as well as a Reformed church. With respect to sacramental theology the Catholic heritage is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism places on the sacraments as a means of grace, sanctification and salvation as expressed in the church's liturgy and doctrine.\n\nOf the seven sacraments, all Anglicans recognise Baptism and the Eucharist as being directly instituted by Christ. The other five – Confession and absolution, Matrimony, Confirmation, Holy Orders (also called Ordination) and Anointing of the Sick (also called Unction) – are regarded variously as full sacraments by Anglo-Catholics, many high-church and some broad-church Anglicans, but merely as \"sacramental rites\" by other broad-church and low-church Anglicans, especially evangelicals associated with Reform UK and the Diocese of Sydney.\n\n====Eucharistic theology====\n\nAnglican eucharistic theology is divergent in practice, reflecting the essential comprehensiveness of the tradition. Some Low Church Anglicans take a strictly memorialist (Zwinglian) view of the sacrament. In other words, they see Holy Communion as a memorial to Christ's suffering, and participation in the Eucharist as both a re-enactment of the Last Supper and a foreshadowing of the heavenly banquet – the fulfilment of the eucharistic promise.\n\nOther low-church Anglicans believe in the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist but deny that the presence of Christ is carnal or is necessarily localised in the bread and wine. Despite explicit criticism in the Thirty-Nine Articles, many high-church or Anglo-Catholic Anglicans hold, more or less, the Catholic view of the real presence as expressed in the doctrine of transubstantiation, seeing the Eucharist as a liturgical representation of Christ's atoning sacrifice with the elements actually transformed into Christ's body and blood.\n\nThe majority of Anglicans, however, have in common a belief in the real presence, defined in one way or another. To that extent, they are in the company of the continental reformer Martin Luther rather than Ulrich Zwingli.\n\nA famous Anglican aphorism regarding Christ's presence in the sacrament, commonly misattributed to Queen Elizabeth I, is first found in print in a poem by John Donne:\n\n\nHe was the word that spake it,\nHe took the bread and brake it:\nAnd what that word did make it,\nI do believe and take it.\n\nAn Anglican position on the eucharistic sacrifice (\"Sacrifice of the Mass\") was expressed in the response ''Saepius officio'' of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical ''Apostolicae curae''.\n\nAnglican and Catholic representatives declared that they had \"substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist\" in the 'Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine\" from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation (1971) and the Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement (1979). The final response (1991) to these documents by the Vatican made it plain that it did not consider the degree of agreement reached to be satisfactory.\n", "\n\nIn Anglicanism there is a distinction between liturgy, which is the formal public and communal worship of the Church, and personal prayer and devotion which may be public or private. Liturgy is regulated by the prayer books and consists of the Holy Eucharist (some call it Holy Communion or Mass), the other six Sacraments, and the Divine Office or Liturgy of the Hours.\n\n===Book of Common Prayer===\nThe 1596 ''Book of Common Prayer''\nThe ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) is the foundational prayer book of Anglicanism. The original book of 1549 (revised 1552) was one of the instruments of the English Reformation, replacing the various \"uses\" or rites in Latin that had been used in different parts of the country with a single compact volume in the language of the people, so that \"now from henceforth all the Realm shall have but one use\". Suppressed under Queen Mary I, it was revised in 1559, and then again in 1662, after the Restoration of Charles II. This version was made mandatory in England and Wales by the Act of Uniformity and was in standard use until the mid-20th century.\n\nWith British colonial expansion from the 17th century onwards, Anglican churches were planted around the globe. These churches at first used and then revised the ''Book of Common Prayer'' until they, like their parent church, produced prayer books which took into account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the 19th and 20th centuries, which come under the general heading of the Liturgical Movement.\n\n===Worship===\n\nAnglican worship services are open to all visitors. Anglican worship originates principally in the reforms of Thomas Cranmer, who aimed to create a set order of service like that of the pre-Reformation church but less complex in its seasonal variety and said in English rather than Latin. This use of a set order of service is not unlike the Catholic tradition. Traditionally the pattern was that laid out in the ''Book of Common Prayer''. Although many Anglican churches now use a wide range of modern service books written in the local language, the structures of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' are largely retained. Churches which call themselves Anglican will have identified themselves so because they use some form or variant of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in the shaping of their worship.\n\nAnglican worship, however, is as diverse as Anglican theology. A contemporary \"low church\" service may differ little from the worship of many mainstream non-Anglican Protestant churches. The service is constructed around a sermon focused on Biblical exposition and opened with one or more Bible readings and closed by a series of prayers (both set and extemporised) and hymns or songs. A \"high-church\" or Anglo-Catholic service, by contrast, is usually a more formal liturgy celebrated by clergy in distinctive vestments and may be almost indistinguishable from a Roman Catholic service, often resembling the \"pre–Vatican II\" Tridentine rite.\n\nBetween these extremes are a variety of styles of worship, often involving a robed choir and the use of the organ to accompany the singing and to provide music before and after the service. Anglican churches tend to have pews or chairs and it is usual for the congregation to kneel for some prayers but to stand for hymns and other parts of the service such as the Gloria, Collect, Gospel reading, Creed and either the Preface or all of the Eucharistic Prayer. High Anglicans may genuflect or cross themselves in the same way as Roman Catholics.\n\nOther more traditional Anglicans tend to follow the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', and retain the use of the King James Bible. This is typical in many Anglican cathedrals and particularly in Royal Peculiars such as the Savoy Chapel and the Queen's Chapel. These services reflect the original Anglican doctrine and differ from the Traditional Anglican Communion in that they are in favour of women vicars and the ability of vicars to marry. These Anglican church services include classical music instead of songs, hymns from the New English Hymnal (usually excluding modern hymns such as Lord of the Dance), and are generally non-evangelical and formal in practice. Due to their association with royalty, these churches are generally host to staunch Anglicans who are strongly opposed to Catholicism.\n\nUntil the mid-20th century the main Sunday service was typically morning prayer, but the Eucharist has once again become the standard form of Sunday worship in many Anglican churches; this again is similar to Roman Catholic practice. Other common Sunday services include an early morning Eucharist without music, an abbreviated Eucharist following a service of morning prayer and a service of evening prayer, sometimes in the form of sung Evensong, usually celebrated between 3 and 6 pm The late-evening service of Compline was revived in parish use in the early 20th century. Many Anglican churches will also have daily morning and evening prayer and some have midweek or even daily celebration of the Eucharist.\n\nAn Anglican service (whether or not a Eucharist) will include readings from the Bible that are generally taken from a standardised lectionary, which provides for much of the Bible (and some passages from the Apocrypha) to be read out loud in the church over a cycle of one, two or three years (depending on which eucharistic and office lectionaries are used, respectively). The sermon (or homily) is typically about ten to twenty minutes in length, often comparably short to sermons in evangelical churches. Even in the most informal Anglican services it is common for set prayers such as the weekly Collect to be read. There are also set forms for intercessory prayer, though this is now more often extemporaneous. In high and Anglo-Catholic churches there are generally prayers for the dead.\n\nAlthough Anglican public worship is usually ordered according to the canonically approved services, in practice many Anglican churches use forms of service outside these norms. Liberal churches may use freely structured or experimental forms of worship, including patterns borrowed from ecumenical traditions such as those of Taizé Community or the Iona Community.\n\nAnglo-Catholic parishes might use the modern Roman Catholic liturgy of the Mass or more traditional forms, such as the Tridentine Mass (which is translated into English in the English Missal), the Anglican Missal, or, less commonly, the Sarum Rite. Catholic devotions such as the Rosary, Angelus and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament are also common among Anglo-Catholics.\n\n====Eucharistic discipline====\nOnly baptised persons are eligible to receive communion, although in many churches communion is restricted to those who have not only been baptised but also confirmed. In many Anglican provinces, however, all baptised Christians are now often invited to receive communion and some dioceses have regularised a system for admitting baptised young people to communion before they are confirmed.\n\nThe discipline of fasting before communion is practised by some Anglicans. Most Anglican priests require the presence of at least one other person for the celebration of the Eucharist (referring back to Christ's statement in Matthew 18:20, \"When two or more are gathered in my name, I will be in the midst of them.\"), though some Anglo-Catholic priests (like Roman Catholic priests) may say private Masses. As in the Roman Catholic Church, it is a canonical requirement to use fermented wine for communion.\n\nUnlike in Roman Catholicism, the consecrated bread and wine are always offered to the congregation at a eucharistic service (\"communion in both kinds\"). This practice is becoming more frequent in the Roman Catholic Church as well, especially through the Neocatechumenal Way. In some churches the sacrament is reserved in a tabernacle or aumbry with a lighted candle or lamp nearby. In Anglican churches, only a priest or a bishop may be the celebrant at the Eucharist.\n\n===Divine office===\nEvensong at York Minster\nAll Anglican prayer books contain offices for Morning Prayer (Matins) and Evening Prayer (Evensong). In the original ''Book of Common Prayer'' these were derived from combinations of the ancient monastic offices of Matins and Lauds; and Vespers and Compline respectively. The prayer offices have an important place in Anglican history.\n\nPrior to the Catholic revival of the 19th century, which eventually restored the Holy Eucharist as the principal Sunday liturgy, and especially during the 18th century, a morning service combining Matins, the Litany and ante-Communion comprised the usual expression of common worship; while Matins and Evensong were sung daily in cathedrals and some collegiate chapels. This nurtured a tradition of distinctive Anglican chant applied to the canticles and psalms used at the offices (although plainsong is often used as well).\n\nIn some official and many unofficial Anglican service books these offices are supplemented by other offices such as the Little Hours of Prime and prayer during the day such as (Terce, Sext, None and Compline). Some Anglican monastic communities have a Daily Office based on that of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' but with additional antiphons and canticles, etc. for specific days of the week, specific psalms, etc. See, for example, Order of the Holy Cross and Order of St Helena, editors, ''A Monastic Breviary'' (Wilton, Conn.: Morehouse-Barlow, 1976). The All Saints Sisters of the Poor, with convents in Catonsville, Maryland and elsewhere use an elaborated version of the Anglican Daily Office. The Society of St. Francis publishes ''Celebrating Common Prayer'' which has become especially popular for use among Anglicans.\n\nIn England, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and some other Anglican provinces the modern prayer books contain four offices:\nMorning Prayer, corresponding to Matins, Lauds and Prime.\nPrayer During the Day, roughly corresponding to the combination of Terce, Sext and None (Noonday Prayer in the USA)\nEvening Prayer, corresponding to Vespers (and Compline).\nCompline\n\nIn addition, most prayer books include a section of prayers and devotions for family use. In the US, these offices are further supplemented by an \"Order of Worship for the Evening\", a prelude to or an abbreviated form of Evensong, partly derived from Orthodox prayers. In the United Kingdom, the publication of ''Daily Prayer'', the third volume of ''Common Worship'' was published in 2005. It retains the services for Morning and Evening Prayer and Compline and includes a section entitled \"Prayer during the Day\". 'A New Zealand Prayer Book' of 1989 provides different outlines for Matins and Evensong on each day of the week, as well as \"Midday Prayer\", \"Night Prayer\" and \"Family Prayer\".\n\nSome Anglicans who pray the office on daily basis use the present Divine Office of the Catholic Church. In many cities, especially in England, Anglican and Catholic priests and lay people often meet several times a week to pray the office in common. A small but enthusiastic minority use the Anglican Breviary, or other translations and adaptations of the pre–Vatican II Roman Rite and Sarum Rite, along with supplemental material from cognate western sources, to provide such things as a common of Octaves, a common of Holy Women and other additional material. Others may privately use idiosyncratic forms borrowed from a wide range of Christian traditions.\n\n==== \"Quires and Places where they sing\" ==== \n\nIn the late medieval period, many English cathedrals and monasteries had established small choirs of trained lay clerks and boy choristers to perform polyphonic settings of the Mass in their Lady chapels. Although these \"Lady Masses\" were discontinued at the Reformation, the associated musical tradition was maintained in the Elizabethan Settlement through the establishment of choral foundations for daily singing of the Divine Office by expanded choirs of men and boys. This resulted from an explicit addition by Elizabeth herself to the injunctions accompanying the 1559 ''Book of Common Prayer'' (that had itself made no mention of choral worship) by which existing choral foundations and choir schools were instructed to be continued, and their endowments secured. Consequently, some thirty-four cathedrals, collegiate churches and royal chapels maintained paid establishments of lay singing men and choristers in the late 16th century.\n\nAll save four of these have – with an interruption during the Commonwealth – continued daily choral prayer and praise to this day. In the Offices of Matins and Evensong in the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', these choral establishments are specified as \"Quires and Places where they sing\".\n\nFor nearly three centuries, this round of daily professional choral worship represented a tradition entirely distinct from that embodied in the intoning of Parish Clerks, and the singing of \"west gallery choirs\" which commonly accompanied weekly worship in English parish churches. In 1841, the rebuilt Leeds Parish Church established a surpliced choir to accompany parish services, drawing explicitly on the musical traditions of the ancient choral foundations. Over the next century, the Leeds example proved immensely popular and influential for choirs in cathedrals, parish churches and schools throughout the Anglican communion. More or less extensively adapted, this choral tradition also became the direct inspiration for robed choirs leading congregational worship in a wide range of Christian denominations.\n\nIn 1719 the cathedral choirs of Gloucester, Hereford and Worcester combined to establish the annual Three Choirs Festival, the precursor for the multitude of summer music festivals since. By the 20th century, the choral tradition had become for many the most accessible face of worldwide Anglicanism – especially as promoted through the regular broadcasting of choral evensong by the BBC; and also in the annual televising of the festival of Nine lessons and carols from King's College, Cambridge. Composers closely concerned with this tradition include Edward Elgar, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Gustav Holst, Charles Villiers Stanford and Benjamin Britten. A number of important 20th-century works by non-Anglican composers were originally commissioned for the Anglican choral tradition – for example the ''Chichester Psalms'' of Leonard Bernstein, and the ''Nunc dimittis'' of Arvo Pärt.\n", "\n\n\n===Principles of governance===\nContrary to popular misconception, the British monarch is not the constitutional \"head\" but in law the \"Supreme Governor\" of the Church of England, nor does he or she have any role in provinces outside England. The role of the crown in the Church of England is practically limited to the appointment of bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, and even this role is limited, as the Church presents the government with a short list of candidates to choose from. This process is accomplished through collaboration with and consent of ecclesial representatives ''(see Ecclesiastical Commissioners)''. The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world, although the prayer books of several countries where she is head of state maintain prayers for her as sovereign.\n\nA characteristic of Anglicanism is that it has no international juridical authority. All thirty-nine provinces of the Anglican Communion are autonomous, each with their own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or South Asia), or geographical regions (such as Vanuatu and Solomon Islands) etc. Within these Communion provinces may exist subdivisions, called ecclesiastical provinces, under the jurisdiction of a metropolitan archbishop.\n\nAll provinces of the Anglican Communion consist of dioceses, each under the jurisdiction of a bishop. In the Anglican tradition, bishops must be consecrated according to the strictures of apostolic succession, which Anglicans consider one of the marks of Catholicity. Apart from bishops, there are two other orders of ordained ministry: deacon and priest.\n\nNo requirement is made for clerical celibacy, though many Anglo-Catholic priests have traditionally been bachelors. Because of innovations that occurred at various points after the latter half of the 20th century, women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. Anglican religious orders and communities, suppressed in England during the Reformation, have re-emerged, especially since the mid-19th century, and now have an international presence and influence.\n\nGovernment in the Anglican Communion is synodical, consisting of three houses of laity (usually elected parish representatives), clergy, and bishops. National, provincial, and diocesan synods maintain different scopes of authority, depending on their canons and constitutions. Anglicanism is not congregational in its polity: it is the diocese, not the parish church, which is the smallest unit of authority in the church. ''(See Episcopal polity)''.\n\n===Archbishop of Canterbury===\nSee of Canterbury.\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury has a precedence of honour over the other primates of the Anglican Communion, and for a province to be considered a part of the Communion means specifically to be in full communion with the See of Canterbury. The Archbishop is, therefore, recognised as ''primus inter pares'', or first amongst equals even though he does not exercise any direct authority in any province outside England, of which he is chief primate. Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury from 2002 to 2012, was the first archbishop appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation: he was formerly the Archbishop of Wales.\n\nAs \"spiritual head\" of the Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury maintains a certain moral authority, and has the right to determine which churches will be in communion with his See. He hosts and chairs the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, and decides who will be invited to them. He also hosts and chairs the Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting and is responsible for the invitations to it. He acts as president of the secretariat of the Anglican Communion Office, and its deliberative body, the Anglican Consultative Council.\n\n===Conferences===\nThe Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. All international bodies are consultative and collaborative, and their resolutions are not legally binding on the autonomous provinces of the Communion. There are three international bodies of note.\n\n* The Lambeth Conference is the oldest international consultation. It was first convened by Archbishop Charles Longley in 1867 as a vehicle for bishops of the Communion to \"discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action.\" Since then, it has been held roughly every ten years. Invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.\n* The Anglican Consultative Council was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets biennially. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.\n* The Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan in 1978 as a forum for \"leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation\".\n\n===Ordained ministry===\nPriest in Eucharistic vestments\n\n\nLike the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox churches, the Anglican Communion maintains the threefold ministry of deacons, presbyters (usually called \"priests\") and bishops.\n\n====Episcopate====\n\nBishops, who possess the fullness of Christian priesthood, are the successors of the Apostles. Primates, archbishops and metropolitans are all bishops and members of the historical episcopate who derive their authority through apostolic succession – an unbroken line of bishops that can be traced back to the 12 apostles of Jesus.\n\n====Priesthood====\nBishops are assisted by priests and deacons. Most ordained ministers in the Anglican Communion are priests, who usually work in parishes within a diocese. Priests are in charge of the spiritual life of parishes and are usually called the rector or vicar. A curate (or, more correctly, an 'assistant curate') is a term often used for a priest or deacon who assists the parish priest. Non-parochial priests may earn their living by any vocation, although employment by educational institutions or charitable organisations is most common. Priests also serve as chaplains of hospitals, schools, prisons, and in the armed forces.\n\nAn archdeacon is a priest or deacon responsible for administration of an archdeaconry, which is often the name given to the principal subdivisions of a diocese. An archdeacon represents the diocesan bishop in his or her archdeaconry. In the Church of England the position of archdeacon can only be held by someone in priestly orders who has been ordained for at least six years. In some other parts of the Anglican Communion the position can also be held by deacons. In parts of the Anglican Communion where women cannot be ordained as priests or bishops but can be ordained as deacons, the position of archdeacon is effectively the most senior office an ordained woman can be appointed to.\n\nA dean is a priest who is the principal cleric of a cathedral or other collegiate church and the head of the chapter of canons. If the cathedral or collegiate church has its own parish, the dean is usually also rector of the parish. However, in the Church of Ireland the roles are often separated and most cathedrals in the Church of England do not have associated parishes. In the Church in Wales, however, most cathedrals are parish churches and their deans are now also vicars of their parishes.\n\nThe Anglican Communion recognises Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ordinations as valid. Outside the Anglican Communion, Anglican ordinations (at least of male priests) are recognised by the Old Catholic Church Provoo Communion Lutherans and various Independent Catholic churches.\n\n====Diaconate====\nstole over the left shoulder\n\nIn Anglican churches, deacons often work directly in ministry to the marginalised inside and outside the church: the poor, the sick, the hungry, the imprisoned. Unlike Orthodox and most Roman Catholic deacons who may be married only before ordination, deacons are permitted to marry freely both before and after ordination, as are priests. Most deacons are preparing for priesthood and usually only remain as deacons for about a year before being ordained priests. However, there are some deacons who remain so.\n\nMany provinces of the Anglican Communion ordain both men and women as deacons. Many of those provinces that ordain women to the priesthood previously allowed them to be ordained only to the diaconate. The effect of this was the creation of a large and overwhelmingly female diaconate for a time, as most men proceeded to be ordained priest after a short time as a deacon.\n\nDeacons, in some dioceses, can be granted licences to solemnise matrimony, usually under the instruction of their parish priest and bishop. They sometimes officiate at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament in churches which have this service. Deacons are not permitted to preside at the Eucharist (but can lead worship with the distribution of already consecrated communion where this is permitted), absolve sins, or pronounce a blessing. It is the prohibition against deacons pronouncing blessings that leads some to believe that deacons cannot solemnise matrimony.\n\n===Laity===\nAll baptised members of the church are called Christian faithful, truly equal in dignity and in the work to build the church. Some non-ordained people also have a formal public ministry, often on a full-time and long-term basis – such as lay readers (also known as readers), churchwardens, vergers and sextons. Other lay positions include acolytes (male or female, often children), lay eucharistic ministers (also known as chalice bearers) and lay eucharistic visitors (who deliver consecrated bread and wine to \"shut-ins\" or members of the parish who are unable to leave home or hospital to attend the Eucharist). Lay people also serve on the parish altar guild (preparing the altar and caring for its candles, linens, flowers etc.), in the choir and as cantors, as ushers and greeters and on the church council (called the \"vestry\" in some countries) which is the governing body of a parish.\n\n===Religious orders===\n\nA small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its religious orders and communities. Shortly after the beginning of the Catholic Revival in the Church of England, there was a renewal of interest in re-establishing religious and monastic orders and communities. One of Henry VIII's earliest acts was their dissolution and seizure of their assets. In 1841 Marian Rebecca Hughes became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the Province of Canterbury since the Reformation. In 1848, Priscilla Lydia Sellon became the superior of the Society of the Most Holy Trinity at Devonport, Plymouth, the first organised religious order. Sellon is called \"the restorer, after three centuries, of the religious life in the Church of England.\" For the next one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated throughout the world, becoming a numerically small but disproportionately influential feature of global Anglicanism.\n\nAnglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to God under the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience (or in Benedictine communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practising a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the Breviary in choir, along with a daily Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life. Another distinctive feature of Anglican religious life is the existence of some mixed-gender communities.\n\nSince the 1960s there has been a sharp decline in the number of professed religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, especially in North America, Europe, and Australia. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery with memberships of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world, and religious life in many parts of the Communion – especially in developing nations – flourishes.\n\nThe most significant growth has been in the Melanesian countries of the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. The Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at Tabalia, Guadalcanal, in 1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the United Kingdom. The Sisters of the Church, started by Mother Emily Ayckbowm in England in 1870, has more sisters in the Solomons than all their other communities. The Community of the Sisters of Melanesia, started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands.\n\nThe Society of Saint Francis, founded as a union of various Franciscan orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid-20s – vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course – making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. Growth of religious orders, especially for women, is marked in certain parts of Africa.\n\n===Worldwide distribution===\nA world map showing the Provinces of the '''Anglican Communion''' (Blue). Shown are the Churches in full communion with the Anglican Church: The Nordic Lutheran churches of the Porvoo Communion (Green), and the Old Catholic Churches in the Utrecht Union (Red).\n\nAnglicanism represents the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The number of Anglicans in the world is over 85 million . The 11 provinces in Africa saw growth in the last two decades. They now include 36.7 million members, more Anglicans than there are in England. England remains the largest single Anglican province, with 26 million members. In most industrialised countries, church attendance has decreased since the 19th century. Anglicanism's presence in the rest of the world is due to large-scale emigration, the establishment of expatriate communities or the work of missionaries.\n\nThe Church of England has been a church of missionaries since the 17th century when the Church first left English shores with colonists who founded what would become the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa and established Anglican churches. For example, an Anglican chaplain, Robert Wolfall, with Martin Frobisher's Arctic expedition celebrated the Eucharist in 1578 in Frobisher Bay.\n1854 image of the ruins of Jamestown Church, the first Anglican church in North America\nThe first Anglican church in the Americas was built at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. By the 18th century, missionaries worked to establish Anglican churches in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The great Church of England missionary societies were founded; for example the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in 1698. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) in 1701, and the Church Mission Society (CMS) in 1799.\n\nThe 19th century saw the founding and expansion of social oriented evangelism with societies such as the Church Pastoral Aid Society (CPAS) in 1836, Mission to Seafarers in 1856, Girls' Friendly Society (GFS) in 1875, Mothers' Union in 1876 and Church Army in 1882 all carrying out a personal form of evangelism.\n\nThe 20th century saw the Church of England developing new forms of evangelism such as the Alpha course in 1990 which was developed and propagated from Holy Trinity Brompton Church in London. In the 21st century, there has been renewed effort to reach children and youth. Fresh expressions is a Church of England missionary initiative to youth begun in 2005, and has ministries at a skate park through the efforts of St George's Church, Benfleet, Essex – Diocese of Chelmsford – or youth groups with evocative names, like the C.L.A.W (Christ Little Angels – Whatever!) youth group at Coventry Cathedral. And for the unchurched who do not actually wish to visit a bricks and mortar church there are Internet ministries such as the Diocese of Oxford's online Anglican i-Church which appeared on the web in 2005.\n\n===Ecumenism===\n\n\nAnglican interest in ecumenical dialogue can be traced back to the time of the Reformation and dialogues with both Orthodox and Lutheran churches in the 16th century. In the 19th century, with the rise of the Oxford Movement, there arose greater concern for reunion of the churches of \"Catholic confession\". This desire to work towards full communion with other denominations led to the development of the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, approved by the third Lambeth Conference of 1888. The four points (the sufficiency of scripture, the historic creeds, the two dominical sacraments, and the historic episcopate) were proposed as a basis for discussion, although they have frequently been taken as a non-negotiable bottom-line for any form of reunion.\n\n===Theological diversity===\nAnglicanism in general has always sought a balance between the emphases of Catholicism and Protestantism, while tolerating a range of expressions of evangelicalism and ceremony. Clergy and laity from all Anglican churchmanship traditions have been active in the formation of the Continuing movement.\n\nWhile there are high-church, broad-church, and low-church Continuing Anglicans, many Continuing churches are Anglo-Catholic with highly ceremonial liturgical practices. Others belong to a more evangelical or low-church tradition and tend to support the Thirty-nine Articles and simpler worship services. Morning Prayer, for instance, is often used instead of the Holy Eucharist for Sunday worship services, although this is not necessarily true of all low church parishes.\n\nMost Continuing churches in the United States reject the 1979 revision of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' by the Episcopal Church and use the 1928 version for their services instead. In addition, Anglo-Catholic bodies may use the Anglican Missal or English Missal in celebrating the Eucharist.\n\n==== Conflicts within Anglicanism ====\nA changing focus on social issues after the Second World War led to Lambeth Conference resolutions countenancing contraception and the remarriage of divorced persons. They led to most provinces approving the ordination of women. In more recent years it has led some jurisdictions to permit the ordination of people in same-sex relationships and to authorise rites for the blessing of same-sex unions (see Homosexuality and Anglicanism). \"The more liberal provinces that are open to changing Church doctrine on marriage in order to allow for same-sex unions include Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Scotland, South India, South Africa, the US and Wales.\" More conservative elements within and outside of Anglicanism (primarily African churches and factions within North American Anglicanism) have opposed these proposals.\n\nSome liberal and moderate Anglicans see this opposition as representing a new fundamentalism within Anglicanism. Others see the advocacy for these proposals as representing a breakdown of Christian theology and commitment. The lack of social consensus among and within provinces of diverse cultural traditions has resulted in considerable conflict and even schism concerning some or all of these developments (see Anglican realignment). Some Anglicans opposed to various liberalising changes, in particular the ordination of women, have become Roman Catholics or Orthodox. Others have, at various times, joined the Continuing Anglican movement.\n\nThese latter trends reflect a countervailing tendency in Anglicanism towards insularity, reinforced perhaps by the \"big tent\" nature of the tradition which seeks to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies. The insularity and complacency of the early established Church of England has tended to influence Anglican self-identity and inhibit engagement with the broader society in favour of internal debate and dialogue. Nonetheless, there is significantly greater cohesion among Anglicans when they turn their attention outward.\n", "\nThe term \"Continuing Anglicanism\" refers to a number of church bodies which have formed outside of the Anglican Communion in the belief that traditional forms of Anglican faith, worship and order have been unacceptably revised or abandoned within some Anglican Communion churches in recent decades. They therefore claim that they are \"continuing\" traditional Anglicanism.\n\nThe modern Continuing Anglican movement principally dates to the Congress of St. Louis, held in the United States in 1977, where participants rejected changes that had been made in the Episcopal Church's ''Book of Common Prayer'' and also the Episcopal Church's approval of the ordination of women to the priesthood. More recent changes in the North American churches of the Anglican Communion, such as the introduction of same-sex marriage rites and the ordination of gay and lesbian people to the priesthood and episcopate, have created further separations.\n\nContinuing churches have generally been formed by people who have left the Anglican Communion. The original Anglican churches are charged by the Continuing Anglicans with being greatly compromised by secular cultural standards and liberal theology. Many Continuing Anglicans believe that the faith of some churches in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury has become unorthodox and therefore have not sought to also be in communion with him.\n\nThe original generation of continuing parishes in the United States were found mainly in metropolitan areas. Since the late 1990s a number have appeared in smaller communities, often as a result of a division in the town's existing Episcopal churches. The 2007–08 ''Directory of Traditional Anglican and Episcopal Parishes'', published by the Fellowship of Concerned Churchmen, contained information on over 900 parishes affiliated with either the Continuing Anglican churches or the Anglican realignment movement, a more recent wave of Anglicans withdrawing from the Anglican Communion's North American provinces.\n", "Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin in Dublin.\nAnglican concern with broader issues of social justice can be traced to its earliest divines. Richard Hooker, for instance, wrote that \"God hath created nothing simply for itself, but each thing in all things, and of every thing each part in other have such interest, that in the whole world nothing is found whereunto any thing created can say, 'I need thee not.'\"\n\nThis, and related statements, reflect the deep thread of incarnational theology running through Anglican social thought – a theology which sees God, nature, and humanity in dynamic interaction, and the interpenetration of the secular and the sacred in the make-up of the cosmos. Such theology is informed by a traditional English spiritual ethos, rooted in Celtic Christianity and reinforced by Anglicanism's origins as an established church, bound up by its structure in the life and interests of civil society.\n\nRepeatedly, throughout Anglican history, this principle has reasserted itself in movements of social justice. For instance, in the 18th century the influential evangelical Anglican William Wilberforce, along with others, campaigned against the slave trade. In the 19th century, the dominant issues concerned the adverse effects of industrialisation. The usual Anglican response was to focus on education and give support to 'The National Society for the Education of the Children of the Poor in the principles of the Church of England'.\n\n=== Working conditions and Christian socialism ===\nLord Shaftesbury, a devout evangelical, campaigned to improve the conditions in factories, in mines, for chimney sweeps, and for the education of the very poor. For years he was chairman of the Ragged School Board. Frederick Denison Maurice was a leading figure advocating reform, founding so-called \"producer's co-operatives\" and the Working Men's College. His work was instrumental in the establishment of the Christian socialist movement, although he himself was not in any real sense a socialist but, \"a Tory paternalist with the unusual desire to theories his acceptance of the traditional obligation to help the poor\", influenced Anglo-Catholics such as Charles Gore, who wrote that, \"the principle of the incarnation is denied unless the Christian spirit can be allowed to concern itself with everything that interests and touches human life.\" Anglican focus on labour issues culminated in the work of William Temple in the 1930s and 1940s.\n\n===Pacifism===\nA question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In 1937, the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including Vera Brittain, Evelyn Underhill, and the former British political leader George Lansbury. Furthermore, Dick Sheppard, who during the 1930s was one of Britain's most famous Anglican priests due to his landmark sermon broadcasts for BBC Radio, founded the Peace Pledge Union a secular pacifist organisation for the non-religious that gained considerable support throughout the 1930s.\n\nWhilst never actively endorsed by Anglican churches, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian \"Just War\" doctrine. The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active throughout the Anglican world. It rejects this doctrine of \"just war\" and seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the pacifism inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's Sermon on the Mount. The principles of the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship are often formulated as a statement of belief that \"Jesus' teaching is incompatible with the waging of war ... that a Christian church should never support or justify war ... and that our Christian witness should include opposing the waging or justifying of war.\"\n\nConfusing the matter was the fact that the 37th Article of Religion in the ''Book of Common Prayer'' states that \"it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars.\" Therefore, the Lambeth Council in the modern era has sought to provide a clearer position by repudiating modern war and developed a statement that has been affirmed at each subsequent meeting of the Council.\n\nThis statement was strongly reasserted when \"the 67th General Convention of the Episcopal Church reaffirms the statement made by the Anglican Bishops assembled at Lambeth in 1978 and adopted by the 66th General Convention of the Episcopal Church in 1979, calling \"Christian people everywhere ... to engage themselves in non-violent action for justice and peace and to support others so engaged, recognising that such action will be controversial and may be personally very costly... this General Convention, in obedience to this call, urges all members of this Church to support by prayer and by such other means as they deem appropriate, those who engaged in such non-violent action, and particularly those who suffer for conscience' sake as a result; and be it further Resolved, that this General Convention calls upon all members of this Church seriously to consider the implications for their own lives of this call to resist war and work for peace for their own lives.\"\n\n===After World War II===\n\nJustin Welby in South Korea. As the Archbishop of Canterbury, Welby is the symbolic head of the international Anglican Communion.\n\nThe focus on other social issues became increasingly diffuse after the Second World War. On the one hand, the growing independence and strength of Anglican churches in the global south brought new emphasis to issues of global poverty, the inequitable distribution of resources, and the lingering effects of colonialism. In this regard, figures such as Desmond Tutu and Ted Scott were instrumental in mobilising Anglicans worldwide against the apartheid policies of South Africa. Rapid social change in the industrialised world during the 20th century compelled the church to examine issues of gender, sexuality and marriage.\n", "On 4 November 2009, Pope Benedict XVI issued an apostolic constitution, ''Anglicanorum Coetibus'', to allow groups of former Anglicans to enter into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church as members of personal ordinariates. The 20 October 2009 announcement of the imminent constitution mentioned:\n\n\n\nFor each personal ordinariate the ordinary may be a former Anglican bishop or priest. It is expected that provision will be made to allow the retention of aspects of Anglican liturgy; cf. Anglican Use.\n", "\n", "\n===Footnotes===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n\n", "\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n\n", "* Anglican Communion website\n\n What it means to be an Anglican article\n* Anglican History website\n* Anglicans Online website\n* Online Anglican resources\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Terminology", "Anglican identity", "Doctrine", "Practices", "Organisation of the Anglican Communion", "Continuing Anglican movement", "Social activism", "Ordinariates within the Roman Catholic Church", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Anglicanism
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Athens''' (; , ''Athína'' , , modern pronunciation ''Athínai'') is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, with its recorded history spanning over 3,400 years and its earliest human presence starting somewhere between the 11th and 7th millennium BC.\n\nClassical Athens was a powerful city-state that emerged in conjunction with the seagoing development of the port of Piraeus, which had been a distinct city prior to its 5th century BC incorporation with Athens. A centre for the arts, learning and philosophy, home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum, it is widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy, largely because of its cultural and political impact on the European continent, and in particular the Romans. In modern times, Athens is a large cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime, political and cultural life in Greece. In 2012, Athens was ranked the world's 39th richest city by purchasing power and the 67th most expensive in a UBS study.\n\nAthens is a global city and one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe. It has a large financial sector, and its port Piraeus is both the largest passenger port in Europe, and the second largest in the world. \nThe '''Municipality of Athens''' (also '''City of Athens''') had a population of 664,046 (in 2011) within its administrative limits, and a land area of . The urban area of Athens (Greater Athens and Greater Piraeus) extends beyond its administrative municipal city limits, with a population of 3,090,508 (in 2011) over an area of . According to Eurostat in 2011, the functional urban area (FUA) of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union (the 6th most populous capital city of the EU), with a population of 3,828,000. Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland.\n\nThe heritage of the classical era is still evident in the city, represented by ancient monuments and works of art, the most famous of all being the Parthenon, considered a key landmark of early Western civilization. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a smaller number of Ottoman monuments.\n\nAthens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery. Landmarks of the modern era, dating back to the establishment of Athens as the capital of the independent Greek state in 1834, include the Hellenic Parliament and the so-called \"architectural trilogy of Athens\", consisting of the National Library of Greece, the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens and the Academy of Athens. Athens is also home to several museums and cultural institutions, such as the National Archeological Museum, featuring the world's largest collection of ancient Greek antiquities, the Acropolis Museum, the Museum of Cycladic Art, the Benaki Museum and the Byzantine and Christian Museum. Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics.\n", "\nAthena, patron goddess of Athens; (Varvakeion Athena, National Archaeological Museum)\n\nIn Ancient Greek, the name of the city was (''Athēnai'', in Classical Attic) a plural. In earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as (''Athēnē''). It was possibly rendered in the plural later on, like those of (''Thêbai'') and (''Μukênai''). The root of the word is perhaps not of Greek or Indo-European origin, and is a possible remnant of the Pre-Greek substrate of Attica, as could be the name of the goddess Athena (Attic , ''Athēnā'', Ionic , ''Athēnē'', and Doric , ''Athānā''), that was always related to the city of Athens. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as . However, after the establishment of the modern Greek state, and partly due to the conservatism of the written language, became again the official name of the city and remained so until the abandonment of Katharevousa in the 1970s, when Ἀθήνα, ''Athína'', became the official name.\n\nAn etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements and battles between themselves, and one of these was a race to be the Patron God of the city. In an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the olive tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity, the Athenians, under their ruler Cecrops, accepted the olive tree and named the city after Athena.\n\nDifferent etymologies, now commonly rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word (''áthos'') or (''ánthos'') meaning \"flower\", to denote Athens as the \"flowering city\". Ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb , stem θη- (''tháō'', ''thē-'', \"to suck\") to denote Athens as having fertile soil.\n\nIn classical literature, the city was sometimes referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindar's ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι (''iostéphanoi Athânai''), or as (''tò kleinòn ásty'', \"the glorious city\"). In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, all derivations involving false splitting of prepositional phrases. Today the caption (''ī protévousa''), \"the capital\", has become somewhat common.\n", "\nAcropolis of Athens, with the Roman-era Odeon of Herodes Atticus seen on bottom left\n\nThe oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist, which has been dated to between the 11th and 7th millennia BC. Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 7000 years.\nBy 1400 BC the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress, whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls. Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were \"pure\" Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years afterwards.\n\nStatue of Theseus at Thiseio. Theseus was responsible, according to the myth, for the ''synoikismos'' (\"dwelling together\")—the political unification of Attica under Athens.\n\nIron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region. The leading position of Athens may well have resulted from its central location in the Greek world, its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea, which gave it a natural advantage over inland rivals such as Thebes and Sparta.\n\nDelian League, under the leadership of Athens before the Peloponnesian War in 431 BC\n\nBy the 6th century BC, widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon. These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in 508 BC. Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet, and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule. In the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars Athens, together with Sparta, led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians, defeating them decisively at Marathon in 490 BC, and crucially at Salamis in 480 BC. However, this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year, after a heroic resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians.\n\nThe decades that followed became known as the Golden Age of Athenian democracy, during which time Athens became the leading city of Ancient Greece, with its cultural achievements laying the foundations for Western civilization. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides flourished in Athens during this time, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates. Guided by Pericles, who promoted the arts and fostered democracy, Athens embarked on an ambitious building program that saw the construction of the Acropolis of Athens (including the Parthenon), as well as empire-building via the Delian League. Originally intended as an association of Greek city-states to continue the fight against the Persians, the league soon turned into a vehicle for Athens's own imperial ambitions. The resulting tensions brought about the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), in which Athens was defeated by its rival Sparta.\n\nBy the mid-4th century BC, the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon was becoming dominant in Athenian affairs. In 338 BC the armies of Philip II defeated an alliance of some of the Greek city-states including Athens and Thebes at the Battle of Chaeronea, effectively ending Athenian independence. Later, under Rome, Athens was given the status of a free city because of its widely admired schools. The Roman emperor Hadrian, in the 2nd century AD, constructed a library, a gymnasium, an aqueduct which is still in use, several temples and sanctuaries, a bridge and financed the completion of the Temple of Olympian Zeus.\n\nBy the end of Late Antiquity, the city experienced decline followed by recovery in the second half of the Middle Byzantine Period, in the 9th to 10th centuries AD, and was relatively prosperous during the Crusades, benefiting from Italian trade. After the Fourth Crusade the Duchy of Athens was established. In 1458 it was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and entered a long period of decline.\n\nTemple of Olympian Zeus with river Ilisos by Edward Dodwell, 1821\nKing Otto in Athens'', Peter von Hess, 1839.\n\nFollowing the Greek War of Independence and the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly independent Greek state in 1834, largely because of historical and sentimental reasons. At the time it was a town of modest size built around the foot of the Acropolis. The first King of Greece, Otto of Bavaria, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state.\n\nThe first modern city plan consisted of a triangle defined by the Acropolis, the ancient cemetery of Kerameikos and the new palace of the Bavarian king (now housing the Greek Parliament), so as to highlight the continuity between modern and ancient Athens. Neoclassicism, the international style of this epoch, was the architectural style through which Bavarian, French and Greek architects such as Hansen, Klenze, Boulanger or Kaftantzoglou designed the first important public buildings of the new capital. In 1896, Athens hosted the first modern Olympic Games. During the 1920s a number of Greek refugees, expelled from Asia Minor after the Greco-Turkish War, swelled Athens's population; nevertheless it was most particularly following World War II, and from the 1950s and 1960s, that the population of the city exploded, and Athens experienced a gradual expansion.\n\nIn the 1980s it became evident that smog from factories and an ever-increasing fleet of automobiles, as well as a lack of adequate free space due to congestion, had evolved into the city's most important challenge. A series of anti-pollution measures taken by the city's authorities in the 1990s, combined with a substantial improvement of the city's infrastructure (including the Attiki Odos motorway, the expansion of the Athens Metro, and the new Athens International Airport), considerably alleviated pollution and transformed Athens into a much more functional city. In 2004 Athens hosted the 2004 Summer Olympics.\n", "\n=== Geology ===\nView of Mount Penteli, the second tallest mountain surrounding Athens.\nMount Lycabettus.\n\nAthens sprawls across the central plain of Attica that is often referred to as the ''Athens or Attica Basin'' (Greek: Λεκανοπέδιο Αττικής). The basin is bounded by four large mountains: Mount Aigaleo to the west, Mount Parnitha to the north, Mount Pentelicus to the northeast and Mount Hymettus to the east. Beyond Mount Aegaleo lies the Thriasian plain, which forms an extension of the central plain to the west. The Saronic Gulf lies to the southwest. Mount Parnitha is the tallest of the four mountains (), and has been declared a national park.\n\nAthens is built around a number of hills. Lycabettus is one of the tallest hills of the city proper and provides a view of the entire Attica Basin. The geomorphology of Athens is deemed to be one of the most complex in the world because its mountains cause a temperature inversion phenomenon which, along with the Greek Government's difficulties controlling industrial pollution, was responsible for the air pollution problems the city has faced. This issue is not unique to Athens; for instance, Los Angeles and Mexico City also suffer from similar geomorphology inversion problems.\n\nThe Cephissus river, the Ilisos and the Eridanos stream are the historical rivers of Athens.\n\n=== Climate ===\nAthens has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen ''Csa''). The dominant feature of Athens's climate is alternation between prolonged hot and dry summers and mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall. With an average of of yearly precipitation, rainfall occurs largely between the months of October and April. July and August are the driest months, where thunderstorms occur sparsely once or twice a month.\n\nThe annual precipitation of Athens is typically lower than in other parts of Greece, mainly in western Greece. As an example, Ioannina receives around per year, and Agrinio around per year. Daily average highs for July (1987–2016) have been measured at , but some parts of the city may be even warmer, in particular its western areas partly because of industrialization and partly because of a number of natural factors, knowledge of which has been available from the mid-19th century.\n\nAthens is affected by the urban heat island effect in some areas which is caused by human activity, altering its temperatures compared to the surrounding rural areas, and bearing detrimental effects on energy usage, expenditure for cooling, and health. The urban heat island of the city has also been found to be partially responsible for alterations of the climatological temperature time-series of specific Athens meteorological stations, because of its impact on the temperatures and the temperature trends recorded by some meteorological stations. On the other hand, specific meteorological stations, such as the National Garden station and Thiseio meteorological station, are less affected or do not experience the urban heat island.\n\nAthens holds the World Meteorological Organization record for the highest temperature ever recorded in Europe, at , which was recorded in the Elefsina and Tatoi suburbs of Athens on 10 July 1977.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nClimate data for Athens\n\nMonth\nJan\nFeb\nMar\nApr\nMay\nJun\nJul\nAug\nSep\nOct\nNov\nDec\nYear\n\nAverage sea temperature °C (°F)\n15.4(59.7)\n15.0(59.0)\n15.2(59.4)\n15.7(60.3)\n18.5(65.3)\n22.6(72.7)\n25.7(78.3)\n26.3(79.3)\n25.0(77.0)\n22.2(72.0)\n19.1(66.4)\n16.6(61.9)\n19.8(67.6)\n\nMean daily daylight hours\n10.0\n11.0\n12.0\n13.0\n14.0\n15.0\n14.0\n14.0\n12.0\n11.0\n10.0\n10.0\n12.2\n\nAverage Ultraviolet index\n2\n3\n5\n6\n8\n9\n10\n9\n7\n5\n3\n2\n5.8\n\nSource: Weather Atlas \n\n", "\n\nAthens became the capital of Greece in 1834, following Nafplion, which was the provisional capital from 1829. The municipality (City) of Athens is also the capital of the Attica region. The term ''Athens'' can refer either to the municipality of Athens, to Greater Athens, or to the entire Athens Urban Area.\n\n=== Municipality (City) of Athens ===\nThe seven districts of the Athens municipality\n\nThe municipality (City) of Athens is the most populous in Greece, with a population of 664,046 people (in 2011) and an area of , forming the core of the Athens Urban Area within the ''Attica Basin''. The current mayor of Athens is Giorgos Kaminis. The municipality is divided into seven municipal districts which are mainly used for administrative purposes.\n\nAs of the 2011 census, the population for each of the seven municipal districts of Athens is as follows:\n\n* 1st: 75,810\n* 2nd: 103,004\n* 3rd: 46,508\n* 4th: 85,629\n* 5th: 98,665\n* 6th: 130,582\n* 7th: 123,848\n\nFor the Athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its neighbourhoods such as Pagkrati, Ambelokipi, Exarcheia, Patissia, Ilissia, Petralona, Koukaki and Kypseli, each with its own distinct history and characteristics.\n\n=== Athens Urban Area ===\n\nThe Athens municipality forms the core and center of '''Greater Athens''', which consists of the Athens municipality and 34 more municipalities, divided in four regional units (Central, North, South and West Athens), accounting for 2,641,511 people (in 2011) within an area of . Until 2010, these four regional units made up the abolished Athens Prefecture. The municipality of Piraeus, the historic Athenian port, with its 4 suburban municipalities make up the regional unit of Piraeus, which in turn forms '''Greater Piraeus'''.\n\n'''Greater Athens''' and '''Greater Piraeus''' combined make up the continuous built up '''Athens Urban Area''' (), also called the '''Urban Area of the Capital''' () or simply '''Athens''' (the most common use of the term), spanning over , with a population of 3,090,508 people as of 2011. The Athens Urban Area is considered to form the city of Athens as a whole, despite its administrative divisions, which is the largest in Greece and one of the most populated urban areas in Europe.\n\n\n\n\n+ '''Municipalities of Greater Athens'''\n\n\n\n\n'''Central Athens''': \n1. City of Athens \n2. Dafni-Ymittos \n3. Ilioupoli \n4. Vyronas \n5. Kaisariani \n6. Zografou \n7. Galatsi \n8. Filadelfeia-Chalkidona\n\n\n\n\n\n'''West Athens''':\n\n29. Egaleo\n\n30. Agia Varvara\n\n31. Chaidari\n\n32. Peristeri\n\n33. Petroupoli\n\n34. Ilion\n\n35. Agioi Anargyroi-Kamatero\n\n400px\n\n\n\n'''North Athens''':\n\n9. Nea Ionia\n\n10. Irakleio\n\n11. Metamorfosi\n\n12. Lykovrysi-Pefki\n\n13. Kifissia\n\n14. Penteli\n\n15. Marousi\n\n16. Vrilissia\n\n17. Agia Paraskevi\n\n18. Papagou-Cholargos\n\n19. Chalandri\n\n20. Filothei-Psychiko\n\n\n\n\n\n'''South Athens''':\n21. Glyfada \n22. Elliniko-Argyroupoli \n23. Alimos \n24. Agios Dimitrios \n25. Nea Smyrni \n26. Palaio Faliro \n27. Kallithea \n28. Moschato-Tavros\n\n\n\n\n+ '''Athens Urban Area'''\n\n\n\n\n'''Regional units''':\n\nCentral Athens:*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n400px\n\n\n\nAerial view of the Athens urban area and the Saronic Gulf.\n\n=== Athens Metropolitan Area ===\nThe '''Athens Metropolitan Area''', with an area of and inhabited by 3,753,783 people in 2011, consists of the '''Athens Urban Area''' with the addition of the towns and villages of East and West Attica, which surround the dense urban area of the Greek capital. It actually sprawls over the whole peninsula of Attica, which is the best part of the region of Attica, excluding the islands. \n\n\n\nClassification of regional units within Greater Athens, Athens Urban Area and Athens Metropolitan Area \n\n Regional unit\n Population (2011)\n \n\n\n\n Central Athens \n 1,029,520\n '''Greater Athens'''''2,641,511''\n '''Athens Urban Area'''''3,090,508''\n '''Athens Metropolitan Area'''''3,753,783''\n\n North Athens \n 592,490\n\n South Athens \n 529,826\n\n West Athens \n 489,675\n\n Piraeus \n 448,997\n '''Greater Piraeus'''''448,997''\n\n East Attica \n 502,348\n\n West Attica \n 160,927\n\n", "\n\n\n=== Architecture ===\n\nRooftops of traditional style houses in Plaka\nThe Zappeion Hall\nThe City Hall (arch. Panagis Kalkos) at Kotzia Square\nTwo apartment buildings in central Athens. The left one is a modernist building of the 1930s, while the right one was built in the 1950s.\nAthens Tower, the tallest building in Greece\nAthens incorporates architectural styles ranging from Greco-Roman and Neoclassical to modern times. They are often to be found in the same areas, as Athens is not marked by a uniformity of architectural style.\n\nFor the greatest part of the 19th century Neoclassicism dominated Athens, as well as some deviations from it such as Eclecticism, especially in the early 20th century. Thus, the Old Royal Palace was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later in the mid and late 19th century, Theophil Freiherr von Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings such as the Athens Academy and the Zappeion Hall. Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such as Schliemann's Iliou Melathron.\n\nBeginning in the 1920s, Modern architecture including Bauhaus and Art Deco began to exert an influence on almost all Greek architects, and buildings both public and private were constructed in accordance with these styles. Localities with a great number of such buildings include Kolonaki, and some areas of the centre of the city; neighbourhoods developed in this period include Kypseli.\n\nIn the 1950s and 1960s during the extension and development of Athens, other modern movements such as the International style played an important role. The centre of Athens was largely rebuilt, leading to the demolition of a number of neoclassical buildings. The architects of this era employed materials such as glass, marble and aluminium, and many blended modern and classical elements. After World War II, internationally known architects to have designed and built in the city included Walter Gropius, with his design for the US Embassy, and, among others, Eero Saarinen, in his postwar design for the east terminal of the Ellinikon Airport.\n\n===Urban sculpture===\nAll over the city can be found several statues or busts. Apart from the neoclassicals by Leonidas Drosis at the Academy of Athens (Plato, Socrates, Apollo, Athena), other notable include the statue of Theseus by Georgios Fytalis at Thiseion, of philhellenes like Lord Byron, George Canning and William Gladstone, the equestrian statue of Theodoros Kolokotronis by Lazaros Sochos in front of the Old Parliament, statues of Ioannis Kapodistrias, Rigas Feraios and Adamantios Korais at the University, of Evangelos Zappas and Konstantinos Zappas at Zappeion, of Ioannis Varvakis at the National Garden, the \"woodbreaker\" by Dimitrios Filippotis, the equestrian statue of Alexandros Papagos at Papagou district and various busts of fighters of Greek independence at the Pedion tou Areos. An important landmark is also the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Syntagma.\n\n=== Neighbourhoods ===\nGreek Presidential Guard in front of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at Syntagma Square.\n\nThe municipality of Athens, the city centre of the Athens Urban Area, is divided into several districts: Omonoia, Syntagma, Exarcheia, Agios Nikolaos, Neapolis, Lykavittos, Lofos Strefi, Lofos Finopoulou, Lofos Filopappou, Pedion Areos, Metaxourgeio, Aghios Kostantinos, Larissa Station, Kerameikos, Psiri, Monastiraki, Gazi, Thission, Kapnikarea, Aghia Irini, Aerides, Anafiotika, Plaka, Acropolis, Pnyka, Makrygianni, Lofos Ardittou, Zappeion, Aghios Spyridon, Pangration, Kolonaki, Dexameni, Evaggelismos, Gouva, Aghios Ioannis, Neos Kosmos, Koukaki, Kynosargous, Fix, Ano Petralona, Kato Petralona, Rouf, Votanikos, Profitis Daniil, Akadimia Platonos, Kolonos, Kolokynthou, Attikis Square, Lofos Skouze, Sepolia, Kypseli, Aghios Meletios, Nea Kypseli, Gyzi, Polygono, Ampelokipoi, Panormou-Gerokomeio, Pentagono, Ellinorosson, Nea Filothei, Ano Kypseli, Tourkovounia-Lofos Patatsou, Lofos Elikonos, Koliatsou, Thymarakia, Kato Patisia, Treis Gefyres, Aghios Eleftherios, Ano Patisia, Kypriadou, Menidi, Prompona, Aghios Panteleimonas, Pangrati, Goudi and Ilisia.\n\n '''Omonoia''', Omonoia Square, () is the oldest square in Athens. It is surrounded by hotels and fast food outlets, and contains a train station used by the Athens Metro and the Ilektrikos, named Omonoia station. The square is the focus for celebration of sporting victories, as seen after the country's winning of the Euro 2004 and the Eurobasket 2005 tournaments.\n* '''Metaxourgeio''' () is a neighborhood of Athens. The neighborhood is located north of the historical centre of Athens, between Kolonos to the east and Kerameikos to the west, and north of Gazi. Metaxourgeio is frequently described as a transition neighborhood. After a long period of abandonment in the late 20th century, the area is acquiring a reputation as an artistic and fashionable neighborhood following the opening of art galleries, museums, restaurants and cafés. 1 Local efforts to beautify and invigorate the neighborhood have reinforced a sense of community and artistic expression. Anonymous art pieces containing quotes and statements in both English and Ancient Greek have sprung up throughout the neighborhood, bearing statements such as \"Art for art's sake\" (Τέχνη τέχνης χάριν). Guerilla gardening has also helped to beautify the area.\n* '''Psiri and Gazi''' – The reviving Psiri () neighbourhood – also known as Athens's \"meat packing district\" – is dotted with renovated former mansions, artists' spaces, and small gallery areas. A number of its renovated buildings also host fashionable bars, making it a hotspot for the city in the last decade, while live music restaurants known as \"rebetadika\", after rebetiko, a unique form of music that blossomed in Syros and Athens from the 1920s until the 1960s, are to be found. Rebetiko is admired by many, and as a result rebetadika are often crammed with people of all ages who will sing, dance and drink till dawn.\n\nThe Gazi () area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory, now converted into the ''Technopolis'' cultural multiplex, and also includes artists' areas, small clubs, bars and restaurants, as well as Athens's \"Gay village\". The metro's expansion to the western suburbs of the city has brought easier access to the area since spring 2007, as the blue line now stops at Gazi (Kerameikos station).\n* '''Syntagma''', Syntagma Square, (/Constitution Square), is the capital's central and largest square, lying adjacent to the Greek Parliament (the former Royal Palace) and the city's most notable hotels. Ermou Street, an approximately pedestrian road connecting Syntagma Square to Monastiraki, is a consumer paradise for both Athenians and tourists. Complete with fashion shops and shopping centres promoting most international brands, it now finds itself in the top five most expensive shopping streets in Europe, and the tenth most expensive retail street in the world. Nearby, the renovated Army Fund building in Panepistimiou Street includes the \"Attica\" department store and several upmarket designer stores.\n* '''Plaka, Monastiraki, and Thission''' – Plaka (), lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its plentiful neoclassical architecture, making up one of the most scenic districts of the city. It remains a prime tourist destination with tavernas, live performances and street salesmen. Nearby Monastiraki (), for its part, is known for its string of small shops and markets, as well as its crowded flea market and tavernas specialising in souvlaki. Another district known for its student-crammed, stylish cafés is Theseum or Thission (), lying just west of Monastiraki. Thission is home to the ancient Temple of Hephaestus, standing atop a small hill. This area also has a picturesque 11th-century Byzantine church, as well as a 15th-century Ottoman mosque.\n* '''Exarcheia''' (), located north of Kolonaki, is the location of the city's anarchist scene and as a student quarter with cafés, bars and bookshops. Exarcheia is home to the Athens Polytechnic and the National Archaeological Museum; it also contains important buildings of several 20th-century styles: Neoclassicism, Art Deco and Early Modernism (including Bauhaus influences).\n* '''Kolonaki''' () is the area at the base of Lycabettus hill, full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day, and bars and more fashionable restaurants by night, with galleries and museums. This is often regarded as one of the more prestigious areas of the capital.\n\n\n\n=== Urban and suburban municipalities ===\nAno Vrilissia maisonette block\nBeach in Vouliagmeni, one of the many beaches in the southern coast of Athens\n\nThe Athens Metropolitan Area consists of 58 densely populated municipalities, sprawling around the municipality of Athens (the city centre) in virtually all directions. For the Athenians, all the urban municipalities surrounding the city centre are called suburbs. According to their geographic location in relation to the City of Athens, the suburbs are divided into four zones; the northern suburbs (including Agios Stefanos, Dionysos, Ekali, Nea Erythraia, Kifissia, Maroussi, Pefki, Lykovrysi, Metamorfosi, Nea Ionia, Nea Filadelfeia, Irakleio, Vrilissia, Melissia, Penteli, Chalandri, Agia Paraskevi, Galatsi, Psychiko and Filothei); the southern suburbs (including Alimos, Nea Smyrni, Moschato, Kallithea, Agios Dimitrios, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Glyfada, Argyroupoli, Ilioupoli, Voula and Vouliagmeni); the eastern suburbs (including Zografou, Dafni, Vyronas, Kaisariani, Cholargos and Papagou); and the western suburbs (including Peristeri, Ilion, Egaleo, Koridallos, Agia Varvara, Chaidari, Petroupoli, Agioi Anargyroi and Kamatero).\n\nThe Athens city coastline, extending from the major commercial port of Piraeus to the southernmost suburb of Varkiza for some , is also connected to the city centre by a tram.\n\nIn the northern suburb of Maroussi, the upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA) dominates the skyline. The area has been redeveloped according to a design by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, with steel arches, landscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic glass, and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main stadium. A second Olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of Palaio Faliro, also features modern stadia, shops and an elevated esplanade. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport – named Elliniko – in the southern suburbs, into one of the largest landscaped parks in Europe, to be named the Hellenikon Metropolitan Park.\n\nMany of the southern suburbs (such as Alimos, Palaio Faliro, Elliniko, Voula, Vouliagmeni and Varkiza) host a number of sandy beaches, most of which are operated by the Greek National Tourism Organisation and require an entrance fee. Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some from downtown Athens (accessible by car or cable car), and the nearby town of Loutraki (accessible by car via the Athens – Corinth National Highway, or the suburban rail service Proastiakos).\n\n\n=== Parks and zoos ===\nNational Gardens, commissioned by Queen Amalia in 1838 and completed by 1840\n\nParnitha National Park is punctuated by well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves dotting the protected area. Hiking and mountain-biking in all four mountains are popular outdoor activities for residents of the city. The National Garden of Athens was completed in 1840 and is a green refuge of 15.5 hectares in the centre of the Greek capital. It is to be found between the Parliament and Zappeion buildings, the latter of which maintains its own garden of seven hectares.\n\nParts of the city centre have been redeveloped under a masterplan called the ''Unification of Archeological Sites of Athens'', which has also gathered funding from the EU to help enhance the project. The landmark Dionysiou Areopagitou Street has been pedestrianised, forming a scenic route. The route starts from the Temple of Olympian Zeus at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the Acropolis near Plaka, and finishes just beyond the Temple of Hephaestus in Thiseio. The route in its entirety provides visitors with views of the Parthenon and the Agora (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the busy city centre.\n\nThe hills of Athens also provide green space. Lycabettus, Philopappos hill and the area around it, including Pnyx and Ardettos hill, are planted with pines and other trees, with the character of a small forest rather than typical metropolitan parkland. Also to be found is the Pedion tou Areos (''Field of Mars'') of 27.7 hectares, near the National Archaeological Museum.\n\nAthens' largest zoo is the Attica Zoological Park, a 20-hectare (49-acre) private zoo located in the suburb of Spata. The zoo is home to around 2000 animals representing 400 species, and is open 365 days a year. Smaller zoos exist within public gardens or parks, such as the zoo within the National Garden of Athens.\n", "The Athens Urban Area within the ''Attica Basin'' from space\nAthens population distribution\n\nMycenean Athens in 1600–1100 BC could have reached the size of Tiryns; that would put the population at the range of 10,000 – 15,000. During the Greek Dark Ages the population of Athens was around 4,000 people. In 700 BC the population grew to 10,000. In 500 BC the area probably contained 200,000 people. During the classical period the city's population is estimated from 150,000 – 350,000 and up to 610,000 according to Thucydides. When Demetrius of Phalerum conducted a population census in 317 BC the population was 21,000 free citizens, plus 10,000 resident aliens and 400,000 slaves. This suggests a total population of 431,000.\n\nThe municipality of Athens has an official population of 664,046 people. The four regional units that make up what is referred to as Greater Athens have a combined population of 2,640,701. They together with the regional unit of Piraeus (Greater Piraeus) make up the dense Athens Urban Area which reaches a total population of 3,090,508 inhabitants (in 2011). As Eurostat the FUA of Athens had in 2013 3,828,434 inhabitants, being apparently decreasing compared with the pre-economic crisis date of 2009 (4,164,175)\n\nThe ancient site of Athens is centred on the rocky hill of the acropolis. In ancient times the port of Piraeus was a separate city, but it has now been absorbed into the Athens Urban Area. The rapid expansion of the city, which continues to this day, was initiated in the 1950s and 1960s, because of Greece's transition from an agricultural to an industrial nation. The expansion is now particularly toward the East and North East (a tendency greatly related to the new Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport and the Attiki Odos, the freeway that cuts across Attica). By this process Athens has engulfed many former suburbs and villages in Attica, and continues to do so. The table below shows the historical population of Athens in recent times.\n\n\n\n Year !! City population !! Urban population !! Metro population\n\n1833 \n4,000 \n– \n–\n\n1870 \n44,500 \n– \n–\n\n1896 \n123,000 \n– \n–\n\n1921 (Pre-Population exchange) \n473,000 \n– \n–\n\n1921 (Post-Population exchange) \n718,000 \n– \n–\n\n1971 \n867,023 \n\n2,540,241\n \n– \n–\n\n1981 \n885,737 \n– \n3,369,443\n\n1991 \n772,072 \n3,444,358\n3,523,407\n\n\n2001 \n745,514 \n3,165,823 \n3,761,810\n\n2011 \n664,046 \n3,090,508\n3,753,783\n\n\n=== Details ===\nThe large '''City Centre''' of the Greek capital falls directly within the municipality of Athens, which is the largest in population size in Greece. Piraeus also forms a significant city centre on its own, within the Athens Urban Area and being the second largest in population size within it, with Peristeri and Kallithea following.\n\nThe '''Athens Urban Area''' today consists of 40 municipalities, 35 of which make up what is referred to as the Greater Athens municipalities, located within 4 regional units (North Athens, West Athens, Central Athens, South Athens); and a further 5, which make up the Greater Piraeus municipalities, located within the regional unit of Piraeus as mentioned above. The densely built up urban area of the Greek capital sprawls across throughout the ''Attica Basin'' and has a total population of 3,074,160 (in 2011).\n\nThe '''Athens Metropolitan Area''' spans within the Attica region and includes a total of 58 municipalities, which are organized in 7 regional units (those outlined above, along with East Attica and West Attica), having reached a population of 3,737,550 based on the preliminary results of the 2011 census. Athens and Piraeus municipalities serve as the two metropolitan centres of the Athens Metropolitan Area. There are also some inter-municipal centres serving specific areas. For example, Kifissia and Glyfada serve as inter-municipal centres for northern and southern suburbs respectively.\n", "\nTemple of Olympian Zeus\nThe Temple of Hephaestus is the best-preserved of all ancient Greek temples.\nChurch of the Holy Apostles next to the Stoa of Attalos\nView of the Odeon of Herodes Atticus in 2012. Sets for ''Tosca'' performed by the Greek National Opera\n\n=== Archaeological hub ===\nThe city is a world centre of archaeological research. Along with national institutions, such as the Athens University and the Archaeological Society, there are multiple archaeological Museums including the National Archaeological Museum, the Cycladic Museum, the Epigraphic Museum, the Byzantine & Christian Museum, as well as museums at the ancient Agora, Acropolis, Kerameikos, and the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum. The city is also home to the Demokritos laboratory for Archaeometry, alongside regional and national archaeological authorities that form part of the Greek Department of Culture.\n\nAthens hosts 17 Foreign Archaeological Institutes which promote and facilitate research by scholars from their home countries. As a result, Athens has more than a dozen archaeological libraries and three specialized archaeological laboratories, and is the venue of several hundred specialized lectures, conferences and seminars, as well as dozens of archaeological exhibitions, each year. At any given time, hundreds of international scholars and researchers in all disciplines of archaeology are to be found in the city.\n\n=== Museums ===\nNational Archaeological Museum in central Athens\nThe Acropolis Museum\n\nAthens' most important museums include:\n* the National Archaeological Museum, the largest archaeological museum in the country, and one of the most important internationally, as it contains a vast collection of antiquities; its artifacts cover a period of more than 5,000 years, from late Neolithic Age to Roman Greece;\n* the Benaki Museum with its several branches for each of its collections including ancient, Byzantine, Ottoman-era, and Chinese art and beyond;\n* the Byzantine and Christian Museum, one of the most important museums of Byzantine art;\n* the Numismatic Museum, housing a major collection of ancient and modern coins;\n* the Museum of Cycladic Art, home to an extensive collection of Cycladic art, including its famous figurines of white marble;\n* the New Acropolis Museum, opened in 2009, and replacing the old museum on the Acropolis. The new museum has proved considerably popular; almost one million people visited during the summer period June–October 2009 alone. A number of smaller and privately owned museums focused on Greek culture and arts are also to be found.\n* the Kerameikos Archaeological Museum, a museum which displays artifacts from the burial site of Kerameikos. Much of the pottery and other artifacts relate to Athenian attitudes towards death and the afterlife, throughout many ages.\n* the Jewish Museum of Greece, a museum which describes the history and culture of the Greek Jewish community.\n\n=== Tourism ===\nAthens has been a destination for travellers since antiquity. Over the past decade, the city's infrastructure and social amenities have improved, in part because of its successful bid to stage the 2004 Olympic Games. The Greek Government, aided by the EU, has funded major infrastructure projects such as the state-of-the-art Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, the expansion of the Athens Metro system, and the new Attiki Odos Motorway.\n\nAthens was voted as the third best European city to visit in 2015 by European Best Destination. More than 240,000 people voted.\n\n=== Entertainment and performing arts ===\n\nAthens is home to 148 theatrical stages, more than any other city in the world, including the ancient Odeon of Herodes Atticus, home to the Athens Festival, which runs from May to October each year. In addition to a large number of multiplexes, Athens plays host to open air garden cinemas. The city also supports music venues, including the Athens Concert Hall (''Megaron Moussikis''), which attracts world class artists. The Athens Planetarium, located in Andrea Syngrou Avenue, is one of the largest and best equipped digital planetaria in the world. The Stavros Niarchos Foundation Cultural Center, inaugurated in 2016, will house the National Library of Greece and the Greek National Opera.\n\n=== Sports ===\nAthens has a long tradition in sports and sporting events, serving as home to the most important clubs in Greek sport and housing a large number of sports facilities. The city has also been host to sports events of international importance.