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[ "\n\n\n\n'''Austrian German''' (), '''Austrian Standard German''', '''Standard Austrian German''' () or '''Austrian High German''' (), is the variety of Standard German written and spoken in Austria. It has the highest sociolinguistic prestige locally, as it is the variation used in the media and for other formal situations.\n\nIn less formal situations, Austrians tend to use forms closer to or identical with the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects, traditionally spoken – but rarely written – in Austria.\n", "Austrian German has its beginning in the mid-18th century, when empress Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II introduced compulsory schooling (in 1774) and several reforms of administration in their multilingual Habsburg empire. At the time, the written standard was ''Oberdeutsche Schreibsprache'', which was highly influenced by the Bavarian and Alemannic dialects of Austria. Another option was to create a new standard based on the Southern German dialects, as proposed by the linguist Janez Žiga Popovič (Johann Siegmund Popowitsch). Instead they decided for pragmatic reasons to adopt the already standardized Chancellery language of Saxony (''Sächsische Kanzleisprache'' or ''Meißner Kanzleideutsch''), which was based on the administrative language of the non-Austrian area of Meißen and Dresden. \nThus Standard Austrian German has the same geographic origin as the Standard German of Germany (''Bundesdeutsches Hochdeutsch'', also ''Deutschländisches Deutsch'') and Swiss High German (''Schweizer Hochdeutsch'', not to be confused with the Alemannic Swiss German dialects).\n\nThe process of introducing the new written standard was led by Joseph von Sonnenfels.\nSince 1951 the standardized form of Austrian German for official texts and schools is defined by the ''Austrian Dictionary'' (''''), published under the authority of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture.\n", "As German is a pluricentric language, Austrian German is merely one among several varieties of Standard German. Much like the relationship between British English and American English, the German varieties differ in minor respects (e.g., spelling, word usage and grammar) but are recognizably equivalent and largely mutually intelligible.\n", "The official Austrian dictionary, ''das Österreichische Wörterbuch'', prescribes grammatical and spelling rules defining the official language. Austrian delegates participated in the international working group that drafted the German spelling reform of 1996—several conferences leading up to the reform were hosted in Vienna at the invitation of the Austrian federal government—and adopted it as a signatory, along with Germany, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, of an international memorandum of understanding (Wiener Absichtserklärung) signed in Vienna in 1996. \nThe \"sharp s\" (ß) is used in Austria, as in Germany.\n\n«Schulschrift 1995», one of Austria's elementary school handwriting programs\nA street sign in Vienna: '''' (\"pedestrian\") is normally '''' in Germany. Capital ẞ is traditionally wrong in both countries and has to be replaced by ''SS'' when in all caps - as ß is a fusion of two different -sz- characters)\nBecause of the German language's pluricentric nature, German dialects in Austria should not be confused with the variety of Standard German spoken by most Austrians, which is distinct from that of Germany or Switzerland. Distinctions in vocabulary persist, for example, in culinary terms, where communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and administrative and legal language, which is due to Austria's exclusion from the development of a German nation-state in the late 19th century and its manifold particular traditions. A comprehensive collection of Austrian-German legal, administrative and economic terms is offered in ''Markhardt, Heidemarie: Wörterbuch der österreichischen Rechts-, Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungsterminologie'' (Peter Lang, 2006).\n\n===Former spoken standard===\nThe \"former standard\", used for about 300 years or more in speech in refined language, was the '''', a sociolect spoken by the imperial Habsburg family and the nobility of Austria-Hungary. It differed from other dialects in vocabulary and pronunciation; it appears to have been spoken with a slight degree of nasality. This was not a standard in a modern technical sense, as it was just the social standard of upper-class speech.\n\n===Special written forms===\nFor many years, Austria had a special form of the language for official government documents. This form is known as '''', or \"Austrian chancellery language\". It is a very traditional form of the language, probably derived from medieval deeds and documents, and has a very complicated structure and vocabulary generally reserved for such documents. For most speakers (even native speakers), this form of the language is generally difficult to understand, as it contains many highly specialised terms for diplomatic, internal, official, and military matters. There are no regional variations, because this special written form has mainly been used by a government that has now for centuries been based in Vienna.\n\n'''' is now used less and less, thanks to various administrative reforms that reduced the number of traditional civil servants (''''). As a result, Standard German is replacing it in government and administrative texts.\n\n=== European Union ===\nWhen Austria became a member of the European Union, the Austrian variety of the German language — limited to 23 agricultural terms — was \"protected\" in Protocol 10, regarding the use of Austrian-specific terms in the framework of the European Union, which forms part of the Austrian EU accession treaty. Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognized under international law or EU primary law. All facts concerning “Protocol no. 10” are documented in Markhardt's ''Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU'', Peter Lang, 2005.\n\n=== Grammar ===\n\n====Verbs====\nIn Austria, as in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and in southern Germany, verbs that express a state tend to use '''' as the auxiliary verb in the perfect, as well as verbs of movement. Verbs which fall into this category include ''sitzen'' (to sit), ''liegen'' (to lie) and, in parts of Carinthia, ''schlafen'' (to sleep). Therefore, the perfect of these verbs would be ''ich bin gesessen'', ''ich bin gelegen'' and ''ich bin geschlafen'' respectively (note: ''ich bin geschlafen'' is a rarely used form, more commonly ''ich habe geschlafen'' is used).\n\nIn Germany, the words ''stehen'' (to stand) and ''gestehen'' (to confess) are identical in the present perfect: ''habe gestanden''. The Austrian variant avoids this potential ambiguity (''bin gestanden'' from ''stehen'', \"to stand\"; and ''habe gestanden'' from ''gestehen'', \"to confess\", e.g. ''\"der Verbrecher ist vor dem Richter gestanden und hat gestanden\"'').\n\nIn addition, the preterite (simple past) is very rarely used in Austria, especially in the spoken language, with the exception of some modal verbs (i.e. ''ich sollte'', ''ich wollte'').\n\n=== Vocabulary ===\n\nThere are many official terms that differ in Austrian German from their usage in most parts of Germany. Words primarily used in Austria are ''Jänner'' (January) rather than ''Januar'', ''heuer'' (this year) rather than ''dieses Jahr'', ''Stiege'' (stairs) instead of ''Treppe'', ''Rauchfang'' (chimney) instead of ''Schornstein'', many administrative, legal and political terms – and a whole series of foods such as: ''Erdäpfel'' (potatoes) German ''Kartoffeln'' (but Dutch ''aardappel''), ''Schlagobers'' (whipped cream) German ''Schlagsahne'', ''Faschiertes'' (ground beef) German ''Hackfleisch'' (but Hungarian ''fasírt'', Croatian and Slovenian informal ''faširano''), ''Fisolen'' (green beans) German ''Gartenbohnen'' (but Czech ''fazole'', Italian ''fagioli'', Croatian (regional) ''fažol'', Slovenian ''fižol'', Hungarian folkish ''paszuly''), ''Karfiol'' (cauliflower) German ''Blumenkohl'' (but Croatian, Hungarian and Slovak ''karfiol'', Italian ''cavolfiore''), ''Kohlsprossen'' (Brussels sprouts) German ''Rosenkohl'', ''Marillen'' (apricots) German ''Aprikosen'' (but Slovak ''marhuľa'', Polish ''morela'', Slovenian ''marelice'', Croatian ''marelica''), ''Paradeiser'' \"Paradiesapfel\" (tomatoes) German ''Tomaten'' (but Hungarian ''paradicsom'', Slovak ''paradajka'', Slovenian ''paradižnik'', Serbian ''paradajz''), ''Palatschinken'' (pancakes) German ''Pfannkuchen'' (but Czech ''palačinky'', Hungarian ''palacsinta'', Croatian and Slovenian ''palačinke''), ''Topfen'' (a semi-sweet cottage cheese) German ''Quark'' and ''Kren'' (horseradish) German ''Meerrettich'' (but Czech ''křen'', Slovak ''chren'', Croatian and Slovenian ''hren'', etc.).\n\nThere are, however, some false friends between the two regional varieties:\n* '''' (wardrobe) instead of ''Schrank'', as opposed to ''Kiste'' (box) instead of ''Kasten''. ''Kiste'' in Germany means both \"box\" and \"chest\".\n* '''' (chair) instead of ''Stuhl''. ''Sessel'' means \"easy chair\" in Germany and ''Stuhl'' means \"stool (faeces)\" in both varieties.\n* '''' (hallway) instead of ''Diele''. ''Vorzimmer'' means \"antechamber\" in Germany\n* '''' (oven) instead of ''Kamin''. ''Kamin'' is ''Schornstein'' (chimney) in Germany\n* '''' (pillow) instead of ''Kissen''.\n* '''' (quark) instead of ''Quark''.\n", "\n=== Classification ===\n* Dialects of the Austro-Bavarian group, which also comprises the dialects of German Bavaria\n Central Austro-Bavarian (along the main rivers Isar and Danube, spoken in the northern parts of the State of Salzburg, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, and northern Burgenland)\nViennese German\n* Southern Austro-Bavarian (in Tyrol, South Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, and the southern parts of Salzburg and Burgenland)\n* Vorarlbergerisch, spoken in Vorarlberg, is a High Alemannic dialect.\n\n=== Regional accents ===\n\nIn addition to the standard variety, in everyday life most Austrians speak one of a number of Upper German dialects.\n\nWhile strong forms of the various dialects are not fully mutually intelligible to northern Germans, communication is much easier in Bavaria, especially rural areas, where the Bavarian dialect still predominates as the mother tongue. The Central Austro-Bavarian dialects are more intelligible to speakers of Standard German than the Southern Austro-Bavarian dialects of Tyrol.\n\nViennese, the Austro-Bavarian dialect of Vienna, is seen for many in Germany as quintessentially Austrian. The people of Graz, the capital of Styria, speak yet another dialect which is not very Styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of Austria than other Styrian dialects, for example from western Styria.\n\nSimple words in the various dialects are very similar, but pronunciation is distinct for each and, after listening to a few spoken words, it may be possible for an Austrian to realise which dialect is being spoken. However, in regard to the dialects of the deeper valleys of the Tirol, other Tyroleans are often unable to understand them. Speakers from the different states of Austria can easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents (probably more so than Bavarians), those of Carinthia, Styria, Vienna, Upper Austria, and the Tyrol being very characteristic. Speakers from those regions, even those speaking Standard German, can usually be easily identified by their accent, even by an untrained listener.\n\nSeveral of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups, such as the dialect of Carinthia, where in the past many speakers were bilingual with Slovene, and the dialect of Vienna, which has been influenced by immigration during the Austro-Hungarian period, particularly from what is today the Czech Republic. The German dialects of South Tyrol have been influenced by local Romance languages, particularly noticeable with the many loanwords from Italian and Ladin.\n\nInterestingly, the geographic borderlines between the different accents (isoglosses) coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border with Bavaria, with Bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the linguistic similarities.\n", "* Bavarian language\n* German language\n", "\n", "\n* Ammon, Ulrich: ''Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten.'' de Gruyter, Berlin/New York 1995.\n* Ammon, Ulrich / Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner u. a.: Variantenwörterbuch des Deutschen. Die Standardsprache in Österreich, der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südtirol.'' Berlin/New York 2004, .\n* Grzega, Joachim: „Deutschländisch und Österreichisches Deutsch: Mehr Unterschiede als nur in Wortschatz und Aussprache.“ In: Joachim Grzega: ''Sprachwissenschaft ohne Fachchinesisch.'' Shaker, Aachen 2001, S. 7-26. .\n* Grzega, Joachim: “On the Description of National Varieties: Examples from (German and Austrian) German and (English and American) English.” In: Linguistik Online 7 (2000).\n* Grzega, Joachim: “Nonchalance als Merkmal des Österreichischen Deutsch.” In: ''Muttersprache'' 113 (2003): 242-254.\n\n Muhr, Rudolf / Schrodt, Richard: ''Österreichisches Deutsch und andere nationale Varietäten plurizentrischer Sprachen in Europa.'' Wien, 1997\n* Muhr, Rudolf/Schrodt, Richard/Wiesinger, Peter (eds.): ''Österreichisches Deutsch: Linguistische, sozialpsychologische und sprachpolitische Aspekte einer nationalen Variante des Deutschen.'' Wien, 1995.\n* Pohl, Heinz Dieter: „Österreichische Identität und österreichisches Deutsch“ aus dem ''„Kärntner Jahrbuch für Politik 1999“''\n\n Wiesinger, Peter: ''Die deutsche Sprache in Österreich. Eine Einführung'', In: Wiesinger (Hg.): ''Das österreichische Deutsch. Schriften zur deutschen Sprache. Band 12.'' (Wien, Köln, Graz, 1988, Verlag, Böhlau)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " History ", " General situation of German ", " Standard German in Austria ", "Dialects", " See also ", " References ", " Sources " ]	Austrian German
[ "\n\nIllustration of the axiom of choice, with each ''S''''i'' and ''x''''i'' represented as a jar and a colored marble, respectively\nfamily of sets indexed over the real numbers '''R'''; that is, there is a set S''i'' for each real number ''i'', with a small sample shown above. Each set contains at least one, and possibly infinitely many, elements. The axiom of choice allows us to arbitrarily select a single element from each set, forming a corresponding family of elements (''x''''i'') also indexed over the real numbers, with ''x''''i'' drawn from S''i''. In general, the collections may be indexed over any set ''I'', not just '''R'''.\n\nIn mathematics, the '''axiom of choice''', or '''AC''', is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that ''the Cartesian product of a collection of non-empty sets is non-empty''. It states that for every indexed family of nonempty sets there exists an indexed family of elements such that for every . The axiom of choice was formulated in 1904 by Ernst Zermelo in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering theorem.\n\nInformally put, the axiom of choice says that given any collection of bins, each containing at least one object, it is possible to make a selection of exactly one object from each bin. In many cases such a selection can be made without invoking the axiom of choice; this is in particular the case if the number of bins is finite, or if a selection rule is available: a distinguishing property that happens to hold for exactly one object in each bin. To give an informal example, for any (even infinite) collection of pairs of shoes, one can pick out the left shoe from each pair to obtain an appropriate selection, but for an infinite collection of pairs of socks (assumed to have no distinguishing features), such a selection can be obtained only by invoking the axiom of choice.\n\nAlthough originally controversial, the axiom of choice is now used without reservation by most mathematicians, and it is included in the standard form of axiomatic set theory, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice (ZFC). One motivation for this use is that a number of generally accepted mathematical results, such as Tychonoff's theorem, require the axiom of choice for their proofs. Contemporary set theorists also study axioms that are not compatible with the axiom of choice, such as the axiom of determinacy. The axiom of choice is avoided in some varieties of constructive mathematics, although there are varieties of constructive mathematics in which the axiom of choice is embraced.\n", "A choice function is a function ''f'', defined on a collection ''X'' of nonempty sets, such that for every set ''A'' in ''X'', ''f''(''A'') is an element of ''A''. With this concept, the axiom can be stated:\n\n\nFormally, this may be expressed as follows:\n\n:\n\nThus, the negation of the axiom of choice states that there exists a collection of nonempty sets that has no choice function.\n\nEach choice function on a collection ''X'' of nonempty sets is an element of the Cartesian product of the sets in ''X''. This is not the most general situation of a Cartesian product of a family of sets, where a given set can occur more than once as a factor; however, one can focus on elements of such a product that select the same element every time a given set appears as factor, and such elements correspond to an element of the Cartesian product of all ''distinct'' sets in the family. The axiom of choice asserts the existence of such elements; it is therefore equivalent to:\n\n:Given any family of nonempty sets, their Cartesian product is a nonempty set.\n\n===Nomenclature ZF, AC, and ZFC===\nIn this article and other discussions of the '''Axiom of Choice''' the following abbreviations are common:\nAC – the Axiom of Choice.\nZF – Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory omitting the Axiom of Choice.\nZFC – Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, extended to include the Axiom of Choice.\n\n===Variants===\nThere are many other equivalent statements of the axiom of choice. These are equivalent in the sense that, in the presence of other basic axioms of set theory, they imply the axiom of choice and are implied by it.\n\nOne variation avoids the use of choice functions by, in effect, replacing each choice function with its range.\n:Given any set ''X'' of pairwise disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set ''C'' that contains exactly one element in common with each of the sets in ''X''.\nThis guarantees for any partition of a set ''X'' the existence of a subset ''C'' of ''X'' containing exactly one element from each part of the partition.\n\nAnother equivalent axiom only considers collections ''X'' that are essentially powersets of other sets:\n:For any set A, the power set of A (with the empty set removed) has a choice function.\nAuthors who use this formulation often speak of the ''choice function on A'', but be advised that this is a slightly different notion of choice function. Its domain is the powerset of ''A'' (with the empty set removed), and so makes sense for any set ''A'', whereas with the definition used elsewhere in this article, the domain of a choice function on a ''collection of sets'' is that collection, and so only makes sense for sets of sets. With this alternate notion of choice function, the axiom of choice can be compactly stated as\n:Every set has a choice function.\nwhich is equivalent to\n:For any set A there is a function ''f'' such that for any non-empty subset B of ''A'', ''f''(''B'') lies in ''B''.\nThe negation of the axiom can thus be expressed as:\n:There is a set ''A'' such that for all functions ''f'' (on the set of non-empty subsets of ''A''), there is a ''B'' such that ''f''(''B'') does not lie in ''B''.\n\n===Restriction to finite sets===\nThe statement of the axiom of choice does not specify whether the collection of nonempty sets is finite or infinite, and thus implies that every finite collection of nonempty sets has a choice function. However, that particular case is a theorem of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice (ZF); it is easily proved by mathematical induction. In the even simpler case of a collection of ''one'' set, a choice function just corresponds to an element, so this instance of the axiom of choice says that every nonempty set has an element; this holds trivially. The axiom of choice can be seen as asserting the generalization of this property, already evident for finite collections, to arbitrary collections.\n", "Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly, although it had not yet been formally stated. For example, after having established that the set ''X'' contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said \"let ''F(s)'' be one of the members of ''s'' for all ''s'' in ''X''.\" In general, it is impossible to prove that ''F'' exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo.\n\nNot every situation requires the axiom of choice. For finite sets ''X'', the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory. In that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several (a finite number of) boxes, each containing at least one item, then we can choose exactly one item from each box. Clearly we can do this: We start at the first box, choose an item; go to the second box, choose an item; and so on. The number of boxes is finite, so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end. The result is an explicit choice function: a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose, the second box to the second element we chose, and so on. (A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of mathematical induction to prove \"for every natural number ''k'', every family of ''k'' nonempty sets has a choice function.\") This method cannot, however, be used to show that every countable family of nonempty sets has a choice function, as is asserted by the axiom of countable choice. If the method is applied to an infinite sequence (''X''''i'' : ''i''∈ω) of nonempty sets, a function is obtained at each finite stage, but there is no stage at which a choice function for the entire family is constructed, and no \"limiting\" choice function can be constructed, in general, in ZF without the axiom of choice.\n", "The nature of the individual nonempty sets in the collection may make it possible to avoid the axiom of choice even for certain infinite collections. For example, suppose that each member of the collection ''X'' is a nonempty subset of the natural numbers. Every such subset has a smallest element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it maps each set to the least element of that set. This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set, and makes it unnecessary to apply the axiom of choice.\n\nThe difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set. If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our set exists? For example, suppose that ''X'' is the set of all non-empty subsets of the real numbers. First we might try to proceed as if ''X'' were finite. If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because ''X'' is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently, we shall never be able to produce a choice function for all of ''X''. Next we might try specifying the least element from each set. But some subsets of the real numbers do not have least elements. For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: if ''x'' is in (0,1), then so is ''x''/2, and ''x''/2 is always strictly smaller than ''x''. So this attempt also fails.\n\nAdditionally, consider for instance the unit circle ''S'', and the action on ''S'' by a group ''G'' consisting of all rational rotations. Namely, these are rotations by angles which are rational multiples of ''π''. Here ''G'' is countable while ''S'' is uncountable. Hence ''S'' breaks up into uncountably many orbits under ''G''. Using the axiom of choice, we could pick a single point from each orbit, obtaining an uncountable subset ''X'' of ''S'' with the property that all of its translates by G are disjoint from ''X''. The set of those translates partitions the circle into a countable collection of disjoint sets, which are all pairwise congruent. Since ''X'' is not measurable for any rotation-invariant countably additive finite measure on ''S'', finding an algorithm to select a point in each orbit requires the axiom of choice. See non-measurable set for more details.\n\nThe reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are well-ordered: every nonempty subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element under the natural ordering. One might say, \"Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering. Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering.\" The problem then becomes that of constructing a well-ordering, which turns out to require the axiom of choice for its existence; every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice holds.\n", "\nA proof requiring the axiom of choice may establish the existence of an object without explicitly defining the object in the language of set theory. For example, while the axiom of choice implies that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in which no well-ordering of the reals is definable. Similarly, although a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable can be proved to exist using the axiom of choice, it is consistent that no such set is definable.\n\nThe axiom of choice proves the existence of these intangibles (objects that are proved to exist, but which cannot be explicitly constructed), which may conflict with some philosophical principles. Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets, a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result, even if a canonical result is desired (as is often the case in category theory). This has been used as an argument against the use of the axiom of choice.\n\nAnother argument against the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of objects that may seem counterintuitive. One example is the Banach–Tarski paradox which says that it is possible to decompose the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotations and translations, reassemble the pieces into two solid balls each with the same volume as the original. The pieces in this decomposition, constructed using the axiom of choice, are non-measurable sets.\n\nDespite these seemingly paradoxical facts, most mathematicians accept the axiom of choice as a valid principle for proving new results in mathematics. The debate is interesting enough, however, that it is considered of note when a theorem in ZFC (ZF plus AC) is logically equivalent (with just the ZF axioms) to the axiom of choice, and mathematicians look for results that require the axiom of choice to be false, though this type of deduction is less common than the type which requires the axiom of choice to be true.\n\nIt is possible to prove many theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation; such statements will be true in any model of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model. The restriction to ZF renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation unprovable. For example, the Banach–Tarski paradox is neither provable nor disprovable from ZF alone: it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in ZF, but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition. Similarly, all the statements listed below which require choice or some weaker version thereof for their proof are unprovable in ZF, but since each is provable in ZF plus the axiom of choice, there are models of ZF in which each statement is true. Statements such as the Banach–Tarski paradox can be rephrased as conditional statements, for example, \"If AC holds, then the decomposition in the Banach–Tarski paradox exists.\" Such conditional statements are provable in ZF when the original statements are provable from ZF and the axiom of choice.\n", "\nAs discussed above, in ZFC, the axiom of choice is able to provide \"nonconstructive proofs\" in which the existence of an object is proved although no explicit example is constructed. ZFC, however, is still formalized in classical logic. The axiom of choice has also been thoroughly studied in the context of constructive mathematics, where non-classical logic is employed. The status of the axiom of choice varies between different varieties of constructive mathematics.\n\nIn Martin-Löf type theory and higher-order Heyting arithmetic, the appropriate statement of the axiom of choice is (depending on approach) included as an axiom or provable as a theorem. Errett Bishop argued that the axiom of choice was constructively acceptable, saying\n\n\n\nIn constructive set theory, however, Diaconescu's theorem shows that the axiom of choice implies the law of excluded middle (unlike in Martin-Löf type theory, where it does not). Thus the axiom of choice is not generally available in constructive set theory. A cause for this difference is that the axiom of choice in type theory does not have the extensionality properties that the axiom of choice in constructive set theory does.\n\nSome results in constructive set theory use the axiom of countable choice or the axiom of dependent choice, which do not imply the law of the excluded middle in constructive set theory. Although the axiom of countable choice in particular is commonly used in constructive mathematics, its use has also been questioned.\n", "\nAssuming ZF is consistent, Kurt Gödel showed that the ''negation'' of the axiom of choice is not a theorem of ZF by constructing an inner model (the constructible universe) which satisfies ZFC and thus showing that ZFC is consistent. Assuming ZF is consistent, Paul Cohen employed the technique of forcing, developed for this purpose, to show that the axiom of choice itself is not a theorem of ZF by constructing a much more complex model which satisfies ZF¬C (ZF with the negation of AC added as axiom) and thus showing that ZF¬C is consistent. Together these results establish that the axiom of choice is logically independent of ZF. The assumption that ZF is consistent is harmless because adding another axiom to an already inconsistent system cannot make the situation worse. Because of independence, the decision whether to use the axiom of choice (or its negation) in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. The decision must be made on other grounds.\n\nOne argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it because it allows one to prove some simplifying propositions that otherwise could not be proved. Many theorems which are provable using choice are of an elegant general character: every ideal in a ring is contained in a maximal ideal, every vector space has a basis, and every product of compact spaces is compact. Without the axiom of choice, these theorems may not hold for mathematical objects of large cardinality.\n\nThe proof of the independence result also shows that a wide class of mathematical statements, including all statements that can be phrased in the language of Peano arithmetic, are provable in ZF if and only if they are provable in ZFC. Statements in this class include the statement that P = NP, the Riemann hypothesis, and many other unsolved mathematical problems. When one attempts to solve problems in this class, it makes no difference whether ZF or ZFC is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof. It is possible, however, that there is a shorter proof of a theorem from ZFC than from ZF.\n\nThe axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF. For example, the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZFC. However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF.\n", "The axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis each imply the axiom of choice and so are strictly stronger than it. In class theories such as Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory, there is an axiom called the axiom of global choice that is stronger than the axiom of choice for sets because it also applies to proper classes. The axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size.\n", "There are important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are Zorn's lemma and the well-ordering theorem. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering theorem.\n\nSet theory\nWell-ordering theorem: Every set can be well-ordered. Consequently, every cardinal has an initial ordinal.\nTarski's theorem about choice: For every infinite set ''A'', there is a bijective map between the sets ''A'' and ''A''×''A''.\nTrichotomy: If two sets are given, then either they have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other.\nThe Cartesian product of any family of nonempty sets is nonempty.\nKönig's theorem: Colloquially, the sum of a sequence of cardinals is strictly less than the product of a sequence of larger cardinals. (The reason for the term \"colloquially\" is that the sum or product of a \"sequence\" of cardinals cannot be defined without some aspect of the axiom of choice.)\nEvery surjective function has a right inverse.\nOrder theory\nZorn's lemma: Every non-empty partially ordered set in which every chain (''i.e.'', totally ordered subset) has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element.\nHausdorff maximal principle: In any partially ordered set, every totally ordered subset is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset. The restricted principle \"Every partially ordered set has a maximal totally ordered subset\" is also equivalent to AC over ZF.\nTukey's lemma: Every non-empty collection of finite character has a maximal element with respect to inclusion.\nAntichain principle: Every partially ordered set has a maximal antichain.\nAbstract algebra\nEvery vector space has a basis.\nKrull's theorem: Every unital ring other than the trivial ring contains a maximal ideal.\n*For every non-empty set ''S'' there is a binary operation defined on ''S'' that gives it a group structure. (A cancellative binary operation is enough, see group structure and the axiom of choice.)\nFunctional analysis\n*The closed unit ball of the dual of a normed vector space over the reals has an extreme point.\nPoint-set topology\nTychonoff's theorem: Every product of compact topological spaces is compact.\nIn the product topology, the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures.\nMathematical logic\nIf ''S'' is a set of sentences of first-order logic and ''B'' is a consistent subset of ''S'', then ''B'' is included in a set that is maximal among consistent subsets of ''S''. The special case where ''S'' is the set of '''all''' first-order sentences in a given signature is weaker, equivalent to the Boolean prime ideal theorem; see the section \"Weaker forms\" below.\nGraph theory\n*Every connected graph has a spanning tree.\n\n===Category theory===\nThere are several results in category theory which invoke the axiom of choice for their proof. These results might be weaker than, equivalent to, or stronger than the axiom of choice, depending on the strength of the technical foundations. For example, if one defines categories in terms of sets, that is, as sets of objects and morphisms (usually called a small category), or even locally small categories, whose hom-objects are sets, then there is no category of all sets, and so it is difficult for a category-theoretic formulation to apply to all sets. On the other hand, other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger, and an identical category-theoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation, à la class theory, mentioned above.\n\nExamples of category-theoretic statements which require choice include:\nEvery small category has a skeleton.\nIf two small categories are weakly equivalent, then they are equivalent.\nEvery continuous functor on a small-complete category which satisfies the appropriate solution set condition has a left-adjoint (the Freyd adjoint functor theorem).\n", "There are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but are closely related. One example is the axiom of dependent choice (DC). A still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice (ACω or CC), which states that a choice function exists for any countable set of nonempty sets. These axioms are sufficient for many proofs in elementary mathematical analysis, and are consistent with some principles, such as the Lebesgue measurability of all sets of reals, that are disprovable from the full axiom of choice.\n\nOther choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the Boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom of uniformization. The former is equivalent in ZF to the existence of an ultrafilter containing each given filter, proved by Tarski in 1930.\n\n===Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it===\nOne of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF.\n\nSet theory\nAny union of countably many countable sets is itself countable (because it is necessary to choose a particular ordering for each of the countably many sets).\nIf the set ''A'' is infinite, then there exists an injection from the natural numbers '''N''' to ''A'' (see Dedekind infinite).\nEight definitions of a finite set are equivalent.\nEvery infinite game in which is a Borel subset of Baire space is determined.\nMeasure theory\nThe Vitali theorem on the existence of non-measurable sets which states that there is a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable.\nThe Hausdorff paradox.\nThe Banach–Tarski paradox.\nThe Lebesgue measure of a countable disjoint union of measurable sets is equal to the sum of the measures of the individual sets.\nAlgebra\nEvery field has an algebraic closure.\nEvery field extension has a transcendence basis.\nStone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras needs the Boolean prime ideal theorem.\nThe Nielsen–Schreier theorem, that every subgroup of a free group is free.\nThe additive groups of '''R''' and '''C''' are isomorphic.\nFunctional analysis\nThe Hahn–Banach theorem in functional analysis, allowing the extension of linear functionals\nThe theorem that every Hilbert space has an orthonormal basis.\nThe Banach–Alaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals.\nThe Baire category theorem about complete metric spaces, and its consequences, such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem.\n*On every infinite-dimensional topological vector space there is a discontinuous linear map.\nGeneral topology\nA uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded.\nEvery Tychonoff space has a Stone–Čech compactification.\nMathematical logic\nGödel's completeness theorem for first-order logic: every consistent set of first-order sentences has a completion. That is, every consistent set of first-order sentences can be extended to a maximal consistent set.\n", "Now, consider stronger forms of the negation of AC. For example, if we abbreviate by BP the claim that every set of real numbers has the property of Baire, then BP is stronger than ¬AC, which asserts the nonexistence of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of nonempty sets. Note that strengthened negations may be compatible with weakened forms of AC. For example, ZF + DC + BP is consistent, if ZF is.\n\nIt is also consistent with ZF + DC that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable; however, this consistency result, due to Robert M. Solovay, cannot be proved in ZFC itself, but requires a mild large cardinal assumption (the existence of an inaccessible cardinal). The much stronger axiom of determinacy, or AD, implies that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable, has the property of Baire, and has the perfect set property (all three of these results are refuted by AC itself). ZF + DC + AD is consistent provided that a sufficiently strong large cardinal axiom is consistent (the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals).\n", "There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We shall abbreviate \"Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice\" by ZF¬C. For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts.\nNote that any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true.\n\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a function ''f'' from the real numbers to the real numbers such that ''f'' is not continuous at ''a'', but ''f'' is sequentially continuous at ''a'', i.e., for any sequence {''xn''} converging to ''a'', lim''n'' f(''xn'')=f(a).\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C which has an infinite set of real numbers without a countably infinite subset.\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets.\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a field with no algebraic closure.\nIn all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis.\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities.\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a free complete boolean algebra on countably many generators.\n\nFor proofs, see .\n\nThere exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in R''n'' is measurable. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the Banach–Tarski paradox which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the Axiom of dependent choice, which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of real analysis.\nIn all models of ZF¬C, the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold.\n", "\nThis is a joke: although the three are all mathematically equivalent, many mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition.\n\n\n\nThe observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example, to choose a left shoe. Without the axiom of choice, one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks, because left and right socks are (presumably) indistinguishable.\n\n\nPolish-American mathematician Jan Mycielski relates this anecdote in a 2006 article in the Notices of the AMS.\n\n\nThis quote comes from the famous April Fools' Day article in the ''computer recreations'' column of the ''Scientific American'', April 1989.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \nThomas Jech, \"About the Axiom of Choice.\" ''Handbook of Mathematical Logic'', John Barwise, ed., 1977.\n \n* Per Martin-Löf, \"100 years of Zermelo's axiom of choice: What was the problem with it?\", in ''Logicism, Intuitionism, and Formalism: What Has Become of Them?'', Sten Lindström, Erik Palmgren, Krister Segerberg, and Viggo Stoltenberg-Hansen, editors (2008). \n* \n* , available as a Dover Publications reprint, 2013, .\n* \nHerman Rubin, Jean E. Rubin: Equivalents of the axiom of choice. North Holland, 1963. Reissued by Elsevier, April 1970. .\nHerman Rubin, Jean E. Rubin: Equivalents of the Axiom of Choice II. North Holland/Elsevier, July 1985, .\n* \n* \nGeorge Tourlakis, ''Lectures in Logic and Set Theory. Vol. II: Set Theory'', Cambridge University Press, 2003. \n \nErnst Zermelo, \"Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I,\" ''Mathematische Annalen 65'': (1908) pp. 261–81. PDF download via digizeitschriften.de\n::Translated in: Jean van Heijenoort, 2002. ''From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. New edition. Harvard University Press. \n::1904. \"Proof that every set can be well-ordered,\" 139-41.\n::1908. \"Investigations in the foundations of set theory I,\" 199-215.\n", " Axiom of Choice entry in the Springer Encyclopedia of Mathematics. \n* Axiom of Choice and Its Equivalents entry at ProvenMath. Includes formal statement of the Axiom of Choice, Hausdorff's Maximal Principle, Zorn's Lemma and formal proofs of their equivalence down to the finest detail.\n* Consequences of the Axiom of Choice, based on the book by Paul Howard and Jean Rubin.\n*.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Statement", "Usage", "Examples", "Criticism and acceptance", "In constructive mathematics", "Independence", "Stronger axioms", "Equivalents", "Weaker forms", "Stronger forms of the negation of AC", "Statements consistent with the negation of AC", "Quotes", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Axiom of choice
[ "\n\n\nExtent of the Aegean Sea on a map of the Mediterranean Sea\nTopographical and bathymetric map\n\nThe '''Aegean Sea''' (; ; ) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the Greek and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosphorus. The Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes.\n\nThe sea was traditionally known as ''the Archipelago'' (in Greek, ''Αρχιπέλαγος'', meaning \"chief sea\"), but in English the meaning of Archipelago has changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally, to any island group.\n", "In ancient times, there were various explanations for the name ''Aegean''. It was said to have been named after the Greek town of Aegae, or after Aegea, a queen of the Amazons who died in the sea, or Aigaion, the \"sea goat\", another name of Briareus, one of the archaic Hecatonchires, or, especially among the Athenians, Aegeus, the father of Theseus, who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died.\n\nA possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word '''' – ''aiges'' = \"''waves''\" (Hesychius of Alexandria; metaphorical use of (''aix'') \"goat\"), hence \"wavy sea\", cf. also (aigialos = aiges ''(waves)'' + hals ''(sea)''), hence meaning \"sea-shore\".\n\nThe Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name ''Archipelago'' (Greek for \"main sea\" or \"chief sea\"), a name that held on in many European countries until the early modern period.\n\nIn some South Slavic languages the Aegean is often called ''White Sea'' (''Belo more'' in Serbian, ''Бело море'' in Macedonian and Бяло море ''Byalo more'' in Bulgarian).\n", "The Aegean Sea covers about in area, and measures about longitudinally and latitudinally. The sea's maximum depth is , east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south (generally from west to east): Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes.\n\nThe Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to Greece, can be divided into seven groups:\n#Northeastern Aegean Islands\n#Euboea\n#Northern Sporades\n#Cyclades\n#Saronic Islands (or ''Argo-Saronic Islands'')\n#Dodecanese (or ''Southern Sporades''), with the exclusion of Kastellorizo\n#Crete\n\nThe word ''archipelago'' was originally applied specifically to the Aegean Sea and its islands. Many of the Aegean Islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean.\n\nThe bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the Mirabello, Almyros, Souda and Chania bays or gulfs, on the mainland the Myrtoan Sea to the west with the Argolic Gulf, the Saronic Gulf northwestward, the Petalies Gulf which connects with the South Euboic Sea, the Pagasetic Gulf which connects with the North Euboic Sea, the Thermian Gulf northwestward, the Chalkidiki Peninsula including the Cassandra and the Singitic Gulfs, northward the Strymonian Gulf and the Gulf of Kavala and the rest are in Turkey; Saros Gulf, Edremit Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Gulf of Çandarlı, Gulf of İzmir, Gulf of Kuşadası, Gulf of Gökova, Güllük Gulf.\n\n===Extent===\nThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows:\n\n''On the South.'' A line running from Cape Aspro (28°16'E) in Asia Minor, to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of Rhodes, through the island to Cape Prasonisi, the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33'N) in Skarpanto Karpathos, through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape Apolitares in Antikithera Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in Kithera Island, through Kithera to the Northwest point (Cape Karavugia) and thence to Cape Santa Maria () in the Morea.\n''In the Dardanelles''. A line joining Kum Kale (26°11'E) and Cape Helles.\n\nPanoramic view of the Santorini caldera, taken from Oia\n\n===Hydrography===\nTraditional street of Lefkes, Paros-Greece\nAegean surface water circulates in a counter-clockwise gyre, with hypersaline Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of Turkey, before being displaced by less dense Black Sea outflow. The dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of , then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of 5–15 cm/s. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece.\n\nThe physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the Dardanelles Strait.\n\nAnalysis of the Aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed 3 distinct water masses:\n\n'''Aegean Sea Surface Water''' – thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21–26 °C and winter temperatures ranging from in the north to in the south.\n'''Aegean Sea Intermediate Water''' – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40–50 m to with temperatures ranging from 11–18 °C.\n'''Aegean Sea Bottom Water''' – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a very uniform temperature (13–14 °C) and salinity (3.91–3.92%).\n", "=== Ancient History ===\nOttoman Turkish geographer Piri Reis\nThe current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the last ice age (c. 16,000 BC) sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared c. 7000 BC, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that.\n\nThe subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term ''Aegean civilization''. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Myceneans of the Peloponnese.\n\nSatellite view of the Aegean Sea\nLater arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the Athenian Empire and Hellenic Civilization. Plato described the Greeks living round the Aegean \"like frogs around a pond\". The Aegean Sea was later invaded by the Persians and the Romans, and inhabited by the Eastern Romans (Byzantines), the Bulgarians, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Seljuq Turks, and the Ottomans. The Aegean was the site of the original democracies, and its seaways were the means of contact among several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean.\n\n===Modern history===\nIn the 21st century, the northern Aegean Sea became one of the main scenes of the Refugee crisis as over 1 million Syrians, Iraqis and Afghans fled wars and poverty in their countries and attempted to cross the Sea from Turkey to Greece (an EU member state).\n", "Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays. In ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland (and to some extent the coastal areas of Anatolia). Many of the islands are volcanic, and marble and iron are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. Of the main islands in the Aegean Sea, two belong to Turkey – Bozcaada (Tenedos ''Τένεδος'') and Gökçeada (Imbros ''Ίμβρος''); the rest belong to Greece. Between the two countries, there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the Aegean space, including the size of territorial waters, air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf.\n", "Aegean languages\nList of traditional Greek place names\nThracian Sea\n", "\n", "\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Geography", "History", "Economy and politics", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Aegean Sea