\n\nAthens has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in 1896 and 2004. The 2004 Summer Olympics required the development of the Athens Olympic Stadium, which has since gained a reputation as one of the most beautiful stadiums in the world, and one of its most interesting modern monuments. The biggest stadium in the country, it hosted two finals of the UEFA Champions League, in 1994 and 2007. Athens' other major stadium, located in the Piraeus area, is the Karaiskakis Stadium, a sports and entertainment complex, host of the 1971 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final. \n\nAthens has hosted the Euroleague final three times, the first in 1985 and second in 1993, both at the Peace and Friendship Stadium, most known as SEF, a large indoor arena, and the third time in 2007 at the Olympic Indoor Hall. Events in other sports such as athletics, volleyball, water polo etc., have been hosted in the capital's venues.\n\nAthens is home to three European multi-sport clubs: Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, AEK Athens. In football, Olympiacos have dominated the domestic competitions, Panathinaikos made it to the 1971 European Cup Final, while AEK Athens is the other member of the big three. These clubs also have basketball teams; Panathinaikos and Olympiacos are among the top powers in European basketball, having won the Euroleague six times and three respectively, whilst AEK Athens was the first Greek team to win a European trophy in any team sport.\n\nOther notable clubs within Athens are Athinaikos, Panionios, Atromitos, Apollon, Panellinios, Ethnikos Piraeus, Maroussi BC and Peristeri B.C.. Athenian clubs have also had domestic and international success in other sports.\n\nThe Athens area encompasses a variety of terrain, notably hills and mountains rising around the city, and the capital is the only major city in Europe to be bisected by a mountain range. Four mountain ranges extend into city boundaries and thousands of miles of trails criss-cross the city and neighbouring areas, providing exercise and wilderness access on foot and bike.\n\nBeyond Athens and across the prefecture of Attica, outdoor activities include skiing, rock climbing, hang gliding and windsurfing. Numerous outdoor clubs serve these sports, including the Athens Chapter of the Sierra Club, which leads over 4,000 outings annually in the area.\n\n\n\nNotable sport clubs based inside the boundaries of Athens Municipality\n\nClub\nFounded\nSports\nDistrict\nAchievements\n\nPanellinios G.S.\n1891\nBasketball, Volleyball, Handball, Track and Field and others \nKypseli\nPanhellenic titles in Basketball, Volleyball, Handball, many honours in Track and Field\n\nApollon Smyrni\n1891(originally in Smyrni)\nFootball, Basketball, Volleyball and others \nRizoupoli\nEarlier long-time presence in A Ethniki\n\nEthnikos G.S. Athens\n1893\nTrack and Field, Wrestling, Shooting and others\nZappeion \nMany honours in Athletics and Wrestling\n\nPanathinaikos\n1908(originally as Football Club of Athens)\nFootball, Basketball, Volleyball, Water Polo, Track and Field and others \nAmpelokipoi\nOne of the most successful Greek clubs, many titles in several sports\n\nIlisiakos\n1927\nFootball, Basketball \nIlisia \nEarlier presence in A1 Ethniki basketball\n\nAsteras Exarchion\n1928 (originally as Achilleus Neapoleos)\nFootball, Basketball \nExarcheia\nEarlier presence in A1 Ethniki women basketball\n\nAmpelokipoi B.C.\n1929 (originally as Hephaestus Athens)\nBasketball \nAmpelokipoi \nEarlier presence in A1 Ethniki basketball\n\nThriamvos Athens\n1930 (originally as Doxa Athens)\nFootball, Basketball \nNeos Kosmos \nPanhellenic title in women Basketball\n\nSporting B.C.\n1936\nBasketball \nPatisia \nMany Panhellenic titles in women Basketball\n\nPagrati B.C.\n1938\nBasketball \nPagrati \nEarlier presence in A1 Ethniki\n\nBeside the above clubs, inside the boundaries of Athens municipality there are some more clubs with presence in national divisions or notable action for short periods. Some of them are PAO Rouf (Rouf) with earlier presence in Gamma Ethniki, Petralona F.C.(el) (Petralona), football club founded in 1963, with earlier presence in Beta Ethniki, Attikos F.C.(el) (Kolonos), football club founded in 1919 with short presence in Gamma Ethniki, Athinais Kypselis(el) (Kypseli), football club founded in 1938 with short presence in Gamma Ethniki, Gyziakos (Gyzi), basketball club founded in 1937 with short presence in Beta Ethniki basketball and Aetos B.C.(el) (Agios Panteleimonas), basketball club founded in 1992 with earlier presence in A2 Ethniki Basketball. Another important Athenian sport club is the Athens Tennis Club founded in 1895 with important offer for the Greek tennis.\n\n=== Music ===\nPeople dance in a nightclub in Psirri, a district of Athens with very active nightlife.\nThe \"Theatro Vrachon\" (Theater of the Rocks) at Vyronas is a venue for popular music concerts\nThe most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades (Αθηναϊκές καντάδες), based on the Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theatre scene.\n\nNotable composers of operettas or nocturnes were Kostas Giannidis, Dionysios Lavrangas, Nikos Hatziapostolou, while Theophrastos Sakellaridis' ''The Godson'' remains probably the most popular operetta. Despite the fact that the Athenian songs were not autonomous artistic creations (in contrast with the serenades) and despite their original connection with mainly dramatic forms of Art, they eventually became hits as independent songs. Notable actors of Greek operettas, who made also a series of melodies and songs popular at that time, include Orestis Makris, Kalouta sisters, Vasilis Avlonitis, Afroditi Laoutari, Eleni Papadaki, Marika Nezer, Marika Krevata and others. After 1930, wavering among American and European musical influences as well as the Greek musical tradition. Greek composers begin to write music using the tunes of the tango, waltz, swing, foxtrot, some times combined with melodies in the style of Athenian serenades' repertory. Nikos Gounaris was probably the most renowned composer and singer of the time.\n\nIn 1923, after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey, many ethnic Greeks from Asia Minor fled to Athens as a result of the Greco-Turkish War. They settled in poor neighborhoods and brought with them Rebetiko music, making it popular also in Greece, which became later the base for the Laïko music. Other forms of song popular today in Greece are elafrolaika, entechno, dimotika, and skyladika. Greece's most notable, and internationally famous, composers of Greek song, mainly of the entechno form, are Manos Hadjidakis and Mikis Theodorakis. Both composers have achieved fame abroad for their composition of film scores.\n", "\nErmou street near the Syntagma Square\nAthens is the financial capital of Greece, and multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola and Coca-Cola have their regional research and development headquarters there.\n", "The ''Propylaea'', part of the \"Trilogy\" of Theofil Hansen, serves as the ceremony hall and rectory of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens\nAcademy of Athens\n\nLocated on Panepistimiou Street, the old campus of the University of Athens, the National Library, and the Athens Academy form the \"Athens Trilogy\" built in the mid-19th century. Most of the university's workings have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of Zografou. The second higher education institution in the city is the Athens Polytechnic School, found in Patission Street. This was the location where on 17 November 1973, more than 13 students were killed and hundreds injured inside the university during the Athens Polytechnic uprising, against the military junta that ruled the nation from 21 April 1967 until 23 July 1974.\n\nOther universities that lie within Athens are the Athens University of Economics and Business, the Panteion University, the Agricultural University of Athens and the University of Piraeus. There are overall eleven state-supported Institutions of Higher (or Tertiary) education located in the Metropolitan Area of Athens, these are by chronological order: Athens School of Fine Arts (1837), National Technical University of Athens (1837), National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (1837), Agricultural University of Athens (1920), Athens University of Economics and Business (1920), Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences (1927), University of Piraeus (1938), Technological Educational Institute of Piraeus (1976), Technological Educational Institute of Athens (1983), Harokopio University (1990), School of Pedagogical and Technological Education (2002). There are also several other private ''colleges'', as they called formally in Greece, as the establishment of private universities is prohibited by the constitution. Many of them are accredited by a foreign state or university such as the American College of Greece and the Athens Campus of the University of Indianapolis.\n", "Recycling machine in Athens\n\nBy the late 1970s, the pollution of Athens had become so destructive that according to the then Greek Minister of Culture, Constantine Trypanis, \"''...the carved details on the five the caryatids of the Erechtheum had seriously degenerated, while the face of the horseman on the Parthenon's west side was all but obliterated.''\" A series of measures taken by the authorities of the city throughout the 1990s resulted in the improvement of air quality; the appearance of smog (or ''nefos'' as the Athenians used to call it) has become less common.\n\nMeasures taken by the Greek authorities throughout the 1990s have improved the quality of air over the Attica Basin. Nevertheless, air pollution still remains an issue for Athens, particularly during the hottest summer days. In late June 2007, the Attica region experienced a number of brush fires, including a blaze that burned a significant portion of a large forested national park in Mount Parnitha, considered critical to maintaining a better air quality in Athens all year round. Damage to the park has led to worries over a stalling in the improvement of air quality in the city.\n\nThe major waste management efforts undertaken in the last decade (particularly the plant built on the small island of Psytalia) have improved water quality in the Saronic Gulf, and the coastal waters of Athens are now accessible again to swimmers. In January 2007, Athens faced a waste management problem when its landfill near Ano Liosia, an Athenian suburb, reached capacity. The crisis eased by mid-January when authorities began taking the garbage to a temporary landfill.\n", "\n\nAthens metropolitan railway network (metró and proastiakós), as of January 2014\nAgios Dimitrios station with an island platform\n\nAthens is serviced by a variety of transportation means, forming the largest mass transit system of Greece. The Athens Mass Transit System consists of a large bus fleet, a trolleybus fleet that mainly serves Athens's city center, the city's Metro, a commuter rail service and a tram network, connecting the southern suburbs to the city centre.\n\n=== Bus transport ===\nEthel () (Etaireia Thermikon Leoforeion), or ''Thermal Bus Company'', is the main operator of buses in Athens. Its network consists of about 300 bus lines which span the Athens Metropolitan Area, with an operating staff of 5,327, and a fleet of 1,839 buses. Of those 1,839 buses 416 run on compressed natural gas, making up the largest fleet of natural gas-powered buses in Europe.\n\nBesides being served by a fleet of natural-gas and diesel buses, the Athens Urban Area is also served by trolleybuses – or electric buses, as they are referred to in the name of the operating company. The network is operated by ''Electric Buses of the Athens and Piraeus Region'', or ILPAP () and consists of 22 lines with an operating staff of 1,137. All of the 366 trolleybuses are equipped to enable them to run on diesel in case of power failure.\n\nInternational and regional bus links are provided by KTEL from two InterCity Bus Terminals, Kifissos Bus Terminal A and Liosion Bus Terminal B, both located in the north-western part of the city. ''Kifissos'' provides connections towards the Peloponnese and Attica, whereas ''Liosion'' is used for most northerly mainland destinations.\n\n=== Athens Metro ===\n\nAthens Metro train (3rd generation stock)\nThe Athens Metro is more commonly known in Greece as the Attiko Metro () and provides public transport throughout the Athens Urban Area. While its main purpose is transport, it also houses Greek artifacts found during construction of the system. The Athens Metro has an operating staff of 387 and runs two of the three metro lines; namely the Red (line 2) and Blue (line 3) lines, which were constructed largely during the 1990s, with the initial sections opened in January 2000. All routes run entirely underground and a fleet of 42 trains consisting of 252 cars operate within the network, with a daily occupancy of 550,000 passengers.\n\n'''The Red Line''' (line 2) runs from Anthoupoli station to Elliniko station and covers a distance of . The line connects the western suburbs of Athens with the southeast suburbs passing through the center of Athens. The line associated with Green (line 1) stations at Attiki and Omonoia Square station. Also the line connected with the Blue (line 3) at Syntagma Square station and connected with Tram at Syntagma Square, Sygrou-Fix and Agios Ioannis station.\n\n'''The Blue Line''' (line 3) runs from the western suburbs, namely Agia Marina to the Egaleo station, through the central Monastiraki and Syntagma stations to Doukissis Plakentias avenue in the northeastern suburb of Halandri, covering a distance of , then ascending to ground level and reaching Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport, using the Suburban Railway infrastructure and extending its length to . The spring 2007 extension from Monastiraki westwards, to Egaleo, connected some of the main night life hubs of the city, namely the ones of Gazi (Kerameikos station) with Psirri (Monastiraki station) and the city centre (Syntagma station). Extensions are under construction to the west southwest suburbs of Athens, reaching to the port and the center of Piraeus. The new stations will be Agia Barvara, Koridallos, Nikaia, Maniatika, Piraeus and Dimotiko Theatro station. The stations will be ready in 2017, connecting the biggest port of Greece Piraeus Port with the biggest airport of Greece the Athens International Airport.\n\n==== Electric railway (ISAP) ====\n\nAn ISAP train (Green Line) passes by the Stoa of Attalos in central Athens\n\nNot run by the Athens Metro company, is the ISAP (), the ''Electric Railway Company'' line, which for many years served as Athens's primary urban rail transport. This is today the '''Green Line''' (line 1) of the Athens Metro network as shown on maps, and unlike the red and blue lines, ISAP has many above-ground sections on its route. This was the original metro line from Piraeus to Kifisia; serving 22 stations, with a network length of , an operating staff of 730 and a fleet of 44 trains and 243 cars. ISAP's occupancy rate is 600,000 passengers daily.\n\n'''The Green Line''' (line 1) now serves 24 stations, and forms the oldest line of the Athens metro network and for the most part runs at ground level, connecting the port of Piraeus with the northern suburb of Kifissia. The line is set to be extended to Agios Stefanos, a suburb located to the north of Athens, reaching to .\n\nThe Athens Metropolitan Railway system is managed by three companies; namely ISAP (line 1), Attiko Metro (lines 2 & 3), while its commuter rail, the Proastiakós is considered as line 4.\n\n=== Commuter/suburban rail (Proastiakos) ===\n\nSuburban rail\n\nThe Athens commuter rail service, referred to as the \"Proastiakós\", connects Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport to the city of Kiato, west of Athens, via Larissa station, the city's central rail station and the port of Piraeus. The service is sometimes considered the fourth line of the Athens Metro. The length of Athens's commuter rail network extends to , and is expected to stretch to by 2010. The Proastiakos will be extended to Xylokastro west of Athens and Chalkida.\n\n=== Tram ===\n\nA modern Athens Tram station and vehicles\n\nAthens Tram SA operates a fleet of 35 vehicles, called 'Sirios', which serve 48 stations, employ 345 people with an average daily occupancy of 65,000 passengers. The tram network spans a total length of and covers ten Athenian suburbs. The network runs from Syntagma Square to the southwestern suburb of Palaio Faliro, where the line splits in two branches; the first runs along the Athens coastline toward the southern suburb of Voula, while the other heads toward the Piraeus district of Neo Faliro. The network covers the majority of the Saronic coastline. Further extensions are planned towards the major commercial port of Piraeus. The expansion to Piraeus will include 12 new stations, increase the overall length of tram route by , and increase the overall transportation network.\n\n=== Athens International Airport ===\n\nAthens International Airport Check-in-area\n\nAthens is served by the Athens International Airport (ATH), located near the town of Spata, in the eastern Messoghia plain, some east of Athens. The airport, awarded the \"European Airport of the Year 2004\" Award, is intended as an expandable hub for air travel in southeastern Europe and was constructed in 51 months, costing 2.2 billion euros. It employs a staff of 14,000.\n\nThe airport is served by the Metro, the suburban rail, buses to Piraeus port, Athens' city centre and its suburbs, and also taxis. The airport accommodates 65 landings and take-offs per hour, with its 24-passenger boarding bridges, 144 check-in counters and broader main terminal; and a commercial area of which includes cafés, duty-free shops, and a small museum.\n\nIn 2014, the airport handled 15,196,369 passengers, an increase of 21.2% over the previous year of 2013. Of those 15,196,369 passengers, 5,267,593 passed through the airport for domestic flights, and 9,970,006 passengers travelled through for international flights. Beyond the dimensions of its passenger capacity, ATH handled 205,294 total flights in 2007, or approximately 562 flights per day.\n\n=== Railways and ferry connections ===\n\nAthens is the hub of the country's national railway system (OSE), connecting the capital with major cities across Greece and abroad (Istanbul, Sofia and Bucharest).The Port of Piraeus connects Athens to the numerous Greek islands of the Aegean Sea, with ferries departing, while also serving the cruise ships that arrive.\n\n=== Motorways ===\n\nInterchange at the Attiki Odos airport entrance\nView of Hymettus tangent (Periferiaki Imittou) from Kalogeros Hill\n\nTwo main motorways of Greece begin in Athens, namely the A1/E75, which crosses through Athens's Urban Area from Piraeus, heading north towards Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki; and the A8/E94 heading west, towards Patras, which incorporated the GR-8A. Before their completion much of the road traffic used the GR-1 and the GR-8.\n\nAthens' Metropolitan Area is served by the motorway network of the Attiki Odos toll-motorway (code: A6). Its main section extends from the western industrial suburb of Elefsina to Athens International Airport; while two beltways, namely the Aigaleo Beltway (A65) and the Hymettus Beltway (A64) serve parts of western and eastern Athens respectively. The span of the Attiki Odos in all its length is , making it the largest metropolitan motorway network in all of Greece.\n* Motorways:\n '''A1/E75 N''' ''(Lamia, Larissa, Thessaloniki)''\n '''A8 (GR-8A)/E94 W''' ''(Elefsina, Corinth, Patras)''\n** '''A6 W''' ''(Elefsina)'' '''E''' ''(Airport)''\n* National roads:\n '''GR-1 Ν''' ''(Lamia, Larissa, Thessaloniki)''\n '''GR-8 W''' ''(Corinth, Patras)''\n** '''GR-3 N''' ''(Elefsina, Lamia, Larissa)''\n", "\n=== 1896 Summer Olympics ===\n\nView of the Panathenaic Stadium (Kallimarmaro)\nSpyridon Louis entering the Kallimarmaron Stadium at the end of the marathon race\nCentral Athens, c. 1900, showing Zappeion, Kallimarmaron and their environs\n\n1896 brought forth the revival of the modern Olympic Games, by Frenchman Pierre de Coubertin. Thanks to his efforts, Athens was awarded the first modern Olympic Games. In 1896, the city had a population of 123,000 and the event helped boost the city's international profile. Of the venues used for these Olympics, the Kallimarmaro Stadium, and Zappeion were most crucial. The Kallimarmaro is a replica of the ancient Athenian stadiums, and the only major stadium (in its capacity of 60,000) to be made entirely of white marble from Mount Penteli, the same material used for construction of the Parthenon.\n\n=== 1906 Summer Olympics ===\n\nThe 1906 Summer Olympics, or the 1906 Intercalated games, were held in Athens. The intercalated competitions were intermediate games to the internationally organized Olympics, and were meant to be organized in Greece every four years, between the main Olympics. This idea later lost support from the IOC and these games were discontinued.\n\n=== 2004 Summer Olympics ===\n\n10,000-meter final during the 2004 Olympic Games\nAthens was awarded the 2004 Summer Olympics on 5 September 1997 in Lausanne, Switzerland, after having lost a previous bid to host the 1996 Summer Olympics, to Atlanta, United States. It was to be the second time Athens would host the games, following the inaugural event of 1896. After an unsuccessful bid in 1990, the 1997 bid was radically improved, including an appeal to Greece's Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated Rome with 66 votes to 41. Prior to this round, the cities of Buenos Aires, Stockholm and Cape Town had been eliminated from competition, having received fewer votes.\n\nDuring the first three years of preparations, the International Olympic Committee had expressed concern over the speed of construction progress for some of the new Olympic venues. In 2000 the Organising Committee's president was replaced by Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki, who was the president of the original Bidding Committee in 1997. From that point forward, preparations continued at a highly accelerated, almost frenzied pace.\n\nAlthough the heavy cost was criticized, estimated at $1.5 billion, Athens was transformed into a more functional city that enjoys modern technology both in transportation and in modern urban development. Some of the finest sporting venues in the world were created in the city, all of which were fully ready for the games. The games welcomed over 10,000 athletes from all 202 countries.\n\nThe 2004 Games were judged a success, as both security and organization worked well, and only a few visitors reported minor problems mainly concerning accommodation issues. The 2004 Olympic Games were described as ''Unforgettable, dream Games'', by IOC President Jacques Rogge for their return to the birthplace of the Olympics, and for meeting the challenges of holding the Olympic Games. The only observable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some early events. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.5 million tickets were sold, which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of Sydney (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in 2000).\n\nIn 2008 it was reported that most of the Olympic venues had fallen into disrepair: according to those reports, 21 of the 22 facilities built for the games had either been left abandoned or are in a state of dereliction, with several squatter camps having sprung up around certain facilities, and a number of venues afflicted by vandalism, graffiti or strewn with rubbish. These claims, however, are disputed and likely to be inaccurate, as most of the facilities used for the Athens Olympics are either in use or in the process of being converted for post-Olympics use. The Greek Government has created a corporation, Olympic Properties SA, which is overseeing the post-Olympics management, development and conversion of these facilities, some of which will be sold off (or have already been sold off) to the private sector, while other facilities are still in use just as during the Olympics, or have been converted for commercial use or modified for other sports. Concerts and theatrical shows, such as those by the troupe Cirque du Soleil, have recently been held in the complex.\n\n=== Special Olympics 2011 ===\nThe 2011 Special Olympics World Summer Games was in Athens. The opening ceremony of the games took place on 25 June 2011 at the Panathinaiko Stadium and the closing ceremony was held on 4 July 2011.\n\nOver 7,500 athletes, from 185 countries, competed in a total of 22 sports.\n", "\n\n=== Twin towns – sister cities ===\nAthens is twinned with:\n\n\n\n* Beijing, China (2005)\n* Bethlehem, Palestine (1986)\n* Los Angeles, United States (1984)\n* Nicosia, Cyprus (1988)\n* Ammochostos, Cyprus (2005)\n\n\n=== Partnerships ===\n* Belgrade, Serbia (1966)\n* Paris, France (2000)\n* Ljubljana, Slovenia\n* Naples, Italy\n", "; United States:\n\n\n\n* Athens, Alabama (pop. 24,234)\n* Athens, Arkansas\n* Athens, California\n* West Athens, California (pop. 9,101)\n* Athens, Georgia (pop. 114,983)\n* Athens, Illinois (pop. 1,726)\n* New Athens, Illinois (pop. 2,620)\n* New Athens Township, St. Clair County, Illinois (pop. 2,620)\n* Athens, Indiana\n* Athens, Kentucky\n* Athens, Louisiana (pop. 262)\n* Athens Township, Jewell County, Kansas (pop. 74)\n* Athens, Maine (pop. 847)\n* Athens, Michigan (pop. 1,111)\n* Athens Township, Michigan (pop. 2,571)\n* Athens, Minnesota\n* Athens Township, Minnesota (pop. 2,322)\n\n* Athens, Mississippi\n* Athens (town), New York (pop. 3,991)\n* Athens (village), New York (pop. 1,695)\n* Athens, Ohio (pop. 21,909)\n* Athens County, Ohio (pop. 62,223)\n* Athens Township, Athens County, Ohio (pop. 27,714)\n* Athens Township, Harrison County, Ohio (pop. 520)\n* New Athens, Ohio (pop. 342)\n* Athena, Oregon (pop. 1,270)\n* Athens, Pennsylvania (pop. 3,415)\n* Athens Township, Bradford County, Pennsylvania (pop. 5,058)\n* Athens Township, Crawford County, Pennsylvania (pop. 775)\n* Athens, Tennessee (pop. 13,220)\n* Athens, Texas (pop. 11,297)\n* Athens, Vermont (pop. 340)\n* Athens, West Virginia (pop. 1,102)\n* Athens, Wisconsin (pop. 1,095)\n\n\n\n\n; Canada:\n* Athens Township, Ontario (pop. 3,086) \n; Costa Rica:\n* Atenas (pop. 7,716)\n* Atenas (canton) (pop. 23,743)\n; Germany:\n* Athenstedt, Saxony-Anhalt (pop. 431) \n\n; Honduras:\n* Atenas De San Cristóbal, Atlántida\n; Italy:\n* Atena Lucana, Province of Salerno, Campania (pop. 2,344)\n* Atina, Province of Frosinone, Lazio (pop. 4,480)\n; Poland:\n* Ateny, Podlaskie Voivodeship (pop. 40)\n; Ukraine:\n* Afini (Zoria – Зоря), Donetsk (pop. 200)\n\n", "{\|\n\n\n* Classical Greece\n* Democracy\n* Hellenic civilization\n* Politics of Greece\n\n* 2004 Summer Olympics\n* 1896 Summer Olympics\n* Eurovision Song Contest 2006 \n* List of museums in Greece\n\n Hellenic Parliament\n* Peloponnesian War\n* Age of Pericles\n\n* National Library of Greece\n* Large Cities Climate Leadership Group\n* National Archaeological Museum, Athens\n* National Technical University of Athens\n* Agricultural University of Athens\n* Athens University of Economics and Business\n\n\n", "\n", "\n;Official\n \n\n;Historical\n* EIE.gr – Page on Archaeology of the City of Athens in the National Hellenic Research Foundation website\n* Rg.ancients.info/owls – Athenian owl coins\n* Kronoskaf.com – Simulation of Athens in 421 BC\n* Athens Museums Information – Guide with pictures, visitor comments and reviews\n\n;Travel\n* Athens - The Greek National Tourism Organization\n* This is Athens - The official City of Athens guide\n* Athens Urban Transport Organisation\n\n;Visual\n* Timelapse video of Athens Timelapse showing Athens in the Attica region\n* Athens 1973\n* Athens In Pictures\n* Athens Photo Guide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology ", " History ", " Geography ", " Administration ", " Cityscape ", " Demographics ", " Culture and contemporary life ", " Economy ", " Education ", " Environment ", " Transport ", " Olympic Games ", " International relations ", " Other locations named after Athens ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Athens
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Anguilla''' ( ) is a British overseas territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territory consists of the main island of Anguilla, approximately 16 miles (26 km) long by 3 miles (5 km) wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population. The island's capital is The Valley. The total land area of the territory is 35 square miles (90 km2), with a population of approximately ( estimate).\n\nAnguilla has become a popular tax haven, having no capital gains, estate, profit or other forms of direct taxation on either individuals or corporations. In April 2011, faced with a mounting deficit, it introduced a 3% \"Interim Stabilisation Levy\", Anguilla's first form of income tax.\n\nOn 7 September 2017, the Category 5 Hurricane Irma hit the island. As of the next day, one death had been reported; the island also sustained extensive damage to many buildings, including government ones, as well as its electricity infrastructure and water supply. The UK government summarized this as \"severe and in places critical\" damage. A few days later, Hurricane Jose largely bypassed Anguilla.\n\n\n", "The name Anguilla is an anglicised or latinate form of earlier Spanish '''' meaning \"eel\" in reference to the island's shape. It is believed by most sources to have been named by Christopher Columbus. For similar reasons, it was also known as ''Snake'' or ''Snake Island''.\n", "\nWallblake House\nAnguilla was first settled by Indigenous Amerindian peoples who migrated from South America. The earliest Native American artefacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300 ; remains of settlements date from 600. The Arawak name for the island seems to have been ''Malliouhana''. The date of European colonisation is uncertain: some sources claim that Columbus sighted the island during his second voyage in 1493, while others state that the island's first European explorer was the French Huguenot nobleman and merchant mariner René Goulaine de Laudonnière in 1564.\n\nTraditional accounts state that Anguilla was first colonised by English settlers from Saint Kitts beginning in 1650. In this early colonial period, however, Anguilla sometimes served as a place of refuge and recent scholarship focused on Anguilla has placed greater significance on other Europeans and creoles migrating from St. Christopher, Barbados, Nevis and Antigua. The French temporarily took over the island in 1666 but returned it to English control under the terms of the Treaty of Breda the next year. A Major John Scott who visited in September 1667, wrote of leaving the island \"in good condition\" and noted that in July 1668, \"200 or 300 people fled thither in time of war\".\n\nIt is likely that some of these early Europeans brought enslaved Africans with them. Historians confirm that African slaves lived in the region in the early 17th century. For example, Africans from Senegal lived in St. Christopher in 1626. By 1672 a slave depot existed on the island of Nevis, serving the Leeward Islands. While the time of African arrival in Anguilla is difficult to place precisely, archival evidence indicates a substantial African presence of at least 100 slaves by 1683. These seem to have come from Central Africa as well as West Africa.\n\nAttempts by the French to capture the island during the War of Austrian Succession (1745) and the Napoleonic Wars (1796) ended in failure.\n\nDuring the early colonial period, Anguilla was administered by the British through Antigua; in 1825, it was placed under the administrative control of nearby Saint Kitts. In 1967, Britain granted Saint Kitts and Nevis full internal autonomy. Anguilla was also incorporated into the new unified dependency, named Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla, against the wishes of many Anguillians. This led to two Anguillian Revolutions in 1967 and 1969 headed by Atlin Harrigan and Ronald Webster. The island briefly operated as the independent \"Republic of Anguilla\". The goal of the revolution was not independence per se, but rather independence from Saint Kitts and Nevis and a return to being a British colony. British authority was fully restored in July 1971; in 1980, Anguilla was finally allowed to secede from Saint Kitts and Nevis and become a separate British Crown colony (now a British overseas territory).\n", "Map of the European Union in the world with overseas countries and territories and outermost regions\n\n===Political system===\n\n\nAnguilla is an internally self-governing overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Its politics take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, whereby the Chief Minister is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system.\n\nThe United Nations Committee on Decolonization includes Anguilla on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories. The territory's constitution is Anguilla Constitutional Order 1 April 1982 (amended 1990). Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. \n\n===Defence===\nAs a dependency of the UK, the UK is responsible for Anguilla's military defence, although there are no active garrisons or armed forces present. Anguilla has a small marine police force, comprising around 32 personnel, which operates one M160-class fast patrol boat.\n", "\n=== Demographics ===\n\nThe majority of residents (90.08%) are black, the descendants of slaves transported from Africa. Minorities include whites at 3.74% and people of mixed race at 4.65% (figures from 2001 census).\n\n72% of the population is Anguillian while 28% is non-Anguillian (2001 census). Of the non-Anguillian population, many are citizens of the United States, United Kingdom, St Kitts & Nevis, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica and Nigeria.\n\n2006 and 2007 saw an influx of large numbers of Chinese, Indian and Mexican workers, brought in as labour for major tourist developments due to the local population not being large enough to support the labour requirements.\n\n=== Religion ===\nChristian churches did not have a consistent or strong presence during the initial period of English colonisation. Spiritual and religious practices of Europeans and Africans tended to reflect their regional origins. As early as 1813, Christian ministers formally ministered to enslaved Africans and promoted literacy among converts. The Wesleyan (Methodist) Missionary Society of England built churches and schools in 1817.\n\nAccording to the 2001 census, Christianity is Anguilla's predominant religion, with 29 percent of the population practising Anglicanism. Another 23.9 percent are Methodist. Other churches on the island include Seventh-day Adventist, Baptist, Roman Catholic (served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint John's - Basseterre, with see at Saint John on Antigua and Barbuda) and a community of Jehovah's Witnesses (0.7%). Between 1992 and 2001 the number of followers of the Church of God and Pentecostals increased considerably. There are at least 15 churches on the island. Although a minority on the island, it is an important location to followers of Rastafarian religion—Anguilla is the birthplace of Robert Athlyi Rogers, author of the ''Holy Piby'' which has had a strong influence on Rastafarian beliefs. Various other religions are practised as well. More recently, a Muslim cultural center has opened on the island.\n\n\n+ Religions in Anguillain percent\n Religion !! 1992 !! 2001 !! 2011\n\n Anglican\n 40.4\n 29.0\n 22.7\n\n Methodist\n 33.2\n 23.9\n 19.4\n\n Pentecostal\n –\n 7.7\n 10.5\n\n Seventh-day Adventist\n 7.0\n 7.6\n 8.3\n\n Baptist\n 4.7\n 7.3\n 7.1\n\n Roman Catholic\n 3.2\n 5.7\n 6.8\n\n Church of God\n –\n 7.6\n 4.9\n\n Jehovah's Witnesses\n –\n 0.7\n 1.1\n\n Rastafarian\n –\n 0.7\n \n\n Evangelical\n –\n 0.5\n \n\n Plymouth Brethren\n –\n 0.3\n 0.1\n\n Muslim\n –\n 0.3\n \n\n Presbyterian\n –\n 0.2\n 0.2\n\n Hindu\n –\n 0.4\n \n\n Jewish\n –\n 0.1\n \n\n None\n –\n 4.0\n 4.5\n\n Other\n 10.7\n 3.5\n \n\n Not stated\n 0.7\n 0.3\n\n\n\n=== Languages ===\n\nSandy Ground, Anguilla\nToday most people in Anguilla speak a British-influenced variety of standard English. Other languages are also spoken on the island, including varieties of Spanish, Chinese and the languages of other immigrants. However, the most common language other than Standard English is the island's own English-lexifier Creole language (not to be confused with Antillean Creole ('French Creole'), spoken in French islands such as Martinique and Guadeloupe). It is referred to locally by terms such as \"dialect\" (pronounced \"dialek\"), Anguilla Talk or \"Anguillian\". It has its main roots in early varieties of English and West African languages, and is similar to the dialects spoken in English-speaking islands throughout the Eastern Caribbean, in terms of its structural features and to the extent of being considered one single language.\n\nLinguists who are interested in the origins of Anguillian and other Caribbean Creoles point out that some of its grammatical features can be traced to African languages while others can be traced to European languages. Three areas have been identified as significant for the identification of the linguistic origins of those forced migrants who arrived before 1710: the Gold Coast, the Slave Coast and the Windward Coast.\n\nSociohistorical information from Anguilla's archives suggest that Africans and Europeans formed two distinct, but perhaps overlapping speech communities in the early phases of the island's colonisation. \"Anguillian\" is believed to have emerged as the language of the masses as time passed, slavery was abolished and locals began to see themselves as \"belonging\" to Anguillian society.\n", "The beach at the Cap Juluca resort on Maundays Bay\nIsland Harbour\nThe Anguilla National Trust (ANT) was established in 1988 and opened its offices in 1993 charged with the responsibility of preserving the heritage of the island, including its cultural heritage. The Trust has programmes encouraging Anguillian writers and the preservation of the island's history. In 2015, ''Where I See The Sun – Contemporary Poetry in Anguilla'' A New Anthology by Lasana M. Sekou was published by House of Nehesi Publishers. Among the forty three poets in the unprecedented collection are Rita Celestine-Carty, Bankie Banx, John T. Harrigan, Patricia J. Adams, Fabian Fahie, Dr. Oluwakemi Linda Banks, and Reuel Ben Lewi.\n\nThe island's cultural history begins with the Taino Native Americans. Artifacts have been found around the island, telling of life before European settlers arrived by the Arawak and Carib peoples.\n\nAs throughout the Caribbean, holidays are a cultural fixture. Anguilla's most important holidays are of historic as much as cultural importance – particularly the anniversary of the emancipation (previously August Monday in the Park), celebrated as the Summer Festival. British festivities, such as the Queen's Birthday, are also celebrated.\n\n=== Cuisine ===\n\nAnguillian cuisine is influenced by native Caribbean, African, Spanish, French and English cuisines. Seafood is abundant, including prawns, shrimp, crab, spiny lobster, conch, mahi-mahi, red snapper, marlin and grouper. Salt cod is a staple food eaten on its own and used in stews, casseroles and soups. Livestock is limited due to the small size of the island and people there utilise poultry, pork, goat and mutton, along with imported beef. Goat is the most commonly eaten meat, utilised in a variety of dishes.\n\nA significant amount of the island's produce is imported due to limited land suitable for agriculture production; much of the soil is sandy and infertile. Among the agriculture produced in Anguilla includes tomatoes, peppers, limes and other citrus fruits, onion, garlic, squash, pigeon peas and callaloo. Starch staple foods include imported rice and other foods that are imported or locally grown, including yams, sweet potatoes and breadfruit.\n\nDue to its internationally recognised culinary community, the island has enjoyed a reputation as \"the culinary capital of the Caribbean\". This reputation was reinforced with the publication of the '''''(WE) Are Anguilla Cookbook''''', a guide to the cuisine of Anguilla featuring emerging and established local chefs, who share both their signature dishes and personal anecdotes regarding the island's epicurean culture. A publishing contract was secured by The Britto Agency, which had conceived the idea for the book itself.\n\n=== Music ===\n\n\nThe island's burgeoning musical community made history with the recording of ''Sounds of Anguilla (Volume 1)'', the first album ever composed solely of artists from a single Caribbean island representing multiple musical genres: pop, reggae, hip-hop, soca music and R&B. The album, featuring Anguillian musicians such as Bankie Banx, Amalia Watty, True Intentions and Gerswin Lake and The Parables, was released on iTunes in June 2015.\n\n=== Education ===\n\n\nA branch of the Saint James School of Medicine was established in 2011 in Anguilla. It is a private, for-profit medical school headquartered in Park Ridge, Illinois. The school's mission is to help motivated students become a doctor, irrespective of ethnic, religious and cultural backgrounds. The school was founded on the belief that a high quality medical education should be affordable and accessible to everyone with the commitment and the ability to succeed in a career in medicine.\n\n=== Sports ===\nA modern square rigger viewed from Long Bay\n\n\nBoat racing has deep roots in Anguillian culture and is the national sport.\n \nThere are regular sailing regattas on national holidays, such as Carnival, which are contested by locally built and designed boats. These boats have names and have sponsors that print their logo on their sails.\n\nAs in many other former British colonies, cricket is also a popular sport. Anguilla is the home of Omari Banks, who played for the West Indies Cricket Team, while Cardigan Connor played first-class cricket for English county side Hampshire and was 'chef de mission' (team manager) for Anguilla's Commonwealth Games team in 2002.\n\nRugby union is represented in Anguilla by the Anguilla Eels RFC, who were formed in April 2006. The Eels have been finalists in the St. Martin tournament in November 2006 and semi-finalists in 2007, 2008, 2009 and Champions in 2010. The Eels were formed in 2006 by Scottish club national second row Martin Welsh, Club Sponsor and President of the AERFC Ms. Jacquie Ruan, and Canadian standout Scrumhalf Mark Harris (Toronto Scottish RFC).\n\nAnguilla is also the birthplace of sprinter Zharnel Hughes who has represented Great Britain since 2015. He specialises in the 100m and 200m sprints. He won the 100m in the 2013 CARIFTA Games with a time of 10.44 seconds, despite his time being some way below his personal best. He currently holds the ISSA/GraceKennedy Boys' and Girls' Athletics Championships record for the 100m, with a time of 10.12 seconds having taken the record from Yohan Blake.56 On 13 March 2015, Hughes made his Diamond League debut where he was commended for almost beating world champion Usain Bolt.7 On 24 July 2015, Hughes won the 200m at the London Diamond League meet to take the lead in the Diamond League standings for the season.8 On 27 August 2015, Hughes came 5th in the 200m at the World Championships in Beijing with a time of 20.02 seconds.\n\nShara Proctor, British Long Jump Silver Medalist in World Championships in Beijing first represented Anguilla in the event until 2010 when she began to represent the UK. Under the Anguillian Flag she achieved several medals in the NACAC games.\n\nKeith Connor, triple jumper, is also an Anguillian. He represented Great Britain and achieved several international titles including Commonwealth and European Games gold medals and an Olympic bronze medal. Keith later became Head Coach of Australia Athletics.\n\nChesney Hughes, is a West Indian cricketer who plays for Derbyshire. He was born in Anguilla. Having signed for the side in June 2009, and holding a British passport, Hughes made his List A debut for the side during the 2009 Pro40 League against Warwickshire.\n", "\n===Wildlife===\nAnguilla has habitat for the Cuban tree frogs (''Osteopilus septentrionalis''). The red-footed tortoise (''Chelonoidis carbonaria'') is a species of tortoise found here, it somehow came from South America. Hurricanes led to over-water dispersal for the green iguanas (''Iguana iguana'') to colonise Anguilla. All three animals are introduced.\n\nFive species of bats are known in the literature from Anguilla — the threatened insular single leaf bat (''Monophyllus plethodon''), the Antillean fruit-eating bat (''Brachyphylla cavernarum''), the Jamaican fruit bat (''Artibeus jamaicensis''), the Mexican funnel-eared bat (''Natalus stramineus''), and the velvety free-tailed bat (''Molossus molossus'').\n", "\nAn aerial view of the western portion of the island of Anguilla. The Blowing Point ferry terminal is visible in the lower right, as are (right to left) Shaddick Point, Rendezvous Bay, Cove Bay and Maundays Bay.\n\nAnguilla is a flat, low-lying island of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. It is directly north of Saint Martin, separated from that island by the Anguilla Channel. The soil is generally thin and poor, supporting scrub, tropical and forest vegetation.\n\nAnguilla is noted for its spectacular and ecologically important coral reefs and beaches. Apart from the main island of Anguilla itself, the territory includes a number of other smaller islands and cays, mostly tiny and uninhabited. Some of these are:\n* Anguillita\n* Dog Island\n* Prickly Pear Cays\n* Scrub Island\n* Seal Island\n* Sombrero, also known as Hat Island\n* Sandy Island\n\n===Geology===\nAnguilla has a volcanic origin and has been submerged repeatedly from climate change.\n\n\n\n\n\nSint Maarten/Saint Martin and other islands to its south\n\nMap of Anguilla\n\n", "\n\n===Temperature===\nNortheastern trade winds keep this tropical island relatively cool and dry. Average annual temperature is 80 °F (27 °C). July–October is its hottest period, December–February, its coolest.\n\n===Rainfall===\nRainfall averages 35 inches (890 mm) annually, although the figures vary from season to season and year to year. The island is subject to both sudden tropical storms and hurricanes, which occur in the period from July to November. The island suffered damage in 1995 from Hurricane Luis and severe flooding 5–20 feet from Hurricane Lenny.\n", "\n2009 export percentages\n\nAnguilla's thin arid soil being largely unsuitable for agriculture, the island has few land-based natural resources. Its main industries are tourism, offshore incorporation and management, offshore banking, captive insurance and fishing.\n\nBefore the 2008 worldwide crisis the economy of Anguilla was expanding rapidly, especially the tourism sector which was driving major new developments in partnerships with multi-national companies.\n\nAnguilla's currency is the East Caribbean dollar, though the US dollar is also widely accepted. The exchange rate is fixed to the US dollar at US$1 = EC$2.70.\n\nThe economy, and especially the tourism sector, suffered a setback in late 1995 due to the effects of Hurricane Luis in September but recovered in 1996. Hotels were hit particularly hard during this time. Another economic setback occurred during the aftermath of Hurricane Lenny in 2000.\n\nAnguilla's financial system comprises 7 banks, 2 money services businesses, more than 40 company managers, more than 50 insurers, 12 brokers, more than 250 captive intermediaries, more than 50 mutual funds and 8 trust companies.\n\nAnguilla's tourism industry received a major boost when it was selected to host the World Travel Awards in December 2014. Known as \"the Oscars of the travel industry\", the awards ceremony was held at the CuisinArt Resort and Spa and was hosted by award-winning actress Vivica A. Fox. Anguilla was voted the World's Leading Luxury Island Destination from a short list of top-tier candidates such as St. Barts, Maldives and Mauritius.\n\nAnguilla aims to obtain 15% of its energy from solar power so it is less reliant on expensive imported diesel. The Climate & Development Knowledge Network is helping the government gather the information it needs to change the territory's legislation, so it can integrate renewables into its grid. Barbados, have also made good progress in switching to renewables, but many other SIDS are still at the early stages of planning how to integrate renewable energy into their grids. \"For a small island we're very far ahead,\" said Beth Barry, Coordinator of the Anguilla Renewable Energy Office. \"We've got an Energy Policy and a draft Climate Change policy and have been focussing efforts on the question of sustainable energy supply for several years now. As a result we have a lot of information we can share with other islands.\"\n", "\n\n===Air===\nAnguilla is served by Clayton J. Lloyd International Airport (prior to 4 July 2010 known as Wallblake Airport). The primary runway at the airport is in length and can accommodate moderate-sized aircraft. Services connect to various other Caribbean islands via regional carrier LIAT, local charter airlines and others. Although there are no direct scheduled flights to or from continental America or Europe, Tradewind Aviation and Cape Air provide scheduled air service to San Juan, Puerto Rico. The airport can handle large narrow-body jets such as the Boeing 727, Boeing 737 and Boeing 757.\n\n===Road===\nAside from taxis, there is no public transport on the island. Cars drive on the left.\n\n===Boat===\nThere are regular ferries from Saint Martin to Anguilla. It is a 20-minute crossing from Marigot, St. Martin to Blowing Point, Anguilla. Ferries commence service from 7:00 am. There is also a Charter Service, from Blowing Point, Anguilla to Princess Juliana Airport to make travel easier. This way of travel is the most common method of transport between Anguilla and St. Martin or St. Maarten.\n", "\n* Bibliography of Anguilla\n* Outline of Anguilla\n* Index of Anguilla-related articles\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* .\n* \n* .\n", "\n; Government\n* Government of Anguilla ''official government website''\n\n; General information\n* \n* Anguilla from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Name ", " History ", " Governance ", " Population ", " Culture ", "Natural history", " Geography and geology ", " Climate ", " Economy ", " Transportation ", " See also ", "Notes", " References ", " External links " ]	Anguilla
[ "This article is about communications systems in Anguilla.\n", "\n'''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 6,200 (2002)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 212\n\n'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 1,800 (2002)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 211\n\n'''Telephone system:'''\n''Domestic:'' Modern internal telephone system\n''International:'' EAST CARIBBEAN FIBRE SYSTEM ECFS (cable system)\n'' microwave radio relay to island of Saint Martin (Guadeloupe and Netherlands Antilles)\n", "\n'''Mobile Phone Operators:\n''' Cable & Wireless (Anguilla) Ltd. - GSM 850 and 1900 MHz with Island-wide coverage \n''' Weblinks - \n\n'''Mobiles:''' ? (2007)\n", "\n'''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 3, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2007)\n\n+ Radio Stations of Anguilla\n Band / Freq.\n Call Sign\n Brand\n City of license\n Notes\n\n AM 690 kHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n Religious broadcaster\n\n AM 1500 kHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n 2.5 kW repeater\n\n AM 1610 kHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n 200 kW repeater\n\n FM 92.9 MHz\n Unknown\n Klass 92.9\n The Valley\n \n\n FM 93.3 MHz\n Unknown\n Rainbow FM\n The Valley\n Caribbean Music, News\n\n FM 95.5 MHz\n Unknown\n Radio Anguilla\n The Valley\n Public broadcaster\n\n FM 97.7 MHz\n Unknown\n Heart Beat Radio/Up Beat Radio\n The Valley\n 30 kW, Caribbean Music, News\n\n FM 99.3 MHz\n ZNBR-FM\n NBR - New Beginning Radio / Grace FM\n The Valley\n 5 kW, Religious broadcaster\n\n FM 100.1 MHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n Religious broadcaster\n\n FM 100.9 MHz\n Unknown\n CBN - Country Broadcast Network\n The Valley\n 3 kW\n\n FM 103.3 MHz\n Unknown\n Kool FM\n The Valley\n Religious broadcaster, Urban Caribbean\n\n FM 105.1 MHz\n ZRON-FM\n Tradewinds Radio\n The Valley\n 5 kW, Caribbean Music, News\n\n FM 106.7 MHz\n unknown\n VOC - Voice Of Creation\n Sachasses\n Religious broadcaster\n\n FM 107.9 MHz\n unknown\n GEM Radio Network\n The Valley\n Repeater (Trinidad)\n\n SW 6090 kHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n Religious\n\n SW 11775 kHz\n Unknown\n Caribbean Beacon\n The Valley\n Religious\n\n\n'''Radios:''' 3,000 (1997)\n", "\n'''Television broadcast stations:''' 1 (1997)\n\n'''Televisions:''' 1,000 (1997)\n", "\n'''Internet country code:''' .ai (Top level domain)\n\n'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 3 (Cable & Wireless - , Weblinks - , Caribbean Cable Communications - )\n\n'''Internet hosts:''' 205 (2008)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 177\n\n'''Internet:''' users: 3,000 (2002)\n:''country comparison to the world:'' 206\n", "Anguilla\n Cable & Wireless (Anguilla) Ltd. \n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Telephone", "Mobile Phone (GSM)", "Radio", "Television", "Internet", "See also", " References " ]	Telecommunications in Anguilla
[ "'''Acoustic theory''' is a scientific field that relates to the description of sound waves. It derives from fluid dynamics. See acoustics for the engineering approach.\n\nPropagation of sound waves in a fluid (such as water) can be modeled by an equation of continuity (conservation of mass) and an equation of motion (conservation of momentum) . With some simplifications, in particular constant density, they can be given as follows:\n: \nwhere is the acoustic pressure and is the flow velocity vector, is the vector of spatial coordinates , is the time, is the static mass density of the medium and is the bulk modulus of the medium. The bulk modulus can be expressed in terms of the density and the speed of sound in the medium () as\n: \nIf the flow velocity field is irrotational, , then the acoustic wave equation is a combination of these two sets of balance equations and can be expressed as\n:\nwhere we have used the vector Laplacian, \n.\nThe acoustic wave equation (and the mass and momentum balance equations) are often expressed in terms of a scalar potential where . In that case the acoustic wave equation is written as\n:\nand the momentum balance and mass balance are expressed as\n:\n", "The derivations of the above equations for waves in an acoustic medium are given below.\n\n===Conservation of momentum===\nThe equations for the conservation of linear momentum for a fluid medium are\n:\nwhere is the body force per unit mass, is the pressure, and is the deviatoric stress. If is the Cauchy stress, then\n:\nwhere is the rank-2 identity tensor.\n\nWe make several assumptions to derive the momentum balance equation for an acoustic medium. These assumptions and the resulting forms of the momentum equations are outlined below.\n\n====Assumption 1: Newtonian fluid====\nIn acoustics, the fluid medium is assumed to be Newtonian. For a Newtonian fluid, the deviatoric stress tensor is related to the flow velocity by\n:\nwhere is the shear viscosity and is the bulk viscosity.\n\nTherefore, the divergence of is given by\n:\nUsing the identity , we have\n:\nThe equations for the conservation of momentum may then be written as\n:\n\n====Assumption 2: Irrotational flow====\nFor most acoustics problems we assume that the flow is irrotational, that is, the vorticity is zero. In that case\n:\nand the momentum equation reduces to\n:\n\n====Assumption 3: No body forces====\nAnother frequently made assumption is that effect of body forces on the fluid medium is negligible. The momentum equation then further simplifies to\n:\n\n====Assumption 4: No viscous forces====\nAdditionally, if we assume that there are no viscous forces in the medium (the bulk and shear viscosities are zero), the momentum equation takes the form\n:\n\n====Assumption 5: Small disturbances====\nAn important simplifying assumption for acoustic waves is that the amplitude of the disturbance of the field quantities is small. This assumption leads to the linear or small signal acoustic wave equation. Then we can express the variables as the sum of the (time averaged) mean field () that varies in space and a small fluctuating field () that varies in space and time. That is\n:\nand\n:\nThen the momentum equation can be expressed as\n:\nSince the fluctuations are assumed to be small, products of the fluctuation terms can be neglected (to first order) and we have\n:\n\n====Assumption 6: Homogeneous medium====\nNext we assume that the medium is homogeneous; in the sense that the time averaged variables\n and have zero gradients, i.e.,\n:\nThe momentum equation then becomes\n:\n\n====Assumption 7: Medium at rest====\nAt this stage we assume that the medium is at rest, which implies that the mean flow velocity is zero, i.e., . Then the balance of momentum reduces to\n:\nDropping the tildes and using , we get the commonly used form of the acoustic momentum equation\n:\n\n===Conservation of mass===\nThe equation for the conservation of mass in a fluid volume (without any mass sources or sinks) is given by\n:\nwhere is the mass density of the fluid and is the flow velocity.\n\nThe equation for the conservation of mass for an acoustic medium can also be derived in a manner similar to that used for the conservation of momentum.\n\n====Assumption 1: Small disturbances====\nFrom the assumption of small disturbances we have\n:\nand\n:\nThen the mass balance equation can be written as\n:\nIf we neglect higher than first order terms in the fluctuations, the mass balance equation becomes\n:\n\n====Assumption 2: Homogeneous medium====\nNext we assume that the medium is homogeneous, i.e.,\n:\nThen the mass balance equation takes the form\n:\n\n====Assumption 3: Medium at rest====\nAt this stage we assume that the medium is at rest, i.e., . Then the mass balance equation can be expressed as\n:\n\n====Assumption 4: Ideal gas, adiabatic, reversible====\nTo close the system of equations we need an equation of state for the pressure. To do that we assume that the medium is an ideal gas and all acoustic waves compress the medium in an adiabatic and reversible manner. The equation of state can then be expressed in the form of the differential equation:\n:\nwhere is the specific heat at constant pressure, is the specific heat at constant volume, and is the wave speed. The value of is 1.4 if the acoustic medium is air.\n\nFor small disturbances\n:\nwhere is the speed of sound in the medium.\n\nTherefore,\n:\nThe balance of mass can then be written as\n:\nDropping the tildes and defining gives us the commonly used expression for the balance of mass in an acoustic medium:\n:\n", "If we use a cylindrical coordinate system with basis vectors , then the gradient of and the divergence of are given by\n:\nwhere the flow velocity has been expressed as .\n\nThe equations for the conservation of momentum may then be written as\n:\nIn terms of components, these three equations for the conservation of momentum in cylindrical coordinates are\n:\n\nThe equation for the conservation of mass can similarly be written in cylindrical coordinates as\n:\n\n===Time harmonic acoustic equations in cylindrical coordinates===\nThe acoustic equations for the conservation of momentum and the conservation of mass are often expressed in time harmonic form (at fixed frequency). In that case, the pressures and the flow velocity are assumed to be time harmonic functions of the form\n:\nwhere is the frequency. Substitution of these expressions into the governing equations in cylindrical coordinates gives us the fixed frequency form of the conservation of momentum\n:\nand the fixed frequency form of the conservation of mass\n:\n\n====Special case: No z-dependence====\nIn the special case where the field quantities are independent of the z-coordinate we can eliminate to get\n:\nAssuming that the solution of this equation can be written as\n:\nwe can write the partial differential equation as\n:\nThe left hand side is not a function of while the right hand side is not a function of . Hence,\n:\nwhere is a constant. Using the substitution\n:\nwe have\n:\nThe equation on the left is the Bessel equation, which has the general solution\n:\nwhere is the cylindrical Bessel function of the first kind and are undetermined constants. The equation on the right has the general solution\n:\nwhere are undetermined constants. Then the solution of the acoustic wave equation is\n:\nBoundary conditions are needed at this stage to determine and the other undetermined constants.\n", "\n", "* Acoustic attenuation\n* Aeroacoustics\n* Transfer function\n* Sound\n* Acoustic impedance\n* Acoustic resistance\n* law of gases\n* Frequency\n* Fourier analysis\n* Music theory\n* Voice production\n* Formant\n* Speech synthesis\n* Loudspeaker acoustics\n* Lumped component model\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Derivation of the governing equations", "Governing equations in cylindrical coordinates", "References", "See also" ]	Acoustic theory
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alexander Mackenzie''', PC (January 28, 1822April 17, 1892), was a Canadian politician who served as the second Prime Minister of Canada, in office from 1873 to 1878.\n\nMackenzie was born in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland. He left school at the age of 13, following his father's death, and trained as a stonemason. Mackenzie immigrated to Canada when he was 20, settling in what became Ontario. His masonry business prospered, allowing him to pursue other interests – such as the editorship of a pro-Reformist newspaper. Mackenzie was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1861, as a supporter of George Brown.\n\nIn 1867, Mackenzie was elected to the new Canadian House of Commons for the Liberal Party. He became leader of the party (and thus Leader of the Opposition) in mid-1873, and a few months later succeeded John A. Macdonald as prime minister, following Macdonald's resignation in the aftermath of the Pacific Scandal. Mackenzie and the Liberals won a clear majority at the 1874 election. He was popular among the general public for his humble background and apparent democratic tendencies.\n\nAs prime minister, Mackenzie continued the nation-building programme that had been begun by his predecessor. His government established the Supreme Court of Canada and Royal Military College of Canada, and created the District of Keewatin to better administer Canada's newly acquired western territories. However, it made little progress on the transcontinental railway, and struggled to deal with the aftermath of the Panic of 1873. At the 1878 election, Mackenzie's government suffered a landslide defeat. He remained leader of the Liberal Party for another two years, and continued on as a member of parliament until his death.\n", "\nMackenzie was born on 28 January 1822 in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland, the son of Mary Stewart (Fleming) and Alexander Mackenzie Sr. who were married in 1817. The site of his birthplace is known as Clais-'n-deoir \"The Hollow of the Weeping\", where families said their goodbyes as the convicted were led to nearby Gallows Hill. The house he was born in was built by his father and is still standing in 2017. He was the third of ten boys, seven of who survived infancy. Alexander Mackenzie Sr. was a carpenter and ship's joiner who had to move around frequently for work after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Mackenzie's father died on 7 March 1836 and at the age of thirteen Alexander Mackenzie Jr. was thus forced to end his formal education in order to help support his family. He apprenticed as a stonemason and met his future wife, Helen Neil, in Irvine, where her father was also a stonemason. The Neils were Baptist and shortly thereafter, Mackenzie converted from Presbyterianism to Baptist beliefs. Together with the Neils, he immigrated to Canada in 1842 to seek a better life. Mackenzie's faith was to link him to the increasingly influential temperance cause, particularly strong in Canada West where he lived, a constituency of which he was to represent in the Parliament of Canada.\n\nThe Neils and Mackenzie settled in Kingston, Ontario. The limestone in the area proved too hard for his stonemason tools and, not having money to buy new tools, Mackenzie took a job as a labourer constructing a building on Princess Street. The contractor on the job claimed financial difficulty and so Mackenzie accepted a promissory note for summer wages. The note later proved to be worthless. Subsequently, Mackenzie won a contract building a bomb-proof arch at Fort Henry. He later became a foreman on the construction of Kingston's four Martello Towers - Murney Tower, Fort Frederick, Cathcart Tower, and Shoal Tower. He was also a foreman on the construction of the Welland Canal and the Lachine Canal. While working on the Beauharnois Canal a one ton stone fell and crushed one of his legs. He recovered but never regained the strength in that leg. It was while in Kingston that Mackenzie became a vocal opponent of religious and political entitlement and corruption in government. \n\nMackenzie married Helen Neil (1826–52) in 1845 and with her had three children, with only one girl, Mary, surviving infancy. He and Helen moved to Sarnia, Ontario (known as Canada West) in 1847 and Mary was born in 1848. They were soon joined from Scotland by the rest of Mackenzie's brothers and his mother. He began working as a general contractor, earning a reputation for being a hard working, honest man as well as having a working man's view on fiscal policy. Mackenzie helped construct many courthouses and jails across southern Ontario. A number of these still stand today including the Sandwich Courthouse and Jail now known as the Mackenzie Hall Cultural Centre in Windsor, Ontario and the Kent County Courthouse and Jail in Chatham, Ontario. He even bid, unsuccessfully, on the construction of the Parliament Buildings in Ottawa in 1859. Helen died in 1852, finally succumbing to the effects of excessive doses of mercury-based calomel used to treat a fever while in Kingston. In 1853, he married Jane Sym (1825–93).\n\n\n1875 ''Canadian Illustrated News'' cartoon shows Mackenzie the Mason and Governor General Lord Dufferin the Overseer\n", "Mackenzie involved himself in politics almost from the moment he arrived in Canada. He fought passionately for equality and the elimination of all forms of class distinction. In 1851 he became the Secretary for the Reform Party for Lambton. After convincing him to run in Kent/Lambton, Mackenzie campaigned relentlessly for George Brown, owner of the Reformist paper ''The Globe'' in the 1851 election, helping Brown to win his first seat in the Legislative Assembly. Mackenzie and Brown remained the closest of friends and colleagues for the rest of their lives. In 1852 Mackenzie became editor of another reformist paper, the Lambton Shield. As editor, Mackenzie was perhaps a little too vocal, leading the paper to a lawsuit for libel against the local conservative candidate. Because a key witness claimed Cabinet Confidence and would not testify, the paper lost the suit and was forced to fold due to financial hardship. After his brother, Hope Mackenzie, declined to run, Alexander was petitioned to run and won his first seat in the Legislative Assembly as a supporter of George Brown in 1861. When George Brown resigned from the Great Coalition in 1865 over reciprocity negotiations with the United States, Mackenzie was invited to replace him as the President of the Council. Wary of Macdonald's motivations and true to his principles, Mackenzie declined. \n\nHe entered the Canadian House of Commons in 1867, representing the Lambton, Ontario, riding. There was no cohesive national Liberal Party of Canada at the time and with George Brown not winning his seat, there was no official leader. Mackenzie did not believe he was the best qualified for the position and although he resisted offers of the position, he nevertheless sat as the de facto leader of the Official Opposition. \n", "When the Macdonald government fell due to the Pacific Scandal in 1873, the Governor General, Lord Dufferin, called upon Mackenzie, who had been chosen as the leader of the Liberal Party a few months earlier, to form a new government. Mackenzie formed a government and asked the Governor General to call an election for January 1874. The Liberals won, having garnered 53.8% of the popular vote. The voter support of 53.8% remains the record in Canada for all federal elections. Mackenzie remained prime minister until the 1878 election when Macdonald's Conservatives returned to power with a majority government.\n\nIt was unusual for a man of Mackenzie's humble origins to attain such a position in an age which generally offered such opportunity only to the privileged. Lord Dufferin, the current Governor General, expressed early misgivings about a stonemason taking over government. But on meeting Mackenzie, Dufferin revised his opinions: \"However narrow and inexperienced Mackenzie may be, I imagine he is a thoroughly upright, well-principled, and well-meaning man.\"\n\nMackenzie served concurrently as Minister of Public Works and oversaw the completion of the Parliament Buildings. While drawing up the plans for the West Block, he included a circular staircase leading directly from his office to the outside of the building which allowed him to escape the patronage-seekers waiting for him in his ante-chamber. Proving Dufferin's reflections on his character to be true, Mackenzie disliked intensely the patronage inherent in politics. Nevertheless, he found it a necessary evil in order to maintain party unity and ensure the loyalty of his fellow Liberals.\n\nStatue of Alexander Mackenzie on Parliament Hill, Ottawa by Hamilton MacCarthy In keeping with his democratic ideals, Mackenzie refused the offer of a knighthood three times, and was thus the only one of Canada's first eight Prime Ministers not to be knighted. He also declined appointment to the UK Privy Council and hence does not bear the title \"Right Honourable\". His pride in his working class origins never left him. Once, while touring Fort Henry as prime minister, he asked the soldier accompanying him if he knew the thickness of the wall beside them. The embarrassed escort confessed that he didn't and Mackenzie replied, \"I do. It is five feet, ten inches. I know, because I built it myself!\"\n\nAs Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government, achieving a remarkable record of reform legislation. He introduced the secret ballot; advised the creation of the Supreme Court of Canada; the establishment of the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston in 1874; and, the creation of the Office of the Auditor General in 1878. He completed the Intercolonial Railway but struggled to progress on the national railway due to a worldwide economic depression, almost coming to blows with the then Governor General Lord Dufferin over imperial interference. Mackenzie stood up for the rights of Canada as a nation and fought for the supremacy of Parliament and honesty in government. Above all else, he was known and loved for his honesty and integrity. \n\nHowever, his term was marked by economic depression that had grown out of the Panic of 1873, which Mackenzie's government was unable to alleviate. In 1874, Mackenzie negotiated a new free trade agreement with the United States, eliminating the high protective tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets. However, this action did not bolster the economy, and construction of the CPR slowed drastically due to lack of funding. In 1876 the Conservative opposition announced a National Policy of protective tariffs, which resonated with voters. When an election was held at the conclusion of Mackenzie's five-year term, the Conservatives were swept back into office in a landslide victory.\n\n=== Supreme Court appointments ===\nA painting of Mackenzie\nMackenzie chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General:\n* Sir William Buell Richards (Chief Justice) – September 30, 1875\n* Télesphore Fournier – September 30, 1875\n* William Alexander Henry – September 30, 1875\n* Sir William Johnstone Ritchie – September 30, 1875\n* Sir Samuel Henry Strong – September 30, 1875\n* Jean-Thomas Taschereau – September 30, 1875\n* Sir Henri Elzéar Taschereau – October 7, 1878\n", "After his government's defeat, Mackenzie remained Leader of the Opposition for another two years, until 1880. He was soon struck with a mysterious ailment that sapped his strength and all but took his voice. Sitting in silence, he nevertheless remained an undefeated MP until his death in 1892 from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall. He died in Toronto and was buried in Lakeview Cemetery in Sarnia, Ontario.\n", "In their 1999 study of the Prime Ministers of Canada, which included the results of a survey of Canadian historians, J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer found that Mackenzie was in the No. 11 place just after John Sparrow David Thompson.\n\n===Namesakes ===\nMackenzie Building at the Royal Military College of Canada\nThe following are named in honour of Alexander Mackenzie:\n* The Mackenzie Mountain Range in the Yukon & Northwest Territories.\n* The Mackenzie building, and the use of the Mackenzie tartan by the bands at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario. 'Alexander Mackenzie', the Royal Military College of Canada March for bagpipes, was composed in his honour by Pipe Major Don M. Carrigan, who was the College Pipe Major 1973 to 1985.\n* Mackenzie Hall in Windsor, Ontario.\n* Alexander Mackenzie Scholarships in Economics and Political Science at McGill University\n* Alexander MacKenzie Park in Sarnia, Ontario.\n* Alexander Mackenzie High School in Sarnia, Ontario.\n* Alexander Mackenzie Housing Co-Operative Inc. in Sarnia, Ontario.\n* Mackenzie Avenue, Ottawa, Ontario\n* Mackenzie Tower, West Block,Parliament Hill, Ottawa, Ontario\n\n===Other honours===\n* A monument is dedicated to his tomb in Lakeview Cemetery, Sarnia, Ontario\n* \"Honourable Alexander Mackenzie\" (1964) by Lawren Harris, head of the Department of Fine Arts, Mount Allison University now hangs in the Mackenzie Building, Royal Military College of Canada. The unveiling ceremony was performed by the Right Honourable Louis St. Laurent, a former Canadian Prime Minister, and the gift was accepted by the Commandant, Air Commodore L.J. Birchall. The painting was commissioned in memory of No. 244, Lieut.-Col, F.B, Wilson, O.B.E, her deceased husband, by Mrs, F.W. Dashwood. Also taking part in the ceremony was the Honourable Paul Hellyer, Minister of National Defence, President and Chancellor of the College. In attendance was Mrs. Burton R. Morgan of Ottawa, great-granddaughter of Alexander Mackenzie.\n* Burgess tickets presented to Alexander Mackenzie in Dundee, Dunkeld, Logierait, Irvine, and Perth Scotland.\n", "\n* List of Canadian Prime Ministers\n", "\n", "\n\n* J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer ''Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders''. Toronto: Harper Collins Publishers Ltd, A Phyllis Bruce Book, 1999. P. 2936. .\n* Dale C. Thomson ''Alexander Mackenzie, Clear Grit'', 1960. 14960, Macmillan of Canada, 436 pages\n\n* William Buckingham, George William Ross \"The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie: His Life and Times\". 1892. Toronto: Rose Publishing Company Limited, 678 pages\n* Sir George W. Ross \"Getting into Parliament and After\", 1913. Toronto: William Briggs, 343 pages\n* T.G. Marquis \"Builders of Canada from Cartier to Laurier\", 1903. Toronto: John C. Winston and Co., 570 pages\nJohn Charles Dent \"The Canadian Portrait Gallery\". Vol. 1 1880. Toronto John B. Magurn\n", "\n\n\n\n Photograph:Alexander Mackenzie, 1874 – McCord Museum\n\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Early political involvement", "Prime Minister (1873–1878)", "Later life", "Legacy", "See also", "References", "Further reading ", " External links " ]	Alexander Mackenzie (politician)
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Ashoka''' (; ; died 232 BCE) was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from to 232 BCE. He was the grandson of the founder of the Maurya Dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, who had created one of the largest empires in ancient India and then, according to Jain sources, renounced it all to become a Jain monk. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka expanded Chandragupta's empire, and reigned over a realm that stretched from present-day Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except for parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (in Magadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.\n\nIn about 260 BCE, Ashoka waged a destructive war against the state of Kalinga (modern Odisha). He conquered Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had done. Some scholars suggest he belonged to the Jain tradition, but it is generally accepted that he embraced Buddhism. Legends state he converted after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. \"Ashoka reflected on the war in Kalinga, which reportedly had resulted in more than 100,000 deaths and 150,000 deportations, ending at around 200,000 deaths.\" Ashoka converted to Buddhism about 263 BCE. He is remembered for the Ashoka pillars and edicts, for sending Buddhist monks to Sri Lanka and Central Asia, and for establishing monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha.\n\nBeyond the Edicts of Ashoka, biographical information about him relies on legends written centuries later, such as the 2nd-century CE ''Ashokavadana'' (\"''Narrative of Ashoka''\", a part of the ''Divyavadana''), and in the Sri Lankan text ''Mahavamsa'' (\"''Great Chronicle''\"). The emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's name \"\" means \"painless, without sorrow\" in Sanskrit (the ''a'' privativum and ''śoka'', \"pain, distress\"). In his edicts, he is referred to as '''' (Pali '''' or \"the Beloved of the Gods\"), and '''' (Pali '''' or \"He who regards everyone with affection\"). His fondness for his name's connection to the ''Saraca asoca'' tree, or \"Ashoka tree\", is also referenced in the Ashokavadana. H.G. Wells wrote of Ashoka in his book ''The Outline of History'': \"Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, their majesties and graciousnesses and serenities and royal highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines, and shines, almost alone, a star.\"\n", "\n===Ashoka's early life===\nAshoka was born to the Mauryan emperor, Bindusara and Subhadrangī (or Dharmā). He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya dynasty. Broadly, Chandragupta was born in a humble family, abandoned, raised as a son by another family, then with the training and counsel of Chanakya of ''Arthashastra'' fame ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India. Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta renounced it all, and became a monk in the Jain tradition. According to Roman historian Appian, Chandragupta had made a \"marital alliance\" with Seleucus; there is thus a possibility that Ashoka had a Seleucid Greek grandmother. An Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, also described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek (\"Yavana\") princess, daughter of Seleucus.\n\nThe ancient Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain texts provide varying biographical accounts. The Avadana texts mention that his mother was queen Subhadrangī. According to the Ashokavadana, she was the daughter of a Brahmin from the city of Champa. She gave him the name Ashoka, meaning \"one without sorrow\". The ''Divyāvadāna'' tells a similar story, but gives the name of the queen as Janapadakalyānī. Ashoka had several elder siblings, all of whom were his half-brothers from the other wives of his father Bindusara. Ashoka was given royal military training.\n\n===Rise to power===\n\n\n\nThe Buddhist text ''Divyavadana'' describes Ashoka putting down a revolt due to activities of wicked ministers. This may have been an incident in Bindusara's times. Taranatha's account states that Chanakya, Bindusara's chief advisor, destroyed the nobles and kings of 16 towns and made himself the master of all territory between the eastern and the western seas. Some historians consider this as an indication of Bindusara's conquest of the Deccan while others consider it as suppression of a revolt. Following this, Ashoka was stationed at Ujain, the capital of Malwa, as governor.\n\nBindusara's death in 272 BCE led to a war over succession. According to the ''Divyavadana'', Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to succeed him but Ashoka was supported by his father's ministers, who found Susima to be arrogant and disrespectful towards them. A minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role in Ashoka's rise to the throne. The Ashokavadana recounts Radhagupta's offering of an old royal elephant to Ashoka for him to ride to the Garden of the Gold Pavilion where King Bindusara would determine his successor. Ashoka later got rid of the legitimate heir to the throne by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. Radhagupta, according to the Ashokavadana, would later be appointed prime minister by Ashoka once he had gained the throne. The ''Dipavansa'' and ''Mahavansa'' refer to Ashoka's killing 99 of his brothers, sparing only one, named Vitashoka or Tissa, although there is no clear proof about this incident (many such accounts are saturated with mythological elements). The coronation happened in 269 BCE, four years after his succession to the throne.\n\nDeer Park. Sanchi relief.\nBuddhist legends state that Ashoka was bad-tempered and of a wicked nature. He built Ashoka's Hell, an elaborate torture chamber described as a \"Paradisal Hell\" due to the contrast between its beautiful exterior and the acts carried out within by his appointed executioner, Girikaa. This earned him the name of ''Chanda Ashoka'' () meaning \"Ashoka the Fierce\" in Sanskrit. Professor Charles Drekmeier cautions that the Buddhist legends tend to dramatise the change that Buddhism brought in him, and therefore, exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion.\n\nAscending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, from the present-day Assam in the East to Balochistan in the West; from the Pamir Knot in Afghanistan in the north to the peninsula of southern India except for present day Tamil Nadu and Kerala which were ruled by the three ancient Tamil kingdoms.\n\n===Conquest of Kalinga===\n\nWhile the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teachings after his conquest of Kalinga on the east coast of India in the present-day states of Odisha and North Coastal Andhra Pradesh. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its sovereignty and democracy. With its monarchical parliamentary democracy it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata where there existed the concept of Rajdharma. Rajdharma means the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and dharma. The Kalinga War happened eight years after his coronation. From his 13th inscription, we come to know that the battle was a massive one and caused the deaths of more than 100,000 soldiers and many civilians who rose up in defence; over 150,000 were deported. When he was walking through the grounds of Kalinga after his conquest, rejoicing in his victory, he was moved by the number of bodies strewn there and the wails of the bereaved.\n\n===Marriage===\nFrom the various sources that speak of his life, Ashoka is believed to have had five wives. They were named Devi (or Vedisa-Mahadevi-Shakyakumari), the second queen, Karuvaki, Asandhimitra (designated '''' or \"chief queen\"), Padmavati, and Tishyarakshita. He is similarly believed to have had four sons and two daughters: a son by Devi named Mahendra (Pali: ''Mahinda''), Tivara (son of Karuvaki), Kunala (son of Padmavati, and Jalauka (mentioned in the Kashmir Chronicle), a daughter of Devi named Sanghamitra (Pali: ''Sanghamitta''), and another daughter named Charumati.\n\nAccording to one version of the ''Mahavamsa'', the Buddhist chronicle of Sri Lanka, Ashoka, when he was heir-apparent and was journeying as Viceroy to Ujjain, is said to have halted at Vidisha (10 kilometers from Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker. She was called Devi and later gave Ashoka two sons, Ujjeniya and Mahendra, and a daughter Sanghamitta. After Ashoka's accession, Mahendra headed a Buddhist mission, sent probably under the auspices of the Emperor, to Sri Lanka.\n\n===Buddhist conversion===\nThe Diamond throne built by Ashoka at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, at the location where the Buddha reached enlightenment.\nEdict 13 on the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions reflect the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga:\n\nHis Majesty felt remorse on account of the conquest of Kalinga because, during the subjugation of a previously unconquered country, slaughter, death, and taking away captive of the people necessarily occur, whereas His Majesty feels profound sorrow and regret.\n\nThe edict goes on to address the even greater degree of sorrow and regret resulting from Ashoka's understanding that the friends and families of deceased would suffer greatly too.\n\nLegend says that one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. The lethal war with Kalinga transformed the vengeful Emperor Ashoka to a stable and peaceful emperor and he became a patron of Buddhism. According to the prominent Indologist, A. L. Basham, Ashoka's personal religion became Buddhism, if not before, then certainly after the Kalinga war. However, according to Basham, the Dharma officially propagated by Ashoka was not Buddhism at all. Nevertheless, his patronage led to the expansion of Buddhism in the Mauryan empire and other kingdoms during his rule, and worldwide from about 250 BCE. Prominent in this cause were his son Mahinda (Mahendra) and daughter Sanghamitra (whose name means \"friend of the Sangha\"), who established Buddhism in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).\nVaishali\n\n===Death and legacy===\nAshoka's Major Rock Edict at Junagadh contains inscriptions by Ashoka (fourteen of the Edicts of Ashoka), Rudradaman I and Skandagupta.\nAshoka ruled for an estimated 36 years and died in 232 BCE. Legend states that during his cremation, his body burned for seven days and nights. After his death, the Mauryan dynasty lasted just fifty more years until his empire stretched over almost all of the Indian subcontinent. Ashoka had many wives and children, but many of their names are lost to time. His chief consort (''agramahisi'') for the majority of his reign was his wife, Asandhimitra, who apparently bore him no children.\n\nIn his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyaraksha. It is said that she had got Ashoka's son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila and the heir presumptive to the throne, blinded by a wily stratagem. The official executioners spared Kunala and he became a wandering singer accompanied by his favourite wife Kanchanmala. In Pataliputra, Ashoka heard Kunala's song, and realised that Kunala's misfortune may have been a punishment for some past sin of the emperor himself. He condemned Tishyaraksha to death, restoring Kunala to the court. In the Ashokavadana, Kunala is portrayed as forgiving Tishyaraksha, having obtained enlightenment through Buddhist practice. While he urges Ashoka to forgive her as well, Ashoka does not respond with the same forgiveness. Kunala was succeeded by his son, Samprati, who ruled for 50 years until his death.\n\nThe reign of Ashoka Maurya might have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, had he not left behind records of his reign. These records are in the form of sculpted pillars and rocks inscribed with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published under his name. The language used for inscription was in one of the Prakrit \"common\" languages etched in a Brahmi script.\n\nIn the year 185 BCE, about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Maurya ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pushyamitra Shunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pushyamitra Shunga founded the Shunga dynasty (185-75 BCE) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire. Many of the northwestern territories of the Mauryan Empire (modern-day Afghanistan and Northern Pakistan) became the Indo-Greek Kingdom.\n\nKing Ashoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, is also considered as one of the most exemplary rulers who ever lived.\n\n====Buddhist kingship====\nThe Khalsi rock edict of Ashoka, which mentions the Greek kings Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas and Alexander by name, as recipients of his teachings.\n \nOne of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state. Emperor Ashoka was seen as a role model to leaders within the Buddhist community. He not only provided guidance and strength, but he also created personal relationships with his supporters. Throughout Theravada Southeastern Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the Angkor kingdom, for instance). Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimise his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist ''sangha''. Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom. Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign. This development ultimately led to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported Buddhism of Thailand and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader. Ashoka also said that all his courtiers always governed the people in a moral manner.\n\nAccording to the legends mentioned in the 2nd-century CE text ''Ashokavadana'', Ashoka was not non-violent after adopting Buddhism. In one instance, a non-Buddhist in Pundravardhana drew a picture showing the Buddha bowing at the feet of Nirgrantha Jnatiputra (identified with Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara of Jainism). On complaint from a Buddhist devotee, Ashoka issued an order to arrest him, and subsequently, another order to kill all the Ajivikas in Pundravardhana. Around 18,000 followers of the Ajivika sect were executed as a result of this order. Sometime later, another Nirgrantha follower in Pataliputra drew a similar picture. Ashoka burnt him and his entire family alive in their house. He also announced an award of one dinara (silver coin) to anyone who brought him the head of a Nirgrantha heretic. According to ''Ashokavadana'', as a result of this order, his own brother was mistaken for a heretic and killed by a cowherd. However, for several reasons, scholars say, these stories of persecutions of rival sects by Ashoka appear to be clear fabrications arising out of sectarian propaganda.\n", "\nAshoka was almost forgotten by the historians of the early British India, but James Prinsep contributed in the revelation of historical sources. Another important historian was British archaeologist John Hubert Marshall, who was director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India. His main interests were Sanchi and Sarnath, in addition to Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British archaeologist and army engineer, and often known as the father of the Archaeological Survey of India, unveiled heritage sites like the Bharhut Stupa, Sarnath, Sanchi, and the Mahabodhi Temple. Mortimer Wheeler, a British archaeologist, also exposed Ashokan historical sources, especially the Taxila.\n\nThe Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual inscription (in Greek and Aramaic) by King Ashoka, discovered at Kandahar ().\nInformation about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources. In particular, the Sanskrit ''Ashokavadana'' ('Story of Ashoka'), written in the 2nd century, and the two Pāli chronicles of Sri Lanka (the Dipavamsa and ''Mahavamsa'') provide most of the currently known information about Ashoka. Additional information is contributed by the Edicts of Ashoka, whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts (''Priyadarshi''—'He who regards everyone with affection') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Maurya. Architectural remains of his period have been found at Kumhrar, Patna, which include an 80-pillar hypostyle hall.\n\nEdicts of Ashoka -The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Ashoka during his reign. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout modern-day Pakistan and India, and represent the first tangible evidence of Buddhism. The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through the sponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history, offering more information about Ashoka's proselytism, moral precepts, religious precepts, and his notions of social and animal welfare.\n\nAshokavadana – The ''Aśokāvadāna'' is a 2nd-century CE text related to the legend of Ashoka. The legend was translated into Chinese by Fa Hien in 300 CE. It is essentially a Hinayana text, and its world is that of Mathura and North-west India. The emphasis of this little known text is on exploring the relationship between the king and the community of monks (the Sangha) and setting up an ideal of religious life for the laity (the common man) by telling appealing stories about religious exploits. The most startling feature is that Ashoka’s conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war, which is not even mentioned, nor is there a word about his belonging to the Maurya dynasty. Equally surprising is the record of his use of state power to spread Buddhism in an uncompromising fashion. The legend of Veetashoka provides insights into Ashoka’s character that are not available in the widely known Pali records.\n\npunch-marked Coin of Ashoka\nA silver coin of 1 karshapana of the empire Maurya, period of Ashoka Maurya towards 272-232 BC, workshop of Mathura. '''Obv:''' Symbols including a sun and an animal '''Rev:''' Symbol '''Dimensions:''' 13.92 x 11.75 mm '''Weight:''' 3.4 g.\n''Mahavamsa'' -The ''Mahavamsa'' (\"Great Chronicle\") is a historical poem written in the Pali language of the kings of Sri Lanka. It covers the period from the coming of King Vijaya of Kalinga (ancient Odisha) in 543 BCE to the reign of King Mahasena (334–361). As it often refers to the royal dynasties of India, the ''Mahavamsa'' is also valuable for historians who wish to date and relate contemporary royal dynasties in the Indian subcontinent. It is very important in dating the consecration of Ashoka.\n\nDwipavamsa -The Dwipavamsa, or \"Dweepavamsa\", (i.e., Chronicle of the Island, in Pali) is the oldest historical record of Sri Lanka. The chronicle is believed to be compiled from Atthakatha and other sources around the 3rd or 4th century CE. King Dhatusena (4th century) had ordered that the Dipavamsa be recited at the Mahinda festival held annually in Anuradhapura.\n\n===Symbolism===\nCaduceus symbol on a punch-marked coin of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE.\nThe caduceus appears as a symbol of the punch-marked coins of the Maurya Empire in India, in the 3rd-2nd century BCE. Numismatic research suggests that this symbol was the symbol of king Ashoka, his personal \"Mudra\". This symbol was not used on the pre-Mauryan punch-marked coins, but only on coins of the Maurya period, together with the three arched-hill symbol, the \"peacock on the hill\", the triskelis and the Taxila mark.\n", "The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, as well as the interpretations of his Edicts. Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution. Some scholars have tended to question this assessment. Romila Thappar writes about Ashoka that \"We need to see him both as a statesman in the context of inheriting and sustaining an empire in a particular historical period, and as a person with a strong commitment to changing society through what might be called the propagation of social ethics.\" The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources are the Ashokan Edicts, and these do not explicitly state that Ashoka was a Buddhist. In his edicts, Ashoka expresses support for all the major religions of his time: Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism, and Ajivikaism, and his edicts addressed to the population at large (there are some addressed specifically to Buddhists; this is not the case for the other religions) generally focus on moral themes members of all the religions would accept. For example, Amartya Sen writes, \"The Indian Emperor Ashoka in the third century BCE presented many political inscriptions in favor of tolerance and individual freedom, both as a part of state policy and in the relation of different people to each other\".\n\nHowever, the edicts alone strongly that he was a Buddhist. In one edict he belittles rituals, and he banned Vedic animal sacrifices; these strongly suggest that he at least did not look to the Vedic tradition for guidance. Furthermore, many edicts are expressed to Buddhists alone; in one, Ashoka declares himself to be an \"upasaka\", and in another he demonstrates a close familiarity with Buddhist texts. He erected rock pillars at Buddhist holy sites, but did not do so for the sites of other religions. He also used the word \"dhamma\" to refer to qualities of the heart that underlie moral action; this was an exclusively Buddhist use of the word. However, he used the word more in the spirit than as a strict code of conduct. Romila Thappar writes, \"His dhamma did not derive from divine inspiration, even if its observance promised heaven. It was more in keeping with the ethic conditioned by the logic of given situations. His logic of Dhamma was intended to influence the conduct of categories of people, in relation to each other. Especially where they involved unequal relationships.\" Finally, he promotes ideals that correspond to the first three steps of the Buddha's graduated discourse.\n\nInterestingly, the Ashokavadana presents an alternate view of the familiar Ashoka; one in which his conversion has nothing to do with the Kalinga war or about his descent from the Maurya dynasty. Instead, Ashoka's reason for adopting non-violence appears much more personal. The Ashokavadana shows that the main source of Ashoka's conversion and the acts of welfare that followed are rooted instead in intense personal anguish at its core, from a wellspring inside himself rather than spurred by a specific event. It thereby illuminates Ashoka as more humanly ambitious and passionate, with both greatness and flaws. ''This'' Ashoka is very different from the \"shadowy do-gooder\" of later Pali chronicles.\n\nMuch of the knowledge about Ashoka comes from the several inscriptions that he had carved on pillars and rocks throughout the empire. All his inscriptions present him as compassionate and loving. In the Kalinga rock edits, he addresses his people as his \"children\" and mentions that as a father he desires their good. These inscriptions promoted Buddhist morality and encouraged nonviolence and adherence to dharma (duty or proper behaviour), and they talk of his fame and conquered lands as well as the neighbouring kingdoms holding up his might. One also gets some primary information about the Kalinga War and Ashoka's allies plus some useful knowledge on the civil administration. The Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath is the most notable of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of sandstone, this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the 3rd century BCE. It has a four-lion capital (four lions standing back to back), which was adopted as the emblem of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether or not some events ever actually happened, but the stone etchings clearly depict how Ashoka wanted to be thought of and remembered.\n\n===Focus of debate===\nFront frieze of the Diamond throne, built by Ashoka at Bodh Gaya.\nRecently scholarly analysis determined that the three major foci of debate regarding Ashoka involve the nature of the Maurya empire; the extent and impact of Ashoka's pacifism; and what is referred to in the Inscriptions as ''dhamma'' or dharma, which connotes goodness, virtue, and charity. Some historians have argued that Ashoka's pacifism undermined the \"military backbone\" of the Maurya empire, while others have suggested that the extent and impact of his pacifism have been \"grossly exaggerated\". The ''dhamma'' of the Edicts has been understood as concurrently a Buddhist lay ethic, a set of politico-moral ideas, a \"sort of universal religion\", or as an Ashokan innovation. On the other hand, it has also been interpreted as an ''essentially political'' ideology that sought to knit together a vast and diverse empire. Scholars are still attempting to analyse both the expressed and implied political ideas of the Edicts (particularly in regard to imperial vision), and make inferences pertaining to how that vision was grappling with problems and political realities of a \"virtually subcontinental, and culturally and economically highly variegated, 3rd century BCE Indian empire. Nonetheless, it remains clear that Ashoka's Inscriptions represent the earliest corpus of royal inscriptions in the Indian subcontinent, and therefore prove to be a very important innovation in royal practices.\"\n\n===Legends of Ashoka===\nAshoka and his two queens, in a relief at Sanchi. \nUntil the Ashokan inscriptions were discovered and deciphered, stories about Ashoka were based on the legendary accounts of his life and not strictly on historical facts. These legends were found in Buddhist textual sources such as the text of ''Ashokavadana''. The ''Ashokavadana'' is a subset of a larger set of legends in the ''Divyavadana'', though it could have existed independently as well. Following are some of the legends narrated in the ''Ashokavadana'' about Ashoka:\n\n1) One of the stories talks about an event that occurred in a past life of Ashoka, when he was a small child named Jaya. Once when Jaya was playing on the roadside, the Buddha came by. The young child put a handful of earth in the Buddha’s begging bowl as his gift to the saint and declared his wish to one day become a great emperor and follower of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to have smiled a smile that “illuminated the universe with its rays of light”. These rays of light are then said to have re-entered the Buddha’s left palm, signifying that this child Jaya would, in his next life, become a great emperor. The Buddha is said to have even turned to his disciple Ananda and is said to have predicted that this child would be “a great, righteous chakravarti king, who would rule his empire from his capital at Pataliputra”.\n\n2) Another story aims to portray Ashoka as an evil person in order to convey the importance of his transformation into a good person upon adopting Buddhism. It begins by stating that due to Ashoka’s physical ugliness he was disliked by his father Bindusara. Ashoka wanted to become king and so he got rid of the heir by tricking him into entering a pit filled with live coals. He became famous as “Ashoka the Fierce” because of his wicked nature and bad temper. He is said to have subjected his ministers to a test of loyalty and then have 500 of them killed for failing it. He is said to have burnt his entire harem to death when certain women insulted him. He is supposed to have derived sadistic pleasure from watching other people suffer. And for this he built himself an elaborate and horrific torture chamber where he amused himself by torturing other people. The story then goes on to narrate how it was only after an encounter with a pious Buddhist monk that Ashoka himself transformed into “Ashoka the pious”. A Chinese traveler who visited India in the 7th century CE, XuanZang recorded in his memoirs that he visited the place where the supposed torture chamber stood.\n\n3) Another story is about events that occurred towards the end of Ashoka’s time on earth. Ashoka is said to have started gifting away the contents of his treasury to the Buddhist ''sangha''. His ministers however were scared that his eccentricity would be the downfall of the empire and so denied him access to the treasury. As a result, Ashoka started giving away his personal possessions and was eventually left with nothing and so died peacefully.\n\nAt this point it is important to note that the ''Ashokavadana'' being a Buddhist text in itself sought to gain new converts for Buddhism and so used all these legends. Devotion to the Buddha and loyalty to the ''sangha'' are stressed. Such texts added to the perception that Ashoka was essentially the ideal Buddhist monarch who deserved both admiration and emulation.\n\n===Ashoka and the relics of the Buddha===\nAccording to Buddhist legend, particularly the Mahaparinirvana, the relics of the Buddha had been shared among eight countries following his death. Ashoka endeavoured to take back the relics and share them among 84.000 stupas. This story is amply depicted in the reliefs of Sanchi and Bharhut. According to the legend, Ashoka obtain the ashes from seven of countries, but failed to take the ashes from the Nagas at Ramagrama, who were able to keep them. This scene is depicted on the tranversal portion of the southern gateway at Sanchi.\nNagas, but in vain. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Sanchi.\n", "\n===Approach towards religions===\nAccording to Indian historian Romila Thapar, Ashoka emphasized respect for all religious teachers, and harmonious relationship between parents and children, teachers and pupils, and employers and employees. Ashoka's religion contained gleanings from all religions. He emphasized the virtues of ''Ahimsa'', respect to all religious teachers, equal respect for and study of each other's scriptures, and rational faith.\n\n===Global spread of Buddhism===\nStupa of Sanchi. The central stupa was built during the Mauryas, and enlarged during the Sungas, but the decorative gateway is dated to the later dynasty of the Satavahanas. \nAs a Buddhist emperor, Ashoka believed that Buddhism is beneficial for all human beings as well as animals and plants, so he built a number of stupas, Sangharama, viharas, chaitya, and residences for Buddhist monks all over South Asia and Central Asia. According to the Ashokavadana, he ordered the construction of 84,000 stupas to house the Buddha's relics. In the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa, Ashoka takes offerings to each of these stupas traveling in a chariot adorned with precious metals. He gave donations to viharas and mathas. He sent his only daughter Sanghamitra and son Mahindra to spread Buddhism in Sri Lanka (then known as Tamraparni).\n\nAccording to the ''Mahavamsa'', in the 17th year of Ashoka's reign, at the end of the Third Buddhist Council, Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to nine parts of the world to propagate Buddhism.\n\nGeographical distribution of known capitals of the Pillars of Ashoka. These are all thought to have been commissioned by Ashoka.\nAshoka also invited Buddhists and non-Buddhists for religious conferences. He inspired the Buddhist monks to compose the sacred religious texts, and also gave all types of help to that end. Ashoka also helped to develop viharas (intellectual hubs) such as Nalanda and Taxila. Ashoka helped to construct Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple. Ashoka also gave donations to non-Buddhists. As his reign continued his even-handedness was replaced with special inclination towards Buddhism. Ashoka helped and respected both Shramanas (Buddhists monks) and Brahmins (Vedic monks). Ashoka also helped to organise the Third Buddhist council () at Pataliputra (today's Patna). It was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of Ashoka.\n\nEmperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, also helped with the spread of Buddhism by translating the Buddhist Canon into a language that could be understood by the people of Sri Lanka.\n\nIt is well known that Ashoka sent ''dütas'' or emissaries to convey messages or letters, written or oral (rather both), to various people. The VIth Rock Edict about \"oral orders\" reveals this. It was later confirmed that it was not unusual to add oral messages to written ones, and the content of Ashoka's messages can be inferred likewise from the XIIIth Rock Edict: They were meant to spread his ''dhammavijaya,'' which he considered the highest victory and which he wished to propagate everywhere (including far beyond India). There is obvious and undeniable trace of cultural contact through the adoption of the Kharosthi script, and the idea of installing inscriptions might have travelled with this script, as Achaemenid influence is seen in some of the formulations used by Ashoka in his inscriptions. This indicates to us that Ashoka was indeed in contact with other cultures, and was an active part in mingling and spreading new cultural ideas beyond his own immediate walls.\n\n===Hellenistic world===\nDistribution of the Edicts of Ashoka, and location of the contemporary Greek city of Ai-Khanoum.\nBuddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260–218 BCE).\nIn his edicts, Ashoka mentions some of the people living in Hellenic countries as converts to Buddhism and recipients of his envoys, although no Hellenic historical record of this event remains:\n\n\n\nIt is not too far-fetched to imagine, however, that Ashoka received letters from Greek rulers and was acquainted with the Hellenistic royal orders in the same way as he perhaps knew of the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings, given the presence of ambassadors of Hellenistic kings in India (as well as the ''dütas'' sent by Ashoka himself). Dionysius is reported to have been such a Greek ambassador at the court of Ashoka, sent by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, who himself is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as a recipient of the Buddhist proselytism of Ashoka. Some Hellenistic philosophers, such as Hegesias of Cyrene, who probably lived under the rule of King Magas, one of the supposed recipients of Buddhist emissaries from Asoka, are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.\n\nThe Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek (Yona) Buddhist monks, active in spreading Buddhism (the ''Mahavamsa'', XII).\n\nSome Greeks (Yavana) may have played an administrative role in the territories ruled by Ashoka. The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman records that during the rule of Ashoka, a Yavana Governor was in charge in the area of Girnar, Gujarat, mentioning his role in the construction of a water reservoir.\n\n===As administrator===\nMauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century BCE. British Museum.\nAshoka's military power was strong, but after his conversion to Buddhism, he maintained friendly relations with three major Tamil kingdoms in the South—namely, Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas—the post-Alexandrian empire, Tamraparni, and Suvarnabhumi. His edicts state that he made provisions for medical treatment of humans and animals in his own kingdom as well as in these neighbouring states. He also had wells dug and trees planted along the roads for the benefit of the common people.\n\n===Animal welfare===\n\nAshoka's rock edicts declare that injuring living things is not good, and no animal should be sacrificed for slaughter. However, he did not prohibit common cattle slaughter or beef eating.\n\nHe imposed a ban on killing of \"all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible\", and of specific animal species including several birds, certain types of fish and bulls among others. He also banned killing of female goats, sheep and pigs that were nursing their young; as well as their young up to the age of six months. He also banned killing of all fish and castration of animals during certain periods such as Chaturmasa and Uposatha.\n\nAshoka also abolished the royal hunting of animals and restricted the slaying of animals for food in the royal residence. Because he banned hunting, created many veterinary clinics and eliminated meat eating on many holidays, the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka has been described as \"one of the very few instances in world history of a government treating its animals as citizens who are as deserving of its protection as the human residents\".\n\n===Ashoka Chakra===\n\nThe Ashoka Chakra, ''\"the wheel of Righteousness\" (Dharma in Sanskrit or Dhamma in Pali)\"''\nThe Ashoka Chakra (the wheel of Ashoka) is a depiction of the Dharmachakra (the Wheel of Dharma). The wheel has 24 spokes which represent the 12 Laws of Dependent Origination and the 12 Laws of Dependent Termination. The Ashoka Chakra has been widely inscribed on many relics of the Mauryan Emperor, most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Sarnath and The Ashoka Pillar. The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the National flag of the Republic of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it is rendered in a Navy-blue color on a White background, by replacing the symbol of Charkha (Spinning wheel) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. The Ashoka Chakra can also been seen on the base of the Lion Capital of Ashoka which has been adopted as the National Emblem of India.\n\nThe Ashoka Chakra was created by Ashoka during his reign. Chakra is a Sanskrit word which also means \"cycle\" or \"self-repeating process\". The process it signifies is the cycle of time—as in how the world changes with time.\n\nA few days before India became independent in August 1947, the specially-formed Constituent Assembly decided that the flag of India must be acceptable to all parties and communities. A flag with three colours, Saffron, White and Green with the Ashoka Chakra was selected.\n\n===Stone architecture===\nThe Pataliputra capital, a 3rd-century BCE capital from the Mauryan palace in Pataliputra, displaying Hellenistic designs.\nRampurva bull capital, detail of the abacus, with two \"flame palmettes\" framing a lotus surrounded by small rosette flowers.\nAshoka is often credited with the beginning of stone architecture in India, possibly following the introduction of stone-building techniques by the Greeks after Alexander the Great. Before Ashoka's time, buildings were probably built in non-permanent material, such as wood, bamboo or thatch. Ashoka may have rebuilt his palace in Pataliputra by replacing wooden material by stone, and may also have used the help of foreign craftmen. Ashoka also innovated by using the permament qualities of stone for his written edicts, as well as his pillars with Buddhist symbolism.\n\n====Pillars of Ashoka (Ashokstambha)====\n\nThe Ashokan pillar at Lumbini, Nepal, Buddha's birthplace\nThe pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. Originally, there must have been many pillars of Ashoka although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. The first Pillar of Ashoka was found in the 16th century by Thomas Coryat in the ruins of ancient Delhi. The wheel represents the sun time and Buddhist law, while the swastika stands for the cosmic dance around a fixed center and guards against evil.\n\n====Lion Capital of Ashoka (Ashokmudra)====\n\nAshoka's pillar capital of Sarnath. Ashokan capitals were highly realistic and used a characteristic polished finish, giving a shiny appearance to the stone surface. This sculpture has been adopted as the National Emblem of India. 3rd century BCE.\n\nThe Lion capital of Ashoka is a sculpture of four lions standing back to back. It was originally placed atop the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, now in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. The pillar, sometimes called the Ashoka Column, is still in its original location, but the Lion Capital is now in the Sarnath Museum. This Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath has been adopted as the National Emblem of India and the wheel (\"Ashoka Chakra\") from its base was placed onto the center of the National Flag of India.\n\nThe capital contains four lions (Indian / Asiatic Lions), standing back to back, mounted on a short cylindrical abacus, with a frieze carrying sculptures in high relief of an elephant, a galloping horse, a bull, and a lion, separated by intervening spoked chariot-wheels over a bell-shaped lotus. Carved out of a single block of polished sandstone, the capital was believed to be crowned by a 'Wheel of Dharma' (Dharmachakra popularly known in India as the \"Ashoka Chakra\"). The Sarnath pillar bears one of the Edicts of Ashoka, an inscription against division within the Buddhist community, which reads, \"No one shall cause division in the order of monks.\"\n\nThe four animals in the Sarnath capital are believed to symbolise different steps of Lord Buddha's life.\n* The Elephant represents the Buddha's idea in reference to the dream of Queen Maya of a white elephant entering her womb.\n* The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.\n* The Horse represents Buddha's departure from palatial life.\n* The Lion represents the accomplishment of Buddha.\n\nBesides the religious interpretations, there are some non-religious interpretations also about the symbolism of the Ashoka capital pillar at Sarnath. According to them, the four lions symbolise Ashoka's rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule (Chakravartin) and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.\n\n====Constructions credited to Ashoka====\nIllustration of the original temple built by Asoka at Bodh-Gaya on the location of the Mahabodhi Temple, sculpture of the Satavahana period at Sanchi, 1st century CE.\nThe British restoration was done under guidance from Weligama Sri Sumangala.\n* Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India\n* Dhamek Stupa, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India\n* Mahabodhi Temple, Bihar, India\n* Barabar Caves, Bihar, India\n* Nalanda Mahavihara (some portions like Sariputta Stupa), Bihar, India\n* Taxila University (some portions like Dharmarajika Stupa and Kunala Stupa), Taxila, Pakistan\n* Bhir Mound (''reconstructed''), Taxila, Pakistan\n* Bharhut stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India\n* Deorkothar Stupa, Madhya Pradesh, India\n* Butkara Stupa, Swat, Pakistan\n* Sannati Stupa, Karnataka, India: the only known sculptural depiction of Ashoka\n* Mir Rukun Stupa, Nawabshah, Pakistan\n", "A painting by Abanindranath Tagore (1871–1951) depicting Ashoka's queen standing in front of the railings of the Buddhist monument at Sanchi (Raisen district, Madhya Pradesh).\n* Jaishankar Prasad composed ''Ashoka ki Chinta'' (''Ashoka's Anxiety''), a poem that portrays Ashoka’s feelings during the war on Kalinga.\n* ''Ashok Kumar'' is a 1941 Tamil film directed by Raja Chandrasekhar. The film stars Chittor V. Nagaiah as Ashoka.\n* ''Uttar-Priyadarshi'' (The Final Beatitude), a verse-play written by poet Agyeya depicting his redemption, was adapted to stage in 1996 by theatre director, Ratan Thiyam and has since been performed in many parts of the world.\n* In 1973, Amar Chitra Katha released a graphic novel based on the life of Ashoka.\n* In Piers Anthony’s series of space opera novels, the main character mentions Ashoka as a model for administrators to strive for.\n* ''Aśoka'' is a 2001 epic Indian historical drama film directed and co-written by Santosh Sivan. The film stars Shah Rukh Khan as Ashoka.\n* In 2002, Mason Jennings released the song \"Emperor Ashoka\" on his Living in the Moment EP. It is based on the life of Ashoka.\n* In 2013, Christopher C. Doyle released his debut novel, ''The Mahabharata Secret'', in which he wrote about Ashoka hiding a dangerous secret for the well-being of India.\n* 2014's ''The Emperor's Riddles'', a fiction mystery thriller novel by Satyarth Nayak, traces the evolution of Ashoka and his esoteric legend of the Nine Unknown Men.\n* In 2015, ''Chakravartin Ashoka Samrat'', a television serial by Ashok Banker, based on the life of Ashoka, began airing on Colors TV.\n* ''The Legend of Kunal'' is an upcoming film based on the life of Kunal, the son of Ashoka. The movie will be directed by Chandraprakash Dwivedi. The role of Ashoka is to be played by Amitabh Bachchan, and the role of Kunal is played by Arjun Rampal.\n* Bharatvarsh (TV Series) is an Indian television historical documentary series, hosted by actor-director Anupam Kher on Hindi news channel ABP News. The series stars Aham Sharma as Ashoka.\n", "\n* Arthashastra\n* Ashoka's policy of Dhamma\n", "===Citations===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Bongard-Levin, G. M. ''Mauryan India'' (Stosius Inc/Advent Books Division May 1986) \n* Chauhan, Gian Chand (2004). ''Origin and Growth of Feudalism in Early India: From the Mauryas to AD 650.'' Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi. \n* \n* Falk, Harry. ''Aśokan Sites and Artefacts – A Source-book with Bibliography'' (Mainz : Philipp von Zabern, 2006) \n* \n* Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind (1996). ''Aśoka Maurya'' (Twayne Publishers) \n* \n* Li Rongxi, trans. (1993). The biographical scripture of King Aśoka / transl. from the Chinese of Saṃghapāla, Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, .\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1967). ''Age of the Nandas and Mauryas.'' Reprint: 1996, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. \n* Seneviratna, Anuradha (ed.), Gombrich, Richard; Guruge, Ananda (1994). King Aśoka and Buddhism: Historical and Literary studies, Kandy: Sri Lanka; Buddhist Publication Society, 1st edition, \n* \n* \n* \n* Swearer, Donald. ''Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia'' (Chambersburg, Pennsylvania: Anima Books, 1981) \n* Thapar, Romila. (1973). ''Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas. 2nd Edition.'' Oxford University Press, Reprint, 1980. SBN 19-660379 6.\n* von Hinüber, Oskar. (2010). \"Did Hellenistic Kings Send Letters to Aśoka?\" Journal of the American Oriental Society, 130:2 (Freiburg: 2010), pp. 261–266.\n* MacPhail, James Merry: \"Aśoka\", Calcutta: The Associative Press ; London: Oxford University Press 1918 PDF (5.9 MB)\n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n* \n* BBC Radio 4: Sunil Khilnani, '' Incarnations: Ashoka.''\n* BBC Radio 4: Melvyn Bragg with Richard Gombrich et al., '' In Our Time, Ashoka the Great''.\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Historical sources", "Perceptions and historiography", "Contributions", "In art, film and literature", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Ashoka
[ "\nThe meaning of the word '''American''' in the English language varies according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. ''American'' is derived from ''America'', a term originally denoting all of the New World (also called ''the Americas''). In some expressions, it retains this Pan-American sense, but its usage has evolved over time and, for various historical reasons, the word came to denote people or things specifically from the United States of America.\n\nIn modern English, ''Americans'' generally refers to persons or things related to the United States of America; among native English speakers this usage is almost universal, with any other use of the term requiring specification. However, this usage is seen by some as a semantic \"misappropriation\" by those who argue that \"American\" should be widened in English to also include people or things from anywhere in the American continents.\n\nThe word can be used as either an adjective or a noun (viz. a demonym). In adjectival use, it means \"of or relating to the United States\"; for example, \"Elvis Presley was an American singer\" or \"the man prefers American English\". In its noun form, the word generally means a resident or citizen of the US, or occasionally someone whose ethnic identity is simply \"American\". The noun is rarely used in American English to refer to people not connected to the United States. When used with a grammatical qualifier, the adjective ''American'' can mean \"of or relating to the Americas\", as in Latin American or Indigenous American. Less frequently, the adjective can take this meaning without a qualifier, as in \"American Spanish dialects and pronunciation differ by country\", or the name of the Organization of American States. A third use of the term pertains specifically to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, for instance, \"In the 16th century, many Americans died from imported diseases during the European conquest\".\n\nCompound constructions such as \"African Americans\" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix \"Americo-\". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African American settlers, i.e. former slaves in the United States of America.\n", "\nFrench, German, Italian, Japanese, Hebrew, Arabic, and Russian speakers may use cognates of ''American'' to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German '''', French '''', Japanese , Arabic '''' ( as opposed to '''' ), and Italian ''''. These specific terms may be less common than the term ''American''.\n\nIn French, '''', '''' or '''', from '''' (\"United States of America\"), is a rarely used word that distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective '''', which denotes persons and things from the United States, but may also refer to \"the Americas\".\n\nLikewise, German's use of '''' and '''' observe said cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. Note that these are \"politically correct\" terms and that in normal parlance, the adjective \"American\" and its direct cognates are usually used if the context renders the nationality of the person clear.\n\nThis differentiation is prevalent in German-speaking countries, as indicated by the style manual of the ''Neue Zürcher Zeitung'' (one of the leading German-language newspapers in Switzerland) which dismisses the term '''' as both ′unnecessary′ and ′artificial′ and recommends replacing it with ''amerikanisch''. The respective guidelines of the foreign ministries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland all prescribe ''Amerikaner'' and ''amerikanisch'' in reference to the United States for official usage, making no mention of '''' or ''''.\n\nPortuguese has '''', denoting both a person or thing from the Americas and a U.S. national. For referring specifically to a U.S. national and things, some words used are '''' (also spelled '''', \"United States person\"), from '''', and '''' (\"Yankee\")—both usages exist in Brazil, but are uncommon in Portugal—but the term most often used, and the only one in Portugal, is '''', even though it could, as with its Spanish equivalent, apply to Canadians, Mexicans, etc. as well.\n\nIn Spanish, '''' denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World, as well as (infrequently) a U.S. citizen; the more common term is '''' (\"United States person\"), which derives from '''' (\"United States of America\"). The Spanish term '''' (\"North American\") is frequently used to refer things and persons from the United States, but this term can also denote people and things from Canada and Mexico. Among Spanish-speakers, North America generally doesn't include Central America or the Caribbean.\n\nIn other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for \"U.S. national\" is '''' () is derived from a word for the United States, '''', where '''' is an abbreviation for ''Yàměilìjiā'' (\"America\") and '''' is \"country\". The name for the American continents is '''', from '''' plus '''' (\"continent\"). Thus, a '''' is an American in the continent sense, and a '''' is an American in the U.S. sense.\n\nConversely, in Czech, there is no possibility for disambiguation. ''Američan'' (m.) and ''američanka'' (f.) can refer to persons from the United States or from the continents of the Americas, and there is no specific word capable of distinguishing the two meanings. For this reason, the latter meaning is very rarely used, and word ''američan(ka)'' is used almost exclusively to refer to persons from the United States. The usage is exactly parallel to the English word.\n\nKorean and Vietnamese also use unambiguous terms, with Korean having '''' () for the country versus '''' () for the continents, and Vietnamese having '''' for the country versus '''' for the continents. Japanese has such terms as well ('''' versus '''' ), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where '''' predominates.\n\nIn Swahili, '''' means specifically the United States, and '''' is a U.S. national, whereas the international form '''' refers to the continents, and '''' would be an inhabitants thereof. Likewise, the Esperanto word '''' refers to the continents. For the country there is the term ''''. Thus, a citizen of the United States is an '''', whereas an '''' is an inhabitant of the Americas.\n\nIn Hungarian the term amerikai (American) refers to a person or a thing from the United States.\n", "''America'' is named after Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci.\nThe name ''America'' was coined by Martin Waldseemüller from ''Americus Vespucius'', the Latinized version of the name of Amerigo Vespucci (1454–1512), the Italian explorer who mapped South America's east coast and the Caribbean Sea in the early 16th century. Later, Vespucci's published letters were the basis of Waldseemüller's 1507 map, which is the first usage of ''America''. The adjective ''American'' subsequently denoted the New World.\n\n16th-century European usage of ''American'' denoted the native inhabitants of the New World. The earliest recorded use of this term in English is in Thomas Hacket's 1568 translation of André Thévet's book ''France Antarctique''; Thévet himself had referred to the natives as ''Ameriques''. In the following century, the term was extended to European settlers and their descendants in the Americas. The earliest recorded use of \"English-American\" dates to 1648, in Thomas Gage's ''The English-American his travail by sea and land: or, a new survey of the West India's''.\n\nIn English, ''American'' was used especially for people in the British America. Samuel Johnson, the leading English lexicographer, wrote in 1775, before the United States declared independence: \"That the Americans are able to bear taxation is indubitable.\" The Declaration of Independence of July 1776 refers to \"the unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America\" adopted by the \"Representatives of the United States of America\" on July 4, 1776. The official name of the country was reaffirmed on November 15, 1777, when the Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation, the first of which says, \"The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'\". The Articles further state:\n\nBritish map of the Americas in 1744.\nSam Haselby, a history professor in Lebanon and Egypt, claims it was British officials who first called the colonists \"Americans\". When the drafters of the ''Declaration'' — Thomas Jefferson from Virginia, for example, or John Adams from Massachusetts — talked about \"my country\", they meant Virginia or Massachusetts, respectively. This situation was changed by the Revolution and the impulse toward nationalism. Jefferson, newly elected president in May 1801 wrote, \"I am sure the measures I mean to pursue are such as would in their nature be approved by every American who can emerge from preconceived prejudices; as for those who cannot, we must take care of them as of the sick in our hospitals. The medicine of time and fact may cure some of them.\"\n\nIn ''The Federalist Papers'' (1787–88), Alexander Hamilton and James Madison used the adjective ''American'' with two different meanings: one political and one geographic; \"the American republic\" in Federalist No. 51 and in Federalist No. 70, and, in Federalist No. 24, Hamilton used ''American'' to denote the lands beyond the U.S.'s political borders.\n\nEarly official U.S. documents show inconsistent usage; the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France used \"the United States of North America\" in the first sentence, then \"the said United States\" afterwards; \"the United States of America\" and \"the United States of North America\" derive from \"the United Colonies of America\" and \"the United Colonies of North America\". The Treaty of Peace and Amity of September 5, 1795, between the United States and the Barbary States contains the usages \"the United States of North America\", \"citizens of the United States\", and \"American Citizens\".\n\n''Washington's Farewell Address'' (1796)\nU.S. President George Washington, in his 1796 ''Farewell Address'', declaimed that \"The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation.\" Political scientist Virginia L. Arbery notes that, in his ''Farewell Address'': \"...Washington invites his fellow citizens to view themselves now as Americans who, out of their love for the truth of liberty, have replaced their maiden names (Virginians, South Carolinians, New Yorkers, etc.) with that of “American”. Get rid of, he urges, “any appellation derived from local discriminations.” By defining himself as an American rather than as a Virginian, Washington set the national standard for all citizens. \"Over and over, Washington said that America must be something set apart. As he put it to Patrick Henry, 'In a word, I want an ''American'' character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced we act for ''ourselves'' and not for ''others''.'\" As the historian Garry Wills has noted: \"This was a theme dear to Washington. He wrote to Timothy Pickering that the nation 'must never forget that we are Americans; the remembrance of which will convince us we ought not to be French or English'.\" Washington's countrymen subsequently embraced his exhortation with notable enthusiasm.\n\nThis semantic divergence among North American anglophones, however, remained largely unknown in the Spanish-American colonies. In 1801, the document titled ''Letter to American Spaniards''—published in French (1799), in Spanish (1801), and in English (1808)—might have influenced Venezuela's Act of Independence and its 1811 constitution.\n\nThe Latter-day Saints' Articles of Faith refer to the American continents as where they are to build Zion. \n\n\nCommon short forms and abbreviations are the ''United States'', the ''U.S.'', the ''U.S.A.'', and ''America''; colloquial versions include the ''U.S. of A.'' and ''the States''. The term ''Columbia'' (from the Columbus surname) was a popular name for the U.S. and for the entire geographic Americas; its usage is present today in the District of Columbia's name. Moreover, the womanly personification of Columbia appears in some official documents, including editions of the U.S. dollar.\n", "Use of the term ''American'' for U.S. nationals is common at the United Nations, and financial markets in the United States are referred to as \"American financial markets\".\n\n''American Samoa'' is a recognized territorial name at the United Nations.\n", "\n===Spain and Hispanic America===\nThe use of ''American'' as a national demonym for U.S. nationals is challenged, primarily by Hispanic Americans. Spanish speakers in Spain and Latin America use the term '''' to refer to people and things from the United States (from ''''), while '''' refers to the continents as a whole. The term '''' is also accepted in many parts of Latin America to refer to a person or something from the United States, however this term may be ambiguous in certain parts. Up to and including the 1992 edition, the '''', published by the Real Academia Española, did not include the United States definition in the entry for ''''; this was added in the 2001 edition. The Real Academia Española advised against using '''' exclusively for U.S. nationals:\n\n\n===Canada===\nModern Canadians typically refer to people from the United States as ''Americans'', though they seldom refer to the United States as ''America''; they use the terms ''the United States'', ''the U.S.'', or (informally) ''the States'' instead. Canadians rarely apply the term ''American'' to themselves – some Canadians resent either being referred to as Americans because of mistaken assumptions that they are U.S. citizens or others' inability, particularly of those overseas, to distinguish Canadian from American accents. Some Canadians have protested the use of ''American'' as a national demonym. People of U.S. ethnic origin in Canada are categorized as \"Other North American origins\" by Statistics Canada for purposes of census counts.\n\n===Portugal and Brazil===\nGenerally, '''' denotes \"U.S. citizen\" in Portugal. Usage of '''' to exclusively denote people and things of the U.S. is discouraged by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, because the specific word '''' (also '''') clearly denotes a person from the United States. The term currently used by the Portuguese press is ''''.\n\nIn Brazil, the term '''' is used to address both that which pertains to both American continents and, in current speech, that which pertains to the U.S.; the particular meaning is deduced from context. Alternatively, the term '''' (\"North American\") is also used in more informal contexts, while '''' (of the U.S.) is the preferred form in academia. Use of the three terms is common in schools, government, and media. The term '''' is used almost exclusively for the continents, and the U.S. is called '''' (\"United States\") or '''' (\"United States of America\"), often abbreviated ''''.\n\nThe Getting Through Customs website advises business travelers not to use \"in America\" as a U.S. reference when conducting business in Brazil.\n", "\"American\" in the 1994 ''Associated Press Stylebook'' was defined as, \"An acceptable description for a resident of the United States. It also may be applied to any resident or citizen of nations in North or South America.\" Elsewhere, the ''AP Stylebook'' indicates that \"United States\" must \"be spelled out when used as a noun. Use U.S. (no space) only as an adjective.\"\n\nThe entry for \"America\" in ''The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage'' from 1999 reads:\n\n\nMedia releases from the Pope and Holy See frequently use \"America\" to refer to the United States, and \"American\" to denote something or someone from the United States.\n\n===International law===\n\nAt least one international law uses ''U.S. citizen'' in defining a citizen of the United States rather than ''American citizen''; for example, the English version of the North American Free Trade Agreement includes:\n\n\nMany international treaties use the terms ''American'' and ''American citizen'':\n* 1796 – The treaty between the United States and the Dey of the Regency of Algiers on March 7, 1796, protected \"American citizens\".\n* 1806 – The Louisiana Purchase Treaty between France and United States referred to \"American citizens\".\n* 1825 – The treaty between the United States and the Cheyenne tribe refers to \"American citizen\"s.\n* 1848 – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo between Mexico and the U.S. uses \"American Government\" to refer to the United States, and \"American tribunals\" to refer to U.S. courts.\n* 1858 – The Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the United States and Japan protected \"American citizens\" and also used \"American\" in other contexts.\n* 1898 – The Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War, known in Spanish as the '''' (\"Spain–United States War\") uses \"American\" in reference to United States troops.\n* 1966 – The United States–Thailand Treaty of Amity protects \"Americans\" and \"American corporations\".\n\n===U.S. commercial regulation===\nProducts that are labeled, advertised, and marketed in the U.S. as \"Made in the USA\" must be, as set by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), \"all or virtually all made in the U.S.\" The FTC, to prevent deception of customers and unfair competition, considers an unqualified claim of \"American Made\" to expressly claim exclusive manufacture in the U.S: \"The FTC Act gives the Commission the power to bring law enforcement actions against false or misleading claims that a product is of U.S. origin.\"\n", "\nThere are a number of alternatives to the demonym ''American'' as a citizen of the United States that do not simultaneously mean any inhabitant of the Americas. One uncommon alternative is ''Usonian'', which usually describes a certain style of residential architecture designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. Other alternatives have also surfaced, but most have fallen into disuse and obscurity. ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage'' says:\n\nNevertheless, no alternative to ''American'' is common.\n", "\n* Americans\n** Hyphenated Americans\n* Americas (terminology)\n* Names for United States citizens\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Other languages", "History", "Usage at the United Nations", "Cultural views", "In other contexts", "Alternatives", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Works cited", "External links" ]	American (word)
[ "\n\n'''Ada''' is a structured, statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language, extended from Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for design-by-contract, extremely strong typing, explicit concurrency, offering tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and non-determinism. Ada improves code safety and maintainability by using the compiler to find errors in favor of runtime errors. Ada is an international standard; the current version (known as Ada 2012) is defined by ISO/IEC 8652:2012.\n\nAda was originally designed by a team led by Jean Ichbiah of CII Honeywell Bull under contract to the United States Department of Defense (DoD) from 1977 to 1983 to supersede over 450 programming languages used by the DoD at that time. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who has been credited with being the first computer programmer.\n", "Ada was originally targeted at embedded and real-time systems. The Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming (OOP).\n\nFeatures of Ada include: strong typing, modularity mechanisms (packages), run-time checking, parallel processing (tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and nondeterministic select statements), exception handling, and generics. Ada 95 added support for object-oriented programming, including dynamic dispatch.\n\nThe syntax of Ada minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, and prefers English keywords (such as \"or else\" and \"and then\") to symbols (such as \"\n\" and \"&&\"). Ada uses the basic arithmetical operators \"+\", \"-\", \"\", and \"/\", but avoids using other symbols. Code blocks are delimited by words such as \"declare\", \"begin\", and \"end\", where the \"end\" (in most cases) is followed by the identifier of the block it closes (e.g., ''if … end if'', ''loop … end loop''). In the case of conditional blocks this avoids a ''dangling else'' that could pair with the wrong nested if-expression in other languages like C or Java.\n\nAda is designed for development of very large software systems. Ada packages can be compiled separately. Ada package specifications (the package interface) can also be compiled separately without the implementation to check for consistency. This makes it possible to detect problems early during the design phase, before implementation starts.\n\nA large number of compile-time checks are supported to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code. For example, the syntax requires explicitly named closing of blocks to prevent errors due to mismatched end tokens. The adherence to strong typing allows detection of many common software errors (wrong parameters, range violations, invalid references, mismatched types, etc.) either during compile-time, or otherwise during run-time. As concurrency is part of the language specification, the compiler can in some cases detect potential deadlocks. Compilers also commonly check for misspelled identifiers, visibility of packages, redundant declarations, etc. and can provide warnings and useful suggestions on how to fix the error.\n\nAda also supports run-time checks to protect against access to unallocated memory, buffer overflow errors, range violations, off-by-one errors, array access errors, and other detectable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of runtime efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, Ada is widely used in critical systems, where any anomaly might lead to very serious consequences, e.g., accidental death, injury or severe financial loss. Examples of systems where Ada is used include avionics, ATC, railways, banking, military and space technology.\n\nAda's dynamic memory management is high-level and type-safe. Ada does not have generic or untyped pointers; nor does it implicitly declare any pointer type. Instead, all dynamic memory allocation and deallocation must take place through explicitly declared ''access types''.\nEach access type has an associated ''storage pool'' that handles the low-level details of memory management; the programmer can either use the default storage pool or define new ones (this is particularly relevant for Non-Uniform Memory Access). It is even possible to declare several different access types that all designate the same type but use different storage pools.\nAlso, the language provides for ''accessibility checks'', both at compile time and at run time, that ensures that an ''access value'' cannot outlive the type of the object it points to.\n\nThough the semantics of the language allow automatic garbage collection of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it by default, as it would cause unpredictable behaviour in real-time systems. Ada does support a limited form of region-based memory management; also, creative use of storage pools can provide for a limited form of automatic garbage collection, since destroying a storage pool also destroys all the objects in the pool.\n\nAda was designed to resemble the English language in its syntax for comments: a double-dash (\"--\"), resembling an em dash, denotes comment text. Comments stop at end of line, so there is no danger of unclosed comments accidentally voiding whole sections of source code. Prefixing each line (or column) with \"--\" will skip all that code, while being clearly denoted as a column of repeated \"--\" down the page. There is no limit to the nesting of comments, thereby allowing prior code, with commented-out sections, to be commented-out as even larger sections. All Unicode characters are allowed in comments, such as for symbolic formulas (E0=m×c²). To the compiler, the double-dash is treated as end-of-line, allowing continued parsing of the language as a context-free grammar.\n\nThe semicolon (\";\") is a statement terminator, and the null or no-operation statement is null;. A single ; without a statement to terminate is not allowed.\n\nUnlike most ISO standards, the Ada language definition (known as the ''Ada Reference Manual'' or ''ARM'', or sometimes the ''Language Reference Manual'' or ''LRM'') is free content. Thus, it is a common reference for Ada programmers and not just programmers implementing Ada compilers. Apart from the reference manual, there is also an extensive rationale document which explains the language design and the use of various language constructs. This document is also widely used by programmers. When the language was revised, a new rationale document was written.\n\nOne notable free software tool that is used by many Ada programmers to aid them in writing Ada source code is the GNAT Programming Studio.\n", "In the 1970s, the US Department of Defense (DoD) was concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its embedded computer system projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In 1975, a working group, the High Order Language Working Group (HOLWG), was formed with the intent to reduce this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's and the UK Ministry of Defence requirements. After many iterations beginning with an original Straw man proposal the eventual programming language was named Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell from over 450 in 1983 to 37 by 1996.\n\nThe HOLWG working group crafted the Steelman language requirements, a series of documents stating the requirements they felt a programming language should satisfy. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in 1977 that no existing language met the specifications.\n\nRequests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red (Intermetrics led by Benjamin Brosgol), Green (CII Honeywell Bull, led by Jean Ichbiah), Blue (SofTech, led by John Goodenough) and Yellow (SRI International, led by Jay Spitzen). In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May 1979, the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada—after Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace. This proposal was influenced by the programming language LIS that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the 1970s. The preliminary Ada reference manual\nwas published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on December 10, 1980 (Ada Lovelace's birthday), and\ngiven the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada Lovelace's birth year. In 1981, C. A. R. Hoare took advantage of his Turing Award speech to criticize Ada for being overly complex and hence unreliable, but subsequently seemed to recant in the foreword he wrote for an Ada textbook.\n\nAda attracted much attention from the programming community as a whole during its early days. Its backers and others predicted that it might become a dominant language for general purpose programming and not just defense-related work. Ichbiah publicly stated that within ten years, only two programming languages would remain, Ada and Lisp. Early Ada compilers struggled to implement the large, complex language, and both compile-time and run-time performance tended to be slow and tools primitive. Compiler vendors expended most of their efforts in passing the massive, language-conformance-testing, government-required \"ACVC\" validation suite that was required in another novel feature of the Ada language effort.\n\nThe first validated Ada implementation was the NYU Ada/Ed translator, certified on April 11, 1983. NYU Ada/Ed is implemented in the high-level set language SETL. A number of commercial companies began offering Ada compilers and associated development tools, including Alsys, TeleSoft, DDC-I, Advanced Computer Techniques, Tartan Laboratories, TLD Systems, Verdix, and others.\n\nAugusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace.\nIn 1991, the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the ''Ada mandate'') for all software, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. The Department of Defense Ada mandate was effectively removed in 1997, as the DoD began to embrace COTS technology. Similar requirements existed in other NATO countries: Ada was required for NATO systems involving command and control and other functions, and Ada was the mandated or preferred language for defense-related applications in countries such as Sweden, Germany, and Canada.\n\nBy the late 1980s and early 1990s, Ada compilers had improved in performance, but there were still barriers to full exploitation of Ada's abilities, including a tasking model that was different from what most real-time programmers were used to.\n\nBecause of Ada's safety-critical support features, it is now used not only for military applications, but also in commercial projects where a software bug can have severe consequences, e.g., avionics and air traffic control, commercial rockets such as the Ariane 4 and 5, satellites and other space systems, railway transport and banking.\nFor example, the Airplane Information Management System, the fly-by-wire system software in the Boeing 777, was written in Ada. Developed by Honeywell Air Transport Systems in collaboration with consultants from DDC-I, it became arguably the best-known of any Ada project, civilian or military. The Canadian Automated Air Traffic System was written in 1 million lines of Ada (SLOC count). It featured advanced distributed processing, a distributed Ada database, and object-oriented design. Ada is also used in other air traffic systems, e.g., the UK’s next-generation Interim Future Area Control Tools Support (iFACTS) air traffic control system is designed and implemented using SPARK Ada.\nIt is also used in the French TVM in-cab signalling system on the TGV high-speed rail system, and the metro suburban trains in Paris, London, Hong Kong and New York City.\n", "The language became an ANSI standard in 1983 ( ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A), and without any further changes became\nan ISO standard in 1987 (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada 83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada 87, from the date of its adoption by ISO.\n\nAda 95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard ( ISO-8652:1995) was published in February 1995, making Ada 95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language. To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the US Air Force funded the development of the GNAT Compiler. Presently, the GNAT Compiler is part of the GNU Compiler Collection.\n\nWork has continued on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada 95 was published in October 2001, and a major Amendment, ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007 was published on March 9, 2007. At the Ada-Europe 2012 conference in Stockholm, the Ada Resource Association (ARA) and Ada-Europe announced the completion of the design of the latest version of the Ada programming language and the submission of the reference manual to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) for approval. ISO/IEC 8652:2012 was published in December 2012.\n\nOther related standards include ISO 8651-3:1988 ''Information processing systems—Computer graphics—Graphical Kernel System (GKS) language bindings—Part 3: Ada''.\n", "Ada is an ALGOL-like programming language featuring control structures with reserved words such as ''if'', ''then'', ''else'', ''while'', ''for'', and so on. However, Ada also has many data structuring facilities and other abstractions which were not included in the original ALGOL 60, such as type definitions, records, pointers, enumerations. Such constructs were in part inherited from or inspired by Pascal.\n\n=== \"Hello, world!\" in Ada ===\nA common example of a language's syntax is the Hello world program:\n(hello.adb)\n\nwith Ada.Text_IO; use Ada.Text_IO;\nprocedure Hello is\nbegin\n Put_Line (\"Hello, world!\");\nend Hello;\n\nThis program can be compiled by using the freely available open source compiler GNAT, by executing\ngnatmake hello.adb\n\n=== Data types ===\nAda's type system is not based on a set of predefined primitive types but allows users to declare their own types. This declaration in turn is not based on the internal representation of the type but on describing the goal which should be achieved. This allows the compiler to determine a suitable memory size for the type, and to check for violations of the type definition at compile time and run time (i.e., range violations, buffer overruns, type consistency, etc.). Ada supports numerical types defined by a range, modulo types, aggregate types (records and arrays), and enumeration types. Access types define a reference to an instance of a specified type; untyped pointers are not permitted.\nSpecial types provided by the language are task types and protected types.\n\nFor example, a date might be represented as:\n\n\ntype Day_type is range 1 .. 31;\ntype Month_type is range 1 .. 12;\ntype Year_type is range 1800 .. 2100;\ntype Hours is mod 24;\ntype Weekday is (Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday);\n\ntype Date is\n record\n Day : Day_type;\n Month : Month_type;\n Year : Year_type;\n end record;\n\n\nTypes can be refined by declaring subtypes:\n\nsubtype Working_Hours is Hours range 0 .. 12; -- at most 12 Hours to work a day\nsubtype Working_Day is Weekday range Monday .. Friday; -- Days to work\n\nWork_Load: constant array(Working_Day) of Working_Hours -- implicit type declaration\n := (Friday => 6, Monday => 4, others => 10); -- lookup table for working hours with initialization\n\n\n\nTypes can have modifiers such as ''limited, abstract, private'' etc. Private types can only be accessed and limited types can only be modified or copied within the scope of the package that defines them.\nAda 95 adds additional features for object-oriented extension of types.\n\n=== Control structures ===\nAda is a structured programming language, meaning that the flow of control is structured into standard statements. All standard constructs and deep level early exit are supported so the use of the also supported 'go to' commands is seldom needed.\n\n\n-- while a is not equal to b, loop.\nwhile a /= b loop\n Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line (\"Waiting\");\nend loop;\n\nif a > b then\n Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line (\"Condition met\");\nelse\n Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line (\"Condition not met\");\nend if;\n\nfor i in 1 .. 10 loop\n Ada.Text_IO.Put (\"Iteration: \");\n Ada.Text_IO.Put (i);\n Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line;\nend loop;\n\nloop\n a := a + 1;\n exit when a = 10;\nend loop;\n\ncase i is\n when 0 => Ada.Text_IO.Put (\"zero\");\n when 1 => Ada.Text_IO.Put (\"one\");\n when 2 => Ada.Text_IO.Put (\"two\");\n -- case statements have to cover all possible cases:\n when others => Ada.Text_IO.Put (\"none of the above\");\nend case;\n\nfor aWeekday in Weekday'Range loop -- loop over an enumeration\n Put_Line ( Weekday'Image(aWeekday) ); -- output string representation of an enumeration\n if aWeekday in Working_Day then -- check of a subtype of an enumeration\n Put_Line ( \" to work for \" &\n Working_Hours'Image (Work_Load(aWeekday)) ); -- access into a lookup table\n end if;\nend loop;\n\n\n=== Packages, procedures and functions ===\nAmong the parts of an Ada program are packages, procedures and functions.\n\nExample:\nPackage specification (example.ads)\n\npackage Example is\n type Number is range 1 .. 11;\n procedure Print_and_Increment (j: in out Number);\nend Example;\n\nPackage body (example.adb)\n\nwith Ada.Text_IO;\npackage body Example is\n\n i : Number := Number'First;\n\n procedure Print_and_Increment (j: in out Number) is\n\n function Next (k: in Number) return Number is\n begin\n return k + 1;\n end Next;\n\n begin\n Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line ( \"The total is: \" & Number'Image(j) );\n j := Next (j);\n end Print_and_Increment;\n\n-- package initialization executed when the package is elaborated\nbegin\n while i \nThis program can be compiled, e.g., by using the freely available open source compiler GNAT, by executing\ngnatmake -z example.adb\n\nPackages, procedures and functions can nest to any depth and each can also be the logical outermost block.\n\nEach package, procedure or function can have its own declarations of constants, types, variables, and other procedures, functions and packages, which can be declared in any order.\n\n=== Concurrency ===\nAda has language support for task-based concurrency. The fundamental concurrent unit in Ada is a ''task'' which is a built-in limited type. Tasks are specified in two parts – the task declaration defines the task interface (similar to a type declaration), the task body specifies the implementation of the task.\nDepending on the implementation, Ada tasks are either mapped to operating system threads or processes, or are scheduled internally by the Ada runtime.\n\nTasks can have entries for synchronisation (a form of synchronous message passing). Task entries are declared in the task specification. Each task entry can have one or more ''accept'' statements within the task body. If the control flow of the task reaches an accept statement, the task is blocked until the corresponding entry is called by another task (similarly, a calling task is blocked until the called task reaches the corresponding accept statement). Task entries can have parameters similar to procedures, allowing tasks to synchronously exchange data. In conjunction with ''select'' statements it is possible to define ''guards'' on accept statements (similar to Dijkstra's guarded commands).\n\nAda also offers ''protected objects'' for mutual exclusion. Protected objects are a monitor-like construct, but use guards instead of conditional variables for signaling (similar to conditional critical regions). Protected objects combine the data encapsulation and safe mutual exclusion from monitors, and entry guards from conditional critical regions. The main advantage over classical monitors is that conditional variables are not required for signaling, avoiding potential deadlocks due to incorrect locking semantics. Like tasks, the protected object is a built-in limited type, and it also has a declaration part and a body.\n\nA protected object consists of encapsulated private data (which can only be accessed from within the protected object), and procedures, functions and entries which are guaranteed to be mutually exclusive (with the only exception of functions, which are required to be side effect free and can therefore run concurrently with other functions). A task calling a protected object is blocked if another task is currently executing inside the same protected object, and released when this other task leaves the protected object. Blocked tasks are queued on the protected object ordered by time of arrival.\n\nProtected object entries are similar to procedures, but additionally have ''guards''. If a guard evaluates to false, a calling task is blocked and added to the queue of that entry; now another task can be admitted to the protected object, as no task is currently executing inside the protected object. Guards are re-evaluated whenever a task leaves the protected object, as this is the only time when the evaluation of guards can have changed.\n\nCalls to entries can be ''requeued'' to other entries with the same signature. A task that is requeued is blocked and added to the queue of the target entry; this means that the protected object is released and allows admission of another task.\n\nThe ''select'' statement in Ada can be used to implement non-blocking entry calls and accepts, non-deterministic selection of entries (also with guards), time-outs and aborts.\n\nThe following example illustrates some concepts of concurrent programming in Ada.\n\nwith Ada.Text_IO; use Ada.Text_IO;\n\nprocedure Traffic is\n\n type Airplane_ID is range 1..10; -- 10 airplanes\n\n task type Airplane (ID: Airplane_ID); -- task representing airplanes, with ID as initialisation parameter\n type Airplane_Access is access Airplane; -- reference type to Airplane\n\n protected type Runway is -- the shared runway (protected to allow concurrent access)\n entry Assign_Aircraft (ID: Airplane_ID); -- all entries are guaranteed mutually exclusive\n entry Cleared_Runway (ID: Airplane_ID);\n entry Wait_For_Clear;\n private\n Clear: Boolean := True; -- protected private data - generally more than just a flag...\n end Runway;\n type Runway_Access is access all Runway;\n\n -- the air traffic controller task takes requests for takeoff and landing\n task type Controller (My_Runway: Runway_Access) is\n -- task entries for synchronous message passing\n entry Request_Takeoff (ID: in Airplane_ID; Takeoff: out Runway_Access);\n entry Request_Approach(ID: in Airplane_ID; Approach: out Runway_Access);\n end Controller;\n\n -- allocation of instances\n Runway1 : aliased Runway; -- instantiate a runway\n Controller1: Controller (Runway1'Access); -- and a controller to manage it\n\n ------ the implementations of the above types ------\n protected body Runway is\n entry Assign_Aircraft (ID: Airplane_ID)\n when Clear is -- the entry guard - calling tasks are blocked until the condition is true\n begin\n Clear := False;\n Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & \" on runway \");\n end;\n\n entry Cleared_Runway (ID: Airplane_ID)\n when not Clear is\n begin\n Clear := True;\n Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & \" cleared runway \");\n end;\n\n entry Wait_For_Clear\n when Clear is\n begin\n null; -- no need to do anything here - a task can only enter if \"Clear\" is true\n end;\n end Runway;\n\n task body Controller is\n begin\n loop\n My_Runway.Wait_For_Clear; -- wait until runway is available (blocking call)\n select -- wait for two types of requests (whichever is runnable first)\n when Request_Approach'count = 0 => -- guard statement - only accept if there are no tasks queuing on Request_Approach\n accept Request_Takeoff (ID: in Airplane_ID; Takeoff: out Runway_Access)\n do -- start of synchronized part\n My_Runway.Assign_Aircraft (ID); -- reserve runway (potentially blocking call if protected object busy or entry guard false)\n Takeoff := My_Runway; -- assign \"out\" parameter value to tell airplane which runway\n end Request_Takeoff; -- end of the synchronised part\n or\n accept Request_Approach (ID: in Airplane_ID; Approach: out Runway_Access) do\n My_Runway.Assign_Aircraft (ID);\n Approach := My_Runway;\n end Request_Approach;\n or -- terminate if no tasks left who could call\n terminate;\n end select;\n end loop;\n end;\n\n task body Airplane is\n Rwy : Runway_Access;\n begin\n Controller1.Request_Takeoff (ID, Rwy); -- This call blocks until Controller task accepts and completes the accept block\n Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & \" taking off...\");\n delay 2.0;\n Rwy.Cleared_Runway (ID); -- call will not block as \"Clear\" in Rwy is now false and no other tasks should be inside protected object\n delay 5.0; -- fly around a bit...\n loop\n select -- try to request a runway\n Controller1.Request_Approach (ID, Rwy); -- this is a blocking call - will run on controller reaching accept block and return on completion\n exit; -- if call returned we're clear for landing - leave select block and proceed...\n or\n delay 3.0; -- timeout - if no answer in 3 seconds, do something else (everything in following block)\n Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & \" in holding pattern\"); -- simply print a message\n end select;\n end loop;\n delay 4.0; -- do landing approach...\n Put_Line (Airplane_ID'Image (ID) & \" touched down!\");\n Rwy.Cleared_Runway (ID); -- notify runway that we're done here.\n end;\n\n New_Airplane: Airplane_Access;\n\nbegin\n for I in Airplane_ID'Range loop -- create a few airplane tasks\n New_Airplane := new Airplane (I); -- will start running directly after creation\n delay 4.0;\n end loop;\nend Traffic;\n\n\n=== Pragmas ===\nA pragma is a compiler directive that conveys information to the compiler to allow specific manipulation of compiled output. Certain pragmas are built into the language while other are implementation-specific.\n\nExamples of common usage of compiler pragmas would be to disable certain features, such as run-time type checking or array subscript boundary checking, or to instruct the compiler to insert object code in lieu of a function call (as C/C++ does with inline functions).\n", " APSE – a specification for a programming environment to support software development in Ada\n* Ravenscar profile – a subset of the Ada tasking features designed for safety-critical hard real-time computing\n* SPARK (programming language) – a programming language consisting of a highly restricted subset of Ada, annotated with meta information describing desired component behavior and individual runtime requirements\n", "\n\n=== International standards ===\n* ISO/IEC 8652: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada\n* ISO/IEC 15291: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada Semantic Interface Specification (ASIS)\n* ISO/IEC 18009: Information technology—Programming languages—Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor (ACATS)\n* IEEE Standard 1003.5b-1996, the POSIX Ada binding\n* Ada Language Mapping Specification, the CORBA IDL to Ada mapping\n\n=== Rationale ===\n(These documents have been published in various forms including print.)\n* \n* \n\n\n=== Books ===\n\n \n* Jan Skansholm: ''Ada 95 From the Beginning'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Geoff Gilpin: ''Ada: A Guided Tour and Tutorial'', Prentice hall, \n* John Barnes: ''Programming in Ada 2005'', Addison-Wesley, \n* John Barnes: ''Programming in Ada plus Language Reference Manual'', Addison-Wesley, \n* John Barnes: ''Programming in Ada 95'', Addison-Wesley, \n* John Barnes: ''High Integrity Ada: The SPARK Approach'', Addison-Wesley, \n* John Barnes: ''High Integrity Software: The SPARK Approach to Safety and Security'', Addison-Wesley, \n* John Beidler: ''Data Structures and Algorithms: An Object-Oriented Approach Using Ada 95'', Springer-Verlag, \n* Dean W. Gonzalez: ''Ada Programmer's Handbook'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, \n* M. Ben-Ari: ''Ada for Software Engineers'', John Wiley & Sons, \n* Norman Cohen: ''Ada as a Second Language'', McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, \n* Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: ''Real-Time Systems and Programming Languages. Ada 95, Real-Time Java and Real-Time POSIX.'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: ''Concurrency in Ada'', Cambridge University Press, \n* Colin Atkinson: ''Object-Oriented Reuse, Concurrency and Distribution: An Ada-Based Approach'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Grady Booch, Doug Bryan: ''Software Engineering with Ada'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Do-While Jones: ''Ada in Action: With Practical Programming Examples'', John Wiley & Sons Inc, \n* Daniel Stubbs, Neil W. Webre: ''Data Structures with Abstract Data Types and Ada'', Brooks Cole, \n* Pascal Ledru: ''Distributed Programming in Ada with Protected Objects'', Dissertation.com, \n* Fintan Culwin: ''Ada, a Developmental Approach'', Prentice Hall, \n* John English, Fintan Culwin: ''Ada 95 the Craft of Object Oriented Programming'', Prentice Hall, \n* David A. Wheeler: ''Ada 95'', Springer-Verlag, \n* David R. Musser, Alexander Stepanov: ''The Ada Generic Library: Linear List Processing Packages'', Springer-Verlag, \n* Michael B. Feldman: ''Software Construction and Data Structures with Ada 95'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Simon Johnston: ''Ada 95 for C and C++ Programmers'', Addison-Wesley, \n* \"''Ada: Problem Solving and Program Design.''\" Feldman, Michael B. & Koffman, Elliot B., . Addison-Wesley Publishing Company; 1992 & 1993. 795 pages.\n* Michael B. Feldman, Elliot B. Koffman: ''Ada 95'', Addison-Wesley, \n* Nell B. Dale, Chip Weems, John McCormick: ''Programming and Problem Solving with Ada 95'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, \n* Nell B. Dale, John McCormick: ''Ada Plus Data Structures: An Object-Oriented Approach, 2nd edition'', Jones & Bartlett Publishers, \n* Bruce C. Krell: ''Developing With Ada: Life-Cycle Methods'', Bantam Dell Pub Group, \n* Judy Bishop: ''Distributed Ada: Developments and Experiences'', Cambridge University Press, \n* Bo Sanden: ''Software Systems Construction With Examples in Ada'', Prentice Hall, \n* Bruce Hillam: ''Introduction to Abstract Data Types Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, \n* David Rudd: ''Introduction to Software Design and Development With Ada'', Brooks Cole, \n* Ian C. Pyle: ''Developing Safety Systems: A Guide Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, \n* Louis Baker: ''Artificial Intelligence With Ada'', McGraw-Hill, \n* Alan Burns, Andy Wellings: ''HRT-HOOD: A Structured Design Method for Hard Real-Time Ada Systems'', North-Holland, \n* Walter Savitch, Charles Peterson: ''Ada: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Programming'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, \n* Mark Allen Weiss: ''Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Ada'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, \n* Henry Ledgard: ''ADA: An Introduction'' (Second Edition), Springer-Verlag, \n* Dines Bjørner; Ole N. Oest (eds.): ''Towards a Formal Description of Ada'', London: Springer-Verlag, 1980. \n\n\n=== Archives ===\n* Ada Programming Language Materials, 1981–1990. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Includes literature on software products designed for the Ada language; U.S. government publications, including Ada 9X project reports, technical reports, working papers, newsletters; and user group information.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n* \n* ACM SIGAda\n* Ada-Europe Organization\n* ISO/IEC/JTC1/SC22/WG9 Home of Ada Standards\n* Interview with S.Tucker Taft, Maintainer of Ada\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Features ", " History ", " Standardization ", " Language constructs ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Ada (programming language)