[ "\n\n'''''A Clockwork Orange''''' is a dystopian novel by Anthony Burgess published in 1962. Set in a near future English society featuring a subculture of extreme youth violence, the teenage protagonist, Alex, narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities intent on reforming him. The book is partially written in a Russian-influenced argot called \"Nadsat\". According to Burgess it was a ''jeu d'esprit'' written in just three weeks.\n\nIn 2005, ''A Clockwork Orange'' was included on ''Time'' magazine's list of the 100 best English-language novels written since 1923, and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. The original manuscript of the book has been located at McMaster University's William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada since the institution purchased the documents in 1971.\n", "\n===Part 1: Alex's world===\nAlex is a 15-year-old living in near-future dystopian England who leads his gang on a night of opportunistic, random \"ultra-violence\". Alex's friends (\"droogs\" in the novel's Anglo-Russian slang, 'Nadsat') are Dim, a slow-witted bruiser who is the gang's muscle; Georgie, an ambitious second-in-command; and Pete, who mostly plays along as the droogs indulge their taste for ultra-violence. Characterised as a sociopath and a hardened juvenile delinquent, Alex also displays intelligence, quick wit, and a predilection for classical music; he is particularly fond of Beethoven, referred to as \"Lovely Ludwig Van\".\n\nThe novella begins with the droogs sitting in their favourite hangout, the Korova Milk Bar, and drinking \"milk-plus\" — a beverage consisting of milk laced with the customer's drug of choice — to prepare for a night of mayhem. They assault a scholar walking home from the public library; rob a store, leaving the owner and his wife bloodied and unconscious; beat up a beggar; then scuffle with a rival gang. Joyriding through the countryside in a stolen car, they break into an isolated cottage and terrorise the young couple living there, beating the husband and raping his wife. In a metafictional touch, the husband is a writer working on a manuscript called \"''A Clockwork Orange''\", and Alex contemptuously reads out a paragraph that states the novel's main theme before shredding the manuscript. Back at the Korova, Alex strikes Dim for his crude response to a woman's singing of an operatic passage, and strains within the gang become apparent. At home in his parents' futuristic flat, Alex plays classical music at top volume, which he describes as giving him orgasmic bliss before falling asleep.\n\nAlex coyly feigns illness to his parents to stay out of school the next day. Following an unexpected visit from P.R. Deltoid, his \"post-corrective adviser\", Alex visits a record store, where he meets two pre-teen girls. He invites them back to the flat, where he drugs and rapes them. The next morning, Alex finds his droogs in a mutinous mood, waiting downstairs in the torn-up and graffitied lobby. Georgie challenges Alex for leadership of the gang, demanding that they pull a \"man-sized\" job. Alex quells the rebellion by slashing Dim's hand and fighting with Georgie, then in a show of generosity, takes them to a bar, where Alex insists on following through on Georgie's idea to burgle the home of a wealthy elderly woman. Alex breaks in and knocks the woman unconscious, but when he opens the door to let the others in, Dim strikes him in payback for the earlier fight. The gang abandons Alex on the front step to be arrested by the police; while in their custody, he learns that the woman has died from her injuries.\n\n===Part 2: The Ludovico Technique===\nAlex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison (Pete visiting one day informed him that Georgie has been killed in a botched robbery). Two years into his term, he has obtained a job in one of the prison chapels playing religious music on the stereo to accompany the Sunday religious services. The chaplain mistakes Alex's Bible studies for stirrings of faith; in reality, Alex is only reading Scripture for the violent passages. After his fellow cellmates blame him for beating a troublesome cellmate to death, he is chosen to undergo an experimental behaviour-modification treatment called the Ludovico Technique in exchange for having the remainder of his sentence commuted. The technique is a form of aversion therapy, in which Alex is injected with nausea-inducing drugs while watching graphically violent films, eventually conditioning him to become severely ill at the mere thought of violence. As an unintended consequence, the soundtrack to one of the films, Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, renders Alex unable to enjoy his beloved classical music as before.\n\nThe effectiveness of the technique is demonstrated to a group of VIPs, who watch as Alex collapses before a bully and abases himself before a scantily-clad young woman whose presence has aroused his predatory sexual inclinations. Although the prison chaplain accuses the state of stripping Alex of free will, the government officials on the scene are pleased with the results and Alex is released from prison.\n\n===Part 3: After prison===\nAlex returns to his parents' flat, only to find that they are renting his room to a lodger. Now homeless, he wanders the streets and enters a public library, hoping to learn of a painless method for committing suicide. The old scholar whom Alex had assaulted in Part 1 finds him and beats him, with the help of several friends. Two policemen come to Alex's rescue, but turn out to be Dim and Billyboy, a former rival gang leader. They take Alex outside of town, brutalise him, and abandon him there. Alex collapses at the door of an isolated cottage, realising too late that it is the one he and his droogs invaded in Part 1. The writer, F. Alexander, still lives here, but his wife has since died of injuries she sustained in the gang-rape. He does not recognise Alex, but gives him shelter and questions him about the conditioning he has undergone. Alexander and his colleagues, all highly critical of the government, plan to use Alex as a symbol of state brutality and thus prevent the incumbent government from being re-elected. Alex inadvertently reveals that he was the ringleader of the home invasion; he is removed from the cottage and locked in an upper-story bedroom as a relentless barrage of classical music plays over speakers. He attempts suicide by leaping from the window.\n\nAlex wakes up in a hospital, where he is courted by government officials anxious to counter the bad publicity created by his suicide attempt. With Alexander placed in a mental institution, Alex is offered a well-paying job if he agrees to side with the government. A round of tests reveals that his old violent impulses have returned, indicating that the hospital doctors have undone the effects of his conditioning. As photographers snap pictures, Alex daydreams of orgiastic violence and reflects, \"I was cured all right.\"\n\nIn the final chapter, Alex finds himself halfheartedly preparing for yet another night of crime with a new gang (Lenn, Rick, Bully). After a chance encounter with Pete, who has reformed and married, Alex finds himself taking less and less pleasure in acts of senseless violence. He begins contemplating giving up crime himself to become a productive member of society and start a family of his own, while reflecting on the notion that his own children will be just as destructive as he has been, if not more so.\n\n== Omission of the final chapter ==\nThe book has three parts, each with seven chapters. Burgess has stated that the total of 21 chapters was an intentional nod to the age of 21 being recognised as a milestone in human maturation. The 21st chapter was omitted from the editions published in the United States prior to 1986. In the introduction to the updated American text (these newer editions include the missing 21st chapter), Burgess explains that when he first brought the book to an American publisher, he was told that U.S. audiences would never go for the final chapter, in which Alex sees the error of his ways, decides he has lost all energy for and thrill from violence and resolves to turn his life around (a moment of metanoia).\n\nAt the American publisher's insistence, Burgess allowed their editors to cut the redeeming final chapter from the U.S. version, so that the tale would end on a darker note, with Alex succumbing to his violent, reckless nature—an ending which the publisher insisted would be \"more realistic\" and appealing to a U.S. audience. The film adaptation, directed by Stanley Kubrick, is based on the American edition of the book (which Burgess considered to be \"badly flawed\"). Kubrick called Chapter 21 \"an extra chapter\" and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, and that he had never given serious consideration to using it. In Kubrick's opinion—as in the opinion of other readers, including the original American editor—the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book.\n", "* '''Alex''': The novel's Protagonist and leader among his droogs. He often refers to himself as \"Your Humble Narrator\". (Having coaxed two ten-year-old girls into his bedroom, Alex refers to himself as \"Alexander the Large\" while raping them; this was later the basis for Alex's claimed surname ''DeLarge'' in the 1971 film.)\n* '''George''' or '''Georgie''' or '''Georgie Boy''': Effectively Alex's greedy second-in-command. Georgie attempts to undermine Alex's status as leader of the gang and take over their gang as the new leader. He is later killed during a botched robbery, while Alex is in prison.\n'''Pete''': The only one who doesn't take particular sides when the droogs fight among themselves. He later meets and marries a girl named Georgina, renouncing his violent ways and even losing his former (Nadsat) speech patterns. A chance encounter with Pete in the final chapter influences Alex to realise that he grows bored with violence and recognises that human energy is better expended on creation than destruction.\n '''Dim''': An idiotic and thoroughly gormless member of the gang, persistently condescended to by Alex, but respected to some extent by his droogs for his formidable fighting abilities, his weapon of choice being a length of bike chain. He later becomes a police officer, exacting his revenge on Alex for the abuse he once suffered under his command.\n* '''P. R. Deltoid''': A criminal rehabilitation social worker assigned the task of keeping Alex on the straight and narrow. He seemingly has no clue about dealing with young people, and is devoid of empathy or understanding for his troublesome charge. Indeed, when Alex is arrested for murdering an old woman, and then ferociously beaten by several police officers, Deltoid simply spits on him.\n* '''Prison Chaplain''': The character who first questions whether it's moral to turn a violent person into a behavioural automaton who can make no choice in such matters. This is the only character who is truly concerned about Alex's welfare; he is not taken seriously by Alex, though. (He is nicknamed by Alex \"prison charlie\" or \"chaplin\", a pun on Charlie Chaplin.)\n* '''Billyboy''': A rival of Alex's. Early on in the story, Alex and his droogs battle Billyboy and his droogs, which ends abruptly when the police arrive. Later, after Alex is released from prison, Billyboy (along with Dim, who like Billyboy has become a police officer) rescue Alex from a mob, then subsequently beat him, in a location out of town.\n* '''Prison Governor''': The man who decides to let Alex \"choose\" to be the first reformed by the Ludovico technique.\n* '''The Minister of the Interior''', or ''the Inferior'', as Alex refers to him. The government high-official who is determined that Ludovico's technique will be used to cut recidivism.\n* '''Dr. Branom''': Brodsky's colleague and co-developer of the Ludovico technique. He appears friendly and almost paternal towards Alex at first, before forcing him into the theatre and what Alex calls the \"chair of torture\".\n* '''Dr. Brodsky''': The scientist and co-developer of the \"Ludovico technique\". He seems much more passive than Branom, and says considerably less.\n* '''F. Alexander''': An author who was in the process of typing his ''magnum opus'' ''A Clockwork Orange'', when Alex and his droogs broke into his house, beat him, tore up his work and then brutally gang-raped his wife, which caused her subsequent death. He is left deeply scarred by these events, and when he encounters Alex two years later he uses him as a guinea pig in a sadistic experiment intended to prove the Ludovico technique unsound. He is given the name Frank Alexander in the film.\n* '''Cat Woman''': An indirectly named woman who blocks Alex's gang's entrance scheme, and threatens to shoot Alex and set her cats on him if he doesn't leave. After Alex breaks into her house, she fights with him, ordering her cats to join the melee, but reprimands Alex for fighting them off. She sustains a fatal blow to the head during the scuffle. She is given the name Miss Weathers in the film.\n", "\n===Background===\n''A Clockwork Orange'' was written in Hove, then a senescent seaside town. Burgess had arrived back in Britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed. A youth culture had grown, including coffee bars, pop music and teenage gangs. England was gripped by fears over juvenile delinquency. Burgess claimed that the novel's inspiration was his first wife Lynne's beating by a gang of drunk American servicemen stationed in England during World War II. She subsequently miscarried. In its investigation of free will, the book's target is ostensibly the concept of behaviourism, pioneered by such figures as B. F. Skinner.\n\nBurgess later stated that he wrote the book in three weeks.\n\n===Title===\nBurgess gave three possible origins for the title:\n\n* He had overheard the phrase \"as queer as a clockwork orange\" in a London pub in 1945 and assumed it was a Cockney expression. In ''Clockwork Marmalade'', an essay published in the ''Listener'' in 1972, he said that he had heard the phrase several times since that occasion. He also explained the title in response to a question from William Everson on the television programme ''Camera Three'' in 1972, \"Well, the title has a very different meaning but only to a particular generation of London Cockneys. It's a phrase which I heard many years ago and so fell in love with, I wanted to use it, the title of the book. But the phrase itself I did not make up. The phrase \"as queer as a clockwork orange\" is good old East London slang and it didn't seem to me necessary to explain it. Now, obviously, I have to give it an extra meaning. I've implied an extra dimension. I've implied the junction of the organic, the lively, the sweet – in other words, life, the orange – and the mechanical, the cold, the disciplined. I've brought them together in this kind of oxymoron, this sour-sweet word.\" Nonetheless, no other record of the expression being used before 1962 has ever appeared. Kingsley Amis notes in his ''Memoirs'' (1991) that no trace of it appears in Eric Partridge's ''Dictionary of Historical Slang''.\n* His second explanation was that it was a pun on the Malay word ''orang'', meaning \"man.\" The novella contains no other Malay words or links.\n* In a prefatory note to ''A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music'', he wrote that the title was a metaphor for \"an organic entity, full of juice and sweetness and agreeable odour, being turned into a mechanism.\"\n\nIn his essay \"Clockwork Oranges,\" Burgess asserts that \"this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of Pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness.\" This title alludes to the protagonist's negative emotional responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will subsequent to the administration of the Ludovico Technique. To induce this conditioning, Alex is forced to watch scenes of violence on a screen that are systematically paired with negative physical stimulation. The negative physical stimulation takes the form of nausea and \"feelings of terror,\" which are caused by an emetic medicine administered just before the presentation of the films.\n\n===Use of slang===\n\nThe book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang argot which Burgess invented for the book, called Nadsat. It is a mix of modified Slavic words, rhyming slang, derived Russian (like ''baboochka''), and words invented by Burgess himself. For instance, these terms have the following meanings in Nadsat: ''droog'' = friend; ''korova'' = cow; ''gulliver'' (\"golova\") = head; ''malchick'' or ''malchickiwick'' = boy; ''soomka'' = sack or bag; ''Bog'' = God; ''khorosho'' (\"horrorshow\") = good; ''prestoopnick'' = criminal; ''rooka'' (\"rooker\") = hand; ''cal'' = crap; ''veck'' (\"chelloveck\") = man or guy; ''litso'' = face; ''malenky'' = little; and so on. Compare Polari.\n\nOne of Alex's doctors explains the language to a colleague as \"odd bits of old rhyming slang; a bit of gypsy talk, too. But most of the roots are Slav propaganda. Subliminal penetration.\" Some words are not derived from anything, but merely easy to guess, e.g. \"in-out, in-out\" or \"the old in-out\" means sexual intercourse. ''Cutter'', however, means \"money\", because \"cutter\" rhymes with \"bread-and-butter\"; this is rhyming slang, which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders (especially eavesdropping policemen). Additionally, slang like ''appypolly loggy'' (\"apology\") seems to derive from school boy slang. This reflects Alex's age of 15.\n\nIn the first edition of the book, no key was provided, and the reader was left to interpret the meaning from the context. In his appendix to the restored edition, Burgess explained that the slang would keep the book from seeming dated, and served to muffle \"the raw response of pornography\" from the acts of violence.\n\nThe term \"ultraviolence\", referring to excessive or unjustified violence, was coined by Burgess in the book, which includes the phrase \"do the ultra-violent\". The term's association with aesthetic violence has led to its use in the media.\n\n===Banning and censorship history in the US===\nIn 1976, ''A Clockwork Orange'' was removed from an Aurora, Colorado high school because of \"objectionable language\". A year later in 1977 it was removed from high school classrooms in Westport, Massachusetts over similar concerns with \"objectionable\" language. In 1982, it was removed from two Anniston, Alabama libraries, later to be reinstated on a restricted basis. Also, in 1973 a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel. Charges were later dropped. However, each of these instances came after the release of Stanley Kubrick's popular 1971 film adaptation of ''A Clockwork Orange'', itself the subject of much controversy.\n\n===Writer's appraisal===\nBurgess in 1986\nIn 1985, Burgess published ''Flame into Being: The Life and Work of D. H. Lawrence'', and while discussing ''Lady Chatterley's Lover'' in his biography, Burgess compared that novel's notoriety with ''A Clockwork Orange'': \"We all suffer from the popular desire to make the known notorious. The book I am best known for, or only known for, is a novel I am prepared to repudiate: written a quarter of a century ago, a ''jeu d'esprit'' knocked off for money in three weeks, it became known as the raw material for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence. The film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about, and the misunderstanding will pursue me until I die. I should not have written the book because of this danger of misinterpretation, and the same may be said of Lawrence and ''Lady Chatterley's Lover''.\" Burgess has also dismissed ''A Clockwork Orange'' as \"too didactic to be artistic\".\n", "* 1983 – Prometheus Award (Preliminary Nominee)\n* 1999 – Prometheus Award (Nomination)\n* 2002 – Prometheus Award (Nomination)\n* 2003 – Prometheus Award (Nomination)\n* 2006 – Prometheus Award (Nomination)\n* 2008 – Prometheus Award (Hall of Fame Award)\n\n''A Clockwork Orange'' was chosen by ''Time'' magazine as one of the 100 best English-language books from 1923 to 2005.\n", "The best known adaptation of the novella to other forms is the 1971 film ''A Clockwork Orange'' by Stanley Kubrick, starring Malcolm McDowell as Alex.\n\nA 1965 film by Andy Warhol entitled ''Vinyl'' was an adaptation of Burgess' novel.\n\nIn 1987 Burgess published a stage play titled ''A Clockwork Orange: A Play with Music''. The play includes songs, written by Burgess, that are inspired by Beethoven and Nadsat slang.\n\nIn 1988, a German adaptation of ''A Clockwork Orange'' at the intimate theatre of Bad Godesberg featured a musical score by the German punk rock band Die Toten Hosen which, combined with orchestral clips of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony and \"other dirty melodies\" (so stated by the subtitle), was released on the album ''Ein kleines bisschen Horrorschau''. The track ''Hier kommt Alex'' became one of the band's signature songs.\n\nVanessa Claire Smith, Sterling Wolfe, Michael Holmes, and Ricky Coates in Brad Mays' multi-media stage production of ''A Clockwork Orange'', 2003, Los Angeles. (photo: Peter Zuehlke)Vanessa Claire Smith in Brad Mays' multi-media stage production of ''A Clockwork Orange'', 2003, Los Angeles. (photo: Peter Zuehlke)\nIn February 1990, another musical version was produced at the Barbican Theatre in London by the Royal Shakespeare Company. Titled ''A Clockwork Orange: 2004'', it received mostly negative reviews, with John Peter of ''The Sunday Times'' of London calling it \"only an intellectual ''Rocky Horror Show''\", and John Gross of ''The Sunday Telegraph'' calling it \"a clockwork lemon\". Even Burgess himself, who wrote the script based on his novel, was disappointed. According to ''The Evening Standard'', he called the score, written by Bono and The Edge of the rock group U2, \"neo-wallpaper.\" Burgess had originally worked alongside the director of the production, Ron Daniels, and envisioned a musical score that was entirely classical. Unhappy with the decision to abandon that score, he heavily criticised the band's experimental mix of hip hop, liturgical and gothic music. Lise Hand of ''The Irish Independent'' reported The Edge as saying that Burgess' original conception was \"a score written by a novelist rather than a songwriter\". Calling it \"meaningless glitz\", Jane Edwardes of ''20/20 Magazine'' said that watching this production was \"like being invited to an expensive French Restaurant – and being served with a Big Mac.\"\n\nIn 1994, Chicago's Steppenwolf Theater put on a production of ''A Clockwork Orange'' directed by Terry Kinney. The American premiere of novelist Anthony Burgess' own adaptation of his ''A Clockwork Orange'' starred K. Todd Freeman as Alex. In 2001, UNI Theatre (Mississauga, Ontario) presented the Canadian premiere of the play under the direction of Terry Costa.\n\nIn 2002, Godlight Theatre Company presented the New York Premiere adaptation of ''A Clockwork Orange'' at Manhattan Theatre Source. The production went on to play at the SoHo Playhouse (2002), Ensemble Studio Theatre (2004), 59E59 Theaters (2005) and the Edinburgh Festival Fringe (2005). While at Edinburgh, the production received rave reviews from the press while playing to sold-out audiences. The production was directed by Godlight's Artistic Director, Joe Tantalo.\n\nIn 2003, Los Angeles director Brad Mays and the ARK Theatre Company staged a multi-media adaptation of ''A Clockwork Orange'', which was named \"Pick Of The Week\" by the ''LA Weekly'' and nominated for three of the 2004 LA Weekly Theater Awards: Direction, Revival Production (of a 20th-century work), and Leading Female Performance. Vanessa Claire Smith won Best Actress for her gender-bending portrayal of Alex, the music-loving teenage sociopath. This production utilised three separate video streams outputted to seven onstage video monitors – six 19-inch and one 40-inch. In order to preserve the first-person narrative of the book, a pre-recorded video stream of Alex, \"your humble narrator\", was projected onto the 40-inch monitor, thereby freeing the onstage character during passages which would have been awkward or impossible to sustain in the breaking of the fourth wall.\n\nAn adaptation of the work, based on the original novel, the film and Burgess' own stage version, was performed by The SiLo Theatre in Auckland, New Zealand in early 2007.\n", "\n* 1962, UK, William Heinemann (ISBN ?), December 1962, Hardcover\n* 1962, US, W. W. Norton & Co Ltd (ISBN ?), 1962, Hardcover\n* 1963, US, W. W. Norton & Co Ltd (), 1963, Paperback\n* 1965, US, Ballantine Books (), 1965, Paperback\n* 1969, US, Ballantine Books (ISBN ?), 1969, Paperback\n* 1971, US, Ballantine Books (), 1971, Paperback, Movie released\n* 1972, UK, Lorrimer, (), 11 September 1972, Hardcover\n* 1972, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 25 January 1973, Paperback\n* 1973, US, Caedmon Records, 1973, Vinyl LP (First 4 chapters read by Anthony Burgess)\n* 1977, US, Ballantine Books (), 12 September 1977, Paperback\n* 1979, US, Ballantine Books (), April 1979, Paperback\n* 1983, US, Ballantine Books (), 12 July 1983, Unbound\n* 1986, US, W. W. Norton & Company (), November 1986, Paperback (Adds final chapter not previously available in U.S. versions)\n* 1987, UK, W. W. Norton & Co Ltd (), July 1987, Hardcover\n* 1988, US, Ballantine Books (), March 1988, Paperback\n* 1995, UK, W. W. Norton & Co Ltd (), June 1995, Paperback\n* 1996, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 25 April 1996, Paperback\n* 1996, UK, HarperAudio (), September 1996, Audio Cassette\n* 1997, UK, Heyne Verlag (), 31 January 1997, Paperback\n* 1998, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 3 September 1998, Paperback\n* 1999, UK, Rebound by Sagebrush (), October 1999, Library Binding\n* 2000, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 24 February 2000, Paperback\n* 2000, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 2 March 2000, Paperback\n* 2000, UK, Turtleback Books (), November 2000, Hardback\n* 2001, UK, Penguin Books Ltd (), 27 September 2001, Paperback\n* 2002, UK, Thorndike Press (), October 2002, Hardback\n* 2005, UK, Buccaneer Books (), 29 January 2005, Library Binding\n* 2010, Greece, Anubis Publications (), 2010, Paperback (Adds final chapter not previously available in Greek versions)\n* 2012, US, W. W. Norton & Company () October 22, 2012, Hardback (50th Anniversary Edition), revised text version. Andrew Biswell, PhD, director of the International Burgess Foundation, has taken a close look at the three varying published editions alongside the original typescript to recreate the novel as Anthony Burgess envisioned it.\n", "\n* Aestheticization of violence\n* List of cultural references to ''A Clockwork Orange''\n* List of stories set in a future now past\n* Nadsat\n* Project MKUltra\n", "\n", "* ''A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music''. Century Hutchinson Ltd. (1987). An extract is quoted on several web sites: Anthony Burgess from ''A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music'' (Century Hutchinson Ltd, 1987), , ''A Clockwork Orange'' - From ''A Clockwork Orange: A Play With Music''\n* Burgess, Anthony (1978). \"Clockwork Oranges\". In ''1985''. London: Hutchinson. ( extracts quoted here)\n\n \n", "\n\n* \n* ''A Clockwork Orange'' at SparkNotes\n* ''A Clockwork Orange'' at Literapedia\n* ''A Clockwork Orange'' (1962) \| Last chapter \| Anthony Burgess (1917-1993)\n\n;Comparisons with the Kubrick film adaptation\n* Dalrymple, Theodore. \"A Prophetic and Violent Masterpiece\", ''City Journal''\n* Giola, Ted. \"''A Clockwork Orange'' by Anthony Burgess\" at Conceptual Fiction\n* Priestley, Brenton. \"Of Clockwork Apples and Oranges: Burgess and Kubrick (2002)\"\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Plot summary", "Characters", "Analysis", "Awards and nominations and rankings", "Adaptations", "Release details", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	A Clockwork Orange (novel)
[ "\n\n''The Iron'' is a famous 20th century landmark in central Norrköping\nThe '''Museum of Work''', or ''Arbetets museum'', is a museum located in Norrköping, Sweden. The museum can be found in the 20th century building ''The Iron'' in the Motala ström river in central Norrköping.\n", "* List of museums in Sweden\n* Culture of Sweden\n", "* Museum of Work - Official site\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also", "External links" ]	Museum of Work
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Audi AG''' () is a German automobile manufacturer that designs, engineers, produces, markets and distributes luxury vehicles. Audi is a member of the Volkswagen Group and has its roots at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany. Audi-branded vehicles are produced in nine production facilities worldwide.\n\nThe origins of the company are complex, going back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises (Horch and the ''Audiwerke'') founded by engineer August Horch; and two other manufacturers (DKW and Wanderer), leading to the foundation of Auto Union in 1932. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz. After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, thus creating the present day form of the company.\n\nThe company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. \"Horch\", meaning \"listen\" in German, becomes \"audi\" in Latin. The four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audi's predecessor company, Auto Union. Audi's slogan is ''Vorsprung durch Technik'', meaning \"Advancement through Technology\". However, Audi USA had used the slogan \"Truth in Engineering\" from 2007 to 2016, and have not used the slogan since 2016. Audi, along with BMW and Mercedes-Benz, are among the best-selling luxury automobile brands in the world. \n\n", "\n===Birth of the company and its name===\nAutomobile company Wanderer was originally established in 1885, later becoming a branch of Audi AG. Another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimler's four-wheeler.\n\nOn 14 November 1899, August Horch (1868–1951) established the company '''A. Horch & Cie.''' in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne. In 1902, he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On 10 May 1904, he founded the '''August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG''', a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony).\n\nAfter troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the '''August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH'''. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement. The German Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) in Leipzig, eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company.\nAudi Type E\nSince August Horch was prohibited from using \"Horch\" as a trade name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company. During this meeting, Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, \"Father – ''audiatur et altera pars''... wouldn't it be a good idea to call it ''audi'' instead of ''horch''?\" \"Horch!\" in German means \"Hark!\" or \"hear\", which is \"Audi\" in the singular imperative form of \"audire\" – \"to listen\" – in Latin. The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting. On 25 April 1910 the '''Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau''' (from 1915 on '''Audiwerke AG Zwickau''') was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court.\n\nThe first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/ Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year, followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year.\n\nAudi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model, as well as 4,680 cc and 5,720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six-cylinder model Type M, 4,655 cc appeared in 1924.\n\nAugust Horch left the ''Audiwerke'' in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport, but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car, the Audi Type K, with left-handed drive. Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking safer.\n\n===The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings===\n\n\nIn August 1928, Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG. In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for eight-cylinder engines. These engines were used in ''Audi Zwickau'' and ''Audi Dresden'' models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six-cylinder and four-cylinder (the \"four\" with a Peugeot engine) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork.\n\nIn 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW, and Wanderer, to form Auto Union AG, Chemnitz. It was during this period that the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with front-wheel drive. It used a powertrain shared with the Wanderer, but turned 180-degrees, so that the drive shaft faced the front.\n\nBefore World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. However, this badge was used only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines.\n\nReflecting the economic pressures of the time, Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s, so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for 17.9% of the German car market, while Audi held only 0.1%. After the final few Audis were delivered in 1939 the \"Audi\" name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades.\n\n===Post-World War II===\nIFA F9\nLike most German manufacturing, at the onset of World War II the Auto Union plants were retooled for military production, and were a target for allied bombing during the war which left them damaged.\n\nOverrun by the Soviet Army in 1945, on the orders of the Soviet Union military administration the factories were dismantled as part of war reparations. Following this, the company's entire assets were expropriated without compensation. On 17 August 1948, Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register. These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for \"People Owned Enterprise\") Automobilwerk Zwickau or AWZ (in English: Automobile Works Zwickau).\n\nWith no prospect of continuing production in Soviet-controlled East Germany, Auto Union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to West Germany. A site was chosen in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, to start a spare parts operation in late 1945, which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed Auto Union in 1949.\n\nThe former Audi factory in Zwickau restarted assembly of the pre-war-models in 1949. These DKW models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. The Zwickau plant manufactured the infamous Trabant until 1991, when it came under Volkswagen control—effectively bringing it under the same umbrella as Audi since 1945.\n\n===New Auto Union unit===\nA new West German headquartered Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid. The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines. This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F89 L at Ingolstadt. The Ingolstadt site was large, consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution, but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles: for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig. It was only ten years later, after the company had attracted an investor, when funds became available for construction of major car plant at the Ingolstadt head office site.\n\nIn 1958, in response to pressure from Friedrich Flick, then the company's largest single shareholder, Daimler-Benz took an 87% holding in the Auto Union company, and this was increased to a 100% holding in 1959. However, small two-stroke cars were not the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests, and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new Mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for Auto Union's, the company's aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Opel. The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business was based on its lack of profitability. Ironically, by the time they sold the business, it also included a large new factory and near production-ready modern four-stroke engine, which would enable the Auto Union business, under a new owner, to embark on a period of profitable growth, now producing not Auto Unions or DKWs, but using the \"Audi\" name, resurrected in 1965 after a 25-year gap.\n\nIn 1964, Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business, which included the new factory in Ingolstadt, the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz, who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant. Eighteen months later, Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt, and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per year. Two-stroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear. Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology, and having classified the model internally as the F103, sold it simply as the \"Audi\". Later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90, selling until 1972. Initially, Volkswagen was hostile to the idea of Auto Union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the Ingolstadt assembly plant – to the point where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings. Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union from any further product development. Fearing that the Volkswagen had no long term ambition for the Audi brand, Auto Union engineers under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed the first Audi 100 in secret, without Nordhoff's knowledge. When presented with a finished prototype, Nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production, which when launched in 1968, went on to be a huge success. With this, the resurrection of the Audi brand was now complete, this being followed by the first generation Audi 80 in 1972, which would in turn provide a template for VW's new front-wheel-drive water-cooled range which debuted from the mid-1970s onward.\n\nAudi 80 assembly line in Wolfsburg, 1973\nIn 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety. However, teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm factory is also home of the \"quattro GmbH\" (from November 2016 \"Audi Sport GmbH\"), a subsidiary responsible for development and production of Audi high-performance models: the R8 and the '''\"RS\"''' model range.\n\n===Modern era===\nThe new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as '''Audi NSU Auto Union AG''', with its headquarters at NSU's Neckarsulm plant, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. That same year, the mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, originally intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80, was instead launched as a Volkswagen.\n\nAfter the launch of the Audi 100 of 1968, the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. Ultimately, the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 and A6, respectively) became the company's biggest sellers, whilst little investment was made in the fading NSU range; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of production in 1977, spelling the effective end of the NSU brand. Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed, any by the appearance of the second generation C2 version in 1976, all production was now at the former NSU plant. Neckarsulm from that point onward would produce Audi's higher end models.\n\nThe Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the \"Audi Quattro\", a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a centre differential. Commonly referred to as the \"Ur-Quattro\" (the \"Ur-\" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean \"original\" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons, as in \"UrS4\" and \"UrS6\"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology.\n\nIn 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply '''Audi AG'''. At the same time the company's headquarters moved back to Ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries; ''Auto Union GmbH'' and ''NSU GmbH'', were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies (the exception being Horch, which had been retained by Daimler-Benz after the VW takeover), and to operate Audi's heritage operations.\n\nAudi Quattro\nIn 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of \"grandfather's car\" image, the ''type 89'' was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface.\n\nIn the early part of the 21st century, Audi set forth on a German racetrack to claim and maintain several world records, such as top speed endurance. This effort was in-line with the company's heritage from the 1930s racing era Silver Arrows.\n\nThrough the early 1990s, Audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet.\n\nBy 1991, Audi had the four-cylinder Audi 80, the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4- and 5-cylinder engines.\n\nAlthough the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of four-, five-, and six-cylinder engines, in Saloon, Coupé and Cabriolet body styles.\n\nThe five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars.\n\nIn November 2016, Audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in Pakistan, with the company's local partner acquiring land for a plant in Korangi Creek Industrial Park in Karachi. Approval of the plan would lead to an investment of $30 million in the new plant.\n\n===Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations===\nSales in the United States fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents. At the time, NHTSA was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power.\n\nA ''60 Minutes'' report aired 23 November 1986, featuring interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed. Subsequent investigation revealed that ''60 Minutes'' had engineered the failure – fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission.\n\nAudi 100 C3, sold as the Audi 5000 in the U.S.\n\nAudi contended, prior to findings by outside investigators, that the problems were caused by driver error, specifically pedal misapplication. Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the ''60 Minutes'' report, were caused by driver error such as confusion of pedals. CBS did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies, but did acknowledge the similar results of another study.\n\nIn a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: \"Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident.\"\n\nThis summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: \"Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of (long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI), but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver. The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple \"intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and were also observed and reported by Transport Canada.\"\n\nWith a series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models. Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park. A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse. It is unclear how the defects in the idle-stabilization system were addressed.\n\nAudi's U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years. – with resale values falling dramatically. Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection and renamed the affected models – with the ''5000'' becoming the ''100'' and ''200'' in 1989 – and only reached the same sales levels again by model year 2000.\n\nA 2010 ''BusinessWeek'' article – outlining possible parallels between Audi's experience and 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls – noted a class-action lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and is currently being contested in county court in Chicago after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels.\n\n===Model introductions===\nIn the mid-to-late 1990s, Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminum construction. Produced from 1999 to 2005, the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini, born from the Al2 concept, with many features that helped regain consumer confidence, like the aluminium space frame, which was a first in production car design. In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines. The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel. The Audi A2 was criticised for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted Audi as a cutting-edge manufacturer. The model, a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, sold relatively well in Europe. However, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement.\n\nThe next major model change came in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings.\n\nThe engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L four-cylinder, 1.8 L four-cylinder turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2 L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4 L and 2.8 L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 engine for the A8.\n\n===Audi AG today===\nAudi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s, with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). China in particular has become a key market, representing 108,000 out of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009. One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials, and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales in China. As of late 2009, Audi's operating profit of €1.17-billion ($1.85-billion) made it the biggest contributor to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5-billion, while the other marques in Group such as Bentley and SEAT had suffered considerable losses. May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel. In May 2012, Audi reported a 10% increase in its sales—from 408 units to 480 in the last year alone.\n\nAudi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world, some of which are shared with other VW Group marques although many sub-assemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other Volkswagen Group plants.\n\nAudi's two principal assembly plants are:\n\n* Ingolstadt, Opened by Auto Union in 1964, (A3, A4, A5, Q5)\n* Neckarsulm, Acquired from NSU in 1969 (A4, A6, A7, A8, R8 & all RS variants)\n\nOutside of Germany, Audi produces vehicles at:\n\n* Aurangabad, India since 2006\n* Bratislava, Slovakia, shared with Volkswagen, SEAT, Škoda and Porsche (Q7)\n* Brussels, Belgium, acquired from Volkswagen in 2007 (A1)\n* Changchun, China since 1995\n* Győr, Hungary, (TT and some A3 variants)\n* Jakarta, Indonesia since 2011\n* Martorell, Spain shared with SEAT and Volkswagen (Q3)\n* San José Chiapa, Mexico (Q5)\n\nIn September 2012, Audi announced the construction of its first North American manufacturing plant in Puebla, Mexico. This plant is expected to be operative in 2016 and produce the second generation Q5.\n\nFrom 2002 up to 2003, Audi headed the Audi Brand Group, a subdivision of the Volkswagen Group's Automotive Division consisting of Audi, Lamborghini and SEAT, that was focused on sporty values, with the marques' product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand.\n\nOn January 2014, Audi, along with the Wireless Power Consortium, operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the Qi open interface standard at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). In May, most of the Audi dealers in UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7, A8, and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested, all achieving five out of five stars. In fact none were tested.\n\nIn 2015, Audi admitted that at least 2.1 million Audi cars had been involved in the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software installed in the cars manipulated emissions data to fool regulators and allow the cars to pollute at higher than government-mandated levels. The A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, TT, Q3 and Q5 models were implicated in the scandal. Audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so they can function within emissions regulations. Ulrich Hackenberg, the head of research and development at Audi, was suspended in relation to the scandal. Despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of September, Audi reported that U.S. sales for the month had increased by 16.2%.\n\nIn November 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro, A7 Quattro, A8, A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software installed. Thus, these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment.\n", "\n=== Audi AI ===\nAudi AI is a driver assist feature offered by Audi. The company's stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving at a future time, acknowledging that legal, regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal. On June 4, 2017, Audi stated that its new A8 will be fully self-driving for speeds up to 60 km/h using its Audi AI. Contrary to other cars, the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature. The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. Audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3D LIDAR system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their AI.\n\n===Bodyshells===\nAudi produces 100% galvanised cars to prevent corrosion, and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c. 1975. Along with other precautionary measures, the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for aluminium bodies which do not rust).\n\n===Space frame===\nThe Audi R8 uses Audi Space Frame technology\nAudi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance. An all-aluminium car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium space frame technology (called ''Audi Space Frame'' or ASF) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as test-beds for the technique. The disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop. The weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in most markets. Nonetheless, the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, also having best-in-class fuel economy. The Audi A2, Audi TT and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs.\n\n===Drivetrains===\n\n====Layout====\nFor most of its lineup (excluding the A3, A1, and TT models), Audi has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars (such as Peugeot and Citroën), since that would limit the type and power of engines that can be installed. To be able to mount powerful engines (such as a V8 engine in the Audi S4 and Audi RS4, as well as the W12 engine in the Audi A8L W12), Audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally front-mounted engine, in an \"overhung\" position, over the front wheels in front of the axle line - this layout dates back to the DKW and Auto Union saloons from the 1950s. But while this allows for the easy adoption of all-wheel drive, it goes against the ideal 50:50 weight distribution.\n\nIn all its post Volkswagen-era models, Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW, favoring either front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. The majority of Audi's lineup in the United States features all-wheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles (only the entry-level trims of the A4 and A6 are available with front-wheel drive), in contrast to Mercedes-Benz and BMW whose lineup treats all-wheel drive as an option. BMW did not offer all-wheel drive on its V8-powered cars (as opposed to crossover SUVs) until the 2010 BMW 7 Series and 2011 BMW 5 Series, while the Audi A8 has had all-wheel drive available/standard since the 1990s. Regarding high-performance variants, Audi S and RS models have always had all-wheel drive, unlike their direct rivals from BMW M and Mercedes-AMG whose cars are rear-wheel drive only (although their performance crossover SUVs are all-wheel drive).\n\nAudi has recently applied the ''quattro'' badge to models such as the A3 and TT which do not use the Torsen-based system as in prior years with a mechanical center differential, but with the Haldex Traction electro-mechanical clutch AWD system.\n\n====Engines====\nVolkswagen Group W12 engine from the Volkswagen Phaeton W12\n\n\nPrior to the introduction of the Audi 80 and Audi 50 in 1972 and 1974, respectively, Audi had led the development of the ''EA111'' and ''EA827'' inline-four engine families. These new power units underpinned the water-cooled revival of parent company Volkswagen (in the Polo, Golf, Passat and Scirocco), whilst the many derivatives and descendants of these two basic engine designs have appeared in every generation of VW Group vehicles right up to the present day.\n\nIn the 1980s, Audi, along with Volvo, was the champion of the inline-five cylinder, 2.1/2.2 L engine as a longer-lasting alternative to more traditional six-cylinder engines. This engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars. The 2.1 L inline five-cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s, providing well over after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity allowed for both fuel economy and power.\n\nFor the ultra-luxury version of its Audi A8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan, the Audi A8L W12, Audi uses the Volkswagen Group W12 engine instead of the conventional V12 engine favored by rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW. The W12 engine configuration (also known as a \"WR12\") is created by forming two imaginary narrow-angle 15° VR6 engines at an angle of 72°, and the narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks, so just four are needed in total. The advantage of the W12 engine is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 engine could only have a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, the 6.0 L W12 in the Audi A8L W12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 4.2 L V8 that powers the Audi A8 4.2 variants. The 2011 Audi A8 debuted a revised 6.3-litre version of the W12 (WR12) engine with .\n\n====Fuel Stratified Injection====\nNew models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the ageing 1.8-litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) engines. Nearly every petroleum burning model in the range now incorporates this fuel-saving technology.\n\nV8 FSI engine\n\n====Direct-Shift Gearbox====\nAt the turn of the century (either the 19th or 20th, who cares), Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG), a type of dual clutch transmission. It is an automated semi-automatic transmission, drivable like a conventional automatic transmission. Based on the gearbox found in the Group B S1, the system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter. This is implemented in some VW Golfs, Audi A3, Audi A4 and TT models where DSG is called S-tronic.\n\n===LED daytime running lights===\nBeginning in 2005, Audi has implemented white LED technology as daytime running lights (DRL) in their products. The distinctive shape of the DRLs has become a trademark of sorts. LEDs were first introduced on the Audi A8 W12, the world's first production car to have LED DRLs, and have since spread throughout the entire model range. The LEDs are present on some Audi billboards.\n\nSince 2010, Audi has also offered the LED technology in low- and high-beam headlights.\n\nThe DRL in an Audi A4 B8\n\n===Multi Media Interface===\nMulti Media Interface-Menu on Audi virtual cockpit, Audi TT Mk3\nStarting with the 2003 Audi A8, Audi has used a centralised control interface for its on-board infotainment systems, called Multi Media Interface (MMI). It is essentially a rotating control knob and 'segment' buttons – designed to control all in-car entertainment devices (radio, CD changer, iPod, TV tuner), satellite navigation, heating and ventilation, and other car controls with a screen.\n\nThe availability of MMI has gradually filtered down the Audi lineup, and following its introduction on the third generation A3 in 2011, MMI is now available across the entire range. It has been generally well received, as it requires less menu-surfing with its segment buttons around a central knob, along with 'main function' direct access buttons – with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions. The colour screen is mounted on the upright dashboard, and on the A4 (new), A5, A6, A8, and Q7, the controls are mounted horizontally.\n\n=== Synthetic Diesel ===\n\nAudi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide.\n\n=== Logistics ===\nAudi uses scanning gloves for parts registration during assembly, and automatic robots to transfer cars from factory to rail cars.\n", "\n\n===Current model range===\nThe following tables list Audi production vehicles that are sold as of 2014:\n\n\n\n+ Audi cars\n\n A1\n 75px\n \n \n* 3-door Hatchback\n* 5-door Hatchback\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n A3\n 75px\n \n \n* 3-door Hatchback\n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n* Cabriolet\n\n A4\n 75px\n \n\n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n* Allroad (Crossover Estate/Wagon)\n\n A5\n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n* Cabriolet (Convertible)\n\n A6\n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n* Allroad (Crossover Estate/Wagon)\n\n A7\n 75px\n \n \n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n A8\n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n\n\n\n+ Audi coupés and SUVs\n\n TT\n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Roadster (Convertible)\n\n R8\n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Spyder (Convertible)\n\n Q2\n 75px\n \n \n* SUV\n\n Q3\n 75px\n \n \n* SUV\n\n Q5\n 75px\n \n \n* SUV\n\n Q7\n 75px\n \n \n* SUV\n\n\n\n===S and RS models===\n\n\n\n\n+ S (Sport) models\n\n S1\n 75px\n \n \n* 3-door Hatchback\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n S3\n 75px\n \n \n* 3-door Hatchback\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n S4\n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Cabriolet (Convertible)\n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n\n\n75px\n \n \n* Sportback (5-door Hatchback)\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Roadster (Convertible)\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Crossover\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Crossover\n\n\n\n\n+ RS (RennSport/Racing Sport) models\n\n \n 75px\n \n\n* Coupé\n* Roadster (Convertible)\n\n \n 75px\n \n\n* Crossover\n\n RS3\n 75px\n \n \n* Saloon (Sedan)\n* 5-door Hatchback\n\n \n 75px\n \n \n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n\n RS5\n 75px\n \n \n* Coupé\n* Cabriolet (Convertible)\n\n RS6\n75px\n \n\n* Avant (Estate/Wagon)\n\n RS7\n75px\n \n\n* Sportback (5-door Liftback)\n\n\n\n===Electric vehicles===\n\nAudi is planning an alliance with the Japanese electronics giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the Volkswagen Group. The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the Volkswagen Group. Concept electric vehicles unveiled to date include the Audi A1 Sportback Concept, Audi A4 TDI Concept E, and the fully electric Audi e-tron Concept Supercar.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n\n\n A1\n A2\n A3\n A4\n A5\n A6\n A7\n A8\n Q3\n Q5\n Q7\n TT\n R8\n\n 1998\n —\n —\n 143,974\n 271,152\n —\n 174,867\n —\n 15,355\n —\n —\n —\n 13,682\n —\n\n 1999\n —\n —\n 143,505\n 252,514\n —\n 162,573\n —\n 14,636\n —\n —\n —\n 52,579\n —\n\n 2000\n —\n 32,164\n 136,141\n 231,869\n —\n 180,715\n —\n 12,894\n —\n —\n —\n 56,776\n —\n\n 2001\n —\n 49,369\n 131,082\n 308,778\n —\n 186,467\n —\n 11,708\n —\n —\n —\n 39,349\n —\n\n 2002\n —\n 37,578\n 125,538\n 360,267\n —\n 178,773\n —\n 10,942\n —\n —\n —\n 34,711\n —\n\n 2003\n —\n 27,323\n 159,417\n 353,836\n —\n 168,612\n —\n 21,748\n —\n —\n —\n 32,337\n —\n\n 2004\n —\n 19,745\n 181,274\n 345,231\n —\n 195,529\n —\n 22,429\n —\n —\n —\n 23,605\n —\n\n 2005\n —\n 10,026\n 224,961\n 337,705\n —\n 215,437\n —\n 21,515\n —\n —\n 1,185\n 12,307\n —\n\n 2006\n —\n —\n 231,752\n 341,110\n 487\n 229,021\n —\n 22,468\n —\n —\n 72,169\n 23,675\n 164\n\n 2007\n —\n —\n 231,117\n 289,806\n 25,549\n 243,842\n —\n 22,182\n —\n 162\n 77,395\n 56,766\n 4,125\n\n 2008\n —\n —\n 222,164\n 378,885\n 57,650\n 214,074\n —\n 20,140\n —\n 20,324\n 59,008\n 41,789\n 5,656\n\n 2009\n —\n —\n 206,747\n 282,033\n 84,883\n 182,090\n —\n 8,599\n —\n 105,074\n 27,929\n 22,821\n 2,101\n\n 2010\n 51,937\n —\n 198,974\n 306,291\n 111,270\n 211,256\n 8,496\n 22,435\n —\n 154,604\n 48,937\n 26,217\n 3,485\n\n 2011\n 117,566\n —\n 189,068\n 321,045\n 111,758\n 241,862\n 37,301\n 38,542\n 19,613\n 183,678\n 53,703\n 25,508\n 3,551\n\n 2012\n 123,111\n —\n 164,666\n 329,759\n 103,357\n 284,888\n 28,950\n 35,932\n 106,918\n 209,799\n 54,558\n 21,880\n 2,241\n\n* Data from 1998 to 2010. Figures for different body types/versions of models have been merged to create overall figures for each model.\n", "Audi has competed in various forms of motorsports. Audi's tradition in motorsport began with their former company Auto Union in the 1930s. In the 1990s, Audi found success in the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in North America.\n\n===Rallying===\n\nWalter Röhrl with his Quattro A2 during the 1984 Rally Portugal\nIn 1980, Audi released the Quattro, a four-wheel drive (4WD) turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time, because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of four-wheel drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was to become a successful car. Leading its first rally it went off the road, however the rally world had been served notice 4WD was the future. The Quattro went on to achieve much success in the World Rally Championship. It won the 1983 (Hannu Mikkola) and the 1984 (Stig Blomqvist) drivers' titles, and brought Audi the manufacturers' title in 1982 and 1984.\nAudi Quattro S1 driven at the 2007 Rallye Deutschland\n\nIn 1984, Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated rally races in Monte Carlo and Sweden, with Audi taking all podium places, but succumbed to problems further into WRC contention. In 1985, after another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1, and helped place Audi second in the manufacturers' points. Audi also received rally honours in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the only female driver to win a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the \"S1\", and raced in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. The climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the Pikes Peak mountain in Colorado, and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39, and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. Bobby Unser used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22.\n\nIn 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1, which he had retired from the WRC two years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested inline-five-cylinder turbocharged engine, with the final version generating . The engine was mated to a six-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous four-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this car; Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and Michèle Mouton. This Audi S1 started the range of Audi 'S' cars, which now represents an increased level of sports-performance equipment within the mainstream Audi model range.\n\n===In the USA===\nAs Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose to move first into America with the Trans-Am in 1988.\n\nIn 1989, Audi moved to International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GTO with the Audi 90, however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title.\n\n===Touring cars===\nIn 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in North America, Audi returned to Europe, turning first to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8, and then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast-growing Super Touring series, which are a series of national championships. Audi first entered in the French Supertourisme and Italian Superturismo. In the following year, Audi would switch to the German Super Tourenwagen Cup (known as STW), and then to British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) the year after that.\n\nThe Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), having difficulty regulating the quattro four-wheel drive system, and the impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four-wheel drive cars from competing in 1998, but by then, Audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing.\n\nBy 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their RS4 for the SCCA Speed World GT Challenge, through dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an RS6. Once again, the quattro four-wheel drive was superior, and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title, but a newcomer, Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. Namely, added ballast weights, and Champion Audi deciding to go with different tyres, and reducing the boost pressure of the turbocharger.\n\nIn 2004, after years of competing with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team Abt Racing/Christian Abt taking the 2002 title with Laurent Aïello, Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported Joest Racing A4 DTM cars.\n\n===24 Hours of Le Mans===\n\nAudi R10 TDI\nAudi began racing prototype sportscars in 1999, debuting at the Le Mans 24 hour. Two car concepts were developed and raced in their first season - the Audi R8R (open-cockpit 'roadster' prototype) and the Audi R8C (closed-cockpit 'coupé' GT-prototype). The R8R scored a credible podium on its racing debut at Le Mans and was the concept which Audi continued to develop into the 2000 season due to favourable rules for open-cockpit prototypes.\n\nHowever, most of the competitors (such as BMW, Toyota, Mercedes and Nissan) retired at the end of 1999.\nThe factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row with the Audi R8 (2000–2002), as well as winning every race in the American Le Mans Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as Champion Racing.\n\nIn 2003, two Bentley Speed 8s, with engines designed by Audi, and driven by Joest drivers ''loaned'' to the fellow Volkswagen Group company, competed in the GTP class, and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall, and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's podium at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third.\n\nAt the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s, along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a narrower air inlet restrictor, reducing power, and an additional of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2–3 seconds off pace compared to the Pescarolo–Judd. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third, while the Oreca team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GTs in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8; however, its replacement for 2006, called the Audi R10 TDI, was unveiled on 13 December 2005.\n\nThe R10 TDI employed many new and innovative features, the most notable being the twin-turbocharged direct injection diesel engine. It was first raced in the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test in preparation for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans, which it later went on to win. Audi has been on the forefront of sports car racing, claiming a historic win in the first diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring (the car was developed with a Diesel engine due to ACO regulations that favor diesel engines). As well as winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2006 making history, the R10 TDI has also shown its capabilities by beating the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP in , and beating Peugeot again in , (however Peugeot won the 24h in 2009) and, in a podium clean-sweep by proving its reliability throughout the race (compared to all four 908 entries retired before the end of the race) while breaking a new distance record (set way back by the Porsche 917K of Martini Racing in ), in with the R15 TDI Plus.\n\nAudi's sports car racing success would continue with the Audi R18's victory at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi Sport Team Joest's Benoît Tréluyer earned Audi their first pole position in five years while the team's sister car locked out the front row. Early accidents eliminated two of Audi's three entries, but the sole remaining Audi R18 TDI of Tréluyer, Marcel Fässler, and André Lotterer held off the trio of Peugeot 908s to claim victory by a margin of 13.8 seconds.\n\n====Results====\n\n\nCar\n Year\n 1999\n 2000\n 2001\n 2002\n 2003\n 2004\n 2005\n 2006\n 2007\n 2008\n 2009\n 2010\n 2011\n 2012\n 2013\n 2014\n 2015\n 2016\n\n\n\n1\n Position \n 4\n 3 \n 1\n 1\n 4\n 3\n 3\n 3\n 1\n 6\n 3\n 3 \n Ret\n 1\n 5\n 2\n 3\n 4\n\n2\n 3\n 1\n 2\n 2\n 3\n 1\n 1\n 1\n Ret\n 1\n Ret\n 2\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 4\n 3\n\n3\n Ret\n 2\n Ret\n 3 \n Ret\n 5\n 4\n\n Ret\n 4\n 17\n 1\n Ret\n 5\n 3\n Ret\n 7\n\n4\n Ret\n\n Ret\n 7\n\n 2\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n 3\n\n\n\n\n\n===American Le Mans Series===\nAudi entered a factory racing team run by Joest Racing into the American Le Mans Series under the Audi Sport North America name in 2000. This was a successful operation with the team winning on its debut in the series at the 2000 12 Hours of Sebring. Factory backed Audi R8s were the dominant car in ALMS taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season. In 2003 Audi sold customer cars to Champion Racing as well as continuing to race the factory Audi Sport North America team. Champion Racing won many races as a private team running Audi R8s and eventually replaced Team Joest as the Audi Sport North America between 2006 and 2008. Since 2009 Audi has not taken part in full American Le Mans Series Championships, but has competed in the series opening races at Sebring, using the 12-hour race as a test for Le Mans, and also as part of the 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season calendar.\n\n====Results====\n\n\n Year\n Manufacturer\n Chassis\n Team\n Rd1\n Rd2\n Rd3\n Rd4\n Rd5\n Rd6\n Rd7\n Rd8\n Rd9\n Rd10\n Rd11\n Rd12\n\n 2000\n Audi\n R8\n\n Audi Sport North America\n 2\n 20\n 3\n Ret\n 1\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 2\n 1\n\n 1\n 6\n 4\n 3\n 2\n Ret\n 1\n 4\n 2\n 2\n 1\n 15\n\n 2001\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport North America\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 5\n Ret\n 2\n Ret\n Ret\n\n\n\n 2\n 2\n 2\n 2\n 2\n 2\n 1\n 4\n 1\n 1\n\n\n\n 2002\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport North America\n 5\n 14\n 1\n 2\n 3\n 2\n Ret\n 1\n 1\n 6\n\n\n\n 1\n\n 2\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 4\n 3\n 1\n\n\n\n 2003\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport North America\n 1\n 2\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 7\n 1\n 2\n 3\n\n\n\n\n Champion Racing\n 2\n 1\n 3\n 2\n 20\n 1\n 4\n 1\n 1\n\n\n\n\n 2004\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport UK\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n Champion Racing\n 3\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 1\n\n\n\n\n 2005\n Audi\n R8\n Champion Racing\n 1\n 1\n 18\n 1\n 3\n Ret\n 3\n 2\n 7\n 4\n\n\n\n 2\n 3\n 3\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 1\n 3\n 1\n 2\n\n\n\n 2006\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport North America\n\n 1\n 3\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n R10\n Ret\n\n\n\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 4\n 7\n 2\n\n\n\n 1\n\n\n\n 4\n 1\n 2\n 1\n 1\n 1\n\n\n\n 2007\n Audi\n R10\n Audi Sport North America\n 4\n 1\n 7\n 3\n 2\n 5\n 5\n 2\n 2\n 3\n 1\n 1\n\n 1\n 2\n 12\n 6\n 23\n 3\n 3\n 4\n 2\n 17\n 3\n\n\n 2008\n Audi\n R10\n Audi Sport North America\n 3\n Ret\n 2\n Ret\n 21\n 2\n 2\n 2\n DSQ\n 1\n 2\n\n\n 6\n 1\n 1\n 7\n 4\n 1\n 1\n 1\n Ret\n 3\n 1\n\n\n 2009\n Audi\n R15\n Audi Sport North America\n 5\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 4\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2010\n Audi\n R15\n Audi Sport North America\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 3\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2012\n Audi\n R18\n Audi Sport Team Joest\n 16\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2013\n Audi\n R18\n Audi Sport Team Joest\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n 2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===European Le Mans Series===\nAudi participated in the 2003 1000km of Le Mans which was a one-off sports car race in preparation for the 2004 European Le Mans Series. The factory team Audi Sport UK won races and the championship in the 2004 season but Audi was unable to match their sweeping success of Audi Sport North America in the American Le Mans Series, partly due to the arrival of a factory competitor in LMP1, Peugeot. The French manufacturer's 908 HDi FAP became the car to beat in the series from 2008 onwards with 20 LMP wins. However, Audi were able to secure the championship in 2008 even though Peugeot scored more race victories in the season.\n\n====Results====\n\n\n Year\n Manufacturer\n Chassis\n Team\n Rd1\n Rd2\n Rd3\n Rd4\n Rd5\n\n 2003\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport Japan\n 1\n\n\n\n\n\n 2004\n Audi\n R8\n Audi Sport UK\n 2\n 1\n 1\n Ret\n\n\n 1\n 2\n 3\n 1\n\n\n Audi Sport Japan\n 3\n 4\n 2\n 2\n\n\n 2005\n Audi\n R8\n Team Oreca\n Ret\n\n 1\n 2\n 2\n\n 2008\n Audi\n R10\n Audi Sport Team Joest\n 5\n 6\n 4\n 4\n 1\n\n 2\n 2\n 2\n 3\n 4\n\n 2010\n Audi\n R15\n Audi Sport Team Joest\n 1\n 3\n\n\n Ret\n\n\n 5\n\n\n 3\n\n\n 12\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===World Endurance Championship===\n\n====2012====\nIn 2012, the FIA sanctioned a World Endurance Championship which would be organised by the ACO as a continuation of the ILMC. Audi competed won the first WEC race at Sebring and followed this up with a further three successive wins, including the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi scored a final 5th victory in the 2012 WEC in Bahrain and were able to win the inaugural WEC Manufacturers' Championship.\n\n====2013====\nAs defending champions, Audi once again entered the Audi R18 e-tron quattro chassis into the 2013 WEC and the team won the first five consecutive races, including the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans. The victory at Round 5, Circuit of the Americas, was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for Audi in Le Mans prototypes. Audi secured their second consecutive WEC Manufacturers' Championship at Round 6 after taking second place and half points in the red-flagged Fuji race.\n\n====2014====\nFor the 2014 season Audi entered a redesigned and upgraded R18 e-tron quattro which featured a 2 MJ energy recovery system. As defending champions, Audi would once again face a challenge in LMP1 from Toyota, and additionally from Porsche who returned to endurance racing after a 16-year absence. The season opening 6hrs of Silverstone was a disaster for Audi who saw both cars retire from the race, marking the first time that an Audi car has failed to score a podium in a World Endurance Championship race.\n\n====Results====\n\n\n Year\n Manufacturer\n Chassis\n SEB\n SPA\n LMS\n SIL\n SÃO\n BHR\n FUJ\n SHA\n \n \n\n 2012\n Audi\n R18 e-tron quattro\n '''1'''\n '''1'''\n '''1'''\n '''1'''\n 2\n '''1'''\n 2\n 2\n '''173 (209)'''\n '''1st'''\n\n\n\n\n Year\n Manufacturer\n Chassis\n SIL\n SPA\n LMS\n SÃO\n COA\n FUJ\n SHA\n BHR\n Totalpoints\n \n\n 2013\n Audi\n R18 e-tron quattro\n 1\n '''1'''\n '''1'''\n '''1''' \n '''1''' \n '''2'''\n '''1''' \n '''2'''\n '''207 (207)'''\n '''1st'''\n\n\n\n\n Year\n Manufacturer\n Chassis\n Car\n SIL\n SPA\n LMS\n COA\n FUJ\n SHA\n BHR\n SÃU\n \n \n\n2014\n Audi\n R18 e-tron quattro\n 1\n Ret\n 2\n 1 \n 1 \n 5 \n 4\n 4\n 3\n 244\n '''2nd'''\n\n\n 2\n Ret\n 5\n 2\n 2 \n 6 \n 5\n 5\n 5\n\n\n\n===Formula E===\nAudi provide factory support to Abt Sportsline in the FIA Formula E Championship, The team competed under the title of '''Audi Sport Abt Formula E Team''' in the inaugural 2014-15 Formula E season. On 13 February 2014 the team announced its driver line up as Daniel Abt and World Endurance Championship driver Lucas di Grassi.\n\n\n\n Team\n Chassis\n Driver\n CHI\n MAL\n URU\n ARG\n TBA\n MIA\n LBH\n MON\n GER\n GBR\n Totalpoints\n\n '''Audi Sport''' Abt Formula E Team\n Spark-Renault SRT 01E\n Daniel Abt\n 10\n 10\n ''15''\n\n\n 2015\n\n\n\n \n 62\n\n Lucas di Grassi\n 1\n 2\n 3\n\n\n 2015\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Formula One===\nAudi has been linked to Formula One in recent years but has always resisted due to the company's opinion that it is not relevant to road cars, but hybrid power unit technology has been adopted into the sport, swaying the company's view and encouraging research into the program by former Ferrari team principal Stefano Domenicali.\n", "\n===Branding===\nThe logo used by Audi, 1985–2009\nThe typeface Audi Sans (used 1997-2009)\nThe typeface Audi Type (used since 2009)\nThe Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of Auto Union. The Audi emblem symbolises the amalgamation of Audi with DKW, Horch and Wanderer: the first ring from the left represents Audi, the second represents DKW, third is Horch, and the fourth and last ring Wanderer.\nThe design is popularly believed to have been the idea of Klaus von Oertzen, the director of sales at Wanderer - when Berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 Summer Olympics and that a form of the Olympic logo symbolized the newly established Auto Union's desire to succeed. Somewhat ironically, the International Olympic Committee later sued Audi in the International Trademark Court in 1995, where they lost.\n\nThe original \"Audi\" script, with the distinctive slanted tails on the \"A\" and \"d\" was created for the historic Audi company in 1920 by the famous graphic designer Lucian Bernhard, and was resurrected when Volkswagen revived the brand in 1965. Following the demise of NSU in 1977, less prominence was given to the four rings, in preference to the \"Audi\" script encased within a black (later red) ellipse, and was commonly displayed next to the Volkswagen roundel when the two brands shared a dealer network under the '''V.A.G''' banner. The ellipse (known as the Audi Oval) was phased out after 1994, when Audi formed its own independent dealer network, and prominence was given back to the four rings - at the same time Audi Sans (a derivative of Univers) was adopted as the font for all marketing materials, corporate communications and was also used in the vehicles themselves.\n\nAs part of Audi's centennial celebration in 2009, the company updated the logo, changing the font to left-aligned Audi Type, and altering the shading for the overlapping rings. The revised logo was designed by Rayan Abdullah.\n\nAudi developed a Corporate Sound concept, with Audi Sound Studio designed for producing the Corporate Sound. The Corporate Sound project began with sound agency Klangerfinder GmbH & Co KG and s12 GmbH. Audio samples were created in Klangerfinder's sound studio in Stuttgart, becoming part of Audi Sound Studio collection. Other Audi Sound Studio components include The Brand Music Pool, The Brand Voice. Audi also developed Sound Branding Toolkit including certain instruments, sound themes, rhythm and car sounds which all are supposed to reflect the AUDI sound character.\n\nAudi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning in 1996. An updated heartbeat sound logo, developed by agencies KLANGERFINDER GmbH & Co KG of Stuttgart and S12 GmbH of Munich, was first used in 2010 in an Audi A8 commercial with the slogan \"The Art of Progress.\"\n\n====Slogans====\nAudi's corporate tagline is ''Vorsprung durch Technik'', meaning ''\"Progress through Technology\"''. The German-language tagline is used in many European countries, including the United Kingdom, and in other markets, such as Latin America, Oceania and parts of Asia including Japan. A few years ago, the North American tagline was ''\"Innovation through technology\"'', but in Canada the German tagline ''Vorsprung durch Technik'' was used in advertising. Since 2007, Audi has used the slogan \"Truth in Engineering\" in the U.S. However, since the Audi emissions testing scandal came to light in September 2015, this slogan was lambasted for being discordant with reality. In fact, just hours after disgraced Volkswagen CEO Martin Winterkorn admitted to cheating on emissions data, an advertisement during the 2015 Primetime Emmy Awards promoted Audi's latest advances in low emissions technology with Kermit the Frog stating, \"It's not that easy being green.\"\n\nIt was first used in English-language advertising after Sir John Hegarty of the Bartle Bogle Hegarty advertising agency visited the Audi factory in 1982. In the original British television commercials, the phrase was voiced by Geoffrey Palmer. After its repeated use in advertising campaigns, the phrase found its way into popular culture, including the British comedy ''Only Fools and Horses'', the U2 song \"Zooropa\" and the Blur song \"Parklife\". Similar-sounding phrases have also been used, including as the punchline for a joke in the movie ''Lock, Stock, and Two Smoking Barrels'' and in the British TV series Peep Show.\n\n====Typography====\nAudi Sans (based on Univers Extended) was originally created in 1997 by Ole Schäfer for MetaDesign. MetaDesign was later commissioned for a new corporate typeface called Audi Type, designed by Paul van der Laan and Pieter van Rosmalen of Bold Monday. The font began to appear in Audi's 2009 products and marketing materials.\n\n===Sponsorships===\nBundesliga club Bayern Munich\nAudi is a strong partner of different kinds of sports. In football, long partnerships exist between Audi and domestic clubs including Bayern Munich, Hamburger SV, 1. FC Nürnberg, Hertha BSC, and Borussia Mönchengladbach and international clubs including Chelsea, Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, A.C. Milan, AFC Ajax and Perspolis. Audi also sponsors winter sports: The Audi FIS Alpine Ski World Cup is named after the company. Additionally, Audi supports the German Ski Association (DSV) as well as the alpine skiing national teams of Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, France, Liechtenstein, Italy, Austria and the U.S. For almost two decades, Audi fosters golf sport: for example with the Audi quattro Cup and the HypoVereinsbank Ladies German Open presented by Audi. In sailing, Audi is engaged in the Medcup regatta and supports the team Luna Rossa during the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series and also is the primary sponsor of the Melges 20 sailboat. Further, Audi sponsors the regional teams ERC Ingolstadt (hockey) and FC Ingolstadt 04 (soccer). In 2009, the year of Audi's 100th anniversary, the company organized the Audi Cup for the first time. Audi also sponsor the New York Yankees as well. In October 2010 they agreed to a three sponsorship year-deal with Everton. Audi also sponsors the England Polo Team and holds the Audi Polo Awards.\n\n===Multitronic campaign===\nAudi Centre Sydney, Zetland, New South Wales, Australia\n\nIn 2001, Audi promoted the new multitronic continuously variable transmission with television commercials throughout Europe, featuring an impersonator of musician and actor Elvis Presley. A prototypical dashboard figure – later named \"Wackel-Elvis\" (\"Wobble Elvis\" or \"Wobbly Elvis\") – appeared in the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an Audi equipped with the multitronic transmission. The dashboard figure was originally intended for use in the commercials only, but after they aired the demand for Wackel-Elvis fans grew among fans and the figure was mass-produced in China and marketed by Audi in their factory outlet store.\n\n===Audi TDI===\nAs part of Audi's attempt to promote its Diesel technology in 2009, the company began Audi Mileage Marathon. The driving tour featured a fleet of 23 Audi TDI vehicles from 4 models (Audi Q7 3.0 TDI, Audi Q5 3.0 TDI, Audi A4 3.0 TDI, Audi A3 Sportback 2.0 TDI with S tronic transmission) travelling across the American continent from New York to Los Angeles, passing major cities like Chicago, Dallas and Las Vegas during the 13 daily stages, as well as natural wonders including the Rocky Mountains, Death Valley and the Grand Canyon.\n\nAs part of 2014 model year Audi TDI vehicles launch in the US, 3 television commercials (\"The Station\", \"Future\", \"Range\") were produced. In the 60-second 'The Station' ad, a woman at a fueling station reaches for the diesel pump to fill up her Audi A6. In a dramatic fashion, unsuspecting onlookers race towards her and they can't imagine the luxury vehicle is in fact a diesel. The spot ends with the tagline \"It's time to rethink diesel – join the club.\" \"The Station\" appeared on primetime network and cable 2013 fall programming including Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D, Modern Family, The Big Bang Theory, Hostages, Sons of Anarchy and NBC NFL Sunday Night Football. The 15-second \"Range\" ad demonstrates the potential to drive from New York to Chicago on a single tank of gas, covering a range of approximately 790 miles. In the 15-second \"Future\" ad, viewers see the potential for clean diesel as today's leading alternative fuel solution and an intelligent choice for those on the leading-edge. Audi TDI provides drivers with 30% better fuel economy and range without compromises on performance and design. In addition to the three new television spots, Audi also tried to dispel the most common myths of diesel – gas station availability, the smell and perception associated with an older generation of diesel vehicles, weak performance – in a series of four online video shorts that would roll out over the next two months on the Audi YouTube channel (https://www.youtube.com/audiusa). The spots also will appear on The Washington Post and Slate.com in a custom user-generated content hub through 2013-10-31. In addition to standard and high-impact ads, the content hub features custom videos, articles and infographics, along with relevant social conversations. The Audi TDI clean diesel campaign also features print ads that reinforce the message \"the future of fuel is here now.\" Print ads would roll out in select automotive buff books in fall 2013. 'The Station' ad was premiered in Canada in September 2013. 'The Station' (also called 'The Moment of Truth') ad was produced by Venables Bell & Partners, Biscuit Filmworks, Final Cut.\n\nAs part of 2014 model year Audi TDI vehicles launch in the US, the 'Truth in 48' driving challenge took place from Audi Pacific dealership at Los Angeles to New York in 48 hours or less, began at 9 a.m. PDT on 2013-09-07. The Coast-to-coast attempt used 2014 Audi A6 TDI and Audi A7 TDI and a 2014 Audi Q5 TDI crossover as the support vehicle, with teams of eight noted hypermilers and four journalists.\n\n===Audi e-tron===\nThe next phase of technology Audi is developing is the e-tron electric drive powertrain system. They have shown several concept cars , each with different levels of size and performance. The original e-tron concept shown at the 2009 Frankfurt motor show is based on the platform of the R8 and has been scheduled for limited production. Power is provided by electric motors at all four wheels. The second concept was shown at the 2010 Detroit Motor Show. Power is provided by two electric motors at the rear axle. This concept is also considered to be the direction for a future mid-engined gas-powered 2-seat performance coupe. The Audi A1 e-tron concept, based on the Audi A1 production model, is a hybrid vehicle with a range extending Wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is depleted. It is the only concept of the three to have range extending capability. The car is powered through the front wheels, always using electric power.\n\nIt is all set to be displayed at the Auto Expo 2012 in New Delhi, India, from 5 January. Powered by a 1.4 litre engine, and can cover a distance up to 54 km s on a single charge. The e-tron was also shown in the 2013 blockbuster film Iron Man 3 and was driven by Tony Stark (Iron Man).\n\n===In video games===\nIn PlayStation Home, the PlayStation 3's online community-based service, Audi has supported Home by releasing a dedicated Home space in the European version of Home. Audi is the first carmaker to develop a space for Home. On 17 December 2009, Audi released the Audi Space as two spaces; the Audi Home Terminal and the Audi Vertical Run. The Audi Home Terminal features an Audi TV channel delivering video content, an Internet Browser feature, and a view of a city. The Audi Vertical Run is where users can access the mini-game Vertical Run, a futuristic mini-game featuring Audi's e-tron concept. Players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the Audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the Audi Space. In both the Home Terminal and Vertical Run spaces, there are teleports where users can teleport back and forth between the two spaces. Audi has stated that additional content will be added in 2010.\n", "\nWanderer (car)\nDKW\nHorch\n", "\n", " \n", "\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Technology", "Models", "Production figures", "Motorsport", "Marketing", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Audi
[ "\n\n\nThe traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey\n\n'''Anatolia''' ( , in Modern Greek: , from , '''', pronunciation '''' – \"east\" or \"(sun)rise\";), in geography known as '''Asia Minor''' (, in Medieval and Modern Greek: , '''', pronunciation '''' – \"small Asia\"), '''Asian Turkey''', the '''Anatolian peninsula''', or the '''Anatolian plateau''', is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland.\n\nTraditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands (Armenia Major). This region is now named and largely situated in the Eastern Anatolia Region of the far north east of Turkey and converges with the Lesser Caucasus – an area that was incorporated in the Russian Empire region of Transcaucasia in the 19th century. Thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey.\n\nAnatolia is often considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, which comprises almost the entire country; its eastern and southeastern borders are widely taken to be the Turkish borders with neighboring Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, in clockwise direction.\n\nThe ancient inhabitants of Anatolia spoke the now-extinct Anatolian languages, which were largely replaced by the Greek language starting from classical antiquity and during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century and continued under the Ottoman Empire between the early 14th and early 20th centuries. However, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Ancient peoples in the region included Galatians, Hurrians, Scythians, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Hattians, Cimmerians, Ionian Greeks, the Mongols and Arabs.\n", "\nThe location of Turkey (within the rectangle) in reference to the European continent. Anatolia roughly corresponds to the Asian part of Turkey, except the eastern parts historically known as the Armenian Highlands\nEast Aegean Islands and the island of Cyprus to Anatolia's continental shelf.\n\nThe Anatolian peninsula, also called Asia Minor, is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean Sea to the west, and the Sea of Marmara to the northwest, which separates Anatolia from Thrace in Europe.\n\nTraditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea, coterminous with the Anatolian Plateau. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary'', as well as the archeological community. Under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria (region) and the Mesopotamian plain.\n\nFollowing the Armenian Genocide and establishment of the Republic of Turkey, the Armenian Highlands (or Western Armenia) were renamed \"Eastern Anatolia\" (literally ''The Eastern East'') by the Turkish government, being effectively co-terminous with Asian Turkey. Turkey's First Geography Congress in 1941 created two regions to the east of the Gulf of Iskenderun-Black Sea line named the Eastern Anatolia Region and the Southeastern Anatolia Region, the former largely corresponding to the western part of the Armenian Highland, the latter to the northern part of the Mesopotamian plain. This wider definition of Anatolia has gained widespread currency outside of Turkey and has, for instance, been adopted by ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and other encyclopedic and general reference publications. Vazken Davidian terms the expanded use of \"Anatolia\" to apply to territory formerly referred to as Armenia as \"an historical imposition\", and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the Ottoman East as \"Eastern Anatolia\".\n", "The oldest known reference to Anatolia – as “Land of the Hatti” – appears on Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets from the period of the Akkadian Empire (2350–2150 BC). The first recorded name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula, Ἀσία (Asía), presumably echoed the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name \"Asia\" broadened its scope to apply to other areas east of the Mediterranean, Greeks in Late Antiquity came to use the name Μικρὰ Ἀσία (''Mikrá Asía'') or Asia Minor, meaning \"Lesser Asia\" to refer to present-day Anatolia.\n\nThe English-language name ''Anatolia'' itself derives from the Greek ('''') meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise” (comparable to the Latin-derived terms “levant” and “orient”). The precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme (Aνατολικόν θέμα) was a ''theme'' covering the western and central parts of Turkey's present-day Central Anatolia Region.\nThe modern Turkish form of Anatolia, ''Anadolu'', derives from the Greek name Aνατολή (''Anatolḗ''). The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin.\n\nIn English the name of ''Turkey'' for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. 1369. It derives from the Medieval Latin ''Turchia'' (meaning “Land of the Turks”, Turkish ''Türkiye''), a name originally used by Europeans to designate those parts of Anatolia controlled by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum after the Battle of Manzikert (1071).\n", "\n\n===Prehistory ===\n\nMural of aurochs, a deer, and humans in Çatalhöyük, which is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It was registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.\n\nHuman habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic. Neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest attested branch of Indo-European, have been spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC.\n\n===Ancient Near East (Bronze and Iron Ages)===\n\n====Hattians and Hurrians====\nThe earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC. Scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The Hattians spoke a language of unclear affiliation, and the Hurrian language belongs to a small family called Hurro-Urartian, all these languages now being extinct; relationships with indigenous languages of the Caucasus have been proposed but are not generally accepted. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian- and Hurrian-populated southeast Anatolia were colonised by the Akkadians.\n\n====Assyrian Empire (21st–18th centuries BC)====\nAfter the fall of the Akkadian Empire in the mid-21st century BC, the Assyrians, who were the northern branch of the Akkadian people, colonised parts of the region between the 21st and mid-18th centuries BC and claimed its resources, notably silver. One of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines.\n\n====Hittite Kingdom and Empire (17th–12th centuries BC)====\n\nThe Lion Gate at Hattusa, capital of the Hittite Empire. The city's history dates to before 2000 BC.\nUnlike the Akkadians and their descendants, the Assyrians, whose Anatolian possessions were peripheral to their core lands in Mesopotamia, the Hittites were centred at Hattusa (modern Boğazkale) in north-central Anatolia by the 17th century BC. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, or ''nesili'' (the language of Nesa) in Hittite. Attested for the first time in the Assyrian tablets of Nesa around 2000BC, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites (along with the other Indo-European ancient Anatolians) were themselves relatively recent immigrants to Anatolia from the north.\n\nThe Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia. During the Late Bronze Age circa 1650 BC, they created a kingdom, the Hittite New Kingdom, which became an empire in the 14th century BC after the conquest of Kizzuwatna in the south-east and the defeat of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. The empire reached its height in the 13th century BC, controlling much of Asia Minor, northwestern Syria and northwest upper Mesopotamia. They failed to reach the Anatolian coasts of the Black Sea, however, as a non-Indo-European people, the semi-nomadic pastoralist and tribal Kaskians, had established themselves there, displacing earlier Palaic-speaking Indo-Europeans. Much of the history of the Hittite Empire concerned war with the rival empires of Egypt, Assyria and the Mitanni.\n\nThe Egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the Hittites and becoming wary of the power of Assyria, which had destroyed the Mitanni Empire. The Assyrians and Hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern Anatolia and colonial territories in Syria. The Assyrians had better success than the Egyptians, annexing much Hittite (and Hurrian) territory in these regions.\n\n====Neo-Hittite kingdoms (c. 1180–700 BC)====\nAfter 1180 BC, during the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Hittite empire disintegrated into several independent Syro-Hittite states, subsequent to losing much territory to the Middle Assyrian Empire and being finally overrun by the Phrygians, another Indo-European people who are believed to have migrated from the Balkans. The Phrygian expansion into southeast Anatolia was eventually halted by the Assyrians, who controlled that region.\n\n:'''Arameans'''\n'''Arameans''' encroached over the borders of south central Anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the Hittite empire, and some of the Syro-Hittite states in this region became an amalgam of Hittites and Arameans. These became known as Syro-Hittite states.\n\n:'''Luwians'''\nLycian rock cut tombs of Kaunos (Dalyan)\nIn central and western Anatolia, another Indo-European people, the Luwians, came to the fore, circa 2000 BC. Their language was closely related to Hittite. The general consensus amongst scholars is that Luwian was spoken—to a greater or lesser degree—across a large area of western Anatolia, including (possibly) Wilusa (Troy), the Seha River Land (to be identified with the Hermos and/or Kaikos valley), and the kingdom of Mira-Kuwaliya with its core territory of the Maeander valley. From the 9th century BC, Luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as Lydia, Caria and Lycia, all of which had Hellenic influence.\n\n====Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th–7th centuries BC)====\nFrom the 10th to late 7th centuries BC, much of Anatolia (particularly the east, central, and southeastern regions) fell to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, including all of the Syro-Hittite states, Tabal, Kingdom of Commagene, the Cimmerians and Scythians and swathes of Cappadocia.\n\nThe Neo-Assyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by Medes, Persians, Scythians and their own Babylonian relations. The last Assyrian city to fall was Harran in southeast Anatolia. This city was the birthplace of the last king of Babylon, the Assyrian Nabonidus and his son and regent Belshazzar. Much of the region then fell to the short-lived Iran-based Median Empire, with the Babylonians and Scythians briefly appropriating some territory.\n\n====Cimmerian and Scythian invasions (8th–7th centuries BC)====\nFrom the late 8th century BC, a new wave of Indo-European-speaking raiders entered northern and northeast Anatolia: the Cimmerians and Scythians. The Cimmerians overran Phrygia and the Scythians threatened to do the same to Urartu and Lydia, before both were finally checked by the Assyrians.\n\n====Greek West====\nThe north-western coast of Anatolia was inhabited by Greeks of the Achaean/Mycenaean culture from the 20th century BC, related to the Greeks of south eastern Europe and the Aegean. Beginning with the Bronze Age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the west coast of Anatolia was settled by Ionian Greeks, usurping the area of the related but earlier Mycenaean Greeks. Over several centuries, numerous Ancient Greek city-states were established on the coasts of Anatolia. Greeks started Western philosophy on the western coast of Anatolia (Pre-Socratic philosophy).\n\n===Classical antiquity===\nAncient regions of Anatolia (500 BC)\nAsia Minor in the Greco-Roman period. The classical regions and their main settlements\nAsia Minor in the early 2nd century AD. The Roman provinces under Trajan.\nThe temple of Athena (funded by Alexander the Great) in the ancient Greek city of Priene\nIn classical antiquity, Anatolia was described by Herodotus and later historians as divided into regions named after tribes such as Lydia, Lycia, Caria, Mysia, Bithynia, Phrygia, Galatia, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Paphlagonia, Cilicia, and Cappadocia. By that time, the populations were a mixture of the ancient Anatolian or \"Syro-Hittite\" substrate and post-Bronze-Age-collapse \"Thraco-Phrygian\" and more recent Greco-Macedonian incursions.\n\nDying Galatian'' was a famous statue commissioned some time between 230–220 BC by King Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia.\n\nAnatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage (as opposed to unminted coinage, which first appears in Mesopotamia at a much earlier date) as a medium of exchange, some time in the 7th century BC in Lydia. The use of minted coins continued to flourish during the Greek and Roman eras.\n\nDuring the 6th century BC, all of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty in Iran. In 499 BC, the Ionian city-states on the west coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule. The Ionian Revolt, as it became known, though quelled, initiated the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in a Greek victory in 449 BC, and the Ionian cities regained their independence, alongside the withdrawal of the Persian forces from their European territories.\n\nIn 334 BC, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula from the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Alexander's conquest opened up the interior of Asia Minor to Greek settlement and influence.\n\nSanctuary of Commagene Kings on Mount Nemrut (1st century BC)\nFollowing the death of Alexander and the breakup of his empire, Anatolia was ruled by a series of Hellenistic kingdoms, such as the Attalids of Pergamum and the Seleucids, the latter controlling most of Anatolia. A period of peaceful Hellenization followed, such that the local Anatolian languages had been supplanted by Greek by the 1st century BC. In 133 BC the last Attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman Republic, and western and central Anatolia came under Roman control, but Hellenistic culture remained predominant. Further annexations by Rome, in particular of the Kingdom of Pontus by Pompey, brought all of Anatolia under Roman control, except for the eastern frontier with the Parthian Empire, which remained unstable for centuries, causing a series of wars, culminating in the Roman-Parthian Wars.\n\n===Early Christian period===\nAfter the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia became part of the East Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Anatolia was one of the first places where Christianity spread, so that by the 4th century AD, western and central Anatolia were overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking. For the next 600 years, while Imperial possessions in Europe were subjected to barbarian invasions, Anatolia would be the center of the Hellenic world. Byzantine control was challenged by Arab raids starting in the eighth century (see Arab–Byzantine wars), but in the ninth and tenth century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained its lost territories, including even long lost territory such as Armenia and Syria (ancient Aram).\n\n===Islamic rule replacing Byzantium===\nByzantine Anatolia and the Byzantine-Arab frontier zone in the mid-9th century\nBeyliks and other states around Anatolia, c. 1300.\n\nIn the 10 years following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia migrated over large areas of Anatolia, with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim. The Turkish language and the Islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the Seljuk conquest, and this period marks the start of Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking (although ethnic groups such as Armenians, Greeks, and Assyrians remained numerous and retained Christianity and their native languages). In the following century, the Byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern Anatolia. Control of Anatolia was then split between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, with the Byzantine holdings gradually being reduced.\n\nIn 1255, the Mongols swept through eastern and central Anatolia, and would remain until 1335. The Ilkhanate garrison was stationed near Ankara. After the decline of the Ilkhanate from 1335–1353, the Mongol Empire's legacy in the region was the Uyghur Eretna Dynasty that was overthrown by Kadi Burhan al-Din in 1381.\n\nBy the end of the 14th century, most of Anatolia was controlled by various Anatolian beyliks. Smyrna fell in 1330, and the last Byzantine stronghold in Anatolia, Philadelphia, fell in 1390. The Turkmen Beyliks were under the control of the Mongols, at least nominally, through declining Seljuk sultans. The Beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the Mongol Ilkhanids. The Osmanli ruler Osman I was the first Turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s, for it bears the legend \"Minted by Osman son of Ertugul\". Since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in Islamic practice only to a sovereign, it can be considered that the Osmanli, or Ottoman Turks, became formally independent from the Mongol Khans.\n\n===Ottoman Empire===\nAmong the Turkish leaders, the Ottomans emerged as great power under Osman I and his son Orhan I. The Anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century. It is not well understood how the Osmanlı, or Ottoman Turks, came to dominate their neighbours, as the history of medieval Anatolia is still little known. The Ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum) from the Knights of Saint John.\n\n===Modern times===\nEthnographic map of Anatolia from 1911.\n\nWith the acceleration of the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of Czarist Russia in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens and several Turkic groups left their homelands and settled in Anatolia. As the Ottoman Empire further shrank in the Balkan regions and then fragmented during the Balkan Wars, much of the non-Christian populations of its former possessions, mainly Balkan Muslims (Bosnian Muslims, Albanians, Turks, Muslim Bulgarians and Greek Muslims such as the Vallahades from Greek Macedonia), were resettled in various parts of Anatolia, mostly in formerly Christian villages throughout Anatolia.\n\nA continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century, when Greeks from Anatolia, Constantinople and Pontus area migrated toward the newly independent Kingdom of Greece, and also towards the United States, southern part of the Russian Empire, Latin America and rest of Europe.\n\nFollowing the Russo-Persian Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) and the incorporation of the Eastern Armenia into the Russian Empire, another migration involved the large Armenian population of Anatolia, which recorded significant migration rates from Western Armenia (Eastern Anatolia) toward the Russian Empire, especially toward its newly established Armenian provinces.\n\nAnatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire). During World War I, the Armenian Genocide, the Greek genocide (especially in Pontus), and the Assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of Armenian, Greek, and Assyrian populations in Anatolia and surrounding regions. Following the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, most remaining ethnic Anatolian Greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Many more have left Turkey since, leaving fewer than 5,000 Greeks in Anatolia today. Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, Anatolia has been within Turkey, its inhabitants being mainly Turks and Kurds (see demographics of Turkey and history of Turkey).\n", "\n\n===Geology===\n\nAnatolia's terrain is structurally complex. A central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs, covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain, is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east. True lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the Aegean, Mediterranean, and Black Sea coasts. Flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the Kızıl River, the coastal plains of Çukurova and the valley floors of the Gediz River and the Büyük Menderes River as well as some interior high plains in Anatolia, mainly around Lake Tuz (Salt Lake) and the Konya Basin (''Konya Ovasi'').\n\n===Climate===\n\n\nimage:Klima_ankara.png\|Ankara (central Anatolia)\nimage:Klima_antalya.png\|Antalya (southern Anatolia)\nimage:Klima_van.png\|Van (eastern Anatolia)\n\n\nAnatolia has a varied range of climates. The central plateau is characterized by a continental climate, with hot summers and cold snowy winters. The south and west coasts enjoy a typical Mediterranean climate, with mild rainy winters, and warm dry summers. The Black Sea and Marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate, with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year.\n\n===Ecoregions===\nThere is a diverse number of plant and animal communities.\n\nThe mountains and coastal plain of northern Anatolia experiences humid and mild climate. There are temperate broadleaf, mixed and coniferous forests. The central and eastern plateau, with its drier continental climate, has deciduous forests and forest steppes. Western and southern Anatolia, which have a Mediterranean climate, contain Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregions.\n* Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests: These temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern Anatolia, lying between the mountains of northern Anatolia and the Black Sea. They include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea in eastern Turkey and Georgia.\n* Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests: These forests occupy the mountains of northern Anatolia, running east and west between the coastal Euxine-Colchic forests and the drier, continental climate forests of central and eastern Anatolia.\n* Central Anatolian deciduous forests: These forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central Anatolia.\n* Central Anatolian steppe: These dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central Anatolia, and include halophytic (salt tolerant) plant communities.\n* Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests: This ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern Anatolia. The drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppe-forests dominated by deciduous oaks, with areas of shrubland, montane forest, and valley forest.\n* Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests: These forests occupy the western, Mediterranean-climate portion of the Anatolian plateau. Pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant.\n* Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests: These Mediterranean-climate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western Anatolia bordering the Aegean Sea. The ecoregion has forests of Turkish pine ''(Pinus brutia)'', oak forests and woodlands, and maquis shrubland of Turkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs, including Olive ''(Olea europaea)'', Strawberry Tree ''(Arbutus unedo)'', ''Arbutus andrachne'', Kermes Oak ''(Quercus coccifera)'', and Bay Laurel ''(Laurus nobilis)''.\n* Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests: These mountain forests occupy the Mediterranean-climate Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. Conifer forests are predominant, chiefly Anatolian black pine ''(Pinus nigra)'', Cedar of Lebanon ''(Cedrus libani)'', Taurus fir ''(Abies cilicica)'', and juniper ''(Juniperus foetidissima'' and ''J. excelsa)''. Broadleaf trees include oaks, hornbeam, and maples.\n* Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests: This ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern Anatolia between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. Plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands, forests of Aleppo Pine ''(''Pinus halepensis'')'' and Turkish Pine ''(Pinus brutia)'', and dry oak ''(Quercus'' spp.) woodlands and steppes.\n", "\n\nAlmost 80% of the people currently residing in Anatolia are Turks. Kurds constitute a major community in southeastern Anatolia, and are the largest ethnic minority. Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Arameans, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Bosnian Muslims, Circassians, Gagauz, Georgians, Serbs, Greeks, Hemshin, Jews, Laz, Levantines, Pomaks, Zazas and a number of other ethnic groups also live in Anatolia in smaller numbers.\n", "Bamia is a traditional Anatolian-era stew dish prepared using lamb, okra and tomatoes as primary ingredients.\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Definition", " Onomastics and etymology", "History", "Geography", "Demographics", "Cuisine", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Anatolia