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alfonso Cuarón Orozco''' (; born November 28, 1961) is a Mexican film director, screenwriter, producer, and editor best known for his dramas ''A Little Princess'' (1995) and\n''Y Tu Mamá También'' (2001), the fantasy film ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban'' (2004), and science fiction thrillers ''Children of Men'' (2006) and ''Gravity'' (2013). Cuarón is the first Mexican director to win an Oscar for Best Director.\n\nMost of his work has been praised by both audiences and critics, and has been nominated for six Academy Awards including Best Original Screenplay for ''Y Tu Mamá También'', and both Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film Editing for ''Children of Men''. For ''Gravity'', Cuarón received several major accolades for his achievement in direction, winning in the respective categories at the Academy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, the BAFTA Awards and the Directors Guild of America; and in addition winning the BAFTA Award Best British Film and the Academy Award for Best Film Editing (shared with Mark Sanger). He has also been awarded the BAFTA Award for Best Film not in the English Language as one of the producers of ''Pan's Labyrinth'' (2006).\n\nCuarón's brother Carlos, as well as his son Jonás, are also writers and directors and have both acted as co-writers in some of his works. He is also friends with fellow Mexican directors Guillermo del Toro and Alejandro González Iñárritu, collectively known as \"The Three Amigos of Cinema.\"\n", "Cuarón was born in Mexico City, and is the son of Alfredo Cuarón, a nuclear physicist who worked for the United Nations' International Atomic Energy Agency for many years. He has two brothers, Carlos, also a filmmaker, and Alfredo, a conservation biologist.\n\nCuarón studied philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and filmmaking at CUEC (Centro Universitario de Estudios Cinematográficos), a school within the same university. There, he met the director Carlos Marcovich and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki, and they made what would be his first short film, ''Vengeance Is Mine''.\n", "\nCuarón began working in television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. His television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several Latin American film productions including ''Gaby: A True Story'' and ''Romero'', and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment. On January 12, 2014, Alfonso accepted the Golden Globe Award in the category Best Director for Gravity (The 71st Annual Golden Globe Awards, 2014). He also won two Oscars for Best Film Editing and Best Directing.\n\n===''Sólo con tu pareja''===\n''Sólo con tu pareja'' was a sex comedy about a womanizing businessman (played by Daniel Giménez Cacho) who, after having sex with an attractive nurse, is fooled into believing he's contracted AIDS. In addition to writing, producing and directing, Cuarón co-edited the film with Luis Patlán. It is somewhat unusual for directors to be credited co-editors, although the Coen Brothers and Robert Rodriguez have both directed and edited nearly all of their films. Cuarón continued this close involvement in editing on several of his later films.\n\nThe film, which also starred cabaret singer Astrid Hadad and model/actress Claudia Ramírez (with whom Cuarón was linked between 1989 and 1993), was a big hit in Mexico. After this success, director Sydney Pollack hired Cuarón to direct an episode of ''Fallen Angels'', a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included Steven Soderbergh, Jonathan Kaplan, Peter Bogdanovich and Tom Hanks.\n\n===International success===\nComic-Con San Diego (Estados Unidos).\nIn 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, ''A Little Princess'', an adaptation of Frances Hodgson Burnett's classic novel. Cuarón's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of Charles Dickens's ''Great Expectations'' starring Ethan Hawke, Gwyneth Paltrow and Robert De Niro.\n\nCuarón's next project found him returning to Mexico with a Spanish-speaking cast to film ''Y Tu Mamá También'', starring Gael García Bernal, Diego Luna and Maribel Verdú. It was a provocative and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive married woman that is much older than them. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. Cuarón shared an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay with co-writer and brother Carlos Cuarón.\n\nIn 2004, Cuarón directed the third film in the successful ''Harry Potter'' series, ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''. Cuarón faced criticism from some of the more purist ''Harry Potter'' fans for his approach to the film. At the time of the movie's release, however, author J. K. Rowling, who had seen and loved Cuarón's film ''Y Tu Mamá También'', said that it was her personal favorite from the series so far. Critically, the film was also better received than the first two installments, with some critics remarking its new tone and for being the first ''Harry Potter'' film to truly capture the essence of the novels. It remained as the most critically acclaimed film of the ''Harry Potter'' film franchise.\n\nCuarón's feature ''Children of Men'', an adaptation of the P. D. James novel starring Clive Owen, Julianne Moore and Michael Caine, received wide critical acclaim, including three Academy Award nominations. Cuarón himself received two nominations for his work on the film in Best Film Editing (with Alex Rodríguez) and Best Adapted Screenplay (with several collaborators).\n\nHe created the production and distribution company Esperanto Filmoj (''Esperanto Films'', named because of his support for the international language Esperanto), which has credits in the films ''Duck Season'', ''Pan's Labyrinth'', and ''Gravity''.\n\nCuarón also directed the controversial public service announcement \"I Am Autism\" for Autism Speaks that was sharply criticized by disability rights groups for its negative portrayal of autism.\n\nIn 2010, Cuarón began to develop the film ''Gravity'', a drama set in space. He was joined by producer David Heyman, with whom Cuarón worked on ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''. Starring Sandra Bullock and George Clooney, the film was released in the fall of 2013 and opened the 70th Venice International Film Festival in August. The film received ten Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Directing. Cuarón won for Best Directing, becoming the first Latin American to win the award, while he and Mark Sanger shared the award for Best Film Editing.\n\nIn 2013, Cuarón created ''Believe'', a science fiction/fantasy/adventure series that was broadcast as part of the 2013–14 United States network television schedule on NBC as a mid-season entry. The series was created by Cuarón for Bad Robot Productions and Warner Bros. Television. In 2014, ''TIME'' placed him in its list of \"100 Most Influential People in the World\" – Pioneers.\n\nIn May 2015 Cuarón was announced as the President of the Jury for the 72nd Venice International Film Festival.\n\nOn September 8, 2016, it was announced that he would be writing and directing a project focusing on a Mexican family living in Mexico City in the 1970s. Production is set to begin in fall 2016. The project will be produced by Cuarón, Gabriela Rodríguez and Nicolás Celis. On November 3, 2016, it was revealed that the crew was robbed on set during filming.\n", "Cuarón is a vegetarian and has been living in London since 2000. He was 20 when his girlfriend at the time became pregnant with Jonás. He was married to Italian actress and freelance journalist Annalisa Bugliani from 2001 to 2008. They have two children: daughter Tess Bu Cuarón (born 2003) and son Olmo Teodoro Cuarón (born 2005).\n", "===Feature films===\n\n\nYear\nFilm\nCredited as\n\n Director\nWriter\nProducer\nEditor\nAssistant director\nAssociate producer\n\n\n 1986\n ''Les Pyramides Bleues''\n \n \n\n\n \n\n\n\n 1989\n ''Romero''\n \n \n\n\n \n\n\n\n 1991\n ''Sólo con tu pareja''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 1995\n ''A Little Princess''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 1998\n ''Great Expectations''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 2001\n ''Y Tu Mamá También''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 2004\n ''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n ''Crónicas''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n ''The Assassination of Richard Nixon''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 2005\n ''Black Sun''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n 2006\n ''Children of Men''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n ''Pan's Labyrinth''\n\n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 2007\n ''Year of the Nail''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 2008\n ''Rudo y Cursi''\n \n \n \n \n \n\n\n\n 2010\n ''Biutiful''\n \n \n \n \n \n \n\n 2013\n ''Gravity''\n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n ''Aningaaq'' (''Gravity'' spin-off short)\n \n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n 2015\n ''Desierto''\n \n\n \n\n\n \n\n 2018\n ''Roma''\n \n \n \n \n\n \n\n\n===Short films===\n* ''Who's He Anyway'' (1983)\n* ''Vengeance Is Mine'' (1983) Co-director\n* ''Cuarteto para el fin del tiempo'' (1983)\n* ''Paris, je t'aime'' (2006) (segment \"Parc Monceau\")\n* ''The Shock Doctrine'' (2007)\n\n===Documentary films===\n* ''The Possibility of Hope'' (2007) Short\n* ''This Changes Everything'' (2015) Executive producer\n\n===TV===\n* ''La Hora Marcada'' (1986) (episodes \"Ángel Pérez\", \"El taxi\", \"Zangamanga\", \"No estoy jugando\" and \"A veces regresa\")\n* ''Fallen Angels'' (1993) (episode \"Murder, Obliquely\")\n* ''Believe'' (2014)\n", "\n\n\n Year\n Award\n Category\n Nominated work\n Result\n\n2001\nVenice Film Festival\nGolden Lion\n''Y tu mamá también''\n\n\nBest Screenplay\n\n\n2003\nAcademy Awards\nBest Screenplay – Original\n\n\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nBest Film Not in the English Language\n\n\nBest Screenplay – Original\n\n\nIndependent Spirit Awards\nBest Foreign Film\n\n\n2004\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nBAFTA Children's Award – Best Feature Film\n''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''\n\n\nSaturn Awards\n Best Fantasy Film\n\n\nBest Director\n\n\n\n2005\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nAlexander Korda Award for Best British Film\n\n\n2006\nVenice Film Festival\nGolden Lion\n''Children of Men''\n\n\nLaterna Magica Prize\n\n\nSaturn Awards\nBest Science Fiction Film\n\n\nBest Director\n\n\n2007\nAcademy Awards\nBest Screenplay – Adapted\n\n\nBest Editing\n\n\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nBest Film Not in the English Language\n''Pan's Labyrinth''\n\n\nSaturn Award\nBest International Film\n\n\nIndependent Spirit Awards\nBest Feature\n\n\n2011\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nBAFTA Children's Award – First Light Awards – Kids' Vote for Film of the Decade\n''Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban''\n\n\nMichael Balcon Award for Outstanding British Contribution to Cinema\n''Harry Potter'' series (shared with ''Harry Potter'' cast and crew)\n\n\n\n2013\nVenice Film Festival\nFuture Film Digital Award\n''Gravity''\n\n\n2014\nAcademy Awards\nBest Picture\n\n\nBest Directing\n\n\nBest Film Editing\n\n\nBritish Academy Film Awards\nBest Film\n\n\nBest Director\n\n\nAlexander Korda Award for Best British Film\n\n\nBest Original Screenplay\n\n\nBest Editing\n\n\nCritics' Choice Movie Award\nBest Director\n\n\nDirectors Guild of America Award\nOutstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures\n\n\nEmpire Awards\nBest Director\n\n\nGolden Globe Awards\nBest Director\n\n\nInternational Online Film Critics' Poll\nBest Editing\n\n\nProducers Guild of America Award\nBest Theatrical Motion Picture\n\n\nSaturn Award\nBest Science Fiction Film\n\n\nBest Director\n\n\nBest Editing\n\n\nBest Writing\n\n\nSilver Condor Award\nBest Foreign Film\n\n\n", "* Cha Cha Cha Films\n* Cinema of Mexico\n* List of Academy Award records\n", "\n", "\n* \n* Alfonso Cuarón: A Life in Pictures, BAFTA webcast, July 27, 2007\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Career", "Personal life", "Filmography", "Awards and nominations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alfonso Cuarón
[ "\n\n\n\n\nIn Christianity, '''Arianism''' is a Christological concept which asserts the belief that Jesus Christ is the Son of God who was begotten by God the Father at a point in time, is distinct from the Father and is therefore subordinate to the Father. Arian teachings were first attributed to Arius (c. AD 256–336), a Christian presbyter in Alexandria, Egypt. The teachings of Arius and his supporters were opposed to the theological views held by Homoousian Christians, regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. The Arian concept of Christ is based on the belief that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten by God the Father.\n\nThere was a dispute between two interpretations (Arianism and Homoousianism) based upon the theological orthodoxy of the time, both of them attempted to solve its theological dilemmas. So there were, initially, two equally orthodox interpretations which initiated a conflict in order to attract adepts and define the new orthodoxy. Homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two Ecumenical Councils. The Ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 deemed it to be a heresy. All mainstream branches of Christianity now consider Arianism to be heterodox and heretical.\n\nAccording to Everett Ferguson, \"The great majority of Christians had no clear views about the nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it.\" At the regional First Synod of Tyre in 335, Arius was exonerated. Constantine the Great was baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia. After the deaths of both Arius and Constantine, Arius was again anathemised and pronounced a heretic again at the Ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381. The Roman Emperors Constantius II (337–361) and Valens (364–378) were Arians or Semi-Arians, as was the first King of Italy, Odoacer (433?–493), and the Lombards were also Arians or Semi-Arians until the 7th century.\n\nArianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ—the Son of God, the Logos—as either a begotten being (as in Arianism proper and Anomoeanism) or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created (as in Semi-Arianism).\n", "\nArius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucian's private academy in Antioch and inherited from him a modified form of the teachings of Paul of Samosata. He taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. Arians taught that the Logos was a divine being begotten by God the Father before the creation of the world, made him a medium through whom everything else was created, and that the Son of God is subordinate to God the Father. A verse from Proverbs was also used: \"The Lord created me at the beginning of his work\" (Proverbs ). Therefore, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of God's creatures, and he was made \"God\" only by the Father's permission and power.\n\nControversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or Semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Such a deep controversy within the Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines. Of the roughly three hundred bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicea, two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed that condemned Arianism. Emperor Constantine also ordered a penalty of death for those who refused to surrender the Arian writings:\n\n\n", "Reconstructing what Arius actually taught, and why, is a formidable task, both because little of his own work survives except in quotations selected for polemical purposes by his opponents, and also because there is no certainty about what theological and philosophical traditions formed his thought.\n\nArians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. The letter of Arian Auxentius regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas gives a picture of Arian beliefs. Arian Ulfilas, who was ordained a bishop by Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary, believed: God, the Father, (\"unbegotten\" God; Almighty God) always existing and who is the only true God (John 17:3). The Son of God, Jesus Christ, (\"only-begotten God\" John 1:18; Mighty God Isaiah 9:6) begotten before time began (Proverbs 8:22-29; Revelation 3:14; Colossians 1:15) and who is Lord/Master (1 Cor 8:6). The Holy Spirit (the illuminating and sanctifying power, who is neither God the Father nor Lord/Master. First Corinthians - was cited as proof text:\n\n\n\nThe creed of Arian Ulfilas (c. 311 – 383), which concludes a letter praising him written by Auxentius, distinguishes God the Father (\"unbegotten\"), who is the only true God from Son of God (\"only-begotten\"), who is Lord/Master; and the Holy Spirit, the illuminating and sanctifying power, who is neither God the Father nor Lord/Master:\n\n\n\nA letter from Arius (c. 250–336) to the Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341) succinctly states the core beliefs of the Arians:\n\n\n\nAccording to Bart Ehrman, the dispute between Trinitarianism and Arianism was about:\n\n* has the Son always existed next to the Father or was the Son begotten at a certain time in eternity past?\n* is the Son equal to the Father or subordinated to the Father?\n* for Constantine it was minor theological claptrap that stood in the way of uniting the Empire, but for the theologians it was of huge importance.\n", "Arianism had several different variants, including Eunomianism and Homoian Arianism. Homoian Arianism is associated with Akakius and Eudoxius. Homoian Arianism avoided the use of the word ''ousia'' to describe the relation of Father to Son, and described these as \"like\" each other. Hanson lists twelve creeds that reflect the Homoian faith:\n# The Second Sirmian Creed of 357\n# The Creed of Nice (Constantinople) 360\n# The creed put forward by Akakius at Seleucia, 359\n# The Rule of Faith of Ulfilas\n# The creed uttered by Ulfilas on his deathbed, 383\n# The creed attributed to Eudoxius\n# The Creed of Auxentius of Milan, 364\n# The Creed of Germinius professed in correspondence with Valens and Ursacius\n# Palladius' rule of faith\n# Three credal statements found in fragments, subordinating the Son to the Father\n", "\n===First Council of Nicaea===\nConstantine burning Arian books, illustration from a compendium of canon law, ''c''. 825.\n\nIn 321, Arius was denounced by a synod at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria—counterparts to modern universities or seminaries—their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean.\n\nBy 325, the controversy had become significant enough that the Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the First Council of Nicaea, which condemned Arius's doctrine and formulated the original Nicene Creed of 325. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is Homoousios (), or Consubstantiality, meaning \"of the same substance\" or \"of one being\". (The Athanasian Creed is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.)\n\nThe focus of the Council of Nicaea was the nature of the Son of God and his precise relationship to God the Father. (see Paul of Samosata and the Synods of Antioch). Arius taught that Jesus Christ was divine/holy and was sent to earth for the salvation of mankind but that Jesus Christ was not equal to God the Father (infinite, primordial origin) in rank ''and'' that God the Father and the Son of God were not equal to the Holy Spirit (power of God the Father). Under Arianism, Christ was instead not consubstantial with God the Father since both the Father and the Son under Arius were made of \"like\" essence or being (see homoiousia) but not of the same essence or being (see homoousia).\n\nIn the Arian view, God the Father is a Deity and is divine ''and'' the Son of God is not a Deity but divine (I, the LORD, am Deity alone. Isaiah 46:9). God the Father sent Jesus to earth for salvation of mankind (John 17:3). Ousia is essence or being, in Eastern Christianity, and is the aspect of God that is completely incomprehensible to mankind and human perception. It is all that subsists by itself and which has not its being in another, God the Father and God the Son and God the Holy Spirit all being uncreated.\n\nAccording to the teaching of Arius, the pre-existent Logos and thus the incarnate Jesus Christ was a begotten being; only the Son was directly begotten by God the Father, before ages, but was of a distinct, though similar, essence or substance from the Creator. His opponents argued that this would make Jesus less than God and that this was heretical. Much of the distinction between the differing factions was over the phrasing that Christ expressed in the New Testament to express submission to God the Father. The theological term for this submission is kenosis. This Ecumenical council declared that Jesus Christ was a distinct being of God in existence or reality (hypostasis), which the Latin fathers translated as persona. Jesus was God in essence, being, and/or nature (ousia), which the Latin fathers translated as substantia.\n\nConstantine is believed to have exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed—Arius himself, the deacon Euzoios, and the Libyan bishops Theonas of Marmarica and Secundus of Ptolemais—and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in condemnation of Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis of Nicaea. The Emperor also ordered all copies of the ''Thalia'', the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be burned. However, there is no evidence that his son and ultimate successor, Constantius II, who was an Arian Christian, was exiled.\n\nAlthough he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicaea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient toward those condemned and exiled at the council. First he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a protégé of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius's rehabilitation.\n\nAt the First Synod of Tyre in AD 335, they brought accusations against Athanasius, now bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius. After this, Constantine had Athanasius banished since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the Synod of Jerusalem under Constantine's direction readmitted Arius to communion in AD 336. Arius died on the way to this event in Constantinople. Some scholars suggest that Arius may have been poisoned by his opponents. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favor, and when Constantine, who had been a catechumen much of his adult life, accepted baptism on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia.\n\nThe historian Jacob Burckhardt wrote of the Council: \n\n\n===Aftermath of Nicaea===\nThe Council of Nicaea did not end the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the ''homoousios'', the central term of the Nicene creed, as it had been used by Paul of Samosata, who had advocated a monarchianist Christology. Both the man and his teaching, including the term ''homoousios'', had been condemned by the Synods of Antioch in 269.\n\nHence, after Constantine's death in 337, open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire, actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made bishop of Constantinople.\n\nConstantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene creed, especially St Athanasius of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In 355 Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy toward the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling Pope Liberius and installing Antipope Felix II.\n\nThe third Council of Sirmium in 357 was the high point of Arianism. The Seventh Arian Confession (Second Sirmium Confession) held that both ''homoousios'' (of one substance) and ''homoiousios'' (of similar substance) were unbiblical and that the Father is greater than the Son. (This confession was later known as the Blasphemy of Sirmium.)\n\n\nBut since many persons are disturbed by questions concerning what is called in Latin ''substantia'', but in Greek ''ousia'', that is, to make it understood more exactly, as to 'coessential,' or what is called, 'like-in-essence,' there ought to be no mention of any of these at all, nor exposition of them in the Church, for this reason and for this consideration, that in divine Scripture nothing is written about them, and that they are above men's knowledge and above men's understanding;\n\nAs debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term ''homoiousios'' (alike in substance) to the Nicene ''homoousios'', while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and coeternality of the persons of the Trinity. Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called \"semi-Arians\" by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (''homoios'') the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (''anhomoios'') the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third.\n\nEpiphanius of Salamis labelled the party of Basil of Ancyra in 358 \"Semi-Arianism\". This is considered unfair by Kelly who states that some members of the group were virtually orthodox from the start but disliked the adjective ''homoousios'' while others had moved in that direction after the out-and-out Arians had come into the open.\n\nThe debates among these groups resulted in numerous synods, among them the Council of Sardica in 343, the Council of Sirmium in 358 and the double Council of Rimini and Seleucia in 359, and no fewer than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, leading the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus to comment sarcastically: \"The highways were covered with galloping bishops.\" None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint Jerome remarked that the world \"awoke with a groan to find itself Arian.\"\n\nAfter Constantius' death in 361, his successor Julian, a devotee of Rome's pagan gods, declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this resulted in further increasing dissension among Nicene Christians. The Emperor Valens, however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the \"Homoian\" party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire, (e.g., St Hilary of Poitiers to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene creed and the ''homoousios'' and the Eastern semi-Arians.\n\n===Council of Constantinople===\n\nIt was not until the co-reigns of Gratian and Theodosius that Arianism was effectively wiped out among the ruling class and elite of the Eastern Empire. Theodosius' wife St Flacilla was instrumental in his campaign to end Arianism. Valens died in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and was succeeded by Theodosius I, who adhered to the Nicene creed. This allowed for settling the dispute.\n\nTwo days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, 24 November 380, he expelled the Homoiousian bishop, Demophilus of Constantinople, and surrendered the churches of that city to Gregory Nazianzus, the leader of the rather small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world. In February he and Gratian had published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith), or be handed over for punishment for not doing so.\n\nAlthough much of the church hierarchy in the East had opposed the Nicene creed in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to achieve unity on the basis of the Nicene creed. In 381, at the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed of 381, which was supplemented in regard to the Holy Spirit, as well as some other changes: see Comparison between Creed of 325 and Creed of 381. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples.\n", "\n\nThe ceiling mosaic of the Arian Baptistry.\nDuring the time of Arianism's flowering in Constantinople, the Gothic convert Ulfilas (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic barbarians across the Danube, a mission favored for political reasons by emperor Constantius II. Ulfilas' initial success in converting this Germanic people to an Arian form of Christianity was strengthened by later events. When the Germanic peoples entered the provinces of the Western Roman Empire and began founding their own kingdoms there, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century.\n\nThe conflict in the 4th century AD had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church. In contrast, among the Arian German kingdoms established in the collapsing Western Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers. The Germanic elites were Arians, and the Romance majority population was Nicene.\n\nMost Germanic tribes were generally tolerant of the Nicene beliefs of their subjects. However, the Vandals tried for several decades to force their Arian beliefs on their North African Nicene subjects, exiling Nicene clergy, dissolving monasteries, and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Nicene Christians.\n\nThe apparent resurgence of Arianism after Nicaea was more an anti-Nicene reaction exploited by Arian sympathizers than a pro-Arian development. By the end of the 4th century it had surrendered its remaining ground to Trinitarianism. In western Europe, Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas, the Arian missionary to the barbarian Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths, Lombards and Vandals. By the 8th century it had ceased to be the tribes' mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587 and Aripert I of the Lombards in 653.\n\nThe Franks and the Anglo-Saxons were unlike the other Germanic peoples in that they entered the empire as pagans and converted to Chalcedonian Christianity directly, guided by their kings, Clovis and Æthelberht of Kent. The remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the remnants were dispersed to the fringes of the empire and became lost to history. The Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals. Following their final defeat at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, the Ostrogoths went back north and (re)settled in south Austria.\nOnce the Orthodox Trinitarians succeeded in defeating Arianism, they censored any signs that the perceived heresy left behind. This mosaic in Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna has had images of the Arian king, Theoderic, and his court removed. On some columns their hands remain.\n", "Much of south-eastern Europe and central Europe, including many of the Goths and Vandals respectively, had embraced Arianism (the Visigoths converted to Arian Christianity in 376), which led to Arianism being a religious factor in various wars in the Roman Empire. In the west, organized Arianism survived in North Africa, in Hispania, and parts of Italy until it was finally suppressed in the 6th and 7th centuries. Grimwald, King of the Lombards (662–671), and his young son and successor Garibald (671), were the last Arian kings in Europe.\n", "Following the Protestant Reformation from 1517, it did not take long for Arian and other non-trinitarian views to resurface. The first recorded English antitrinitarian was John Assheton who was forced to recant before Thomas Cranmer in 1548. At the Anabaptist Council of Venice 1550, the early Italian instigators of the Radical Reformation committed to the views of Miguel Servetus (burned alive by Calvin in 1553), and these were promulgated by Giorgio Biandrata and others into Poland and Transylvania.\n\nThe antitrinitarian wing of the Polish Reformation separated from the Calvinist ''ecclesia maior'' to form the ''ecclesia minor'' or Polish Brethren. These were commonly referred to as \"Arians\" due to their rejection of the Trinity, though in fact the Socinians, as they were later known, went further than Arius to the position of Photinus. The epithet \"Arian\" was also applied to the early Unitarians such as John Biddle though in denial of the pre-existence of Christ they were again largely Socinians not Arians.\n\nIn the 18th century the \"dominant trend\" in Britain, particularly in Latitudinarianism, was towards Arianism, with which the names of Samuel Clarke, Benjamin Hoadly, William Whiston and Isaac Newton are associated. To quote the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' article on Arianism: \"In modern times some Unitarians are virtually Arians in that they are unwilling either to reduce Christ to a mere human being or to attribute to him a divine nature identical with that of the Father.\" However, their doctrines cannot be considered representative of traditional Arian doctrines or vice versa.\n\nA similar view was held by the ancient anti-Nicene Pneumatomachi (Greek: , \"breath\" or \"spirit\" and \"fighters\", combining as \"fighters against the spirit\"), so called because they opposed the deifying of the Nicene Holy Ghost. However, the Pneumatomachi were adherents of Macedonianism, and though their beliefs were somewhat reminiscent of Arianism, they were distinct enough to be distinguishably different.\n\nThe Iglesia ni Cristo is one of the largest groups that teaches a similar doctrine, though they are really closer to Socinianism, believing the Word in John 1:1 is God's plan of salvation, not Christ. So Christ did not preexist.\n", "Jehovah's Witnesses are often referred to as \"modern-day Arians\" or they are sometimes referred to as \"Semi-Arians\", usually by their opponents. While there are some significant similarities in theology and doctrine, the Witnesses differ from Arians by saying that the Son can fully know the Father (something which Arius himself denied), and by their denial of personality to the Holy Spirit. The original Arians also generally prayed directly to Jesus, whereas the Witnesses pray to God, through Jesus as a mediator.\n\n===Adherents===\nThe teachings of the first two ecumenical councils – which entirely reject Arianism – are held by the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East and all churches founded during the Reformation in the 16th century or influenced by it (Lutheran, Reformed/Presbyterian, and Anglican). Also, nearly all Protestant groups (such as Methodists, Baptists, and most Pentecostals) entirely reject the teachings associated with Arianism. Modern groups which currently appear to embrace some of the principles of Arianism include Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses. Although the origins of their beliefs are not necessarily attributed to the teachings of Arius, many of the core beliefs of Unitarians and Jehovah's Witnesses are entirely similar to them.\n\nThe Church of God (7th day) - Salem Conference can be considered Arian:\n\n\nOther groups which oppose the belief in the Trinity are not necessarily Arian.\n* The Iglesia ni Cristo, Christadelphians, Church of God General Conference and other \"Biblical Unitarians\" are typically Socinian in their Christology, not Arian.\n* There are also various Binitarian churches, which basically believe that God is two persons, the Father and the Son, but they believe that the Holy Spirit is not a person. They include the Church of God (Seventh Day) and its various offshoots, in particular the former Radio Church of God, founded by Herbert W. Armstrong, renamed the Worldwide Church of God, which after Armstrong's death converted to Trinitarianism, causing many small breakaway churches to form, and most of them remain loyal to the teachings of Armstrong, for example the Restored Church of God, the United Church of God, the Philadelphia Church of God, the Living Church of God, and many others. Other Binitarian churches include the Gospel Assemblies, a group of Pentecostal denominations which believe that God adopted the name Jesus, and the Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite), an offshoot of Mormonism, which believes that God is two personages, not two persons. Binitarian churches generally believe that the Father is greater than the Son, a view somewhat similar to Arianism.\n", "\n\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n* Part I, Part II, Part III, Part IV, Part V, Part VI, Part VII, Part VIII\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n", "\n* Documents of the Early Arian Controversy Chronological survey of the sources\n* English translations of all extant letters relating to early Arianism\n* A map of early sympathizers with Arius\n* \n* Jewish Encyclopedia: Arianism\n* Concordia Cyclopedia: Arianism (page 1) (page 2) (page 3)\n* \n* ''The Arians of the fourth century'' by John Henry \"Cardinal\" Newman in \"btm\" format\n* Concise Summary of the Arian Controversy\n* Arianism Today\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origin", "Beliefs", "Homoian Arianism", "Struggles with Orthodoxy", "Among medieval Germanic tribes", "From the 5th to the 7th century", "From the 16th to the 19th century", " Today ", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arianism
[ "\nDenarius, struck 140 AD with portrait of Antoninus Pius (obverse) and his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (reverse).\n\n\n'''Antoninus Pius''' (; 19 September 867 March 161), also known as '''Antoninus''', was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was one of the Five Good Emperors in the Nerva–Antonine dynasty and the Aurelii.\n\nBorn into a senatorial family, Antoninus held various offices during the reign of emperor Hadrian, acquiring favour which saw him adopted as Hadrian's son and successor shortly before Hadrian's death. He acquired the name Pius after his accession to the throne, either because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father Hadrian, or because he had saved senators sentenced to death by Hadrian in his later years.\n\nHis reign is notable for the peaceful state of the Empire, with no major revolts or military incursions during this time, and for his governing without ever leaving Italy. A successful military campaign in southern Scotland early in his reign resulted in the construction of the Antonine Wall. Antoninus was an effective administrator, leaving his successors a large surplus in the treasury, expanding free access to drinking water throughout the Empire, encouraging legal conformity, and facilitating the enfranchisement of freed slaves.\n\nHe died of illness in 161 and was succeeded by his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as co-emperors. He was the last Roman emperor to have been born in the first century AD.\n", "\n===Childhood and family===\nHe was born as the only child of Titus Aurelius Fulvus, consul in 89 whose family came from Nemausus (modern Nîmes). Titus Aurelius Fulvius was the son of a senator of the same name, who, as legate of Legio III Gallica, had supported Vespasian in his bid to the Imperial office and been rewarded with a suffect consulship, plus an ordinary one under Domitian in 85. The Aurelii Fulvii were therefore a relatively new senatorial family from Gallia Narbonensis whose rise to prominence was supported by the Flavians. The link between Antoninus' family and their home province explains the increasing importance of the post of Proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis during the late Second Century.\n\nAntoninus was born near Lanuvium and his mother was Arria Fadilla. Antoninus’ father died shortly after his 89 ordinary consulship, his son being raised by his maternal grandfather Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, reputed by contemporaries to be a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger. The Arrii Antoninii were an older senatorial family from Italy, very influential during Nerva's reign. Arria Fadilla, Antoninus' mother, married afterwards Publius Julius Lupus, a man of consular rank, suffect consul in 98, and two daughters, Arria Lupula and Julia Fadilla, were born from that union.\n\n===Marriage and children===\nSome time between 110 and 115, Antoninus married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder. They are believed to have enjoyed a happy marriage. Faustina was the daughter of consul Marcus Annius Verus and Rupilia Faustina (a half-sister to Roman Empress Vibia Sabina). Faustina was a beautiful woman, and despite (basically unproven) rumours about her character, it is clear that Antoninus cared for her deeply.\n\nFaustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters. They were:\n* Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome.\n* Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. His name appears on a Greek Imperial coin.\n* Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Lucius Lamia Silvanus, consul 145. She appeared to have no children with her husband and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy.\n* Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125–130–175), a future Roman Empress, married her maternal cousin, future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 146.\n\nWhen Faustina died in 141, Antoninus was greatly distressed. In honour of her memory, he asked the Senate to deify her as a goddess, and authorised the construction of a temple to be built in the Roman Forum in her name, with priestesses serving in her temple. He had various coins with her portrait struck in her honor. These coins were scripted ‘DIVA FAUSTINA’ and were elaborately decorated. He further created a charity which he founded and called it ''Puellae Faustinianae'' or ''Girls of Faustina'', which assisted destitute girls of good family. Finally, Antoninus created a new ''alimenta'' (see Grain supply to the city of Rome).\n\nThe emperor never remarried. Instead, he lived with Galena Lysistrata, one of Faustina's freed women. Concubinage was a form of female companionship sometimes chosen by powerful men in Ancient Rome, especially widowers like Vespasian, and Marcus Aurelius. Their union could not produce any legitimate offspring who could threaten any heirs, such as those of Antoninus. Also, as one could not have a wife and an official concubine (or two concubines) at the same time, Antoninus avoided being pressed into a marriage with a noblewoman from another family (Later, Marcus Aurelius would also reject the advances of his former fiancee Ceionia Fabia, Lucius Verus's sister, on the grounds of protecting his children from a stepmother, and took a concubine instead).\n\n===Favor with Hadrian===\nBust of Emperor Hadrian. Roman 117-138 CE. Probably From Rome, Italy. Formerly in the Townley Collection. Now housed in the British Museum, London.\nMarble bust of Emperor Antoninus Pius. 138-161 CE. From the house of Jason Magnus at Cyrene, modern-day Libya. The British Museum, London\n\nHaving filled the offices of quaestor and praetor with more than usual success, he obtained the consulship in 120. He was next appointed by the Emperor Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia, then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia, probably during 134–135.\n\nHe acquired much favor with the Emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February 138, after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius, on the condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Lucius Aelius, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus.\n\nBy this scheme, Verus, who was already Hadrian's adoptive grandson through his natural father, remained Hadrian's adoptive grandson through his new father. The adoption of Marcus Aurelius was probably a suggestion of Antoninus himself, since the former was the nephew of the latter's wife and would be his favorite son.\n", "Statue of Antonius Pius in military garb and muscle cuirass, from the Museo Chiaramonti (Vatican Museums).\nThe Roman Empire during the reign of Antoninus Pius.\nCyrene, North Africa (British Museum).\nFaustina in the Roman Forum (now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda). The emperor and his ''Augusta'' were deified after their death by Marcus Aurelius.\n\nOn his accession, Antoninus' name and style became ''Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pontifex Maximus''. One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the Senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is the most likely reason given for his title of ''Pius'' (dutiful in affection; compare ''pietas''). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death.\n\nImmediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requested that his marriage arrangements be amended: Marcus' betrothal to Ceionia Fabia would be annulled, and he would be betrothed to Faustina, Antoninus' daughter, instead. Faustina's betrothal to Ceionia's brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. Marcus consented to Antoninus' proposal.\n\nAntoninus built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. Antoninus made few initial changes when he became emperor, leaving intact as far as possible the arrangements instituted by Hadrian. Epigraphical and prosopographical research has revealed that Antoninus' imperial ruling team centered around a group of closely knit senatorial families, most of them members of the priestly congregation for the cult of Hadrian, the ''sodales Hadrianales''. According to the German historian H.G. Pflaum, prosopographical research of Antoninus' ruling team allows us to grasp the deeply conservative character of the ruling senatorial caste\n\n===A non-military reign===\n\nThere are no records of any military related acts in his time in which he participated. One modern scholar has written \"It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion\".\n\nHis reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate; notwithstanding the fact that there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time. Such disturbances happened in Mauretania – where a senator was named as governor of Mauretania Tingitana in place of the usual equestrian procurator and cavalry reinforcements from Panonnia were brought in, towns such as Sala and Tipasa being fortified. Similar disturbances took place in Iudaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britannia, none of them being considered serious. It was however in Britain that Antoninus decided to follow a new, more aggressive path, with the appointment of a new governor in 139, Quintus Lollius Urbicus a native of Numidia and previously governor of Germania Inferior.\n\nUnder instructions from the emperor, Lollius undertook an invasion of southern Scotland, winning some significant victories, and constructing the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. The wall, however, was soon gradually decommissioned during the mid-150s and eventually abandoned late during the reign (early 160s), for reasons that are still not quite clear. Antonine's Wall is mentioned in just one literary source, Antoninus' biography in the Historia Augusta. Pausanias makes a brief and confused mention of a war in Britain. In one inscription honoring Antoninus, erected by Legio II Augusta, which participated in the building of the Wall, a relief showing four naked prisoners, one of them beheaded, seems to stand for some actual warfare.\n\nAlthough Antonine's Wall was, in principle, much shorter and at first sight more defensible than Hadrian's Wall, the additional area that it enclosed within the Empire was barren, with the effect that supply lines to it were strained enough that the costs from maintaining the additional territory outweighed the benefits of doing so. It has been therefore speculated that the invasion of Lowland Scotland and the building of the wall had to do mostly with internal politics, that is, offering Antoninus an opportunity to gain some modicum of necessary military prestige at the start of his reign. Actually, the campaign in Britannia was followed by an Imperial salutation – that is, by Antoninus formally taking for the second (and last) time the title of Imperator – in 142. The fact that around the same time coins were struck announcing a victory in Britain points to Antoninus' need to publicize his achievements. The orator Fronto was later to say that, although Antoninus bestowed the direction of the British campaign to others, he should be regarded as the helmsman who directed the voyage, whose glory, therefore, belonged to him.\n\nThat this quest for some military achievement responded to an actual need, is proved by the fact that, although generally peaceful, Antoninus' reign was not free from attempts of usurpation: Historia Augusta mentions two, made by senators Cornelius Priscianus (by the way, Lollius Urbicus' successor as governor of Britain) and Atilius Rufius Titianus – both confirmed by the Fasti Ostienses as well as by the erasing of Priscianus' name from an inscription In both cases, Antoninus was not in formal charge of the ensuing repression: Priscianus committed suicide and Titianus was found guilty by the Senate, with Antoninus abstaining from sequestering their families' properties\n\nThere were also some troubles in Dacia Inferior which required the granting of additional powers to the procurator governor and the dispatchment of additional soldiers to the province. On the Northern Black Sea coast, the Greek city of Olbia was held against the Scythians. Also during his reign the governor of Upper Germany, probably Caius Popillius Carus Pedo, built new fortifications in the Agri Decumates, advancing the Limes Germanicus fifteen miles forward in his province and neighboring Raetia. In the East, Roman suzerainty over Armenia was retained by the 140 choosing of Arsacid scion Sohaemus as client king.\n\nNevertheless, Antoninus was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during his reign, but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations.\n\nAntoninus was the last Roman Emperor recognised by the Indian Kingdoms. Raoul McLaughlin quotes Aurelius Victor as saying \" The Indians, the Bactrians and the Hyrcanians all sent ambassadors to Antoninus. They had all heard about the spirit of justice held by this great emperor, justice that was heightened by his handsome and grave countenance, and his slim and vigorous figure.\" Due to the outbreak of the Antonine epidemic and wars against northern Germanic tribes, the reign of Marcus Aurelius was forced to alter the focus of foreign policies and matters of the Far East was increasingly abandoned in favour of those directly concerning the Empire's survival.\n\n===Economy and administration===\nAn aureus of Antoninus Pius, 145 AD\nAntoninus was regarded as a skilled administrator and as a builder. In spite of an extensive building directive – the free access of the people of Rome to drinking water was expanded with the construction of aqueducts, not only in Rome but throughout the Empire, as well as bridges and roads – the emperor still managed to leave behind a sizable public treasury of around two and a half million sesterces (Rome would not witness another Emperor leaving his successor with a surplus for a long time.) But this treasury was depleted almost immediately after Antoninus's reign due to the plague brought back by soldiers after the Parthian victory).\n\nThe Emperor also famously suspended the collection of taxes from cities affected by natural disasters, such as when fires struck Rome and Narbona, and earthquakes affected Rhodes and the Province of Asia. He offered hefty financial grants for rebuilding and recovery of various Greek cities after two serious earthquakes: the first, ''circa'' 140, which affected mostly Rhodes and other islands; the second, in 152, which hit Cyzicus – where the huge and newly built Temple to Hadrian was destroyed – Ephesus and Smyrna. Antoninus' financial help earned him praise by Greek writers such as Aelius Aristides and Pausanias. These cities received from Antoninus the usual honorific accolades, such as when he commended that all governors of Asia should enter the province, when taking office, by way of Ephesus. Ephesus was specially favoured by Antoninus, who confirmed and upheld its first place in the list of imperial honor titles, as opposed to Smyrna and Pergamon.\n\nIn his dealings with Greek-speaking cities, Antoninus followed the policy adopted by Hadrian of ingratiating himself with local elites, specially with local intellectuals: philosophers, teachers of literature, rhetoricians and physicians were explicitly exempted from any duties involving private spending for civic purposes – a privilege granted by Hadrian that Antoninus confirmed by means of an edict preserved in the Digest (27.1.6.8). Antoninus also created a chair for the teaching of rhetoric in Athens.\n\nAntoninus was known as an avid observer of rites of religion and of formal celebrations – both Roman and foreign. He is known for having increasingly formalized the official cult offered to the Great Mother, which from his reign onwards included a bull sacrifice, a taurobolium, formerly only a private ritual, now being also performed for the sake of the Emperor's welfare. Antoninus also offered patronage to the worship of Mithras, to whom he erected a temple in Ostia. In 148, he presided over the celebrations of the 900th anniversary of the founding of Rome.\n\n===Legal reforms===\nThe bust of Antoninus Pius at the Museo del Prado, Madrid\nCopy inscribed in marble of a letter from Antoninus Pius to the Ephesians, from the Bouleuterion at Ephesus, 140-144 AD, explaining how the emperor resolved a dispute between the Roman cities of Ephesus and Smyrna, British Museum\nAntoninus tried to portray himself as a magistrate of the ''res publica'', no matter how extended and ill-defined his competences were. He is credited with the splitting of the imperial treasury, the Fiscus. This splitting had to do with the division of imperial properties into two parts: firstly, the fiscus itself – or ''patrimonium'', meaning the properties of the \"Crown\", the hereditary properties of each succeeding person that sat on the throne, transmitted to his successors in office, regardless of their being members of the imperial family or not; secondly, the ''res privata'', the \"private\" properties tied to the personal maintenance of the Emperor and his family. An anecdote in the Historia Augusta biography, where Antoninus replies to Faustina – who complained about his stinginess – that \"we have gained an empire and lost even what we had before\" possibly relates to Antoninus' actual concerns at the creation of the ''res privata''. While still a private citizen, Antoninus had increased his personal fortune greatly by mean of various legacies, the consequence – we are told – of his caring scrupulously for his relatives.\n\nThe ''res privata'' lands could be sold and/or given away, while the ''patrimonium'' properties were regarded as public. It was a way of pretending that the Imperial function – and most properties attached to it – was a public one, formally subject to the authority of the Senate and the Roman people. That the distinction played no part in subsequent political history – that the ''personal'' power of the princeps absorbed his role as office-holder – proves that the autocratic logic of the imperial order had already subsumed the old republican institutions.\n\nOf the public transactions of this period there is only the scantiest of information, but, to judge by what is extant, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after the reign. However, Antoninus did take a great interest in the revision and practice of the law throughout the empire. One of his chief concerns was to having local communities conform their legal procedures to existing Roman norms: in a case concerning repression of banditry by local police officers (\"irenarchs\") in Asia Minor, Antoninus ordered that these officers should not treat suspects as already condemned, and also keep a detailed copy of their interrogations, to be used in the possibility of an appeal to the Roman governor. Also, although Antoninus was not an innovator, he would not always follow the absolute letter of the law; rather he was driven by concerns over humanity and equality, and introduced into Roman law many important new principles based upon this notion.\n\nIn this, the emperor was assisted by five chief lawyers: L. Fulvius Aburnius Valens, an author of legal treatises; L. Ulpius Marcellus, a prolific writer; and three others . These last three included L. Volusius Maecianus, a former military officer turned by Antoninus into a civil procurator, and who, in view of his subsequent career (discovered on the basis of epigraphical and prosopographical research) was the Emperor's most important legal adviser. Maecianus would eventually be chosen to occupy various prefectures (see below) as well as to conduct the legal studies of Marcus Aurelius. He was also the author of a large work on Fidei Commissa (Testamentary Trusts). As a hallmark of the increased connection between jurists and the imperial government, Antoninus' reign also saw the appearance of the ''Institutes of Gaius'', an elementary legal manual for beginners (see Gaius (jurist)).\n\nAntoninus passed measures to facilitate the enfranchisement of slaves. Mostly, he favoured the principle of ''favor libertatis'', giving the putative freedman the benefit of the doubt when the claim to freedom was not clearcut. Also, he punished the killing of a slave by his/her master without previous trial and determined that slaves could be forcibly sold to another master by a proconsul in cases of consistent mistreatment. Antoninus upheld the enforcement of contracts for selling of female slaves forbidding their further employment in prostitution. In criminal law, Antoninus introduced the important principle that accused persons are not to be treated as guilty before trial – as in the case of the irenarchs (see above). He also asserted the principle that the trial was to be held, and the punishment inflicted, in the place where the crime had been committed. He mitigated the use of torture in examining slaves by certain limitations. Thus he prohibited the application of torture to children under fourteen years, though this rule had exceptions. However, it must be stressed that Antoninus ''extended'', by means of a rescript, the use of torture as a means of obtaining evidence to pecuniary cases, when it had been applied up until then only in criminal cases. Also, already at the time torture of free men of low status (''humiliores'') had become legal, as proved by the fact that Antoninus exempted town councillors expressly from it, and also free men of high rank (''honestiores'') in general.\n\nOne highlight during his reign occurred in 148, with the nine-hundredth anniversary of the foundation of Rome being celebrated by the hosting of magnificent games in Rome. It lasted a number of days, and a host of exotic animals were killed, including elephants, giraffes, tigers, rhinoceroses, crocodiles and hippopotami. While this increased Antoninus’s popularity, the frugal emperor had to debase the Roman currency. He decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 89% to 83.5% — the actual silver weight dropping from 2.88 grams to 2.68 grams.\n\nScholars place Antoninus Pius as the leading candidate for fulfilling the role as a friend of Rabbi Judah the Prince. According to the Talmud (Avodah Zarah 10a-b), Rabbi Judah was very wealthy and greatly revered in Rome. He had a close friendship with \"Antoninus\", possibly Antoninus Pius, who would consult Rabbi Judah on various worldly and spiritual matters.\n\n===Death===\nRuins of the triumphal arch of Antoninus Pius outside the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore in Eleusis, Greece, imitating Hadrian's Arch in Athens\nIn 156, Antoninus Pius turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. Marcus Aurelius had already been created consul with Antoninus in 140, receiving the title of Caesar – i.e., heir apparent. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still after the deathin 156 or 157of one of Antoninus' most trusted advisers, Gavius Maximus, who had been praetorian prefect (an office that was as much secretarial as military) for twenty years. Gavius Maximus, who had been one of the most important members of Antoninus' \"team\" of long standing advisers, had been awarded with the consular insignia and to the honors due to a senator. He had left behind himself the reputation of being a most strict disciplinarian (''vir severissimus'', according to ''Historia Augusta'') as well as some lasting grudges among fellow equestrian procurators – one of them, by predeceasing Gavius and vilifying him in his will, created a serious embarrassment to one of the heirs, the orator Fronto. Gavius Maximus' death offered the opportunity to a welcome change in the ruling team, and it has been speculated that it was the legal adviser Volusius Maecianus – who, after a brief spell as Praefect of Egypt, took the office of Praefectus annonae in Rome – who assumed the role of grey eminence precisely in order to prepare the incoming – and altogether new – joint succession. In 160, Marcus and Lucius were designated joint consuls for the following year. Perhaps Antoninus was already ill; in any case, he died before the year was out.\n\nTwo days before his death, the biographer reports, Antoninus was at his ancestral estate at Lorium, in Etruria, about twelve miles (19 km) from Rome. He ate Alpine Gruyere cheese at dinner quite greedily. In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered was when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password he then responded \"aequanimitas\" (equanimity). He then turned over, as if going to sleep, and died. His death closed out the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months). His record for the second-longest reign would be unbeaten for 168 years, until 329 when it was surpassed by Constantine the Great.\n\nAntoninus Pius' funeral ceremonies were, in the words of the biographer, \"elaborate\". If his funeral followed the pattern of past funerals, his body would have been incinerated on a pyre at the Campus Martius, while his spirit would rise to the gods' home in the heavens. However, it seems that this was not the case: according to his Historia Augusta biography (which seems to reproduce an earlier, detailed report) Antoninus' body (and not his ashes) was buried in Hadrian's mausoleum. After a seven-day interval (''justitium''), Marcus and Lucius nominated their father for deification. In contrast to their behavior during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A ''flamen'', or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Antoninus, now ''Divus Antoninus''.\n\nA column was dedicated to Antoninus on the Campus Martius, and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus. It survives as the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.\n", "\nGreen Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 AD) tomb, Guangxi, China\nThe first group of people claiming to be an ambassadorial mission of Romans to China was recorded in 166 AD by the ''Hou Hanshu''. The embassy came to Emperor Huan of Han China from \"Andun\" (; Emperor Antoninus Pius), \"king of Daqin\" (Rome). As Antoninus Pius died in 161, leaving the empire to his adoptive son Marcus Aurelius (Antoninus), and the envoy arrived in 166, confusion remains about who sent the mission given that both Emperors were named 'Antoninus'. The Roman mission came from the south (therefore probably by sea), entering China by the frontier province of Jiaozhi at Rinan or Tonkin (present-day northern Vietnam). It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell, probably acquired in Southern Asia. The text specifically states that it was the first time there had been direct contact between the two countries.\n\nFurthermore, a Republican-era Roman glassware has been found at a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou along the South China Sea, dated to the early 1st century BC. Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and perhaps even Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, then part of the Kingdom of Funan near the Chinese province of Jiaozhi. This may have been the port city of Kattigara, described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been discovered in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the significantly greater amount of Roman coins unearthed in India suggest the Roman maritime trade for purchasing Chinese silk was centered there, not in China or even the overland Silk Road running through ancient Iran.\n", "Arch of Antoninus Pius in Sbeïtla, Tunisia.\nStatue of Antoninus Pius, Palazzo Altemps, Rome\nThe only intact account of his life handed down to us is that of the ''Augustan History'', an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Nevertheless, it still contains information that is considered reasonably sound – for instance, it is the only source that mentions the erection of the Antonine Wall in Britain. Antoninus is unique among Roman emperors in that he has no other biographies. \n\n===In later scholarship===\nAntoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition.\n\n\nSome historians have a less positive view of his reign. According to the historian J. B. Bury, \n\nGerman historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his ''Römische Geschichte'' 2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954 that the reign of Antoninus comprised \"a succession of grossly wasted opportunities,\" given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' passing. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Michael Grant agrees that it is possible that had Antoninus acted decisively sooner (it appears on his death bed, he was preparing a large scale action against the Parthians), the Parthians might have been unable to choose their own time, but current evidences are not conclusive. Grant opines that Antoninus and his officers did act in a resolute manner dealing with frontier disturbances of his time, although conditions for long lasting peace were not created. On the whole, according to Grant, Marcus Aurelius' eulogistic picture of Antoninus seems deserved, and Antonius appears to have been a conservative and nationalistic (although he respected and followed Hadrian's example of Philhellenism moderately) Emperor who was not tainted by the blood of either citizen or foe, combined and maintained Numa Pompilius' good fortune, pacific dutifulness and religious scrupulousness, and whose laws removed anomalies and softened harshnesses.\n\nKrzysztof Ulanowski argues that the claims of military inability is exaggerated, considering that although the sources praise Antoninus' love for peace and his efforts 'rather to defend, than enlarge the provinces', he could hardly be considered a pacifist, as shown by the conquest of the Lowlands, the building of the Antonine Wall and the expansion of Germania Superior. Ulianowski also praises Antoninus for being successful in deterrence by diplomatic means.\n", "\nbust portrait of Antoninus Pius in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg\nMarble statue fragment of Antonius Pius found in Terracina (Italy), Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome\nAlthough only one of his four children survived to adulthood, Antoninus came to be ancestor to generations of prominent Roman statesmen and socialites, including at least one empress consort and as the maternal grandfather of the Emperor Commodus. The family of Antoninus Pius and Faustina the Elder also represents one of the few periods in ancient Roman history where the position of Emperor passed smoothly from father to son. Direct descendants of Antoninus and Faustina were confirmed to exist at least into the fifth century AD.\n:1. Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue\n:2. Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138), died young without issue\n:3. Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135), died without issue\n:4. Faustina the Younger (16 February between 125 and 130175), had thirteen children\n::A. Annia Aurelia Galeria Faustina (30 November 147after 165), had one child\n:::I. Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus (c. 163218), had one child\n::::a. Annia Faustina (about 201after 222), had two children\n:::::i. Pomponia Ummidia (219after 275), died without known issue\n:::::ii. Pomponius Bassus (220after 271), had one child\n::::::i. Pomponia Bassa (born c. 250), had one child\n:::::::i. Septimius Bassus, had one child\n::::::::i. Septimia (born c. 305), had one child\n:::::::::i. Lucius Valerius Septimius Bassus (c. 328aft. 379 or 383), had one child\n::::::::::i. Valerius Adelphius Bassus (c. 360aft. 383), had one child\n:::::::::::i. Valerius Adelphius (born c. 385), had one child\n::::::::::::i. Adelphia (c. 410aft. 459), had possibly one child\n:::::::::::::i. Anicia Ulfina\n::B. Gemellus Lucillae (7 March 148 or 150c. 150), died young without issue\n::C. Lucilla (7 March 148 or 150182), had four children\n:::I. Aurelia Lucilla (born 165), died young without issue\n:::II. Lucilla Plautia (after 165182), died without issue\n:::III. Lucius Verus, died young without issue\n:::IV. Pompeianus (170between 212 and 217), died without issue\n::D. Titus Aelius Antoninus (after 150before 7 March 161), died young without issue\n::E. Titus Aelius Aurelius (after 150before 7 March 161), died young without issue\n::F. Hadrianus (152157), died young without issue\n::G. Domitia Faustina (after 150before 7 March 161), died young without issue\n::H. Fadilla (159after 192), had two children\n:::I. Plautius Quintillus\n:::II. Plautia Servilla\n::I. Annia Cornificia Faustina Minor (160after 211), had one child\n:::I. Petronius Antoninus (after 173between 190 and 192), died young without issue\n::J. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (161165), died young without issue\n::K. Commodus (31 August 16131 December 192), died without issue\n::L. Marcus Annius Verus Caesar (after May 16210 September 169), died young without issue\n::M. Vibia Aurelia Sabina (170before 217), died without issue\n\n\n", "\n", ";Primary sources\n* Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 70, \n* Aurelius Victor,'' \"Epitome de Caesaribus\"'', English version of Epitome de Caesaribus\n* Historia Augusta, ''The Life of Antoninus Pius'', English version of Historia Augusta Note that the Historia Augusta includes pseudohistorical elements.\n\n;Secondary sources\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* This source lists:\n Bossart-Mueller, ''Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A.'' (1868)\n Bryant, ''The Reign of Antonine'' (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)\n Lacour-Gayet, ''A. le Pieux et son Temps'' (1888)\n \n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "Emperor", "Diplomatic mission to China", "Historiography", "Descendants", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Antoninus Pius
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "AD 8 – Roman Empire general Tiberius defeats the Dalmatae on the river Bosna\nAD 70 – Fires resulting from the destruction of the Second Temple are extinguished. \n* 435 – Deposed Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius, considered the originator of Nestorianism, is exiled by Roman Emperor Theodosius II to a monastery in Egypt.\n* 881 – Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu: Louis III of France defeats the Vikings, an event celebrated in the poem ''Ludwigslied''.\n* 908 – Battle of Eisenach: An invading Hungarian force defeats an East Frankish army under Duke Burchard of Thuringia.\n1031 – Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf by Grimketel, the English Bishop of Selsey.\n1057 – Frederik van Lotharingen elected as first Belgian Pope Stephen IX. \n1342 – The Siege of Algeciras commences during the Spanish Reconquista.\n1492 – Christopher Columbus sets sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain.\n1527 – The first known letter from North America is sent by John Rut while at St. John's, Newfoundland.\n1601 – Long War: Austria captures Transylvania in the Battle of Goroszló.\n1645 – Thirty Years' War: The Second Battle of Nördlingen sees French forces defeating those of the Holy Roman Empire.\n1678 – Robert LaSalle builds the ''Le Griffon'', the first known ship built on the Great Lakes.\n1778 – The theatre ''La Scala'' is inaugurated.\n1795 – Treaty of Greenville is signed, ending the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country.\n1811 – First ascent of Jungfrau, third highest summit in the Bernese Alps by brothers Johann Rudolf and Hieronymus Meyer.\n1852 – Harvard University wins the first Boat Race between Yale University and Harvard. The race is also the first American intercollegiate athletic event\n1859 – The American Dental Association is founded in Niagara Falls, New York.\n1900 – The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is founded.\n1903 – Macedonian rebels in Kruševo proclaim the Kruševo Republic, which exists only for ten days before Ottoman Turks lay waste to the town.\n1907 – Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis fines Standard Oil of Indiana a record $29.4 million for illegal rebating to freight carriers; the conviction and fine are later reversed on appeal.\n1914 – World War I: Germany declares war against France, while Romania declares its neutrality.\n1921 – Major League Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis confirms the ban of the eight Chicago Black Sox, the day after they were acquitted by a Chicago court.\n1936 – Jesse Owens wins the 100 metre dash, defeating Ralph Metcalfe, at the Berlin Olympics.\n 1936 – A fire wipes out Kursha-2 in the Meshchera Lowlands, Ryazan Oblast, Russia, killing 1,200 and leaving only 20 survivors.\n1940 – World War II: Italian forces begin the invasion of British Somaliland.\n1946 – Santa Claus Land, the world's first themed amusement park, opens in Santa Claus, Indiana, United States.\n1948 – Whittaker Chambers accuses Alger Hiss of being a communist and a spy for the Soviet Union.\n1949 – The Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League finalize the merger, that would create the National Basketball Association\n1958 – US Nuclear submarine, Nautiluss, the first submarine to complete a submerged transit of the North Pole on 3 August 1958.\n1959 – Portugal's state police force PIDE fires upon striking workers in Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, killing over 50 people.\n1960 – Niger gains independence from France.\n1972 – The United States Senate ratifies the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.\n1975 – A privately chartered Boeing 707 strikes a mountain peak and crashes near Agadir, Morocco, killing 188.\n1977 – Tandy Corporation announces the TRS-80, one of the world's first mass-produced personal computers.\n1981 – Senegalese opposition parties, under the leadership of Mamadou Dia, launch the Antiimperialist Action Front – Suxxali Reew Mi.\n1997 – Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre in Algeria: A total of 116 villagers killed, 40 in Oued El-Had and 76 in Mezouara.\n2004 – The pedestal of the Statue of Liberty reopens after being closed since the September 11 attacks.\n2005 – President of Mauritania Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya is overthrown in a military coup while attending the funeral of King Fahd in Saudi Arabia.\n2007 – Former Deputy Director of the Chilean secret police Raúl Iturriaga is captured after having been on the run following a conviction for kidnapping.\n2010 – Widespread rioting erupts in Karachi, Pakistan, after the assassination of a local politician, leaving at least 85 dead and at least 17 billion Pakistani rupees (US$200 million) in damage.\n2014 – A 6.1 magnitude earthquake kills at least 617 people and injures more than 2,400 in Yunnan, China.\n", "1486 – Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512)\n1491 – Maria of Jülich-Berg, German noblewoman (d. 1543)\n1509 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (d. 1546)\n1622 – Wolfgang Julius, Count of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, German field marshal (d. 1698)\n1692 – John Henley, English minister and poet (d. 1759)\n1734 – Naungdawgyi, Burmese king (d. 1763)\n1766 – Aaron Chorin, Hungarian rabbi and author (d. 1844)\n1770 – Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840)\n1803 – Joseph Paxton, English gardener and architect, designed The Crystal Palace (d. 1865)\n1808 – Hamilton Fish, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of State (d. 1893)\n1811 – Elisha Otis, American businessman, founded the Otis Elevator Company (d. 1861)\n1817 – Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (d. 1895)\n1823 – Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish-American revolutionary and military leader, territorial governor of Montana (d. 1867)\n1832 – Ivan Zajc, Croatian composer, conductor, and director (d. 1914)\n1840 – John Bigham, 1st Viscount Mersey, English jurist and politician (d. 1929)\n1850 – Reginald Heber Roe, English-Australian swimmer, tennis player, and academic (d. 1926)\n1856 – Alfred Deakin, Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)\n1860 – William Kennedy Dickson, French-Scottish actor, director, and producer (d. 1935)\n1863 – Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author and journalist (d. 1922)\n1867 – Stanley Baldwin, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1947)\n1871 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (d. 1929)\n1872 – Haakon VII of Norway (d. 1957)\n1886 – Maithili Sharan Gupt, Indian poet and playwright (d. 1964)\n1887 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (d. 1915) \n1890 – Konstantin Melnikov, Russian architect, designed the Rusakov Workers' Club (d. 1974)\n1894 – Harry Heilmann, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 1951)\n1895 – Allen Bathurst, Lord Apsley, English politician (d. 1942)\n1896 – Ralph Horween, American football player and coach (d. 1997)\n1899 – Louis Chiron, Monacan race car driver (d. 1979)\n1900 – Ernie Pyle, American soldier and journalist (d. 1945)\n 1900 – John T. Scopes, American educator (d. 1970)\n1901 – John C. Stennis, American lawyer and politician (d. 1995)\n 1901 – Stefan Wyszyński, Polish cardinal (d. 1981)\n1902 – Regina Jonas, German rabbi (d. 1944)\n 1902 – David Buttolph, American film composer (d. 1983)\n1903 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian journalist and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Tunisia (d. 2000)\n1904 – Dolores del Río, Mexican actress (d. 1983)\n* 1904 – Clifford D. Simak, American journalist and author (d. 1988)\n1905 – Franz König, Austrian cardinal (d. 2004)\n1907 – Lawrence Brown, American trombonist and composer (d. 1988)\n* 1907 – Ernesto Geisel, Brazilian general and politician, 29th President of Brazil (d. 1996)\n* 1907 – Yang Shangkun, Chinese politician, and 4th President of China (d.1998)\n1909 – Walter Van Tilburg Clark, American author and educator (d. 1971)\n1911 – Alex McCrindle, Scottish actor and producer (d. 1990)\n1913 – Mel Tolkin, Ukrainian-American screenwriter and producer (d. 2007)\n1916 – Shakeel Badayuni, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1970)\n* 1916 – José Manuel Moreno, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1978)\n1917 – Les Elgart, American trumpet player and bandleader (d. 1995)\n1918 – James MacGregor Burns, American historian, political scientist, and author (d. 2014)\n* 1918 – Sidney Gottlieb, American chemist and theorist (d. 1999)\n* 1918 – Larry Haines, American actor (d. 2008)\n* 1918 – Eddie Jefferson, American singer-songwriter (d. 1979)\n1920 – Max Fatchen, Australian journalist and author (d. 2012)\n 1920 – P. D. James, English author (d. 2014)\n* 1920 – Charlie Shavers, American trumpet player and composer (d. 1971)\n* 1920 – Elmar Tampõld, Estonian-Canadian architect (d. 2013)\n1921 – Richard Adler, American composer and producer (d. 2012)\n 1921 – Marilyn Maxwell, American actress (d. 1972)\n1922 – John Eisenhower, American historian, general, and diplomat, 45th United States Ambassador to Belgium (d. 2013)\n1923 – Jean Hagen, American actress (d. 1977)\n* 1923 – Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria (d. 2012)\n1924 – Leon Uris, American soldier and author (d. 2003)\n1925 – Marv Levy, American-Canadian football player, coach, and manager\n1926 – Rona Anderson, Scottish-English actress (d. 2013)\n 1926 – Tony Bennett, American singer and actor\n* 1926 – Anthony Sampson, English journalist and author (d. 2004)\n* 1926 – Gordon Scott, American actor (d. 2007)\n1928 – Cécile Aubry, French actress, director, and screenwriter (d. 2010)\n 1928 – Henning Moritzen, Danish actor (d. 2012)\n1930 – James Komack, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1997)\n1933 – Pat Crawford, Australian cricketer (d. 2009)\n1934 – Haystacks Calhoun, American wrestler and actor (d. 1989)\n 1934 – Michael Chapman, English bassoon player (d. 2005)\n* 1934 – Jonas Savimbi, Angolan general, founded UNITA (d. 2002)\n1935 – John Erman, American actor, director, and producer\n 1935 – Georgy Shonin, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1997)\n* 1935 – Vic Vogel, Canadian pianist, composer, and bandleader\n1936 – Jerry G. Bishop, American radio and television host (d. 2013)\n 1936 – Edward Petherbridge, English actor \n1937 – Steven Berkoff, English actor, director, and playwright\n 1937 – Roland Burris, American lawyer and politician, 39th Illinois Attorney General\n* 1937 – Tom Georgeson, English actor\n* 1937 – Duncan Sharpe, Pakistani-Australian cricketer\n1938 – Terry Wogan, Irish-English radio and television host (d. 2016)\n1939 – Jimmie Nicol, English drummer \n* 1939 – Apoorva Sengupta, Indian general and cricketer\n1940 – Lance Alworth, American football player\n 1940 – Martin Sheen, American actor and producer\n* 1940 – James Tyler, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2010)\n1941 – Beverly Lee, American singer\n 1941 – Martha Stewart, American businesswoman, publisher, and author, founded Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia\n1943 – Béla Bollobás, Hungarian-English mathematician and academic\n 1943 – Princess Christina, Mrs. Magnuson of Sweden\n* 1943 – Steven Millhauser, American novelist and short story writer\n1944 – Nino Bravo, Spanish singer (d. 1973)\n1945 – Eamon Dunphy, Irish footballer and journalist\n1946 – Robert Ayling, English businessman\n 1946 – Jack Straw, English lawyer and politician, Shadow Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\n* 1946 – Syreeta Wright, American singer-songwriter (d. 2004)\n* 1946 – John York, American bass player, songwriter, and producer \n1947 – Ralph Wright, English footballer\n1948 – Jean-Pierre Raffarin, French lawyer and politician, 166th Prime Minister of France\n1949 – Philip Casnoff, American actor and director\n 1949 – B. B. Dickerson, American bass player and songwriter \n* 1949 – Sue Slipman, English politician\n1950 – Linda Howard, American author\n 1950 – John Landis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1950 – Jo Marie Payton, American actress and singer\n* 1950 – Ernesto Samper, Colombian economist and politician, 29th President of Colombia\n1951 – Marcel Dionne, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1951 – Jay North, American actor\n1952 – Osvaldo Ardiles, Argentinian footballer and manager\n1953 – Ian Bairnson, Scottish saxophonist and keyboard player\n* 1953 – Marlene Dumas, South African painter\n1954 – Michael Arthur, English physician and academic\n 1954 – Gary Peters, English footballer and manager\n1956 – Kirk Brandon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1956 – Todd Christensen, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2013)\n* 1956 – Dave Cloud, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015)\n* 1956 – Balwinder Sandhu, Indian cricketer and coach\n1957 – Bodo Rudwaleit, German footballer and manager\n 1957 – Kate Wilkinson, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 11th New Zealand Minister of Conservation\n1958 – Lindsey Hilsum, English journalist and author\n 1958 – Ana Kokkinos, Australian director and screenwriter\n1959 – Martin Atkins, English drummer and producer \n 1959 – Mike Gminski, American basketball player and sportscaster\n* 1959 – John C. McGinley, American actor and producer\n* 1959 – Koichi Tanaka, Japanese chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate\n1960 – Tim Mayotte, American tennis player and coach\n 1960 – Gopal Sharma, Indian cricketer\n1961 – Molly Hagan, American actress\n 1961 – Nick Harvey, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces\n* 1961 – Lee Rocker, American bassist \n1963 – Frano Botica, New Zealand rugby player and coach\n 1963 – James Hetfield, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1963 – David Knox, Australian rugby player\n* 1963 – Ed Roland, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n* 1963 – Lisa Ann Walter, American actress, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1963 – Isaiah Washington, American actor and producer\n1964 – Lucky Dube, South African singer and keyboard player (d. 2007)\n 1964 – Nate McMillan, American basketball player and coach\n* 1964 – Kevin Sumlin, American football player and coach\n* 1964 – Abhisit Vejjajiva, English-Thai economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Thailand\n1966 – Brent Butt, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter\n 1966 – Gizz Butt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1966 – Eric Esch, American wrestler, boxer, and mixed martial artist\n1967 – Mathieu Kassovitz, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter, founded MNP Entreprise\n 1967 – Skin, English singer and guitarist \n1968 – Rod Beck, American baseball player (d. 2007)\n1969 – Doug Overton, American basketball player and coach\n1970 – Stephen Carpenter, American guitarist and songwriter\n 1970 – Gina G, Australian singer-songwriter \n* 1970 – Masahiro Sakurai, Japanese video game designer\n1971 – Forbes Johnston, Scottish footballer (d. 2007)\n 1971 – DJ Spinderella, American DJ, rapper, producer, and actress \n1972 – Sandis Ozoliņš, Latvian ice hockey player and politician\n1973 – Jay Cutler, American bodybuilder\n* 1973 – Nikos Dabizas, Greek footballer\n* 1973 – Chris Murphy, American politician, junior senator of Connecticut\n1975 – Wael Gomaa, Egyptian footballer\n 1975 – Argyro Strataki, Greek heptathlete\n1976 – Troy Glaus, American baseball player\n1977 – Tom Brady, American football player \n* 1977 – Justin Lehr, American baseball player\n* 1977 – Óscar Pereiro, Spanish cyclist and footballer\n1978 – Joi Chua, Singaporean singer-songwriter and actress\n 1978 – Mariusz Jop, Polish footballer\n* 1978 – Jenny Tinmouth, English motorcycle racer\n* 1978 – Dimitrios Zografakis, Greek footballer\n1979 – Evangeline Lilly, Canadian model and actress\n1980 – Nadia Ali, Libyan-American singer-songwriter \n* 1980 – Dominic Moore, Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1980 – Tony Pashos, American football player\n* 1980 – Brandan Schieppati, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1980 – Hannah Simone, Canadian television host and actress\n1981 – Fikirte Addis, Ethiopian fashion designer\n 1981 – Travis Bowyer, American baseball player\n* 1981 – Pablo Ibáñez, Spanish footballer\n1982 – Kaspar Kokk, Estonian skier\n 1982 – Jesse Lumsden, Canadian bobsledder and football player\n* 1982 – Damien Sandow, American wrestler\n1983 – Ryan Carter, American ice hockey player\n 1983 – Mark Reynolds, American baseball player\n1984 – Yasin Avcı, Turkish footballer\n 1984 – Sunil Chhetri, Indian footballer\n* 1984 – Matt Joyce, American baseball player\n* 1984 – Ryan Lochte, American swimmer\n* 1984 – Chris Maurer, American singer and bass player \n1985 – Brent Kutzle, American bass player and producer \n 1985 – Ats Purje, Estonian footballer\n* 1985 – Sonny Bill Williams, New Zealand rugby player and boxer\n1986 – Charlotte Casiraghi, Monégasque journalist, co-founded ''Ever Manifesto''\n 1986 – Darya Domracheva, Belarusian biathlete\n1987 – Kim Hyung-jun, South Korean singer and dancer \n 1987 – Chris McQueen, Australian-English rugby league player\n1988 – Denny Cardin, Italian footballer\n 1988 – Leigh Tiffin, American football player\n1989 – Jules Bianchi, French race car driver (d. 2015)\n 1989 – Sam Hutchinson, English footballer\n* 1989 – Tyrod Taylor, American football player\n* 1989 – Nick Viergever, Dutch footballer\n1992 – Gamze Bulut, Turkish runner\n 1992 – Gesa Felicitas Krause, German runner\n* 1992 – Diāna Marcinkēviča, Latvian tennis player\n* 1992 – Aljon Mariano, Filipino basketball player\n* 1992 – Lum Rexhepi, Finnish footballer\n1993 – Ola Abidogun, English sprinter\n 1993 – Yurina Kumai, Japanese singer \n1994 – Manaia Cherrington, New Zealand rugby league player\n 1994 – Todd Gurley, American football player\n1995 – Victoria Kan, Russian tennis player\n\n", " 908 – Burchard, Duke of Thuringia\n* 908 – Egino, Duke of Thuringia\n* 908 – Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg\n* 925 – Cao, Chinese empress dowager\n* 979 – Thietmar, Margrave of Meissen\n1003 – At-Ta'i, the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad\n1355 – Bartholomew de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh\n1460 – James II of Scotland (b. 1430)\n1527 – Scaramuccia Trivulzio, Italian cardinal\n1530 – Francesco Ferruccio, Florentine captain (b. 1489)\n1546 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace (b. 1484)\n* 1546 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (b. 1509)\n1604 – Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish commander and diplomat (b. 1540)\n1621 – Guillaume du Vair, French lawyer and author (b. 1556)\n1712 – Joshua Barnes, English historian and scholar (b. 1654)\n1720 – Anthonie Heinsius, Dutch politician (b. 1641)\n1721 – Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-English sculptor and woodcarver (b. 1648)\n1761 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (b. 1691)\n1773 – Stanisław Konarski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1700)\n1780 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French epistemiologist and philosopher (b. 1715)\n1792 – Richard Arkwright, English engineer and businessman (b. 1732)\n1797 – Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, English field marshal and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1717)\n1805 – Christopher Anstey, English author and poet (b. 1724)\n1835 – Wenzel Müller, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1767)\n1839 – Dorothea von Schlegel, German author and translator (b. 1763)\n1857 – Eugène Sue, French author and politician (b. 1804)\n1866 – Gábor Klauzál, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (b. 1804)\n1867 – Philipp August Böckh, German historian and scholar (b. 1785)\n1877 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805)\n1879 – Joseph Severn, English painter (b. 1793)\n1894 – George Inness, American painter (b. 1825)\n1913 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1844)\n1916 – Roger Casement, Irish poet and activist (b. 1864)\n1917 – Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, German mathematician and academic (b. 1849)\n1920 – Peeter Süda, Estonian organist and composer (b. 1883)\n1922 – Ture Malmgren, Swedish journalist and politician (b. 1851)\n1924 – Joseph Conrad, Polish-born British novelist (b. 1857)\n1925 – William Bruce, Australian cricketer (b. 1864)\n1929 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor and businessman, invented the phonograph (b. 1851)\n 1929 – Thorstein Veblen, American economist and sociologist (b. 1857)\n1936 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1873)\n1942 – Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872)\n1949 – Ignotus, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1869)\n1954 – Colette, French novelist and journalist (b. 1873)\n1958 – Peter Collins, English race car driver (b. 1931)\n1959 – Herb Byrne, Australian footballer (b. 1887)\n1961 – Hilda Rix Nicholas, Australian artist (b. 1884)\n1964 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (b. 1925)\n1966 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1925)\n1969 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1889)\n1972 – Giannis Papaioannou, Turkish-Greek composer (b. 1913)\n1973 – Richard Marshall, American general (b. 1895)\n1974 – Edgar Johan Kuusik, Estonian architect and interior designer (b. 1888)\n1975 – Andreas Embirikos, Greek poet and photographer (b. 1901)\n1977 – Makarios III, Cypriot archbishop and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Cyprus (b. 1913)\n 1977 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (b. 1892)\n1979 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899)\n 1979 – Angelos Terzakis, Greek author and playwright (b. 1907)\n1983 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (b. 1930)\n1995 – Ida Lupino, English-American actress and director (b. 1918)\n* 1995 – Edward Whittemore, American soldier and author (b. 1933)\n1996 – Jørgen Garde, Danish admiral (b. 1939)\n1997 – Pietro Rizzuto, Italian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1934)\n1998 – Alfred Schnittke, Russian composer and journalist (b. 1934)\n1999 – Rod Ansell, Australian hunter (b. 1953)\n* 1999 – Byron Farwell, American historian and author (b. 1921)\n2000 – Joann Lõssov, Estonian basketball player and coach (b. 1921)\n2001 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and director (b. 1922)\n2003 – Roger Voudouris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1954)\n2004 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (b. 1908)\n2005 – Françoise d'Eaubonne, French author and poet (b. 1920)\n2006 – Arthur Lee, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1945)\n* 2006 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-English soprano and actress (b. 1915)\n2007 – John Gardner, English author (b. 1926)\n 2007 – Peter Thorup, Danish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1948)\n2008 – Skip Caray, American sportscaster (b. 1939)\n 2008 – Erik Darling, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933)\n* 2008 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, dramatist and historian, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918)\n2009 – Nikolaos Makarezos, Greek soldier and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919)\n2010 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938)\n2011 – William Sleator, American author (b. 1945)\n 2011 – Bubba Smith, American football player and actor (b. 1945)\n2012 – Frank Evans, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1921)\n 2012 – Martin Fleischmann, Czech-English chemist and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – Paul McCracken, American economist and academic (b. 1915)\n* 2012 – John Pritchard, American basketball player (b. 1927)\n2013 – John Coombs, English-Monacan race car driver and businessman (b. 1922)\n 2013 – Jack English Hightower, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926)\n* 2013 – Jack Hynes, Scottish-American soccer player and manager (b. 1920)\n2014 – Miangul Aurangzeb, Pakistani captain and politician, 19th Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (b. 1928) \n 2014 – Edward Clancy, Australian cardinal (b. 1923)\n* 2014 – Dorothy Salisbury Davis, American author (b. 1916)\n* 2014 – Kenny Drew, Jr., American pianist and composer (b. 1958)\n* 2014 – Lydia Yu-Jose, Filipino political scientist and academic (b. 1944)\n2015 – Robert Conquest, English-American historian, poet, and academic (b. 1917)\n 2015 – Mel Farr, American football player and businessman (b. 1944) \n* 2015 – Coleen Gray, American actress (b. 1922)\n* 2015 – Margot Loyola, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1918)\n* 2015 – Johanna Quandt, German businesswoman (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Jef Murray, Australian artist and author (b. 1960)\n\n", "* Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)\n* Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)\n* Christian feast day:\n George Freeman Bragg, W. E. B. Du Bois (Episcopal Church)\n Lydia of Thyatira\n Myrrhbearers (Lutheran Church)\n Nicodemus\n Olaf II of Norway (Translation of the relic)\n Stephen (Discovery of the relic)\n Waltheof of Melrose\n August 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Flag Day (Venezuela)\n* Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Niger from France in 1960.\n*Arbor Day (Niger) \n National Guard Day (Venezuela)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 3