[ "\n\n\n\nBlaeu – Atlas of Scotland 1654 – ABERDONIA & BANFIA\nTopographic map of Aberdeenshire and Moray\n'''Aberdeenshire''' () is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland.\n\nIt takes its name from the old County of Aberdeen which had substantially different boundaries. Modern Aberdeenshire includes all of what was once Kincardineshire, as well as part of Banffshire. The old boundaries are still officially used for a few purposes, namely land registration and lieutenancy.\n\nAberdeenshire Council is headquartered at Woodhill House, in Aberdeen, making it the only Scottish council whose headquarters are located outside its jurisdiction. Aberdeen itself forms a different council area (Aberdeen City). Aberdeenshire borders onto Angus and Perth and Kinross to the south, Highland and Moray to the west and Aberdeen City to the east.\n\nTraditionally, it has been economically dependent upon the primary sector (agriculture, fishing, and forestry) and related processing industries. Over the last 40 years, the development of the oil and gas industry and associated service sector has broadened Aberdeenshire's economic base, and contributed to a rapid population growth of some 50% since 1975. Its land represents 8% of Scotland's overall territory. It covers an area of .\n", "Aberdeenshire has a rich prehistoric and historic heritage. It is the locus of a large number of Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, including Longman Hill, Kempstone Hill, Catto Long Barrow and Cairn Lee. The area was settled in the Bronze Age by the Beaker culture, who arrived from the south around 2000-1800 BC. Stone circles and cairns were constructed predominantly in this era. In the Iron Age, hill forts were built. Around the 1st century AD, the Taexali people, who have left little history, were believed to have resided along the coast. The Picts were the next documented inhabitants of the area, and were no later than 800-900 AD. The Romans also were in the area during this period, as they left signs at Kintore. Christianity influenced the inhabitants early on, and there were Celtic monasteries at Old Deer and Monymusk.\n\nSince medieval times there have been a number of traditional paths that crossed the Mounth (a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the North Sea slightly north of Stonehaven) through present-day Aberdeenshire from the Scottish Lowlands to the Highlands. Some of the most well known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth and Elsick Mounth.\n\nAberdeenshire played an important role in the fighting between the Scottish clans. Clan MacBeth and the Clan Canmore were two of the larger clans. Macbeth fell at Lumphanan in 1057. During the Anglo-Norman penetration, other families arrives such as House of Balliol, Clan Bruce, and Clan Cumming (Comyn). When the fighting amongst these newcomers resulted in the Scottish Wars of Independence, the English king Edward I traveled across the area twice, in 1296 and 1303. In 1307, Robert the Bruce was victorious near Inverurie. Along with his victory came new families, namely the Forbeses and the Gordons.\n\nThese new families set the stage for the upcoming rivalries during the 14th and 15th centuries. This rivalry grew worse during and after the Protestant Reformation, when religion was another reason for conflict between the clans. The Gordon family adhered to Catholicism and the Forbes to Protestantism. Three universities were founded in the area prior to the 17th century, King's College in Old Aberdeen (1494), Marischal College in Aberdeen (1593), and the University of Fraserburgh (1597).\n\nAfter the end of the Revolution of 1688, an extended peaceful period was interrupted only by such fleeting events such as the Rising of 1715 and the Rising of 1745. The latter resulted in the end of the ascendancy of Episcopalianism and the feudal power of landowners. An era began of increased agricultural and industrial progress. During the 17th century, Aberdeenshire was the location of more fighting, centered on the Marquess of Montrose and the English Civil Wars. This period also saw increased wealth due to the increase in trade with Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.\n\nThe present council area is named after the historic county of Aberdeen, which had different boundaries and was abolished in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. It was replaced by Grampian Regional Council and five district councils: Banff and Buchan, Gordon, Kincardine and Deeside, Moray and the City of Aberdeen. The current Aberdeenshire consists of all of former Aberdeenshire, former Kincardineshire and the northeast portions of Banffshire. Local government functions were shared between the two levels. In 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, the Banff and Buchan district, Gordon district and Kincardine and Deeside district were merged to form the present Aberdeenshire council area, with the other two districts becoming autonomous council areas.\n", "The population of the council area has risen over 50% since 1971 to approximately , representing 4.7% of Scotland's total. Aberdeenshire's population has increased by 9.1% since 2001, while Scotland's total population grew by 3.8%.\nThe census lists a relatively high proportion of under 16s and slightly fewer people of working-age compared with the Scottish average.\n\nThe fourteen biggest settlements in Aberdeenshire (with 2011 population estimates) are:\n\nPeterhead (17,790)\nFraserburgh (12,540)\nInverurie (11,529)\nWesthill (11,220)\nStonehaven (10,820)\nEllon (9,910)\nPortlethen (7,327)\nBanchory (7,111)\nTurriff (4,804)\nKintore (4,476)\nHuntly (4,461)\nBanff (3,931)\nKemnay (3,830)\nMacduff (3,711)\n", "Aberdeenshire's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is estimated at £3,496m (2011), representing 5.2% of the Scottish total. Aberdeenshire's economy is closely linked to Aberdeen City's (GDP £7,906m) and in 2011 the region as a whole was calculated to contribute 16.8% of Scotland's GDP. Between 2012 and 2014 the combined Aberdeenshire and Aberdeen City economic forecast GDP growth rate is 6.8%, the highest growth rate of any local council area and above the Scottish rate of 4.8%.\n\nA significant proportion of Aberdeenshire's working residents commute to Aberdeen City for work, varying from 11.5% from Fraserburgh to 65% from Westhill.\n\nAverage Gross Weekly Earnings (for full-time employees employed in work places in Aberdeenshire in 2011) are £570.60. This is lower than the Scottish average by £4.10 and a fall of 2.6% on the 2010 figure. The average gross weekly pay of people resident in Aberdeenshire is much higher, at £641.90, as many people commute out\nof Aberdeenshire, principally into Aberdeen City.\n\nTotal employment (excluding farm data) in Aberdeenshire is estimated at 93,700 employees (Business Register and\nEmployment Survey 2009). The majority of employees work within the service sector, predominantly in public administration, education and health. Almost 19% of employment is within the public sector. Aberdeenshire's economy remains closely linked to Aberdeen City's and the North Sea oil industry, with many employees in oil related jobs.\n\nThe average monthly unemployment (claimant count) rate for Aberdeenshire in 2011 was 1.5%. This is lower than the average rates for Aberdeen City (2.3%), Scotland (4.2%) and the UK (3.8%).\n", "* '''Energy''' – There is significant energy related infrastructure, presence and expertise in Aberdeenshire. Peterhead is an important centre for the energy industry. Peterhead Port, which includes an extensive new quay with adjacent lay down area at Smith Quay, is a major support location for North Sea oil and gas exploration and production and the fast-growing global sub-sea sector. The Gas Terminal at St Fergus handles around 15% of the UK's natural gas requirements and the Peterhead power station is looking to host Britain's first carbon capture and storage power generation project.\n* '''Fishing''' – Aberdeenshire is Scotland's foremost fishing area. In 2010, catches landed at Aberdeenshire's ports accounted for over half the total fish landings of Scotland, and almost 45% in the UK. Peterhead and Fraserburgh ports, alongside Aberdeen City, provide much of the employment in these sectors.\n* '''Agriculture''' – Aberdeenshire is rich in arable land, with an estimated 9,000 people employed in the sector, and is best known for rearing livestock. Sheep are important in the higher ground.\n* '''Tourism''' – this sector continues to grow, with a range of sights to be seen in the area. From the lively Cairngorm Mountain range to the bustling fishing ports on the North-east coast, Aberdeenshire samples a bit of everything. Aberdeenshire also has a rugged coastline, many sandy beaches and is a hot spot for tourist activity throughout the year. Almost 1.3 million tourists visited the region in 2011 – up 3% on the previous year.\n* '''Whisky-distilling''' is still a practiced art in the area.\n", "The council has 70 councillors, elected in 19 multi-member wards by single transferable vote. The 2017 elections resulted in the following representation:\n\n\nWard\nMembers\nRepresentation\n\n 1. Banff and District\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 Ind, 1 SNP\n\n 2. Troup\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Ind\n\n 3. Fraserburgh and District\n 4\n 1 Ind, 2 SNP, 1 Con\n\n 4. Central Buchan\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Ind, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 5. Peterhead North and Rattray\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 2 Ind\n\n 6. Peterhead South and Cruden\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Ind\n\n 7. Turriff and District\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem, 1 Ind\n\n 8. Mid Formartine\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Ind, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 9. Ellon and District\n 4\n 1 Con, 2 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 10. West Garioch\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 11. Inverurie and District\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Ind, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 12. East Garioch\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Grn, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 13. Westhill and District\n 4\n 2 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 14. Huntly, Strathbogie and Howe of Alford\n 4\n 2 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 15. Aboyne, Upper Deeside and Donside\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 16. Banchory and Mid Deeside\n 3\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 17. North Kincardine\n 4\n 1 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem, 1 Lab\n\n 18. Stonehaven and Lower Deeside\n 4\n 2 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\n 19. Mearns\n 4\n 2 Con, 1 SNP, 1 Lib Dem\n\nYthan Estuary nature reserve, with tern colonies and dunes in background.\n\nThe overall political composition of the council, following subsequent defections and by-elections, is as follows:\n\n\n\n\n'''Party'''\n'''Councillors'''\n\n\nConservative\n23\n\n\nScottish National Party\n21\n\n\nLiberal Democrat\n14\n\n\nIndependent\n10\n\n\nLabour Party\n1\n\n\nGreen Party\n1\n\nThe Council's Revenue Budget for 2012/13 totals approx £548 million. The Education, Learning and Leisure Service takes the largest share of budget (52.3%), followed by Housing and Social Work (24.3%), Infrastructure Services (15.9%), Joint Boards (such as Fire and Police) and Misc services (7.9%) and Trading Activities (0.4%).\n\n21.5% of the revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D Council Tax is £1,141 (2012/13), no change on the previous year.\nThe current chief executive of the Council is Jim Savege and the elected Council Co-Leaders are Richard Thomson and Alison Evison. Aberdeenshire also has a Provost, who is Councillor Hamish Vernal.\n\nThe council has devolved power to six area committees: Banff and Buchan; Buchan; Formartine; Garioch; Marr; and Kincardine and Mearns. Each area committee takes decisions on local issues such as planning applications, and the split is meant to reflect the diverse circumstances of each area. ( Boundary map)\n", "The B976 road near Gairnshiel\nAn old lime kiln at Badenyon\n\nThe following significant structures or places are within Aberdeenshire:\n\n\n\nBalmoral Castle, Scottish Highland residence of the British royal family.\nBennachie\nBurn O'Vat\nCairness House\nCairngorms National Park\nCorgarff Castle\nCrathes Castle\nCausey Mounth, an ancient road\nDrum Castle\nDunnottar Castle\nFetteresso Castle\nFowlsheugh Nature Reserve\nHaddo House\nHerscha Hill\nHuntly Castle\nKildrummy Castle\nLoch of Strathbeg\nLochnagar\nMonboddo House\nMuchalls Castle\nPitfour estate\nPortlethen Moss\nRaedykes Roman Camp\nRiver Dee\nRiver Don\nSands of Forvie Nature Reserve\nSlains Castles, Old and New\nStonehaven Tolbooth\nYthan Estuary Nature Reserve\n", "There are numerous rivers and burns in Aberdeenshire, including Cowie Water, Carron Water, Burn of Muchalls, River Dee, River Don, River Ury, River Ythan, Water of Feugh, Burn of Myrehouse, Laeca Burn and Luther Water. Numerous bays and estuaries are found along the seacoast of Aberdeenshire, including Banff Bay, Ythan Estuary, Stonehaven Bay and Thornyhive Bay. Aberdeenshire is in the rain shadow of the Grampians, therefore it is a generally dry climate, with portions of the coast, receiving of moisture annually. Summers are mild and winters are typically cold in Aberdeenshire; Coastal temperatures are moderated by the North Sea such that coastal areas are typically cooler in the summer and warmer in winter than inland locations. Coastal areas are also subject to haar, or coastal fog.\n", "\nJohn Skinner, (1721–1807) author, poet and ecclesiastic. Penned the famous verse, Tullochgorum.\nHugh Mercer, (1726–1777), born in the manse of Pitsligo Kirk, near Rosehearty, brigadier general of the Continental Army during the American Revolution.\nAlexander Garden, (1730–1791), born in Birse, noted naturalist and physician. He moved to North America in 1754, and discovered two species of lizards. He was a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War, which led to the confiscation of his property and his banishment in 1782. The gardenia flower is named in his honour.\nJohn Kemp, (1763–1812), born in Auchlossan, was a noted educator at Columbia University who is said to have influenced DeWitt Clinton's opinions and policies.\nDame Evelyn Glennie, DBE, born and raised in Ellon on 19 July 1965, is a virtuoso percussionist, and the first full-time solo percussionist in 20th-century western society. She is very highly regarded in the Scottish musical community, and has proven that her profound deafness does not inhibit her musical talent or day-to-day life.\nEvan Duthie, (born 2000), an award-winning DJ & Producer. \nPeter Nicol, MBE, born in Inverurie on 5 April 1973, is a former professional squash player who represented first Scotland and then England in international squash.\nGordon Duthie (born 1987), alternative music artist whose upbringing in Aberdeenshire was a key inspiration for his debut album ''Shire and City''.\nPeter Shepherd, (1841–1879), Surgeon Major, Royal Medical Corps\nJohanna Basford (born 1983), illustrator and textile designer\n", "\n\n\n", "\n Aberdeenshire Council\n* Aberdeenshire Libraries Service\n* Aberdeenshire Museums Service\n* Peterhead and Buchan Tourism Web Site\n* Aberdeenshire Arts\n* Aberdeenshire Sports Council\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Demographics", "Economy", "Major Industries", "Governance and politics", "Notable features", "Hydrology and climate", "Notable residents", "References", "External links" ]	Aberdeenshire
[ "\n\n\n'''Aztlan Underground''' is a fusion band from Los Angeles. Since early 1989, Aztlan Underground has played Rapcore. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions.\n\nThis unique sound is the backdrop for the band's message of dignity for indigenous people, all of humanity, and Earth. Aztlan Underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country, which has become a large and loyal underground following. Their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, and indigenous music, among others.\n\nThe artists are Chenek \"DJ Bean\" (turntables, samples and percussion), Yaotl (vocals, indigenous percussion), Joe \"Peps\" (bass, rattles), Alonzo Beas (guitars, synth), Caxo (drums, indigenous percussion), and Bulldog (vocals, flute).\n\nAztlan Underground appeared on television on Culture Clash on Fox in 1993, was part of ''Breaking Out'', a concert on pay per view in 1998, and was featured in the independent films ''Algun Dia'' and ''Frontierlandia''.\n\nThe band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the Vancouver Sun, Northshore News (Vancouver, Canada newspaper), New Times (Los Angeles weekly entertainment newspaper), BLU Magazine (underground hip hop magazine), BAM Magazine (Southern California), La Banda Elastica Magazine, and the Los Angeles Times Calendar section. It is also the subject of a chapter in ''It's Not About A Salary'', by Brian Cross. They also opened for Rage Against the Machine in Mexico City.\n\nIt was nominated in the New Times 1998 \"Best Latin Influenced\" category, the BAM Magazine 1999 \"Best Rock en Español\" category, and the LA Weekly 1999 \"Best Hip Hop\" category.\n\nAztlan Underground were signed to a Basque record label in 1999 which enabled them to tour Spain extensively and perform in France and Portugal.\n\nOther parts of the world that Aztlan Underground have performed include Canada, Australia, and Venezuela.\n\nThe band completed their third album and released it exclusively digital on August 29, 2009. The band is set to begin writing a new record this year.\n\nAztlan Underground were nominated for four Native American Music Award categories for the Nammys 2010. See Nammys.com\n", "\n===''Decolonize''===\n\nYear:1995\n\n# Teteu Innan\n# Killing Season\n# Lost Souls\n# My Blood Is Red\n# Natural Enemy\n# Sacred Circle\n# Blood On Your Hands\n# Interlude\n# Aug 2 The 9\n# Indigena\n# Lyrical Drive By\n\n===''Sub-Verses''===\nYear:1998\n\n# Permiso\n# They Move In Silence\n# No Soy Animal\n# Killing Season\n# Blood On Your Hands\n# Reality Check\n# Lemon Pledge\n# Revolution\n# Preachers Of The Blind State\n# Lyrical Drive-By\n# Nahui Ollin\n# How To Catch A Bullet\n# Ik Otik\n# Obsolete Man\n# Decolonize\n# War Flowers\n\n===''Aztlan Underground''===\nYear:2009\n", "Chicano Rap\nNative American hip hop\nRapcore\nChicano rock\n", "\n* Xicano Records and Film\n* Myspace link\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discography", "See also", "External links" ]	Aztlan Underground
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''American Civil War''' (commonly known as the \"Civil War\" in the United States) was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long-standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States of America, who advocated for states’ rights to perpetual slavery and its expansion in the Americas.\n\nAmong the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy grew to include eleven states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although Britain and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal, including the border states where slavery was legal, were known as the ''Union'' or the ''North''.\n\nThe North and South quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the battle of Appomattox, which triggered a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers dead, a higher number than the number of American military deaths in all other wars combined. Much of the South's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863–1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in American history.\n", "In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82% majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.\n\nEight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the \"Southern States\", he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, \"I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so.\" After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on \"King Cotton\" that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.\n\nHostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861–1862. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever-tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.\n\nThe American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron-clad ships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40.\n", "\nThe causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won many Southern leaders felt that disunion had become their only option, because they thought that they were losing representation, which would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.\n\n===Slavery===\nalt=Map of U.S. showing two kinds of Union states, two phases of secession and territories\n\nSlavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war, in large measure, to protect southern society, and slavery was an integral part of it. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment—to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave-holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.\n\nSlavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.\n\n===Sectionalism===\nSectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.\n\nHistorians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.\n\nNew Orleans, the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states\n\n===Protectionism===\nHistorically, southern slave-holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still-nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full-fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.\n\nThe Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited–long after the war–by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860–61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.\n\n===States' rights===\nThe South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a \"compact\" or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:\n\t \t\n\n\n===Territorial crisis===\n\nBetween 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.\n\nWith the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. \nNorthern \"free soil\" interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: \"The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself.\"\n\n\n\nBy 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these \"conservative\" theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.\n\nThe second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance—that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.\n\nSenator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or \"popular\" sovereignty—which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.\n\nThe fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty (\"states' rights\"), also known as the \"Calhoun doctrine\", named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self-government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. \"States' rights\" was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the \"Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power.\" These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.\n\n===National elections===\nBeginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British-French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation-state.\n\nIn the world of 19th century self-made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, \"freedom\" could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure—first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together.\n\n====Nationalism and honor====\nalt=Middle-aged man in a beard posed sitting in a suit, vest and bowtie\nNationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called \"unionists\") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,\n\nPerceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.\n\nWhile the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: \"We denounce those threats of disunion ... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence.\" The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.\n\n====Lincoln's election====\n\nThe election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the \"Corwin Amendment\" and the \"Crittenden Compromise\", failed.\nSouthern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy. \n\nAccording to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in ''establishing'' and ''administering'' a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, ''maintaining'' the republic, based on the people's vote. The people must now show: \". . . successful maintenance of the Republic against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections. Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they cannot take by an election, neither can they take it by a war . . ..\" \n", "\n===Secession crisis===\nbroadside issued by the ''Charleston Mercury'', December 20, 1860\nThe election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the \"Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union\". It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The \"cotton states\" of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.\n\nAmong the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three—Texas, Alabama, and Virginia—specifically mentioned the plight of the 'slaveholding states' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.\n\nThese states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union \"... was intended to be perpetual,\" but that, \"The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union,\" was not among the \"... enumerated powers granted to Congress.\" One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.\n\nAs Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.\n\nOn December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two-to-one no-vote in Virginia's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.\n\nJefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)\|alt=Middle-aged man in a goatee posed standing in a suit, vest and bowtie\n\nOn March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession \"legally void\". He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on \"the mystic chords of memory\" binding the two regions.\n\nThe South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or \"prime minister\" behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union-occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina's Fort Sumter.\n\n===Battle of Fort Sumter===\n\nUnion Square NYC\|alt=Crowd surrounding an equestrian statue topped by a huge U.S. flag\n\nFort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P. G. T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13, forcing its capitulation.\n\nThe attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:\n:The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment. ... Anger swept the land. From every side came news of mass meetings, speeches, resolutions, tenders of business support, the muster of companies and regiments, the determined action of governors and legislatures.\"\n\nHowever, much of the North's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.\n\nLincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.\n\nFour states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond. \n\nUnion vs. the Confederacy.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n===Attitude of the border states===\n\nMaryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.\n\nMaryland's territory surrounded the United States' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53–13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1/3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice's ruling.\n\nIn Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (''See also: Missouri secession''). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.\n\nKentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.\n\nAfter Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000–22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.\n\nA Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.\n", "\nCounty map of Civil War battles by theater and year\n\nThe Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book ''The American Civil War'', John Keegan writes that \"The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought\". Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy's soldier.\n\n===Mobilization===\nAs the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.\n\nIn the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.\n\n\nWhen the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.\n\nIn both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, \"bounty jumpers\" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.\n\nNew York anti-draft riots of 1863\nFrom a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the \"largest and most efficient armies in the world\" within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.\n\n====Motivation====\nPerman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:\n\n\n====Prisoners====\n\nAt the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict's fatalities.\n\n===Naval war===\nThe small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.\n\n====Union blockade====\n\n\nGeneral Scott's \"alt=A cartoon map of the South surrounded by a snake.\nBy early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott's caution about 90-day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.\n\nIn April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. \"King Cotton\" was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.\n\n=====Modern navy evolves=====\nThe Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty-six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating \"ram fever\" among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.\n\nThe Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS ''Virginia'', which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the ''Merrimack''. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the ''Virginia'' inflicted significant damage to the Union's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS ''Monitor'', arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the ''Virginia'' to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the ''Monitor''. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.\n\n=====Blockade runners=====\n\nBritish investors built small, fast, steam-driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy, however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.\n\nSouth Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Charleston. Continuous blockade of all major ports was sustained by North's overwhelming war production.\n\n=====Economic impact=====\nSurdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.\n\nTo fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.\n\n====Rivers====\nThe 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:\n\n# McClellan would lead the main thrust in Virginia towards Richmond. \n# Ohio forces would advance through Kentucky into Tennessee.\n# The Missouri Department would drive south along the Mississippi River.\n# The westernmost attack would originate from Kansas.\n\n\n\nUlysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy's \"Gibraltar of the West\" at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.\n\nIn addition to ocean-going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory—the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.\n\nNaval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.\n\n===Eastern theater===\n\nIn one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.\n\n\n\nMaj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.\n\nEmboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.\n\nUnion forces performing a bayonet charge, 1862\n\nWhen the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.\n\nHooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.\n\n===Western theater===\n\nWhile the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.\n\n\n\nThe Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.\n\nGeneral Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.\n\nThe one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.\n\nThe Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.\n\n===Trans-Mississippi===\n\n\nExtensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans-Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The \"Sons of Liberty\" and \"Order of the American Knights\" attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.\n\nBy 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.\n\nNumerous small-scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.\n\nAfter the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual \"independent fiefdom\" in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.\n\n===End of the war===\n\n====Conquest of Virginia====\nAt the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said \"would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end.\" Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.\nEwell's May 1864 attack at Spotsylvania—delayed Grant's advance on Richmond in the Overland Campaign.\n''The Peacemakers'' by George Peter Alexander Healy portrays Sherman, Grant, Lincoln, and Porter discussing plans for the last weeks of the Civil War aboard the steamer ''River Queen'' in March 1865.\n\nGrant's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.\n\nGrant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.\n\nMeanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.\n\nLeaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his \"March to the Sea\". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee's army.\n\nLee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called \"the Waterloo of the Confederacy\") on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond-Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler's Creek.\n\n====Confederacy surrenders====\nalt=A map of the U.S. South showing shrinking territory under rebel control\n\n\nInitially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.\n\nOn April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present-day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans-Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.\n", "\n\nThough the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South's recovery after the war.\nUSS ''Wissahickon'' by the ship's Dahlgren gun, circa 1863\|alt=A group of twenty-six sailors posing around a rifled naval cannon\nCotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that \"King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton\", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.\n\nLincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was \"absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic.\"\n\nU.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS ''Alabama'', CSS ''Shenandoah'', CSS ''Tennessee'', CSS ''Tallahassee'', CSS ''Florida'', and some others). The most famous, the CSS ''Alabama'', did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.\n\nWar loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the ''Trent'' affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of the British ship ''Trent'' and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South– though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'' three times when deciding on this.\n\nThe Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.\n", "\n===Results===\nThe causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once-rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.\n\nHistorians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.\n\n\n+ Comparison of Union and Confederacy, 1860–1864\n\n Year\n Union\n Confederacy\n\n'''Population'''\n1860\n 22,100,000 (71%)\n 9,100,000 (29%)\n\n1864\n 28,800,000 (90%)\n 3,000,000 (10%)\n\n '''Free'''\n1860\n 21,700,000 (81%)\n 5,600,000 (19%)\n\n '''Slave'''\n1860\n 400,000 (11%)\n 3,500,000 (89%)\n\n1864\n ''negligible''\n 1,900,000\n\n '''Soldiers'''\n 1860–64\n 2,100,000 (67%)\n 1,064,000 (33%)\n\n '''Railroad miles'''\n1860\n 21,800 (71%)\n 8,800 (29%)\n\n1864\n 29,100 (98%)\n ''negligible''\n\n '''Manufactures'''\n1860\n 90%\n 10%\n\n1864\n 98%\n ''negligible''\n\n '''Arms production'''\n1860\n 97%\n 3%\n\n1864\n 98%\n ''negligible''\n\n '''Cotton bales'''\n1860\n ''negligible''\n 4,500,000\n\n1864\n 300,000\n ''negligible''\n\n '''Exports'''\n1860\n 30%\n 70%\n\n1864\n 98%\n ''negligible''\n\n\nConfederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.\n\nMany scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: \"I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back ... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.\"\n\nA minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, \"people did not will hard enough and long enough to win.\" Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864–65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, \"The devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired.\" Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, \"yet I see no sign of let up—some few deserters—plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out.\"\n\nAlso important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.\n\nHistorian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:\n\nScholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.\n\n===Costs===\nThe war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.\n\n\n\nBased on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.\n\nUnion army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:\n* 110,070 killed in action (67,000) or died of wounds (43,000).\n* 199,790 died of disease (75 percent was due to the war, the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway)\n* 24,866 died in Confederate prison camps\n* 9,058 killed by accidents or drowning\n* 15,741 other/unknown deaths\n* 359,528 total dead\n\nIn addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).\n\nBlack troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:\n\n\nAntietam battlefield, 1862\nConfederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under-counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.\n\nThe United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:\n\n'''Union: 853,838'''\n110,100 killed in action\n224,580 disease deaths\n275,154 wounded in action \n211,411 captured (including 30,192 who died as POWs)\n\n'''Confederate: 914,660'''\n94,000 killed in action\n164,000 disease deaths\n194,026 wounded in action \n462,634 captured (including 31,000 who died as POWs)\n\nWhile the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5%, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.\n\nAnalyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.\n\nDeaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.\n\nLosses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.\n\nThe wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.\n\nThe war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.\n\n===Emancipation===\n\n====Slavery as a war issue====\nWhile not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats (\"Copperheads\") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.\n\n====Emancipation Proclamation====\n\nThe Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.\n\nDuring the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that \"to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game.\" Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.\n\n\n\nAt first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like \"our last shriek on the retreat\". Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley's newspaper.\n\nIn September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that \"If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.\"\n\nLincoln's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union-controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.\n\nSince the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.\n\n===Texas v. White===\nIn ''Texas v. White'', the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were \"absolutely null\", under the constitution.\n\n===Reconstruction===\n\nNorthern teachers traveled into the South to provide education and training for the newly freed population.\nReconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war's aftermath, the most important of which were the three \"Reconstruction Amendments\" to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a \"republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery—and prevent semi-slavery status.\n\nPresident Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson's work. In 1872 the \"Liberal Republicans\" argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.\n", "\nThe Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an \"Empire of Liberty\" influencing the world.\n\nProfessional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best-known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study.\nDeeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:\n\nIn sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:\n\n\n===Lost Cause===\n\nMemory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the \"Lost Cause\", shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly \"a rationalization, a cover-up to vindicate the name and fame\" of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the \"virulent racism\" of the 19th century, sacrificing African-American progress to a white man's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause \"a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter\" in every instance.\n\nBeginning in 1961 the U.S. Post Office released Commemorative stamps for five famous battles, each issued on the 100th anniversary of the respective battle.\n\n===Beardian historiography===\nThe interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in ''The Rise of American Civilization'' (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:\n\n\n\nThe Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.\n\n===Civil War commemoration===\n\n\n\nThe American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary.\n\nHollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as ''Birth of a Nation'' (1915), ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939), and more recently ''Lincoln'' (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled ''The Civil War'' (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.\n\n===Technological significance===\nThere were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an \"industrial war\", in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam-powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle-loading and single-shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid-firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.\n", "\n===Literature===\n* ''The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government'' (1881) by Jefferson Davis\n* ''The Red Badge of Courage'' (1885) by Stephen Crane\n* ''The Private History of a Campaign That Failed'' (1885) by Mark Twain\n* ''Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South'' (1887) by Jules Verne\n* \"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge\" (1890) by Ambrose Bierce\n* ''Gone with the Wind'' (1936) by Margaret Mitchell\n* ''Shiloh'' (1952) by Shelby Foote\n* ''North and South'' (1982) by John Jakes\n* ''Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All'' (1989) by Allan Gurganus\n\n===Film===\n\n* ''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915, US)\n* ''The General'' (1926, US)\n* ''Gone with the Wind'' (1939, US)\n* ''The Red Badge of Courage'' (1951, US)\n* ''The Horse Soldiers'' (1959, US)\n* ''Shenandoah'' (1965, US)\n* ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' (1966, Italy-Spain-FRG)\n* ''The Beguiled'' (1971, US)\n* ''Glory'' (1989, US)\n* ''Gettysburg'' (1993, US)\n* ''The Last Outlaw'' (1993, US)\n* ''Cold Mountain'' (2003, US)\n* ''Gods and Generals'' (2003, US)\n* ''North and South'' (miniseries)\n* ''Abraham Lincoln: Vampire Hunter'' (2012, US)\n* ''Lincoln'' (2012, US)\n* ''12 Years a Slave'' (2012, US)\n* ''Free State of Jones'' (2016, US)\n* ''The Gettysburg Address'' (2017, US)\n\n\n===Song===\n* \"Johnny Reb\" (1959) written by Merle Kilgore, sung by Johnny Horton\n* \"The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down\" (1969) written by Robbie Robertson, sung by The Band\n\n===Video games===\n\n* ''Sid Meier's Gettysburg!'' (1997, US)\n* ''Sid Meier's Antietam!'' (1999, US)\n* ''American Conqest: Divided Nation'' (2006, US) \n* ''Forge of Freedom: The American Civil War'' (2006, US)\n* ''The History Channel: Civil War – A Nation Divided'' (2006, US)\n* ''Ageod's American Civil War'' (2007, US/FR)\n* ''History Civil War: Secret Missions'' (2008, US)\n* ''Call of Juarez: Bound in Blood'' (2009, US)\n* ''Darkest of Days'' (2009, US)\n* ''Victoria II: A House Divided'' (2011, US)\n* ''Ageod's American Civil War II'' (2013, US/FR)\n* ''Ultimate General: Gettysburg'' (2014, UKR)\n* ''Ultimate General: Civil War'' (2016, UKR)\n\n\n\n", "\n\n'''General reference'''\n* Battles of the American Civil War\n* Bibliography of the American Civil War\n* Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln\n* Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant\n* Corps badges of the American Civil War\n* Costliest Battles of the American Civil War\n* Naval bibliography of the American Civil War\n* Origins of the American Civil War\n* Uniforms of the Confederacy\n* Uniforms of the Union\n* Weapons in the American Civil War\n\n'''Union'''\n* United States\n* Union Army\n* Union Navy\n* Abraham Lincoln\n* Emancipation Proclamation\n\n'''Confederacy'''\n* Confederate States\n* Confederate Army\n* Confederate Navy\n* Jefferson Davis\n\n'''Ethnic articles'''\n* African Americans in the American Civil War\n* German Americans in the American Civil War\n* Hispanic Americans in the American Civil War\n* Irish Americans in the American Civil War\n* Italian Americans in the American Civil War\n* Native Americans in the American Civil War\n\n\n\n'''Topical articles'''\n* Blockade runners of the American Civil War\n* Blockade, Union – of the American Civil War\n* Casualties in the American Civil War\n* Commemoration of the American Civil War\n* Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps\n* Infantry in the American Civil War\n* Nursing in the American Civil War, Dorothea Dix\n* Ships captured during the American Civil War\n* Slaves and the American Civil War\n* Spies in the American Civil War\n\n'''National articles'''\n* Foreign enlistment in the American Civil War\n* Britain in the American Civil War\n* Canada in the American Civil War\n* Prussia in the American Civil War\n\n'''State articles'''\n* See articles in the format, \"state in the American Civil War\"\n\n\n", "===Notes===\n\n\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986), influential analysis of factors; an abridged version is ''The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion'' (1988)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Gara, Larry. 1964. ''The Fugitive Slave Law: A Double Paradox'' in Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970 (originally published in Civil War History, X, No. 3, September 1964)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Murray, Robert Bruce. ''Legal Cases of the Civil War'' (2003). \n* \n* \n* \n* Nevins, Allan. ''Ordeal of the Union'', an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize-winner\n** 1. ''Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852'' online; 2. ''A House Dividing, 1852–1857''; 3. ''Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859''; 4. ''Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861''; vols 5–8 have the series title ''War for the Union''; 5. ''The Improvised War, 1861–1862''; 6. online; ''War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863''; 7. ''The Organized War, 1863–1864''; 8. ''The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865''\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* , 2 vol. 1232 pp; 64 topical chapters by experts; emphasis on historiography.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* Gugliotta, Guy. New Estimate Raises Civil War Death Toll, ''The New York Times'', April 3, 2012, p. D1 (of the New York edition), and April 2, 2012, on NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2012-04-03 online.\n* Bibliography of American Civil War naval history\n* \n* Tidball, John C. The Artillery Service in the War of the Rebellion, 1861-1865. Westholme Publishing, 2011. .\n", "\n\n* \n* Civil War photos at the National Archives\n* View images from the Civil War Photographs Collection at the Library of Congress\n* Civil War Trust\n* Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.\n* Civil War 150 ''Washington Post'' interactive website on the 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.\n* Civil War in the American South – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items—books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts—held at ASERL member libraries\n* The Civil War – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War\n* \n* Civil War Living History Reenactments (videos)\n* West Point Atlas of Civil War Battles\n* \"American Civil World\" maps at the Persuasive Cartography, The PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library\n* Civil War Manuscripts\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Prelude to war", "Causes of secession", "Outbreak of the war", "War", "Diplomacy", "Union victory and aftermath", "Memory and historiography", "In works of culture and art", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	American Civil War
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Andy Warhol''' (; born '''Andrew Warhola'''; August 6, 1928 – February 22, 1987) was an American artist, director and producer who was a leading figure in the visual art movement known as pop art. His works explore the relationship between artistic expression, celebrity culture, and advertising that flourished by the 1960s, and span a variety of media, including painting, silkscreening, photography, film, and sculpture. Some of his best known works include the silkscreen paintings ''Campbell's Soup Cans'' (1962) and ''Marilyn Diptych'' (1962), the experimental film ''Chelsea Girls'' (1966), and the multimedia events known as the ''Exploding Plastic Inevitable'' (1966–67).\n\nBorn and raised in Pittsburgh, Warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator. After exhibiting his work in several galleries in the late 1950s, he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist. His New York studio, The Factory, became a well-known gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals, drag queens, playwrights, Bohemian street people, Hollywood celebrities, and wealthy patrons. He promoted a collection of personalities known as Warhol superstars, and is credited with coining the widely used expression \"15 minutes of fame.\" In the late 1960s, he managed and produced the experimental rock band The Velvet Underground and founded ''Interview'' magazine. He authored numerous books, including ''The Philosophy of Andy Warhol'' and ''Popism: The Warhol Sixties''. He is also notable as a gay man who lived openly as such before the gay liberation movement. After a gallbladder surgery in 1987, Warhol died in February of that year at the age of 58.\n\nWarhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions, books, and feature and documentary films. The Andy Warhol Museum in his native city of Pittsburgh, which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives, is the largest museum in the United States dedicated to a single artist. Many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable. The highest price ever paid for a Warhol painting is US$105 million for a 1963 canvas titled ''Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster)''; his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold. A 2009 article in ''The Economist'' described Warhol as the \"bellwether of the art market\".\n", "===Early life and beginnings (1928–49)===\nSouth Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania\nWarhol was born on August 6, 1928, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the fourth child of Ondrej Warhola (Americanized as Andrew Warhola, Sr., 1889–1942) and Julia (''née'' Zavacká, 1892–1972), whose first child was born in their homeland and died before their move to the U.S.\n\nHis parents were working-class Lemko emigrants from Mikó (now called Miková), located in today's northeastern Slovakia, part of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Warhol's father emigrated to the United States in 1914, and his mother joined him in 1921, after the death of Warhol's grandparents. Warhol's father worked in a coal mine. The family lived at 55 Beelen Street and later at 3252 Dawson Street in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The family was Ruthenian Catholic and attended St. John Chrysostom Byzantine Catholic Church. Andy Warhol had two older brothers—Pavol (Paul), the oldest, was born before the family emigrated; Ján was born in Pittsburgh. Pavol's son, James Warhola, became a successful children's book illustrator.\n\nIn third grade, Warhol had Sydenham's chorea (also known as St. Vitus' Dance), the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities, which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness. He became a hypochondriac, developing a fear of hospitals and doctors. Often bedridden as a child, he became an outcast at school and bonded with his mother. At times when he was confined to bed, he drew, listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed. Warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality, skill-set and preferences. When Warhol was 13, his father died in an accident.\n\nAs a teenager, Warhol graduated from Schenley High School in 1945. Also as a teen, Warhol won a Scholastic Art and Writing Award. After graduating from high school, his intentions were to study art education at the University of Pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher, but his plans changed and he enrolled in the Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, where he studied commercial art. During his time there, Warhol joined the campus Modern Dance Club and Beaux Arts Society. He also served as art director of the student art magazine, ''Cano'', illustrating a cover in 1948 and a full-page interior illustration in 1949. These are believed to be his first two published artworks. Warhol earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts in pictorial design in 1949. Later that year, he moved to New York City and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising.\n\n===1950s===\nWarhol's early career was dedicated to commercial and advertising art, where his first commission had been to draw shoes for ''Glamour'' magazine in the late 1940s. In the 1950s, Warhol worked as a designer for shoe manufacturer Israel Miller. American photographer John Coplans recalled that\nnobody drew shoes the way Andy did. He somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own, a sort of sly, Toulouse-Lautrec kind of sophistication, but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place. The kids in the apartment which Andy shared in New York – note by Coplans noticed that the vamps on Andy's shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but Israel Miller didn't mind. Miller loved them.\n\nWarhol's \"whimsical\" ink drawings of shoe advertisements figured in some of his earliest showings at the Bodley Gallery in New York.\n\nWarhol was an early adopter of the silk screen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings. While working in the shoe industry, Warhol developed his \"blotted line\" technique, applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet, which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale. His use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme, a method that prefigures his 1960s silk-screen canvas. In his book ''Popism: The Warhol Sixties'', Warhol writes, \"When you do something exactly wrong, you always turn up something.\"\n\nWith the rapid expansion of the record industry, RCA Records hired Warhol, along with another freelance artist, Sid Maurer, to design album covers and promotional materials.\n\n===1960s===\n\nWarhol (left) and Tennessee Williams (right) talking on the SS ''France'', 1967; in the background: Paul Morrissey.\nHe began exhibiting his work during the 1950s. He held exhibitions at the Hugo Gallery and the Bodley Gallery in New York City; in California, his first West Coast gallery exhibition was on July 9, 1962, in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles. The exhibition marked his West Coast debut of pop art.\nAndy Warhol's first New York solo pop art exhibition was hosted at Eleanor Ward's Stable Gallery November 6–24, 1962. The exhibit included the works ''Marilyn Diptych'', ''100 Soup Cans'', ''100 Coke Bottles'', and ''100 Dollar Bills''. At the Stable Gallery exhibit, the artist met for the first time poet John Giorno who would star in Warhol's first film, ''Sleep'', in 1963.\n\nIt was during the 1960s that Warhol began to make paintings of iconic American objects such as dollar bills, mushroom clouds, electric chairs, Campbell's Soup Cans, Coca-Cola bottles, celebrities such as Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, Marlon Brando, Troy Donahue, Muhammad Ali, and Elizabeth Taylor, as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking African-American protesters during the Birmingham campaign in the Civil Rights Movement. During these years, he founded his studio, \"The Factory\" and gathered about him a wide range of artists, writers, musicians, and underground celebrities. His work became popular and controversial. Warhol had this to say about Coca-Cola:\n\n\n\nNew York City's Museum of Modern Art hosted a Symposium on pop art in December 1962 during which artists such as Warhol were attacked for \"capitulating\" to consumerism. Critics were scandalized by Warhol's open embrace of market culture. This symposium set the tone for Warhol's reception.\n\nA pivotal event was the 1964 exhibit ''The American Supermarket'', a show held in Paul Bianchini's Upper East Side gallery. The show was presented as a typical U.S. small supermarket environment, except that everything in it—from the produce, canned goods, meat, posters on the wall, etc.—was created by six prominent pop artists of the time, among them the controversial (and like-minded) Billy Apple, Mary Inman, and Robert Watts. Warhol's painting of a can of Campbell's soup cost $1,500 while each autographed can sold for $6. The exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is.\n\n''Campbell's Soup I'' (1968)\nAndy Warhol, between 1966 and 1977\n\nAs an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s, Warhol used assistants to increase his productivity. Collaboration would remain a defining (and controversial) aspect of his working methods throughout his career; this was particularly true in the 1960s. One of the most important collaborators during this period was Gerard Malanga. Malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens, films, sculpture, and other works at \"The Factory\", Warhol's aluminum foil-and-silver-paint-lined studio on 47th Street (later moved to Broadway). Other members of Warhol's Factory crowd included Freddie Herko, Ondine, Ronald Tavel, Mary Woronov, Billy Name, and Brigid Berlin (from whom he apparently got the idea to tape-record his phone conversations).\n\nDuring the 1960s, Warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation \"Superstars\", including Nico, Joe Dallesandro, Edie Sedgwick, Viva, Ultra Violet, Holly Woodlawn, Jackie Curtis, and Candy Darling. These people all participated in the Factory films, and some—like Berlin—remained friends with Warhol until his death. Important figures in the New York underground art/cinema world, such as writer John Giorno and film-maker Jack Smith, also appear in Warhol films of the 1960s, revealing Warhol's connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time. Less well known was his support and collaboration with several teen-agers during this era, who would achieve prominence later in life including writer David Dalton, photographer Stephen Shore and artist Bibbe Hansen (mother of pop musician Beck).\n\n====Attempted murder (1968)====\nOn June 3, 1968, radical feminist writer Valerie Solanas shot Warhol and Mario Amaya, art critic and curator, at Warhol's studio. Before the shooting, Solanas had been a marginal figure in the Factory scene. She authored in 1967 the ''S.C.U.M. Manifesto'', a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men; and appeared in the 1968 Warhol film ''I, a Man''. Earlier on the day of the attack, Solanas had been turned away from the Factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to Warhol. The script had apparently been misplaced.\n\nAmaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day. Warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived: surgeons opened his chest and massaged his heart to help stimulate its movement again. He suffered physical effects for the rest of his life, including being required to wear a surgical corset. The shooting had a profound effect on Warhol's life and art.\n\nSolanas was arrested the day after the assault, after turning herself in to police. By way of explanation, she said that Warhol \"had too much control over my life.\" She was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the Department of Corrections. After the shooting, the Factory scene heavily increased security, and for many the \"Factory 60s\" ended.\n\nWarhol had this to say about the attack: \"Before I was shot, I always thought that I was more half-there than all-there—I always suspected that I was watching TV instead of living life. People sometimes say that the way things happen in movies is unreal, but actually it's the way things happen in life that's unreal. The movies make emotions look so strong and real, whereas when things really do happen to you, it's like watching television—you don't feel anything. Right when I was being shot and ever since, I knew that I was watching television. The channels switch, but it's all television.\"\n\n===1970s===\nJimmy Carter and Andy Warhol in 1977\n\nCompared to the success and scandal of Warhol's work in the 1960s, the 1970s were a much quieter decade, as he became more entrepreneurial. According to Bob Colacello, Warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new, rich patrons for portrait commissions—including Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, his wife Empress Farah Pahlavi, his sister Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, Mick Jagger, Liza Minnelli, John Lennon, Diana Ross, Luigi Accame, and Brigitte Bardot. Warhol's famous portrait of Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong was created in 1973. He also founded, with Gerard Malanga, ''Interview'' magazine, and published ''The Philosophy of Andy Warhol'' (1975). An idea expressed in the book: \"Making money is art, and working is art and good business is the best art.\"\n\nWarhol socialized at various nightspots in New York City, including Max's Kansas City; and, later in the 1970s, Studio 54. He was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and a meticulous observer. Art critic Robert Hughes called him \"the white mole of Union Square.\"\n\nWith his longtime friend Stuart Pivar, Warhol founded the New York Academy of Art in 1979.\n\n===1980s===\nWarhol had a re-emergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s, partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists, who were dominating the \"bull market\" of 1980s New York art: Jean-Michel Basquiat, Julian Schnabel, David Salle and other so-called Neo-Expressionists, as well as members of the Transavantgarde movement in Europe, including Francesco Clemente and Enzo Cucchi. Before the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics, he teamed up with 15 other artists, including David Hockney and Cy Twombly, and contributed a Speed Skater print to the Art and Sport collection. The Speed Skater was used for the official Sarajevo Winter Olympics poster.\n\nBy this time, graffiti artist Fab Five Freddy paid homage to Warhol when he painted an entire train with Campbell soup cans. This was instrumental in Freddy becoming involved in the underground NYC art scene and becoming an affiliate of Basquiat.\n\nBy this period, Warhol was being criticized for becoming merely a \"business artist\". In 1979, reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities, calling them superficial, facile and commercial, with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects. They also criticized his 1980 exhibit of 10 portraits at the Jewish Museum in Manhattan, entitled ''Jewish Geniuses'', which Warhol—who was uninterested in Judaism and Jews—had described in his diary as \"They're going to sell.\" In hindsight, however, some critics have come to view Warhol's superficiality and commerciality as \"the most brilliant mirror of our times,\" contending that \"Warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of American culture in the 1970s.\"\n\nWarhol also had an appreciation for intense Hollywood glamour. He once said: \"I love Los Angeles. I love Hollywood. They're so beautiful. Everything's plastic, but I love plastic. I want to be plastic.\"\n\n===Death===\nWarhol's grave at St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery\nStatue of Andy Warhol in left\nWarhol died in Manhattan at 6:32 a.m. on February 22, 1987. According to news reports, he had been making a good recovery from gallbladder surgery at New York Hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden post-operative cardiac arrhythmia. Prior to his diagnosis and operation, Warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked, as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors. His family sued the hospital for inadequate care, saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water intoxication. The malpractice case was quickly settled out of court; Warhol's family received an undisclosed sum of money.\n\nShortly before Warhol's death, doctors expected Warhol to survive the surgery, though a revaluation of the case about thirty years after his death showed many indications that Warhol's surgery was in fact riskier than originally thought. It was widely reported at the time that Warhol died of a \"routine\" surgery, though when considering factors such as his age, a family history of gallbladder problems, his previous gunshot wounds, and his medical state in the weeks leading up to the procedure, the potential risk of death following the surgery appeared to have been significant.\n\nWarhol's brothers took his body back to Pittsburgh, where an open-coffin wake was held at the Thomas P. Kunsak Funeral Home. The solid bronze casket had gold-plated rails and white upholstery. Warhol was dressed in a black cashmere suit, a paisley tie, a platinum wig, and sunglasses. He was laid out holding a small prayer book and a red rose. The funeral liturgy was held at the Holy Ghost Byzantine Catholic Church on Pittsburgh's North Side. The eulogy was given by Monsignor Peter Tay. Yoko Ono and John Richardson were speakers. The coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns. After the liturgy, the coffin was driven to St. John the Baptist Byzantine Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, a south suburb of Pittsburgh.\n\nAt the grave, the priest said a brief prayer and sprinkled holy water on the casket. Before the coffin was lowered, Paige Powell dropped a copy of ''Interview'' magazine, an ''Interview'' T-shirt, and a bottle of the Estee Lauder perfume \"Beautiful\" into the grave. Warhol was buried next to his mother and father. A memorial service was held in Manhattan for Warhol on April 1, 1987, at St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York.\n", "\nWarhol's will dictated that his entire estate—with the exception of a few modest legacies to family members—would go to create a foundation dedicated to the \"advancement of the visual arts\". Warhol had so many possessions that it took Sotheby's nine days to auction his estate after his death; the auction grossed more than US$20 million.\n\nIn 1987, in accordance with Warhol's will, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts began. The foundation serves as the estate of Andy Warhol, but also has a mission \"to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process\" and is \"focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature.\"\n\nThe Artists Rights Society is the U.S. copyright representative for the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts for all Warhol works with the exception of Warhol film stills. The U.S. copyright representative for Warhol film stills is the Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. Additionally, the Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual Arts has agreements in place for its image archive. All digital images of Warhol are exclusively managed by Corbis, while all transparency images of Warhol are managed by Art Resource.\n\nThe Andy Warhol Foundation released its ''20th Anniversary Annual Report'' as a three-volume set in 2007: Vol. I, 1987–2007; Vol. II, Grants & Exhibitions; and Vol. III, Legacy Program. The Foundation remains one of the largest grant-giving organizations for the visual arts in the U.S.\n\nMany of Warhol's works and possessions are on display at The Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh. The foundation donated more than 3,000 works of art to the museum.\n", "\n===Paintings===\nBy the beginning of the 1960s, pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting; some of these pioneers, such as Roy Lichtenstein, would later become synonymous with the movement. Warhol, who would become famous as the \"Pope of Pop\", turned to this new style, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's palette. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, hand-painted with paint drips. Marilyn Monroe was a pop art painting that Warhol had done and it was very popular. Those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists (such as Willem de Kooning). Warhol's first pop art paintings were displayed in April 1961, serving as the backdrop for New York Department Store Bronwit Teller's window display. This was the same stage his Pop Art contemporaries Jasper Johns, James Rosenquist and Robert Rauschenberg had also once graced.\n\nIt was the gallerist Muriel Latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and Warhol's dollar paintings. On November 23, 1961, Warhol wrote Latow a check for $50 which, according to the 2009 Warhol biography, ''Pop, The Genius of Warhol'', was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter. For his first major exhibition, Warhol painted his famous cans of Campbell's soup, which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life. A 1964 ''Large Campbell’s Soup Can'' was sold in a 2007 Sotheby's auction to a South American collector for £5.1 million ($7.4 million).\n\n''Portrait of Dr. Luigi Accame'' (1974)\n\nHe loved celebrities, so he painted them as well. From these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process. Warhol frequently used silk-screening; his later drawings were traced from slide projections. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, following his directions to make different versions and variations.\n\nIn 1979, Warhol was commissioned by BMW to paint a Group-4 race version of the then \"elite supercar\" BMW M1 for the fourth installment in the BMW Art Car Project. It was reported at the time that, unlike the three artists before him, Warhol opted to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer his scale-model design to the car. It was indicated that Warhol spent only a total of 23 minutes to paint the entire car.\n\nWarhol produced both comic and serious works; his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair. Warhol used the same techniques—silkscreens, reproduced serially, and often painted with bright colors—whether he painted celebrities, everyday objects, or images of suicide, car crashes, and disasters, as in the 1962–63 ''Death and Disaster'' series. The ''Death and Disaster'' paintings included ''Red Car Crash'', ''Purple Jumping Man'', and ''Orange Disaster.'' One of these paintings, the diptych ''Silver Car Crash'', became the highest priced work of his when it sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction on Wednesday, November 13, 2013, for $105.4 million.\n\nSome of Warhol's work, as well as his own personality, has been described as being Keatonesque. Warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media. He sometimes refused to explain his work. He has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is \"already there 'on the surface'.\"\n\nHis Rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be. His cow wallpaper (literally, wallpaper with a cow motif) and his oxidation paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine) are also noteworthy in this context. Equally noteworthy is the way these works—and their means of production—mirrored the atmosphere at Andy's New York \"Factory\". Biographer Bob Colacello provides some details on Andy's \"piss paintings\":\n\n\n\nWarhol's first portrait of ''Basquiat'' (1982) is a black photo-silkscreen over an oxidized copper \"piss painting\".\n\nAfter many years of silkscreen, oxidation, photography, etc., Warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in a series of more than 50 large collaborative works done with Jean-Michel Basquiat between 1984 and 1986. Despite negative criticism when these were first shown, Warhol called some of them \"masterpieces,\" and they were influential for his later work.\n\nAndy Warhol was commissioned in 1984 by collector and gallerist Alexander Iolas to produce work based on Leonardo da Vinci's ''The Last Supper'' for an exhibition at the old refectory of the Palazzo delle Stelline in Milan, opposite from the Santa Maria delle Grazie where Leonardo da Vinci's mural can be seen. Warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme, mostly silkscreens and paintings, and among them a collaborative sculpture with Basquiat, the ''Ten Punching Bags (Last Supper)''.\nThe Milan exhibition that opened in January 1987 with a set of 22 silk-screens, was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist. The series of ''The Last Supper'' was seen by some as \"arguably his greatest,\" but by others as \"wishy-washy, religiose\" and \"spiritless.\" It is the largest series of religious-themed works by any U.S. artist.\n\nArtist Maurizio Cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of Andy Warhol: \"That's probably the greatest thing about Warhol: the way he penetrated and summarized our world, to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible, and in any case useless.\" Warhol was an inspiration towards Cattelan's magazine and photography compilations, such as ''Permanent Food, Charley'', and ''Toilet Paper''.\n\nIn the period just before his death, Warhol was working on ''Cars'', a series of paintings for Mercedes-Benz.\n\nA self-portrait by Andy Warhol (1963–64), which sold in New York at the May Post-War and Contemporary evening sale in Christie's, fetched $38.4 million.\n\nOn May 9, 2012, his classic painting ''Double Elvis (Ferus Type)'' sold at auction at Sotheby's in New York for US$33 million. With commission, the sale price totaled US$37,042,500, short of the $50 million that Sotheby's had predicted the painting might bring. The piece (silkscreen ink and spray paint on canvas) shows Elvis Presley in a gunslinger pose. It was first exhibited in 1963 at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles. Warhol made 22 versions of the ''Double Elvis'', nine of which are held in museums.\n\nIn November 2013, his ''Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster)'' diptych sold at Sotheby's Contemporary Art Auction for $105.4 million, a new record for the pop artist (pre-auction estimates were at $80 million). Created in 1963, this work had rarely been seen in public in the previous years. In November 2014, ''Triple Elvis'' sold for $81.9m (£51.9m) at an auction in New York.\n\n===Films===\nWarhol worked across a wide range of media—painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture. In addition, he was a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than 60 films, plus some 500 short black-and-white \"screen test\" portraits of Factory visitors. One of his most famous films, ''Sleep'', monitors poet John Giorno sleeping for six hours. The 35-minute film ''Blow Job'' is one continuous shot of the face of DeVeren Bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker Willard Maas, although the camera never tilts down to see this. Another, ''Empire'' (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the Empire State Building in New York City at dusk. The film ''Eat'' consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes. Warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by LaMonte Young called ''Trio for Strings'' and subsequently created his famous series of static films including ''Kiss'', ''Eat'', and ''Sleep'' (for which Young initially was commissioned to provide music). Uwe Husslein cites filmmaker Jonas Mekas, who accompanied Warhol to the Trio premiere, and who claims Warhol's static films were directly inspired by the performance.\n\n''Batman Dracula'' is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by Warhol, without the permission of DC Comics. It was screened only at his art exhibits. A fan of the ''Batman'' series, Warhol's movie was an \"homage\" to the series, and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy Batman. The film was until recently thought to have been lost, until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary ''Jack Smith and the Destruction of Atlantis''.\n\nWarhol's 1965 film ''Vinyl'' is an adaptation of Anthony Burgess' popular dystopian novel ''A Clockwork Orange''. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, Viva, Edie Sedgwick, Candy Darling, Holly Woodlawn, Ondine, Nico, and Jackie Curtis. Legendary underground artist Jack Smith appears in the film ''Camp''.\n\nHis most popular and critically successful film was ''Chelsea Girls'' (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mm-films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that \"story\" while it was lowered for the other. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s.\n\nOther important films include ''Bike Boy'', ''My Hustler'', ''The Nude Restaurant'', and ''Lonesome Cowboys'', a raunchy pseudo-western. These and other titles document gay underground and camp culture, and continue to feature prominently in scholarship about sexuality and art. Warhol was a fan of filmmaker Radley Metzger film work and commented that Metzger's film, ''The Lickerish Quartet'', was \"an outrageously kinky masterpiece\". ''Blue Movie''—a film in which Warhol superstar Viva makes love in bed with Louis Waldon, another Warhol superstar—was Warhol's last film as director. The film, a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn, was, at the time, controversial for its frank approach to a sexual encounter. ''Blue Movie'' was publicly screened in New York City in 2005, for the first time in more than 30 years.\n\nAfter his June 3, 1968, shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, Paul Morrissey, took over the film-making chores for the Factory collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with ''Flesh'', ''Trash'', and ''Heat''. All of these films, including the later ''Andy Warhol's Dracula'' and ''Andy Warhol's Frankenstein'', were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter \"Warhol\" films starred Joe Dallesandro—more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar.\n\nIn the early 1970s, most of the films directed by Warhol were pulled out of circulation by Warhol and the people around him who ran his business. After Warhol's death, the films were slowly restored by the Whitney Museum and are occasionally projected at museums and film festivals. Few of the Warhol-directed films are available on video or DVD.\n\n====Filmography====\n\n\n===Factory in New York===\n\n* Factory: 1342 Lexington Avenue (the first Factory)\n* The Factory: 231 East 47th Street, 1963–67 (the building no longer exists)\n* Factory: 33 Union Square, 1967–73 (Decker Building)\n* Factory: 860 Broadway (near 33 Union Square), 1973–84 (the building has now been completely remodeled and was for a time (2000–2001) the headquarters of the dot-com consultancy Scient)\n* Factory: 22 East 33rd Street, 1984–87 (the building no longer exists)\n* Home: 1342 Lexington Avenue\n* Home: 57 East 66th Street (Warhol's last home)\n* Last personal studio: 158 Madison Avenue\n\n===Music===\nIn the mid-1960s, Warhol adopted the band the Velvet Underground, making them a crucial element of the Exploding Plastic Inevitable multimedia performance art show. Warhol, with Paul Morrissey, acted as the band's manager, introducing them to Nico (who would perform with the band at Warhol's request). In 1966 he \"produced\" their first album ''The Velvet Underground & Nico'', as well as providing its album art. His actual participation in the album's production amounted to simply paying for the studio time. After the band's first album, Warhol and band leader Lou Reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take, and their artistic friendship ended. In 1989, after Warhol's death, Reed and John Cale re-united for the first time since 1972 to write, perform, record and release the concept album ''Songs for Drella'', a tribute to Warhol.\n\nWarhol designed many album covers for various artists starting with the photographic cover of John Wallowitch's debut album, ''This Is John Wallowitch!!!'' (1964). He designed the cover art for The Rolling Stones' albums ''Sticky Fingers'' (1971) and ''Love You Live'' (1977), and the John Cale albums ''The Academy in Peril'' (1972) and ''Honi Soit'' in 1981. One of Warhol's last works was a portrait of Aretha Franklin for the cover of her 1986 gold album ''Aretha'', which was done in the style of the ''Reigning Queens'' series he had completed the year before.\n\nWarhol strongly influenced the new wave/punk rock band Devo, as well as David Bowie. Bowie recorded a song called \"Andy Warhol\" for his 1971 album ''Hunky Dory''. Lou Reed wrote the song \"Andy's Chest\", about Valerie Solanas, the woman who shot Warhol, in 1968. He recorded it with the Velvet Underground, and this version was released on the ''VU'' album in 1985. Bowie would later play Warhol in the 1996 movie, ''Basquiat''. Bowie recalled how meeting Warhol in real life helped him in the role, and recounted his early meetings with him:\n\n\n===Books and print===\nBeginning in the early 1950s, Warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work.\n\nThe first of several bound self-published books by Warhol was ''25 Cats Name Sam and One Blue Pussy'', printed in 1954 by Seymour Berlin on Arches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs. The original edition was limited to 190 numbered, hand colored copies, using Dr. Martin's ink washes. Most of these were given by Warhol as gifts to clients and friends. Copy No. 4, inscribed \"Jerry\" on the front cover and given to Geraldine Stutz, was used for a facsimile printing in 1987, and the original was auctioned in May 2006 for US $35,000 by Doyle New York.\n\nOther self-published books by Warhol include:\n* ''A Gold Book''\n* ''Wild Raspberries''\n* ''Holy Cats''\n\nWarhol's book ''A La Recherche du Shoe Perdu'' (1955) marked his \"transition from commercial to gallery artist\". (The title is a play on words by Warhol on the title of French author Marcel Proust's ''À la recherche du temps perdu''.)\n\nAfter gaining fame, Warhol \"wrote\" several books that were commercially published:\n* ''a, A Novel'' (1968, ) is a literal transcription—containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling—of audio recordings of Ondine and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.\n* ''The Philosophy of Andy Warhol (From A to B & Back Again)'' (1975, )—according to Pat Hackett's introduction to ''The Andy Warhol Diaries'', Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with Brigid Berlin (also known as Brigid Polk) and former ''Interview'' magazine editor Bob Colacello.\n* ''Popism: The Warhol Sixties'' (1980, ), authored by Warhol and Pat Hackett, is a retrospective view of the 1960s and the role of pop art.\n* ''The Andy Warhol Diaries'' (1989, ), edited by Pat Hackett, is a diary dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited, although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations.\n\nWarhol created the fashion magazine ''Interview'' that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.\n\n===Other media===\nAlthough Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he authored works in many different media.\n* '''Drawing:''' Warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator, producing drawings in \"blotted-ink\" style for advertisements and magazine articles. Best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes. Some of his personal drawings were self-published in small booklets, such as ''Yum, Yum, Yum'' (about food), ''Ho, Ho, Ho'' (about Christmas) and (of course) ''Shoes, Shoes, Shoes''. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably ''A Gold Book'', compiled of sensitive drawings of young men. ''A Gold Book'' is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages. In April 2012 a sketch of 1930s singer Rudy Vallee claimed to have been drawn by Andy Warhol was found at a Las Vegas garage sale. The image was said to have been drawn when Andy was nine or 10. Various authorities have challenged the image's authenticity.\n''Silver Clouds'' Reproduction at the Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris, December 2015, Warhol Unlimited Exposition\n* '''Sculpture:''' Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his ''Brillo Boxes'', silkscreened ink on wood replicas of the large, branded cardboard boxes used to hold 24 packages of Brillo soap pads. The original Brillo design was by commercial artist James Harvey. Warhol's sculpture was part of a series of \"grocery carton\" works that also included Heinz ketchup and Campbell's tomato juice cases. Other famous works include the ''Silver Clouds''—helium filled, silver mylar, pillow-shaped balloons. A ''Silver Cloud'' was included in the traveling exhibition ''Air Art'' (1968–1969) curated by Willoughby Sharp. ''Clouds'' was also adapted by Warhol for avant-garde choreographer Merce Cunningham's dance piece ''RainForest'' (1968).\n* '''Audio:''' At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his \"wife\". Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his ''Invisible Sculpture'', a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.\n* '''Time Capsules:''' In 1973, Warhol began saving ephemera from his daily life—correspondence, newspapers, souvenirs, childhood objects, even used plane tickets and food—which was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed Time Capsules. By the time of his death, the collection grew to include 600, individually dated \"capsules\". The boxes are now housed at the Andy Warhol Museum.\n* '''Television:''' Andy Warhol dreamed of a television special about a favorite subject of hisNothingthat he would call ''The Nothing Special''. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, ''Andy Warhol's TV'' in 1982 and ''Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes'' (based on his famous \"fifteen minutes of fame\" quotation) for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances on other programs, including ''The Love Boat'' wherein a Midwestern wife (Marion Ross) fears Andy Warhol will reveal to her husband (Tom Bosley, who starred alongside Ross in sitcom ''Happy Days'') her secret past as a Warhol superstar named Marina del Rey. Warhol also produced a TV commercial for Schrafft's Restaurants in New York City, for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the \"Underground Sundae\".\n* '''Fashion:''' Warhol is quoted for having said: \"I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?\" One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject. Warhol himself has been described as a modern dandy, whose authority \"rested more on presence than on words\".\n* '''Performance Art:''' Warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues, combining music, film, slide projections and even Gerard Malanga in an S&M outfit cracking a whip. The Exploding Plastic Inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work.\n* '''Theater:''' Andy Warhol's ''Pork'' opened on May 5, 1971, at LaMama theater in New York for a two-week run and was brought to the Roundhouse in London for a longer run in August 1971. ''Pork'' was based on tape-recorded conversations between Brigid Berlin and Andy during which Brigid would play for Andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother, socialite Honey Berlin. The play featured Jayne County as \"Vulva\" and Cherry Vanilla as \"Amanda Pork\". In 1974, Andy Warhol also produced the stage musical ''Man on the Moon'', which was written by John Phillips of the Mamas and the Papas.\n* '''Photography:''' To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. Warhol was an accomplished photographer, and took an enormous amount of photographs of Factory visitors, friends.\n* '''Computer:''' Warhol used Amiga computers to generate digital art, including ''You Are the One'', which he helped design and build with Amiga, Inc. He also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live TV with Debbie Harry as a model. ( video)\n\n===Producer and product===\nWarhol had assistance in producing his paintings. This is also true of his film-making and commercial enterprises.\n\nHe founded the gossip magazine ''Interview'', a stage for celebrities he \"endorsed\" and a business staffed by his friends. He collaborated with others on all of his books (some of which were written with Pat Hackett.) He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground, presenting them to the public as his latest interest, and collaborating with them. One might even say that he produced people (as in the Warholian \"Superstar\" and the Warholian portrait). He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films (he appeared in everything from ''Love Boat'' to ''Saturday Night Live'' and the Richard Pryor movie ''Dynamite Chicken'').\n\nIn this respect Warhol was a fan of \"Art Business\" and \"Business Art\"—he, in fact, wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in ''The Philosophy of Andy Warhol from A to B and Back Again''.\n", "\n===Sexuality===\nWarhol was gay. Interviewed in 1980, he indicated that he was still a virgin—biographer Bob Colacello who was present at the interview felt it was probably true and that what little sex he had was probably \"a mixture of voyeurism and masturbation—to use his Andy's word ''abstract''\". Warhol's assertion of virginity would seem to be contradicted by his hospital treatment in 1960 for condylomata, a sexually transmitted disease. It has also been contradicted by his lovers, including Warhol muse BillyBoy who has said they had sex to orgasm: \"When he wasn't being Andy Warhol and when you were just alone with him he was an incredibly generous and very kind person. What seduced me was the Andy Warhol who I saw alone. In fact when I was with him in public he kind of got on my nerves….I'd say: 'You're just obnoxious, I can't bear you.\" Asked if Warhol was only a voyeur, Billy Name also denied it, saying: \"He was the essence of sexuality. It permeated everything. Andy exuded it, along with his great artistic creativity….It brought a joy to the whole art world in New York.\" \"But his personality was so vulnerable that it became a defense to put up the blank front.\" Warhol's lovers included John Giorno, Billy Name, Charles Lisanby, and Jon Gould. His boyfriend of 12 years was Jed Johnson, whom he met in 1968, and who later achieved fame as an interior designer.\n\nThe fact that Warhol's homosexuality influenced his work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist and is an issue that Warhol himself addressed in interviews, in conversation with his contemporaries, and in his publications (''e.g.'', ''Popism: The Warhol 1960s''). Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of Liza Minnelli, Judy Garland, and Elizabeth Taylor, and films such as ''Blow Job'', ''My Hustler'' and ''Lonesome Cowboys'') draw from gay underground culture or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire. As has been addressed by a range of scholars, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters.\n\nThe first works that Warhol submitted to a fine art gallery, homoerotic drawings of male nudes, were rejected for being too openly gay. In ''Popism'', furthermore, the artist recalls a conversation with the film maker Emile de Antonio about the difficulty Warhol had being accepted socially by the then-more-famous (but closeted) gay artists Jasper Johns and Robert Rauschenberg. De Antonio explained that Warhol was \"too swish and that upsets them.\" In response to this, Warhol writes, \"There was nothing I could say to that. It was all too true. So I decided I just wasn't going to care, because those were all the things that I didn't want to change anyway, that I didn't think I 'should' want to change ... Other people could change their attitudes but not me\". In exploring Warhol's biography, many turn to this period—the late 1950s and early 1960s—as a key moment in the development of his persona. Some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work, to speak about himself (confining himself in interviews to responses like \"Um, no\" and \"Um, yes\", and often allowing others to speak for him)—and even the evolution of his pop style—can be traced to the years when Warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the New York art world.\n\n===Religious beliefs===\nImages of Jesus from ''The Last Supper'' cycle (1986). Warhol made almost 100 variations on the theme, which the Guggenheim felt \"indicates an almost obsessive investment in the subject matter.\"\n\nWarhol was a practicing Ruthenian Catholic. He regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in New York City, particularly during the busier times of the year, and described himself as a religious person. Many of Warhol's later works depicted religious subjects, including two series, ''Details of Renaissance Paintings'' (1984) and ''The Last Supper'' (1986). In addition, a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.\n\nDuring his life, Warhol regularly attended Mass, and the priest at Warhol's church, Saint Vincent Ferrer, said that the artist went there almost daily, although he was not observed taking Communion or going to Confession and sat or knelt in the pews at the back. The priest thought he was afraid of being recognized; Warhol said he was self-conscious about being seen in a Roman Rite church crossing himself \"in the Orthodox way\" (right to left instead of the reverse).\n\nHis art is noticeably influenced by the Eastern Christian tradition which was so evident in his places of worship.\n\nWarhol's brother has described the artist as \"really religious, but he didn't want people to know about that because it was private\". Despite the private nature of his faith, in Warhol's eulogy John Richardson depicted it as devout: \"To my certain knowledge, he was responsible for at least one conversion. He took considerable pride in financing his nephew's studies for the priesthood\".\n\n===Collections===\nWarhol was an avid collector. His friends referred to his numerous collections, which filled not only his four-story townhouse, but also a nearby storage unit, as \"Andy's Stuff.\" The true extent of his collections was not discovered until after his death, when the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh took in 641 boxes of his \"Stuff.\"\n\nWarhol's collections included airplane menus, unpaid invoices, pizza dough, pornographic pulp novels, newspapers, stamps, supermarket flyers, and cookie jars, among other eccentricities. It also included significant works of art, such as George Bellows's ''Miss Bentham''. One of his main collections was his wigs. Warhol owned more than 40 and felt very protective of his hairpieces, which were sewn by a New York wig-maker from hair imported from Italy. In 1985 a girl snatched Warhol's wig off his head. It was later discovered in Warhol's diary entry for that day that he wrote: \"I don't know what held me back from pushing her over the balcony.\"\n\nAnother item found in Warhol's boxes at the museum in Pittsburgh was a mummified human foot from Ancient Egypt. The curator of anthropology at Carnegie Museum of Natural History felt that Warhol most likely found it at a flea market.\n", "Warhol (right) with director Ulli Lommel on the set of 1979's ''Cocaine Cowboys'', in which Warhol appeared as himself\n\n===Films===\n\nWarhol appeared as himself in the film ''Cocaine Cowboys'' (1979).\n\nAfter his death, Warhol was portrayed by Crispin Glover in Oliver Stone's film ''The Doors'' (1991), by David Bowie in Julian Schnabel's film ''Basquiat'' (1996), and by Jared Harris in Mary Harron's film ''I Shot Andy Warhol'' (1996).\n\nWarhol appears as a character in Michael Daugherty's opera ''Jackie O'' (1997). Actor Mark Bringleson makes a brief cameo as Warhol in ''Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery'' (1997).\n\nMany films by avant-garde cineast Jonas Mekas have caught the moments of Warhol's life. Sean Gregory Sullivan depicted Warhol in the film ''54'' (1998). Guy Pearce portrayed Warhol in the film ''Factory Girl'' (2007) about Edie Sedgwick's life. Actor Greg Travis portrays Warhol in a brief scene from the film ''Watchmen'' (2009).\n\nIn the movie ''Highway to Hell'' a group of Andy Warhols are part of the ''Good Intentions Paving Company'' where good-intentioned souls are ground into pavement.\n\nIn the film ''Men in Black 3'' (2012) Andy Warhol turns out to really be undercover MIB Agent W (played by Bill Hader). Warhol is throwing a party at The Factory in 1969, where he is looked up by MIB Agents K and J (J from the future). Agent W is desperate to end his undercover job (\"I'm so out of ideas I'm painting soup cans and bananas, for Christ sakes!\" and \"You gotta fake my death, okay? I can't listen to sitar music anymore.\")\n\nAndy Warhol (portrayed by Tom Meeten) is one of main characters of the 2012 British television show ''Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy''. The character is portrayed as having robot-like mannerisms.\n\nGus Van Sant was planning a version of Warhol's life with River Phoenix in the lead role just before Phoenix's death in 1993.\n\nIn the soon to be released 2017 feature ''The Billionaire Boys Club'' Cary Elwes portrays Warhol in a film based on the true story about Ron Levin (portrayed by Kevin Spacey) a friend of Warhol's who was murdered in 1986.\n\nIn September 2016, it was announced that Jared Leto would portray the title character in ''Warhol'', an upcoming American biographical drama film produced by Michael De Luca and written by Terence Winter, based on the book ''Warhol: The Biography'' by Victor Bockris.\n\n===Documentaries===\nThe documentary ''Absolut Warhola'' (2001) was produced by Polish director Stanislaw Mucha, featuring Warhol's parents' family and hometown in Slovakia.\n ''Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film'' (2006) is a reverential, four-hour movie by Ric Burns that won a Peabody Award in 2006.\n* ''Andy Warhol: Double Denied'' (2006) is a 52-minute movie by Ian Yentob about the difficulties authenticating Warhol's work.\n* ''Andy Warhol's People Factory'' (2008), a three-part television documentary directed by Catherine Shorr, features interviews with several of Warhol's associates.\n\n===Television===\n* Warhol appeared as a recurring character in TV series ''Vinyl'', played by John Cameron Mitchell.\n* In the episode of ''The Simpsons'' \"Mom and Pop Art\", Warhol appears in Homer's nightmare, throwing soup cans at Homer.\n", "In 2002, the U.S. Postal Service issued an 18-cent stamp commemorating Warhol. Designed by Richard Sheaff of Scottsdale, Arizona, the stamp was unveiled at a ceremony at The Andy Warhol Museum and features Warhol's painting \"Self-Portrait, 1964\". In March 2011, a chrome statue of Andy Warhol and his Polaroid camera was revealed at Union Square in New York City.\n", "\n\n* Warhol superstars\n* Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board\n* Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art, Medzilaborce, Slovakia\n* Andy Warhol Bridge, Pittsburgh, PA\n* Bodley Gallery\n* 15 minutes of fame\n* Joel Wachs, president, Andy Warhol Foundation\n* LGBT culture in New York City\n* Moon Museum\n* Painting the Century: 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900–2000\n\n", "\n", "\n* \"A symposium on Pop Art\". ''Arts Magazine'', April 1963, pp. 36–45. The symposium was held in 1962, at The Museum of Modern Art, and published in this issue the following year.\n* \n* Celant, Germano. ''Andy Warhol: A Factory''. Kunstmuseum Wolfsbug, 1999. \n* \n* \n* \n* Doyle, Jennifer, Jonathan Flatley, and José Esteban Muñoz eds. (1996). ''Pop Out: Queer Warhol.'' Durham: Duke University Press.\n* \n* \n* \n* James, James, \"Andy Warhol: The Producer as Author\", in ''Allegories of Cinema: American Film in the 1960s'' (1989), pp. 58–84. Princeton: Princeton University Press.\n* \n* Krauss, Rosalind E. \"Warhol's Abstract Spectacle\". In ''Abstraction, Gesture, Ecriture: Paintings from the Daros Collection''. New York: Scalo, 1999, pp. 123–33.\n* Lippard, Lucy R., ''Pop Art'', Thames and Hudson, 1970 (1985 reprint), \n* \n* \n* Scherman, Tony, & David Dalton, ''POP: The Genius of Andy Warhol'', New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2009\n* Suarez, Juan Antonio (1996). ''Bike Boys, Drag Queens, & Superstars: Avant-Garde, Mass Culture, and Gay Identities in the 1960s Underground Cinema.'' Indianapolis: Indiana University Press.\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n* \n* Warhol Grave Site – Earthcam live streaming webcam\n* Andy Warhol at the National Gallery of Art\n* Andy Warhol, (1928–1987) – The Carpathian Connection\n* Warhol Foundation in New York City\n* Andy Warhol Collection in Pittsburgh\n* Time Capsules: the Andy Warhol Collection\n* Documentation of recent exhibitions of work by Andy Warhol\n* The work of Andy Warhol spoken about by David Cronenberg on UbuWeb\n* \n* Warholstars: Andy Warhol Films, Art and Superstars\n* Art Directors Club biography, portrait and images of work\n* \n* The Andy Warhol Museum of Modern Art—city of origin\n* \n* Warhol & The Computer\n* ''Andy Warhol: A Documentary film'' by Ric Burns for PBS\n* Andy Warhol\n* Designer Peter Jensen takes you on a tour of the early drawings of Andy Warhol. Video by Louisiana Channel, Denmark, 2013.\n* Andy Warhol in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler Collection\n* Andy Warhol: Film, Video and TV. Fundació Antoni Tàpies\n* Andy Warhol at the Jewish Museum\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Foundation", "Works", "Personal life", "Media about Warhol", "Honors", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Andy Warhol