[ "\n\nThe '''Advanced Encryption Standard''' ('''AES'''), also known by its original name '''Rijndael''' (), is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001.\n\nAES is a subset of the Rijndael cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daemen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes.\n\nFor AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits.\n\nAES has been adopted by the U.S. government and is now used worldwide. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data.\n\nIn the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable (see Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details).\n\nAES became effective as a federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by the Secretary of Commerce. AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module (see Security of AES, below).\n", "\nThe Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of:\n\n* FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)\n* ISO/IEC 18033-3: Information technology – Security techniques – Encryption algorithms – Part 3: Block ciphers\n", "AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution-permutation network, a combination of both substitution and permutation, and is fast in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael which has a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, the Rijndael specification ''per se'' is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits.\n\nAES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order matrix of bytes, termed the ''state'', although some versions of Rijndael have a larger block size and have additional columns in the state. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field.\n\nFor instance, if there are 16 bytes, , these bytes are represented as this matrix:\n::\n\nThe key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of repetitions of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of cycles of repetition are as follows:\n\n* 10 cycles of repetition for 128-bit keys.\n* 12 cycles of repetition for 192-bit keys.\n* 14 cycles of repetition for 256-bit keys.\n\nEach round consists of several processing steps, each containing four similar but different stages, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key.\n\n=== High-level description of the algorithm ===\n\n# KeyExpansions—round keys are derived from the cipher key using Rijndael's key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more.\n# InitialRound\n## AddRoundKey—each byte of the state is combined with a block of the round key using bitwise xor.\n# Rounds\n## SubBytes—a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table.\n## ShiftRows—a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.\n## MixColumns—a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column.\n## AddRoundKey\n# Final Round (no MixColumns)\n## SubBytes\n## ShiftRows\n## AddRoundKey.\n\n=== The SubBytes step ===\nIn the SubBytes step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, ''S''; ''bij'' = ''S(aij)''.\nIn the SubBytes step, each byte in the ''state'' matrix is replaced with a SubByte using an 8-bit substitution box, the Rijndael S-box. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over , known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), i.e., , and also any opposite fixed points, i.e., .\nWhile performing the decryption, the InvSubBytes step (the inverse of SubBytes) is used, which requires first taking the inverse of the affine transformation and then finding the multiplicative inverse.\n\n=== The ShiftRows step ===\nIn the ShiftRows step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row.\nThe ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. For blocks of sizes 128 bits and 192 bits, the shifting pattern is the same. Row is shifted left circular by bytes. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets). For a 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for the second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectively—this change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, as AES does not use 256-bit blocks. The importance of this step is to avoid the columns being encrypted independently, in which case AES degenerates into four independent block ciphers.\n\n=== The MixColumns step ===\n\nIn the MixColumns step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial .\nIn the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows, MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher.\n\nDuring this operation, each column is transformed using a fixed matrix (matrix left-multiplied by column gives new value of column in the state):\n\n::\n\nMatrix multiplication is composed of multiplication and addition of the entries. Entries are 8 bit bytes treated as coefficients of polynomial of order . Addition is simply XOR. Multiplication is modulo irreducible polynomial . If processed bit by bit then after shifting a conditional XOR with 1B16 should be performed if the shifted value is larger than FF16 (overflow must be corrected by subtraction of generating polynomial). These are special cases of the usual multiplication in .\n\nIn more general sense, each column is treated as a polynomial over and is then multiplied modulo with a fixed polynomial . The coefficients are displayed in their hexadecimal equivalent of the binary representation of bit polynomials from . The MixColumns step can also be viewed as a multiplication by the shown particular MDS matrix in the finite field . This process is described further in the article Rijndael MixColumns.\n\n=== The AddRoundKey step ===\nXOR operation (⊕).\nIn the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR.\n\n=== Optimization of the cipher ===\nOn systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by combining the SubBytes and ShiftRows steps with the MixColumns step by transforming them into a sequence of table lookups. This requires four 256-entry 32-bit tables (together occupying 4096 bytes). A round can then be performed with 16 table lookup operations and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the AddRoundKey step. Alternatively, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table (occupying 1024 bytes) followed by circular rotation operations.\n\nUsing a byte-oriented approach, it is possible to combine the SubBytes, ShiftRows, and MixColumns steps into a single round operation.\n", "Until May 2009, the only successful published attacks against the full AES were side-channel attacks on some specific implementations. The National Security Agency (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for U.S. Government non-classified data. In June 2003, the U.S. Government announced that AES could be used to protect classified information:\nThe design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and 256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level. TOP SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths. The implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.\n\nAES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys.\n\nBy 2006, the best known attacks were on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys.\n\n=== Known attacks ===\nFor cryptographers, a cryptographic \"break\" is anything faster than a brute-force attack – i.e., performing one trial decryption for each possible key in sequence (see Cryptanalysis). A break can thus include results that are infeasible with current technology. Despite being impractical, theoretical breaks can sometimes provide insight into vulnerability patterns. The largest successful publicly known brute-force attack against a widely implemented block-cipher encryption algorithm was against a 64-bit RC5 key by distributed.net in 2006.\n\nThe key space increases by a factor of 2 for each additional bit of key length, and if every possible value of the key is equiprobable, this translates into a doubling of the average brute-force key search time. This implies that the effort of a brute-force search increases exponentially with key length. Key length in itself does not imply security against attacks, since there are ciphers with very long keys that have been found to be vulnerable.\n\nAES has a fairly simple algebraic framework. In 2002, a theoretical attack, named the \"XSL attack\", was announced by Nicolas Courtois and Josef Pieprzyk, purporting to show a weakness in the AES algorithm, partially due to the low complexity of its nonlinear components. Since then, other papers have shown that the attack, as originally presented, is unworkable; see XSL attack on block ciphers.\n\nDuring the AES selection process, developers of competing algorithms wrote of Rijndael's algorithm \"...we are concerned about its use ... in security-critical applications.\" In October 2000, however, at the end of the AES selection process, Bruce Schneier, a developer of the competing algorithm Twofish, wrote that while he thought successful academic attacks on Rijndael would be developed someday, he did not \"believe that anyone will ever discover an attack that will allow someone to read Rijndael traffic\".\n\nIn 2009, a new attack was discovered that exploits the simplicity of AES's key schedule and has a complexity of 2119. In December 2009 it was improved to 299.5. This is a follow-up to an attack discovered earlier in 2009 by Alex Biryukov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Ivica Nikolić, with a complexity of 296 for one out of every 235 keys. However, related-key attacks are not of concern in any properly designed cryptographic protocol, as a properly designed protocol (i.e., implementational software) will take care not to allow related keys, essentially by constraining an attacker's means of selecting keys for relatedness.\n\nAnother attack was blogged by Bruce Schneier\non July 30, 2009, and released as a preprint\non August 3, 2009. This new attack, by Alex Biryukov, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Adi Shamir, is against AES-256 that uses only two related keys and 239 time to recover the complete 256-bit key of a 9-round version, or 245 time for a 10-round version with a stronger type of related subkey attack, or 270 time for an 11-round version. 256-bit AES uses 14 rounds, so these attacks aren't effective against full AES.\n\nThe practicality of these attacks with stronger related keys has been criticized, for instance, by the paper on \"chosen-key-relations-in-the-middle\" attacks on AES-128 authored by Vincent Rijmen in 2010.\n\nIn November 2009, the first known-key distinguishing attack against a reduced 8-round version of AES-128 was released as a preprint.\nThis known-key distinguishing attack is an improvement of the rebound, or the start-from-the-middle attack, against AES-like permutations, which view two consecutive rounds of permutation as the application of a so-called Super-Sbox. It works on the 8-round version of AES-128, with a time complexity of 248, and a memory complexity of 232. 128-bit AES uses 10 rounds, so this attack isn't effective against full AES-128.\n\nThe first key-recovery attacks on full AES were due to Andrey Bogdanov, Dmitry Khovratovich, and Christian Rechberger, and were published in 2011. The attack is a biclique attack and is faster than brute force by a factor of about four. It requires 2126.2 operations to recover an AES-128 key. For AES-192 and AES-256, 2190.2 and 2254.6 operations are needed, respectively. This result has been further improved to 2126.0 for AES-128, 2189.9 for AES-192 and 2254.3 for AES-256, which are the current best results in key recovery attack against AES.\n\nThis is a very small gain, as a 126-bit key (instead of 128-bits) would still take billions of years to brute force on current and foreseeable hardware. Also, the authors calculate the best attack using their technique on AES with a 128 bit key requires storing 288 bits of data (though this has later been improved to 256, which is 9 petabytes). That works out to about 38 trillion terabytes of data, which is more than all the data stored on all the computers on the planet in 2016. As such this is a seriously impractical attack which has no practical implication on AES security.\n\nAccording to the Snowden documents, the NSA is doing research on whether a cryptographic attack based on tau statistic may help to break AES.\n\nAt present, there is no known practical attack that would allow someone without knowledge of the key to read data encrypted by AES when correctly implemented.\n\n=== Side-channel attacks ===\n\nSide-channel attacks do not attack the cipher as a black box, and thus are not related to cipher security as defined in the classical context, but are important in practice. They attack implementations of the cipher on hardware or software systems that inadvertently leak data. There are several such known attacks on various implementations of AES.\n\nIn April 2005, D.J. Bernstein announced a cache-timing attack that he used to break a custom server that used OpenSSL's AES encryption. The attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts. The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible (the server reports back the number of machine cycles taken by the encryption operation); however, as Bernstein pointed out, \"reducing the precision of the server's timestamps, or eliminating them from the server's responses, does not stop the attack: the client simply uses round-trip timings based on its local clock, and compensates for the increased noise by averaging over a larger number of samples.\"\n\nIn October 2005, Dag Arne Osvik, Adi Shamir and Eran Tromer presented a paper demonstrating several cache-timing attacks against AES. One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 operations triggering encryptions, in a total of 65 milliseconds. This attack requires the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system or platform that is performing AES.\n\nIn December 2009 an attack on some hardware implementations was published that used differential fault analysis and allows recovery of a key with a complexity of 232.\n\nIn November 2010 Endre Bangerter, David Gullasch and Stephan Krenn published a paper which described a practical approach to a \"near real time\" recovery of secret keys from AES-128 without the need for either cipher text or plaintext. The approach also works on AES-128 implementations that use compression tables, such as OpenSSL. Like some earlier attacks this one requires the ability to run unprivileged code on the system performing the AES encryption, which may be achieved by malware infection far more easily than commandeering the root account.\n\nIn March 2016, Ashokkumar C., Ravi Prakash Giri and Bernard Menezes presented a very efficient side-channel attack on AES that can recover the complete 128-bit AES key in just 6–7 blocks of plaintext/ciphertext which is a substantial improvement over previous works that require between 100 and a million encryptions. The proposed attack require standard user privilege as previous attacks and key-retrieval algorithms run under a minute.\n\nMany modern CPUs have built-in hardware instructions for AES, which would protect against timing-related side-channel attacks.\n", "The Cryptographic Module Validation Program (CMVP) is operated jointly by the United States Government's National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division and the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) of the Government of Canada. The use of cryptographic modules validated to NIST FIPS 140-2 is required by the United States Government for encryption of all data that has a classification of Sensitive but Unclassified (SBU) or above. From NSTISSP #11, National Policy Governing the Acquisition of Information Assurance: \"Encryption products for protecting classified information will be certified by NSA, and encryption products intended for protecting sensitive information will be certified in accordance with NIST FIPS 140-2.\"\n\nThe Government of Canada also recommends the use of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules in unclassified applications of its departments.\n\nAlthough NIST publication 197 (\"FIPS 197\") is the unique document that covers the AES algorithm, vendors typically approach the CMVP under FIPS 140 and ask to have several algorithms (such as Triple DES or SHA1) validated at the same time. Therefore, it is rare to find cryptographic modules that are uniquely FIPS 197 validated and NIST itself does not generally take the time to list FIPS 197 validated modules separately on its public web site. Instead, FIPS 197 validation is typically just listed as an \"FIPS approved: AES\" notation (with a specific FIPS 197 certificate number) in the current list of FIPS 140 validated cryptographic modules.\n\nThe Cryptographic Algorithm Validation Program (CAVP) allows for independent validation of the correct implementation of the AES algorithm at a reasonable cost. Successful validation results in being listed on the NIST validations page. This testing is a pre-requisite for the FIPS 140-2 module validation described below. However, successful CAVP validation in no way implies that the cryptographic module implementing the algorithm is secure. A cryptographic module lacking FIPS 140-2 validation or specific approval by the NSA is not deemed secure by the US Government and cannot be used to protect government data.\n\nFIPS 140-2 validation is challenging to achieve both technically and fiscally. There is a standardized battery of tests as well as an element of source code review that must be passed over a period of a few weeks. The cost to perform these tests through an approved laboratory can be significant (e.g., well over $30,000 US) and does not include the time it takes to write, test, document and prepare a module for validation. After validation, modules must be re-submitted and re-evaluated if they are changed in any way. This can vary from simple paperwork updates if the security functionality did not change to a more substantial set of re-testing if the security functionality was impacted by the change.\n", "Test vectors are a set of known ciphers for a given input and key. NIST distributes the reference of AES test vectors as AES Known Answer Test (KAT) Vectors (in ZIP format).\n", "High speed and low RAM requirements were criteria of the AES selection process. As the chosen algorithm, AES performed well on a wide variety of hardware, from 8-bit smart cards to high-performance computers.\n\nOn a Pentium Pro, AES encryption requires 18 clock cycles per byte, equivalent to a throughput of about 11 MB/s for a 200 MHz processor. On a 1.7 GHz Pentium M throughput is about 60 MB/s.\n\nOn Intel Core i3/i5/i7 and AMD APU and FX CPUs supporting AES-NI instruction set extensions, throughput can be over 700 MB/s.\n", "\n\n", "Block cipher\nDisk encryption\nDistributed Computing\ndistributed.net\nNetwork encryption\nRijndael key schedule\nRijndael S-box\nWhirlpool – hash function created by Vincent Rijmen and Paulo S. L. M. Barreto\n", "\n", "* Nicolas Courtois, Josef Pieprzyk, \"Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations\". pp267–287, ASIACRYPT 2002.\n* Joan Daemen, Vincent Rijmen, \"The Design of Rijndael: AES – The Advanced Encryption Standard.\" Springer, 2002. .\n* Christof Paar, Jan Pelzl, \"The Advanced Encryption Standard\", Chapter 4 of \"Understanding Cryptography, A Textbook for Students and Practitioners\". (companion web site contains online lectures on AES), Springer, 2009.\n", "* 256bit Ciphers – AES Reference implementation and derived code\n* FIPS PUB 197: the official AES standard (PDF file)\n* AES algorithm archive information – (old, unmaintained)\n* Preview of ISO/IEC 18033-3\n* Animation of Rijndael – AES deeply explained and animated using Flash (by Enrique Zabala / University ORT / Montevideo / Uruguay). This animation (in English, Spanish, and German) is also part of CrypTool 1 (menu Indiv. Procedures -> Visualization of Algorithms -> AES).\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Definitive standards ", " Description of the cipher ", " Security ", " NIST/CSEC validation ", " Test vectors ", " Performance ", " Implementations ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Advanced Encryption Standard
[ " \n\nAn '''argot''' (; from French ''argot'' 'slang') is a secret language used by various groups—e.g., schoolmates, outlaws, colleagues, among many others—to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations. The term ''argot'' is also used to refer to the informal specialized vocabulary from a particular field of study, occupation, or hobby, in which sense it overlaps with jargon.\n\nAuthor Victor Hugo was one of the first to research argot extensively. He describes it in his 1862 novel ''Les Misérables'' as the language of the dark; at one point, he says, \"What is argot; properly speaking? Argot is the language of misery.\"\n\nThe earliest known record of the term ''argot'' in this context was in a 1628 document. The word was probably derived from the contemporary name ''les argotiers'', given to a group of thieves at that time.\n\nUnder the strictest definition, an ''argot'' is a proper language with its own grammar and style. But such complete secret languages are rare because the speakers usually have some public language in common, on which the argot is largely based. Such argots are mainly versions of another language, with a part of its vocabulary replaced by words unknown to the larger public; ''argot'' used in this sense is synonymous with ''cant''. For example, ''argot'' in this sense is used for systems such as ''verlan'' and ''louchébem'', which retain French syntax and apply transformations only to individual words (and often only to a certain subset of words, such as nouns, or semantic content words). Such systems are examples of ''argots à clef'', or \"coded argots.\"\n\nSpecific words can go from argot into common speech or the other way. For example, modern French ''loufoque'' 'crazy, goofy', now common usage, originates in the ''louchébem'' transformation of Fr. ''fou'' 'crazy'.\n\n\"Piaf\" is a Parisian argot word for \"bird, sparrow\". It was taken up by singer Edith Piaf as her stage name.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Argot
[ "\n\nWMAP image of the (extremely tiny) anisotropies in the cosmic background radiation\n'''Anisotropy''' , is the property of being directionally dependent, which implies different properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when measured along different axes, in a material's physical or mechanical properties (absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile strength, etc.) An example of anisotropy is the light coming through a polarizer. Another is wood, which is easier to split along its grain than against it.\n", "\n===Computer graphics===\n\nIn the field of computer graphics, an anisotropic surface changes in appearance as it rotates about its geometric normal, as is the case with velvet.\n\nAnisotropic filtering (AF) is a method of enhancing the image quality of textures on surfaces that are far away and steeply angled with respect to the point of view. Older techniques, such as bilinear and trilinear filtering, do not take into account the angle a surface is viewed from, which can result in aliasing or blurring of textures. By reducing detail in one direction more than another, these effects can be reduced.\n\n=== Chemistry ===\nA chemical anisotropic filter, as used to filter particles, is a filter with increasingly smaller interstitial spaces in the direction of filtration so that the proximal regions filter out larger particles and distal regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration.\n\nIn NMR spectroscopy, the orientation of nuclei with respect to the applied magnetic field determines their chemical shift. In this context, anisotropic systems refer to the electron distribution of molecules with abnormally high electron density, like the pi system of benzene. This abnormal electron density affects the applied magnetic field and causes the observed chemical shift to change.\n\nIn fluorescence spectroscopy, the fluorescence anisotropy, calculated from the polarization properties of fluorescence from samples excited with plane-polarized light, is used, e.g., to determine the shape of a macromolecule.\nAnisotropy measurements reveal the average angular displacement of the fluorophore that occurs between absorption and subsequent emission of a photon.\n\n=== Real-world imagery===\nImages of a gravity-bound or man-made environment are particularly anisotropic in the orientation domain, with more image structure located at orientations parallel with or orthogonal to the direction of gravity (vertical and horizontal).\n\n===Physics===\nplasma lamp displaying the nature of plasmas, in this case, the phenomenon of \"filamentation\"\n\nPhysicists from University of California, Berkeley reported about their detection of the cosine anisotropy in cosmic microwave background radiation in 1977. Their experiment demonstrated the Doppler shift caused by the movement of the earth with respect to the early Universe matter, the source of the radiation. Cosmic anisotropy has also been seen in the alignment of galaxies' rotation axes and polarisation angles of quasars.\n\nPhysicists use the term anisotropy to describe direction-dependent properties of materials. Magnetic anisotropy, for example, may occur in a plasma, so that its magnetic field is oriented in a preferred direction. Plasmas may also show \"filamentation\" (such as that seen in lightning or a plasma globe) that is directional.\n\nAn ''anisotropic liquid'' has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but has an average structural order relative to each other along the molecular axis, unlike water or chloroform, which contain no structural ordering of the molecules. Liquid crystals are examples of anisotropic liquids.\n\nSome materials conduct heat in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source. Heat conduction is more commonly anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in electronics are often anisotropic.\n\nMany crystals are anisotropic to light (\"optical anisotropy\"), and exhibit properties such as birefringence. Crystal optics describes light propagation in these media. An \"axis of anisotropy\" is defined as the axis along which isotropy is broken (or an axis of symmetry, such as normal to crystalline layers). Some materials can have multiple such optical axes.\n\n===Geophysics and geology===\nSeismic anisotropy is the variation of seismic wavespeed with direction. Seismic anisotropy is an indicator of long range order in a material, where features smaller than the seismic wavelength (e.g., crystals, cracks, pores, layers or inclusions) have a dominant alignment. This alignment leads to a directional variation of elasticity wavespeed. Measuring the effects of anisotropy in seismic data can provide important information about processes and mineralogy in the Earth; indeed, significant seismic anisotropy has been detected in the Earth's crust, mantle and inner core.\n\nGeological formations with distinct layers of sedimentary material can exhibit electrical anisotropy; electrical conductivity in one direction (e.g. parallel to a layer), is different from that in another (e.g. perpendicular to a layer). This property is used in the gas and oil exploration industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of sand and shale. Sand-bearing hydrocarbon assets have high resistivity (low conductivity), whereas shales have lower resistivity. Formation evaluation instruments measure this conductivity/resistivity and the results are used to help find oil and gas in wells.\n\nThe hydraulic conductivity of aquifers is often anisotropic for the same reason. When calculating groundwater flow to drains or to wells, the difference between horizontal and vertical permeability must be taken into account, otherwise the results may be subject to error.\n\nMost common rock-forming minerals are anisotropic, including quartz and feldspar. Anisotropy in minerals is most reliably seen in their optical properties. An example of an isotropic mineral is garnet.\n\n===Medical acoustics===\nAnisotropy is also a well-known property in medical ultrasound imaging describing a different resulting echogenicity of soft tissues, such as tendons, when the angle of the transducer is changed. Tendon fibers appear hyperechoic (bright) when the transducer is perpendicular to the tendon, but can appear hypoechoic (darker) when the transducer is angled obliquely. This can be a source of interpretation error for inexperienced practitioners.\n\n===Material science and engineering===\nAnisotropy, in Material Science, is a material’s directional dependence of a physical property. Most materials exhibit anisotropic behavior. An example would be the dependence of Young's modulus on the direction of load.\nAnisotropy in polycrystalline materials can also be due to certain texture patterns often produced during manufacturing of the material. In the case of rolling, \"stringers\" of texture are produced in the direction of rolling, which can lead to vastly different properties in the rolling and transverse directions.\nSome materials, such as wood and fibre-reinforced composites are very anisotropic, being much stronger along the grain/fibre than across it. Metals and alloys tend to be more isotropic, though they can sometimes exhibit significant anisotropic behaviour. This is especially important in processes such as deep-drawing.\n\nWood is a naturally anisotropic (but often simplified to be transversely isotropic) material. Its properties vary widely when measured with or against the growth grain. For example, wood's strength and hardness is different for the same sample measured in different orientations.\n\nIn the Mechanics of Continuum Materials isotropy and anisotropy are rigorously described through the symmetry group of the constitutive relation.\n\n===Microfabrication===\n\nAnisotropic etching techniques (such as deep reactive ion etching) are used in microfabrication processes to create well defined microscopic features with a high aspect ratio. These features are commonly used in MEMS and microfluidic devices, where the anisotropy of the features is needed to impart desired optical, electrical, or physical properties to the device. Anisotropic etching can also refer to certain chemical etchants used to etch a certain material preferentially over certain crystallographic planes (e.g., KOH etching of silicon 100 produces pyramid-like structures)\n\n===Neuroscience===\n\nDiffusion tensor imaging is an MRI technique that involves measuring the fractional anisotropy of the random motion (Brownian motion) of water molecules in the brain. Water molecules located in fiber tracts are more likely to be anisotropic, since they are restricted in their movement (they move more in the dimension parallel to the fiber tract rather than in the two dimensions orthogonal to it), whereas water molecules dispersed in the rest of the brain have less restricted movement and therefore display more isotropy. This difference in fractional anisotropy is exploited to create a map of the fiber tracts in the brains of the individual.\n\n===Atmospheric radiative transfer===\nRadiance fields (see BRDF) from a reflective surface are often not isotropic in nature. This makes calculations of the total energy being reflected from any scene a difficult quantity to calculate. In remote sensing applications, anisotropy functions can be derived for specific scenes, immensely simplifying the calculation of the net reflectance or (thereby) the net irradiance of a scene.\nFor example, let the BRDF be where 'i' denotes incident direction and 'v' denotes viewing direction (as if from a satellite or other instrument). And let P be the Planar Albedo, which represents the total reflectance from the scene.\n:\n:\n\nIt is of interest because, with knowledge of the anisotropy function as defined, a measurement of the BRDF from a single viewing direction (say, ) yields a measure of the total scene reflectance (Planar Albedo) for that specific incident geometry (say, ).\n", "Circular symmetry\n", "\n", "\n \"Gauge, and knitted fabric generally, is an anisotropic phenomenon\"\n* \"Overview of Anisotropy\"\n* DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package: \"Introduction to Anisotropy\"\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Fields of interest", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Anisotropy
[ "Visual representation of alpha decay\n\n'''Alpha decay''' or '''α-decay''' is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus) and thereby transforms or 'decays' into an atom with a mass number that is reduced by four and an atomic number that is reduced by two. An alpha particle is identical to the nucleus of a helium-4 atom, which consists of two protons and two neutrons. It has a charge of +2e and a mass of 4u. For example, uranium-238 decays to form thorium-234. Alpha particles have a charge +2, but as a nuclear equation describes a nuclear reaction without considering the electrons – a convention that does not imply that the nuclei necessarily occur in neutral atoms – the charge is not usually shown.\n\nAlpha decay typically occurs in the heaviest nuclides. Theoretically, it can occur only in nuclei somewhat heavier than nickel (element 28), where the overall binding energy per nucleon is no longer a minimum and the nuclides are therefore unstable toward spontaneous fission-type processes. In practice, this mode of decay has only been observed in nuclides considerably heavier than nickel, with the lightest known alpha emitters being the lightest isotopes (mass numbers 106–110) of tellurium (element 52). Exceptionally, however, beryllium-8 decays to two alpha particles.\n\nAlpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay, where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind. It is the most common form because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the alpha particle. Like other cluster decays, alpha decay is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, it is governed by the interplay between both the nuclear force and the electromagnetic force.\n\nAlpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (or ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, 110 TJ/kg) and have a speed of about 15,000,000 m/s, or 5% of the speed of light. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life of this process on the energy produced (see equations in the Geiger–Nuttall law). Because of their relatively large mass, +2 electric charge and relatively low velocity, alpha particles are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, and their forward motion can be stopped by a few centimeters of air. Approximately 99% of the helium produced on Earth is the result of the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-product of natural gas production.\n", "\nAlpha source beneath a radiation detector\nAlpha particles were first described in the investigations of radioactivity by Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and by 1907 they were identified as He2+ ions.\n\nBy 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped in a potential well by the nucleus. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the (then) newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of \"tunneling\" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived, from first principles, a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically, and was known as the Geiger–Nuttall law.\n", "\nThe nuclear force holding an atomic nucleus together is very strong, in general much stronger than the repulsive electromagnetic forces between the protons. However, the nuclear force is also short range, dropping quickly in strength beyond about 1 femtometre, while the electromagnetic force has unlimited range. The strength of the attractive nuclear force keeping a nucleus together is thus proportional to the number of nucleons, but the total disruptive electromagnetic force trying to break the nucleus apart is roughly proportional to the square of its atomic number. A nucleus with 210 or more nucleons is so large that the strong nuclear force holding it together can just barely counterbalance the electromagnetic repulsion between the protons it contains. Alpha decay occurs in such nuclei as a means of increasing stability by reducing size.\n\nOne curiosity is why alpha particles, helium nuclei, should be preferentially emitted as opposed to other particles like a single proton or neutron or other atomic nuclei. Part of the answer comes from conservation of wave function symmetry, which prevents a particle from spontaneously changing from exhibiting Bose–Einstein statistics (if it had an even number of nucleons) to Fermi–Dirac statistics (if it had an odd number of nucleons) or vice versa. Single proton emission, or the emission of any particle with an odd number of nucleons would violate this conservation law. The rest of the answer comes from the very high binding energy of the alpha particle. Computing the total disintegration energy given by the equation:\n:\nWhere is the initial mass of the nucleus, is the mass of the nucleus after particle emission, and is the mass of the emitted particle, shows that alpha particle emission will usually be possible just with energy from the nucleus itself, while other decay modes will require additional energy. For example, performing the calculation for uranium-232 shows that alpha particle emission would need only 5.4 MeV, while a single proton emission would require 6.1 MeV. Most of this disintegration energy becomes the kinetic energy of the alpha particle itself, although to preserve conservation of momentum part of this energy becomes the recoil of the nucleus itself. However, since the mass numbers of most alpha emitting radioisotopes exceed 210, far greater than the mass number of the alpha particle (4) the part of the energy going to the recoil of the nucleus is generally quite small.\n\nThese disintegration energies however are substantially smaller than the potential barrier provided by the nuclear force, which prevents the alpha particle from escaping. The energy needed is generally in the range of about 25 MeV, the amount of work that must be done against electromagnetic repulsion to bring an alpha particle from infinity to a point near the nucleus just outside the range of the nuclear force's influence. An alpha particle can be thought of as being inside a potential barrier whose walls are 25 MeV. However, decay alpha particles only have kinetic energies of 4 MeV to about 9 MeV, far less than the energy needed to escape.\n\nQuantum mechanics, however, provides a ready explanation, via the mechanism of quantum tunnelling. The quantum tunnelling theory of alpha decay, independently developed by George Gamow and Ronald Wilfred Gurney and Edward Condon in 1928, was hailed as a very striking confirmation of quantum theory. Essentially, the alpha particle escapes from the nucleus by quantum tunnelling its way out. Gurney and Condon made the following observation in their paper on it:\nIt has hitherto been necessary to postulate some special arbitrary ‘instability’ of the nucleus; but in the following note it is pointed out that disintegration is a natural consequence of the laws of quantum mechanics without any special hypothesis... Much has been written of the explosive violence with which the α-particle is hurled from its place in the nucleus. But from the process pictured above, one would rather say that the α-particle almost slips away unnoticed.\nThe theory makes the assumptions that the alpha particle can be considered an independent particle within a nucleus that is in constant motion, but held within the nucleus by nuclear forces. There is, in addition, a very small but decidedly non-zero probability that it will tunnel its way out. An alpha particle with a speed of 1.5×107 m/s within a nuclear diameter of approximately 10−14 m will thus collide against the potential barrier of the nuclear force more than 1021 times per second, and yet for some radioisotopes it will need to keep doing this for as long as 13 billion years before managing to escape, so the probability of escape is extremely low.\n\nWorking out the details of the theory leads to an equation relating the half-life of a radioisotope to the decay energy of its alpha particles, a theoretical derivation of the empirical Geiger–Nuttall law.\n", "Americium-241, an alpha emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air in an open ion chamber and a small current flows through the ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the chamber reduce the current, triggering the smoke detector's alarm.\n\nAlpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and were used for artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay.\n\nStatic eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to dissipate more rapidly.\n", "Highly charged and heavy, alpha particles lose their several MeV of energy within a small volume of material, along a very short mean free path. This increases the chance of double-strand breaks to the DNA in cases of internal contamination, when ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin. Otherwise, touching an alpha source is typically not harmful, as alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells that make up the epidermis; however, many alpha sources are also accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and both are often accompanied by gamma photon emission.\n\nRBE relative biological effectiveness quantifies the ability of radiation to cause certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, for equivalent radiation exposure. Alpha radiation has high linear energy transfer (LET) coefficient, which is about one ionization of a molecule/atom for every angstrom of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta radiation and ionizing photons.\n\nHowever, the recoil of the parent nucleus (alpha recoil) gives it a significant amount of energy, which also causes ionization damage (see ionizing radiation). This energy is roughly the weight of the alpha (4 u) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 u) times the total energy of the alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nucleus is part of an atom that is much larger than an alpha particle, and causes a very dense trail of ionization; the atom is typically a heavy metal, which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies, this has resulted in an RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations.\n\nThe largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock. If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles, which can damage cells in the lung tissue. The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from aplastic anemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon, along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during World War I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden.\n\nThe Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 murder by radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out with polonium-210, an alpha emitter.\n", "\n* Alpha emitters by increasing energy (Appendix 1)\n", "\n", "* Image:Ndslivechart.png ''' The LIVEChart of Nuclides - IAEA ''' with filter on alpha decay\n* Alpha decay with 3 animated examples showing the recoil of daughter\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Mechanism", "Uses", "Toxicity", "References", "Notes", " External links " ]	Alpha decay
[ "Trial model of a part of the Analytical Engine, built by Babbage, as displayed at the Science Museum (London)\n\nThe '''Analytical Engine''' was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbage's difference engine, a design for a mechanical computer. The Analytical Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete. In other words, the logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era.\n\nBabbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and inadequate funding. It was not until the 1940s that the first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837.\n", "Two types of punched cards used to program the machine. Foreground: 'operational cards', for inputting instructions; background: 'variable cards', for inputting data\n\nBabbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device, the Difference Engine, was a special-purpose machine designed to tabulate logarithms and trigonometric functions by evaluating finite differences to create approximating polynomials. Construction of this machine was never completed; Babbage had conflicts with his chief engineer, Joseph Clement, and ultimately the British government withdrew its funding for the project.\n\nDuring this project, he realized that a much more general design, the Analytical Engine, was possible. The work on the design of the Analytical Engine started in c. 1833.\n\nThe input, consisting of programs and data (\"formulae\" and \"data\") was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic.\n\nThere was to be a store (that is, a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each (ca. 16.2 kB). An arithmetical unit (the \"mill\") would be able to perform all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons and optionally square roots. Initially (1838) it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a generally circular layout, with the long store exiting off to one side. Later drawings (1858) depict a regularized grid layout. Like the central processing unit (CPU) in a modern computer, the mill would rely upon its own internal procedures, to be stored in the form of pegs inserted into rotating drums called \"barrels\", to carry out some of the more complex instructions the user's program might specify.\n\nThe programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Babbage developed some two dozen programs for the Analytical Engine between 1837 and 1840, and one program later. These programs treat polynomials, iterative formulas, Gaussian elimination, and Bernoulli numbers.\n\nIn 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea published a description of the engine based on a lecture by Babbage in French. In 1843, the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by Ada Lovelace, who had become interested in the engine eight years earlier. In recognition of her additions to Menabrea's paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoulli numbers using the machine, she has been described as the first computer programmer.\n", "Henry Babbage's Analytical Engine Mill, built in 1910, in the Science Museum (London) \n\nLate in his life, Babbage sought ways to build a simplified version of the machine, and assembled a small part of it before his death in 1871.\n\nIn 1878, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the Analytical Engine as \"a marvel of mechanical ingenuity\", but recommended against constructing it. The committee acknowledged the usefulness and value of the machine, but could not estimate the cost of building it, and were unsure whether the machine would function correctly after being built.\n\nIn 1906 Babbage's son Henry Prevost Babbage constructed a part of the mill and the printing apparatus, and calculated a (faulty) list of multiples of pi (published in 1910). This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage. (Popular images of this section have sometimes been mislabelled, implying that it was the entire mill or even the entire engine.) Henry Babbage's \"Analytical Engine Mill\" is on display at the Science Museum in London. Henry also proposed building a demonstration version of the full engine, with a smaller storage capacity: \"perhaps for a first machine ten (columns) would do, with fifteen wheels in each\". Such a version could manipulate 20 numbers of 25 digits each, and what it could be told to do with those numbers could still be impressive. \"It is only a question of cards and time\", wrote Henry Babbage in 1888, \"... and there is no reason why (twenty thousand) cards should not be used if necessary, in an Analytical Engine for the purposes of the mathematician\".\n\nIn 1991, the London Science Museum built a complete and working specimen of Babbage's Difference Engine No. 2, a design that incorporated refinements Babbage discovered during the development of the Analytical Engine. This machine was built using materials and engineering tolerances that would have been available to Babbage, quelling the suggestion that Babbage's designs could not have been produced using the manufacturing technology of his time.\n\nIn October 2010, John Graham-Cumming started a \"Plan 28\" campaign to raise funds by \"public subscription\" to enable serious historical and academic study of Babbage's plans, with a view to then build and test a fully working virtual design which will then in turn enable construction of the physical Analytical Engine. As of May 2016, actual construction had not been attempted, since no consistent understanding could yet be obtained from Babbage’s original design drawings. By 2017, the \"Plan 28\" effort reported that a searchable database of all catalogued material was available, and an initial review of Babbage’s voluminous Scribbling Books had been completed.\n", "\nBabbage is not known to have written down an explicit set of instructions for the engine in the manner of a modern processor manual. Instead he showed his programs as lists of states during their execution, showing what operator was run at each step with little indication of how the control flow would be guided.\n\nAllan G. Bromley has assumed that the card deck could be read in forwards and backwards directions as a function of conditional branching after testing for conditions, which would make the engine Turing-complete:\n\n...the cards could be ordered to move forward and reverse (and hence to loop)...\n\nThe introduction for the first time, in 1845, of user operations for a variety of service functions including, most importantly, an effective system for user control of looping in user programs.\n\nThere is no indication how the direction of turning of the operation and variable cards is specified. In the absence of other evidence I have had to adopt the minimal default assumption that both the operation and variable cards can only be turned backward as is necessary to implement the loops used in Babbage’s sample programs. There would be no mechanical or microprogramming difficulty in placing the direction of motion under the control of the user.\n\nIn their emulator of the engine, Fourmilab say:\n\nThe Engine's Card Reader is not constrained to simply process the cards in a chain one after another from start to finish. It can, in addition, directed by the very cards it reads and advised by the whether the Mill's run-up lever is activated, either advance the card chain forward, skipping the intervening cards, or backward, causing previously-read cards to be processed once again.\n\nThis emulator does provide a written symbolic instruction set, though this has been constructed by its authors rather than based on Babbage's original works. For example, a factorial program would be written as:\n\n N0 6\n N1 1\n N2 1\n ×\n L1\n L0\n S1\n -\n L0\n L2\n S0\n L2\n L0\n CB?11\n\nwhere the CB is the conditional branch instruction or \"combination card' used to make the control flow jump, in this case backwards by 11 cards.\n", "\n=== Predicted influence ===\n\nBabbage understood that the existence of an automatic computer would kindle interest in the field now known as algorithmic efficiency, writing in his ''Passages from the Life of a Philosopher'', \"As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. Whenever any result is sought by its aid, the question will then arise—By what course of calculation can these results be arrived at by the machine in the ''shortest time''?\"\n\n=== Computer science ===\nThe incomplete Analytical Engine was put on display to the public at the 1862 International Exhibition in South Kensington, London.\n\nSwedish engineers Georg and Edvard Scheutz, inspired by a description of the difference engine, created a mechanical calculation device based on the design in 1853. Table-sized instead of room-sized, the device was capable of calculating tables, but imperfectly.\n\nFrom 1872 Henry continued diligently with his father's work and then intermittently in retirement in 1875. Percy Ludgate wrote about the engine in 1915 and even designed his own Analytical Engine (it was drawn up in detail, but never built) about 1909. Ludgate's engine would be much smaller than Babbage's of about 8 cubic feet (230 L), and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about six seconds.\n\nDespite this groundwork, Babbage's work fell into historical obscurity, and the Analytical Engine was unknown to builders of electro-mechanical and electronic computing machines in the 1930s and 1940s when they began their work, resulting in the need to re-invent many of the architectural innovations Babbage had proposed. Howard Aiken, who built the quickly-obsoleted electromechanical calculator, the Harvard Mark I, between 1937 and 1945, praised Babbage's work likely as a way of enhancing his own stature, but knew nothing of the Analytical Engine's architecture during the construction of the Mark I, and considered his visit to the constructed portion of the Analytical Engine \"the greatest disappointment of my life\". The Mark I showed no influence from the Analytical Engine and lacked the Analytical Engine's most prescient architectural feature, conditional branching. J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly similarly were not aware of the details of Babbage's Analytical Engine work prior to the completion of their design for the first electronic general-purpose computer, the ENIAC.\n", "\nIf the Analytical Engine had been built, it would have been digital, programmable and Turing-complete. It would, however, have been very slow. Luigi Federico Menabrea reported in ''Sketch of the Analytical Engine'': \"Mr. Babbage believes he can, by his engine, form the product of two numbers, each containing twenty figures, in three minutes\".\nBy comparison the Harvard Mark I could perform the same task in just six seconds. A modern PC can do the same thing in well under a millionth of a second.\n\n\n\n\n Name\n First operational\n Numeral system\n Computing mechanism\n Programming\n Turing complete\n Memory\n\n Difference Engine\n Not built until the 1990s\n Decimal\n Mechanical\n Not programmable; initial numerical constants of polynomial differences set physically\n No\n Physical state of wheels in axes\n\n Analytical Engine\n Not yet built\n Decimal\n Mechanical\n Program-controlled by punched cards\n Yes\n Physical state of wheels in axes\n\n Bombe \n 1939 (Polish), March 1940 (British), May 1943 (US)\n Character computations\n Electro-mechanical\n Not programmable; cipher input settings specified by patch cables\n No\n Physical state of rotors\n\n Zuse Z3 \n May 1941\n Binary floating point\n Electro-mechanical\n Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock\n In principle\n Mechanical relays\n\n Atanasoff–Berry Computer \n 1942\n Binary\n Electronic\n Not programmable; linear system coefficients input using punched cards\n No\n Regenerative capacitor memory\n\n Colossus Mark 1 \n December 1943\n Binary\n Electronic\n Program-controlled by patch cables and switches\n No\n Thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and thyratrons\n\n Harvard Mark I – IBM ASCC \n May 1944\n Decimal\n Electro-mechanical\n Program-controlled by 24-channel punched paper tape (but no conditional branch)\n No\n Mechanical relays\n\n Zuse Z4 \n March 1945 (or 1948) \n Binary floating point \n Electro-mechanical \n Program-controlled by punched 35 mm film stock\n Yes\n Mechanical relays\n\n ENIAC \n July 1946\n Decimal\n Electronic\n Program-controlled by patch cables and switches\n Yes\n Vacuum tube triode flip-flops\n\n Manchester Baby \n 1948\n Binary\n Electronic\n Binary program entered into memory by keyboard (first electronic stored-program digital computer)\n Yes\n Williams cathode ray tube\n\n", "\n\n* The cyberpunk novelists William Gibson and Bruce Sterling co-authored a steampunk novel of alternative history titled ''The Difference Engine'' in which Babbage's Difference and Analytical Engines became available to Victorian society. The novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology.\n* There is also mention of the Analytical Engine (or the Clockwork Ouroboros as it is also known there) in ''The Book of the War'', a Faction Paradox anthology edited by Lawrence Miles. This machine was used to calculate a way into the \"Eleven Day Empire\". Its use resulted in the destruction of the original Houses of Parliament.\n* In the novel ''Perdido Street Station'', by British author China Miéville, engines similar to Babbage's serve as \"brains\" for the robotic constructs of the city of New Crobuzon. One such engine even develops sentient thought due to a recursive algorithmic loop.\n* The British Empire of ''The Peshawar Lancers'' by S. M. Stirling features a massive water-powered analytical engine at Oxford, used by two of the main characters. It is noted that most of the engines run on steam, and that an even larger one is under construction at the British Capital in Delhi.\n* In the Michael Flynn novel ''In the Country of the Blind'', a secret society calling itself the Babbage Society secretly financed the building of Babbage Engines in the mid-19th century. In the novel, the Society uses the Babbage engines along with a statistical science called Cliology to predict and manipulate future history. In the process, they predict the rise of the Nazis and accidentally start the US Civil War.\n* In the Neal Stephenson novel ''The Diamond Age'', ubiquitous molecular nanotechnology is described to make use of \"rod logic\" similar to that imagined by Babbage's design for the Analytical Engine.\n* ''Moriarty by Modem'', a short story by Jack Nimersheim, describes an alternate history where Babbage's Analytical Engine was indeed completed and had been deemed highly classified by the British government. The characters of Sherlock Holmes and Moriarty had in reality been a set of prototype programs written for the Analytical Engine. This short story follows Holmes as his program is rebooted on modern computers and he is forced to compete against his nemesis yet again in the modern counterparts of Babbage's Analytical Engine.\n* A similar setting is used by Sydney Padua in the webcomic ''The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage''. It features an alternate history where Ada Lovelace and Babbage have built the Analytical Engine and use it to fight crime at Queen Victoria's request. The comic is based on thorough research on the biographies of and correspondence between Babbage and Lovelace, which is then twisted for humorous effect.\n* Georgia on My Mind is a novelette by Charles Sheffield which involves two major themes: being widowed and the quest for a legendary Babbage computer.\n* Hugh Cook's fantasy novels ''The Wishstone and the Wonderworkers'' and ''The Wazir and the Witch'' feature an Analytical Engine created by the scientist Ivan Petrov. It is used to calculate income tax.\n* The Orion's Arm online project features the ''Machina Babbagenseii'', fully sentient Babbage inspired mechanical computers. Each is the size of a large asteroid, only capable surviving in microgravity conditions, and processes data at 0.5% the speed of a human brain.\n* The flying ships in the anime Last Exile are seen to have analytical engines inside of them. Although some have more advanced technology, the common ships use analytical engines, and even some of the advanced ships are seen to have clockwork mechanisms as well.\n* A working version of the Analytical Engine, created by fictional inventor Ernest Harding (and based on the Babbage concept) was featured on the Murdoch Mysteries (also called The Artful Detective), in Season 5, Episode 9, ''Invention Convention''.\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* The Analytical Engine at Fourmilab, includes historical documents and online simulations\n* \n* Image of a later Plan of Analytical Engine with grid layout (1858)\n* First working Babbage \"barrel\" actually assembled, circa 2005\n* Special issue, ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Volume 22, Number 4, October–December 2000 \n* ''Babbage'', Science Museum, London\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Design ", " Construction ", " Instruction set ", " Influence ", " Comparison to other early computers ", " In popular culture ", " References ", "Bibliography", " External links " ]	Analytical Engine
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Augustus''' (;\n# \n# \nThe spelling , indicating the pronunciation , occurs in inscriptions (). 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the founder of the Roman Principate and considered the first Roman emperor, controlling the Roman Empire from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He was born '''Gaius Octavius''' into an old and wealthy equestrian branch of the plebeian ''gens'' Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavius was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir, then known as '''Octavianus''' (Anglicized as '''Octavian'''). He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi, the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as military dictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members. Lepidus was driven into exile and stripped of his position, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by Octavian in 31 BC.\n\nAfter the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward façade of the free Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates, and the legislative assemblies. In reality, however, he retained his autocratic power over the Republic as a military dictator. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including supreme military command, and those of tribune and censor. It took several years for Augustus to develop the framework within which a formally republican state could be led under his sole rule. He rejected monarchical titles, and instead called himself ''Princeps Civitatis'' (\"First Citizen of the State\"). The resulting constitutional framework became known as the Principate, the first phase of the Roman Empire.\n\nThe reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the ''Pax Romana'' (''The Roman Peace''). The Roman world was largely free from large-scale conflict for more than two centuries, despite continuous wars of imperial expansion on the Empire's frontiers and the year-long civil war known as the \"Year of the Four Emperors\" over the imperial succession. Augustus dramatically enlarged the Empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia; expanding possessions in Africa; expanding into Germania; and completing the conquest of Hispania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the Empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign.\n\nAugustus died in AD 14 at the age of 75. He probably died from natural causes, although there were unconfirmed rumors that his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as Emperor by his adopted son (also stepson and former son-in-law) Tiberius.\n", "Augustus (;\n) was known by many names throughout his life:\n* At birth, he was named '''Gaius Octavius''' after his biological father. Historians typically refer to him simply as '''Octavius''' (or Octavian) between his birth in 63 until his adoption by Julius Caesar in 44 BC (after Julius Caesar's death).\n* Upon his adoption, he took Caesar's name and became '''Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus''' in accordance with Roman adoption naming standards. He quickly dropped \"Octavianus\" from his name, and his contemporaries typically referred to him as \"Caesar\" during this period; historians, however, refer to him as '''Octavian''' between 44 BC and 27 BC.\n* In 42 BC, Octavian began the ''Temple of Divus Iulius'' or Temple of the Comet Star and added '''Divi Filius''' (''Son of the Divine'') to his name in order to strengthen his political ties to Caesar's former soldiers by following the deification of Caesar, becoming '''Gaius Julius Caesar Divi Filius'''.\n* In 38 BC, Octavian replaced his ''praenomen'' \"Gaius\" and ''nomen'' \"Julius\" with '''Imperator''', the title by which troops hailed their leader after military success, officially becoming '''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius'''.\n* In 27 BC, following his defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, the Roman Senate voted new titles for him, officially becoming '''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus'''. It is the events of 27 BC from which he obtained his traditional name of '''Augustus''', which historians use in reference to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14.\n", "\nWhile his paternal family was from the town of Velletri, approximately from Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC. He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. He was given the name '''Gaius Octavius Thurinus''', his cognomen possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves.\n\nDue to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavius only mentions his father's equestrian family briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Gaius Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.\n\nVenus on the reverse of the coin\nIn 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died. His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother, Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar.\n\nJulia died in 52 or 51 BC, and Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother. From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''toga virilis'' four years later, and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC. The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar. According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa, but gave way when his mother protested. In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel.\n\nWhen he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Velleius Paterculus reports that after that time, Caesar allowed the young man to share his carriage. When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary.\n", "\n=== Heir to Caesar ===\n''The Death of Caesar'', by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.\n\nOctavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria, when Julius Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (15 March) 44 BC. He rejected the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia and sailed to Italy to ascertain whether he had any potential political fortunes or security. Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law, and so had adopted Octavius, his grand-nephew, making him his primary heir. Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander. After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, Octavius learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.\n\nUpon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name '''Gaius Julius Caesar'''. Roman citizens adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g., ''Octavianus'' for one who had been an Octavius, ''Aemilianus'' for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.). However, though some of his contemporaries did, there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name ''Octavianus'', as it would have made his modest origins too obvious. Historians usually refer to the new Caesar as ''Octavian'' during the time between his adoption and his assumption of the name Augustus in 27 BC in order to avoid confusing the dead dictator with his heir.\n\nOctavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy. After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against Parthia in the Middle East. This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.\n\nA later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds took no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy Mark Antony. Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy.\n\nOctavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania. By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii.\n\n=== Growing tensions ===\nA reconstructed statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated ca. 30 BC\nArriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. They had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome. This was due to his \"inflammatory\" eulogy given at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.\n\nMark Antony was amassing political support, but Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he initially opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him. During the summer, he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers, however, who saw the younger heir as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him, or to bear with him during their efforts to get rid of Antony.\n\nOctavian began to make common cause with the Optimates, the former enemies of Caesar. In September, the leading Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches portraying him as a threat to the Republican order. With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws that would lend him control over Cisalpine Gaul, which had been assigned as part of his province, from Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins.\n\nOctavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans and, on 28 November, he won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain. In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome and, to the relief of the Senate, he fled to Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.\n\n=== First conflict with Antony ===\nBust of Augustus in Musei Capitolini, Rome\nDecimus Brutus refused to give up Cisalpine Gaul, so Antony besieged him at Mutina. Antony rejected the resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence, as the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him. This provided an opportunity for Octavian, who already was known to have armed forces. Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage and aping of Julius Caesar's name, stating \"we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth.\"\n\nAt the urging of Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he also was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls. In addition, Octavian was granted ''propraetor'' ''imperium'' (commanding power) which legalized his command of troops, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC). In April 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.\n\nThe senate heaped many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than on Octavian for defeating Antony, then attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus—yet Octavian decided not to cooperate. Instead, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony. In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa.\n\nOctavian also demanded that the decree should be rescinded which declared Antony a public enemy. When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions. He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul. Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian.\n\n=== Second Triumvirate ===\n\n==== Proscriptions ====\nRoman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription \"III VIR R P C\", meaning \"One of Three Men for the Regulation of the Republic\".\n\nIn a meeting near Bologna in October 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate. This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then supported by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2,000 ''equites'' allegedly were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.\n\nThe estimation that 300 senators were proscribed was presented by Appian, although his earlier contemporary Livy asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed. This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.\n\nContemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was more responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies. Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.\n\nThis claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies. Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials, but did pursue his enemies with more rigor than the other triumvirs. Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar (the consul of 64 BC), and Lepidus his brother Paullus.\n\nA denarius minted c. 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVS IVLIVS (DIVINE JULIUS)\n\n==== Battle of Philippi and division of territory ====\n\nOn 1 January 42 BC, the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, ''Divus Iulius''. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was ''Divi filius'', \"Son of God\". Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece. After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony later used the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead.\n\nAfter Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. Gaul and the provinces of Hispania and Italia were placed in the hands of Octavian. Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony, who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.\n\nOctavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign, whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, and they also required land. There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland. Octavian chose the former. There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.\n\n==== Rebellion and marriage alliances ====\nThere was widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over these settlements of his soldiers, and this encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra, the daughter of Fulvia (Mark Antony's wife) and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. He returned Clodia to her mother, claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, however, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.\n\nLucius and his army were spared, due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon. Octavian showed no mercy, however, for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius. Perusia also was pillaged and burned as a warning for others. This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as Augustan poet Sextus Propertius.\n\nFresco paintings inside the House of Augustus, his residence during his reign as emperor\nSextus Pompeius was the son of First Triumvir Pompey and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father. He was established in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius, who was a member of the republican party, ironically, not the Caesarian faction. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia, a daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo who was a follower of Sextus Pompeius as well as his father-in-law. Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only natural child, Julia, who was born the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after their marriage.\n\nWhile in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her. Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. This new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony, however. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Meanwhile, in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.\n\nIn the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC. During their marriage, Octavia gave birth to two daughters (known as Antonia the Elder and Antonia Minor).\n\n==== War with Pompeius ====\n\n\nA denarius of Sextus Pompeius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet, on the obverse the Pharus of Messina, who defeated Octavian, on the reverse, the monster Scylla\nSextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying shipments of grain through the Mediterranean to the peninsula. Pompeius' own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy. Pompeius' control over the sea prompted him to take on the name ''Neptuni filius'', \"son of Neptune\". A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC.\n\nThe territorial agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC. One of Pompeius' naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, however, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.\n\nIn supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against Parthia, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC. In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, however, which Antony viewed as an intentional provocation.\n\nOctavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by general Agrippa at the naval Battle of Naulochus. Sextus fled to the east with his remaining forces, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Pompeius' troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. Lepidus' troops deserted him, however, and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and were enticed by Octavian's promises of money.\n\nLepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of ''Pontifex Maximus'' (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and effectively was exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy. The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property in order to maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire. This time, he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy, while also returning 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners—slaves who had fled to join Pompeius' army and navy. Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or ''sacrosanctitas'', in order to ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome.\n\n==== War with Antony ====\n\n''Anthony and Cleopatra'', by Lawrence Alma-Tadema\n\nMeanwhile, Antony's campaign turned disastrous against Parthia, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces. On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength; he already was engaged in a romantic affair with her, so he decided to send Octavia back to Rome. Octavian used this to spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an \"Oriental paramour\". In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir—if only Antony would do the same. Antony refused.\n\nRoman troops captured the Kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, and Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. He also awarded the title \"Queen of Kings\" to Cleopatra, acts that Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome. Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, and he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.\n\nThe breach between Antony and Octavian prompted a large portion of the Senators, as well as both of that year's consuls, to leave Rome and defect to Antony. However, Octavian received two key deserters from Antony in the autumn of 32 BC: Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius. These defectors gave Octavian the information that he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations that he made against Antony.\n\nOctavian forcibly entered the temple of the Vestal Virgins and seized Antony's secret will, which he promptly publicized. The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, and designated Alexandria as the site for a tomb for him and his queen. In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.\n\n''The Battle of Actium'', by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London\nIn early 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece when Octavian gained a preliminary victory: the navy successfully ferried troops across the Adriatic Sea under the command of Agrippa. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.\n\nAntony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC. Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.\n\nOctavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Antony fell on his own sword and was taken by his soldiers back to Alexandria where he died in Cleopatra's arms. Cleopatra died soon after, reputedly by the venomous bite of an asp or by poison. Octavian had exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, and he was well aware of the dangers in allowing another person to do so the same. He, therefore, followed the advice of Arius Didymus that \"two Caesars are one too many\", ordering Caesarion to be killed (Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra), while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son.\n\nOctavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.\n", "\n\nAureus of Octavian, circa 30 BC, British Museum\nAfter Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate—but he had to achieve this through incremental power gains. He did so by courting the Senate and the people while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, appearing that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy. Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as dual consuls by the Senate.\n\nYears of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars among the Roman generals and, even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections—in name at least.\n\n=== First settlement ===\n\n\nLouvre, Paris).\nIn 27 BC, Octavian made a show of returning full power to the Roman Senate and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, but he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power was unrivaled in the Roman Republic. Historian Werner Eck states:\n\n\n\nTo a large extent, the public were aware of the vast financial resources that Augustus commanded. He failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy in 20 BC, but he undertook direct responsibility for them. This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the ''aerarium Saturni'', the public treasury.\n\nAccording to H. H. Scullard, however, Augustus's power was based on the exercise of \"a predominant military power and ... the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised.\"\n\nThe Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The Senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the Senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.\n\nThe provinces ceded to him for that ten-year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.\n\nWhile Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure that his orders were carried out. The provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate. Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but he did not have sole monopoly on political and martial power.\n\nThe Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two martially strategic regions with several legions. However, the Senate had control of only five or six legions distributed among three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Augustus, and their control of these regions did not amount to any political or military challenge to Octavian.\n\nThe Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces followed Republican-era precedents for the objective of securing peace and creating stability, in which such prominent Romans as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.\n\nBust of Augustus, wearing the Civic Crown. Glyptothek, Munich\nOn 16 January 27 BC the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of ''Augustus'' and ''Princeps''. ''Augustus'' is from the Latin word ''Augere'' (meaning to increase) and can be translated as \"the illustrious one\". It was a title of religious authority rather than political authority. According to Roman religious beliefs, the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity—and in fact nature—that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name served to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian.\n\nHis new title of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one which he styled for himself in reference to the story of the legendary founder of Rome, which symbolized a second founding of Rome. The title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image that Octavian tried to avoid. ''Princeps'' comes from the Latin phrase ''primum caput'', \"the first head\", originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial roster. In the case of Augustus, however, it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge. ''Princeps'' had also been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, Pompey had held the title.\n\nAugustus also styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', \"Commander Caesar son of the deified one\". With this title, he boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, and the use of ''Imperator'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. The word ''Caesar'' was merely a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, yet Augustus transformed ''Caesar'' into a new family line that began with him.\n\nAugustus was granted the right to hang the ''corona civica'' above his door, the \"civic crown\" made from oak, and to have laurels drape his doorposts. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a triumph, with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat to the general \"''memento mori''\", or \"Remember that you are mortal\". Additionally, laurel wreaths were important in several state ceremonies, and crowns of laurel were rewarded to champions of athletic, racing, and dramatic contests. Thus, both the laurel and the oak were integral symbols of Roman religion and statecraft; placing them on Augustus' doorposts was tantamount to declaring his home the capital.\n\nHowever, Augustus renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar. If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription ''virtus'', ''pietas'', ''clementia'', ''iustitia''—\"valor, piety, clemency, and justice.\"\n\n=== Second settlement ===\nPortraits of Augustus show the emperor with idealized features\nBy 23 BC, some of the un-Republican implications were becoming apparent concerning the settlement of 27 BC. Augustus' retention of an annual consulate drew attention to his ''de facto'' dominance over the Roman political system, and cut in half the opportunities for others to achieve what was still nominally the preeminent position in the Roman state. Further, he was causing political problems by desiring to have his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus follow in his footsteps and eventually assume the Principate in his turn, alienating his three greatest supporters – Agrippa, Maecenas, and Livia. Feeling pressure from his core group of adherents, Augustus turned to the Senate for help.\n\nHe appointed noted Republican Calpurnius Piso as co-consul in 23 BC, after his choice Aulus Terentius Varro Murena (who had fought against Julius Caesar and supported Cassius and Brutus) was executed in consequence of his involvement in the Marcus Primus affair, with an eye to bolstering his support among the Republicans.\n\nIn the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would ensure the continuation of the Principate in some form, while allaying senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcellus came away empty-handed. This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.\n\nAugustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy. With regards to the Principate, it was obvious to Augustus that Marcellus was not ready to take on his position; nonetheless, by giving his signet ring to Agrippa, Augustus intended to signal to the legions that Agrippa was to be his successor, and that constitutional procedure notwithstanding, they should continue to obey Agrippa.\n\nThe Blacas Cameo showing Augustus wearing a ''gorgoneion'' on a three layered sardonyx cameo, AD 20–50\nSoon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC, both times to introduce his grandsons into public life. This was a clever ploy by Augustus; ceasing to serve as one of two annually elected consuls allowed aspiring senators a better chance to attain the consular position, while allowing Augustus to exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class. Although Augustus had resigned as consul, he desired to retain his consular ''imperium'' not just in his provinces but throughout the empire. This desire, as well as the Marcus Primus Affair, led to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.\n\n=== Primary reasons for the Second settlement ===\nThe primary reasons for the Second Settlement were as follows. First, after Augustus relinquished the annual consulship, he was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position remained unchanged over his Roman, 'imperial' provinces where he was still a proconsul. When he annually held the office of consul, he had the power to intervene with the affairs of the other provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate throughout the empire, when he deemed necessary. When he relinquished his annual consulship, he legally lost this power because his proconsular powers applied only to his imperial provinces. Augustus wanted to keep this power.\n\nA second problem later arose showing the need for the Second Settlement in what became known as the \"Marcus Primus Affair\". In late 24 or early 23 BC, charges were brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, for waging a war without prior approval of the Senate on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king was a Roman ally. He was defended by Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena, who told the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state. Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus. Such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate's prerogative under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BC and its aftermath—i.e., before Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius''—as Macedonia was a Senatorial province under the Senate's jurisdiction, not an imperial province under the authority of Augustus. Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals. Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus's policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy – accusations that had already played out.\nAugustus as Jove, holding a scepter and orb (first half of 1st century AD)\n\nThe situation was so serious that Augustus himself appeared at the trial, even though he had not been called as a witness. Under oath, Augustus declared that he gave no such order. Murena disbelieved Augustus's testimony and resented his attempt to subvert the trial by using his ''auctoritas''. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest. Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'.\n\nThe Second Constitutional Settlement was completed in part to allay confusion and formalize Augustus' legal authority to intervene in Senatorial provinces. The Senate granted Augustus a form of general ''imperium proconsulare'', or proconsular imperium (power) that applied throughout the empire, not solely to his provinces. Moreover, the Senate augmented Augustus' proconsular imperium into ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or proconsular imperium applicable throughout the empire that was more (maius) or greater than that held by the other proconsuls. This in effect gave Augustus constitutional power superior to all other proconsuls in the empire. Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support, thereby ensuring that his status of proconsular imperium maius was renewed in 13 BC.\n\n=== Additional powers ===\nDuring the second settlement, Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (''tribunicia potestas'') for life, though not the official title of tribune. For some years, Augustus had been awarded ''tribunicia sacrosanctitas'', the immunity given to a Tribune of the Plebeians. Now he decided to assume the full powers of the magistracy, renewed annually, in perpetuity. Legally, it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired some years earlier when adopted by Julius Caesar. This power allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before them, to veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, to preside over elections, and to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure that they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate.\n\nWith the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all attire but the classic toga while entering the Forum. There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor. Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state. However, this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the ''tribunus plebis'' began to lose its prestige due to Augustus' amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship.\n\nThe ''Via Labicana Augustus'' – Augustus as Pontifex Maximus\nAugustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Traditionally, proconsuls (Roman province governors) lost their proconsular \"imperium\" when they crossed the Pomerium – the sacred boundary of Rome – and entered the city. In these situations, Augustus would have power as part of his tribunician authority but his constitutional imperium within the Pomerium would be less than that of a serving consul. That would mean that, when he was in the city, he might not be the constitutional magistrate with the most authority. Thanks to his prestige or ''auctoritas'', his wishes would usually be obeyed, but there might be some difficulty. To fill this power vacuum, the Senate voted that Augustus's imperium proconsulare maius (superior proconsular power) should not lapse when he was inside the city walls. All armed forces in the city had formerly been under the control of the urban praetors and consuls, but this situation now placed them under the sole authority of Augustus.\n\nIn addition, the credit was given to Augustus for each subsequent Roman military victory after this time, because the majority of Rome's armies were stationed in imperial provinces commanded by Augustus through the legatus who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Moreover, if a battle was fought in a Senatorial province, Augustus' proconsular imperium maius allowed him to take command of (or credit for) any major military victory. This meant that Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph, a tradition that began with Romulus, Rome's first King and first triumphant general. Lucius Cornelius Balbus was the last man outside Augustus' family to receive this award, in 19 BC. (Balbus was the nephew of Julius Caesar's great agent, who was governor of Africa and conqueror of the Garamantes.) Tiberius, Augustus' eldest son by marriage to Livia, was the only other general to receive a triumph—for victories in Germania in 7 BC.\n\n=== Conspiracy ===\nMany of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class, who were Augustus' greatest supporters and clientele. This caused them to insist upon Augustus' participation in imperial affairs from time to time. Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, and fears arose once again that he was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Likewise, there was a food shortage in Rome in 22 BC which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply \"by virtue of his proconsular ''imperium''\", and ended the crisis almost immediately. It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a ''praefectus annonae'', a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.\nA colossal statue of Augustus, seated and wearing a laurel wreath\n\nNevertheless, there were some who were concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this came to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio. Some time prior to 1 September 22 BC, a certain Castricius provided Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio. Murena was named among the conspirators, the outspoken Consul who defended Primus in the Marcus Primus Affair. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict. All the accused were sentenced to death for treason and executed as soon as they were captured—without ever giving testimony in their defence. Augustus ensured that the facade of Republican government continued with an effective cover-up of the events.\n\nIn 19 BC, the Senate granted Augustus a form of 'general consular imperium', which was probably 'imperium consulare maius', like the proconsular powers that he received in 23 BC. Like his tribune authority, the consular powers were another instance of gaining power from offices that he did not actually hold. In addition, Augustus was allowed to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate, as well as to sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was a consul, the importance was that he both appeared as one before the people and could exercise consular power if necessary. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the college of the Pontiffs, the most important position in Roman religion. On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title ''pater patriae'', or \"father of the country\".\n\n=== Stability and staying power ===\nA final reason for the Second Settlement was to give the Principate constitutional stability and staying power in case something happened to Princeps Augustus. His illness of early 23 BC and the Caepio conspiracy showed that the regime's existence hung by the thin thread of the life of one man, Augustus himself, who suffered from several severe and dangerous illnesses throughout his life. If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The memories of Pharsalus, the Ides of March, the proscriptions, Philippi, and Actium, barely twenty-five years distant, were still vivid in the minds of many citizens. Proconsular imperium was conferred upon Agrippa for five years, similar to Augustus' power, in order to accomplish this constitutional stability. The exact nature of the grant is uncertain but it probably covered Augustus' imperial provinces, east and west, perhaps lacking authority over the provinces of the Senate. That came later, as did the jealously guarded tribunicia potestas.\n\nAugustus' powers were now complete. In fact, he dated his 'reign' from the completion of the Second Settlement, July 1, 23 BC. Almost as importantly, the Principate now had constitutional stability. Later Roman Emperors were generally limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often newly appointed Emperors would decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus in order to display humility. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had been granted them by the Senate. Later Emperors took to wearing the civic crown, consular insignia, and the purple robes of a Triumphant general (''toga picta''), which became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine era.\n", "\n\nHermann'', depiction of the 9 AD Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, by Peter Janssen, 1873\n\nAugustus chose ''Imperator'' (\"victorious commander\") to be his first name, since he wanted to make an emphatically clear connection between himself and the notion of victory, and consequently became known as ''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus'' By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed \"imperator\" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''Res Gestae'' was devoted to his military victories and honors.\n\nAugustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (to the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet Virgil attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: ''tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento''—\"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!\" The impulse for expansionism was apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, and it is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter in Book 1 of the ''Aeneid'', where Jupiter promises Rome ''imperium sine fine'', \"sovereignty without end\".\n\nBy the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal) and the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and had extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south.\nBust of Tiberius, a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor\n\nJudea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, successor to client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC). Syria (like Egypt after Antony) was governed by a high prefect of the equestrian class rather than by a proconsul or legate of Augustus.\n\nAgain, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada. The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus' future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas.\n\nConquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome, since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north. Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monument Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion. The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum, and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus moved against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus' forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC—though he died shortly after by falling off his horse. It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.\n\nMuziris in the Chera Kingdom of Southern India, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana, with depiction of a \"Temple of Augustus\" (\"Templum Augusti\"), an illustration of Indo-Roman relations in the period\nCoin of Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the style of Roman emperor Augustus. British Museum\nTo protect Rome's eastern territories from the Parthian Empire, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas that could raise their own troops for defense. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East. Tiberius was responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of the Kingdom of Armenia.\n\naquila'', relief in the heroic cuirass of the Augustus of Prima Porta statue\nYet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with Phraates IV of Parthia (37–2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the battle standards lost by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome. Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus' defeat by military means. However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as propaganda symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue Augustus of Prima Porta and in monuments such as the Temple of Mars Ultor ('Mars the Avenger') built to house the standards.\n\nParthia had always posed a threat to Rome in the east, but the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers. Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia were the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube. Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.\n\nA prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman ally. Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany. Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that battle but was killed later in 21 due to treachery.\n", "\nThe illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed Augustus' unofficial position of power, he would have to earn it through his own publicly proven merits.\n\nSome Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. Other historians dispute this due to Augustus' will read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC, instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus' second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.\n\nAfter the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the ''imperium'' of a proconsul and the same ''tribunicia potestas'' granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus' authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the eastern Aegean. This granting of power showed Augustus' favor for Agrippa, but it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.\nThe Mausoleum of Augustus\n\nAugustus' intent became apparent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs when he adopted them as his own children. He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so that he could personally usher them into their political careers, and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (henceforth referred to as Drusus) and Tiberius Claudius (henceforth Tiberius), granting them military commands and public office, though seeming to favor Drusus. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended. Drusus' marriage to Antonia Minor was considered an unbreakable affair, whereas Vipsania was \"only\" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.\n\nTiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes. No specific reason is known for his departure, though it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia, as well as a sense of envy and exclusion over Augustus' apparent favouring of his young grandchildren-turned-sons Gaius and Lucius. (Gaius and Lucius joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.)\n\nAfter the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus. This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs. In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by AD 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of ''imperium'' with that of Augustus.\nThe deified Augustus hovers over Tiberius and other Julio-Claudians in the Great Cameo of France\n\nThe only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus' favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a \"vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character\". Postumus Agrippa was murdered at his place of exile either shortly before or after the death of Augustus.\n\nOn 19 August AD 14, Augustus died while visiting Nola where his father had died. Both Tacitus and Cassius Dio wrote that Livia was rumored to have brought about Augustus' death by poisoning fresh figs. This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus' life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius' political enemies. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true.\n\nAlternatively, it is possible that Livia did supply a poisoned fig (she did cultivate a variety of fig named for her that Augustus is said to have enjoyed), but did so as a means of assisted suicide rather than murder. Augustus' health had been in decline in the months immediately before his death, and he had made significant preparations for a smooth transition in power, having at last reluctantly settled on Tiberius as his choice of heir. It is likely that Augustus was not expected to return alive from Nola, but it seems that his health improved once there; it has therefore been speculated that Augustus and Livia conspired to end his life at the anticipated time, having committed all political process to accepting Tiberius, in order to not endanger that transition.\n\nAugustus' famous last words were, \"Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit\"—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, \"Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble.\" An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus' body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day. Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two ''rostra''. Augustus' body was coffin-bound and cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon. The mausoleum was despoiled by the Goths in 410 during the Sack of Rome, and his ashes were scattered.\n\nHistorian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus' policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus. Shotter suggests that Augustus' deification obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment that he might have harbored, coupled with Tiberius' \"extremely conservative\" attitude towards religion.\n\nAlso, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits. Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her), as well as toward the two young Caesars, Gaius and Lucius—instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.\n", "\nSibyl Tivoli bottom left and the Emperor Augustus in the bottom right, from the ''Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry''. The likeness of Augustus is that of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos\nThe Augustus cameo at the center of the Medieval Cross of Lothair\nAugustus' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted, in one form or another, for nearly fifteen hundred years through the ultimate decline of the Western Roman Empire and until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title ''Augustus'' became the permanent titles of the rulers of the Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and at New Rome. In many languages, ''Caesar'' became the word for ''Emperor'', as in the German ''Kaiser'' and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian ''Tsar''. The cult of ''Divus Augustus'' continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the ''Res Gestae Divi Augusti'', to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum. Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death. The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the ''Monumentum Ancyranum'', called the \"queen of inscriptions\" by historian Theodor Mommsen.\n\nThere are a few known written works by Augustus that have survived such as his poems ''Sicily'', ''Epiphanus'', and ''Ajax'', an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus' ''Eulogy of Cato''. Historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.\n\nMany consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated ''Pax Romana'' or ''Pax Augusta''. The Roman Senate wished subsequent emperors to \"be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan\". Augustus was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar, and was influenced on occasion by his third wife, Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.\n\nA ''praefectus vigilum'', or \"Prefect of the Watch\" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police. With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers. This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.\n\nWith his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the ''praefectus vehiculorum''. Besides the advent of swifter communication among Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country. In the year 6 Augustus established the ''aerarium militare'', donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.\n\nOne of the most enduring institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome. They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria.\n\nKalabsha Temple in Nubia\nAlthough the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus paid 400 sesterces each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon. He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities. In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.\n\nThe longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every Emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title. The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.\n\nHowever, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. AD 10/11), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. In the beginning of his ''Annals'', the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another. Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus:\n\nFragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD, National Archaeological Museum of Athens\n\n\nAccording to the second opposing opinion:\n\n\nIn a recent biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus' reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that:\n\n\n\n''Virgil reading the Aeneid to Augustus and Octavia'', by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1787\nTacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully \"mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty\". The 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat. The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (AD 39–65) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, \"perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly.\"\n\nThe Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his ''Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome'', criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle. In his ''Memoirs of the Court of Augustus'', the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, \"a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper\", \"wicked and worthless\", \"a mean spirit\", and a \"tyrant\".\n\n=== Revenue reforms ===\nCoin of Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present-day Tamil Nadu in India, a testimony to Indo-Roman trade. British Museum\n\nAugustus' public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus' predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.\n\nThe measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.\n\nAn equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors who collected taxes for the State were the norm in the Republican era. Some of them were powerful enough to influence the number of votes for men running for offices in Rome. Theese tax farmers called publicans were infamous for their depredations, great private wealth, and the right to tax local areas.\n\nRome's revenue equaled the amount of the successful bids to farm the taxes. The tax farmers' profits consisted of additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome's blessing or turning a blind eye. Lack of effective supervision, combined with tax farmers' desire to maximize their profits, produced a system of arbitrary exactions regarded quite rightly as barbarously cruel to taxpayers, unfair, and very harmful to investment and the economy.\n\n1st century coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus.\nThe use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government. As it was effectively considered Augustus' private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium. Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions, as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome.\n\nDuring his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.\n\n=== Month of August ===\nThe month of August (Latin: ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six is ''sex''). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a ''senatus consultum'' quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month.\n\n=== Building projects ===\n\n\nClose up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC\n\nOn his deathbed, Augustus boasted \"I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble.\" Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength. Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.\n\nAlthough this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt. The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus' triumphs in the ''Res Gestae''. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.\n\nHe also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor. Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family.\n\nTo celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design. There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus' name and legacy, such as the Theatre of Mérida in modern Spain, the Maison Carrée built at Nîmes in today's southern France, as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie, located near Monaco.\n\nVienne, late 1st century BC\nAfter the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.\n\nIn the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the ''curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum'' (translated as \"Supervisors of Public Property\") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. Augustus created the senatorial group of the ''curatores viarum'' (translated as \"Supervisors for Roads\") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.\n\nThe Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.\n", "The Meroë Head of Augustus, bronze Roman portraiture bust from Meroë, Kingdom of Kush (Nubia, modern Sudan), 27-25 BC\nHis biographer Suetonius, writing about a century after Augustus' death, described his appearance as: \"... unusually handsome and exceedingly graceful at all periods of his life, though he cared nothing for personal adornment. He was so far from being particular about the dressing of his hair, that he would have several barbers working in a hurry at the same time, and as for his beard he now had it clipped and now shaved, while at the very same time he would either be reading or writing something ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclined to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature, although Julius Marathus, his freedman and keeper of his records, says that he was five feet and nine inches (just under 5 ft. 7 in., or 1.70 meters, in modern height measurements), but this was concealed by the fine proportion and symmetry of his figure, and was noticeable only by comparison with some taller person standing beside him...\", adding that \"his shoes were somewhat high-soled, to make him look taller than he really was\"\n\nHis official images were very tightly controlled and idealized, drawing from a tradition of Hellenistic royal portraiture rather than the tradition of realism in Roman portraiture. He first appeared on coins at the age of 19, and from about 29 BC \"the explosion in the number of Augustan portraits attests a concerted propaganda campaign aimed at dominating all aspects of civil, religious, economic and military life with Augustus' person.\" The early images did indeed depict a young man, but although there were gradual changes his images remained youthful until he died in his seventies, by which time they had \"a distanced air of ageless majesty\". Among the best known of many surviving portraits are the Augustus of Prima Porta, the image on the Ara Pacis, and the Via Labicana Augustus, which shows him as a priest. Several cameo portraits include the Blacas Cameo and ''Gemma Augustea''.\n", "\n\n\n\n", "Augustus' only biological (non-adopted) child was his daughter.\n\n* 15px '''Augustus'''\n Julia (Julia Major) (39 BC – AD 14)\n* Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC – AD 4), no issue\n* Vipsania Julia (Julia Minor) (19 BC – AD 28)\n Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius) (4 BC – AD 53)\n* Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus (14 – 54)\n** Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the younger (50–66), died young\n* Junia Calvina (15–79), no issue\n* Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus (d. 64), no issue\n* Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the elder (d. 49), no issue\n* Junia Lepida (ca 18–65), issue unknown\n Unnamed illegitimate son by Decimus Junius Silanus (d. AD 8), ordered to be exposed by Augustus\n* Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC – AD 2), no issue\n* Vipsania Agrippina II (Agrippina Major) (14 BC – AD 33)\n Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (6–30), no issue\n Drusus Julius Caesar Germanicus (7–33), no issue\n Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus Major (died before AD 12)\n 15px Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus Minor (Caligula) (12–41)\n* Julia Drusilla (39–41), died young\n Julia Agrippina (Agrippina Minor) (15–59)\n* 15px Nero Claudius Caesar Germanicus (Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus) (37–68)\n** Claudia Augusta (Jan. 63 – April 63), died young\n Julia Drusilla (16–38), no issue\n Julia Livilla (18–42), no issue\n Tiberius Julius Caesar (? – ?), either born before Nero Julius Caesar, between Drusus Caesar and Gaius Caesar Minor (Caligula) or between Gaius Caesar Minor (Caligula) and Julia Agrippina\n Son (? – ?), referenced as ''Ignotus''\n* Marcus Julius Caesar Agrippa Postumus (12 BC – AD 14), no issue\n*** Tiberillus (born and died almost immediately 11 BC), son by Tiberius\n\n", "\n* Augustan literature (ancient Rome)\n* Augustan poetry\n* Bierzo Edict\n* Caesar's Comet\n* Gaius Maecenas\n* Gaius Octavian (Rome character)\n* Indo-Roman trade and relations\n* Julio-Claudian family tree\n* Octavia (gens)\n* Family tree of the Octavii Rufi\n* Temple of Augustus\n\n", "\n", " \n\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n\n* \n* Ando, Clifford, ''Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire'', University of California Press, 2000.\n* Bivar, A. D. H. (1983). \"The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids\", in ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' (Vol 3:1), 21–99. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, and Sydney: Cambridge University Press. .\n* Blackburn, Bonnie and Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1999). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford University Press. Reprinted with corrections 2003.\n* Bourne, Ella. \"Augustus as a Letter-Writer\", ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66.\n* \n* Brosius, Maria. (2006). ''The Persians: An Introduction''. London & New York: Routledge. (hbk).\n* Bunson, Matthew. (1994). ''Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire''. New York: Facts on File Inc. \n* Chisholm, Kitty and John Ferguson. (1981). ''Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. \n* Dio, Cassius. (1987) ''The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus''. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin Books. .\n* Davies, Mark; Swain, Hilary; Davies, Mark Everson, ''Aspects of Roman history, 82 BC-AD 14: a source-based approach'', Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2010.\n* Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) ''The Age of Augustus''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ; paperback, ).\n* Eder, Walter. (2005). \"Augustus and the Power of Tradition\", in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ; paperback, ).\n* Everitt, Anthony (2006) ''Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor''. Random House Books. .\n* \n* Gruen, Erich S. (2005). \"Augustus and the Making of the Principate\", in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ; paperback, ).\n* Holland, Richard, ''Augustus, Godfather of Europe'', Sutton Publishing, 2005.\n* Kelsall, Malcolm. \"Augustus and Pope\", ''The Huntington Library Quarterly'' (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131.\n* \n* Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Toher, Mark, ''Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate'', University of California Press, 1993.\n* Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). ''The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. \n* Scott, Kenneth. \"The Political Propaganda of 44–30 B.C.\" ''Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome'', Vol. 11, (1933), pp. 7–49.\n* \n* Original publisher Loeb Classical Library.\n* \n* Shaw-Smith, R. \"A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius\", ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214.\n* Shotter, D. C. A. \"Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus\", ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212.\n* Smith, R. R. R., \"The Public Image of Licinius I: Portrait Sculpture and Imperial Ideology in the Early Fourth Century\", ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 87, (1997), pp. 170–202, JSTOR\n* Southern, Pat. (1998). ''Augustus''. London: Routledge. .\n* Starr, Chester G., Jr. \"The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire\", ''The American Historical Review'' (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16.\n* \n* Walker, Susan, and Burnett, Andrew, ''The Image of Augustus'', 1981, British Museum Publications, \n* Wells, Colin Michael, ''The Roman Empire'', Harvard University Press, 2004.\n\n", "\n* Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). ''Augustus. Eine Biographie''. Berlin.\n* \n* Everitt, Anthony. ''The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome''. London: John Murray, 2007. .\n* Galinsky, Karl. ''Augustan Culture''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ).\n* \n* \n* Levick, Barbara. ''Augustus: Image and Substance''. London: Longman, 2010. .\n* Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, ''Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain'', Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85\n* Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., ''Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna'', Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74.\n* Jones, A. H. M. \"The Imperium of Augustus\", ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–19.\n* Jones, A. H. M. ''Augustus''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ).\n* \n* Osgood, Josiah. ''Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire''. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ; paperback, ).\n* Raaflaub, Kurt A. and Toher, Mark (eds.). ''Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate''. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ).\n* Reinhold, Meyer. ''The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity)''. Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).\n* Roebuck, C. (1966). ''The World of Ancient Times''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.\n* \n* Southern, Pat. ''Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies)''. New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ); 2001 (paperback, ).\n* Zanker, Paul. ''The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures)''. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ); 1990 (paperback, ).\n\n", "\n'''Primary sources'''\n* Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation\n* Gallery of the Ancient Art: August\n* Humor of Augustus\n* Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation\n* Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation\n* The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, ''his own account'': complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)\n* The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C.\n\n'''Secondary source material'''\n* '''Augustan Legionaries''' – Augustus' legions and legionaries\n* Augustus – short biography at the BBC\n* Brown, F. The Achievements of Augustus Caesar, Clio History Journal, 2009.\n* \"Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana\" – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy\n* \"De Imperatoribus Romanis\" – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors\n* Octavian / Augustus – pages by Yong-Ling Ow\n* Augustus Why he is important – his place in world history\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Name ", " Early life ", " Rise to power ", " Change to Augustus ", " War and expansion ", " Death and succession ", " Legacy ", " Physical appearance and official images ", " Ancestry ", " Descendants ", " See also ", " Footnotes ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Augustus
[ "\n\n\nThe '''geography of Antarctica''' is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice. The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is washed by the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean or, depending on definition, the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. It has an area of more than 14 million km².\n\nSome 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the world's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water. Averaging at least 1.6 km thick, the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur (e.g., Lake Vostok). Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery.\n", "The Princesses Astrid and Ragnhild Coasts\nThe Banzare, Sabrina, and Budd Law Dome Coasts\nPhysically, Antarctica is divided in two by Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. Western Antarctica and Eastern Antarctica correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the Greenwich meridian. This usage has been regarded as Eurocentric by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred.\n\nLesser Antarctica is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. There has been some concern about this ice sheet, because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time.\n", "There are four volcanoes on the mainland of Antarctica that are\nconsidered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or \n\"recent\" tephra deposits: \nMount Melbourne (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano; \nMount Berlin (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano; \nMount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and \nMount Hampton (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera.\n \nSeveral volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity.\nMount Erebus (3,795 m), a stratovolcano on\nRoss Island with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption.\nOn the opposite side of the continent, \nDeception Island\n(62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known\nand 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active.\nBuckle Island in the Balleny Islands (66°50'S., 163°12'E.), \nPenguin Island (62°06'S., 57°54'W.), \nPaulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and \nLindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also \nconsidered to be active. In 2017, the researchers of Edinburgh University discovered 91 underwater volcanoes under West Antarctica.\n\n\n", "West Antarctica on the left.\n\nTypical landscape for the Antarctic Peninsula area, with fjords, high coastal mountains and islands. Click on the image for geographical details.\nWest Antarctica is the smaller part of the continent, divided into:\n\n===Areas===\n* Antarctic Peninsula with\n Graham Land\n Palmer Land\n* Queen Elizabeth Land\n* Ellsworth Land\n English Coast\n Bryan Coast\n** Eights Coast\n* Marie Byrd Land with\n Walgreen Coast\n Bakutis Coast\n Hobbs Coast\n Ruppert Coast\n** Saunders Coast\n* King Edward VII Land with\n** Shirase Coast\n\n===Seas===\n* Scotia Sea\n* Weddell Sea\n* Bellingshausen Sea\n* Amundsen Sea\n\n===Ice shelves===\nLarger ice shelves are:\n* Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf\n* Larsen Ice Shelf\n* Abbot Ice Shelf\n* Getz Ice Shelf\n* Sulzberger Ice Shelf\n* Ross Ice Shelf\nFor all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.\n\n===Islands===\nFor a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.\n", "East Antarctica on the right.\nEast Antarctica is the larger part of the continent, both the South Magnetic Pole and geographic South Pole are situated here. Divided into:\n\n===Areas===\n* Coats Land\n* Queen Maud Land with\n Princess Martha Coast\n Princess Astrid Coast\n Princess Ragnhild Coast\n Prince Harald Coast\n** Prince Olav Coast\n* Enderby Land\n* Kemp Land\n* Mac. Robertson Land\n* Princess Elizabeth Land\n* Wilhelm II Land\n* Queen Mary Land\n* Wilkes Land\n* Adélie Land\n* George V Land\nGeorge V Coast\nZélée Subglacial Trench\n* Oates Land\n* Victoria Land\n\n===Seas===\n* Bellingshausen Sea\n* D'Urville Sea\n* Davis Sea\n* King Haakon VII Sea\n* Mawson Sea\n* Ross Sea\n* Scotia Sea\n* Weddell Sea\n\n===Ice shelves===\nLarger ice shelves are:\n* Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf\n* Ekstrom Ice Shelf\n* Amery Ice Shelf\n* West Ice Shelf\n* Shackleton Ice Shelf\n* Voyeykov Ice Shelf\nFor all ice shelves see List of Antarctic ice shelves.\n\n===Islands===\nFor a list of all Antarctic islands see List of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.\n", "\n", "Seven nations have made official Territorial claims in Antarctica.\n", "Bouvet Island\nFrench Southern and Antarctic Lands\nHeard and McDonald Islands\nSouth Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands\nPeter I Island\n", " List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands\n* Geology of Antarctica\n* Pritchard Peak\n", "\n", "* Ivanov, L. General Geography and History of Livingston Island. In: ''Bulgarian Antarctic Research: A Synthesis''. Eds. C. Pimpirev and N. Chipev. Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2015. pp. 17–28. \n", "* Political Claims Map\n* USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica\n* United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)\n* BEDMAP\n* Antarctic Digital Database (Topographic data for Antarctica, including web map browser)\n* Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; USGS web pages)\n* Landsat Image Mosaic of Antarctica (LIMA; NASA web pages)\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Regions", "Volcanoes", "West Antarctica", "East Antarctica", "Research stations", "Territorial landclaims", "Dependences and territories", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Geography of Antarctica
[ "\n'''Transport in Antarctica''' has transformed from explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica by foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport, predominantly by air and water, as well as land. \nTransportation technologies on a remote area like Antarctica need to be able to deal with extremely low temperatures and continuous winds to ensure the travelers' safety. Due to the fragility of the Antarctic environment, only a limited amount of transport movements can take place and sustainable transportation technologies have to be used to reduce the ecological footprint.\nThe infrastructure of land, water and air transport needs to be safe and sustainable. \nCurrently thousands of tourists and hundreds of scientists a year rely on the Antarctic transportation system.\n", "\n===Roads===\n\nWinds continuously blow snow on roads in Antarctica. \n\nThe South Pole Traverse (McMurdo–South Pole highway) is approximately long and links the United States' McMurdo Station on the coast to the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. It was constructed by leveling snow and filling in crevasses, but is not paved. There are flags to mark the route.\n\nAlso, the United States Antarctic Program maintains two ice roads during the austral summer. One provides access to Pegasus Field on the Ross Ice Shelf. The ice road between Pegasus Field and McMurdo Station is about 14 miles. The other road provides access to the Ice Runway, which is on sea ice. The road between the Ice Runway and McMurdo Station varies in length from year to year depending on many factors, including ice stability. These roads are critical for resuppling McMurdo Station, Scott Base, and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station.\n\n===Vehicles===\n\nThe scarcity and poor quality of road infrastructure limits land transportation by conventional vehicles. \n\nA normal car on tires has very limited capability for Antarctic conditions. Scientific bases are often built on snow free areas (oases) close to the\nocean. Around these stations and on a hard packed snow or ice, tire based vehicles can drive but on deeper and softer snow, a normal tire based vehicle cannot travel. Due to these limitation vehicles on belts have been the preferred option in Antarctica. In 1997 two specialized cars with very large tires running tire pressure as low as 1.5psi/0.1bar travelled onto the high Antarctica Plateau, giving strong indication that tire based vehicles could be an option for efficient travelling in Antarctica.\n\nMawson Station started using classic Volkswagen Beetles, the first production cars to be used in Antarctica. The first of these was named \"Antarctica 1\".\n\nIn December 1997 into February 1998 two AT44, 4x4 cars (built in Iceland by Arctic Trucks with tire size of 44-inch tall) joined an expedition by the Swedish Polar Institution (SWEA). The cars got used to transport people and supplies from the Ice shelf to WASA station, to perform scanning of the snow and support a drilling expedition to on the Antarctica Plateau 76°S 8°03'W. This is the first time tire based vehicles successfully travel on the Antarctica high plateau.\n\nIn 2006 a team of six people took part in the Ice Challenger Expedition. Travelling in a specially designed six wheel drive vehicle, the team completed the journey from the Antarctic coast at Patriot Hills to the geographic South Pole in 69 hours. In doing so they easily beat the previous record of 24 days. They arrived at the South Pole on December 12, 2005.\n\nThe team members on that expedition were Andrew Regan, Jason De Carteret, Andrew Moon, Richard Griffiths, Gunnar Egilsson and Andrew Miles. The expedition successfully showed that wheeled transport on the continent is not only possible but also often more practical. The expedition also hoped to raise awareness about global warming and climate change.\n\nFrom start of December 2008 into February 2009, four AT44, 4x4 cars were used to support a ski race by Amundsen Omega 3, from S82° 41' E17° 43' to South Pole. A film was made of this race by BBC called \"On Thin Ice\" with Ben Fogle and James Cracknell. The cars started from Novo airbase at S70° 49' E11° 38', establish a route onto the plateau through the crevasse areas in the Shcherbakov Mountain Range driving nearly 1500 km to the start line of the ski race. For the return journey each car covered between 5400 and 5800 km with one fuel depot on the way.\n\nFrom 2008 to date (Dec 2015) tire based cars, AT44 4x4 and AT44 6x6 have been used every season to support various NGO and scientific expedition/projects, supporting flights, fuel drops, filming, skiers, biker, a tractor, collecting snow samples and more. The combined distance covered on the Antarctica Plateau is over 220 thousand km and even though towing capacity is much lower than for most belt based vehicles, the tire based cars multiply the travel speed and use only a fraction of the fuel making this an option for some expeditions/projects.\n\nA second expedition led by Andrew Regan and Andrew Moon departed in November 2010. The Moon-Regan Trans Antarctic Expedition this time traversed the entire continent twice, using two six-wheel-drive vehicles and a Concept Ice Vehicle designed by Lotus. This time the team used the expedition to raise awareness about the global environmental importance of the Antarctic region and to show that biofuel can be a viable and environmentally friendly option.\n", "A tour boat in fast ice near the coast\nAntarctica's only harbour is at McMurdo Station. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty. Offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent, but poses no problem to sailboats designed for the ice, typically with lifting keels and long shorelines.\nMcMurdo Station (), Palmer Station (); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under \"Legal System\"). A number of tour boats, ranging from large motorized vessels to small sailing yachts, visit the Antarctic Peninsula during the summer months (January–March). Most are based in Ushuaia, Argentina.\n", "Transport in Antarctica takes place by air, using fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.\nRunways and helicopter pads have to be kept snow free to ensure safe take off and landing conditions.\n\nAntarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. Thirty stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities.\n\nHelicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, one is greater than 3 km in length, six are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, three are less than 1 km in length, and two are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, four are greater than 3 km in length, three are between 2 km and 3 km in length, two are between 1 km and 2 km in length, two are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining four.\n\nAntarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet ICAO standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.) Flights to the continent in the permanent darkness of the winter are normally only undertaken in an emergency, with burning barrels of fuel to outline a runway. On September 11, 2008, a United States Air Force C-17 Globemaster III successfully completed the first landing in Antarctica using night-vision goggles at Pegasus Field.\n\nIn April 2001 an emergency evacuation of Dr. Ronald Shemenski was needed from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station when he contracted pancreatitis. Three C-130 Hercules were called back before their final leg because of weather. Organizers then called on Kenn Borek Air based in Calgary. Two de Havilland Twin Otters were dispatched out of Calgary with one being back-up. Twin Otters are specifically designed for the Canadian north and Kenn Borek Air's motto is \"Anywhere, Anytime, World-Wide\". The mission was a success but not without difficulties and drawbacks. Ground crews needed to create a 2 km runway with tracked equipment not designed to operate in the low temperatures at that time of year, the aircraft controls had to be \"jerry-rigged\" when the flaps were frozen in position after landing, and instruments were not reliable because of the cold. When they saw a \"faint pink line on the horizon\" they knew they were going in the right direction. This was the first rescue from the South Pole during polar winter. Canada honoured the Otter crew for bravery.\n", "Tourism in Antarctica\nList of airports in Antarctica\n", "\n", "* Webpage of the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat on logistics\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Land transport", "Water transport", "Air transport", " See also ", " References ", "External links" ]	Transport in Antarctica
[ "\nPhysiographic regions in Alabama\nPolitical Regions of Alabama\n\nThis article will go through a wide range of topics of the '''geography of the state of Alabama'''. It is 30th in size and borders four U.S. states: Mississippi, Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida. It also borders the Gulf of Mexico.\n", "\nExtending entirely across the state of Alabama for about northern boundary, and in the middle stretching farther south, is the Cumberland Plateau, or Tennessee Valley region, broken into broad tablelands by the dissection of rivers. In the northern part of this plateau, west of Jackson county, there are about of level highlands from above sea level. South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the Tennessee River, is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from . To the northeast of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops. Its elevations range from . In the remainder of this region, the southern portion, the most prominent feature is ''Little Mountain'', extending about from east to west between two valleys, and rising precipitously on the north side above them or above the sea.\n\nAdjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the southeast is the Appalachian Valley (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the southern extremity of the Appalachian Mountains, and occupies an area within the state of about . This is a limestone belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains. Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges, and valleys is northeast and southwest, irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics. In the northeast are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and Lookout are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the Georgia line of little more than and gradually decreasing in height toward the southwest, where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon. South of these the mountains are marked by steep northwest sides, sharp crests and gently sloping southeast sides.\n\nSoutheast of the Appalachian Valley region, the Piedmont Plateau also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which Randolph and Clay counties, together with the northern part of Tallapoosa and Chambers, form the principal portion. Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about above sea level. The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.\n\nThe remainder of the state is occupied by the ''Coastal Plain''. This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about , becomes lower and more level toward the southwest, and in the extreme south is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea.\nThe Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the west-northwest by the Tennessee River and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the southwest. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa River is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa River. In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee River in the west, the Alabama River (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the western central, and in the east the Chattahoochee River, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary. The Tombigbee and Alabama rivers unite near the southwest corner of the state, their waters discharging into Mobile Bay by the Mobile and Tensas rivers. The Black Warrior River is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the east.\n\nThe valleys in the north and northeast are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream. The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast.\n", "\nThe fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics. However, the Mobile River system has a high incidence of endemism among freshwater mollusks and biodiversity is high.\n\nIn Alabama, vast forests of pine constitute the largest proportion of the state's forest growth. There is also an abundance of cypress, hickory, oak, populus, and eastern redcedar trees. In other areas, hemlock growths in the north and southern white cedar in the southwest. Other native trees include ash, hackberry, and holly. In the Gulf region of the state grow various species of palmetto and palm. In Alabama there are more than 150 shrubs, including mountain laurel and rhododendron. Among cultivated plants are wisteria and camellia.\n\nWhile in the past the state enjoyed a variety of mammals such as plains bison, eastern elk, North American cougar, bear, and deer, only the white-tailed deer remains abundant. Still fairly common are the bobcat, American beaver, muskrat, raccoon, Virginia opossum, rabbit, squirrel, red and gray foxes, and long-tailed weasel. Coypu and nine-banded armadillo have been introduced to the state and now also common.\n\nAlabama’s birds include golden and bald eagles, osprey and other hawks, yellow-shafted flickers, and black-and-white warblers. Game birds include bobwhite quail, duck, wild turkey, and goose. Freshwater fish such as bream, shad, bass, and sucker are common. Along the Gulf Coast there are seasonal runs of tarpon, pompano, red drum, and bonito.\n\nThe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service lists as endangered 99 animals, fish, and birds, and 18 plant species. The endangered animals include the Alabama beach mouse, gray bat, Alabama red-bellied turtle, fin and humpback whales, bald eagle, and wood stork.\n\nAmerican black bear, racking horse, yellow-shafted flicker, wild turkey, Atlantic tarpon, largemouth bass, southern longleaf pine, eastern tiger swallowtail, monarch butterfly, Alabama red-bellied turtle, Red Hills salamander, camellia, oak-leaf hydrangea, peach, pecan, and blackberry are Alabama's state symbols.\n", "\nThe climate of Alabama is humid subtropical.\n\nThe heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the Gulf of Mexico, and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast, and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67 °F (19 °C), the mean for the summer 81 °F (27 °C), and for the winter 52 °F (11 °C); and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59 °F (15 °C), the mean for the summer 75 °F (24 °C), and for the winter 41 °F (5 °C). At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66 °F (19 °C), with a winter average of 49 °F (9 °C), and a summer average of 81 °F (27 °C). The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35 °F (2 °C), and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point. At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18 °C), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13 February 1899, when an absolute minimum of -17 °F (-29 °C) was registered at Valley Head. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109 °F (43 °C) in Talladega county in 1902.\n\nThe amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. Heavy snowfall can occur, such as during the New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. Hailstorms occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy fogs are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. Thunderstorms occur throughout the year - they are most common in the summer, but most severe in the spring and fall, when destructive winds and tornadoes occasionally occur. The prevailing winds are from the news. Hurricanes are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive.\n\nAs regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions. Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 miles (240 km) is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the ''Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization. North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ''Black Prairie,'' which includes some and seventeen counties. It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the ''Cotton Belt.'' Between the ''Cotton Belt'' and the Tennessee Valley is the mineral region, the ''Old Land'' area—a region of resistant rocks—whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates. North of the mineral region is the ''Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.\n", "\n\nWetumpka is the home of \"Alabama's greatest natural disaster.\" A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown showcase the eroded remains of the five mile (8 km) wide impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme (\"star-wound\") for the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as an internationally recognized impact crater.\n", "Alabama includes several types of public use lands. These include four national forests and one national preserve within state borders that provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land.\n\n* land regions\n* Alabama State Parks\n* Alabama Public Fishing Lakes\n* Alabama Wildlife Management Areas\n* National Monuments\n Little River Canyon National Preserve\n Russell Cave National Monument\n* National Forests\n Conecuh National Forest\n Talladega National Forest\n Tuskegee National Forest\n William B. Bankhead National Forest\n* Wilderness Areas\n Cheaha Wilderness\n Dugger Mountain Wilderness\n** Sipsey Wilderness\n* National Scenic Trail\n Natchez Trace Trail\nNational Wildlife Funding\n* National Recreation Trail\n** Pinhoti National Recreation Trail\n* National Wildlife Refuge\n Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge\n Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge\n Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge\n Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge\n Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge\n Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge\n Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge\n Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge\n Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge\n Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge\n", "* Alabama\n* Geography of the United States\n", "\n", "* State of Alabama Geological Survey\n* USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama\n* Summary of Alabama Park & Recreation Sites\n* Interactive Map of Park & Recreation Sites\n* Encyclopedia of Alabama: Cultural Geography\n* Encyclopedia of Alabama: Black Belt Region in Alabama\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Physical features", "Flora and fauna", "Climate and soil", "Wetumpka Meteor Crater", "Public lands", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Geography of Alabama
[ "\nThe '''Governor of Alabama''' is the chief executive of the U.S. state of Alabama. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Alabama's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. The governor has the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Alabama Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment. The governor is also the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces.\n\nThere have officially been 54 governors of the state of Alabama; this official numbering skips acting and military governors. The first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, served as the only governor of the Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the total number of people serving as governor to 59, spread over 63 distinct terms. Four governors have served multiple non-consecutive terms: Bibb Graves, Jim Folsom, and Fob James each served two, and George Wallace served three non-consecutive periods. Officially, these non-consecutive terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity.\n\nThe longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served 16 years over four terms. The shortest term for a non-acting governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four and a half months after replacing the resigning Clement Comer Clay. Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, was the first woman to serve as governor of Alabama, and the third woman to serve as governor of any state. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey, who took office on April 10, 2017. She is the second female governor of Alabama.\n", "\n===Governor of the Territory of Alabama===\n:''For the period before Alabama Territory was formed, see the list of Governors of Mississippi Territory.''\nAlabama Territory was formed on March 3, 1817, from Mississippi Territory. It had only one governor appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state; he became the first state governor.\n\n\nGovernor\nTerm in office\nAppointed by\n\nalt=Portrait of a man facing the right.\nWilliam Wyatt Bibb\nMarch 6, 1817–December 14, 1819\nJames Monroe\n\n\n===Governors of the State of Alabama===\nGovernor-Elect\nGovernor's Flag 1868–1939\n\nAlabama was admitted to the Union on December 14, 1819. It seceded from the Union on January 11, 1861, and was a founding member of the Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861. Following the end of the American Civil War, Alabama during Reconstruction was part of the Third Military District, which exerted some control over governor appointments and elections. Alabama was readmitted to the Union on July 14, 1868.\n\nThe first Alabama Constitution, ratified in 1819, provided that a governor be elected every two years, limited to serve no more than four out of every six years. This limit remained in place until the constitution of 1868, which simply allowed governors to serve terms of two years. The current constitution of 1901 increased terms to four years, but prohibited governors from succeeding themselves. Amendment 282 to the constitution, passed in 1968, allowed governors to succeed themselves once; a governor serves two consecutive terms can run again after waiting out the next term. The constitution had no set date for the commencement of a governor's term until 1901, when it was set at the first Monday after the second Tuesday in the January following an election.\n\nThe office of lieutenant governor was created in 1868, abolished in 1875, and recreated in 1901. According to the current constitution, should the governor be out of the state for more than 20 days, the lieutenant governor becomes acting governor, and if the office of governor becomes vacant the lieutenant governor ascends to the governorship. Earlier constitutions said the powers of the governor devolved upon the successor, rather than them necessarily becoming governor, but the official listing includes these as full governors. The governor and lieutenant governor are not elected on the same ticket.\n\nAlabama was a strongly Democratic state before the Civil War, electing only candidates from the Democratic-Republican and Democratic parties. It had two Republican governors following Reconstruction, but after the Democratic Party re-established control, 112 years passed before voters chose another Republican.\n\n\n\n#\nGovernor\nTerm in office\nParty\nElection\nLt. Governor\n\n1\n75px\n \nWilliam Wyatt Bibb\nDecember 14, 1819–July 10, 1820\nDemocratic-Republican\n1819\n''Office did not exist''\n\n2\n75px\nThomas Bibb\nJuly 10, 1820–November 9, 1821\nDemocratic-Republican\n\n3\n75px\nIsrael Pickens\nNovember 9, 1821–November 25, 1825\nDemocratic-Republican\n1821\n\n1823\n\n4\n75px\n\nJohn Murphy\nNovember 25, 1825–November 25, 1829\nJacksonDemocrat\n1825\n\n1827\n\n5\n75px\nGabriel Moore\nNovember 25, 1829–March 3, 1831\nJacksonDemocrat\n1829\n\n6\n75px\nSamuel B. Moore\nMarch 3, 1831–November 26, 1831\nDemocratic\n\n7\n75px\nJohn Gayle\nNovember 26, 1831–November 21, 1835\nDemocratic\n1831\n\n1833\n\n8\n75px\nClement Comer Clay\nNovember 21, 1835–July 17, 1837\nDemocratic\n1835\n\n9\n75px\nHugh McVay\nJuly 17, 1837–November 30, 1837\nDemocratic\n\n10\n75px\nArthur P. Bagby\nNovember 30, 1837–November 22, 1841\nDemocratic\n1837\n\n1839\n\n11\n75px\nBenjamin Fitzpatrick\nNovember 22, 1841–December 10, 1845\nDemocratic\n1841\n\n1843\n\n12\n75px\n\nJoshua L. Martin\nDecember 10, 1845–December 16, 1847\nIndependent\n1845\n\n13\n75px\n\nReuben Chapman\nDecember 16, 1847–December 17, 1849\nDemocratic\n1847\n\n14\n75px\nHenry W. Collier\nDecember 17, 1849–December 20, 1853\nDemocratic\n1849\n\n1851\n\n15\n75px\nJohn A. Winston\nDecember 20, 1853–December 1, 1857\nDemocratic\n1853\n\n1855\n\n16\n75px\nAndrew B. Moore\nDecember 1, 1857–December 2, 1861\nDemocratic\n1857\n\n1859\n\n17\n75px\nJohn Gill Shorter\nDecember 2, 1861–December 1, 1863\nDemocratic\n1861\n\n18\n75px\nThomas H. Watts\nDecember 1, 1863–May 1, 1865\nDemocratic\n1863\n\n—\n''Vacant''\n''May 1, 1865–June 21, 1865''\n—\n\n19\n75px\n\nLewis E. Parsons\nJune 21, 1865–December 13, 1865\nDemocratic\n\n20\n75px\n\nRobert M. Patton\nDecember 13, 1865–July 24, 1868\nPre-War Whig\n1865\n\n—\n75px\nWager Swayne\n''March 2, 1867–January 11, 1868''\nMilitary\n\n21\n75px\n\nWilliam Hugh Smith\nJuly 24, 1868–November 26, 1870\nRepublican\n1868\n\n \nAndrew J. Applegate(took office August 13, 1868)(died August 21, 1870)\n\n''Vacant''\n\n22\n75px\n\nRobert B. Lindsay\nNovember 26, 1870–November 17, 1872\nDemocratic\n1870\n\nEdward H. Moren\n\n23\n75px\n\nDavid P. Lewis\nNovember 17, 1872–November 24, 1874\nRepublican\n1872\n\nAlexander McKinstry\n\n24\n75px\n\nGeorge S. Houston\nNovember 24, 1874–November 28, 1878\nDemocratic\n1874\n\nRobert F. Ligon\n\n1876\n''Office did not exist''\n\n25\n75px\nRufus W. Cobb\nNovember 28, 1878–December 1, 1882\nDemocratic\n1878\n\n1880\n\n26\n75px\nEdward A. O'Neal\nDecember 1, 1882–December 1, 1886\nDemocratic\n1882\n\n1884\n\n27\n75px\nThomas Seay\nDecember 1, 1886–December 1, 1890\nDemocratic\n1886\n\n1888\n\n28\n75px\nThomas G. Jones\nDecember 1, 1890–December 1, 1894\nDemocratic\n1890\n\n1892\n\n29\n75px\nWilliam C. Oates\nDecember 1, 1894–December 1, 1896\nDemocratic\n1894\n\n30\n75px\nJoseph F. Johnston\nDecember 1, 1896–December 1, 1900\nDemocratic\n1896\n\n1898\n\n—\n75px\nWilliam D. Jelks\n''December 1, 1900–December 26, 1900''\nDemocratic\n1900\n\n31\n75px\nWilliam J. Samford\nDecember 1, 1900–June 11, 1901\nDemocratic\n\n32\n75px\nWilliam D. Jelks\nJune 11, 1901–January 14, 1907\nDemocratic\n\n1902\n\nRussell M. Cunningham(acted as governorApril 25, 1904–March 5, 1905)\n\n33\n75px\nB. B. Comer\nJanuary 14, 1907–January 17, 1911\nDemocratic\n1906\nHenry B. Gray\n\n34\n75px\nEmmet O'Neal\nJanuary 17, 1911–January 18, 1915\nDemocratic\n1910\nWalter D. Seed, Sr.\n\n35\n75px\nCharles Henderson\nJanuary 18, 1915–January 20, 1919\nDemocratic\n1914\nThomas Kilby\n\n36\n75px\nThomas Kilby\nJanuary 20, 1919–January 15, 1923\nDemocratic\n1918\nNathan Lee Miller\n\n37\n75px\nWilliam W. Brandon\nJanuary 15, 1923–January 17, 1927\nDemocratic\n1922\nCharles S. McDowell(acted as governorJuly 10, 1924–July 11, 1924)\n\n38\n75px\nBibb Graves\nJanuary 17, 1927–January 19, 1931\nDemocratic\n1926\nWilliam C. Davis\n\n39\n75px\nBenjamin M. Miller\nJanuary 19, 1931–January 14, 1935\nDemocratic\n1930\nHugh Davis Merrill\n\n''38''\n75px\nBibb Graves\nJanuary 14, 1935–January 17, 1939\nDemocratic\n1934\nThomas E. Knight(died May 17, 1937)\n\n''Vacant''\n\n40\n75px\nFrank M. Dixon\nJanuary 17, 1939–January 19, 1943\nDemocratic\n1938\n\nAlbert A. Carmichael\n\n41\n75px\nChauncey Sparks\nJanuary 19, 1943–January 20, 1947\nDemocratic\n1942\nLeven H. Ellis\n\n42\n75px\nJim Folsom\nJanuary 20, 1947–January 15, 1951\nDemocratic\n1946\nJames C. Inzer\n\n43\n75px\nGordon Persons\nJanuary 15, 1951–January 17, 1955\nDemocratic\n1950\nJames Allen\n\n''42''\n75px\nJim Folsom\nJanuary 17, 1955–January 19, 1959\nDemocratic\n1954\nWilliam G. Hardwick\n\n44\n75px\nJohn M. Patterson\nJanuary 19, 1959–January 14, 1963\nDemocratic\n1958\nAlbert Boutwell\n\n45\n75px\nGeorge Wallace\nJanuary 14, 1963–January 16, 1967\nDemocratic\n1962\nJames Allen\n\n46\n75px\nLurleen Wallace\nJanuary 16, 1967–May 7, 1968\nDemocratic\n1966\nAlbert Brewer(acted as governorJuly 25, 1967)\n\n47\n75px\nAlbert Brewer\nMay 7, 1968–January 18, 1971\nDemocratic\n''Vacant''\n\n''45''\n75px\nGeorge Wallace\nJanuary 18, 1971–January 15, 1979\nDemocratic\n1970\n\nJere Beasley(acted as governorJune 5, 1972–July 7, 1972)\n\n1974\n\n48\n75px\nFob James\nJanuary 15, 1979–January 17, 1983\nDemocratic\n1978\nGeorge McMillan\n\n''45''\n75px\nGeorge Wallace\nJanuary 17, 1983–January 19, 1987\nDemocratic\n1982\nBill Baxley\n\n49\n75px\n\nH. Guy Hunt\nJanuary 19, 1987–April 22, 1993\nRepublican\n1986\nJim Folsom, Jr.\n\n1990\n\n50\n75px\n\nJim Folsom Jr.\nApril 22, 1993–January 16, 1995\nDemocratic\n''Vacant''\n\n''48''\n75px\n\nFob James\nJanuary 16, 1995–January 18, 1999\nRepublican\n1994\n\nDon Siegelman\n\n51\n75px\n\nDon Siegelman\nJanuary 18, 1999–January 20, 2003\nDemocratic\n1998\n\nSteve Windom\n\n52\n75px\n\nBob Riley\nJanuary 20, 2003–January 17, 2011\nRepublican\n2002\n\nLucy Baxley\n\n2006\nJim Folsom, Jr.\n\n53\n75px\nRobert J. Bentley\nJanuary 17, 2011–April 10, 2017\nRepublican\n2010\n\nKay Ivey\n\n2014\n\n54\n75px\nKay Ivey\nApril 10, 2017–present\nRepublican\n''Vacant''\n\n", "\n", ";General\n\n* \n* \n\n\n;Constitutions\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n;Specific\n\n", "\n* Office of the Governor of Alabama\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Governors", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	List of Governors of Alabama