[ "\n\n\n'''Alp Arslan''' (honorific in Turkish meaning \"Heroic Lion\"; in ; full name: ''Diya ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abu Shuja Muhammad Alp Arslan ibn Dawud'' ; 20 January 1029 – 15 December 1072), real name '''Muhammad bin Dawud Chaghri''', was the second Sultan of the Seljuk Empire and great-grandson of Seljuk, the eponymous founder of the dynasty. As Sultan, Alp Arslan greatly expanded Seljuk territory and consolidated power, defeating rivals to his south and northwest. His victory over the Byzantines at Manzikert ushered in the Turkish settlement of Anatolia. For his military prowess and fighting skills he obtained the name ''Alp Arslan'', which means \"Heroic Lion\" in Turkish.\n", "\nAlp Arslan accompanied his uncle, Tughril Bey, on campaigns in the south against the Shia Fatimids while his father, Çağrı Bey, remained in Khorasan. Upon Alp Arslan's return to Khorasan, he began his work in administration at his father's suggestion. While there, his father introduced him to Nizam al-Mulk, one of the most eminent statesmen in early Muslim history and Alp Arslan's future vizier.\n\nAfter the death of his father, Alp Arslan succeeded him as governor of Khorasan in 1059. His uncle Tughril died in 1063 and was succeeded by Suleiman, Arslan's brother. Arslan and his uncle Kutalmish both contested this succession. (''see'' Battle of Damghan (1063)) Arslan defeated Kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 April 1064 as sultan of Great Seljuq, thus becoming sole monarch of Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris.\n\nIn consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions, Arslan was ably assisted by Nizam al-Mulk, and the two are credited with helping to stabilize the empire after the death of Tughril. With peace and security established in his dominions, Arslan convoked an assembly of the states and in 1066, he declared his son Malik Shah I his heir and successor. With the hope of capturing Caesarea Mazaca, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates, and entered and invaded the city. Along with Nizam al-Mulk, he then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which he conquered in 1064. After a siege of 25 days, the Seljuks captured Ani, the capital city of Armenia, and slaughtered its population. An account of the sack and massacres in Ani is given by the Arab historian Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, who quotes an eyewitness saying:\n\n", "Aftermath of the Battle of Manzikert, a diorama at the Istanbul Military Museum\n\nEn route to fight the Fatimids in Syria in 1068, Alp Arslan invaded the Byzantine Empire. The Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes, assuming command in person, met the invaders in Cilicia. In three arduous campaigns, the Turks were defeated in detail and driven across the Euphrates in 1070. The first two campaigns were conducted by the emperor himself, while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenos, great-uncle of Emperor Manuel Comnenos. During this time, Arslan gained the allegiance of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the Mirdasid emir of Aleppo.\n\nIn 1071 Romanos again took the field and advanced into Armenia with possibly 30,000 men, including a contingent of Cuman Turks as well as contingents of Franks and Normans, under Ursel de Baieul. Alp Arslan, who had moved his troops south to fight the Fatimids, quickly reversed to meet the Byzantines. At Manzikert, on the Murat River, north of Lake Van, the two forces waged the Battle of Manzikert. The Cuman mercenaries among the Byzantine forces immediately defected to the Turkish side. Seeing this, \"the Western mercenaries rode off and took no part in the battle.\" To be exact, Romanos was betrayed by general Andronikos Doukas, son of the Caesar (Romanos's stepson), who pronounced him dead and rode off with a large part of the Byzantine forces at a critical moment. The Byzantines were totally routed.\n\nEmperor Romanos IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan. After a ritual humiliation, Arslan treated him with generosity. After peace terms were agreed to, Arslan dismissed the Emperor, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. The following conversation is said to have taken place after Romanos was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan:\n\nAlp Arslan humiliating Emperor Romanos IV after the Battle of Manzikert. From a 15th-century illustrated French translation of Boccacio's ''De Casibus Virorum Illustrium.\n\n\n\nAlp Arslan's victories changed the balance in near Asia completely in favour of the Seljuq Turks and Sunni Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly four more centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, the victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in Anatolia. Most historians, including Edward Gibbon, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire.\n", "\nAlp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm. Domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, the founder of the administrative organization that characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuq princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Anatolian agricultural scene. This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary Persians, Turks, and other established cultures within the Seljuq realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiers. He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars.\n\nAccording to the poet Saadi Shirazi:\n\nArslan possessed a fort, which raised at the height of Alwand, from all were those within its walls, for its roads were a labyrinth, like the curls of a bride. From a learned traveler Arslan once inquired: \"Didst thou ever, in thy wanderings, see a fort as strong as this?\" \"Splendid it is,\" was the traveler's reply, \"but methinks not it confers much strength. Before thee, did not other kings possess it for a while, then pass away? After thee, will not other kings assume control, and eat the fruits of the tree of thy hope?\"\n\nIn the estimation of the wise, the world is a false gem that passes each moment from one hand to another. (The fort was sacked by the Mongols led by Hulagu.)\n\n\nSuleiman ibn Kutalmish was the son of the contender for Arslan's throne; he was appointed governor of the north-western provinces and assigned to completing the invasion of Anatolia. An explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from Ibn al-Athir’s account of the battle between Alp-Arslan and Kutalmish, in which he writes that Alp-Arslan wept for the latter's death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman.\n", "\nAfter Manzikert, the dominion of Alp Arslan extended over much of western Asia. He soon prepared to march for the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf al-Kharezmi, a Khwarezmian. He was obliged to surrender, however, and was carried as a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, who took great pride in his reputation as an archer, motioned to his guards not to interfere. He drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died from this wound four days later, on 25 November 1072, in his 42nd year, and he was taken to Merv to be buried next to his father, Chaghri Beg.\n", "\nAlp Arslan is widely regarded as having begun Anatolianism, although unintentionally. His victory at Manzikert is often cited as the beginning of the end of Byzantine power in Anatolia, and the beginning of Turkish identity there.\n\nAlp Arslan's conquest of Anatolia from the Byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the crusades.\n\nFrom 2002 to July 2008 under Turkmen calendar reform, the month of August was named after Alp Arslan.\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early career ", " Byzantine struggle ", " State organization ", " Death ", " Legacy ", " References ", " Sources " ]	Alp Arslan
[ "\n\nThe '''American Film Institute''' ('''AFI''') is an American film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the United States. AFI is supported by private funding and public membership.\n", "The institute is composed of leaders from the film, entertainment, business and academic communities. A board of trustees chaired by Sir Howard Stringer and a board of directors chaired by Robert A. Daly guide the organization, which is led by President and CEO, film historian Bob Gazzale (as of October 2014). Prior leaders were founding director George Stevens, Jr. (from the organizations inception in 1967 until 1980) and Jean Picker Firstenberg (from 1980 to 2007).\n", "The American Film Institute was founded by a 1965 presidential mandate announced in the Rose Garden of the White House by Lyndon B. Johnson – to establish a national arts organization to preserve the legacy of American film heritage, educate the next generation of filmmakers and honor the artists and their work. Two years later, in 1967, AFI was established, supported by the National Endowment for the Arts, the Motion Picture Association of America and the Ford Foundation.\n\nThe original 22-member Board of Trustees included actor Gregory Peck as chairman and actor Sidney Poitier as vice-chairman as well as director Francis Ford Coppola,film historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. and lobbyist Jack Valenti and other representatives from the arts and academia.\n\nThe institute established a training program for filmmakers known then as the Center for Advanced Film Studies. Also created in the early years were a repertory film exhibition program at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and the AFI Catalog of Feature Films — a scholarly source for American film history. The institute moved to its current eight-acre Hollywood campus in 1981. The film training program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate school.\n\nAFI moved its presentation of first-run and auteur films from the Kennedy Center to the historic AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center, which now hosts two major film festivals – AFI FEST and AFI DOCS – making AFI the largest nonprofit film exhibitor in the world. AFI educates audiences and recognizes artistic excellence through its awards programs and 10 Top 10 Lists.\n", "AFI educational and cultural programs include:\n* AFI Catalog of Feature Films and AFI Archive – the written history of all feature films during the first 100 years of the art form – accessible free online;\n* AFI Conservatory – a film school led by master filmmakers in a graduate level program;\n* AFI Life Achievement Award – a tradition since 1973, a high honor for a career in film;\n* AFI Awards – an honor celebrating the creative ensembles of the most outstanding motion picture and television programs of the year;\n* AFI 100 Years... series – television events and movie reference lists;\n* AFI's two film festivals – in Los Angeles, AFI Fest presented by Audi and in Silver Spring, Maryland, AFI Docs presented by Audi;\n* AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center – an historic theater with year-round art house, first-run and classic film programming in Silver Spring, Maryland;\n* ''American Film'' – an e-magazine that explores the art of new and historic film classics.\n", "In 1969, the institute established the AFI Conservatory for Advanced Film Studies at Greystone, the Doheny Mansion in Beverly Hills, California. The first class included filmmakers Terrence Malick, Caleb Deschanel and Paul Schrader. That program grew into the AFI Conservatory, an accredited graduate film school located in the hills above Hollywood, California, providing training in six filmmaking disciplines: cinematography, directing, editing, producing, production design and screenwriting. Mirroring a professional production environment, Fellows collaborate to make more films than any other graduate level program. Admission to AFI Conservatory is highly selective, with a maximum of 140 graduates per year.\n\nIn 2013, Emmy and Oscar-winning director, producer and screenwriter James L. Brooks (''As Good as It Gets'', ''Broadcast News'', ''Terms of Endearment'') joined AFI as Artistic Director of the AFI Conservatory where he provides leadership for the film program. Brooks' artistic role at the AFI Conservatory has a rich legacy that includes Daniel Petrie, Jr., Robert Wise and Frank Pierson. Award-winning director Bob Mandel served as Dean of the AFI Conservatory for nine years. Jan Schuette took over as Dean in 2014 and served until 2017. Film Producer Richard Gladstein became Dean on July 1, 2017.\n\n===Notable alumni===\nAFI Conservatory's alumni have careers in film, television and on the web. They have been recognized with all of the major industry awards – Academy Award, Emmy Award, guild awards, and the Tony Award.\n\nAmong the alumni of AFI are Andrea Arnold, (''Red Road'', ''Fish Tank''), Darren Aronofsky (''Requiem for a Dream'', ''Black Swan''), Carl Colpaert (''Gas Food Lodging'', ''Hurlyburly'', ''Swimming with Sharks''), Doug Ellin (''Entourage''), Todd Field (''In the Bedroom'', ''Little Children''), Jack Fisk (''Badlands'', ''Days of Heaven'', ''There Will Be Blood''), Carl Franklin (''One False Move'', ''Devil in a Blue Dress'', ''House of Cards''), Patty Jenkins (Monster, Wonder Woman),Janusz Kamiński (''Lincoln'', ''Schindler's List'', ''Saving Private Ryan''), Matthew Libatique (''Noah'', ''Black Swan''), David Lynch (''Mulholland Drive'', ''Blue Velvet''), Terrence Malick (''Days of Heaven'', ''The Thin Red Line'', ''The Tree of Life''), Victor Nuñez, (''Ruby in Paradise'', ''Ulee's Gold''), Wally Pfister (''Memento'', ''The Dark Knight'', ''Inception''), Robert Richardson (''Platoon'', ''JFK'', ''Django Unchained'') and many others.\n", "\n\n===AFI Catalog of Feature Films===\nThe AFI Catalog, started in 1968, is a web-based filmographic database. A research tool for film historians, the catalog consists of entries on more than 60,000 feature films and 17,000 short films produced from 1893–2011, as well as AFI Awards Outstanding Movies of the Year from 2000 through 2010. Early print copies of this catalog may also be found at your local library.\n\n===AFI Life Achievement Award===\n\n\n===AFI Awards===\nEach year the AFI Awards honor the ten outstanding films (\"Movies of the Year\") and ten outstanding television programs (\"TV Programs of the Year\"). The awards are a non-competitive acknowledgement of excellence.\n\nThe Awards are announced in December and a private luncheon for award honorees takes place the following January.\n\n===AFI Maya Deren Award===\nFrom 1986 to 1996, AFI honored independent experimental filmmakers and video artists such as animator Sally Cruikshank, collage artist Bruce Conner and documentary filmmaker Chick Strand for their contribution to independent filmmaking.\n\n===AFI 100 Years... series===\nThe AFI 100 Years... series, which ran from 1998 to 2008 and created jury-selected lists of America's best movies in categories such as Musicals, Laughs and Thrills, prompted new generations to experience classic American films. The juries consisted of over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics and historians, with movies selected based on the film's popularity over time, historical significance and cultural impact. ''Citizen Kane'' was voted the greatest American film twice.\n\n===AFI film festivals===\nAFI operates two film festivals: AFI Fest in Los Angeles, and AFI Docs (formally known as Silverdocs) in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C..\n\n====AFI Fest====\nAFI Fest is the American Film Institute's annual celebration of artistic excellence. The festival is a showcase for the best festival films of the year and an opportunity for master filmmakers and emerging artists to come together with audiences in the movie capital of the world. AFI Fest is the only festival of its stature that is free to the public. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognizes AFI Fest as a qualifying festival for the Short Films category for the annual Academy Awards.\n\nThe festival has paid tribute to numerous influential filmmakers and artists over the years, including Agnès Varda, Pedro Almodóvar and David Lynch as guest artistic directors, and has screened scores of films that have produced Oscar nominations and wins. The American Film Market (AFM) is the market partner of AFI Fest. Audi is the festival's presenting sponsor. Additional sponsors include American Airlines and Stella Artois.\n\n====AFI Docs====\nHeld annually in June, AFI Docs (formerly Silverdocs) is a documentary festival in Washington, D.C.. The festival attracts over 27,000 documentary enthusiasts.\n\n===AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center===\nThe AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center is a moving image exhibition, education and cultural center located in Silver Spring, Maryland. Anchored by the restoration of noted architect John Eberson's historic 1938 Silver Theatre, it features 32,000 square feet of new construction housing two stadium theatres, office and meeting space, and reception and exhibit areas.\n\nThe AFI Silver Theatre and Cultural Center presents film and video programming, augmented by filmmaker interviews, panels, discussions,and musical performances.\n\n===The AFI Directing Workshop for Women===\nThe Directing Workshop for Women is a training program committed to educating and mentoring participants in an effort to increase the number of women working professionally in screen directing. In this tuition-free program, each participant is required to complete a short film by the end of the year-long program.\n\nAlumnae of the program include Maya Angelou, Anne Bancroft, Dyan Cannon, Ellen Burstyn, Jennifer Getzinger, Lesli Linka Glatter and Nancy Malone.\n", "AFI released a set of hour-long programs reviewing the career of acclaimed directors. The Directors Series content was copyrighted in 1997 by Media Entertainment Inc and The American Film Institute, and the VHS and DVDs were released between 1999 and 2001 on Winstar TV and Video.\n\nDirectors featured included:\n\n* John McTiernan (WHE73067)\n* Ron Howard (WHE73068)\n* Sydney Pollack (WHE73071)\n* Norman Jewison (WHE73076)\n* Lawrence Kasdan (WHE73088)\n* Terry Gilliam (WHE73089)\n* Spike Lee (WHE73090)\n* Barry Levinson (WHE73093)\n* Miloš Forman (WHE73094)\n* Martin Scorsese (WHE73098)\n* Barbra Streisand (WHE73099)\n* David Cronenberg (WHE73101)\n* Robert Zemeckis (WHE73131)\n* Robert Altman\n* John Frankenheimer\n* Adrian Lyne\n* Garry Marshall\n* William Friedkin\n* Clint Eastwood\n* David Zucker, Jim Abrahams and Jerry Zucker\n* Roger Corman\n* Michael Mann\n* James Cameron\n* Rob Reiner\n* Joel Schumacher\n* Steven Spielberg\n* Wes Craven\n\n", "Indian investigative journalist Rana Ayyub posed as Maithili Tyagi, a student from the institute. She stung many bureaucrats of Gujarat in an undercover investigation to reveal their views on post-2002 Gujarat riots and Police encounter killings. She has documented the verbatim transcript of these recordings in her 2016 book ''Gujarat Files:Anatomy of a Cover Up''.\n", "\n* British Film Institute, the British equivalent to AFI\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - history and information\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Membership", "History", "List of programs in brief", "AFI Conservatory", "AFI programs", "AFI Directors Series", "In popular culture", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	American Film Institute
[ "\n\n\n\n\n was a Japanese film director and screenwriter. Regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers in the history of cinema, he directed 30 films in a career spanning 57 years.\n\nKurosawa entered the Japanese film industry in 1936, following a brief stint as a painter. After years of working on numerous films as an assistant director and scriptwriter, he made his debut as a director during World War II with the popular action film ''Sanshiro Sugata'' (a.k.a. ''Judo Saga''). After the war, the critically acclaimed ''Drunken Angel'' (1948), in which Kurosawa cast then-unknown actor Toshiro Mifune in a starring role, cemented the director's reputation as one of the most important young filmmakers in Japan. The two men would go on to collaborate on another 15 films.\n\n''Rashomon'', which premiered in Tokyo, became the surprise winner of the Golden Lion at the 1952 Venice Film Festival. The commercial and critical success of that film opened up Western film markets for the first time to the products of the Japanese film industry, which in turn led to international recognition for other Japanese filmmakers. Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, Kurosawa directed approximately a film a year, including a number of highly regarded (and often adapted) films, such as ''Ikiru'' (1952), ''Seven Samurai'' (1954) and ''Yojimbo'' (1961). After the 1960s, he became much less prolific, though his later work—including his final two epics, ''Kagemusha'' (1980) and ''Ran'' (1985)—continued to win awards though more often abroad than in Japan.\n\nIn 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement. Posthumously, he was named \"Asian of the Century\" in the \"Arts, Literature, and Culture\" category by ''AsianWeek'' magazine and CNN, cited there as being among the five people who most prominently contributed to the improvement of Asia in the past century. His career has been honored by many retrospectives, critical studies and biographies in both print and video, and by releases in many consumer media formats.\n", "===Childhood to war years (1910–1945)===\n====Childhood and youth (1910–35)====\n was born on March 23, 1910, in Ōimachi in the Ōmori district of Tokyo. His father Isamu, a member of a former samurai family from Akita Prefecture, worked as the director of the Army's Physical Education Institute's lower secondary school, while his mother Shima came from a merchant's family living in Osaka. Akira was the eighth and youngest child of the moderately wealthy family, with two of his siblings already grown up at the time of his birth and one deceased, leaving Kurosawa to grow up with three sisters and a brother.\n\nIn addition to promoting physical exercise, Isamu Kurosawa was open to Western traditions and considered theater and motion pictures to have educational merit. He encouraged his children to watch films; young Akira viewed his first movies at the age of six. An important formative influence was his elementary school teacher Mr Tachikawa, whose progressive educational practices ignited in his young pupil first a love of drawing and then an interest in education in general. During this time, the boy also studied calligraphy and Kendo swordsmanship.\n\nAnother major childhood influence was Heigo Kurosawa, Akira's older brother by four years. In the aftermath of the Great Kantō earthquake of 1923, which devastated Tokyo, Heigo took the 13-year-old Akira to view the devastation. When the younger brother wanted to look away from the human corpses and animal carcasses scattered everywhere, Heigo forbade him to do so, instead encouraging Akira to face his fears by confronting them directly. Some commentators have suggested that this incident would influence Kurosawa's later artistic career, as the director was seldom hesitant to confront unpleasant truths in his work.\n\nHeigo was academically gifted, but soon after failing to secure a place in Tokyo's foremost high school, he began to detach himself from the rest of the family, preferring to concentrate on his interest in foreign literature. In the late 1920s, Heigo became a benshi (silent film narrator) for Tokyo theaters showing foreign films, and quickly made a name for himself. Akira, who at this point planned to become a painter, moved in with him, and the two brothers became inseparable. With Heigo's guidance, Akira devoured not only films but also theater and circus performances, while exhibiting his paintings and working for the left-wing Proletarian Artists' League. However, he was never able to make a living with his art, and, as he began to perceive most of the proletarian movement as \"putting unfulfilled political ideals directly onto the canvas\", he lost his enthusiasm for painting.\n\nWith the increasing production of talking pictures in the early 1930s, film narrators like Heigo began to lose work, and Akira moved back in with his parents. In July 1933, Heigo committed suicide. Kurosawa has commented on the lasting sense of loss he felt at his brother's death and the chapter of his autobiography (''Something Like an Autobiography'') that describes it—written nearly half a century after the event—is titled, \"A Story I Don't Want to Tell\". Only four months later, Kurosawa's eldest brother also died, leaving Akira, at age 23, the only one of the Kurosawa brothers still living, together with his three surviving sisters.\n\n====Director in training (1935–41)====\nYamamoto was Kurosawa's mentor. Kurosawa was assistant director for over a dozen of Yamamoto's films.\nIn 1935, the new film studio Photo Chemical Laboratories, known as P.C.L. (which later became the major studio, Toho), advertised for assistant directors. Although he had demonstrated no previous interest in film as a profession, Kurosawa submitted the required essay, which asked applicants to discuss the fundamental deficiencies of Japanese films and find ways to overcome them. His half-mocking view was that if the deficiencies were fundamental, there was no way to correct them. Kurosawa's essay earned him a call to take the follow-up exams, and director Kajirō Yamamoto, who was among the examiners, took a liking to Kurosawa and insisted that the studio hire him. The 25-year-old Kurosawa joined P.C.L. in February 1936.\n\nDuring his five years as an assistant director, Kurosawa worked under numerous directors, but by far the most important figure in his development was Yamamoto. Of his 24 films as A.D., he worked on 17 under Yamamoto, many of them comedies featuring the popular actor Ken'ichi Enomoto, known as \"Enoken\". Yamamoto nurtured Kurosawa's talent, promoting him directly from third assistant director to chief assistant director after a year. Kurosawa's responsibilities increased, and he worked at tasks ranging from stage construction and film development to location scouting, script polishing, rehearsals, lighting, dubbing, editing and second-unit directing. In the last of Kurosawa's films as an assistant director for Yamamoto, ''Horse'' (''Uma'', 1941), Kurosawa took over most of the production, as his mentor was occupied with the shooting of another film.\n\nOne important piece of advice Yamamoto gave Kurosawa was that a good director needed to master screenwriting. Kurosawa soon realized that the potential earnings from his scripts were much higher than what he was paid as an assistant director. Kurosawa would later write or co-write all of his own films. He also frequently wrote screenplays for other directors such as for the antiwar film director Satsuo Yamamoto's film, ''A Triumph of Wings'' (''Tsubasa no gaika'', 1942). This outside scriptwriting would serve Kurosawa as a lucrative sideline lasting well into the 1960s, long after he became world-famous.\n\n====Wartime films and marriage (1942–45)====\nIn the two years following the release of ''Horse'' in 1941, Kurosawa searched for a story he could use to launch his directing career. Towards the end of 1942, about a year after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, novelist Tsuneo Tomita published his Musashi Miyamoto-inspired judo novel, ''Sanshiro Sugata'', the advertisements for which intrigued Kurosawa. He bought the book on its publication day, devoured it in one sitting, and immediately asked Toho to secure the film rights. Kurosawa's initial instinct proved correct as, within a few days, three other major Japanese studios also offered to buy the rights. Toho prevailed, and Kurosawa began pre-production on his debut work as director.\n\nPromotional poster from Kurosawa's first film, ''Sanshiro Sugata'' in 1943, as a fully credited Director.\nShooting of ''Sanshiro Sugata'' began on location in Yokohama in December 1942. Production proceeded smoothly, but getting the completed film past the censors was an entirely different matter. The censorship office considered the work to be objectionably \"British-American\" by the standards of wartime Japan, and it was only through the intervention of director Yasujirō Ozu, who championed the film, that ''Sanshiro Sugata'' was finally accepted for release on March 25, 1943. (Kurosawa had just turned 33.) The movie became both a critical and commercial success. Nevertheless, the censorship office would later decide to cut out some 18 minutes of footage, much of which is now considered lost.\n\nHe next turned to the subject of wartime female factory workers in ''The Most Beautiful'', a propaganda film which he shot in a semi-documentary style in early 1944. In order to coax realistic performances from his actresses, the director had them live in a real factory during the shoot, eat the factory food and call each other by their character names. He would use similar methods with his performers throughout his career.\n\nDuring production, the actress playing the leader of the factory workers, Yōko Yaguchi, was chosen by her colleagues to present their demands to the director. She and Kurosawa were constantly at loggerheads, and it was through these arguments that the two, paradoxically, became close. They married on May 21, 1945, with Yaguchi two months pregnant (she never resumed her acting career), and the couple would remain together until her death in 1985. They would have two children: a son, Hisao, born December 20, 1945, who would serve as producer on some of his father's last projects, and Kazuko, a daughter, born April 29, 1954, who would become a costume designer.\n\nShortly before his marriage, Kurosawa was pressured by the studio against his will to direct a sequel to his debut film. The often blatantly propagandistic ''Sanshiro Sugata Part II'', which premiered in May 1945, is generally considered one of his weakest pictures.\n\nKurosawa decided to write the script for a film that would be both censor-friendly and less expensive to produce. ''The Men Who Tread on the Tiger's Tail'', based on the Kabuki play ''Kanjinchō'' and starring the comedian Enoken, with whom Kurosawa had often worked during his assistant director days, was completed in September 1945. By this time, Japan had surrendered and the occupation of Japan had begun. The new American censors interpreted the values allegedly promoted in the picture as overly \"feudal\" and banned the work. (It would not be released until 1952, the year another Kurosawa film, ''Ikiru'', was also released.) Ironically, while in production, the film had already been savaged by Japanese wartime censors as too Western and \"democratic\" (they particularly disliked the comic porter played by Enoken), so the movie most probably would not have seen the light of day even if the war had continued beyond its completion.\n\n===Early postwar years to ''Red Beard'' (1946–1965)===\n====First postwar works (1946–50)====\nAfter the war, Kurosawa, influenced by the democratic ideals of the Occupation, sought to make films that would establish a new respect towards the individual and the self. The first such film, ''No Regrets for Our Youth'' (1946), inspired by both the 1933 Takigawa incident and the Hotsumi Ozaki wartime spy case, criticized Japan's prewar regime for its political oppression. Atypically for the director, the heroic central character is a woman, Yukie (Setsuko Hara), who born into upper-middle-class privilege, comes to question her values in a time of political crisis. The original script had to be extensively rewritten and, because of its controversial theme (and because the protagonist was a woman), the completed work divided critics, but it nevertheless managed to win the approval of audiences, who turned variations on the film's title into a postwar catchphrase.\n\nHis next film, ''One Wonderful Sunday'' premiered in July 1947 to mixed reviews. It is a relatively uncomplicated and sentimental love story dealing with an impoverished postwar couple trying to enjoy, within the devastation of postwar Tokyo, their one weekly day off. The movie bears the influence of Frank Capra, D. W. Griffith and F. W. Murnau, each of whom was among Kurosawa's favorite directors. Another film released in 1947 with Kurosawa's involvement was the action-adventure thriller, ''Snow Trail'', directed by Senkichi Taniguchi from Kurosawa's screenplay. It marked the debut of the intense young actor Toshiro Mifune. It was Kurosawa who, with his mentor Yamamoto, had intervened to persuade Toho to sign Mifune, during an audition in which the young man greatly impressed Kurosawa, but managed to alienate most of the other judges.\n\nToshiro Mifune electrified audiences as a rebellious but critically ill gangster in ''Drunken Angel'' (1948), considered Akira Kurosawa's breakthrough film.\|alt=Photo of the very young Japanese actor, Toshiro Mifune in the late 1940s, facing left, his hair hanging over his forehead, with an intense and angry look on his face.\n''Drunken Angel'' is often considered the director's first major work. Although the script, like all of Kurosawa's occupation-era works, had to go through forced rewrites due to American censorship, Kurosawa felt that this was the first film in which he was able to express himself freely. A grittily realistic story of a doctor who tries to save a gangster (yakuza) with tuberculosis, it was also the director's first film with Toshiro Mifune, who would proceed to play either the main or a major character in all but one (''Ikiru'') of the director's next 16 films. While Mifune was not cast as the protagonist in ''Drunken Angel'', his explosive performance as the gangster so dominates the drama that he shifted the focus from the title character, the alcoholic doctor played by Takashi Shimura, who had already appeared in several Kurosawa movies. However, Kurosawa did not want to smother the young actor's immense vitality, and Mifune's rebellious character electrified audiences in much the way that Marlon Brando's defiant stance would startle American film audiences a few years later. The film premiered in Tokyo in April 1948 to rave reviews and was chosen by the prestigious Kinema Junpo critics poll as the best film of its year, the first of three Kurosawa movies to be so honored.\n\nKurosawa, with producer Sōjirō Motoki and fellow directors and friends Kajiro Yamamoto, Mikio Naruse and Senkichi Taniguchi, formed a new independent production unit called Film Art Association (Eiga Geijutsu Kyōkai). For this organization's debut work, and first film for Daiei studios, Kurosawa turned to a contemporary play by Kazuo Kikuta and, together with Taniguchi, adapted it for the screen. ''The Quiet Duel'' starred Toshiro Mifune as an idealistic young doctor struggling with syphilis, a deliberate attempt by Kurosawa to break the actor away from being typecast as gangsters. Released in March 1949, it was a box office success, but is generally considered one of the director's lesser achievements.\n\nHis second film of 1949, also produced by Film Art Association and released by Shintoho, was ''Stray Dog''. It is a detective movie (perhaps the first important Japanese film in that genre) that explores the mood of Japan during its painful postwar recovery through the story of a young detective, played by Mifune, and his fixation on the recovery of his handgun, which was stolen by a penniless war veteran who proceeds to use it to rob and murder. Adapted from an unpublished novel by Kurosawa in the style of a favorite writer of his, Georges Simenon, it was the director's first collaboration with screenwriter Ryuzo Kikushima, who would later help to script eight other Kurosawa films. A famous, virtually wordless sequence, lasting over eight minutes, shows the detective, disguised as an impoverished veteran, wandering the streets in search of the gun thief; it employed actual documentary footage of war-ravaged Tokyo neighborhoods shot by Kurosawa's friend, Ishirō Honda, the future director of ''Gojira'' (a.k.a. ''Godzilla''). The film is considered a precursor to the contemporary police procedural and buddy cop film genres.\n\n''Scandal'', released by Shochiku in April 1950, was inspired by the director's personal experiences with, and anger towards, Japanese yellow journalism. The work is an ambitious mixture of courtroom drama and social problem film about free speech and personal responsibility, but even Kurosawa regarded the finished product as dramatically unfocused and unsatisfactory, and almost all critics agree. However, it would be Kurosawa's second film of 1950, ''Rashomon'', that would ultimately win him, and Japanese cinema, a whole new international audience.\n\n====International recognition (1950–58)====\nAfter finishing ''Scandal'', Kurosawa was approached by Daiei studios, which asked the director to make another film for them. Kurosawa picked a script by an aspiring young screenwriter, Shinobu Hashimoto, with whom he would eventually work on nine of his films. Their first joint effort was based on Ryūnosuke Akutagawa's experimental short story ''In a Grove'', which recounts the murder of a samurai and the rape of his wife from various different and conflicting points-of-view. Kurosawa saw potential in the script, and with Hashimoto's help, polished and expanded it and then pitched it to Daiei, who were happy to accept the project due to its low budget.\n\nShooting of ''Rashomon'' began on July 7, 1950, and, after extensive location work in the primeval forest of Nara, wrapped on August 17. Just one week was spent in hurried post-production, hampered by a studio fire, and the finished film premiered at Tokyo's Imperial Theatre on August 25, expanding nationwide the following day. The movie was met by lukewarm reviews, with many critics puzzled by its unique theme and treatment, but it was nevertheless a moderate financial success for Daiei.\n\nKurosawa's favorite author was Dostoyevsky whose novel ''The Idiot'' he adapted into a film version in 1951.\nKurosawa's next film, for Shochiku, was ''The Idiot'', an adaptation of the novel by the director's favorite writer, Fyodor Dostoyevsky. The filmmaker relocated the story from Russia to Hokkaido, but it is otherwise very faithful to the original, a fact seen by many critics as detrimental to the work. A studio-mandated edit shortened it from Kurosawa's original cut of 265 minutes (nearly four-and-a-half hours) to just 166 minutes, making the resulting narrative exceedingly difficult to follow. It is widely considered today to be one of the director's least successful works. Contemporary reviews were very negative, but the film was a moderate success at the box office, largely because of the popularity of one of its stars, Setsuko Hara.\n\nMeanwhile, unbeknownst to Kurosawa, ''Rashomon'' had been entered in the prestigious Venice Film Festival, due to the efforts of Giuliana Stramigioli, a Japan-based representative of an Italian film company, who had seen and admired the movie and convinced Daiei to submit it. On September 10, 1951, ''Rashomon'' was awarded the festival's highest prize, the Golden Lion, shocking not only Daiei but the international film world, which at the time was largely unaware of Japan's decades-old cinematic tradition.\n\nAfter Daiei very briefly exhibited a subtitled print of the film in Los Angeles, RKO purchased distribution rights to ''Rashomon'' in the United States. The company was taking a considerable gamble. It had put out only one prior subtitled film in the American market, and the only previous Japanese talkie commercially released in New York had been Mikio Naruse's comedy, ''Wife! Be Like a Rose'', in 1937: a critical and box-office flop. However, ''Rashomon''s commercial run, greatly helped by strong reviews from critics and even the columnist Ed Sullivan, was very successful. (It earned $35,000 in its first three weeks at a single New York theater, an almost unheard-of sum at the time.)\n\nThis success in turn led to a vogue in America and the West for Japanese movies throughout the 1950s, replacing the enthusiasm for Italian neorealist cinema. For example, by the end of 1952 ''Rashamon'' was released in Japan, the United States, and most of Europe. Among the Japanese filmmakers whose work, as a result, began to win festival prizes and commercial release in the West were Kenji Mizoguchi (''The Life of Oharu'', ''Ugetsu'', ''Sansho the Bailiff'') and, somewhat later, Yasujirō Ozu (''Tokyo Story'', ''An Autumn Afternoon'')—artists highly respected in Japan but, prior to this period, almost totally unknown in the West. Kurosawa's growing reputation among Western audiences in the 1950s would make Western audiences more sympathetic to the reception of later generations of Japanese filmmakers ranging from Kon Ichikawa, Masaki Kobayashi, Nagisa Oshima and Shohei Imamura to Juzo Itami, Takeshi Kitano and Takashi Miike.\n\nHis career boosted by his sudden international fame, Kurosawa, now reunited with his original film studio, Toho (which would go on to produce his next 11 films), set to work on his next project, ''Ikiru''. The movie stars Takashi Shimura as a cancer-ridden Tokyo bureaucrat, Watanabe, on a final quest for meaning before his death. For the screenplay, Kurosawa brought in Hashimoto as well as writer Hideo Oguni, who would go on to co-write 12 Kurosawa films. Despite the work's grim subject matter, the screenwriters took a satirical approach, which some have compared to the work of Brecht, to both the bureaucratic world of its hero and the U.S. cultural colonization of Japan. (American pop songs figure prominently in the film.) Because of this strategy, the filmmakers are usually credited with saving the picture from the kind of sentimentality common to dramas about characters with terminal illnesses. ''Ikiru'' opened in October 1952 to rave reviews—it won Kurosawa his second Kinema Junpo \"Best Film\" award—and enormous box office success. It remains the most acclaimed of all the artist's films set in the modern era.\n\nIn December 1952, Kurosawa took his ''Ikiru'' screenwriters, Shinobu Hashimoto and Hideo Oguni, for a forty-five-day secluded residence at an inn to create the screenplay for his next movie, ''Seven Samurai''. The ensemble work was Kurosawa's first proper samurai film, the genre for which he would become most famous. The simple story, about a poor farming village in Sengoku period Japan that hires a group of samurai to defend it against an impending attack by bandits, was given a full epic treatment, with a huge cast (largely consisting of veterans of previous Kurosawa productions) and meticulously detailed action, stretching out to almost three-and-a-half hours of screen time.\n\nThree months were spent in pre-production and a month in rehearsals. Shooting took up 148 days spread over almost a year, interrupted by production and financing troubles and Kurosawa's health problems. The film finally opened in April 1954, half a year behind its original release date and about three times over budget, making it at the time the most expensive Japanese film ever made. (However, by Hollywood standards, it was a quite modestly budgeted production, even for that time). The film received positive critical reaction and became a big hit, quickly making back the money invested in it and providing the studio with a product that they could, and did, market internationally—though with extensive edits. Over time—and with the theatrical and home video releases of the uncut version—its reputation has steadily grown. It is now regarded by some commentators as the greatest Japanese film ever made, and in 1979, a poll of Japanese film critics also voted it the best Japanese film ever made. In the most recent (2012) version of the widely respected British Film Institute (BFI) ''Sight & Sound'' \"Greatest Films of All Time\" poll, ''Seven Samurai'' placed 17th among all films from all countries in both the critics' and the directors' polls, receiving a place in the Top Ten lists of 48 critics and 22 directors.\n\nIn 1954, nuclear tests in the Pacific were causing radioactive rainstorms in Japan and one particular incident in March had exposed a Japanese fishing boat to nuclear fallout, with disastrous results. It is in this anxious atmosphere that Kurosawa's next film, ''Record of a Living Being'', was conceived. The story concerned an elderly factory owner (Toshiro Mifune) so terrified of the prospect of a nuclear attack that he becomes determined to move his entire extended family (both legal and extra-marital) to what he imagines is the safety of a farm in Brazil. Production went much more smoothly than the director's previous film, but a few days before shooting ended, Kurosawa's composer, collaborator and close friend Fumio Hayasaka died (of tuberculosis) at the age of 41. The film's score was finished by Hayasaka's student, Masaru Sato, who would go on to score all of Kurosawa's next eight films. ''Record of a Living Being'' opened in November 1955 to mixed reviews and muted audience reaction, becoming the first Kurosawa film to lose money during its original theatrical run. Today, it is considered by many to be among the finest films dealing with the psychological effects of the global nuclear stalemate.\n\nKurosawa's next project, ''Throne of Blood'', an adaptation of William Shakespeare's ''Macbeth''—set, like ''Seven Samurai'', in the Sengoku Era—represented an ambitious transposition of the English work into a Japanese context. Kurosawa instructed his leading actress, Isuzu Yamada, to regard the work as if it were a cinematic version of a ''Japanese'' rather than a European literary classic. Given Kurosawa's appreciation of traditional Japanese stage acting, the acting of the players, particularly Yamada, draws heavily on the stylized techniques of the Noh theater. It was filmed in 1956 and released in January 1957 to a slightly less negative domestic response than had been the case with the director's previous film. Abroad, ''Throne of Blood'', regardless of the liberties it takes with its source material, quickly earned a place among the most celebrated Shakespeare adaptations.\n\nAnother adaptation of a classic European theatrical work followed almost immediately, with production of ''The Lower Depths'', based on a play by Maxim Gorky, taking place in May and June 1957. In contrast to the Shakespearean sweep of ''Throne of Blood'', ''The Lower Depths'' was shot on only two confined sets, in order to emphasize the restricted nature of the characters' lives. Though faithful to the play, this adaptation of Russian material to a completely Japanese setting—in this case, the late Edo period—unlike his earlier ''The Idiot'', was regarded as artistically successful. The film premiered in September 1957, receiving a mixed response similar to that of ''Throne of Blood''. However, some critics rank it among the director's most underrated works.\n\nKurosawa's three consecutive movies after ''Seven Samurai'' had not managed to capture Japanese audiences in the way that that film had. The mood of the director's work had been growing increasingly pessimistic and dark, with the possibility of redemption through personal responsibility now very much questioned, particularly in ''Throne of Blood'' and ''The Lower Depths''. He recognized this, and deliberately aimed for a more light-hearted and entertaining film for his next production, while switching to the new widescreen format that had been gaining popularity in Japan. The resulting film, ''The Hidden Fortress'', is an action-adventure comedy-drama about a medieval princess, her loyal general and two peasants who all need to travel through enemy lines in order to reach their home region. Released in December 1958, ''The Hidden Fortress'' became an enormous box office success in Japan and was warmly received by critics both in Japan and abroad. Today, the film is considered one of Kurosawa's most lightweight efforts, though it remains popular, not least because it is one of several major influences on George Lucas's 1977 space opera, ''Star Wars''.\n\n==== Birth of a company and ''Red Beard'' (1959–65) ====\nStarting with ''Rashomon'', Kurosawa's productions had become increasingly large in scope and so had the director's budgets. Toho, concerned about this development, suggested that he might help finance his own works, therefore making the studio's potential losses smaller, while in turn allowing himself more artistic freedom as co-producer. Kurosawa agreed, and the Kurosawa Production Company was established in April 1959, with Toho as majority shareholder.\n\nDespite risking his own money, Kurosawa chose a story that was more directly critical of the Japanese business and political elites than any previous work. ''The Bad Sleep Well'', based on a script by Kurosawa's nephew Mike Inoue, is a revenge drama about a young man who is able to infiltrate the hierarchy of a corrupt Japanese company with the intention of exposing the men responsible for his father's death. Its theme proved topical: while the film was in production, mass demonstrations were held against the new U.S.-Japan Security treaty, which was seen by many Japanese, particularly the young, as threatening the country's democracy by giving too much power to corporations and politicians. The film opened in September 1960 to positive critical reaction and modest box office success. The 25-minute opening sequence depicting a corporate wedding reception is widely regarded as one of Kurosawa's most skillfully executed set pieces, but the remainder of the film is often perceived as disappointing by comparison. The movie has also been criticized for employing the conventional Kurosawan hero to combat a social evil that cannot be resolved through the actions of individuals, however courageous or cunning.\n\n''Yojimbo'' (''The Bodyguard''), Kurosawa Production's second film, centers on a masterless samurai, Sanjuro, who strolls into a 19th-century town ruled by two opposing violent factions and provokes them into destroying each other. The director used this work to play with many genre conventions, particularly the Western, while at the same time offering an unprecedentedly (for the Japanese screen) graphic portrayal of violence. Some commentators have seen the Sanjuro character in this film as a fantasy figure who magically reverses the historical triumph of the corrupt merchant class over the samurai class. Featuring Tatsuya Nakadai in his first major role in a Kurosawa movie, and with innovative photography by Kazuo Miyagawa (who shot ''Rashomon'') and Takao Saito, the film premiered in April 1961 and was a critically and commercially successful venture, earning more than any previous Kurosawa film. The movie and its blackly comic tone were also widely imitated abroad. Sergio Leone's ''A Fistful of Dollars'' was a virtual (unauthorized) scene-by-scene remake with Toho filing a lawsuit on Kurosawa's behalf and prevailing.\n\nKurosawa based his 1963 crime film ''High and Low'' on the American author Ed McBain's novel ''King's Ransom''. Image of Ed McBain circa 2001.\nFollowing the success of ''Yojimbo'', Kurosawa found himself under pressure from Toho to create a sequel. Kurosawa turned to a script he had written before ''Yojimbo'', reworking it to include the hero of his previous film. ''Sanjuro'' was the first of three Kurosawa films to be adapted from the work of the writer Shūgorō Yamamoto (the others would be ''Red Beard'' and ''Dodeskaden''). It is lighter in tone and closer to a conventional period film than ''Yojimbo'', though its story of a power struggle within a samurai clan is portrayed with strongly comic undertones. The film opened on January 1, 1962, quickly surpassing ''Yojimbo''s box office success and garnering positive reviews.\n\nKurosawa had meanwhile instructed Toho to purchase the film rights to ''King's Ransom'', a novel about a kidnapping written by American author and screenwriter Evan Hunter, under his pseudonym of Ed McBain, as one of his 87th Precinct series of crime books. The director intended to create a work condemning kidnapping, which he considered one of the very worst crimes. The suspense film, titled ''High and Low'', was shot during the latter half of 1962 and released in March 1963. It broke Kurosawa's box office record (the third film in a row to do so), became the highest grossing Japanese film of the year, and won glowing reviews. However, his triumph was somewhat tarnished when, ironically, the film was blamed for a wave of kidnappings which occurred in Japan about this time (he himself received kidnapping threats directed at his young daughter, Kazuko). ''High and Low'' is considered by many commentators to be among the director's strongest works.\n\nKurosawa quickly moved on to his next project, ''Red Beard''. Based on a short story collection by Shūgorō Yamamoto and incorporating elements from Dostoyevsky's novel ''The Insulted and Injured'', it is a period film, set in a mid-nineteenth century clinic for the poor, in which Kurosawa's humanist themes receive perhaps their fullest statement. A conceited and materialistic, foreign-trained young doctor, Yasumoto, is forced to become an intern at the clinic under the stern tutelage of Doctor Niide, known as \"Akahige\" (\"Red Beard\"), played by Mifune. Although he resists Red Beard initially, Yasumoto comes to admire his wisdom and courage, and to perceive the patients at the clinic, whom he at first despised, as worthy of compassion and dignity.\n\nYūzō Kayama, who plays Yasumoto, was an extremely popular film and music star at the time, particularly for his \"Young Guy\" (''Wakadaishō'') series of musical comedies, so signing him to appear in the film virtually guaranteed Kurosawa strong box-office. The shoot, the filmmaker's longest ever, lasted well over a year (after five months of pre-production), and wrapped in spring 1965, leaving the director, his crew and his actors exhausted. ''Red Beard'' premiered in April 1965, becoming the year's highest-grossing Japanese production and the third (and last) Kurosawa film to top the prestigious Kinema Jumpo yearly critics poll. It remains one of Kurosawa's best-known and most-loved works in his native country. Outside Japan, critics have been much more divided. Most commentators concede its technical merits and some praise it as among Kurosawa's best, while others insist that it lacks complexity and genuine narrative power, with still others claiming that it represents a retreat from the artist's previous commitment to social and political change.