[ "\n\nApocryphal letter of Sultan Mohammed II to the Pope (\"Notes et extraits pour servir à l'histoire des croisades au XVe siècle\") / published by Nicolas Jorga. Series 4: 1453–1476, Paris; Bucarest, 1915, pages 126–127\n'''Apocrypha''' are works, usually written, of unknown authorship or of doubtful origin. Biblical apocrypha is a set of texts included in the Latin Vulgate and Septuagint but not in the Hebrew Bible. While Catholic tradition considers the texts to be deuterocanonical, Protestants consider them apocryphal. Thus, Protestant bibles do not include the books within the Old Testament but have often included them in a separate section. Other non-canonical apocryphal texts are generally called pseudepigrapha, a term that means \"false writings\".\n\nThe word's origin is the Medieval Latin adjective ''apocryphus'', \"secret, or non-canonical\", from the Greek adjective (''apokryphos''), \"obscure\", from the verb (''apokryptein''), \"to hide away\".\n", "Apocrypha is commonly applied in Christian religious contexts involving certain disagreements about biblical canonicity. Apocryphal writings are a class of documents rejected by some as being either pseudepigraphical and/or unworthy to be properly called Scripture, though, as with other writings, they may sometimes be referenced for support, such as the Book of Jasher. While writings that are now accepted by Christians as Scripture were recognized as being such by various believers early on, the establishment of a largely settled uniform canon was a process of centuries, and what the term \"canon\" (as well as \"apocrypha\") precisely meant also saw development. The canonical process took place with believers recognizing writings as being inspired by God from known or accepted origins, subsequently being followed by official affirmation of what had become largely established through the study and debate of the writings. The Roman Catholic church provided its first dogmatic definition of her entire canon in 1546, which put a stop to doubts and disagreements about the status of the Apocrypha, as well as certain other books, which had continued from the beginning of the NT church. The leader of the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther, like the Catholic church father Jerome (and certain others), favored the Masoretic canon for the Old Testament, excluding apocryphal books in his non-binding canon as being worthy to properly be called Scripture, but included most of them in a separate section, as per Jerome. Luther also doubted the canonicity of four New Testament books (Hebrews, James and Jude, and Revelation), which judgment Protestantism did not follow, but he did not title them Apocrypha.\n\nExplaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Today Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon.\n", "\n===Esoteric writings and objects===\nThe word \"apocryphal\" () was first applied to writings which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge considered too profound or too sacred to be disclosed to anyone other than the initiated. For example, the disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted that they possessed the secret () books of Zoroaster. The term in general enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (see Acts of Thomas, pp. 10, 27, 44).\n\nSinologist Anna Seidel refers to texts and even items produced by ancient Chinese sages as apocryphal and studied their uses during Six Dynasties China (A.D. 220 to 589). These artifacts were used as symbols legitimizing and guaranteeing the Emperor's Heavenly Mandate. Examples of these include talismans, charts, writs, tallies, and registers. The first examples were stones, jade pieces, bronze vessels and weapons, but came to include talismans and magic diagrams. From their roots in Zhou era China (1066 to 256 B.C.) these items came to be surpassed in value by texts by the Han dynasty (206 B.C. to A.D. 220). Most of these texts have been destroyed as Emperors, particularly during the Han dynasty, collected these legitimizing objects and proscribed, forbade and burnt nearly all of them to prevent them from falling into the hands of political rivals. It is therefore fitting with the Greek root of the word, as these texts were obviously hidden away to protect the ruling Emperor from challenges to his status as Heaven's choice as sovereign.\n\n===Writings of questionable value===\n\"Apocrypha\" was also applied to writings that were hidden not because of their divinity but because of their questionable value to the church. Many in Protestant traditions cite Revelation 22:18–19 as a potential curse for those who attach any canonical authority to extra-biblical writings such as the Apocrypha. However, a strict explanation of this text would indicate it was meant for only the Book of Revelation. Rv.22:18–19f. (KJV) states: \"For I testify unto every man that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto these things, God shall add unto him the plagues that are written in this book: And if any man shall take away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God shall take away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and from the things which are written in this book.\" In this case, if one holds to a strict hermeneutic, the \"words of the prophecy\" do not refer to the Bible as a whole but to Jesus' ''Revelation'' to John. The early Christian theologian Origen, in his ''Commentaries on Matthew'', distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings: (''writing not found on the common and published books in one hand, actually found on the secret ones on the other''). The meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to \"excluded from the public use of the church\", and prepares the way for an even less favourable use of the word.\n\n===Spurious writings===\nIn general use, the word \"apocrypha\" came to mean \"false, spurious, bad, or heretical.\" This meaning also appears in Origen's prologue to his commentary on the Song of Songs, of which only the Latin translation survives: ''De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem.'' \"Concerning these scriptures, which are called apocryphal, for the reason that many things are found in them corrupt and against the true faith handed down by the elders, it has pleased them that they not be given a place nor be admitted to authority.\"\n\n===Other===\nOther uses of ''apocrypha'' developed over the history of Western Christianity. The Gelasian Decree (generally held now as being the work of an anonymous scholar between 519 and 553) refers to religious works by church fathers Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria as apocrypha. Augustine defined the word as meaning simply \"obscurity of origin,\" implying that any book of unknown authorship or questionable authenticity would be considered apocryphal. On the other hand, Jerome (in ''Protogus Galeatus'') declared that all books outside the Hebrew canon were apocryphal. In practice, Jerome treated some books outside the Hebrew canon as if they were canonical, and the Western Church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, instead retaining the word's prior meaning (''see: Deuterocanon''). As a result, various church authorities labeled different books as apocrypha, treating them with varying levels of regard.\n \nOrigen (who stated that \"the canonical books, as the Hebrews have handed them down, are twenty-two\"), Clement and others cited some apocryphal books as \"scripture,\" \"divine scripture,\" \"inspired,\" and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine and familiar with the Hebrew canon excluded from the canon all of the Old Testament not found there. This view is reflected in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. A third view was that the books were not as valuable as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, but were of value for moral uses, as introductory texts for new converts from paganism, and to be read in congregations. They were referred to as \"ecclesiastical\" works by Rufinus.\n\nThese three opinions regarding the apocryphal books prevailed until the Protestant Reformation, when the idea of what constitutes canon became a matter of primary concern for Roman Catholics and Protestants alike. In 1546 the Catholic Council of Trent reconfirmed the canon of Augustine, dating to the second and third centuries, declaring \"He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical.\" The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, were declared canonical at Trent. The Protestants, in comparison, were diverse in their opinion of the deuterocanon early on. Some considered them divinely inspired, others rejected them. Anglicans took a position between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Churches; they kept them as Christian intertestamental readings and a part of the Bible, but no doctrine should be based on them. John Wycliffe, a 14th-century Christian Humanist, had declared in his biblical translation that \"whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief.\" Nevertheless, his translation of the Bible included the apocrypha and the Epistle of the Laodiceans.\n\nMartin Luther did not class apocryphal books as being Scripture, but in both the German (1534) translation of the Bible, the apocrypha are published in a separate section from the other books, although the Lutheran and Anglican lists are different. In some editions (like the Westminster), readers were warned that these books were not \"to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings.\" A milder distinction was expressed elsewhere, such as in the \"argument\" introducing them in the Geneva Bible, and in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that \"the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners,\" though not to establish doctrine. Among some other Protestants, the term ''apocryphal'' began to take on extra or altered connotations: not just of dubious authenticity, but having spurious or false content, not just obscure but having hidden or suspect motives. Protestants were (and are) not unanimous in adopting those meanings. The Church of England agreed, and that view continues today throughout the Lutheran Church, the worldwide Anglican Communion, and many other denominations. Whichever implied meaning is intended, ''Apocrypha'' was (and is) used primarily by Protestants, in reference to the books of questioned canonicity. Catholics and Orthodox sometimes avoid using the term in contexts where it might be disputatious or be misconstrued as yielding on the point of canonicity. Thus the respect accorded to apocryphal books varied between Protestant denominations. Most Protestant published Bibles that include the apocryphal books will relocate them into a separate section (rather like an appendix), so as not to intermingle them with their canonical books.\n\nAccording to the Orthodox Anglican Church:\n\n\nWith few exceptions, the 66 book Protestantism canon (such as listed in the Westminster Confession of 1646) has been well established for centuries, and with many today contending against the Apocrypha using various arguments.\n\n===Metaphorical usage===\n\nThe adjective ''apocryphal'' is commonly used in modern English to refer to any text or story considered to be of dubious veracity or authority, although it may contain some moral truth. In this broader metaphorical sense, the word suggests a claim that is in the nature of folklore, factoid or urban legend.\n", "\n===Judaism===\n\nAlthough Orthodox Jews believe in the exclusive canonization of the current 24 books in the Tanakh, they also consider the Oral Torah to be authoritative, which they believe was handed down from Moses. The Sadducees—unlike the Pharisees but like the Samaritans—seem to have maintained an earlier and smaller number of texts as canonical, preferring to hold to only what was written in the Law of Moses (making most of the presently accepted canon, both Jewish and Christian, ''apocryphal'' in their eyes). Certain circles in Judaism, such as the Essenes in Judea and the Therapeutae in Egypt, were said to have a secret literature (see Dead Sea scrolls). Other traditions maintained different customs regarding canonicity. The Ethiopic Jews, for instance, seem to have retained a spread of canonical texts similar to the Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, cf ''Encyclopaedia Judaica'', Vol 6, p 1147.\n\n===Intertestamental===\n\n\nDuring the birth of Christianity, some of the Jewish apocrypha that dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom became popular in the rising Jewish Christian communities. Occasionally these writings were changed or added to, but on the whole it was found sufficient to reinterpret them as conforming to a Christian viewpoint. Christianity eventually gave birth to new apocalyptic works, some of which were derived from traditional Jewish sources. Some of the Jewish apocrypha were part of the ordinary religious literature of the Early Christians. This was strange, as the large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek Septuagint, which is the source of the deuterocanonical books as well as most of the other biblical apocrypha.\n\nSlightly varying collections of additional Books (called deuterocanonical by the Roman Catholic Church) form part of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox canons. See Development of the Old Testament canon.\n\nThe Book of Enoch is included in the biblical canon only of the Oriental Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The Epistle of Jude quotes the book of Enoch, and some believe the use of this book also appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Epistle of Barnabas, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria and much of the early church. The epistles of Paul and the gospels also show influences from the Book of Jubilees, which is part of the Ethiopian canon, as well as the Assumption of Moses and the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, which are included in no biblical canon.\n\nThe high position which some apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences in the Christian church. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition (as held by many Gnostic sects) were denied by the influential theologians like Irenaeus and Tertullian, which modern historians refer to as the Proto-orthodox, the timeframe of true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as proof of apostolic authorship. As these principles gained currency, books deemed apocryphal tended to become regarded as spurious and heretical writings, though books now considered deuterocanonical have been used in liturgy and theology from the first century to the present.\n\n===Christianity===\n\n====Disputes over canonicity====\nThe actual status of the books which the Catholic church terms ''Deuterocanonicals'' (second canon) and Protestantism refers to as ''Apocrypha'' has been an issue of disagreement which preceded the Reformation. Many believe that the pre-Christian-era Jewish translation (into Greek) of holy scriptures known as the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures originally compiled around 280 B.C., originally included the apocryphal writings in dispute, with little distinction made between them and the rest of the Old Testament. Others argue that the Septuagint of the first century did not contain these books but were added later by Christians, The earliest extant manuscripts of the Septuagint are from the fourth century, and suffer greatly from a lack of uniformity as regards containing apocryphal books, and some also contain books classed as Pseudepigrapha, from which texts were cited by some early writers in the second and later centuries as being Scripture.\n\nWhile a few scholars conclude that the Jewish canon was the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty, it is generally considered to not have been finalized until about 100 A.D. or somewhat later, at which time considerations of Greek language and beginnings of Christian acceptance of the Septuagint weighed against some of the texts. Some were not accepted by the Jews as part of the Hebrew Bible canon and the Apocrypha is not part of the historical Jewish canon.\n\nEarly church fathers such as Athanasius, Melito, Origen, and Cyril of Jerusalem, spoke against the canonicity of much or all of the apocrypha, but the most weighty opposition was the fourth century Catholic scholar Jerome who preferred the Hebrew canon, whereas Augustine and others preferred the wider (Greek) canon, with both having followers in the generations that followed. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' states as regards the Middle Ages,\n\n:\"In the Latin Church, all through the Middle Ages 5th century to the 15th century we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. There is a current friendly to them, another one distinctly unfavourable to their authority and sacredness, while wavering between the two are a number of writers whose veneration for these books is tempered by some perplexity as to their exact standing, and among those we note St. Thomas Aquinas. Few are found to unequivocally acknowledge their canonicity.\" The prevailing attitude of Western medieval authors is substantially that of the Greek Fathers. \n \nThe wider Christian canon accepted by Augustine became the more established canon in the western Church after being promulgated for use in the Easter Letter of Athanasius (circa 372 A.D., though in the same letter he denied all apocryphal books as being Scripture, except for Baruch, while excluding Esther). the Synod of Rome (382 A.D., but its Decretum Gelasianum is generally considered to be a much later addition ) and the local councils of Carthage and Hippo in north Africa (391 and 393 A.D). Nevertheless, none of these constituted indisputable definitions, and significant scholarly doubts and disagreements about the nature of the Apocrypha continued for centuries and even into Trent, which provided the first infallible definition of the Catholic canon in 1546. This canon came to see appropriately 1,000 years of nearly uniform use by the majority, even after the 11th-century schism that separated the church into the branches known as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.\n\nIn the 16th century, the Protestant reformers challenged the canonicity of the books and partial-books found in the surviving Septuagint but not in the Masoretic Text. In response to this challenge, after the death of Martin Luther (February 8, 1546) the ecumenical Council of Trent officially (\"infallibly\") declared these books (called \"deuterocanonical\" by Catholics) to be part of the canon in April, 1546 A.D. While the Protestant Reformers rejected the parts of the canon that were not part of the Hebrew Bible, they included the four New Testament books Luther held as doubtful canonicity along with the Apocrypha in his non-binding canon (though most were separately included in his bible, as they were in some editions of the KJV bible until 1947). Protestantism therefore established a 66 book canon with the 39 books based on the ancient Hebrew canon, along with the traditional 27 books of the New Testament. Protestants also rejected the Catholic term \"deuterocanonical\" for these writings, preferring to apply the term \"apocryphal\" which was already in use for other early and disputed writings. As today (but along with others reasons), various reformers argued that those books contained doctrinal or other errors and thus should not have been added to the canon for that reason. The differences between canons can be seen under Biblical canon and Development of the Christian biblical canon. \n \nExplaining the Eastern Orthodox Church's canon is made difficult because of differences of perspective with the Roman Catholic church in the interpretation of how it was done. Those differences (in matters of jurisdictional authority) were contributing factors in the separation of the Roman Catholics and Orthodox around 1054, but the formation of the canon which Trent would later officially definitively settle was largely complete by the fifth century, in not settled, six centuries before the separation. In the eastern part of the church, it took much of the fifth century also to come to agreement, but in the end it was accomplished. The canonical books thus established by the undivided church became the predominate canon for what was later to become Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox alike. The East did already differ from the West in not considering every question of canon yet settled, and it subsequently adopted a few more books into its Old Testament. It also allowed consideration of yet a few more to continue not fully decided, which led in some cases to adoption in one or more jurisdictions, but not all. Thus, there are today a few remaining differences of canon among Orthodox, and all Orthodox accept a few more books than appear in the Catholic canon. The Psalms of Solomon, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, the Epistle of Jeremiah the Book of Odes, the Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 are included in some copies of the Septuagint, some of which are accepted as canonical by Eastern Orthodox and some other churches. Protestants accept none of these additional books as canon either, but see them having roughly the same status as the other Apocrypha.\n\n====New Testament apocrypha====\n\nNew Testament apocrypha—books similar to those in the New Testament but almost universally rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants—include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some were written by early Jewish Christians (see the Gospel according to the Hebrews). Others of these were produced by Gnostic authors or members of other groups later defined as heterodox. Many texts believed lost for centuries were unearthed in the 19th and 20th centuries, producing lively speculation about their importance in early Christianity among religious scholars, while many others survive only in the form of quotations from them in other writings; for some, no more than the title is known. Artists and theologians have drawn upon the New Testament apocrypha for such matters as the names of Dismas and Gestas and details about the Three Wise Men. The first explicit mention of the perpetual virginity of Mary is found in the pseudepigraphical Infancy Gospel of James.\n\nBefore the fifth century, the Christian writings that were then under discussion for inclusion in the canon but had not yet been accepted were classified in a group known as the ancient antilegomenae. These were all candidates for the New Testament and included several books which were eventually accepted, such as: The Epistle to the Hebrews, 2 Peter, 3 John and the Revelation of John (Apocalypse). None of those accepted books can be considered Apocryphal now, since all Christendom accepts them as canonical. Of the uncanonized ones, the Early Church considered some heretical but viewed others quite well. Some Christians, in an extension of the meaning, might also consider the non-heretical books to be \"apocryphal\" along the manner of Martin Luther: not canon, but useful to read. This category includes books such as the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and The Shepherd of Hermas which are sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Fathers.\nThe Gnostic tradition was a prolific source of apocryphal gospels. While these writings borrowed the characteristic poetic features of apocalyptic literature from Judaism, Gnostic sects largely insisted on allegorical interpretations based on a secret apostolic tradition. With them, these apocryphal books were highly esteemed. A well-known Gnostic apocryphal book is the Gospel of Thomas, the only complete text of which was found in the Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. The Gospel of Judas, a Gnostic gospel, also received much media attention when it was reconstructed in 2006.\n\nRoman Catholics and Orthodox Christians as well as Protestants generally agree on the canon of the New Testament, see Development of the New Testament canon. The Ethiopian Orthodox have in the past also included I & II Clement and Shepherd of Hermas in their New Testament canon.\n\n====List of Sixty====\nThe List of Sixty, dating to around the 7th century, lists the sixty books of the Bible. The unknown author also lists several apocryphal books that are not included amongst the sixty. These books are:\n\n\n===Confucianism and Taoism===\nProphetic texts called the ''Ch'an-wei'' (:zh:讖緯) were written by Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) Taoist priests to legitimize as well as curb imperial power. They deal with treasure objects that were part of the Zhou (1066 to 256 BCE) royal treasures. Emerging from the instability of the Warring States period (476–221 BCE), ancient Chinese scholars saw the centralized rule of the Zhou as an ideal model for the new Han empire to emulate. The ''Ch'an-wei'' are therefore texts written by Han scholars about the Zhou royal treasures, only they were not written to record history for its own sake, but for legitimizing the current imperial reign. These texts took the form of stories about texts and objects being conferred upon the Emperors by Heaven and comprising these ancient sage-king's (this is how the Zhou emperors were referred to by this time, about 500 years after their peak) royal regalia. The desired effect was to confirm the Han emperor's Heavenly Mandate through the continuity offered by his possession of these same sacred talismans. It is because of this politicized recording of their history that it is difficult to retrace the exact origins of these objects. What is known is that these texts were most likely produced by a class of literati called the ''fangshi''. These were a class of nobles who were not part of the state administration; they were considered specialists or occultists, for example diviners, astrologers, alchemists or healers. It is from this class of nobles that the first Taoist priests are believed to have emerged. Seidel points out however that the scarcity of sources relating to the formation of early Taoism make the exact link between the apocryphal texts and the Taoist beliefs unclear.\n\n===Buddhism===\n\nApocryphal Jatakas of the Pali Buddhist canon, such as those belonging to the Paññāsajātaka collection, have been adapted to fit local culture in certain Southeast Asian countries and have been retold with amendments to the plots to better reflect Buddhist morals.\n\nWithin the Pali tradition, the apocryphal Jatakas of later composition (some dated even to the 19th century) are treated as a separate category of literature from the \"Official\" Jataka stories that have been more-or-less formally canonized from at least the 5th century—as attested to in ample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in bas relief from ancient temple walls.\n", "* Occult\n* Shakespeare apocrypha\n", "\n", "\n", "\n\n\n Alin Suciu's blog on various Coptic apocrypha\n* ''The Apocrypha'' is in the religion section at the e.Lib.\n* Noncanonical Literature\n* Complete NT Apocrypha Claims to be the largest collection of New Testament apocrypha online\n* Deuterocanonical books - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also presents the full text in Arabic)\n* LDS Bible Dictionary - Apocrypha – Definition & LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.\n* Aldenicum The Trilogy, an apocryphal view on life and reality around us.\n* Christian Cyclopedia article on Apocrypha\n* New Testament Allusions to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha\n* Canon Comparison Chart\n* \n* \n* \n* EarlyChristianWritings.com A chronological list of early Christian books and letters, both complete and incomplete works; canonical, apocryphal and Gnostic. Many with links to English translations.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Introduction", "Examples", "Texts", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Apocrypha
[ "\n\nA satellite composite image of Antarctica.\nThe '''Antarctic Treaty''' and related agreements, collectively known as the '''Antarctic Treaty System''' ('''ATS'''), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. The treaty, entering into force in 1961 and having 53 parties as of 2016, sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent. The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters have been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, since September 2004.\n\n\n\nThe main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58. The twelve countries that had significant interests in Antarctica at the time were: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. These countries had established over 50 Antarctic stations for the IGY. The treaty was a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved \"on the ice\".\n", "\n* '''Article 1''' – The area is to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;\n* '''Article 2 ''' – Freedom of scientific investigations and cooperation shall continue;\n* '''Article 3''' – Free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the United Nations and other international agencies;\n* '''Article 4''' – The treaty does not recognize, dispute, nor establish territorial sovereignty claims; no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;\n* '''Article 5''' – The treaty prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;\n* '''Article 6''' – Includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves but not the surrounding waters south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south;\n* '''Article 7''' – Treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;\n* '''Article 8''' – Allows for good jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;\n* '''Article 9''' – Frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;\n* '''Article 10''' – All treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;\n* '''Article 11''' – All disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the International Court of Justice;\n* '''Articles 12, 13, 14''' – Deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.\n\nThe main objective of the ATS is to ensure in the interests of all humankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord. Pursuant to Article 1, the treaty forbids any measures of a military nature, but not the presence of military personnel or equipment for the purposes of scientific research.\n", "\nDisposal of waste by simply dumping it at the shoreline such as here at the Russian Bellingshausen Station base on King George Island in 1992 is no longer permitted by the Protocol on Environmental Protection\n\nOther agreements — some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments — include:\n* Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964) (entered into force in 1982)\n* The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)\n* The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1982)\n* The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (1988) (signed in 1988, not in force)\n* The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed October 4, 1991, and entered into force January 14, 1998; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific. A sixth annex on liability arising from environmental emergencies was adopted in 2005, but is yet to enter into force.\n", "Exchange of Notes constituting an Agreement between the Governments of Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom of the Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the Government of the French Republic, regarding Aerial Navigation in the Antarctic (Paris, 25 October 1938)\nTreaty Between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic on Cooperation in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories (TAAF), Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Canberra, 24 November 2003)\nAgreement on Cooperative Enforcement of Fisheries Laws between the Government of Australia and the Government of the French Republic in the Maritime Areas Adjacent to the French Southern and Antarctic Territories, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands (Paris, 8 January 2007)\n", "The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly ''Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)'' are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 53 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 24 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the ''Consultative Parties'' and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, include 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.\n", "As of 2015, there are 53 states party to the treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. Consultative members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 46 non-claimant nations either do not recognize the claims of others, or have not stated their positions.\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\nNote: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the File:Sort both.gif icon.\n\nCountry\nSignature\nRatification/Accession\nConsultative status\nNotes\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\nSuccession from , which acceded on June 14, 1962.\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)'' (rests since 1945)\nNo\n\n\nRatified as .\n also acceded on November 19, 1974, and received consultative status on October 5, 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany.\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\nSuccession from . Effective from their independence on September 16, 1975.\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRatified as the .\n\n\nNo\n\n\nSuccession from , which acceded on June 14, 1962.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n ''(claim)''\n\n\n\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\nNo\n\n\n\n\n\n Claims overlap.\n Reserved the right to claim areas.\n", "\nThe ''Antarctic Treaty Secretariat'' was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until August 31, 2009. He was succeeded on September 1, 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany).\n\nThe tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:\n Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).\n* Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.\n* Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.\n* Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities.\n", "Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. All personnel present on Antarctica at any time are citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country. Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to the area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole.\n\nGovernments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle.\n\n===Argentina===\nAccording to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 kilometers of any Argentine base is to be judged in Ushuaia (as capital of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands). In the part of Argentine Antarctica that is also claimed by Chile and UK, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there.\n\n===Australia===\nThis 1959 cover commemorated the opening of the Wilkes post office in the Australian Antarctic Territory.\nSince the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows the laws of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the ''Antarctic Treaty Act 1960'', the ''Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980'' and the ''Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981''.\n\n===United States===\nThe law of the United States, including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.\n\nSome U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, Public Law 95-541, ''et seq.'', provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute:\n* the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds\n* the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals\n* entry into specially protected or scientific areas\n* the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters\n* the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica\n\nViolation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation.\n\n===New Zealand===\nIn 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to co-operate with the investigation.\n\n===South Africa===\nSouth African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town. In regard to violations of the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.\n", "Map of research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002)\n* Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)\n* Antarctic Protected Areas\n* Arctic Council\n* Multilateral treaty\n* Category: Outposts of Antarctica\n* Research stations in Antarctica\n", "\n", "\n* Antarctic Treaty Secretariat\n* Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty\n* Original facsimile of Antarctic Treaty\n* Australian Antarctic Territory\n\n* National Science Foundation – Office of Polar Programs\n* List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings\n* An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas San Diego Union-Tribune, August 25, 2005 (Both South Korea and North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)\n* Emblem of the Antarctic Treaty\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Articles of the Antarctic Treaty", "Other agreements", "Bilateral treaties", "Meetings", "Parties", "Antarctic Treaty Secretariat", "Legal system", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Antarctic Treaty System
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alfred William Lawson''' (March 24, 1869 – November 29, 1954) was a professional baseball player, manager, and league promoter from 1887 through 1916 and went on to play a pioneering role in the U.S. aircraft industry. He published two early aviation trade journals.\n\nHe is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and was awarded several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately could not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in South Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to build airliners.\n\nThe crash of his ambitious Lawson L-4 \"Midnight Liner\" during its trial flight takeoff on May 8, 1921, ended his best chance for commercial aviation success.\n\nIn 1904, he wrote a novel, ''Born Again'', which he used to develop his theory of \"Lawsonomy.\"\n", "\n\nHe made one start for the Boston Beaneaters and two for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys during the 1890 season. His minor league playing career lasted through 1895. He later managed in the minors from 1905 to 1907.\n\n===Union Professional League===\nIn 1908 he started a new professional baseball league known as the Union Professional League. The league took the field in April but folded one month later owing to financial difficulties.\n", "An early advocate or rather evangelist of aviation, in October 1908 Mr. Lawson started the magazine ''Fly'' to stimulate public interest and educate readers in the fundamentals of the new science of aviation. It sold for 10 cents a copy from newsstands across the country. In 1910, moving to New York City, he renamed the magazine \"Aircraft\" and published it until 1914. The magazine chronicled the technical developments of the early aviation pioneers. He was the first advocate for commercial air travel, coining the term \"airline.\" He also advocated for a strong American flying force, lobbying Congress in 1913 to expand its appropriations for Army aircraft.\n\nIn early 1913, he learned to fly the Sloan-Deperdussin and the Moisant-Bleriot monoplanes, becoming an accomplished pilot. Later that year he bought a Thomas flying boat and became the first air commuter regularly flying from his country house in Seidler's Beach NJ to the foot of 75th Street in NYC (about 35 miles). In 1917, utilizing the knowledge gained from 10 years advocating aviation, he built his first airplane, the Lawson Military Tractor 1 (MT-1) trainer, and founded the Lawson Aircraft Corporation. The company's plant was sited at Green Bay, Wisconsin. There he secured a contract and built the Lawson MT-2. He also designed the steel fuselage Lawson Armored Battler, which never got beyond the drafting board, given doubts within the Army aviation community and the signing of the armistice.\n\nLawson C.2 or T-2\nAfter the war, in 1919 Lawson started a project to build America's first airline. He secured financial backing, and in five months he had built and demonstrated in flight his biplane airliner, the 18-passenger Lawson L-2. He demonstrated its capabilities in a 2000-mile multi-city tour from Milwaukee to Chicago-Toledo-Cleveland-Buffalo-Syracuse-New york City-Washington, D.C.-Collinsville-Dayton-Chicago and back to Milwaukee, creating a buzz of positive press. The publicity allowed him to secure an additional $1 million to build the 26-passenger Midnight Liner. The aircraft crashed on takeoff on its maiden flight. In late 1920, he secured government contracts for three airmail routes and to deliver 10 war planes, but owing to the fall 1920 recession, he could not secure the necessary $100,000 in cash reserves called for in the contracts and had to decline them. In 1926 he started his last airliner, the 56-seat, two-tier Lawson super airliner.\nIn this phase of his life, he was considered one of the leading thinkers in the budding American commercial aviation community, but his troubles with getting financial backing for his ideas led him to turn to economics, philosophy, and organization.\n", "In the 1920s, he promoted health practices, including vegetarianism, and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as \"penetrability\", \"suction and pressure\" and \"zig-zag-and-swirl\" were discoveries on par with Einstein's Theory of Relativity. He published numerous books on these concepts, all set in a distinctive typography. Lawson repeatedly predicted the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000.\n\nHe later propounded his own philosophy, Lawsonomy, and the Lawsonian religion. He also developed, during the Great Depression, the populist economic theory of \"Direct Credits\", according to which banks are the cause of all economic woes, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 1930s, mainly in the upper Midwest, but by the late 1930s the crowds had dwindled.\n\nIn 1943, he founded the University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of \"Knowledgian\", but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death. Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day, and in later years he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes. In 1952, he was brought before a United States Senate investigative committee on allegations that his organization had bought war surplus machines and then sold them for a profit, despite claiming non-profit status. His attempt to explain Lawsonomy to the senators ended in mutual frustration and bafflement.\n\nA farm near Racine, Wisconsin, is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. The large sign, formerly reading \"University of Lawsonomy\", was a familiar landmark for motorists in the region for many years and was visible from Interstate 94 about north of the Illinois state line, on the east side of the highway. Although the sign still exists, the \"of\" has now been replaced by the URL of the Lawsonomy website. A storm in the spring of 2009 destroyed the sign, although the supporting posts are still visible. On the northbound side of Interstate 94, a sign on the roof of the building nearest the freeway said \"Study Natural Law\" until being shingled over in October 2014.\n", "Lawson's brother, George H. Lawson, founded the United States League in 1910. The new professional baseball league had the intent to racially integrate. The league lasted less than a season, but it was revived for one season by George Lawson's associates in 1912.\n", "* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience\n", "\n", "Henry, Lyell D. ''Zig-Zag-and Swirl: Alfred W. Lawson's Quest for Greatness''. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.\n Kuntz, Jerry. ''Baseball Fiends and Flying Machines: The Many Lives and Outrageous Times of George and Alfred Lawson''. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland Publishing, 2009.\n* Lawson, Alfred. '' Lawsonomy, vols. 1-3''. Detroit: Humanity Benefactor Foundation, 1935–1939.\n* \n* Kossy, Donna. ''Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief''. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001. \n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Lawson Demo Flight Departed 93 Years Ago at Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame\n* What in the heck is the University of Lawsonomy? – article about Lawson in a Milwaukee-area magazine\n* End of flight – newspaper article about 1921 loss of first Lawson Airliner \n* \"ASME Milwaukee – History & Heritage\"\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Baseball career (1888–1907)", "Aviation career (1908–1928)", "Lawsonomy (1929–1954)", "Personal", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Alfred Lawson
[ "\n\n'''Ames''' is a city located in the central part of Story County, Iowa, United States. It is located approximately north of Des Moines, and had a 2010 population of 58,965. The U.S. Census Bureau designates the Ames metropolitan statistical area as encompassing all of Story County; combined with the Boone, Iowa micropolitan statistical area (Boone County, Iowa), the pair make up the larger Ames-Boone combined statistical area. While Ames is the largest city in Story County, the county seat is in the nearby city of Nevada east of Ames.\n\nAmes is the home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology (ISU), a public research institution with leading Agriculture, Design, Engineering, and Veterinary Medicine colleges. ISU is the nation's first designated land-grant university, and the birthplace of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, the world's first electronic digital computer. Ames hosts one of two national sites for the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), which comprises the National Veterinary Services Laboratory and the Center for Veterinary Biologics. Ames is also the home of the USDA's Agricultural Research Service's National Animal Disease Center. NADC is the largest federal animal disease center in the U.S., conducting research aimed at solving animal health and food safety problems faced by livestock producers and the public. Ames has the headquarters for the Iowa Department of Transportation.\n\nIn 2010, Ames was ranked ninth on CNNMoney.com \"Best Places to Live\" list.\n", "The city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U.S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Ames was founded by local resident Cynthia Olive Duff (née Kellogg) and railroad magnate John Insley Blair, near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River.\n", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.\n\nAmes is located on Interstate 35, U.S. Route 30 & 69, and the cross country line of the Union Pacific Railroad, roughly north of the state capital Des Moines. Two small streams run through the town: the South Skunk River and Squaw Creek.\n\n=== Campustown ===\n\nLeedzsalon in Campustown\nCafé Beaudelaire in Campustown\n\nCampustown is the neighborhood directly south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, and numerous other establishments, most of which are unique to Ames. \n\n=== Climate ===\nAmes has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification ''Dfa''). On average, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January. The highest recorded temperature was in 1988 and the lowest was −28 °F in 1996.\n\n\n", "\n\n=== 2010 census ===\nAs of the census of 2010, there were 58,965 people, 22,759 households, and 9,959 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 23,876 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 84.5% White, 3.4% African American, 0.2% Native American, 8.8% Asian, 1.1% from other races, and 2.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.4% of the population.\n\nThere were 22,759 households of which 19.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.6% were married couples living together, 5.4% had a female householder with no husband present, 2.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 56.2% were non-families. 30.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.82.\n\nThe median age in the city was 23.8 years. 13.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 40.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.9% were from 25 to 44; 15% were from 45 to 64; and 8.1% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 53.0% male and 47.0% female.\n\n=== 2000 census ===\nAs of the census of 2000, there were 50,731 people, 18,085 households, and 8,970 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,352.3 people per square mile (908.1/km²). There were 18,757 housing units at an average density of 869.7 per square mile (335.7/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 87.34% White, 7.70% Asian, 2.65% African American, 0.04% Native American, 0.76% Pacific Islander and other races, and 1.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.98% of the population.\n\nThere were 18,085 households out of which 22.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% were married couples living together, 5.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% were non-families. 28.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 5.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.85.\n\nAge spread: 14.6% under the age of 18, 40.0% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 13.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females there were 109.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.9 males.\n\nThe median income for a household in the city was $36,042, and the median income for a family was $56,439. Males had a median income of $37,877 versus $28,198 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,881. About 7.6% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.2% of those under age 18 and 4.1% of those age 65 or over.\n\n=== Metropolitan area ===\nLocation of the Ames-Boone CSA and its components: \n\n\n\nAmes is the larger principal city of the Ames–Boone CSA, a Combined Statistical Area that includes the Ames metropolitan area (Story County) and the Boone micropolitan area (Boone County), which had a combined population of 106,205 at the 2000 census.\n", "Ames is home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology, a public land-grant and space-grant research university, and member of the prestigious Association of American Universities. At its founding in 1858, Iowa State was formerly known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames is the home of the closely allied U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Animal Disease Center (See Ames strain), the U.S. Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory (a major materials research and development facility), and the main offices of the Iowa Department of Transportation. State and Federal institutions are the largest employers in Ames.\n\nOther area employers include a 3M manufacturing plant; Danfoss Power Solutions, a hydraulics manufacturer; Barilla, a pasta manufacturer; Ball, a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles; Renewable Energy Group, America's largest producer of biomass-based diesel; and the National Farmers Organization.\n\nThe Iowa State University Research Park is a not-for-profit, business development incubator located in Ames, and affiliated with Iowa State University.\n\nIn 2015, Ames was ranked in the top 15 \"Cities That Have Done the Best Since the Recession\" by Bloomberg Businessweek. \n\nThe Bureau of Labor Statistics ranked Ames and Boulder, CO as having the lowest unemployment rate (2.5%) of any metropolitan area in the US.\n\n=== Top employers ===\nAccording to Ames's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:\n\n\n\n #\n Employer\n # of Employees\n\n1\n Iowa State University\n15,695\n\n2\n Mary Greeley Medical Center\n1,287\n\n3\n City of Ames\n1,226\n\n4\n Iowa Department of Transportation\n920\n\n5\n McFarland Clinic\n910\n\n6\n Hy-Vee\n790\n\n7\n Ames Community School District\n679\n\n8\n Danfoss\n650\n\n9\n Wal-Mart\n435\n\n10\n Ames Laboratory\n432\n\n", "\n\n'''Velma Wallace Rayness'''\nAmes, Iowa was home to Gerard M. and Velma Wallace Rayness.\nBoth artists taught art and were nationally recognized artists.\nTheir art was exhibited nationally as well as abroad.\nGerard died in the 1940s. Velma Wallace Rayness died in 1977.\nVelma Wallace Rayness usually signed her paintings \"V.W. Rayness\"\n\n;Ames Historical Society\n:Collects, preserves, and provides access to evidence of the history of Ames and its immediate vicinity from pre-settlement times to the present\n;Brunnier Art Museum (Scheman Building)\n;Ames Public Library\n:The Ames Public Library is a Carnegie library founded on October 20, 1904. It currently has 1,386,273 items in circulations, including 799,349 books and 586,924 multimedia items.\n;The Octagon Center for the Arts\n:The Center includes galleries, art classes, art studios, and retail shop. They sponsor the local street fair, The Octagon Arts Festival. Also have the Annual National Juried Exhibition Clay, Fiber, Paper Glass Metal, Wood.\n;The Space for Ames\n: Formally known as the Ames Progressive, The Space for Ames was a community space that served as an art gallery, music venue and classroom for community workshops.\n\n=== Popular culture ===\nThe city is featured in the bestselling book ''The Girls from Ames'' written by ''Wall Street Journal'' columnist Jeffrey Zaslow. It examines the lives and friendships of several young girls who grew up in Ames and have moved on with their adult lives but still remain close.\nThe city was featured in the episode \"Heartache\" of the television show ''Supernatural''.\nThe character \"Kate Austen\" from the television show ''Lost'' is from Ames.\n", "\n;Iowa Sports Foundation.\n\nThe Iowa State University Cyclones play a variety of sports in the Ames area. The Cyclones' football team plays at Jack Trice Stadium near Ames. Also, the Cyclones' Men's and Women's Basketball teams and Volleyball team play at Hilton Coliseum just across the street from Jack Trice Stadium. The Iowa State Cyclones are a charter member of the Big 12 Conference in all sports and compete in NCAA Division I-A.\n\nThe Ames Figure Skating Club provides recreational to professional level skating opportunities. The club sponsors the Learn to Skate Program. Coaches provide on and off ice lessons or workshops. The club hosts the figure skating portion of the Iowa Games competition every summer. In the fall the club hosts Cyclone Country Championships. Every year the club puts on the Winter Gala. The big event is the annual Spring Ice Show where young to adult skaters can perform their best moves.\n", "\nThe Ames area has a large number of parks and arboretums.\n\n'''Specialized Parks:'''\n Ada Hayden Heritage Park\n* Ames Dog Park\n* Bandshell Park\n* Charles & June Calhoun Park\n* Daley Park & Greenbelt \n* Furman Aquatic Center\n* Gateway Park\n* Greenbriar Park\n* Homewood Golf Course\n* Georgie Tsushima Memorial Skate Park\n* Squaw Creek (Community Gardens)\n\n'''Community Parks:'''\n* Brookside Park\n* Daley Park & Greenbelt\n* Emma McCarthy Lee Park\n* Inis Grove Park\n* Moore Memorial Park\n* River Valley Park\n\n'''Neighborhood Parks:'''\n* Bandshell Park\n* Christofferson Park\n* Duff Park\n* Franklin Park\n* Hutchison Park\n* Lloyd Kurtz Park\n* Moore Park (On Beach Ave)\n* Old Town Park\n* O'Neil Park\n* Parkview Park\n* Patio Homes West Park\n* Roosevelt Park\n* Stuart Smith Park\n* Teagarden Park\n", ";Public high school in Ames:\nAmes High School: Grades 9–12\n\n;Public elementary/middle schools in Ames:\nDavid Edwards Elementary: K-5\nAbbie Sawyer Elementary School: Grades K-5\nKate Mitchell Elementary School: Grades K-5\nWarren H. Meeker Elementary School: Grades K-5\nGertrude Fellows Elementary School: Grades K-5\nAmes Middle School: Grades 6–8\n\n;Private schools in Ames:\n* Ames Christian School\n* Saint Cecilia School (preK – 5th grade)\n\n=== Iowa State University ===\nIowa State University of Science and Technology, more commonly known as Iowa State University (ISU), is a public land-grant and space-grant research university located in Ames. Iowa State has produced a number of astronauts, scientists, Nobel laureates, Pulitzer Prize winners, and a variety of other notable individuals in their respective fields. Until 1945 it was known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. The university is a member of the American Association of Universities and the Big 12 Conference.\n\nIn 1856, the Iowa General Assembly enacted legislation to establish the State Agricultural College and Model Farm. Story County was chosen as the location on June 21, 1859, from proposals by Johnson, Kossuth, Marshall, Polk, and Story counties. When Iowa accepted the provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862, Iowa State became the first institution in nation designated as a land-grant college. The institution was coeducational from the first preparatory class admitted in 1868. The formal admitting of students began the following year, and the first graduating class of 1872 consisted of 24 men and 2 women.\n\nThe first building on the Iowa State campus was Farm House. Built in the 1860s, it currently serves as a museum and National Historic Landmark. Today, Iowa State has over 60 notable buildings, including Beardshear Hall, Morrill Hall, Memorial Union, Catt Hall, Curtiss Hall, Carver Hall, Parks Library, the Campanile, Hilton Coliseum, C.Y. Stephens Auditorium, Fisher Theater, Jack Trice Stadium, Lied Recreation Center, numerous residence halls, and many buildings specific to ISU's many different majors and colleges. Iowa State is home to 36,321 students (Fall 2017) and makes up approximately one half of the city's population.\n\nThe official mascot for ISU is Cy the Cardinal. The official school colors are cardinal and gold. The Iowa State Cyclones play in the NCAA's Division I-A as a member of the Big 12 Conference.\n", ";Online and newsprint\nAmes Tribune, Tuesday-Sunday paper produced in Ames.\nIowa State Daily, independent student newspaper produced at Iowa State University.\nThe Des Moines Register also provides extensive coverage of Iowa news and sports to Ames.\n Story County Sun, weekly newspaper that covers the entire county published in Ames.\n;Radio stations licensed to Ames\nKURE, student radio operated at Iowa State University.\nWOI-FM, Iowa Public Radio's flagship \"Studio One\" station, broadcasting an NPR news format during the day and a music format in the evening, owned and operated at Iowa State University.\nWOI (AM), Iowa Public Radio's flagship station delivering a 24-hour news format consisting mainly of NPR programming, owned and operated at Iowa State University.\nKMYR, Adult Contemporary station licensed to Ames, but operated in Des Moines.\nKCYZ, Hot Adult Contemporary station owned and operated by Clear Channel in Ames.\nKASI, news/talk station owned and operated by Clear Channel in Ames.\nKHOI, Community Radio station licensed to Story City with studios in Ames. KHOI broadcasts music and local public affairs programs and is affiliated with the Pacifica Radio network.\nAmes is also served by stations in the Des Moines media market, which includes Clear Channel's 50,000-watt talk station WHO, music stations KAZR, KDRB, KGGO, KKDM, KDXA, KHKI, KIOA, KJJY, KRNT, KSPZ and KSTZ, talk station KWQW, and sports station KXNO, \n;Television\nLike radio, Ames is served by the Des Moines media market. WOI-DT, the ABC affiliate in central Iowa, was originally owned and operated by Iowa State University until the 1990s. The station is still licensed to Ames, but studio's are located in West Des Moines. Other stations serving Ames include KCCI, KDIN-TV, WHO-DT, KCWI-TV, KDMI, KDSM-TV and KFPX.\n", "\n=== Transportation ===\nCity power plant at night blows steam into the air.\nThe town is served by U.S. Highways 30 and 69 and Interstate 35. Ames is the only town in Iowa with a population of greater than 50,000 that does not have a state highway serving it. , Ames does not have any roundabouts, though a project to create three roundabouts is planned.\n\nAmes was serviced by the Fort Dodge, Des Moines and Southern Railroad via a branch from Kelley to Iowa State University and to downtown Ames. The tracks were removed in the 1960s. The Chicago and North Western Transportation Company twin mainline runs east and west bisecting the town and running just south of the downtown business district. The C&NW used to operate a branch to Des Moines. This line was removed in the 1980s when the Spine Line through Nevada was purchased from the Rock Island Railroad after its bankruptcy. The Union Pacific, successor to the C&NW, still runs 60–70 trains a day through Ames on twin mainlines, which leads to some traffic delays. There is also a branch to Eagle Grove that leaves Ames to the north. The Union Pacific maintains a small yard called Ames Yard east of Ames between Ames and Nevada. Ames has been testing automatic train horns at several of its crossings. These directional horns which are focused down the streets are activated when the crossing signals turn on and are shut off after the train crosses the crossing. This system cancels out the need for the trains to blow their horns. Train noise had been a problem in the residential areas to the west and northwest of downtown.\n\nAmes Municipal Airport is located southeast of the city. The current (and only) FBO is Hap's Air Service, a company which has been based at the airport since 1975. The airport has two runways – 01/19, which is , and 13/31, which is .\n\nThe City of Ames offers a transit system throughout town, called CyRide, that is funded jointly by Iowa State University, the ISU Government of the Student Body, and the City of Ames. Rider fares are subsidized through this funding, and are free for children under five. Students pay a set cost as part of their tuition.\n\nAmes has the headquarters of the Iowa Department of Transportation.\n \n\n=== Health care ===\nAmes is served by Mary Greeley Medical Center, a 220-bed regional referral hospital which is adjacent to McFarland Clinic PC, central Iowa's largest physician-owned multi-specialty clinic, and also Iowa Heart Center.\n\n== Notable people == \n\nThis is a list of notable people associated with Ames, Iowa arranged by career and in alphabetical order. \n\n=== Acting ===\n Evan Helmuth, actor (''Fever Pitch'', ''The Devil Inside'')\n\n=== Artists and photographers ===\n* John E. Buck, sculptor\n* Margaret Lloyd, opera singer\n* Laurel Nakadate, American video artist, filmmaker and photographer\n* Velma Wallace Rayness (1896–1977), author and artist, painted \"Roof Tops in Fall\"\n* Brian Smith, Pulitzer Prize-winning photographer, born July 16, 1959\n\n=== Musician ===\n* John Darnielle, musician from indie rock band The Mountain Goats; former Ames resident\n* Envy Corps, indie rock band\n* Leslie Hall, electronic rap musician/Gem Sweater collector, born in Ames in 1981\n* Peter Schickele, musician, born in Ames in 1935\n* Richie Hayward, drummer and founding member of the band Little Feat; former Ames resident and graduate of Ames High School\n\n=== Journalists ===\n* Robert Bartley, editorial page editor of ''The Wall Street Journal'' and a Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient; raised in Ames and ISU graduate\n* Wally Bruner, ABC News journalist and television host\n* Michael Gartner, former president of NBC News; retired to own and publish the ''Ames Tribune''\n\n=== Politicians ===\n* Ruth Bascom, Mayor of Eugene, Oregon\n* Edward Mezvinsky, former U.S. Congressman who led the impeachment of Richard Nixon; father-in-law of Chelsea Clinton; raised in Ames\n* Bob Walkup, Mayor of Tucson, Arizona\n\n=== Sports ===\n* Harrison Barnes, No. 1 ranked high school basketball recruit from class of 2010, Ames HS graduate, high school teammate of Doug McDermott, drafted by the Golden State Warriors in 2012. Won NBA title with Warriors in 2015, starter for Warriors in record-breaking 73-win season in 2015-2016, Olympic Gold Medalist in basketball in 2016 Rio Olympics \n* Juan Sebastián Botero, soccer player\n* Kip Corrington, NFL player\n* Terry Hoage, NFL player\n* Fred Hoiberg, retired NBA basketball player; raised in Ames, ISU graduate, former ISU basketball coach and current coach of the Chicago Bulls\n* Doug McDermott, popularly nicknamed Dougie McBuckets; current NBA player with the Oklahoma City Thunder; 3-time All-American at Creighton University and consensus NCAA Division I men's basketball player of the year in 2014; high school teammate of Harrison Barnes\n* Cael Sanderson, U.S. Olympic gold medalist; undefeated, four-time NCAA wrestling champion; former ISU wrestling coach and alumnus\n* Herb Sies, pro football player and coach\n* Billy Sunday, evangelist and Major League Baseball player; born in Ames in 1863\n* Fred Tisue, Olympian water polo player\n\n=== Scientists ===\n* George Washington Carver, inventor, Iowa State University alumnus and professor\n* Laurel Blair Salton Clark, astronaut, died on STS-107\n* Charles W. \"Chuck\" Durham, civil engineer, philanthropist, civic leader, former CEO and chairman Emeritus of HDR, Inc.; raised in Ames\n* Lyle Goodhue, scientist, lived and studied here 1925–1934\n* Dan Shechtman, awarded 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for \"the discovery of quasicrystals\"; Professor of Materials Science at Iowa State University (2004–present) and Associate at the Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory\n* George W. Snedecor, statistician, founder of first academic department of statistics in the United States at Iowa State University\n\n=== Writers and poets ===\n* Ann Cotten, poet, born in Ames, grew up in Vienna\n* Brian Evenson, author\n* Jane Espenson, writer and producer for television, including ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer'' and ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', grew up in Ames\n* Michelle Hoover, author, born in Ames\n* Fern Kupfer, author\n* Ted Kooser, U.S. Poet Laureate; raised in Ames and ISU graduate\n* John Madson, freelance naturalist of tallgrass prairie ecosystems\n* Sara Paretsky, author of the ''V.I. Warshawski'' mysteries; born in Ames in 1947\n* Jane Smiley, Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist; former instructor at ISU (1981–1996); used ISU as the basis for her novel ''Moo''\n* Neal Stephenson, author, grew up in Ames\n* Hugh Young, coauthor of ''University Physics'' textbook\n\n=== Other ===\n* Neva Morris, at her death (2010) second-oldest person in the world and oldest American at the age of 114 years; lived in Ames her entire life\n", "\n=== Politics ===\nIowa is a political \"battleground state\" that has trended slightly Democratic in recent years, and Ames, like Iowa City, also trends Democratic. Because Iowa is the first caucus state and Ames is a college town, it is the site of many political appearances, debates and events, especially during election years.\n\nFrom 1979 through 2011, Ames was the location of the Ames Straw Poll, which was held every August prior to a presidential election year in which the Republican presidential nomination was undecided (meaning there was no Republican president running for re-election—as in 2011, 2007, 1999, 1995, 1987, and 1979). The poll would gauge support for the various Republican candidates amongst attendees of a fundraising dinner benefiting the Iowa Republican Party. The straw poll was frequently seen by national media and party insiders as a first test of organizational strength in Iowa. In 2015, the straw poll was to be moved to nearby Boone before the Iowa Republican Party eventually decided to cancel it altogether.\n", "\n* Ames process\n* North Grand Mall\n* Reiman Gardens\n", "\n", "\n\n* Official Ames City Website\n* Ames Campustown official site\n* The Main Street Cultural District\n* City Data Detailed Statistical Data and more about Ames\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " Geography ", " Demographics ", " Economy ", " Arts and culture ", " Sports ", " Parks and recreation ", " Education ", " Media ", " Infrastructure ", " Other topics ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Ames, Iowa
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Abalone''' ( or ; via Spanish '''', from the Rumsen language ''aulón'') is a common name for any of a group of small to very large sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the family Haliotidae.\n\nOther common names are '''ear shells''', '''sea ears''', and '''muttonfish''' or '''muttonshells''' in Australia, '''ormer''' in Great Britain, '''perlemoen''' in South Africa, and '''''''''' in New Zealand.\n\nAbalone are marine snails. Their taxonomy puts them in the family Haliotidae which contains only one genus, ''Haliotis'', which once contained six subgenera. These subgenera have become alternate representations of ''Haliotis''. The number of species recognized worldwide ranges between 30 and 130 with over 230 species-level taxa described. The most comprehensive treatment of the family considers 56 species valid, with 18 additional subspecies.\n\nThe shells of abalones have a low, open spiral structure, and are characterized by several open respiratory pores in a row near the shell's outer edge. The thick inner layer of the shell is composed of nacre (mother-of-pearl), which in many species is highly iridescent, giving rise to a range of strong, changeable colors, which make the shells attractive to humans as decorative objects, jewelry, and as a source of colorful mother-of-pearl.\n\nThe flesh of abalones is widely considered to be a desirable food, and is consumed raw or cooked by a variety of cultures.\n", "iridescent surface inside a red abalone shell from Northern California (the adjacent coin is 25 mm in diameter)\n\nAbalone vary in size from (''Haliotis pulcherrima'') to while ''Haliotis rufescens'' is the largest of the genus at .\n\nThe shell of abalones is convex, rounded to oval in shape, and may be highly arched or very flattened. The shell of the majority of species has a small, flat spire and two to three whorls. The last whorl, known as the body whorl, is auriform, meaning that the shell resembles an ear, giving rise to the common name \"ear shell\". ''Haliotis asinina'' has a somewhat different shape, as it is more elongated and distended. The shell of ''Haliotis cracherodii cracherodii'' is also unusual as it has an ovate form, is imperforate, shows an exserted spire, and has prickly ribs.\n\nA mantle cleft in the shell impresses a groove in the shell, in which are the row of holes characteristic of the genus. These holes are respiratory apertures for venting water from the gills and for releasing sperm and eggs into the water column. They make up what is known as the selenizone which forms as the shell grows. This series of 8 to 38 holes is near the anterior margin. Only a small number are generally open. The older holes are gradually sealed up as the shell grows and new holes form. Each species has a typical number of open holes, between four and ten, in the selenizone. An abalone has no operculum. The aperture of the shell is very wide and nacreous.\n\nThe exterior of the shell is striated and dull. The color of the shell is very variable from species to species which may reflect the animal's diet. The iridescent nacre that lines the inside of the shell varies in color from silvery white, to pink, red and green-red to deep blue, green to purple.\n\nThe animal has fimbriated head-lobes and side-lobes which are fimbriated and cirrated. The radula has small median teeth, and the lateral teeth are single and beam-like. There are about 70 uncini, with denticulated hooks, the first four very large. The rounded foot is very large in comparison to most molluscs. The soft body is coiled around the columellar muscle, and its insertion, instead of being on the columella, is on the middle of the inner wall of the shell. The gills are symmetrical and both well developed.\n\nThese snails cling solidly with their broad, muscular foot to rocky surfaces at sublittoral depths, although some species such as ''Haliotis cracherodii'' used to be common in the intertidal zone. Abalones reach maturity at a relatively small size. Their fecundity is high and increases with their size, laying from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time. The spermatozoa are filiform and pointed at one end, and the anterior end is a rounded head.\n\nThe adults provide no further assistance to the larvae and they are described as lecithotrophic. The adults are herbivorous and feed with their rhipidoglossan radula on macroalgae, preferring red or brown algae.\n", "Abalone with a live sponge on its shell in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal\nThe haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except the Pacific coast of South America, the East Coast of the United States, the Arctic, and Antarctica. The majority of abalone species are found in cold waters, such as off the coasts of New Zealand, South Africa, Australia, Western North America, and Japan.\n", "The shell of the abalone is exceptionally strong and is made of microscopic calcium carbonate tiles stacked like bricks. Between the layers of tiles is a clingy protein substance. When the abalone shell is struck, the tiles slide instead of shattering and the protein stretches to absorb the energy of the blow. Material scientists around the world are studying this tiled structure for insight into stronger ceramic products such as body armor. The dust created by grinding and cutting abalone shell is dangerous; appropriate safeguards must be taken to protect people from inhaling these particles. \n", "Abalones are subject to various diseases. The Victorian Department of Primary Industries said in 2007 that ganglioneuritis killed up to 90% of stock in affected regions. Abalone are also severe hemophiliacs as their fluids will not clot in the case of a laceration or puncture wound. Members of the Spionidae family of the polychaetes are known as pests of abalone.\n", "The meat (foot muscle) of abalone is used for food, and the shells of abalone are used as decorative items and as a source of mother of pearl for jewelry, buttons, buckles, and inlay. Abalone shells have been found in archaeological sites around the world, ranging from 75,000-year-old deposits at Blombos Cave in South Africa to historic Chinese abalone middens on California's Northern Channel Islands. On the Channel Islands, where abalones were harvested by Native Americans for at least 12,000 years, the size of red abalone shells found in middens declines significantly after about 4000 years ago, probably due to human predation. Worldwide, abalone pearls have also been collected for centuries.\n\n===Farming===\nAn abalone farm\n\nAbalone hatchery\nMulti-Species Fish and Invertebrate Breeding and Hatchery, (Oceanographic Marine Laboratory, Lucap, Alaminos, Pangasinan, Philippines, 2011)\nFarming of abalone began in the late 1950s and early 1960s in Japan and China. Since the mid-1990s, there have been many increasingly successful endeavors to commercially farm abalone for the purpose of consumption. Overfishing and poaching have reduced wild populations to such an extent that farmed abalone now supplies most of the abalone meat consumed. The principal abalone farming regions are China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Abalone is also farmed in Australia, Canada, Chile, France, Iceland, Ireland, Mexico, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, and the United States.\n\nAfter trials in 2012, a commercial \"sea ranch\" was set up in Flinders Bay, Western Australia to raise abalone. The ranch is based on an artificial reef made up of 5000 () separate concrete units called ''abitats'' (abalone habitats). The abitats can host 400 abalone each. The reef is seeded with young abalone from an onshore hatchery.\n\nThe abalone feed on seaweed that has grown naturally on the habitats; with the ecosystem enrichment of the bay also resulting in growing numbers of dhufish, pink snapper, wrasse, Samson fish among other species.\n\nBrad Adams, from the company, has emphasised the similarity to wild abalone and the difference from shore based aquaculture. \"We're not aquaculture, we're ranching, because once they're in the water they look after themselves.\"\n\n===Consumption===\nAbalones have long been a valuable food source for humans in every area of the world where a species is abundant. The meat of this mollusc is considered a delicacy in certain parts of Latin America (especially Chile), France, New Zealand, Southeast Asia, and East Asia (especially in China, Vietnam, Japan, and Korea). In Chinese-speaking regions, abalone is commonly known as ''bao yu'', and sometimes forms part of a Chinese banquet. In the same way as shark fin soup or bird's nest soup, abalone is considered a luxury item, and is traditionally reserved for special occasions such as weddings and other celebrations. However, the availability of commercially farmed abalone has allowed more common consumption of this once rare delicacy.\n\nAbalone started to become popular after the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in 1915.\n\nAs abalone became more popular and less common, the prices adjusted accordingly. In the 1920s, a restaurant-served portion of abalone, about 4 ounces, would cost (in inflation adjusted dollars) about $7; by 2004, the price had risen to $75. In America, prior to this time, abalone was predominantly eaten, gathered, and prepared by Chinese immigrants. Before that, abalone were collected to be eaten, and used for other purposes by Native American tribes. By 1900, laws were passed in California to outlaw the taking of abalone above the intertidal zone. This forced the Chinese out of the market and the Japanese perfected diving, with or without gear, to enter the market. By the time of the exposition, Americans were starting to discover abalone. The popularity of abalone, along with many other fish and shellfish, increased as the exposition exhibited 365 varieties of fish with cooking demonstrations, and a 1300-seat dining hall.\n\nIn Japan, live and raw abalones are used in awabi sushi, or served steamed, salted, boiled, chopped, or simmered in soy sauce. Salted, fermented abalone entrails are the main component of ''tottsuru'', a local dish from Honshū. ''Tottsuru'' is mainly enjoyed with sake.\n\nIn California, abalone meat can be found on pizza, sautéed with caramelized mango, or in steak form dusted with cracker meal and flour.\n\n===Sport harvesting===\n\n====Australia====\nTasmania supplies about 25% of the yearly world abalone harvest. Around 12,500 Tasmanians recreationally fish for blacklip and greenlip abalone. For blacklip abalone, the size limit varies between for the southern end of the state and for the northern end of the state. Greenlip abalones have a minimum size of , except for an area around Perkins Bay in the north of the state where the minimum size is . With a recreational abalone licence, the bag limit is 10 per day, with a total possession limit of 20. Scuba diving for abalone is allowed, and has a rich history in Australia. (Scuba diving for abalone in the states of New South Wales and Western Australia is illegal; a free-diving catch limit of two is allowed).\n\nVictoria has had an active abalone fishery since the late 1950s. The state is sectioned into three fishing zones, Eastern, Central and Western, with each fisher required a zone-allocated licence. Harvesting is performed by divers using surface-supplied air \"hookah\" systems operating from runabout-style, outboard-powered boats. While the diver seeks out colonies of abalone amongst the reef beds, the deckhand operates the boat, known as working \"live\" and stays above where the diver is working. Bags of abalone pried from the rocks are brought to the surface by the diver or by way of \"shot line\", where the deckhand drops a weighted rope for the catch bag to be connected then retrieved. Divers measure each abalone before removing from the reef and the deckhand remeasures each abalone and removes excess weed growth from the shell. Since 2002, the Victorian industry has seen a significant decline in catches, with the total allowable catch reduced from 1440 to 787 tonnes for the 2011/12 fishing year, due to dwindling stocks and most notably the abalone virus ganglioneuritis, which is fast-spreading and lethal to abalone stocks.\n\n====United States====\nWorkers drying abalone shells in the sun in southern California, ''circa'' 1900\nTwo highly endangered white abalone: Prohibitions on commercial and recreational harvest of this species have been in place since 1996.\nSport harvesting of red abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. In 2008, the abalone card also came with a set of 24 tags. This was reduced to 18 abalone per year in 2014, and as of 2017 the limit has been reduced to 12, only nine of which may be taken south of Mendocino County. Legal-size abalone must be tagged immediately. Abalone may only be taken using breath-hold techniques or shorepicking; scuba diving for abalone is strictly prohibited. Taking of abalone is not permitted south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. A size minimum of measured across the shell is in place. A person may be in possession of only three abalone at any given time.\n\nAs of 2017, Abalone season is May to October, excluding July. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still attached in the shell. Sale of sport-obtained abalone is illegal, including the shell. Only red abalone may be taken, as black, white, pink, flat, green, and pinto abalone are protected by law.\n\nAn abalone diver is normally equipped with a thick wetsuit, including a hood, bootees, and gloves, and usually also a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. Alternatively, the rock picker can feel underneath rocks at low tides for abalone. Abalone are mostly taken in depths from a few inches up to ; less common are freedivers who can work deeper than . Abalone are normally found on rocks near food sources such as kelp. An abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it has time to fully clamp down. Divers dive from boats, kayaks, tube floats, or directly off the shore.\n\nThe largest abalone recorded in California is , caught by John Pepper somewhere off the coast of San Mateo County in September 1993.\n\nThe mollusc ''Concholepas concholepas'' is often sold in the United States under the name \"Chilean abalone\", though it is not an abalone, but a muricid.\n\n====New Zealand====\n\nIn New Zealand, abalone is called ''pāua'' (, from the Māori language). ''Haliotis iris'' (or blackfoot ''pāua'') is the ubiquitous New Zealand ''pāua'', the highly polished nacre of which is extremely popular as souvenirs with its striking blue, green, and purple iridescence. ''Haliotis australis'' and ''Haliotis virginea'' are also found in New Zealand waters, but are less popular than ''H. iris''.\n\nLike all New Zealand shellfish, recreational harvesting of ''pāua'' does not require a permit provided catch limits, size restrictions, and seasonal and local restrictions set by the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) are followed. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 per diver, with a minimum shell length of for ''H. iris'' and for ''H. australis''. In addition, no person may be in possession, even on land, of more than 20 ''pāua'' or more than of ''pāua'' meat at any one time. ''Pāua'' can only be caught by free-diving; it is illegal to catch them using scuba gear.\n\nAn extensive global black market exists in collecting and exporting abalone meat. This can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest ''pāua'' can be granted legally under Māori customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry for Primary Industries fishery officers with the backing of the New Zealand Police. Poaching is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats, and motor vehicles and fines and in rare cases, imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1,000 tons of ''pāua'' will be poached, with 75% of that being undersized.\n\n====South Africa====\nThe largest abalone in South Africa, ''Haliotis midae'', occurs along roughly two-thirds of the country’s coastline. Abalone-diving has been a recreational activity for many years, but stocks are currently being threatened by illegal commercial harvesting. In South Africa, all persons harvesting this shellfish need permits that are issued annually, and no abalone may be harvested using scuba gear.\n\nFor the last few years, however, no permits have been issued for collecting abalone, but commercial harvesting still continues as does illegal collection by syndicates.\nIn 2007, because of widespread poaching of abalone, the South African government listed abalone as an endangered species according to the CITES section III appendix, which requests member governments to monitor the trade in this species. This listing was removed from CITES in June 2010 by the South African government and South African abalone is no longer subject to CITES trade controls. Export permits are still required, however.\nThe abalone meat from South Africa is prohibited for sale in the country to help reduce poaching; however, much of the illegally harvested meat is sold in Asian countries. As of early 2008, the wholesale price for abalone meat was approximately US$40.00 per kilogram. There is an active trade in the shells, which sell for more than US$1,400 per metric tonne.\n\n====Channel Islands====\nOrmers (''Haliotis tuberculata'') are considered a delicacy in the British Channel Islands as well as in adjacent areas of France, and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals. This, and a recent lethal bacterial disease, has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and \"ormering\" is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks. The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from January 1 to April 30, which occur on the full or new moon and two days following. No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under in shell length. Gatherers are not allowed to wear wetsuits or even put their heads underwater. Any breach of these laws is a criminal offense and can lead to fine of up to £5,000 or six months in prison. The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when Mr. Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.\n\n\nFile:AbaloneMeat.jpg\|The raw meat of abalone\nFile:Seeohr-Sashimi.jpg\|Abalone sashimi\nFile:Chineseabalonecuisine.jpg\|Braised abalones\nFile:Abalone & Asparagus, Stir-Fried with Black Bean Sauce (207804042).jpg\|Abalones with asparagus\nFile:Cantoneseabalone.jpg\|Abalone ''bao yu''\nFile:Korean grilled abalone-Jeonbok gui-01.jpg\|Grilled abalones\nFile:Korean cuisine-Jeju Island-Obunjagi ttukbaegi-01.jpg\|A Korean abalone stew\nFile:Korean cuisine-Jeonbok hoe-01.jpg\|Abalone ''Hoe''\nFile:HK Food Chinese Seafood Dinner 鮑魚仔 Steamed Abalone with Mandarin orange peels.JPG\|Abalone with mandarin orange peels.\n\n\n=== Decorative items ===\nThe highly iridescent inner nacre layer of the shell of abalone has traditionally been used as a decorative item, in jewelry, buttons, and as inlay in furniture and in musical instruments such as guitars, etc.\n\nAbalone pearl jewelry is very popular in New Zealand and Australia, in no minor part due to the marketing and farming efforts of pearl companies. Unlike the Oriental Natural, the Akoya pearl, and the South Sea and Tahitian cultured pearls, abalone pearls are not primarily judged by their roundness. The inner shell of the abalone is an iridescent swirl of intense colours, ranging from deep cobalt blue and peacock green to purples, creams and pinks. Therefore, each pearl, natural or cultured, will have its own unique collage of colours.\n\nThe shells of abalone are occasionally used in New Age smudging ceremonies to catch falling ash. They have also been used as incense burners.\n\n=== Native use ===\nAbalone has been an important staple in native cultures around the world, specifically in Africa and on the North American West coast. The meat was used as food, and the shell was used as currency for many tribes.\n", "Abalones have been identified as one of the many classes of organism threatened with extinction due to overfishing, acidification of oceans from anthropogenic carbon dioxide, as reduced pH erodes their shells. It is predicted that abalones will become extinct in the wild within 200 years at current rates of carbon dioxide production. Currently the white, pink, and green abalone are on the federal endangered species list, and possible restoration sites have been proposed for the San Clemente Island and Santa Barbara Island areas. The possibility of farming abalone to be reintroduced into the wild has also been proposed, with these abalone having special tags to help track the population.\n", "\n\nThe number of species that are recognized within the genus ''Haliotis'' has fluctuated over time, and depends on the source that is consulted. The number of recognized species range from 30 to 130. This list finds a compromise using the \"WoRMS database\", plus some species that have been added, for a total of 57. The majority of abalone have not been rated for conservation status. Those that have been reviewed tend to show that the abalone in general is an animal that is declining in numbers, and will need protection throughout the globe.\n\n\nFile:Ass’s ear abalone (Haliotis asinina) S01.jpg\|A dorsal view of a live ass's ear abalone, ''Haliotis asinina''\nFile:Pinkabalone 300.jpg\|the pink abalone, ''Haliotis corrugata''\nFile:Haliotis cracherodii.JPG\|The black abalone, ''Haliotis cracherodii''\nFile:Blacklip abalone.jpg\|Dorsal (left) and ventral (right) views of the blacklip abalone, ''Haliotis rubra''\nFile:Whiteabalone 300.jpg\|The white abalone, ''Haliotis sorenseni''\nFile:Haliotis varia f. dohrniana 001.jpg\|A shell of ''Haliotis varia'' form ''dohrniana''\n\n", "\n", "* List of delicacies\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* \n* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* Abalone: Species Diversity\n* ABMAP: The Abalone Mapping Project\n* Abalone biology\n* Conchology\n* Hardy's Internet Guide to Marine Gastropods : Shell Catalog\n* book on crafting with Abalone Shell\n* Fisheries Western Australia - Abalone Fact Sheet\n* Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution\n* Oman’s Abalone Harvest \n* Pro abalone diver, Mallacoota, Victoria (1967)\n* Tathra NSW(1961), Abalone (1963)\n* Fathom magazine \"The Abalone Divers\" Pages 43,44,45 (1972)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "Distribution", "Structure and properties of the shell", "Diseases and pests", "Human use", "Threat of extinction", "Species", "Synonyms", "See also", " Citations ", " References ", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Abalone
[ "\n\nNieśwież with a crosier'', c. 1768, National Museum in Warsaw\n\nIn Christianity, an '''abbess''' (Latin ''abbatissa'', feminine form of ''abbas,'' abbot) is the female superior of a community of nuns, which is often an abbey.\n", "In the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Coptic and Anglican abbeys, the mode of election, position, rights, and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an abbot. She must be at least 40 years old and have been a nun for 10 years. The age requirement in the Catholic Church has evolved over time, ranging from 30 to 60. The requirement of 10 years as a nun is only 8 in Catholicism. In the rare case of there not being a nun with the qualifications, the requirements may be lowered to 30 years of age and 5 of those in an \"upright manner\", as determined by the superior. A woman who is of illegitimate birth, is not a virgin, has undergone non-salutory public penance, is a widow, or is blind or deaf, is typically disqualified for the position, saving by permission of the Holy See. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the nuns belonging to the community. Like an abbot, after being confirmed in her office by the Holy See, an abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by a formal blessing, conferred by the bishop in whose territory the monastery is located, or by an abbot or another bishop with appropriate permission. Unlike the abbot, the abbess receives only the ring, the crosier, and a copy of the rule of the order. She does not receive a mitre as part of the ceremony. The abbess also traditionally adds a pectoral cross to the outside of her habit as a symbol of office, though she continues to wear a modified form of her religious habit or dress, as she is unordained—females cannot be ordained—and so does not vest or use choir dress in the liturgy. An abbess serves for life, except in Italy and some adjacent islands.\n\n===Roles and responsibilities===\nMaria Theresia Isabella of Austria, a noble abbess with her crosier.\nAbbesses are, like abbots, major superiors according to canon law, the equivalents of abbots or bishops (the ordained male members of the church hierarchy who have, by right of their own office, executive jurisdiction over a building, diocesan territory, or a communal or non-communal group of persons—juridical entities under church law). They receive the vows of the nuns of the abbey; they may admit candidates to their order's novitiate; they may send them to study; and they may send them to do pastoral or missionary, or to work or assist—to the extent allowed by canon and civil law—in the administration and ministry of a parish or diocese (these activities could be inside or outside the community's territory). They have full authority in its administration. However, there are significant limitations. They may not administer the sacraments, whose celebration is reserved to bishops, priests, deacons (clerics), namely, those in Holy Orders. They may make provision for an ordained cleric to help train and to admit some of their members, if needed, as altar servers, extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, or lectors—all ministries which are now open to the non-ordained. They may not serve as a witness to a marriage except by special rescript. They may not administer Penance (Reconciliation), Anointing of the Sick (Extreme Unction), or function as an ordained celebrant or concelebrant of the Mass (by virtue of their office and their training and institution, they may act, if the need arises, as altar servers, lectors, ushers, porters, or extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, and if need be, the Host). They may preside the Liturgy of the Hours which they are obliged to say with their community, speak about Scripture to their community, and give certain types of blessings not reserved to the clergy. On the other hand, they may not ordinarily give a homily or read the Gospel during a Mass. As they do not receive episcopal ordination in the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Churches, they do not possess the ability to ordain others, nor do they exercise the authority they do possess under canon law over any territories outside of their monastery and its territory (though non-cloistered, non-contemplative female religious members who are based in a convent or monastery but who participate in external affairs may assist as needed by the diocesan bishop and local secular clergy and laity, in certain pastoral ministries and administrative and non-administrative functions not requiring ordained ministry or status as a male cleric in those churches or programs). There are exigent circumstances, where due to Apostolical privilege, certain Abbesses have been granted rights and responsibilities above the normal, such as the Abbess of the Cistercian Monastery of Santa Maria la Real de las Huelgas near Burgos, Spain. Also granted exceptional rights was the Abbess of the Cistercian order in Conversano Italy. She was granted the ability to appoint her own vicar-general, select and approve the confessors, along with the practice of receiving the public homage of her clergy. This practice continued until some of the duties were modified due to an appeal by the clergy to Rome. Finally in 1750, the public homage was abolished.\n\n===History===\nHistorically, in some Celtic monasteries abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns, the most famous example being Saint Brigid of Kildare's leadership in the founding of the monastery at Kildare in Ireland. This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France, Spain, and even to Rome itself. In 1115, Robert, the founder of Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France, committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior.\n\nIn Lutheran churches, the title of abbess (German ''Äbtissin'') has in some cases (e.g. ) survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant Reformation have continued as monasteries or convents (German ''Stifte''). These positions continued merely changing from Catholic to Lutheran. The first to make this change was the Abbey of Quedlinburg, whose last Catholic Abbess died in 1514. These are collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (German ''Kanonissinen'') or more usually ''Stiftsdamen'' or ''Kapitularinnen''. The office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and in the past, was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. Until the dissolution of Holy Roman Empire and mediatisation of smaller imperial fiefs by Napoleon, the evangelical Abbess of Quedlinburg was also per officio the head of that ''reichsunmittelbar'' state. The last such ruling abbess was Sofia Albertina, Princess of Sweden.\n\nIn the Hradčany of Prague is a Catholic institute whose mistress is titled an Abbess. It was founded in 1755 by the Empress Maria Theresa, and traditionally was responsible for the coronation of the Queen of Bohemia. The Abbess is required to be an Austrian Archduchess.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages abbesses were known to attempt usurpation of the spiritual power forbidden them. Attempts were made to bless, give penance, make the sign of the cross on the foreheads of men, even administer the sacrament. The pope has categorized these forays into the forbidden as \"unheard of, most indecorous, and highly preposterous,\" adding that \"these Abbesses had evidently overrated theor spiritual powers a trifle.\" The Roman Catholic Church has around 200 abbesses at present. The oldest women's abbey in Germany being St. Marienthal Abbey of Cistercian nuns, near Ostritz, established during the early 13th-century.\n", "* List of abbots and abbesses of Kildare\n* Katharina von Zimmern (1478–1547), last abbess of the Fraumünster Abbey\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Description", "See also", "Footnotes", "References" ]	Abbess
[ "\nThe term '''abdominal surgery''' broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the abdomen. Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see stomach, kidney, liver, etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names (e.g. appendicitis).\n", "The most common abdominal surgeries are described below.\n\nAppendectomy—Surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the appendix. Typically performed as definitive treatment for appendicitis, although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure.\nCaesarean section (also known as C-section) is a surgical procedure in which one or more incisions are made through a mother's abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies, or, rarely, to remove a dead fetus.\nInguinal hernia surgery—This refers to the repair of an inguinal hernia.\nExploratory laparotomy—This refers to the opening of the abdominal cavity for direct examination of its contents, for example, to locate a source of bleeding or trauma. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem.\nLaparoscopy—A minimally invasive approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room. The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure. The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional \"open\"\n", "Complications of abdominal surgery include, but are not limited to:\n adhesions (also called scar tissue): Complications of postoperative adhesion formation are frequent, they have a large negative effect on patients’ health, and increase workload in clinical practice \n* bleeding\n* infection\n* Paralytic ileus (sometimes called ileus): short-term paralysis of the bowel\n* Perioperative mortality (death)\n* shock\n\nSterile technique, aseptic post-operative care, antibiotics, use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist, and vigilant post-operative monitoring greatly reduce the risk of these complications. Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions. The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from trauma, substantially increases the risk of infection.\n\nGlobally, there are few studies comparing perioperative mortality following abdominal surgery across different health systems. One major prospective study of 10,745 adult patients undergoing emergency laparotomy from 357 centres in 58 high-, middle-, and low-income countries found that mortality is three times higher in low- compared with high-HDI countries even when adjusted for prognostic factors. In this study the overall global mortality rate was 1·6 per cent at 24 hours (high 1·1 per cent, middle 1·9 per cent, low 3·4 per cent; P < 0·001), increasing to 5·4 per cent by 30 days (high 4·5 per cent, middle 6·0 per cent, low 8·6 per cent; P < 0·001). Of the 578 patients who died, 404 (69·9 per cent) did so between 24 h and 30 days following surgery (high 74·2 per cent, middle 68·8 per cent, low 60·5 per cent). Patient safety factors were suggested to play an important role, with use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist associated with reduced mortality at 30 days.\n\nTaking a similar approach, a unique global study of 1,409 children undergoing emergency laparotomy from 253 centres in 43 countries showed that adjusted mortality in children following surgery may be as high as 7 times greater in low-HDI and middle-HDI countries compared with high-HDI countries, translating to 40 excess deaths per 1000 procedures performed in these settings. Internationally, the most common operations performed were appendectomy, small bowel resection, pyloromyotomy and correction of intussusception. After adjustment for patient and hospital risk factors, child mortality at 30 days was significantly higher in low-HDI (adjusted OR 7.14 (95% CI 2.52 to 20.23), p<0.001) and middle-HDI (4.42 (1.44 to 13.56), p=0.009) countries compared with high-HDI countries.\n\n\n", "Abdominoplasty\nASA physical status classification system or perioperative physical fitness\nDiabetes\nGeneral surgery\nLaparotomy\nLow-fiber/low-residue diet\n*Perioperative mortality\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Types ", " Complications ", "See also", "References" ]	Abdominal surgery
[ "\n'''Abduction''' may refer to:\n\n", "* Alien abduction, memories of being taken by apparently nonhuman entities from a different planet\n* Bride kidnapping, a practice in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry\n* Child abduction, the abduction or kidnapping of a young child (or baby) by an older person\n* Express kidnapping, a method of abduction where a small ransom that a company or family can easily pay is requested\n* International child abduction\n* Kidnapping, the taking away of a person against the person's will\n* Raptio, large scale abduction of women, either for marriage or enslavement\n* Tiger kidnapping, taking a hostage to force a loved one or associate of the victim to do something\n", "* Abduction (anatomy), a type of movement which draws a structure or limb away from the median plane of the body\n* Abductive reasoning, a method of reasoning in logic\n", "\n===Film and television===\n* ''Abduction'' (1975 film), directed by Joseph Zito\n* ''Abduction'' (1997 film), directed by Takao Okawara\n* ''Abduction'' (2011 film), directed by John Singleton\n* \"Abduction,\" episode of ''Death Note'', a Japanese animation television series\n* ''Abduction: The Megumi Yokota Story'', a 2005 American documentary film\n* \"Abduction\" (''The Outer Limits''), a 2001 television episode\n* \"Abductions\" (''Totally Spies!''), a 2002 episode of an animated television series \n* ''The Abduction'', a 1996 TV movie starring Victoria Principal and Robert Hays\n* \"The Abduction\" (''Alias''), a 2002 television episode\n* \"The Abduction\" (''Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman''), a 1994 television episode\n\n===Literature===\n* ''Abduction'' (novel), a 2000 novel by novelist Robin Cook\n* ''Abduction!'', a 2004 novel by Peg Kehret\n* ''The Abduction'', a 1987 novel (Norwegian title ''Bortførelsen''), written in Norwegian by Mette Newth and translated into English by Steven T. Murray and Tiina Nunnally\n* ''The Abduction'', a 1998 novel by J. Robert King set in the Forgotten Realms of Dungeons & Dragons\n\n===Music===\n* Abduction, a music label run by members of Sun City Girls\n* \"Abduction\", a 2005 song by Iron Maiden vocalist Bruce Dickinson\n* ''The Abduction from the Seraglio'', an opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\n* ''The Abduction of Figaro'', a musical pastiche by Peter Schickele writing as P.D.Q. Bach\n", "* Abducted (disambiguation)\n* Abductor (disambiguation)\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Of a person or people", "Sciences", "Media", "See also" ]	Abduction
[ "\n\nMaderturm\n'''Abensberg''' () is a town in the Lower Bavarian district of Kelheim, in Bavaria, Germany, lying around 30 km southwest of Regensburg, 40 km east of Ingolstadt, 50 northwest of Landshut and 100 km north of Munich. It is situated on the Abens river, a tributary of the Danube.\n", "The town lies on the Abens river, a tributary of the Danube, around eight kilometres from the river's source. The area around Abensberg is characterized by the narrow valley of the Danube, where the Weltenburg Abbey stands, the valley of the Altmühl in the north, a left tributary of the Danube, and the famous Hallertau hops-planting region in the south. The town is divided into the municipalities of Abensberg, Arnhofen, Holzharlanden, Hörlbach, Offenstetten, Pullach and Sandharland.\n\n===Divisions===\nSince the administrative reforms in Bavaria in the 1970s, the town also encompasses the following ''Ortsteile'':\n* In the town: Abensberg (main settlement), Aunkofen (civil parish), Badhaus (village)\n* To the east: Gaden (village), See (village), Offenstetten (civil parish)\n* To the north east: Arnhofen (civil parish), Baiern (village), Pullach (civil parish), Kleedorf (village)\n* To the north: Sandharlanden (civil parish), Holzharlanden (civil parish), Buchhof (small hamlet)\n* To the west: Schwaighausen (village), Schillhof (hamlet), Gilla (small hamlet)\n* To the south: Aumühle (small hamlet), Allersdorf (hamlet)\n* To the south east: Lehen (small hamlet), Mitterhörlbach (hamlet), Upper Hörlbach (village), Lower Hörlbach (hamlet)\n", "There had been settlement on this part of the Abens river since long before the High Middle Ages, dating back to Neolithic times. Of particular interest and national importance are the Neolithic flint mines at Arnhofen, where, around 7,000 years ago, Stone Age people made flint, which was fashioned into drills, blades and arrowheads, and was regarded as the steel of the Stone Age. Traces of over 20,000 individuals were found on this site. The modern history of Abensberg, which is often incorrectly compared with that of the 3rd century Roman castra (military outpost) of Abusina, begins with Gebhard, who was the first to mention Abensberg as a town, in the middle of the 12th century. The earliest written reference to the town, under the name of ''Habensperch'', came from this time, in around 1138. Gebhard was from the Babonen clan.\n\nIn 1256, the castrum of ''Abensprech'' was first mentioned, and on 12 June 1348, Margrave Ludwig of Brandenburg, and his brother, Duke Stephen of Bavaria, raised Abensberg to the status of a city, giving it the right to operate lower courts, enclose itself with a wall and hold markets. The wall was built by Count Ulrich III of Abensberg. Some of the thirty-two round towers and eight turrets are still preserved to this day.\n\nIn the Middle Ages, the people of Abensberg enjoyed a level of autonomy above their lord. They elected a city council, although only a small number of rich families were eligible for election.\n\nIn around 1390, the Carmelite Monastery of Our Lady of Abensberg was founded by Count John II and his wife, Agnes. Although Abensberg was an autonomous city, it remained dependent on the powerful Dukes of Bavaria. The last Lord of Abensberg, Niclas, Graf von Abensberg, supposedly named after his godfather, Nicholas of Kues, a Catholic cardinal, was murdered in 1485 by Christopher, a Duke of Bavaria-Munich. The year before, Niclas had unchivalrously taken Christopher captive as he bathed before a tournament in Munich. Although Christopher renounced his claim for revenge, he lay in wait for Niclas in Freising. When the latter arrived, he was killed by Seitz von Frauenberg. He is buried in the former convent of Abensberg. \n\nAbensberg then lost its independence and became a part of the Duchy of Bavaria, and from then on was administered by a ducal official, the so-called caretaker. The castle of Abensberg was destroyed during the Thirty Years' War, although the city had bought a guarantee of protection from the Swedish general, Carl Gustaf Wrangel. During the War of the Spanish Succession emperor Leopold I, who had occupied Bavaria, granted the fief of Abensberg to count Ernst von Abensperg und Traun (1608–1668) from an Austrian noble family named Traun that now received the name of the former counts of Abensberg (who were believed to be distant relatives). After the occupation ended, he was however dispossessed. \n\nJohannes Aventinus (1477–1534) is the city's most famous son, the founder of the study of history in Bavaria. Aventinus, whose name was real name is Johann or Johannes Turmair (''Aventinus'' being the Latin name of his birthplace) wrote the ''Annals of Bavaria'', a valuable record of the early history of Germany and the first major written work on the subject. He is commemorated in the Walhalla temple, a monument near Regensburg to the distinguished figures of German history. Until 1800, Abensberg was a municipality belonging to the Straubing district of the Electorate of Bavaria. Abensberg also contained a magistrates' court. In the Battle of Abensberg on 19–20 April 1809, Napoleon gained a significant victory over the Austrians under Archduke Ludwig of Austria and General Johann von Hiller.\n\n===Arms===\nArms of Abensberg\n\nThe arms of the city are divided into two halves. On the left are the blue and white rhombuses of Bavaria, while the right half is split into two silver and black triangles. Two diagonally-crossed silver swords with golden handles rest on top.\n\nThe town has had a coat of arms since 1338, that of the Counts of Abensberg. With the death of the last Count, Nicholas of Abensberg, in 1485, the estates fell to the Duchy of Bavaria-Munich, meaning that henceforth only the Bavarian coat of arms was ever used.\n\nOn 31 December 1809, a decree of King Maximilian of Bavaria granted the city a new coat of arms, as a recognition of their (mainly humanitarian and logistic) services in the Battle of Abensberg the same year. The diagonally divided field in silver and black came from the old crest of the Counts of Abensberg, while the white and blue diamonds came from that of the House of Wittelsbach, the rulers of Bavaria. The swords recall the Battle of Abensberg.\n\nThe district of Offenstetten previously possessed its own coat of arms.\n\n===Twinning===\n* Parga in Greece since 1986\n* Lonigo in Italy since 1999\n", "The area around Abensberg, the so-called sand belt between Siegburg, Neustadt an der Donau, Abensberg and Langquaid, is used for the intensive farming of asparagus, due to the optimal soil condition and climate. 212 hectares of land can produce ninety-four asparagus plants. Abensberg asparagus enjoys a reputation among connoisseurs as a particular delicacy. In addition to asparagus, the production of hops plays a major role locally, the region having its own label, and there are still three independent breweries in the area. The town of Abensberg marks the start of the ''Deutsche Hopfenstraße'' (''German Hops Road''), a nickname given to the Bundesstraße 301, a German federal highway which runs through the heartland of Germany's hops-growing industry, ending in Freising.\n\n===Transport===\nThe Abensberg railway station is located on the Danube Valley Railway from Regensburg to Ingolstadt. The city can be reached via the A-93 Holledau-Regensburg road (exit Abensberg). Three Bundesstraße (German federal highways) cross south of Abensberg: B 16, B 299 and B 301.\n", "\n===Schools===\n\nAbensberg has a Grundschule (primary school) and Hauptschule (open admission secondary school), and the Johann-Turmair-Realschule(secondary modern school). There is also a College of Agriculture and Home Economics. Since 2007, the Kelheim Berufsschule has had a campus in Abensberg, and outside the state sector is the St. Francis Vocational Training Centre, run by a Catholic youth organisation.\n", "\n===Theatre===\nIn 2008, a former goods shed by the main railway station of Abensberg was converted into a theatre by local volunteers. The \"Theater am Bahnhof\" (''Theatre at the Railway Station'') is mostly used by the ''Theatergruppe Lampenfieber'' and was opened on 19 October 2008.\n\n===Museums===\nAbensberg has a long tradition of museums. In the nineteenth century, Nicholas Stark und Peter Paul Dollinger began a collection based on local history. This collection and the collection of the ''Heimatverein'' (local history society) were united in 1963 into the Aventinus Museum, in the cloister of the former Carmelite monastery. On 7 July 2006, the new Town Museum of Abensberg was opened in the former duke's castle in the town.\n\n===Kuchlbauer Brewery===\nTwo blocks west of the Old Town is the Kuchlbauer Brewery and beer garden featuring the Kuchlbauer Tower, a colorful and unconventional observation tower designed by Viennese architect Friedensreich Hundertwasser. The brewery and tower are open to the public.\n\n===Image gallery===\n\nFile:Abensberg Stadtansicht.jpg\|View of the Old Town\nFile:Abensberg Klosterkirche.jpg\|Carmelite Monastery\nFile:Abensberg Stadtplatz.jpg\|Town Centre with Rathaus (town hall)\nFile:Abensberg RegensburgerTor.jpg\|Regensburg Gate\nFile:SchlossAbensberg LandkreisKelheim Niederbayern.JPG\|Site of the former castle\nFile:Herzogskasten Abensberg.JPG\|Herzogskasten (Duke's storage house)\nFile:Abensberg Kuchlbauerturm von Hundertwasser.JPG\|Kuchlbauer Tower\n\n\n===Missing memorial===\nUp until the 1950s, Abensberg and the surrounding villages contained a number of graves of victims of a Death March in the Spring of 1945 from the Hersbruck sub-camp of the Dachau concentration camp, who were either murdered by the SS or died of exhaustion. They were originally buried where they died, but were later moved on the orders of the US military government to the cemeteries of their previous homes. At the cemetery in what is now the district of Pullach stood a memorial stone which was mentioned as recently as 1967, but which is no longer at the site. The suffering of ten unknown victims of the camp was recorded on the stone.\n\n===Regular events===\nThe Abensberger events calendar begins in February with the ''Faschingsgillamoos'' funfair, which reaches its high point on Mad Thursday.\nThere then follows the ''Frühjahrsmarkt'' (Spring market) two weeks before Easter, when all the shops in the town are permitted to open on Sunday (which is normally prohibited in Bavaria).\n\nThe ''Bürgerfest'' is celebrated on the first weekend of July, when the palace gardens with their ancient walls are transformed into a medieval camp.\nThe ''Schlossgartenfest'' (Palace Garden Festival) takes place every year at the beginning of August. It is organised since 1977 by the Junge Union, the youth branch of Germany's two main conservative political parties, the CDU and CSU, and attracts all age groups from Abensberg and surrounding areas.\nOn the second Saturday in August, people can wander through the Night Market in the balmy Summer evening.\nThe ''Gillamoos'', the oldest and largest funfair in the Hallertau opens on the Thursday before the first Sunday in September and runs until the Monday thereafter. It is the highlight of the year in Abensberg and is a celebration of the people of Abensberg and the surrounding area.\nThe ''Herbstmarkt'' (autumn market), another Sunday shopping day, is on the first weekend in October.\nSince 1997, a series of cultural, art, music and entertainment events have taken place in November at various locations in the town, under the title, ''Novembernebel'' (November fog)\nOn Saint Nicholas Day (6 December), the ''Niklasmarkt'' (Nicholas Market) commemorates the ''Niklasspende'', a medieval foundation for the poor. This heralds the beginning of Advent and the Christmas period.\n", "\n===Sons and daughters of the town===\nKonrad von Abensberg (c.1075-1147): Archbishop of Salzburg and monastic reformer\nErhart Falckener: crafter of Late Gothic church furnishings\nJohannes Aventinus (1477–1534): Bavarian historian\nStephan Agricola (1491–1547): Lutheran reformer\nGilbert Michl (1750–1828): Composer and Abbot of Steingaden\nJoseph von Hazzi (1768–1845): Bavarian Privy Councillor\nSebastian Osterrieder (1864–1932): sculptor\nJosef Stanglmeier (1918–1999): builder and politician\nAlfred Edel (1932–1993): actor\nMartin Neumeyer (born 1954): Member of the Bavarian State Assembly\nUwe Brandl (born 1959): Mayor of Abensberg\nStephan Ebn (born 1978): drummer and music producer\n\n===People who have worked in the town===\nJakob Jonas (1500–1558): German philologist, jurist, politician and diplomat\nWiguläus von Kreittmayr (1705–1790): by marriage Lord of Offenstetten and Hatzkofen\nDaisy d’Ora (born 1913): actress and beauty queen\nFriedensreich Hundertwasser (1928–2000): artist and architect\nAndreas Fischer (born 1966): Member of the Bavarian State Assembly\nOle Bischof (born 1979): Olympic Judo champion\n", "* Battle of Abensberg occurred April 20, 1809.\n* Battle of Landshut occurred April 21, 1809.\n* Battle of Eckmühl occurred 21–22 April 1809.\n* Eckmühl\n* Landshut\n", "\n", "* Website of Abensberg\n* Abensberger Impressionen - Old Images of Abensberg\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Geography", "History", "Economy and Infrastructure", "Public facilities", "Culture and sightseeing", "Notable residents", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]	Abensberg
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arminianism''' is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers. Jacobus Arminius (Jakob Harmenszoon) was a student of Theodore Beza (Calvin's successor) at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a soteriological diversification of Protestant Calvinist Christianity. However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus.\n\nDutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands. The Synod of Dort (1618–19) was called by the States General to consider the Five Articles of Remonstrance. These articles asserted that\n\n# Salvation (and condemnation on the day of judgment) was conditioned by the graciously-enabled faith (or unbelief) of man;\n# The Atonement is qualitatively adequate for all men, \"yet that no one actually enjoys experiences this forgiveness of sins, except the believer ...\" and thus is limited to only those who trust in Christ;\n# \"That man has not saving grace of himself, nor of the energy of his free will,\" and unaided by the Holy Spirit, no person is able to respond to God's will;\n# The (Christian) grace \"of God is the beginning, continuance, and accomplishment of any good,\" yet man may resist the Holy Spirit; and\n# Believers are able to resist sin through grace, and Christ will keep them from falling; but whether they are beyond the possibility of ultimately forsaking God or \"becoming devoid of grace ... must be more particularly determined from the Scriptures.\"\n\n\"These points\", note Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, \"are consistent with the views of Arminius; indeed, some come verbatim from his ''Declaration of Sentiments''. Those who signed this remonstrance and others who supported its theology have since been known as Remonstrants.\"\n\nMany Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the Baptists in the 16th century, the Methodists in the 18th century and the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 19th century. Some falsely assert that Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism. Denominations such as the Anabaptists (beginning in 1525), Waldensians (pre-Reformation), and other groups prior to the Reformation have also affirmed that each person may choose the contingent response of either resisting God's grace or yielding to it.\n\nThe original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism, to which Arminius is the main contributor, and Wesleyan Arminianism, to which John Wesley is the main contributor, are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. Some schools of thought, notably Semipelagianism—which teaches that the first step of salvation is by human will,—are confused as being Arminian in nature. But classical Arminianism holds that the first step of salvation is solely the grace of God. Historically, the Council of Orange (529) condemned semi-Pelagian thought (as well as Supralapsarian Calvinism), and is accepted by some as a document which can be understood as teaching a doctrine between Augustinian thought and semi-Pelagian thought, relegating Arminianism to the orthodoxy of the early Church fathers.\n\nThe two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology. Arminianism is related to Calvinism historically. However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. The distinction is whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Put another way, is God's sovereignty shown, in part, through His allowance of free decisions? Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.\n", "\nPortrait of Jacobus Arminius, from ''Kupferstich aus Theatrum Europaeum'' by Matthaeus Merian in 1662\nJacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teacher's theology that it is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was ''of believers'', thereby making it conditional on faith. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur.\n\nArminius's followers, not wanting to adopt their leader's name, called themselves the Remonstrants. When Arminius died before he could satisfy Holland's State General's request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the Five articles of Remonstrance. After some political maneuvering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince Prince Maurice of Nassau to deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This Synod of Dort was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (Arminians were excluded) with Calvinist representatives from other countries, and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. Part of this publication was the famous Five points of Calvinism in response to the five articles of Remonstrance.\n\nArminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued.\n===Baptists===\nThe debate between Calvin's followers and Arminius's followers is distinctive of post-Reformation church history. The emerging Baptist movement in 17th-century England, for example, was a microcosm of the historic debate between Calvinists and Arminians. The first Baptists–called \"General Baptists\" because of their confession of a \"general\" or unlimited atonement, were Arminians. The Baptist movement originated with Thomas Helwys, who left his mentor John Smyth (who had moved into shared belief and other distinctives of the Dutch Waterlander Mennonites of Amsterdam) and returned to London to start the first English Baptist Church in 1611. Later General Baptists such as John Griffith, Samuel Loveday, and Thomas Grantham defended a Reformed Arminian theology that reflected more the Arminianism of Arminius than that of the later Remonstrants or the English Arminianism of Arminian Puritans like John Goodwin or Anglican Arminians such as Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond. The General Baptists encapsulated their Arminian views in numerous confessions, the most influential of which was the Standard Confession of 1660. In the 1640s the Particular Baptists were formed, diverging strongly from Arminian doctrine and embracing the strong Calvinism of the Presbyterians and Independents. Their robust Calvinism was publicized in such confessions as the London Baptist Confession of 1644 and the Second London Confession of 1689. Interestingly, the London Confession of 1689 was later used by Calvinistic Baptists in America (called the Philadelphia Baptist Confession), whereas the Standard Confession of 1660 was used by the American heirs of the English General Baptists, who soon came to be known as Free Will Baptists.\n===Methodists===\nThis same dynamic between Arminianism and Calvinism can be seen in the heated discussions between friends and fellow Methodist ministers John Wesley and George Whitefield. Wesley was a champion of Arminian teachings, defending his soteriology in a periodical titled ''The Arminian'' and writing articles such as ''Predestination Calmly Considered''. He defended Arminianism against charges of semi-Pelagianism, holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the determinism that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the ability to lose salvation. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of prevenient grace and preached the ability of Christians to attain to perfection (fully mature, not \"sinlessness\"). While Wesley freely made use of the term \"Arminian,\" he did not self-consciously root his soteriology in the theology of Arminius but was highly influenced by 17th-century English Arminianism and thinkers such as John Goodwin, Jeremy Taylor and Henry Hammond of the Anglican \"Holy Living\" school, and the Remonstrant Hugo Grotius.\n", "\n\nAdvocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism find a home in many Protestant denominations, and sometimes both exist within the same denomination. Faiths leaning at least in part in the Arminian direction include Methodists, Free Will Baptists, Christian Churches and Churches of Christ, General Baptists, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Church of the Nazarene, The Wesleyan Church, The Salvation Army, Conservative Mennonites, Old Order Mennonites, Amish and Charismatics. Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction are grouped as the Reformed churches and include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The majority of Southern Baptists, including Billy Graham, accept Arminianism with an exception allowing for a doctrine of perseverance of the saints (\"eternal security\"). Many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance, and some prominent Reformed Baptists, such as Albert Mohler and Mark Dever, have been pushing for the Southern Baptist Convention to adopt a more Calvinistic orientation (it should be noted, however, that no Baptist church is bound by any resolution adopted by the Southern Baptist Convention). Lutherans espouse a view of salvation and election distinct from both the Calvinist and Arminian schools of soteriology.\n\nThe current scholarly support for Arminianism is wide and varied. One particular thrust is a return to the teachings of Arminius. F. Leroy Forlines, Robert Picirilli, Stephen Ashby and Matthew Pinson (see citations) are four of the more prominent supporters. Forlines has referred to this type of Arminianism as \"Classical Arminianism,\" while Picirilli, Pinson, and Ashby have termed it \"Reformation Arminianism\" or \"Reformed Arminianism.\" Through Methodism, Wesley's teachings also inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal proponents including J. Kenneth Grider, Stanley Hauerwas, Thomas Oden, Thomas Jay Oord, and William Willimon.\n\nRecent influence of the New Perspective on Paul movement has also reached Arminianism — primarily through a view of corporate election. The New Perspective scholars propose that the 1st-century Second Temple Judaism understood election primarily as national (Israelites) and racial (Jews), not as individual. Their conclusion is thus that Paul's writings on election should be interpreted in a similar corporate light.\n", "\nArminian theology usually falls into one of two groups — Classical Arminianism, drawn from the teaching of Jacobus Arminius — and Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially.\n\n===Classical Arminianism===\nClassical Arminianism is the theological system that was presented by Jacobus Arminius and maintained by some of the Remonstrants; its influence serves as the foundation for all Arminian systems. A list of beliefs is given below:\n\n'''Depravity is total''': Arminius states \"In this fallen state, the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and weakened; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by Divine grace.\"\n'''Atonement is intended for all''': Jesus's death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith.\n'''Jesus's death satisfies God's justice''': The penalty for the sins of the elect is paid in full through Jesus's work on the cross. Thus Christ's atonement is intended for all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states that \"Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteousness through mercy… or that man is justified before God… according to the rigor of justice without any forgiveness.\" Stephen Ashby clarifies: \"Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or (2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's righteousness.\"\n'''Grace is resistible''': God takes initiative in the salvation process and his grace comes to all people. This grace (often called ''prevenient'' or pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to convince them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith. Picirilli states that \"indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted.\" The offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistibly in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.\n'''Man has a freed will to respond or resist''': Free will is granted and limited by God's sovereignty, but God's sovereignty allows all men the choice to accept the Gospel of Jesus through faith, simultaneously allowing all men to resist.\n'''Election is conditional''': Arminius defined ''election'' as \"the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life.\" God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, \"God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith.\"\n'''God predestines the elect to a glorious future''': Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption, glorification, and eternal life.\n'''Christ's righteousness is imputed to the believer''': Justification is sola fide (by faith alone). When individuals repent and believe in Christ (saving faith), they are regenerated and brought into union with Christ, whereby the death and righteousness of Christ are imputed to them for their justification before God.\n'''Eternal security is also conditional''': All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned. Apostasy (turning from Christ) is only committed through a deliberate, willful rejection of Jesus and renunciation of saving faith. Such apostasy is irremediable.\n\nOn whether a believer could commit apostasy (i.e., desert Christ by cleaving again to this evil world, losing a good conscience, or by failing to hold on to sound doctrine), Arminius declared that this matter required further study in the Scriptures. Nevertheless, Arminius believed the Scriptures taught that believers are graciously empowered by Christ and the Holy Spirit \"to fight against Satan, sin, the world and their own flesh, and to gain the victory over these enemies.\" Furthermore, Christ and the Spirit are ever present to aid and assist believers through various temptations. But this security was not unconditional but conditional—\"provided they believers stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves, Christ preserves them from falling.\" Arminius goes on to say, \"I never taught that a true believer can, either totally or finally fall away from the faith, and perish; yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such a kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding.\"\n\nAfter the death of Arminius in 1609, the Remonstrants maintained their leader's view on conditional security and his uncertainty regarding the possibility of believers committing apostasy. This is evidenced in the fifth article drafted by its leaders in 1610. However, sometime between 1610, and the official proceeding of the Synod of Dort (1618), the Remonstrants became fully persuaded in their minds that the Scriptures taught that a true believer was capable of falling away from faith and perishing eternally as an unbeliever. They formalized their views in \"The Opinion of the Remonstrants\" (1618).\n\nPicirilli remarks: \"Ever since that early period, then, when the issue was being examined again, Arminians have taught that those who are truly saved need to be warned against apostasy as a real and possible danger.\"\n\nThe core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian Stephen Ashby:\n\n#Prior to being ''drawn and enabled'', one is ''unable to believe… able only to resist.''\n#Having been ''drawn and enabled'', but prior to regeneration, one is ''able to believe… able also to resist.''\n#After one ''believes'', God then regenerates; one is ''able to continue believing… able also to resist.''\n#Upon ''resisting'' to the point of ''unbelief'', one is ''unable again to believe… able only to resist.''\n\n===Wesleyan Arminianism===\n\n\nJohn Wesley has historically been the most influential advocate for the teachings of Arminian soteriology. Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius himself taught, maintaining strong doctrines of original sin, total depravity, conditional election, prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and possibly of apostasy.\n\nWesley departs from Classical Arminianism primarily on three issues:\n; Atonement\n: Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the penal substitution theory and the governmental theory of Hugo Grotius, a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants. Steven Harper states, \"Wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework...Rather his doctrine seeks to bring into proper relationship the 'justice' between God's love for persons and God's hatred of sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation.\"\n; Possibility of apostasy\n: Wesley fully accepted the Arminian view that genuine Christians could apostatize and lose their salvation, as his famous sermon \"A Call to Backsliders\" clearly demonstrates. Harper summarizes as follows: \"the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy.\" Wesley disagrees with Arminius, however, in maintaining that such apostasy was not final. When talking about those who have made \"shipwreck\" of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), Wesley claims that \"not one, or a hundred only, but I am persuaded, several thousands...innumerable are the instances...of those who had fallen but now stand upright.\"\n; Christian perfection\n: According to Wesley's teaching, Christians could attain a state of practical perfection, meaning a lack of all voluntary sin by the empowerment of the Holy Spirit, in this life. Christian perfection (or ''entire sanctification''), according to Wesley, is \"purity of intention, dedicating all the life to God\" and \"the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to walk as Christ walked.\" It is \"loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves\". It is \"a restoration not only to the favour, but likewise to the image of God,\" our \"being filled with the fullness of God\". Wesley was clear that Christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It also does not mean we no longer violate the will of God, for involuntary transgressions remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to temptation, and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love. Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection, but rather says that, \"Even perfect holiness is acceptable to God only through Jesus Christ.\"\n\n===Other variations===\nSince the time of Arminius, his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs. Some of these beliefs, such as Pelagianism and semi-Pelagianism (see below) are not considered to be within Arminian orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere. Some doctrines, however, do adhere to the Arminian foundation and, while minority views, are highlighted below.\n\n====Open theism====\n\nThe doctrine of open theism states that God is omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, but differs on the nature of the future. Open theists claim that the future is not completely determined (or \"settled\") because people have not made their free decisions yet. God therefore knows the future partially in possibilities (human free actions) rather than solely certainties (divinely determined events). As such, open theists resolve the issue of human free will and God's sovereignty by claiming that God is sovereign because he does not ordain each human choice, but rather works in cooperation with his creation to bring about his will. This notion of sovereignty and freedom is foundational to their understanding of love since open theists believe that love is not genuine unless it is freely chosen. The power of choice under this definition has the potential for as much harm as it does good, and open theists see free will as the best answer to the problem of evil. Well-known proponents of this theology are Greg Boyd, Clark Pinnock, Thomas Jay Oord, William Hasker, and John E. Sanders.\n\nSome Arminians, such as professor and theologian Robert Picirilli, reject the doctrine of open theism as a \"deformed Arminianism\". Joseph Dongell stated that \"open theism actually moves beyond classical Arminianism towards process theology.\" There are also some Arminians, like Roger Olson, who believe Open theism to be an alternative view that a Christian can have. The majority Arminian view accepts classical theism – the belief that God's power, knowledge, and presence have no external limitations, that is, outside of his divine nature. Most Arminians reconcile human free will with God's sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points:\nHuman free will is limited by original sin, though God's prevenient grace restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation.\nGod purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent – in other words, He has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means.\nGod's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible.\n\n====Corporate view of election====\n\nThe majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith, but a second perspective deserves mention. These Arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely, preferring to understand the doctrine in corporate terms. According to this corporate election, God never chose individuals to elect to salvation, but rather He chose to elect the believing church to salvation. Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Ridderbos says \"The certainty of salvation does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain \"number\", but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith.\"\n\nCorporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the Old Testament and Jewish law. Indeed most biblical scholarship is in agreement that Judeo-Greco-Roman thought in the 1st century was opposite of the Western world's \"individual first\" mantra – it was very collectivist or communitarian in nature. Identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality. According to Romans 9–11, supporters claim, Jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of Jesus as Messiah. As a result of the new covenant, God's chosen people are now the corporate body of Christ, the church (sometimes called ''spiritual Israel'' – see also Covenant theology). The pastor and theologian Brian Abasciano claims \"What Paul says about Jews, Gentiles, and Christians, whether of their place in God’s plan, or their election, or their salvation, or how they should think or behave, he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group. These individuals act as members of the group to which they belong, and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group.\"\n\nThese scholars also maintain that Jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be \"in Christ\" (Eph 1:3–4) through faith to be part of the elect. This was, in fact, Swiss Reformed theologian, Karl Barth's, understanding of the doctrine of election. Joseph Dongell, professor at Asbury Theological Seminary, states \"the most conspicuous feature of Ephesians 1:3–2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3–14 alone...this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God.\" Markus Barth illustrates the inter-connectedness: \"Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice.\"\n", "Understanding Arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives: Pelagianism, Semi-Pelagianism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism. Arminianism, like any major belief system, is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would-be supporters.\n\n=== Comparison among Protestants ===\nArminian beliefs compared to other Protestants.\n\n\n\n===Common misconceptions===\nAllegory of the theological dispute between the Arminianists and their opponents\n\n\n'''Arminianism supports works-based salvation''' – No well-known system of Arminianism denies salvation \"by faith alone\" and \"by faith first to last\". This misconception is often directed at the Arminian possibility of apostasy, which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation. To Arminians, however, both initial salvation ''and'' eternal security are \"by faith alone\"; hence \"by faith first ''to last''\". Belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the Kingdom of God; unbelief is the condition for exit from the Kingdom of God – not a lack of good works.\n'''Arminianism is Pelagian (or Semi-Pelagian), denying original sin and total depravity''' – No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity; both Arminius and Wesley ''strongly'' affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God.\n\nMany Calvinist critics of Arminianism, both historically and currently, claim that Arminianism condones, accepts, or even explicitly supports Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism. Arminius referred to Pelagianism as \"the grand falsehood\" and stated that he \"must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences of that theology.\" David Pawson, a British pastor, decries this association as \"libelous\" when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine. Indeed, most Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism; nonetheless, primarily due to Calvinist opponents, the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage.\n\n'''Arminianism denies Jesus' substitutionary payment for sins''' – Both Arminius and Wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of Christ's atonement through penal substitution. Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied individually, while Hugo Grotius and many of Wesley's followers taught that it was satisfied governmentally.\n\n===Comparison with Calvinism===\n\nEver since Arminius and his followers revolted against Calvinism in the early 17th century, Protestant soteriology has been largely divided between Calvinism and Arminianism. The extreme of Calvinism is hyper-Calvinism, which insists that signs of election must be sought before evangelization of the unregenerate takes place and that the eternally damned have no obligation to repent and believe, and on the extreme of Arminianism is Pelagianism, which rejects the doctrine of original sin on grounds of moral accountability; but the overwhelming majority of Protestant, evangelical pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between.\n\n====Similarities====\n'''Total depravity''' – Arminians agree with Calvinists over the doctrine of total depravity. The differences come in the understanding of how God remedies this human depravity.\n'''Substitutionary effect of atonement''' – Arminians also affirm with Calvinists the substitutionary effect of Christ's atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect. Classical Arminians would agree with Calvinists that this substitution was penal satisfaction for all of the elect, while most Wesleyan Arminians would maintain that the substitution was governmental in nature.\n\n====Differences====\n'''Nature of election''' – Arminians hold that election to eternal salvation has the condition of faith attached. The Calvinist doctrine of unconditional election states that salvation cannot be earned or achieved and is therefore not conditional upon any human effort, so faith is not a condition of salvation but the divinely apportioned means to it. In other words, Arminians believe that they owe their election to their faith, whereas Calvinists believe that they owe their faith to their election.\n'''Nature of grace''' – Arminians believe that, through grace, God restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity, and each individual, therefore, is able either to accept the Gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief. Calvinists hold that God's grace to enable salvation is given only to the elect and irresistibly leads to salvation.\n'''Extent of the atonement''' – Arminians, along with four-point Calvinists or Amyraldians, hold to a universal drawing and universal extent of atonement instead of the Calvinist doctrine that the drawing and atonement is limited in extent to the elect only, which many Calvinists prefer to call 'particular redemption'. Both sides (with the exception of hyper-Calvinists) believe the invitation of the gospel is universal and \"must be presented to everyone they can reach without any distinction.\"\n'''Perseverance in faith''' – Arminians believe that future salvation and eternal life is secured in Christ and protected from all external forces but is conditional on remaining in Christ and can be lost through apostasy. Traditional Calvinists believe in the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints, which says that because God chose some unto salvation and actually paid for their particular sins, he keeps them from apostasy and that those who do apostatize were never truly regenerated (that is, born again) or saved. Non-traditional Calvinists and other evangelicals advocate the similar but distinct doctrine of eternal security that teaches if a person was once saved, his or her salvation can never be in jeopardy, even if the person completely apostatizes.\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWesley, John. \"The Question, 'What Is an Arminian?' Answered by a Lover of Free Grace\"\nWitzki, Steve. \"Free Grace or Forced Grace?\" from ''The Arminian Magazine'', Spring 2001\nSatama, Mikko (2009). \"Aspects of Arminian Soteriology in Methodist-Lutheran Ecumenical Dialogues in 20th and 21st Century\" Master's Thesis, University of Helsinki, Faculty of Theology.\n\n", "* The Opinions of the Remonstrants (1618)\n* The Arminian Confession of 1621 and Apostasy\n* \"Serious Thoughts Upon the Perseverance of the Saints\" by John Wesley\n* The Works of Jacob Arminius\n* The Society of Evangelical Arminians\n\n What Is an Arminian? by John Wesley\n* Sermon #58: \"On Predestination\" by John Wesley\n* \"Corporate Election in Romans 9\", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, June 2006 by Brian Abasciano (Arminian perspective)\n* The Nature of Wesleyan Theology by J. Kenneth Grider (Arminian perspective)\n* Characteristics of Wesley's Arminianism by Luke L. Keefer, Jr. (Arminian perspective)\n* Wesleyan Theology: Arminianism by Gregory S. Neal (from a Methodist perspective)\n* Arminianism from the Catholic Encyclopedia\n* Christian Cyclopedia article on Arminianism (Lutheran perspective)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", " Current landscape ", "Theology", "Arminianism and other views", " See also ", "Notes", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Arminianism
[ "\n\n\n\n'''The Alan Parsons Project''' was the collective reference to several lineups of a British progressive rock team, active between 1975 and 1990, whose rosters consisted of Alan Parsons and Eric Woolfson surrounded by a varying number of session musicians and some relatively consistent band members such as guitarist Ian Bairnson, arranger Andrew Powell, bassist and vocalist David Paton, drummer Stuart Elliott, and vocalist Lenny Zakatek.\n\nBehind the revolving line-up and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Parsons was an audio engineer and producer by profession, but also a musician and a composer. A songwriter by profession, Woolfson was also a composer, a pianist, and a singer. Almost all songs on the Project's albums are credited to \"Woolfson/Parsons\".\n", "=== 1974–1976: Formation and debut ===\nAlan Parsons met Eric Woolfson in the canteen of Abbey Road Studios in the summer of 1974. Parsons had already acted as Assistant Engineer on the Beatles' albums ''Abbey Road'' (1969) and ''Let It Be'' (1970), had recently engineered Pink Floyd's ''The Dark Side of the Moon'' (1973), and had produced several acts for EMI Records. Woolfson, a songwriter and composer, was working as a session pianist; he had also composed material for a concept album idea based on the work of Edgar Allan Poe.\n\nWhen Parsons asked Woolfson to become his manager, he accepted and subsequently managed Parsons's career as a producer and engineer through a string of successes, including Pilot, Steve Harley, Cockney Rebel, John Miles, Al Stewart, Ambrosia, and the Hollies. Parsons commented at the time that he felt frustrated in having to accommodate the views of some of the musicians, which he felt interfered with his production. Woolfson came up with the idea of making an album based on developments in the film industry, where '''''directors''''', such as Alfred Hitchcock and Stanley Kubrick, were the focal point of the film's promotion, rather than individual film stars. If the film industry was becoming a director's medium, Woolfson felt the music business might well become a producer's medium.\n\nRecalling his earlier Edgar Allan Poe material, Woolfson saw a way to combine his and Parsons's respective talents. Parsons would produce and engineer songs written and composed by the two, and the first Alan Parsons Project was begun. The Project's first album, ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination'' (1976), which was released by 20th Century Fox Records and included major contributions by all members of Pilot and Ambrosia, was a success, reaching the Top 40 in the US ''Billboard'' 200 chart. The song \"The Raven\" featured lead vocals by the actor Leonard Whiting, and, according to the 2007 remastered album liner notes, was the first rock song to use a digital vocoder, with Alan Parsons speaking lyrics through it.\n\nAn unauthorised history of the Alan Parsons Projects was released as an English language book in December 2016, when ''The Alan Parsons Project — The Eye in the Sky'', written by Francesco Ferrua, was published by Arcana. It is a translation of the book, from the same author, originally published in March 2015 in the Italian language.\n\n=== 1977–1990: Mainstream success and final releases ===\n\nArista Records then signed the Alan Parsons Project participants for further albums. Through the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Project's popularity continued to grow. (However, the Project was always more popular in North America, Ibero-America, and Continental Europe than in Parsons's home country, never achieving a UK Top 40 single or Top 20 album). The singles \"I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You\", \"Games People Play\", \"Damned If I Do\", \"Time\", the first single to feature Woolfson's lead vocal, and \"Eye in the Sky\" had a notable impact on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. \"Don't Answer Me\" became the Project's last successful single in the United States; it reached the top 15 on the American charts in 1984. After those successes, however, the Project began to fade from view. There were fewer hit singles, and declining album sales. 1987's ''Gaudi'' would be the Project's final release, though it had planned to record an album called ''Freudiana'' (1990) next.\n\n==== The musical ''Freudiana'' ====\nEven though the studio version of ''Freudiana'' was produced by Parsons (and featured the regular Project backing musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. This eventually led to a rift between the two artists. While Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many members of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. ''Freudiana'', ''Gaudi'', and ''Gambler'' were three musicals that included some Project songs like \"Eye in the Sky\", \"Time\", \"Inside Looking Out\", and \"Limelight\". The live music from ''Gambler'' was only distributed at the performance site in Mönchengladbach, Germany.\n\n==== ''The Sicilian Defence'' ====\nIn 1981, Parsons, Woolfson, and their record label Arista, had been stalled in contract renegotiations when on March 5, the two submitted an all-instrumental album tentatively titled 'The Sicilian Defence', named after an aggressive opening move in chess, arguably to get out of their recording contract. Arista's refusal to release the album had two known effects: the negotiations led to a renewed contract, and the album was not released at that time.\n\n\n\nIn interviews he gave before his death in 2009, Woolfson said he planned to release one track from the \"Sicilian\" album, which in 2008 appeared as a bonus track on a CD re-issue of the ''Eve'' album. Sometime later, after he had relocated the original tapes, Parsons had changed his mind about the album and announced that it would finally be released on an upcoming Project box set called ''The Complete Albums Collection'' in 2014 for the first time as a bonus disc.\n", "Parsons released titles under his name; these were ''Try Anything Once'' (1993), ''On Air'' (1996), ''The Time Machine'' (1999), and ''A Valid Path'' (2004). Meanwhile, Woolfson made concept albums titled ''Freudiana'' (1990), about Sigmund Freud's work on psychology, and ''Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination'' (2003); this continued from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about Edgar Allan Poe's literature.\n\n''Tales of Mystery and Imagination'' (1976) was first remixed in 1987 for release on CD, and included narration by Orson Welles which had been recorded in 1975, but arrived too late to be included on the original album. On the 2007 deluxe edition release, it is revealed that parts of this tape were used for the 1976 Griffith Park Planetarium launch of the original album, the 1987 remix, and various radio spots, all of which were included as bonus material.\n", "Most of the Project's titles, especially the early work, share common traits; these were likely influenced by Pink Floyd's ''The Dark Side of the Moon'' (1973), on which Parsons was the audio engineer in 1973. They were concept albums and typically began with an instrumental introduction, which faded into the first song, often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second LP side, and concluded with a quiet, melancholic, or powerful song. The opening instrumental was largely done away with by 1980; no later Project album except ''Eye in the Sky'' (1982) featured one, though every album includes at least one instrumental somewhere in the running order. The instrumental on that album, \"Sirius\", eventually became the best-known, or, at least, the most frequently heard, of all Parsons instrumentals. It was used as entrance music by various American sports teams, most notably by the Chicago Bulls during their 1990s NBA dynasty. It was also used as the entrance theme for Ricky Steamboat in pro wrestling of the mid-1980s. In addition, \"Sirius\" has been played in a variety of TV shows and movies including the episode \"Vanishing Act\" of ''The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius'' and the 2009 film ''Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs''.\n\nThe group was notable for using several vocal performers instead of having a single lead vocalist. Lead vocal duties were shared by guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song. In later years, Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits, including \"Time\", \"Eye in the Sky\", and \"Don't Answer Me\"; however, he did not sing any lead vocals on the band's first four albums and appeared as vocalist only sporadically thereafter. When the Woolfson-sung songs became significant hits, the record company pressured Parsons to use him more. However, Parsons preferred to use more technically polished and proficient singers, which Woolfson admitted he was not. In addition to Woolfson, vocalists Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, John Miles, David Paton, and the Zombies's Colin Blunstone made regular appearances. Other singers, such as Arthur Brown, Steve Harley, Procol Harum's Gary Brooker, Dave Terry a.k.a. Elmer Gantry, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Marmalade's Dean Ford, have recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons himself only sang lead on one song (\"The Raven\") through a vocoder and can be heard singing backing vocals on a few others, including \"To One in Paradise\". Both of those songs appeared on ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination'' (1976).\n\nAlthough the vocalists varied, a small number of musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly. These core musicians contributed to the recognisable style of a Project song in spite of the varied singer line-up. Together with Parsons and Woolfson, the Project originally consisted of the group Pilot, with Ian Bairnson (guitar), David Paton (bass) and Stuart Tosh (drums). Pilot's keyboardist Billy Lyall also contributed. From ''Pyramid'' (1978) onwards, Tosh was replaced by Stuart Elliott of Cockney Rebel. Bairnson played on all albums, and Paton stayed almost until the end. Andrew Powell appeared as arranger of orchestra (and often choirs) on all albums except ''Vulture Culture'' (1984), when he was composing the score of Richard Donner's film ''Ladyhawke'' (1985). This score was partly in the Project style, recorded by most of the Project regulars, and produced and engineered by Parsons. Powell also composed some material for the first two Project albums. From ''Vulture Culture'' onwards, Richard Cottle played as a regular member on synthesizers and saxophone.\n\nAlan Parsons Live Project, June 1998 (distinct from the Alan Parsons Project live)\nExcept for one occasion, the Project never played live during its original incarnation. This was because Woolfson and Parsons saw themselves mainly in the roles of writing and production, and also because of the technical difficulties of reproducing on stage the complex instrumentation used in the studio. In the 1990s things changed with the technology of digital samplers. The one occasion where the band was introduced as 'The Alan Parsons Project' in a live performance was at Night of the Proms 1990 (at the time of the group's break-up), featuring all Project regulars except Woolfson who was present but behind the scenes, while Parsons stayed at the mixer except during the last song, where he played acoustic guitar.\n\nSince 1993, a new version of the band has toured, with Parsons performing live acoustic guitar, keyboards and vocals, with various line-ups. This latest incarnation was called '''Alan Parsons''', eventually renaming as the '''Alan Parsons Live Project''', the name distinct from 'The Alan Parsons Project', due to founder Parsons' break-up with Woolfson. The band currently features lead singer P.J. Olsson, guitarist Alastair Greene, drummer Danny Thompson, keyboardist Manny Focarazzo, keyboardist Tom Brooks, bass guitarist Guy Erez, vocalist and saxophonist Todd Cooper, and guitarist and vocalist Dan Tracey. In 2013, Alan Parsons Live Project played Colombia with a full choir and orchestra (the Medellin Philharmonic) as 'Alan Parsons Symphonic Project'. A 2-CD live set and a DVD version of this concert were released in May 2016.\n", ";Official members\n* Alan Parsons – production, engineering, programming, composition, keyboards, synthesizers; occasional acoustic guitar, bass, flute, vocals and vocoder\n* Eric Woolfson – composition, lyrics, keyboards, vocals, executive production\n\n\n;Notable contributors\n\n", "\n\n=== Studio albums ===\n* ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination'' (1976)\n* ''I Robot'' (1977)\n* ''Pyramid'' (1978)\n* ''Eve'' (1979)\n* ''The Turn of a Friendly Card'' (1980)\n* ''Eye in the Sky'' (1982)\n* ''Ammonia Avenue'' (1984)\n* ''Vulture Culture'' (1984)\n* ''Stereotomy'' (1985)\n* ''Gaudi'' (1987)\n* ''The Sicilian Defence'' (2014) (Unreleased at the time it was recorded; this album is now available as part of the 2014 A.P.P. box-set)\n\n=== Alan Parsons and Eric Woolfson album ===\n* ''Freudiana'' (1990; the \"unofficial\" A.P.P. album.)\n\n=== Important compilations ===\n* ''The Best of The Alan Parsons Project'' (1983)\n* ''The Best of The Alan Parsons Project, Vol. 2'' (1987)\n* ''The Instrumental Works'' (1988)\n* ''The Definitive Collection'' (1997; includes 2 tracks from Parsons' 1993 album ''Try Anything Once'')\n* ''The Essential Alan Parsons Project'' (2007; remastered; released in some countries as \"Days are Numbers\" or \"The Dutch Collection\")\n", "* ''The Philharmonia Orchestra Plays the Best of The Alan Parsons Project'' (1983 – orchestral album by Andrew Powell)\n* ''Ladyhawke'' (1985 – soundtrack by Powell, produced and engineered by Parsons)\n* ''Black Freudiana'' (1991 – Austrian Original Cast Musical Soundtrack, virtually a solo Woolfson project)\n", "In the 1999 comedy film ''Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me'', the weapon that Dr. Evil has installed on the moon is referred to as 'The Alan Parsons Project', to which his son Scott Evil makes fun of him for using the name and informing him of the band. \n\nThe song \"I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You\" from the 1977 album ''I Robot'' is used on ''Grand Theft Auto V''.\n", "\n", "\n* \n* The official Eric Woolfson website\n* \n* \n* The Alan Parsons Project Facebook Group\n* \n* The Alan Parsons Project biography, discography, album credits & user reviews at ProgArchives.com\n* The Alan Parsons Project albums to be listened as stream at Spotify.com\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Career ", " Alan Parsons's solo career ", " Sound ", " Members ", " Discography ", " Related ", " In popular culture ", " References ", " External links " ]	The Alan Parsons Project
[ "\n The derivative of the Cantor function on the unit interval is 0 for almost all numbers in the unit interval.\n\nIn mathematics, the phrase \"'''almost all'''\" has a number of specialised uses which extend its intuitive meaning.\n", "\nReferring to a subset of an infinite set, \"almost all\" is sometimes used synonymously with \"all but except finitely many\" (that is, it is a cofinite subset). A simple example is that almost all prime numbers are odd, which is based on the fact that all but one prime number are odd. (The exception is the number 2, which is prime but not odd.)\n\nReferring to a subset of an uncountable set, \"almost all\" is sometimes used to mean all the elements except for a countable set\" (that is, it is a cocountable subset).\n", "When speaking about the reals, sometimes it means \"all reals but a set of Lebesgue measure zero\" (formally, almost everywhere). In this sense almost all reals are not a member of the Cantor set even though the Cantor set is uncountable.\n\nMore generally, \"almost all\" is sometimes used in the sense of \"almost everywhere\" in measure theory, or in the closely related sense of \"almost surely\" in probability theory.\n", "In number theory, if ''P''(''n'') is a property of positive integers, and if ''p''(''N'') denotes the number of positive integers ''n'' less than ''N'' for which ''P''(''n'') holds, and if\n\n:''p''(''N'')/''N'' → 1 as ''N'' → ∞\n\n(see limit), then we say that \"''P''(''n'') holds for almost all positive integers ''n''\" (formally, asymptotically almost surely).\n\nFor example, the prime number theorem states that the number of prime numbers less than or equal to ''N'' is asymptotically equal to ''N''/ln ''N''. Therefore, the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln ''N'', which tends to 0. Thus, ''almost all'' positive integers are composite (not prime), however there are still an infinite number of primes.\n", "Generic property\nSufficiently large\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Cardinality", "Measure theory", "Number theory", "See also", "References" ]	Almost all
[ "\n\nAn '''aromatic hydrocarbon''' or '''arene''' (or sometimes '''aryl hydrocarbon''') is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast, aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term 'aromatic' was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be ''monocyclic'' (MAH) or ''polycyclic'' (PAH).\n\nSome non-benzene-based compounds called '''heteroarenes''', which follow Hückel's rule (for monocyclic rings: when the number of its π-electrons equals 4''n'' + 2, where ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3,…), are also called aromatic compounds. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by one of the heteroatoms oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. Examples of non-benzene compounds with aromatic properties are furan, a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring that includes a single oxygen atom, and pyridine, a heterocyclic compound with a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom.\n", " Benzene \n\nBenzene, C6H6, is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, and it was the first one named as such. The nature of its bonding was first recognized by August Kekulé in the 19th century. Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one each to the two neighbouring carbons. This leaves one electron to share with one of the same two neighbouring carbon atoms, thus creating a double bond with one carbon and leaving a single bond with the other, which is why the benzene molecule is drawn with alternating single and double bonds around the hexagon.\n\nThe structure is alternatively illustrated as a circle around the inside of the ring to show six electrons floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This depiction represents the equivalent nature of the six carbon–carbon bonds all of bond order 1.5; the equivalency is explained by resonance forms. The electrons are visualized as floating above and below the ring with the electromagnetic fields they generate acting to keep the ring flat.\n\nGeneral properties of aromatic hydrocarbons:\n# They display aromaticity\n# The carbon–hydrogen ratio is high\n# They burn with a strong sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon–hydrogen ratio\n# They undergo electrophilic substitution reactions and nucleophilic aromatic substitutions\n\nThe circle symbol for aromaticity was introduced by Sir Robert Robinson and his student James Armit in 1925 and popularized starting in 1959 by the Morrison & Boyd textbook on organic chemistry. The proper use of the symbol is debated; it is used to describe any cyclic π system in some publications, or only those π systems that obey Hückel's rule in others. Jensen argues that, in line with Robinson's original proposal, the use of the circle symbol should be limited to monocyclic 6 π-electron systems. In this way the circle symbol for a six-center six-electron bond can be compared to the Y symbol for a three-center two-electron bond.\n", "A reaction that forms an arene compound from an unsaturated or partially unsaturated cyclic precursor is simply called an '''aromatization'''. Many laboratory methods exist for the organic synthesis of arenes from non-arene precursors. Many methods rely on cycloaddition reactions. Alkyne trimerization describes the 2+2+2 cyclization of three alkynes, in the Dötz reaction an alkyne, carbon monoxide and a chromium carbene complex are the reactants. Diels–Alder reactions of alkynes with pyrone or cyclopentadienone with expulsion of carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide also form arene compounds. In Bergman cyclization the reactants are an enyne plus a hydrogen donor.\n\nAnother set of methods is the aromatization of cyclohexanes and other aliphatic rings: reagents are catalysts used in hydrogenation such as platinum, palladium and nickel (reverse hydrogenation), quinones and the elements sulfur and selenium.\n", "Arenes are reactants in many organic reactions.\n\n===Aromatic substitution===\nIn aromatic substitution one substituent on the arene ring, usually hydrogen, is replaced by another substituent. The two main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution when the active reagent is an electrophile and nucleophilic aromatic substitution when the reagent is a nucleophile. In radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution the active reagent is a radical. An example of electrophilic aromatic substitution is the nitration of salicylic acid:\n:Nitration of salicylic acid\n\n===Coupling reactions===\nIn coupling reactions a metal catalyses a coupling between two formal radical fragments. Common coupling reactions with arenes result in the formation of new carbon–carbon bonds e.g., alkylarenes, vinyl arenes, biraryls, new carbon–nitrogen bonds (anilines) or new carbon–oxygen bonds (aryloxy compounds). An example is the direct arylation of perfluorobenzenes \n:Coupling reaction\n\n===Hydrogenation===\nHydrogenation of arenes create saturated rings. The compound 1-naphthol is completely reduced to a mixture of decalin-ol isomers.\n:1-naphthol hydrogenation\nThe compound resorcinol, hydrogenated with Raney nickel in presence of aqueous sodium hydroxide forms an enolate which is alkylated with methyl iodide to 2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexandione:\n:Resorcinol hydrogenation\n\n===Cycloadditions===\nCycloaddition reaction are not common. Unusual thermal Diels–Alder reactivity of arenes can be found in the Wagner-Jauregg reaction. Other photochemical cycloaddition reactions with alkenes occur through excimers.\n", "Benzene derivatives have from one to six substituents attached to the central benzene core. Examples of benzene compounds with just one substituent are phenol, which carries a hydroxyl group, and toluene with a methyl group. When there is more than one substituent present on the ring, their spatial relationship becomes important for which the arene substitution patterns ''ortho'', ''meta'', and ''para'' are devised. For example, three isomers exist for cresol because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group can be placed next to each other (''ortho''), one position removed from each other (''meta''), or two positions removed from each other (''para''). Xylenol has two methyl groups in addition to the hydroxyl group, and, for this structure, 6 isomers exist.\n\n\nFile:toluene.svg\|Toluene\nFile:Ethylbenzene-2D-skeletal.png\|Ethylbenzene\nFile:Para-Xylol - para-xylene.svg\|''p''-Xylene\nFile:Meta-Xylol_-_meta-xylene_2.svg\|''m''-Xylene\nFile:Mesitylene-2D-skeletal.png\| Mesitylene\nFile:Durene.png\| Durene\nFile:2-phenyl-hexane.png\| 2-Phenylhexane\nFile:Bifenyl.svg\| Biphenyl \nFile:Phenol-2D-skeletal.png\|Phenol\nFile:Aniline.svg\|Aniline\nFile:Nitrobenzol.svg\|Nitrobenzene\nFile:Benzoic acid.svg\|Benzoic acid\nFile:Aspirin-skeletal.svg\|Aspirin\nFile:Paracetamol-skeletal.svg\|Paracetamol\nFile:Pikrinsäure.svg\|Picric acid\n\n\n\nThe arene ring has an ability to stabilize charges. This is seen in, for example, phenol (C6H5–OH), which is acidic at the hydroxyl (OH), since a charge on this oxygen (alkoxide –O−) is partially delocalized into the benzene ring.\n", "An illustration of typical polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Clockwise from top left: benz(e)acephenanthrylene, pyrene and dibenz(ah)anthracene.\n\n\nPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused aromatic rings and do not contain heteroatoms or carry substituents. Naphthalene is the simplest example of a PAH. PAHs occur in oil, coal, and tar deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish.\n\nThey are also found in the interstellar medium, in comets, and in meteorites and are a candidate molecule to act as a basis for the earliest forms of life. In graphene the PAH motif is extended to large 2D sheets.\n", "* Aromatic substituents: Aryl, Aryloxy and Arenediyl \n* Asphaltene\n* Hydrodealkylation\n* Simple aromatic rings\n* Rhodium-platinum oxide, a catalyst used to hydrogenate aromatic compounds.\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Benzene ring model ", "Arene synthesis", "Arene reactions", " Benzene and derivatives of benzene ", "Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]	Aromatic hydrocarbon

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