\n\nThe film marked something of an end of an era for its creator. The director himself recognized this at the time of its release, telling critic Donald Richie that a cycle of some kind had just come to an end and that his future films and production methods would be different. His prediction proved quite accurate. Beginning in the late 1950s, television began increasingly to dominate the leisure time of the formerly large and loyal Japanese cinema audience. And as film company revenues dropped, so did their appetite for risk—particularly the risk represented by Kurosawa's costly production methods.\n\n''Red Beard'' also marked the midway point, chronologically, in the artist's career. During his previous twenty-nine years in the film industry (which includes his five years as assistant director), he had directed twenty-three films, while during the remaining twenty-eight years, for many and complex reasons, he would complete only seven more. Also, for reasons never adequately explained, ''Red Beard'' would be his final film starring Toshiro Mifune. Yu Fujiki, an actor who worked on ''The Lower Depths'', observed, regarding the closeness of the two men on the set, \"Mr. Kurosawa's heart was in Mr. Mifune's body.\" Donald Richie has described the rapport between them as a unique \"symbiosis\".\n\n===Hollywood ambitions to last films (1966–1998)===\n====Hollywood detour (1966–68)====\nWhen Kurosawa's exclusive contract with Toho came to an end in 1966, the 56-year-old director was seriously contemplating change. Observing the troubled state of the domestic film industry, and having already received dozens of offers from abroad, the idea of working outside Japan appealed to him as never before.\n\nFor his first foreign project, Kurosawa chose a story based on a ''Life'' magazine article. The Embassy Pictures action thriller, to be filmed in English and called simply ''Runaway Train'', would have been his first in color. But the language barrier proved a major problem, and the English version of the screenplay was not even finished by the time filming was to begin in autumn 1966. The shoot, which required snow, was moved to autumn 1967, then canceled in 1968. Almost twenty years later, another foreigner working in Hollywood, Andrei Konchalovsky, would finally make ''Runaway Train'', though from a script totally different from Kurosawa's.\n\nKurosawa considered David Lean as a potentially worthy co-director for the film ''Tora! Tora! Tora!'' though ultimately neither director would participate in the film as produced.\nThe director meanwhile had become involved in a much more ambitious Hollywood project. ''Tora! Tora! Tora!'', produced by 20th Century Fox and Kurosawa Production, would be a portrayal of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor from both the American and the Japanese points-of-view, with Kurosawa helming the Japanese half and an English-speaking filmmaker directing the American half. He spent several months working on the script with Ryuzo Kikushima and Hideo Oguni, but very soon the project began to unravel. The director chosen to film the American sequences turned out not to be the prestigious English filmmaker David Lean, as the producers had led Kurosawa to believe, but the much less celebrated special effects expert, Richard Fleischer. The budget was also cut, and the screen time allocated for the Japanese segment would now be no longer than 90 minutes—a major problem, considering that Kurosawa's script ran over four hours. After numerous revisions, a more or less finalized cut screenplay was agreed upon in May 1968. Shooting began in early December, but Kurosawa would last only a little over three weeks as director. He struggled to work with an unfamiliar crew and the requirements of a Hollywood production, while his working methods puzzled his American producers, who ultimately concluded that the director must be mentally ill. On Christmas Eve 1968, the Americans announced that Kurosawa had left the production due to \"fatigue\", effectively firing him. (He was ultimately replaced, for the film's Japanese sequences, with two directors, Kinji Fukasaku and Toshio Masuda.)\n\n''Tora! Tora! Tora!'', finally released to unenthusiastic reviews in September 1970, was, as Donald Richie put it, an \"almost unmitigated tragedy\" in Kurosawa's career. He had spent years of his life on a logistically nightmarish project to which he ultimately did not contribute a foot of film shot by himself. (He had his name removed from the credits, though the script used for the Japanese half was still his and his co-writers'.) He became estranged from his longtime collaborator, writer Ryuzo Kikushima, and never worked with him again. The project had inadvertently exposed corruption in his own production company (a situation reminiscent of his own movie, ''The Bad Sleep Well''). His very sanity had been called into question. Worst of all, the Japanese film industry—and perhaps the man himself—began to suspect that he would never make another film.\n\n====A difficult decade (1969–77)====\nKnowing that his reputation was at stake following the much publicised ''Tora! Tora! Tora!'' debacle, Kurosawa moved quickly to a new project to prove he was still viable. To his aid came friends and famed directors Keisuke Kinoshita, Masaki Kobayashi and Kon Ichikawa, who together with Kurosawa established in July 1969 a production company called the Club of the Four Knights (Yonki no kai). Although the plan was for the four directors to create a film each, it has been suggested that the real motivation for the other three directors was to make it easier for Kurosawa to successfully complete a film, and therefore find his way back into the business.\n\nThe first project proposed and worked on was a period film to be called ''Dora-Heita'', but when this was deemed too expensive, attention shifted to ''Dodesukaden'', an adaptation of yet another Shūgorō Yamamoto work, again about the poor and destitute. The film was shot quickly (by Kurosawa's standards) in about nine weeks, with Kurosawa determined to show he was still capable of working quickly and efficiently within a limited budget. For his first work in color, the dynamic editing and complex compositions of his earlier pictures were set aside, with the artist focusing on the creation of a bold, almost surreal palette of primary colors, in order to reveal the toxic environment in which the characters live. It was released in Japan in October 1970, but though a minor critical success, it was greeted with audience indifference. The picture lost money and caused the Club of the Four Knights to dissolve. Initial reception abroad was somewhat more favorable, but ''Dodesukaden'' has since been typically considered an interesting experiment not comparable to the director's best work.\n\nUnable to secure funding for further work and allegedly suffering from health problems, Kurosawa apparently reached the breaking point: on December 22, 1971, he slit his wrists and throat multiple times. The suicide attempt proved unsuccessful and the director's health recovered fairly quickly, with Kurosawa now taking refuge in domestic life, uncertain if he would ever direct another film.\n\nIn early 1973, the Soviet studio Mosfilm approached the filmmaker to ask if he would be interested in working with them. Kurosawa proposed an adaptation of Russian explorer Vladimir Arsenyev's autobiographical work ''Dersu Uzala''. The book, about a Goldi hunter who lives in harmony with nature until destroyed by encroaching civilization, was one that he had wanted to make since the 1930s. In December 1973, the 63-year-old Kurosawa set off for the Soviet Union with four of his closest aides, beginning a year-and-a-half stay in the country. Shooting began in May 1974 in Siberia, with filming in exceedingly harsh natural conditions proving very difficult and demanding. The picture wrapped in April 1975, with a thoroughly exhausted and homesick Kurosawa returning to Japan and his family in June. ''Dersu Uzala'' had its world premiere in Japan on August 2, 1975, and did well at the box office. While critical reception in Japan was muted, the film was better reviewed abroad, winning the Golden Prize at the 9th Moscow International Film Festival, as well as an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Today, critics remain divided over the film: some see it as an example of Kurosawa's alleged artistic decline, while others count it among his finest works.\n\nAlthough proposals for television projects were submitted to him, he had no interest in working outside the film world. Nevertheless, the hard-drinking director did agree to appear in a series of television ads for Suntory whiskey, which aired in 1976. While fearing that he might never be able to make another film, the director nevertheless continued working on various projects, writing scripts and creating detailed illustrations, intending to leave behind a visual record of his plans in case he would never be able to film his stories.\n\n====Two epics (1978–86)====\nIn 1977, American director George Lucas had released ''Star Wars'', a wildly successful science fiction film influenced by Kurosawa's ''The Hidden Fortress'', among other works. Lucas, like many other New Hollywood directors, revered Kurosawa and considered him a role model, and was shocked to discover that the Japanese filmmaker was unable to secure financing for any new work. The two met in San Francisco in July 1978 to discuss the project Kurosawa considered most financially viable: ''Kagemusha'', the epic story of a thief hired as the double of a medieval Japanese lord of a great clan. Lucas, enthralled by the screenplay and Kurosawa's illustrations, leveraged his influence over 20th Century Fox to coerce the studio that had fired Kurosawa just ten years earlier to produce ''Kagemusha'', then recruited fellow fan Francis Ford Coppola as co-producer.\n\nProduction began the following April, with Kurosawa in high spirits. Shooting lasted from June 1979 through March 1980 and was plagued with problems, not the least of which was the firing of the original lead actor, Shintaro Katsu—creator of the very popular Zatoichi character—due to an incident in which the actor insisted, against the director's wishes, on videotaping his own performance. (He was replaced by Tatsuya Nakadai, in his first of two consecutive leading roles in a Kurosawa movie.) The film was completed only a few weeks behind schedule and opened in Tokyo in April 1980. It quickly became a massive hit in Japan. The film was also a critical and box office success abroad, winning the coveted Palme d'Or at the 1980 Cannes Film Festival in May, though some critics, then and now, have faulted the film for its alleged coldness. Kurosawa spent much of the rest of the year in Europe and America promoting ''Kagemusha'', collecting awards and accolades, and exhibiting as art the drawings he had made to serve as storyboards for the film.\n\nRan''. Kurosawa used such paintings as storyboards to assist his crew in the construction and filming of the scenes.\|alt=A storyboard image painted by Kurosawa for the movie, ''Ran'': it depicts what appears to be a gate, behind which is a long flight of steps, around which are depicted various large structures in the style of 16th Century Japan.\nThe international success of ''Kagemusha'' allowed Kurosawa to proceed with his next project, ''Ran'', another epic in a similar vein. The script, partly based on William Shakespeare's ''King Lear'', depicted a ruthless, bloodthirsty ''daimyō'' (warlord), played by Tatsuya Nakadai, who, after foolishly banishing his one loyal son, surrenders his kingdom to his other two sons, who then betray him, thus plunging the entire kingdom into war. As Japanese studios still felt wary about producing another film that would rank among the most expensive ever made in the country, international help was again needed. This time it came from French producer Serge Silberman, who had produced Luis Buñuel's final movies. Filming did not begin until December 1983 and lasted more than a year.\n\nIn January 1985, production of ''Ran'' was halted as Kurosawa's 64-year-old wife Yōko fell ill. She died on February 1. Kurosawa returned to finish his film and ''Ran'' premiered at the Tokyo Film Festival on 31 May, with a wide release the next day. The film was a moderate financial success in Japan, but a larger one abroad and, as he had done with ''Kagemusha'', Kurosawa embarked on a trip to Europe and America, where he attended the film's premieres in September and October.\n\n''Ran'' won several awards in Japan, but was not quite as honored there as many of the director's best films of the 1950s and 1960s had been. The film world was surprised, however, when Japan passed over the selection of ''Ran'' in favor of another film as its official entry to compete for an Oscar nomination in the Best Foreign Film category, which was ultimately rejected for competition at the 57th Academy Awards. Both the producer and Kurosawa himself attributed the failure to even submit ''Ran'' for competition to a misunderstanding: because of the Academy's arcane rules, no one was sure whether ''Ran'' qualified as a ''Japanese'' film, a ''French'' film (due to its financing), or both, so it was not submitted at all. In response to what at least appeared to be a blatant snub by his own countrymen, the director Sidney Lumet led a successful campaign to have Kurosawa receive an Oscar nomination for Best Directing that year (Sydney Pollack ultimately won the award for directing ''Out of Africa''). ''Ran''s costume designer, Emi Wada, won the movie's only Oscar.\n\n''Kagemusha'' and ''Ran'', particularly the latter, are often considered to be among Kurosawa's finest works. After ''Ran''s release, Kurosawa would point to it as his best film, a major change of attitude for the director who, when asked which of his works was his best, had always previously answered \"my next one\".\n\n\n====Final works and last years (1987–98)====\nFor his next movie, Kurosawa chose a subject very different from any that he had ever filmed before. While some of his previous pictures (for example, ''Drunken Angel'' and ''Kagemusha'') had included brief dream sequences, ''Dreams'' was to be entirely based upon the director's own dreams. Significantly, for the first time in over forty years, Kurosawa, for this deeply personal project, wrote the screenplay alone. Although its estimated budget was lower than the films immediately preceding it, Japanese studios were still unwilling to back one of his productions, so Kurosawa turned to another famous American fan, Steven Spielberg, who convinced Warner Bros. to buy the international rights to the completed film. This made it easier for Kurosawa's son, Hisao, as co-producer and soon-to-be head of Kurosawa Production, to negotiate a loan in Japan that would cover the film's production costs. Shooting took more than eight months to complete, and ''Dreams'' premiered at Cannes in May 1990 to a polite but muted reception, similar to the reaction the picture would generate elsewhere in the world. In 1990, he accepted the Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement.\n\nSteven Spielberg was instrumental in the financing and production of several of Kurosawa's final films. Spielberg at his masterclass at the Cinémathèque Française in 2012.\nKurosawa now turned to a more conventional story with ''Rhapsody in August''—the director's first film fully produced in Japan since ''Dodeskaden'' over twenty years before—which explored the scars of the nuclear bombing which destroyed Nagasaki at the very end of World War II. It was adapted from a Kiyoko Murata novel, but the film's references to the Nagasaki bombing came from the director rather than from the book. This was his only movie to include a role for an American movie star: Richard Gere, who plays a small role as the nephew of the elderly heroine. Shooting took place in early 1991, with the film opening on 25 May that year to a largely negative critical reaction, especially in the United States, where the director was accused of promulgating naïvely anti-American sentiments, though Kurosawa rejected these accusations.\n\nKurosawa wasted no time moving onto his next project: ''Madadayo'', or ''Not Yet''. Based on autobiographical essays by Hyakken Uchida, the film follows the life of a Japanese professor of German through the Second World War and beyond. The narrative centers on yearly birthday celebrations with his former students, during which the protagonist declares his unwillingness to die just yet—a theme that was becoming increasingly relevant for the film's 81-year-old creator. Filming began in February 1992 and wrapped by the end of September. Its release on April 17, 1993, was greeted by an even more disappointed reaction than had been the case with his two preceding works.\n\nKurosawa nevertheless continued to work. He wrote the original screenplays ''The Sea is Watching'' in 1993 and ''After the Rain'' in 1995. While putting finishing touches on the latter work in 1995, Kurosawa slipped and broke the base of his spine. Following the accident, he would use a wheelchair for the rest of his life, putting an end to any hopes of him directing another film. His longtime wish—to die on the set while shooting a movie—was never to be fulfilled.\n\nAfter his accident, Kurosawa's health began to deteriorate. While his mind remained sharp and lively, his body was giving up, and for the last half-year of his life, the director was largely confined to bed, listening to music and watching television at home. On September 6, 1998, Kurosawa died of a stroke in Setagaya, Tokyo, at the age of 88. At the time of his death, Kurosawa had two children, his son Hisao Kurosawa who married Hiroko Hayashi and his daughter Kazuko Kurosawa who married Harayuki Kato, along with several grandchildren. One of his grandchildren, the actor Takayuki Kato and grandson by Kazuko, became a supporting actor in two films posthumously developed from screenplays written by Kurosawa which remained unproduced during his own lifetime, Takashi Koizumi's ''After the Rain'' (1999) and Kei Kumai's ''The Sea is Watching'' (2002).\n", "\nFrom the beginning, Kurosawa displayed a bold, dynamic style, strongly influenced by Western cinema yet quite distinct from it. Kurosawa was extensively involved with every aspect of film production. He was also a gifted screenwriter, and would usually work in close collaboration with his co-writers from the beginning of the development of a film to ensure a high-quality script, which he insisted was the absolute foundation of a good film. He frequently served as editor of his own films and was regarded by his production team as \"the greatest editor in the world.\" Though it was common in the Japanese film industry of that time for established directors to assemble around them a team, or \"gumi,\" with people drawn from the same pool of creative technicians, crew members and actors working from film to film (for example, the director Hiroshi Inagaki, who worked at Toho during the same period as Kurosawa, had such a team), Kurosawa's team, known as the \"Kurosawa-gumi\" (Kurosawa group)—including, for example, the cinematographer Asakazu Nakai, the production assistant Teruyo Nogami and the actor Takashi Shimura—was remarkable for its loyalty to the director and the consistent quality of its work.\n\nKurosawa's style is marked by a number of devices and techniques which Kurosawa introduced in his films over the decades. In his films of the 1940s and 1950s, Kurosawa frequently employs the \"axial cut\", in which the camera moves closer to, or further away from, the subject, not through the use of tracking shots or dissolves, but through a series of matched jump cuts. Another stylistic trait which scholars have pointed out is Kurosawa's tendency to \"cut on motion\": that is, to edit a sequence of a character or characters in motion so that an action is depicted in two or more separate shots, rather than one uninterrupted shot.\n\nA form of cinematic punctuation very strongly identified with Kurosawa is the wipe. This is an effect created through an optical printer, in which, when a scene ends, a line or bar appears to move across the screen, \"wiping\" away the image while simultaneously revealing the first image of the subsequent scene. As a transitional device, it is used as a substitute for the straight cut or the dissolve (though Kurosawa often used both of those devices as well). In his mature work, Kurosawa employed the wipe so frequently that it became a kind of signature. For example, one blogger has counted no fewer than 12 instances of the wipe in ''Drunken Angel''. Kurosawa by all accounts always gave great attention to the soundtracks of his films, especially with an emphasis on sound-image counterpoint, in which the music or sound effects would ironically comment upon the image rather than merely reinforcing it. (Teruyo Nogami's memoir gives several such examples from ''Drunken Angel'' and ''Stray Dog''.) He was also involved with several of Japan's outstanding contemporary composers, including Fumio Hayasaka (who died in 1955) and the internationally famous Toru Takemitsu.\n\nKurosawa employed a number of recurring major themes in his films. These include: (a) the master-disciple relationship between a usually older mentor and one or more novices, which often involves spiritual as well as technical mastery and self-mastery; (b) the heroic champion, the exceptional individual who emerges from the mass of people to produce something or right some injustice; (c) the depiction of extremes of weather as both dramatic devices and symbols of human passion; and (d) the recurrence of cycles of inexorable savage violence within history. According to Stephen Prince, the latter theme began with ''Throne of Blood'' (1957), and recurred in Kurosawa films of the 1980s. Mr. Prince calls this theme \"the countertradition to the committed, heroic mode of Kurosawa's cinema.\"\n", "===Legacy of general criticism===\n\nCriticism of Kurosawa in his legacy has significantly followed a close parity between the main currents of domestic criticism his films received when they were released in Japan with the international reception his individual films received when released abroad during his lifetime. Since the early to mid-1950s, a number of critics from the French New Wave championed the films of the older Japanese master, Kenji Mizoguchi, at the expense of Kurosawa's work. New Wave critic-filmmaker Jacques Rivette, said: \"You can compare only what is comparable and that which aims high enough ... Mizoguchi seems to be the only Japanese director who is completely Japanese and yet is also the only one that achieves a true universality, that of an individual.\" According to such French commentators, Mizoguchi seemed, of the two artists, the more authentically Japanese. But at least one film scholar has questioned the validity of this dichotomy between \"Japanese\" Mizoguchi and \"Western\" Kurosawa by pointing out that \"Mizo\" had been as influenced by Western cinema and Western culture in general as Kurosawa, and that this is reflected in his work.\n\nIn Japan, there have been critics and other filmmakers who have accused his work of elitism, because of his focus on exceptional, heroic individuals and groups of men. In her DVD commentary on ''Seven Samurai'', Joan Mellen maintains that certain shots of the samurai characters Kambei and Kyuzo, which to her reveal Kurosawa \"privileging\" these samurai, \"support the argument voiced by several Japanese critics that Kurosawa was an elitist ... Kurosawa was hardly a progressive director, they argued, since his peasants could not discover among their own ranks leaders who might rescue the village ... Kurosawa defended himself against this charge in his interview with me. 'I wanted to say that after everything the peasants were the stronger, closely clinging to the earth ... It was the samurai who were weak because they were being blown by the winds of time.\n\nOwing to Kurosawa's popularity with European and American audiences from the early 1950s onward, he has not escaped the charge of deliberately catering to the tastes of Westerners to achieve or maintain that popularity. Joan Mellen, recording the violently negative reaction (in the 1970s) of the left-wing director Nagisa Oshima to Kurosawa and his work, states: \"That Kurosawa had brought Japanese film to a Western audience meant to Oshima that he must be pandering to Western values and politics.\" Kurosawa always strongly denied pandering to Western tastes: \"He has never catered to a foreign audience\" writes Audie Bock, \"and has condemned those who do\".\n\n===Reputation among filmmakers===\n\nMany celebrated directors have been influenced by Kurosawa and have expressed admiration for his work. The filmmakers cited below can be presented according to four categories: (a) those who, like Kurosawa himself, established international critical reputations in the 1950s and early 1960s; (b) the so-called \"New Hollywood\" directors, that is, American moviemakers who, for the most part, established their reputations in the early to mid-1970s; (c) other Asian directors; and (d) modern-day directors.\n\nA bust of the Swedish director Ingmar Bergman, located in Poland. Kurosawa was several years Bergman's senior and admired him as a fellow craftsman, writing him a commemorative letter at his 70th birthday.\nThe Swedish director Ingmar Bergman called his own film ''The Virgin Spring'' \"touristic, a lousy imitation of Kurosawa\", and added, \"At that time my admiration for the Japanese cinema was at its height. I was almost a samurai myself!\" In Italy, Federico Fellini in an interview declared the director \"the greatest living example of all that an author of the cinema should be\"—despite admitting to having seen only one of his films, ''Seven Samurai''. In France, Roman Polanski in 1965 cited Kurosawa as one of his three favorite filmmakers (with Fellini and Orson Welles), singling out ''Seven Samurai'', ''Throne of Blood'' and ''The Hidden Fortress'' for praise. The Italian director Bernardo Bertolucci considered the Japanese master's influence to be seminal: \"Kurosawa's movies and ''La Dolce Vita'' of Fellini are the things that pushed me, sucked me into being a film director.\" German New Wave director Werner Herzog has cited Kurosawa as one of his greatest influences: \"Of the filmmakers with whom I feel some kinship, Griffith ... Buñuel, Kurosawa and Eisenstein's ''Ivan the Terrible'', all come to mind.\" When asked to list his favorite directors, Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky cited Kurosawa as one of his favorites and named ''Seven Samurai'' as one of his ten favorite films.\n\nKurosawa's New Hollywood admirers have included Robert Altman, Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, Martin Scorsese, George Lucas, and John Milius. In his early years while still a television director, Robert Altman stated that when he first saw ''Rashomon'' he was so impressed by its cinematographer's achievement of shooting several shots with the camera aimed directly at the sun—allegedly it was the first film in which this was done successfully—that he claims he was inspired the very next day to begin incorporating shots of the sun into his television work. It was Coppola who said of Kurosawa, \"One thing that distinguishes him is that he didn't make one masterpiece or two masterpieces. He made, you know, ''eight'' masterpieces.\" Both Spielberg and Scorsese have praised the older man's role as teacher and role model, and Scorsese called him his \"''sensei'',\" using the Japanese term. Spielberg has declared, \"I have learned more from him than from almost any other filmmaker on the face of the earth\", while Scorsese remarked, \"Let me say it simply: Akira Kurosawa was my master, and ... the master of so many other filmmakers over the years.\" Several of these moviemakers were also instrumental in helping Kurosawa obtain financing for his late films: Lucas and Coppola served as co-producers on ''Kagemusha'', while the Spielberg name, lent to the 1990 production, ''Dreams'', helped bring that picture to fruition.\n\nAs the first Asian filmmaker to achieve international prominence, Kurosawa has naturally served as an inspiration for other Asian ''auteurs''. Of ''Rashomon'', the most famous director of India, Satyajit Ray, said: \"The effect of the film on me upon first seeing it in Calcutta in 1952 was electric. I saw it three times on consecutive days, and wondered each time if there was another film anywhere which gave such sustained and dazzling proof of a director's command over every aspect of film making.\" Other Asian admirers include the Japanese actor and director Takeshi Kitano, Hong Kong filmmaker John Woo, Japanese anime director Hayao Miyazaki and mainland Chinese director Zhang Yimou, who called Kurosawa \"the quintessential Asian director\".\n\nEven today, Kurosawa continues to inspire and influence contemporary filmmakers. Alexander Payne spent the early part of his career watching Kurosawa's films, most notably ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ikiru''. Guillermo del Toro referred to Kurosawa \"one of the essential masters\", citing ''Throne of Blood'', ''High and Low'' and ''Ran'' as among his favorite films. Kathryn Bigelow praised Kurosawa as one of \"high-impact filmmakers\" who can create emotionally invested characters. J.J. Abrams says he drew from Kurosawa while making ''Star Wars: the Force Awakens''. At the age of 19, Alejandro González Iñárritu remembers being spellbound when he first saw ''Ikiru'' and praises Kurosawa as \"one of the first storytelling geniuses who began to change the narrative structure of films.\" When Spike Lee posted a list of 87 films every aspiring director should see, he included three Kurosawa movies: ''Rashomon'', ''Yojimbo'' and ''Ran''.\n\n===Posthumous screenplays===\n\nFollowing Kurosawa's death, several posthumous works based on his unfilmed screenplays have been produced. ''After the Rain'', directed by Takashi Koizumi, was released in 1998, and ''The Sea is Watching'', directed by Kei Kumai, premiered in 2002. A script created by the Yonki no Kai (\"Club of the Four Knights\") (Kurosawa, Keisuke Kinoshita, Masaki Kobayashi, and Kon Ichikawa), around the time that ''Dodeskaden'' was made, finally was filmed and released (in 2000) as ''Dora-Heita'', by the only surviving founding member of the club, Kon Ichikawa. Huayi Brothers Media and CKF Pictures in China announced in 2017 plans to produce a film of Kurosawa's posthumous screenplay of ''The Masque of the Black Death'' by Edgar Allan Poe for 2020. Patrick Frater writing for ''Variety'' magazine in May 2017 stated that another two unfinished films by Kurosawa were planned, with ''Silvering Spear'' to start filming in 2018.\n\n===Kurosawa Production Company===\nKurosawa Production Co., established in 1959, continues to oversee many of the aspects of Kurosawa's legacy. The director's son, Hisao Kurosawa, is the current head of the company. Its American subsidiary, Kurosawa Enterprises, is located in Los Angeles. Rights to Kurosawa's works are held by Kurosawa Production and the film studios under which he worked, most notably Toho. Kurosawa Production works closely with the Akira Kurosawa Foundation, established in December 2003 and also run by Hisao Kurosawa. The foundation organizes an annual short film competition and spearheads Kurosawa-related projects, including a recently shelved one to build a memorial museum for the director.\n\n===Film studios and awards===\n\nIn 1981, the Kurosawa Film Studio was opened in Yokohama; two additional locations have since been launched in Japan. A large collection of archive material, including scanned screenplays, photos and news articles, has been made available through the Akira Kurosawa Digital Archive, a Japanese proprietary website maintained by Ryukoku University Digital Archives Research Center in collaboration with Kurosawa Production. Anaheim University's Akira Kurosawa School of Film was launched in spring 2009 with the backing of Kurosawa Production. It offers online programs in digital film making, with headquarters in Anaheim and a learning center in Tokyo.\n\nTwo film awards have also been named in Kurosawa's honor. The Akira Kurosawa Award for Lifetime Achievement in Film Directing is awarded during the San Francisco International Film Festival, while the Akira Kurosawa Award is given during the Tokyo International Film Festival. In 1999 he was named \"Asian of the Century\" in the \"Arts, Literature, and Culture\" category by ''AsianWeek'' magazine and CNN, cited as \"one of the five people who contributed most to the betterment of Asia in the past 100 years\". In commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Kurosawa's birth in 2010, a project called AK100 was launched in 2008. The AK100 Project aims to \"expose young people who are the representatives of the next generation, and all people everywhere, to the light and spirit of Akira Kurosawa and the wonderful world he created.\"\n\nAnaheim University in cooperation with the Kurosawa Family established the Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film to offer online and blended learning programs on Akira Kurosawa and filmmaking. The animated Wes Anderson film, ''Isle of Dogs,'' is partially inspired by Kurosawa's filming techniques. At the 64th Sydney Film Festival, there was a retrospective of Akira Kurosawa where films of his were screened to remember the great legacy he has created from his work.\n", "A significant number of full-length and short documentaries concerning the life and films of Kurosawa were made during his lifetime and after his death. ''A.K.'' was filmed in 1985 and is a French documentary film directed by Chris Marker. Though it was filmed while Kurosawa was working on ''Ran'', the film focuses more on Kurosawa's remote but polite personality than on the making of the film. The documentary is sometimes seen as being reflective of Marker's fascination with Japanese culture, which he also drew on for one of his best-known films, ''Sans Soleil''. The film was screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival. Other documentaries concerning Kurosawa's life and works produced posthumously include:\n\n''Kurosawa: The Last Emperor'' (Alex Cox, 1999)\n''A Message from Akira Kurosawa: For Beautiful Movies'' (Hisao Kurosawa, 2000)\n''Kurosawa'' (Adam Low, 2001)\n''Akira Kurosawa: It Is Wonderful to Create'' (Toho Masterworks, 2002)\n''Akira Kurosawa: The Epic and the Intimate'' (2010)\n''Kurosawa's Way'' (Catherine Cadou, 2011)\n", "\n===Notes===\n\n\n===Citations===\n\n\n===Sources===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* Buchanan, Judith (2005). ''Shakespeare on Film''. Pearson Longman. .\n* Burch, Nöel (1979). ''To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japanese Cinema''. University of California Press. . Available online at the Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan\n* Cowie, Peter (2010). ''Akira Kurosawa: Master of Cinema''. Rizzoli Publications. .\n* Davies, Anthony (1990). ''Filming Shakespeare's Plays: The Adaptions of Laurence Olivier, Orson Welles, Peter Brook and Akira Kurosawa''. Cambridge University Press. .\n* Desser, David (1983). ''The Samurai Films of Akira Kurosawa (Studies in Cinema No. 23)''. UMI Research Press. .\n* \n* Leonard, Kendra Preston (2009). ''Shakespeare, Madness, and Music: Scoring Insanity in Cinematic Adaptations''. Plymouth: The Scarecrow Press. .\n* Sorensen, Lars-Martin (2009). ''Censorship of Japanese Films During the U.S. Occupation of Japan: The Cases of Yasujiro Ozu and Akira Kurosawa''. Edwin Mellen Press. .\n", "\n\n\n\n* Akira Kurosawa at the Criterion Collection\n* Akira Kurosawa: News, Information and Discussion\n* Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database\n* Great Performances: Kurosawa (PBS)\n* CineFiles: Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (Kurosawa search)\n* Akira Kurosawa at Japanese celebrity's grave guide \n\n Several trailers\n* Anaheim University Akira Kurosawa School of Film\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Style and main themes", "Legacy", "Documentaries", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Akira Kurosawa
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nGreat Sphinx and the pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt.\n\n\n\n'''Ancient Egypt''' was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in the place that is now the country Egypt. It is one of six historic civilizations to arise independently. Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes (often identified with Narmer). The history of ancient Egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.\n\nEgypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the New Kingdom, during the Ramesside period, where it rivalled the Hittite Empire, Assyrian Empire and Mitanni Empire, after which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was invaded or conquered by a succession of foreign powers, such as the Canaanites/Hyksos, Libyans, the Nubians, the Assyrians, Babylonians, the Achaemenid Persians, and the Macedonians in the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period of Egypt. In the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter, established himself as the new ruler of Egypt. This Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.\n\nThe success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. With resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of a pharaoh, who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.\n\nThe many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying, surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks; a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known planked boats, Egyptian faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty, made with the Hittites. Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. A new-found respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by Europeans and Egyptians led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy.\n", "\nMap of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)\n\nThe Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization. Nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region.\n\n===Predynastic period===\n\nA typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. (Predynastic Period)\nIn Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated.\n\nBy about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early cultures in upper (Southern) Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert; it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper.\n\nThe Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) and Gerzeh (Naqada II) cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements. As early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast. Over a period of about 1,000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean and Near East to the east. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the white crown of Egypt and falcon.\n\nThe Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite, as well as societal personal-use items, which included combs, small statuary, painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language.\n\n===Early Dynastic Period (c. 3050–2686 BC)===\n The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia and of ancient Elam. The third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today. He chose to begin his official history with the king named \"Meni\" (or ''Menes'' in Greek) who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt (around 3100 BC).\n\nThe transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient Egyptian writers represented, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial ''Narmer Palette,'' in a symbolic act of unification. In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which he could control the labour force and agriculture of the fertile delta region, as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labour, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.\nThe Narmer Palette depicts the unification\nof the Two Lands.\n\n===Old Kingdom (2686–2181 BC)===\n\nThe Giza PyramidsMajor advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population, made possible by a well-developed central administration. Some of ancient Egypt's crowning achievements, the Giza pyramids and Great Sphinx, were constructed during the Old Kingdom. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. Khafre Enthroned\n\nAlong with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples, to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, is assumed to have caused the country to enter the 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.\n\n===First Intermediate Period (2181–1991 BC)===\n\nAfter Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their new-found independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—which was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period.\n\nFree from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt in the north, while a rival clan based in Thebes, the Intef family, took control of Upper Egypt in the south. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the northern Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands. They inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.\n\n===Middle Kingdom (2134–1690 BC)===\n\n\nAmenemhat III, the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom\n\nThe pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his Eleventh Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhat I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation's capital to the city of Itjtawy, located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the Twelfth Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the \"Walls-of-the-Ruler\", to defend against foreign attack.\n\nWith the pharaohs' having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style. The relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection.\n\nThe last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Semitic-speaking Canaanite settlers from the Near East into the delta region to provide a sufficient labour force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with severe Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later Thirteenth and Fourteenth dynasties. During this decline, the Canaanite settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.\n\n===Second Intermediate Period (1674–1549 BC) and the Hyksos===\n\nTemple of Derr ruins at 1960.\nAround 1785 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, a Western Asian people called the Hyksos had already settled in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris, seized control of Egypt, and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes. The pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos (\"foreign rulers\") retained Egyptian models of government and identified as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their culture. They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt, most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot.\n\nAfter their retreat, the native Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Canaanite Hyksos ruling the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south of Egypt. After years of vassalage, Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years, until 1555 BC. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians to the south of Egypt, but failed to defeat the Hyksos. That task fell to Kamose's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. He established a new dynasty. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt's borders and attempting to gain mastery of the Near East.\n\nThe maximum territorial extent of ancient Egypt (15th century BC)\n\n===New Kingdom (1549–1069 BC)===\n\n\nThe New Kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours, including the Mitanni Empire, Assyria, and Canaan. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Between their reigns, Hatshepsut generally promoted peace and restored trade routes lost during the Hyksos occupation, as well as expanding to new regions. When Tuthmosis III died in 1425 BC, Egypt had an empire extending from Niya in north west Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in Nubia, cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood.\n\n''Djeser-Djeseru'' is the main building of Hatshepsut's mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri; the building is an example of perfect symmetry that predates the Parthenon by a thousand years\nFour statues of divinities in sanctuary of Abu Simbel temples\nThe New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The Karnak temple is the largest Egyptian temple ever built. The pharaoh Hatshepsut used such hyperbole and grandeur during her reign of almost twenty-two years. Her reign was very successful, marked by an extended period of peace and wealth-building, trading expeditions to Punt, restoration of foreign trade networks, and great building projects, including an elegant mortuary temple that rivaled the Greek architecture of a thousand years later, a colossal pair of obelisks, and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Amenhotep II, the heir to Hatshepsut's nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III, sought to erase her legacy near the end of his father's reign and throughout his, touting many of her accomplishments as his. He also tried to change many established traditions that had developed over the centuries, which some suggest was a futile attempt to prevent other women from becoming pharaoh and to curb their influence in the kingdom.\n\nAround 1350 BC, the stability of the New Kingdom seemed threatened further when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun deity Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of most other deities, and attacked the power of the temple that had become dominated by the priests of Amun in Thebes, whom he saw as corrupt. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to events in the Near East (where the Hittites, Mitanni, and Assyrians were vying for control). He was devoted to his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, the priests of Amun soon regained power and returned the capital to Thebes. Under their influence the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb worked to erase all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.\n\nFour colossal statues of Ramesses II flank the entrance of his temple Abu Simbel\nAround 1279 BC, Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne, and went on to build more temples, erect more statues and obelisks, and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh (in modern Syria) and, after fighting to a stalemate, finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty, around 1258 BC. With both the Egyptians and Hittite Empire proving unable to gain the upper hand over one another, and both powers also fearful of the expanding Middle Assyrian Empire, Egypt withdrew from much of the Near East. The Hittites were thus left to compete unsuccessfully with the powerful Assyrians and the newly arrived Phrygians.\n\nEgypt's wealth, however, made it a tempting target for invasion, particularly by the Libyan Berbers to the west, and the Sea Peoples, a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the Aegean Sea. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern Canaan, much of it falling to the Assyrians. The effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption, tomb robbery, and civil unrest. After regaining their power, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their expanded power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.\n\n===Third Intermediate Period (1069–653 BC)===\n\n\nFollowing the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name only. During this time, Berber tribes from what was later to be called Libya had been settling in the western delta, and the chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945 BC, founding the Libyan Berber, or Bubastite, dynasty that ruled for some 200 years. Shoshenq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions.\n\nIn the mid-ninth century BC, Egypt made a failed attempt to once more gain a foothold in Western Asia. Osorkon II of Egypt, along with a large alliance of nations and peoples, including Persia, Israel, Hamath, Phoenicia/Canaan, the Arabs, Arameans, and neo Hittites among others, engaged in the Battle of Karkar against the powerful Assyrian king Shalmaneser III in 853 BC. However, this coalition of powers failed and the Neo Assyrian Empire continued to dominate Western Asia.\n\nLibyan Berber control began to erode as a rival native dynasty in the delta arose under Leontopolis. Also, the Nubians of the Kushites threatened Egypt from the lands to the south.\n\nAround 730 BC Libyans from the west fractured the political unity of the country\n\nDrawing on millennia of interaction (trade, acculturation, occupation, assimilation, and war) with Egypt, the Kushite king Piye left his Nubian capital of Napata and invaded Egypt around 727 BC. Piye easily seized control of Thebes and eventually the Nile Delta. He recorded the episode on his stela of victory. Piye set the stage for subsequent Twenty-fifth dynasty pharaohs, such as Taharqa, to reunite the \"Two lands\" of Northern and Southern Egypt. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom.\n\nThe Twenty-fifth dynasty ushered in a renaissance period for ancient Egypt. Religion, the arts, and architecture were restored to their glorious Old, Middle, and New Kingdom forms. Pharaohs, such as Taharqa, built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including at Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, Jebel Barkal, etc. It was during the Twenty-fifth dynasty that there was the first widespread construction of pyramids (many in modern Sudan) in the Nile Valley since the Middle Kingdom.\n\nPiye made various unsuccessful attempts to extend Egyptian influence in the Near East, then controlled by Assyria. In 720 BC, he sent an army in support of a rebellion against Assyria, which was taking place in Philistia and Gaza. However, Piye was defeated by Sargon II and the rebellion failed. In 711 BC, Piye again supported a revolt against Assyria by the Israelites of Ashdod and was once again defeated by the Assyrian king Sargon II. Subsequently, Piye was forced from the Near East.\n\nFrom the 10th century BC onwards, Assyria fought for control of the southern Levant. Frequently, cities and kingdoms of the southern Levant appealed to Egypt for aid in their struggles against the powerful Assyrian army. Taharqa enjoyed some initial success in his attempts to regain a foothold in the Near East. Taharqa aided the Judean King Hezekiah when Hezekiah and Jerusalem was besieged by the Assyrian king, Sennacherib. Scholars disagree on the primary reason for Assyria's abandonment of their siege on Jerusalem. Reasons for the Assyrian withdrawal range from conflict with the Egyptian/Kushite army to divine intervention to surrender to disease. Henry Aubin argues that the Kushite/Egyptian army saved Jerusalem from the Assyrians and prevented the Assyrians from returning to capture Jerusalem for the remainder of Sennacherib's life (20 years). Some argue that disease was the primary reason for failing to actually take the city; however, Senacherib's annals claim Judah was forced into tribute regardless.\n\nSennacherib had been murdered by his own sons for destroying the rebellious city of Babylon, a city sacred to all Mesopotamians, the Assyrians included. In 674 BC Esarhaddon launched a preliminary incursion into Egypt; however, this attempt was repelled by Taharqa. However, in 671 BC, Esarhaddon launched a full-scale invasion. Part of his army stayed behind to deal with rebellions in Phoenicia, and Israel. The remainder went south to Rapihu, then crossed the Sinai, and entered Egypt. Esarhaddon decisively defeated Taharqa, took Memphis, Thebes and all the major cities of Egypt, and Taharqa was chased back to his Nubian homeland. Esarhaddon now called himself \"king of Egypt, ''Patros'', and Kush\", and returned with rich booty from the cities of the delta; he erected a victory stele at this time, and paraded the captive Prince Ushankhuru, the son of Taharqa in Nineveh. Esarhaddon stationed a small army in northern Egypt and describes how \"All Ethiopians (read Nubians/Kushites) I deported from Egypt, leaving not one left to do homage to me\". He installed native Egyptian princes throughout the land to rule on his behalf. The conquest by Esarhaddon effectively marked the end of the short lived Kushite Empire.\n\nTwenty-fifth Dynasty\nHowever, the native Egyptian rulers installed by Esarhaddon were unable to retain full control of the whole country for long. Two years later, Taharqa returned from Nubia and seized control of a section of southern Egypt as far north as Memphis. Esarhaddon prepared to return to Egypt and once more eject Taharqa; however, he fell ill and died in his capital, Nineveh, before he left Assyria. His successor, Ashurbanipal, sent an Assyrian general named Sha-Nabu-shu with a small, but well trained army, which conclusively defeated Taharqa at Memphis and once more drove him from Egypt. Taharqa died in Nubia two years later.\n\nHis successor, Tanutamun, also made a failed attempt to regain Egypt for Nubia. He successfully defeated Necho, the native Egyptian puppet ruler installed by Ashurbanipal, taking Thebes in the process. The Assyrians then sent a large army southwards. Tantamani (Tanutamun) was heavily routed and fled back to Nubia. The Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent it never truly recovered. A native ruler, Psammetichus I was placed on the throne, as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, and the Nubians were never again to pose a threat to either Assyria or Egypt.\n\n===Late Period (672–332 BC)===\n\n\nWith no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I (taking advantage of the fact that Assyria was involved in a fierce war conquering Elam and that few Assyrian troops were stationed in Egypt) was able to free Egypt relatively peacefully from Assyrian vassalage with the help of Lydian and Greek mercenaries, the latter of whom were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Psamtik and his successors however were careful to maintain peaceful relations with Assyria. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta.\n\nIn 609 BC Necho II went to war with Babylonia, the Chaldeans, the Medians and the Scythians in an attempt to save Assyria, which after a brutal civil war was being overrun by this coalition of powers. However, the attempt to save Egypt's former masters failed. The Egyptians delayed intervening too long, and Nineveh had already fallen and King Sin-shar-ishkun was dead by the time Necho II sent his armies northwards. However, Necho easily brushed aside the Israelite army under King Josiah but he and the Assyrians then lost a battle at Harran to the Babylonians, Medes and Scythians. Necho II and Ashur-uballit II of Assyria were finally defeated at Carchemish in Aramea (modern Syria) in 605 BC. The Egyptians remained in the area for some decades, struggling with the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II for control of portions of the former Assyrian Empire in The Levant. However, they were eventually driven back into Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar II even briefly invaded Egypt itself in 567 BC. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa in Persia (modern Iran), leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few temporarily successful revolts against the Persians marked the fifth century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.\n\nFollowing its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-seventh dynasty, ended after more than one-hundred years in 402 BC, and from 380 to 343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-first Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great without a fight.\n\n===Ptolemaic period===\n\nAlexander the Great, 100 BC – 100 AD, 54.162, Brooklyn Museum\nIn 332 BC, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Macedonian Ptolemaic Kingdom, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city showcased the power and prestige of Hellenistic rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the city—as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.\n\nHellenistic culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria that formed after the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syriac opponents from the Near East made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.\n\n===Roman period===\n\n\nThe Fayum mummy portraits epitomize the meeting of Egyptian and Roman cultures.\n\nEgypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.\n\nAlthough the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.\n\nFrom the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted. However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from Egyptian Religion and Greco-Roman religion and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303, but eventually Christianity won out. In 391 the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples. Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed. As a consequence, Egypt's native religious culture was continually in decline. While the native population certainly continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.\n", "\n===Administration and commerce===\n150px\n\nThe pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the government, who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs. In charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier, who acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. At a regional level, the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch, who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. Not only were they houses of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers, who redistributed grain and goods.\n\nMuch of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money-barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the ''deben'', a weight of roughly of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 5½ sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 7½ sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the fifth century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.\n\n===Social status===\nEgyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, known as the \"white kilt class\" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.\nPunishment in ancient Egypt.\n176px\nThe ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants, they were able to buy and sell their servitude, work their way to freedom or nobility, and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VII even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men. \n\n===Legal system===\nScribes were elite and well educated. They assessed taxes, kept records, and were responsible for administration.\nThe head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. Local councils of elders, known as ''Kenbet'' in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the ''Great Kenbet'', over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.\n\nPunishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family. Beginning in the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a \"yes\" or \"no\" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.\n\n===Agriculture===\n \nNakht.\nMenna, at Thebes, Egypt (Eighteenth Dynasty).\|225px\n\nA combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.\n\nFarming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: ''Akhet'' (flooding), ''Peret'' (planting), and ''Shemu'' (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.\n\n====Animals====\nSennedjem plows his fields with a pair of oxen, used as beasts of burden and a source of food.\nThe Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry, such as ducks, geese, and pigeons, were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and provided both honey and wax.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. Camels, although known from the New Kingdom, were not used as beasts of burden until the Late Period. There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land. Dogs, cats, and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as Sub-Saharan African lions, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Predynastic and Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.\n\n===Natural resources===\n\nEgypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster. Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant, inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai, requiring large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia, and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances.\n\nThe Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.\n\n===Trade===\n\nHatshepsut's trading expedition to the Land of Punt.\nThe ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.\n\nBy the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.\n", "\n\n===Historical development===\n\n\nThe Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to the Berber and Semitic languages. It has the second longest history of any language (after Sumerian), having been written from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer. The phases of ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian, Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic, but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and later Thebes.\n\nAncient Egyptian was a synthetic language, but it became more analytic later on. Late Egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replaced the older inflectional suffixes. There was a change from the older verb–subject–object word order to subject–verb–object. The Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.\n\n===Sounds and grammar===\nAncient Egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants, voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. It has three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants. Suffixes are added to form words. The verb conjugation corresponds to the person. For example, the triconsonantal skeleton '''''' is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is '''', 'he hears'. If the subject is a noun, suffixes are not added to the verb: '''', 'the woman hears'.\n\nAdjectives are derived from nouns through a process that Egyptologists call ''nisbation'' because of its similarity with Arabic. The word order is in verbal and adjectival sentences, and in nominal and adverbial sentences. The subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. Verbs and nouns are negated by the particle ''n'', but ''nn'' is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).\n\n===Writing===\n\n\nHieroglyphs on a funerary stela in Manchester Museum\n\nRosetta stone (ca 196 BC) enabled linguists to begin the process of hieroglyph decipherment.\n\nHieroglyphic writing dates from c. 3000 BC, and is composed of hundreds of symbols. A hieroglyph can represent a word, a sound, or a silent determinative; and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.\n\nAround the first century AD, the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the Demotic script. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of some Demotic signs. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in 1822, after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered.\n\n===Literature===\n\n\nEdwin Smith surgical papyrus (c. 16th century BC) describes anatomy and medical treatments and is written in hieratic.\n\nWriting first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked out of the ''Per Ankh'' institution or the House of Life. The latter comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. Some of the best-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, were written in Classical Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC. Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as ''Sebayt'' (\"instructions\") was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is a famous example.\n\nThe Story of Sinuhe, written in Middle Egyptian, might be the classic of Egyptian literature. Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near-eastern literature. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Greco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.\n", "\n===Daily life===\nlion with a spear, aided by a dog.\nStatues depicting lower-class ancient Egyptian occupations.\n A painted depiction of Senet , Valley of the Queens, Thebes, Egypt), one of the world's earliest known board games.\nMost ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, while wooden stools, beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness; perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's income.\nThe ancient Egyptians maintained a rich cultural heritage complete with feasts and festivals accompanied by music and dance.\nMusic and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, drums, and imported lutes and lyres from Asia. The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well.\n\nThe excavation of the workers' village of Deir el-Madinah has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world that spans almost four hundred years. There is no comparable site in which the organization, social interactions, working and living conditions of a community were studied in such detail.\n\n===Cuisine===\n\n\nEgyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time; indeed, the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients. The staple diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and fowl could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill.\n\nKarnak temple's hypostyle halls are constructed with rows of thick columns supporting the roof beams.\n\n===Architecture===\n\n\nTemple of Horus at Edfu is an exemplar of Egyptian architecture.\nThe architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the wide-ranging power of the pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today.\n\nThe domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes, while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mud bricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, Djoser's mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.\n\nThe earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Greco-Roman period. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs. The Twenty-fifth dynasty was a notable exception, as all Twenty-fifth dynasty pharaohs constructed pyramids.\n\n===Art===\n\n\nThe Bust of Nefertiti, by the sculptor Thutmose, is one of the most famous masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art.\nThe ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.\n\nEgyptian Vase in Manchester Museum\nAncient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white). Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be moistened with water when needed.\n\nPharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.\n\nDespite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. This style, known as Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten's death and replaced by the traditional forms.\n\n===Religious beliefs===\n\n\n\nThe Book of the Dead was a guide to the deceased's journey in the afterlife.\n\nBeliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.\n\nThe Ka statue provided a physical place for the Ka to manifest\n\nGods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.\n\nThe Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or ''aspects''. In addition to the body, each person had a ''šwt'' (shadow), a ''ba'' (personality or soul), a ''ka'' (life-force), and a ''name''. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ''ka'' and ''ba'' and become one of the \"blessed dead\", living on as an ''akh'', or \"effective one\". For this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a \"feather of truth\". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.\n\ngolden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun.\n\n===Burial customs===\n\n\nThe ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife. Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars.\n\nAnubis was the ancient Egyptian god associated with mummification and burial rituals; here, he attends to a mummy.\n\nBy the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated.\n\nWealthy Egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave, along with shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife. Rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated accompanied burials. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.\n", "\nAn Egyptian chariot.\nThe ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against foreign invasion, and for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.\n\nTypical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the Hyksos invaders. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and the Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. The pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army; it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so. However, it has also been argued that \"kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders, fighting alongside their troops.\" Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt.\n", "\n===Technology===\n\nIn technology, medicine, and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system.\nGlassmaking was a highly developed art.\n\n===Faience and glass===\nAncient Egyptian medical instruments depicted in a Ptolemaic period inscription on the temple at Kom Ombo.Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment.\n\nThe ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.\n\n===Medicine===\n\nThe medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare).\n\nThe diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.\n\nAncient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills, and some, such as Imhotep, remained famous long after their deaths. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. Training of physicians took place at the ''Per Ankh'' or \"House of Life\" institution, most notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy, injuries, and practical treatments.\n\nWounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads, and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain. The earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies. Prayers were made to the goddess Isis. Moldy bread, honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred.Documented extent of Ancient Egyptian geographic knowledge\n\n===Maritime technology===\nEarly Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000 BC. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that the oldest planked ships known are the Abydos boats. A group of 14 discovered ships in Abydos were constructed of wooden planks \"sewn\" together. Discovered by Egyptologist David O'Connor of New York University, woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, originally they were all thought to have belonged to him, but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000 BC, and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating. The ship dating to 3000 BC was long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. According to professor O'Connor, the 5,000-year-old ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha.\n\nEarly Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together, using pitch for caulking the seams. The \"Khufu ship\", a vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around 2500 BC, is a full-size surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque. Early Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints.\n\nSeagoing ship from Hateshepsut's Deir el-Bahari temple relief of a Punt ExpeditionLarge seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the Egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern Mediterranean, especially Byblos (on the coast of modern-day Lebanon), and in several expeditions down the Red Sea to the Land of Punt. In fact one of the earliest Egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a \"Byblos Ship\", which originally defined a class of Egyptian seagoing ships used on the Byblos run; however, by the end of the Old Kingdom, the term had come to include large seagoing ships, whatever their destination.\n\nEarly Nile Delta, showing relation of Lake Timsah to Ballah Lakes.In 2011 archaeologists from Italy, the United States, and Egypt excavating a dried-up lagoon known as Mersa Gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like Hatshepsut's Punt expedition onto the open ocean. Some of the site's most evocative evidence for the ancient Egyptians' seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes, made from papyrus, coiled in huge bundles. And in 2013 a team of Franco-Egyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the world's oldest port, dating back about 4500 years, from the time of King Cheops on the Red Sea coast near Wadi el-Jarf (about 110 miles south of Suez).\n\nIn 1977, an ancient north-south canal dating to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt was discovered extending from Lake Timsah to the Ballah Lakes. It was dated to the Middle Kingdom of Egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course.\n\n===Mathematics===\n\n\nAstronomical chart in Senemut's tomb, 18th dynasty\n\nThe earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period, and show a fully developed numeral system. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land, labor, and grain. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, and circles. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.\n\n\n\nMathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one, they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions. For example, they resolved the fraction ''two-fifths'' into the sum of ''one-third'' + ''one-fifteenth''. Standard tables of values facilitated this. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph—the equivalent of the modern two-thirds is shown on the right.\n\nAncient Egyptian mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem, knowing, for example, that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 3–4–5 ratio. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting one-ninth from its diameter and squaring the result:\n\n:Area ≈ ()''D''2 = ()''r'' 2 ≈ 3.16''r'' 2,\n\na reasonable approximation of the formula '''π'''''r'' 2.\n\nThe golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.\n", "\n\nGreek historian Herodotus claimed that ancient Egyptians looked like the people in Colchis (modern-day Georgia). This claim has been largely discredited as fictional by modern-day scholars.\n\n\nFor the fact is as I soon came to realise myself, and then heard from others later, that the Colchians are obviously Egyptian. When the notion occurred to me, I asked both the Colchians and the Egyptians about it, and found that the Colchians had better recall of the Egyptians than the Egyptians did of them. Some Egyptians said that they thought the Colchians originated with Sesostris’ army, but I myself guessed their Egyptian origin not only because the Colchians are dark-skinned and curly-haired (which does not count for much by itself, because these features are common in others too) but more importantly because Colchians, Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only peoples in the world who practise circumcision and who have always done so.\n\n\nA team lead by Johannes Krause managed the first reliable sequencing of the genomes of 90 mummified individuals in 2017. Whilst not conclusive, because of the non-exhaustive time frame and restricted location that the mummies represent, their study nevertheless showed that these ancient Egyptians \"closely resembled ancient and modern Near Eastern populations, especially those in the Levant, and had almost no DNA from sub-Saharan Africa. What's more, the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent even as different powers—including Nubians, Greeks, and Romans—conquered the empire.\" Later, however, something did alter the genomes of Egyptians. Some 15% to 20% of modern Egyptians’ DNA reflects sub-Saharan ancestry, but the ancient mummies had only 6-15% sub-Saharan DNA. \n", "\n\nThe culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman Empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect Egyptian-style structures. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, and Diodorus Siculus studied and wrote about the land, which Romans came to view as a place of mystery.\n\nDuring the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam, but interest in Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys, leading to a wave of Egyptomania across Europe. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.\n\nAlthough the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country's historical legacy, some foreigners left more positive marks. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's natural history, which was published in the ''Description de l'Égypte''.\n\nIn the 20th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt.\n\n\nFile:Camel and the pyramids.jpg\|Tourists riding a camel in front of Giza pyramids\nFile:EgyptFrontispiece.jpg\|Frontispiece of ''Description de l'Égypte'', published in 38 volumes between 1809 and 1829.\nFile:Bas relief from the interior of the Temple of Rameses II.jpg\|Relief from interior of the Temple of Rameses II.\n\n", "\n* Arnold J. Toynbee\n* Glossary of ancient Egypt artifacts\n* Index of ancient Egypt-related articles\n* Outline of ancient Egypt\n* List of ancient Egyptians\n\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* BBC History: Egyptians—provides a reliable general overview and further links\n* Ancient History Encyclopedia on Egypt\n* Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989\n* Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy A site that shows the history of Egyptian metalworking\n* ''Napoleon on the Nile: Soldiers, Artists, and the Rediscovery of Egypt'', Art History.\n* Ancient Egypt—maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents\n* Digital Egypt for Universities. Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.\n* Priests of Ancient Egypt In-depth-information about Ancient Egypt's priests, religious services and temples. Much picture material and bibliography. In English and German.\n* Ancient Egypt\n* UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology\n* Ancient Egypt and the Role of Women by Dr Joann Fletcher\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Government and economy", "Language", "Culture", "Military", "Technology, medicine, and mathematics", " Population ", "Legacy", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Ancient Egypt
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Analog Brothers''' were an experimental hip-hop crew featuring Ice Oscillator also known as Ice-T (keyboards, drums, vocals), Keith Korg also known as Kool Keith (bass, strings, vocals), Mark Moog also known as Marc Live (drums, ''violyns'' and vocals), Silver Synth also known as Black Silver (synthesizer, lazar bell and vocals), and Rex Roland also known as Pimp Rex (keyboards, vocals, production). Its album ''Pimp to Eat'' featured guest appearances by various members of Rhyme Syndicate, Odd Oberheim, Jacky jasper (who appears as Jacky Jasper on the song \"We Sleep Days\" and H-Bomb on \"War\"), D.J. Cisco from S.M., the Synth-a-Size Sisters and Teflon.\n\nWhile the group only recorded one album together as the Analog Brothers, a few bootlegs of its live concert performances, including freestyles with original lyrics, have occasionally surfaced online. After ''Pimp to Eat'', the Analog Brothers continued performing together in various line ups. Kool Keith and Marc Live joined with Jacky jasper to release two albums as KHM. Marc Live rapped with Ice T's group SMG. Marc also formed a group with Black Silver called Live Black, but while five of their tracks were released on a demo CD sold at concerts, Live Black's first album has yet to be released.\n\nIn 2008, Ice-T and Black Silver toured together as Black Ice, and released an album together called Urban Legends.\n\nIn 2013 Black Silver and newest member to Analog Brothers, Kiew Kurzweil (Kiew Nikon of Kinetic) collaborated on the joint album called Slang Banging - Return to Analog with production by Junkadelic Music.\n\nIn addition to all this, the Analog Brothers continue to make frequent appearances on each other's solo albums.\n", "* ''2005. A.D.'' (single) (2000)\n* ''Pimp to Eat'' (Ground Control/Nu Gruv) (2000)\n* \"Slang Banging - Return to Analog feat: Kiew Kurzweil\" (Junkadelic Music)\n(2013)\n", "* Kool Keith's Site\n* Ultrakeith\n\n Analog Brothers at Discogs\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Discography", "External links" ]	Analog Brothers
[ "\n\n\n\n\nA '''motor neuron disease''' ('''MND''') is any of several neurological disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells that control voluntary muscles of the body. They include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) and pseudobulbar palsy. Spinal muscular atrophies (SMA) are sometimes included in the group by some neurologists but it is different disease with clear genetic cause. They are neurodegenerative in nature and cause increasing disability and eventually, death.\n", "In the United States, the term is often used to denote ALS, the most common disorder in the group. In the United Kingdom, the term is also spelt ''motor neurone disease'' (MND) and is sometimes used for the entire group; but mostly it refers to ALS.\n\nWhile MND refers to a specific subset of similar diseases, there are numerous other diseases of motor neurons that are referred to collectively as \"motor neuron disorders\", for instance disease belonging to spinal muscular atrophies. However, they are not classified as \"motor neuron diseases\" by the tenth International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10), which is the definition followed in this article.\n", "\nMotor neuron diseases affect either upper motor neurons (UMN) or lower motor neurons (LMN), or both:\n\n\n ! Type !! UMN degeneration !! LMN degeneration \n \|- \n \| Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) \n Yes \n Yes \n \|- \n \| Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) \n Yes \n No \n \|-\n \| Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) \n Yes \n No\n \|- \n \| Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) \n No \n Yes \n \|- \n \| Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) \n No \n Yes, bulbar region\n \|- \n \| Pseudobulbar palsy \n Yes, bulbar region \n No\n\n", "* Fasciculation\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Terminology", " Classification ", " See also ", "References", " External links " ]	Motor neuron disease
[ "\n\n\n\n\nAn '''abjad''' (pronounced or ) is a type of writing system where each symbol stands for a consonant, leaving the reader to supply the appropriate vowel. The name ''abjad'' is based on the old Arabic alphabet's first four letters – a, b, j, d – to replace the common terms \"'''consonantary'''\", \"'''consonantal alphabet'''\" or \"syllabary\" to refer to the family of scripts called West Semitic.\n", "The name \"abjad\" ('''' ) is derived from pronouncing the first letters of the ''Arabic'' alphabet in order. The ordering ('''') of Arabic letters used to match that of the older Hebrew, Phoenician and Semitic alphabets; ''''.\n", "According to the formulations of Daniels, abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants, not vowels, are represented among the basic graphemes. Abjads differ from abugidas, another category defined by Daniels, in that in abjads, the vowel sound is ''implied'' by phonology, and where vowel marks exist for the system, such as nikkud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic, their use is optional and not the dominant (or literate) form. Abugidas mark the vowels (other than the \"inherent\" vowel) with a diacritic, a minor attachment to the letter, or a standalone glyph. Some abugidas use a special symbol to ''suppress'' the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented. In a syllabary, a grapheme denotes a complete syllable, that is, either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds.\n\nThe antagonism of abjad versus alphabet, as it was formulated by Daniels, has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term not only for the Arabic numeral system but, which is most important in terms of historical grammatology, also as term for the alphabetic device (i.e. letter order) of ancient Northwest Semitic scripts in opposition to the 'south Arabian' order. This caused fatal effects on terminology in general and especially in (ancient) Semitic philology. Also, it suggests that consonantal alphabets, in opposition to for instance the Greek alphabet, were not yet true alphabets and not yet entirely complete, lacking something important to be a fully working script system. It has also been objected that, as a set of letters, an alphabet is not the mirror of what should be there in a language from a phonemic or even phonological point of view, rather, it is the data stock of what provides maximum efficiency with least effort from a semantic point of view.\n", "A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script containing a phrase which may mean 'to Baalat'. The line running from the upper left to lower right reads ''mt l bclt''.\n\n\n\nThe first abjad to gain widespread usage was the Phoenician abjad. Unlike other contemporary scripts, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, the Phoenician script consisted of only a few dozen symbols. This made the script easy to learn, and seafaring Phoenician merchants took the script wherever they went.\n\nThe Phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing, since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically, much as ''man'yougana'' (Chinese characters, or kanji, used solely for phonetic use) was used to represent Japanese phonetically before the invention of kana.\n\nPhoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems, including the Greek alphabet and Aramaic, a widely used abjad. The Greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets, such as Latin and Cyrillic, while Aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of Asia.\n", "''Al-ʻArabiyya'', meaning \"Arabic\": an example of the Arabic script, which is an impure abjad.\n\nImpure abjads have characters for some vowels, optional vowel diacritics, or both. The term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators. However, most modern abjads, such as Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic and Pahlavi, are \"impure\" abjads, that is, they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes, although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants, particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels. An example of a \"pure\" abjad is (perhaps) very early forms of ancient Phoenician, though at some point (at least by the 9th century BC) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers, called ''matres lectionis''. This practice was at first rare and limited in scope, but it became increasingly common and more developed in later times.\n\n===Addition of vowels===\n\n\nIn the 9th century BC, the Greeks adapted the Phoenician script for use in their own language. The phonetic structure of the Greek language created too many ambiguities when the vowels went unrepresented, so the script was modified. They did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by ''aleph'', ''he'', ''heth'' or ''ayin'', so these symbols were assigned vocalic values. The letters ''waw'' and ''yod'' were also adapted into vowel signs; along with ''he'', these were already used as ''matres lectionis'' in Phoenician. The major innovation of Greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants (as opposed to syllabaries such as Linear B which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables).\n\nAbugidas developed along a slightly different route. The basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent \"a\" vowel sound. Hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel. In this way, the South Arabian alphabet evolved into the Ge'ez alphabet between the 5th century BC and the 5th century AD. Similarly, around the 3rd century BC, the Brāhmī script developed (from the Aramaic abjad, it has been hypothesized).\n\nThe other major family of abugidas, Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, was initially developed in the 1840s by missionary and linguist James Evans for the Cree and Ojibwe languages. Evans used features of Devanagari script and Pitman shorthand to create his initial abugida. Later in the 19th century, other missionaries adapted Evans' system to other Canadian aboriginal languages. Canadian syllabics differ from other abugidas in that the vowel is indicated by rotation of the consonantal symbol, with each vowel having a consistent orientation.\n", "The abjad form of writing is well-adapted to the morphological structure of the Semitic languages it was developed to write. This is because words in Semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of (usually) three consonants, the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms. For instance, according to Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic, from the Arabic root ''Dh-B-Ḥ'' (to slaughter) can be derived the forms '''' (he slaughtered), '''' (you (masculine singular) slaughtered), '''' (he slaughters), and '''' (slaughterhouse). In most cases, the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer, allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots (especially in conjunction with context clues) and improving word recognition while reading for practiced readers.\n", "\n\n\n Name\n In use\n Cursive\n Direction\n # of letters\n Area of origin\n Used by\nLanguages\n Time period (age)\nInfluenced by\nWriting systems influenced\n\n Syriac \n yes \n yes \n right-left \n 22 consonants \n Middle-East \n Church of the East, Syrian Church\nAramaic, Syriac, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic \n ~ 100 BC\n Aramaic \n Nabatean, Palmyran, Mandaic, Parthian, Pahlavi, Sogdian, Avestan and Manichean\n\n Hebrew \n yes \nonly in modern Hebrew\n right-left \n 22 consonants + 5 final letters \n Middle-East \n Israelis, Some Jewish diaspora communities, Ancient Hebrew Tribes \nHebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Aramaic \n > 1100 BC \n Proto-Hebrew, Early Aramaic \n \n\n Arabic \n yes \n yes \n right-left \n 28 \n Middle-East and North Africa \n Over 400 million people \n Arabic, Bosnian, Kashmiri'', Malay, Persian, Pashto, Balochi, Turkish, Urdu, others ''\n ~ AD 500 \n Nabataean Aramaic\n \n\n Aramaic (Imperial) \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Middle-East \n Archaemenid, Persian, Babylonian, and Assyrian empires \n Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew \n ~ 500 BC \n Phoenician \n Late Hebrew, Nabataean, Syriac\n\n Aramaic (Early) \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Middle-East \n Various Semitic Peoples \n \n ~ 1000-900 BC\n Phoenician \n Hebrew, Imperial Aramaic.\n\n Ancient Berber \n no \n no \n top-bottom, right-left \n 22 (right-left) 25 (up-down) \n North Africa \n Women in Tuareg Society \n Tifinagh \n 600 BC \n Punic, South Arabian \n Tifinagh\n\n Nabataean \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Middle-East \n Nabataean Kingdom \nNabataean \n 200 BC\n Aramaic \n Arabic\n\n Middle Persian, (Pahlavi) \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Middle-East \n Sassanian Empire \n Pahlavi, Middle Persian \n \n Aramaic \n Psalter, Avestan\n\n Mandaic \n no \n yes \n right-left \n 24 \n Iraq, Iran \n Ahvāz, Iran \n Mandaic \n ~ AD 200\n Aramaic\n Neo-Mandaic\n\n Psalter Pahlavi \n no \n yes \n right-left \n 21 \n Northwestern China \n Persian Script for Paper Writing \n \n ~ AD 400\n Syriac \n \n\n Phoenician \n no \n no \n right-left, Boustrophedon \n 22 \n Byblos \n Canaanites \n Phoenician, Punic \n ~ 1000-1500 BC\n Proto-Canaanite Alphabet \n Punic(variant), Greek, Etruscan, Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew\n\n Parthian \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Parthia (modern-day equivalent of Northeastern Iran) \n Parthian & Sassanian periods of Persian Empire \n Parthian \n ~ 200 BC\n Aramaic \n \n\n Sabaean \n no \n no system \n right-left, boustrophedon \n 29 \n Southern Arabia (Sheba) \n Southern Arabians \n Sabaean\n ~ 500 BC\n Byblos \n Ethiopic (Eritrea & Ethiopia)\n\n Punic \n no \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Carthage (Tunisia), North Africa, Mediterranean \n Punic Culture \n Punic, Neo-Punic \n \n Phoenician \n \n\n Proto-Sinaitic, Proto-Canaanite \n no \n no \n left-right \n 30 \n Egypt, Sinai, Canaan \n Canaanites \n Canaanite \n ~ 1900-1700 BC\n In conjunction with Egyptian Hieroglyphs \n Phoenician, Hebrew\n\n Ugaritic \n no \n yes \n left-right \n 30 \n Ugarit (modern-day Northern Syria) \nUgarites \n Ugaritic, Hurrian \n ~ 1400 BC \n Proto-Sinaitic \n \n\n South Arabian \n no \n yes (Zabūr - cursive form of the South Arabian script) \n Boustrophedon \n 29 \n South-Arabia (Yemen) \n D'mt Kingdom \n Amharic, Tigrinya, Tigre, Semitic, Chushitic, Nilo-Saharan \n 900 BC \n Proto-Sinaitic \n Ge'ez ((Ethiopia)(Eritrea))\n\n Sogdian \n no \n no (yes in later versions)\n right-left, left-right(vertical) \n 20 \n parts of China (Xinjiang), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan \n Buddhists, Manichaens \n Sogdian \n ~ AD 400\n Syriac \n Old Uyghur alphabet, Yaqnabi (Tajikistan dialect) \n\n Samaritan \n yes (700 people) \n no \n right-left \n 22 \n Mesopatamia or Levant (Disputed) \n Samaritans (Nablus and Holon) \n Samaritan Aramaic, Samaritan Hebrew\n ~ 100-0 BC\n Paleo-Hebrew Alphabet \n \n\n", "* Abjad numerals\n* Abugida\n* Gematria (Hebrew system of mystical numerology)\n* Numerology\n* Shorthand (constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads)\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n \n* \n* \n\n* \n\n* \n* \n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Terminology", "Origins", "Impure abjads", "Abjads and the structure of Semitic languages", "Comparative chart of Abjads, extinct and extant", "See also", "References", "Sources" ]	Abjad
[ "\n\n\n\n\nAn '''abugida''' (from Ge'ez: አቡጊዳ ''’abugida''), or '''alphasyllabary''', also known as avugida, is a segmental writing system in which consonant–vowel sequences are written as a unit: each unit is based on a consonant letter, and vowel notation is secondary. This contrasts with a full alphabet, in which vowels have status equal to consonants, and with an abjad, in which vowel marking is absent, partial, or optional. (In less formal contexts, all three types of script may be termed alphabets.) The terms also contrast them with a syllabary, in which the symbols cannot be split into separate consonants and vowels. Abugidas include the extensive Brahmic family of scripts of South and Southeast Asia, Semitic Ethiopic scripts, and Canadian Aboriginal syllabics (which are themselves based in part on Brahmic scripts).\n\nAs is the case for syllabaries, the units of the writing system may consist of the representations both of syllables and of consonants. For scripts of the Brahmic family, the term ''akshara'' is used for the units.\n\n''Abugida'' as a term in linguistics was proposed by Peter T. Daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems. ''’Äbugida'' is an Ethiopian name for the Ge‘ez script, taken from four letters of that script, ''ä bu gi da'', in much the same way that ''abecedary'' is derived from Latin ''a be ce de'', ''abjad'' is derived from the Arabic ''a b j d'', and ''alphabet'' is derived from the names of the two first letters in the Greek alphabet, ''alpha'' and ''beta''. As Daniels used the word, an abugida is in contrast with a syllabary, where letters with shared consonants or vowels show no particular resemblance to one another, and also with an alphabet proper, where independent letters are used to denote both consonants and vowels. The term ''alphasyllabary'' was suggested for the Indic scripts in 1997 by William Bright, following South Asian linguistic usage, to convey the idea that \"they share features of both alphabet and syllabary.\"\n\nAbugidas were long considered to be syllabaries, or intermediate between syllabaries and alphabets, and the term ''syllabics'' is retained in the name of Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. Other terms that have been used include ''neosyllabary'' (Février 1959), ''pseudo-alphabet'' (Householder 1959), ''semisyllabary'' (Diringer 1968; a word that has other uses) and ''syllabic alphabet'' (Coulmas 1996; this term is also a synonym for syllabary).\n\n\n", "The formal definitions given by Daniels and Bright for abugida and alphasyllabary differ; some writing systems are abugidas but not alphasyllabaries, and some are alphasyllabaries but not abugidas. An abugida is defined as \"a type of writing system whose basic characters denotes consonants followed by a particular vowel, and in which diacritics denote other vowels\". (This 'particular vowel' is referred to as the ''inherent'' or ''implicit'' vowel, as opposed to the ''explicit'' vowels marked by the 'diacritics'.) An alphasyllabary is defined as \"a type of writing system in which the vowels are denoted by subsidiary symbols not all of which occur in a linear order (with relation to the consonant symbols) that is congruent with their temporal order in speech\". Bright did not require that an alphabet explicitly represent all vowels. Phagspa is an example of an abugida that is not an alphasyllabary, and modern Lao is an example of an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida, for its vowels are always explicit.\n\nThis description is expressed in terms of an abugida. Formally, an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida can be converted to an abugida by adding a purely formal vowel sound that is never used and declaring that to be the inherent vowel of the letters representing consonants. This may formally make the system ambiguous, but in 'practice' this is not a problem, for then the interpretation with the never used inherent vowel sound will always be a wrong interpretation. Note that the actual pronunciation may be complicated by interactions between the sounds apparently written just as the sounds of the letters in the English words ''wan, gem'' and ''war'' are affected by neighbouring letters.\n\nThe fundamental principles of an abugida apply to words made up of consonant-vowel (CV) syllables. The syllables are written as a linear sequences of the units of the script. Each syllable is either a letter that represents the sound of a consonant and the inherent vowel, or a letter with a modification to indicate the vowel, either by means of diacritics, or by changes in the form of the letter itself. If all modifications are by diacritics and all diacritics follow the direction of the writing of the letters, then the abugida is not an alphasyllabary.\n\nHowever, most languages have words that are more complicated than a sequence of CV syllables, even ignoring tone.\n\nThe first complication is syllables that consist of just a vowel (V). Now, in some languages, this issue does not arise, for every syllable starts with a consonant. This is common in Semitic languages and in languages of mainland SE Asia, and for such languages this issue need not arise. For some languages, a zero consonant letter is used as though every syllable began with a consonant. For other languages, each vowel has a separate letter that is used for each syllable consisting of just the vowel. These letters are known as ''independent vowels'', and are found in most Indic scripts. These letters may be quite different to the corresponding diacritics, which by contrast are known as ''dependent vowels''. As a result of the spread of writing systems, independent vowels may be used to represent syllables beginning with a glottal stop, even for non-initial syllables.\n\nThe next two complications are sequences of consonants before a vowel (CCV) and syllables ending in a consonant (CVC). The simplest solution, which is not always available, is to break with the principle of writing words as a sequence of syllables and use a unit representing just a consonant (C). This unit may be represented with:\na modification that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel (virama),\na lack of vowel marking (often with ambiguity between no vowel and a default inherent vowel),\nvowel marking for a short or neutral vowel such as ''schwa'' (with ambiguity between no vowel and that short or neutral vowel), or\na visually unrelated letter.\n\nIn a true abugida, the lack of distinctive marking may result from the diachronic loss of the inherent vowel, e.g. by syncope and apocope in Hindi.\n\nWhen not handled by decomposition into C + CV, CCV syllables are handled by combining the two consonants. In the Indic scripts, the earliest method was simply to arrange them vertically, but the two consonants may merge as a conjunct consonant letters, where two or more letters are graphically joined in a ligature, or otherwise change their shapes. Rarely, one of the consonants may be replaced by a gemination mark, e.g. the Gurmukhi ''addak''. When they are arranged vertically, as in Burmese or Khmer, they are said to be 'stacked'. Often there has been a change to writing the two consonants side by side. In the latter case, the fact of combination may be indicated by a diacritic on one of the consonants or a change in the form of one of the consonants, e.g. the half forms of Devanagari. Generally, the reading order is top to bottom or the general reading order of the script, but sometimes the order is reversed.\n\nThe division of a word into syllables for the purposes of writing does not always accord with the natural phonetics of the language. For example, Brahmic scripts commonly handle a phonetic sequence CVC-CV as CV-CCV or CV-C-CV. However, sometimes phonetic CVC syllables are handled as single units, and the final consonant may be represented:\n\nin much the same way as the second consonant in CCV, e.g. in the Tibetan, Khmer and Tai Tham scripts. The positioning of the components may be slightly different, as in Khmer and Tai Tham.\nby a special dependent consonant sign, which may be a smaller or differently placed version of the full consonant letter, or may be a distinct sign altogether.\nnot at all. For example, repeated consonants need not be represented, homorganic nasals may be ignored, and in Philippine scripts, the syllable-final consonant was traditionally never represented.\n\nMore complicated unit structures (e.g. CC or CCVC) are handled by combining the various techniques above.\n", "There are three principal families of abugidas, depending on whether vowels are indicated by modifying consonants by ''diacritics, distortion,'' or ''orientation.''\nThe oldest and largest is the Brahmic family of India and Southeast Asia, in which vowels are marked with diacritics and syllable-final consonants, when they occur, are indicated with ligatures, diacritics, or with a special vowel-canceling mark.\nIn the Ethiopic family, vowels are marked by modifying the shapes of the consonants, and one of the vowel-forms serves additionally to indicate final consonants.\nIn the Cree family, vowels are marked by rotating or flipping the consonants, and final consonants are indicated with either special diacritics or superscript forms of the main initial consonants.\n\nTāna of the Maldives has dependent vowels and a zero vowel sign, but no inherent vowel.\n\n\nFeature!!North Indic!!South Indic!!Tāna!!Ethiopic!!Canadian\n\nVowel representationafter consonant\nDependent sign (diacritic)in distinct position per vowel\nFused diacritic\nRotate/reflect\n\nInitial vowelrepresentation\nDistinct inlineletter per vowel\nGlottal stop or zero consonant plusdependent vowel in Tāna and mainland Southeast Asia\nGlottal stopplus dependent\nZero consonantplus dependent\n\nInherent vowel(value of no vowel sign)\n, , , or \nNo\n\nN/A\n\nZero vowel sign(sign for no value)\nOften\nAlways used whenno final vowel\nAmbiguous with ə ()\nShrunk or separate letter\n\nConsonant cluster\n Conjunct\nStack or separate\nSeparate\n\nFinal consonant (not sign)\nInline\nInline\nInline\n\nDistinct final sign\nOnly for ṃ, ḥ\nNo\nOnly in Western\n\nFinal sign position\nInline or top\nInline, top or occasionally bottom\nN/A\nRaised or inline \n\n\n; Exceptions\n\n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n: \n\n\n\n\n===Indic (Brahmic)===\n\n\nIndic scripts originated in India and spread to Southeast Asia. All surviving Indic scripts are descendants of the Brahmi alphabet. Today they are used in most languages of South Asia (although replaced by Perso-Arabic in Urdu, Kashmiri and some other languages of Pakistan and India), mainland Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia), and Indonesian archipelago (Javanese, Balinese, Sundanese, etc.). The primary division is into North Indic scripts used in Northern India, Nepal, Tibet and Bhutan, and Southern Indic scripts used in South India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.\nSouth Indic letter forms are very rounded; North Indic less so, though Odia, Golmol and Litumol of Nepal script are rounded.\nMost North Indic scripts' full letters incorporate a horizontal line at the top, with Gujarati and Odia as exceptions; South Indic scripts do not.\n\nIndic scripts indicate vowels through dependent vowel signs (diacritics) around the consonants, often including a sign that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel. If a consonant has no vowel sign, this indicates a default vowel. Vowel diacritics may appear above, below, to the left, to the right, or around the consonant.\n\nThe most widely used Indic script is Devanagari, shared by Hindi, Bhojpuri, Marathi, Konkani, Nepali, and often Sanskrit. A basic letter such as क in Hindi represents a syllable with the default vowel, in this case ''ka'' (). In some languages, including Hindi, it becomes a final closing consonant at the end of a word, in this case ''k''. The inherent vowel may be changed by adding vowel mark (diacritics), producing syllables such as कि ''ki,'' कु ''ku,'' के ''ke,'' को ''ko.''\n\nA 19th-century manuscript in the Devanagari script\n\n+ Diacritic placement in Brahmic abugidas\n position\n syllable\n pronunciation\n base form\n script\n\n above \n के \n \n क \n Devanagari\n\n below \n कु \n \n\n left \n कि \n \n\n right \n को \n \n\n around \n கௌ \n \n க \n Tamil\n\n surround \n កៀ \n \n ក \n Khmer\n\n within \n ಕಿ \n \n ಕ \n Kannada\n\n within \n కి\n \n క \n Telugu\n\n below and extendto the right \n ꦏꦾ \n \n ꦏ \n Javanese\n\n below and extendto the left \n ꦏꦿꦸ \n \n ꦏ \n Javanese\n\n\nIn many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like ि ''-i,'' falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game cricket in Hindi is क्रिकेट ''krikeţ;'' the diacritic for appears before the consonant cluster , not before the . A more unusual example is seen in the Batak alphabet: Here the syllable ''bim'' is written ''ba-ma-i-(virama)''. That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable.\n\nIn many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, क् is ''k,'' and ल् is ''l''. This is called the ''virāma'' or ''halantam'' in Sanskrit. It may be used to form consonant clusters, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word. Thus in Sanskrit, a default vowel consonant such as क does not take on a final consonant sound. Instead, it keeps its vowel. For writing two consonants without a vowel in between, instead of using diacritics on the first consonant to remove its vowel, another popular method of special conjunct forms is used in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari: क्ल ''kla.'' (Note that some fonts display this as क् followed by ल, rather than forming a conjunct. This expedient is used by ISCII and South Asian scripts of Unicode.) Thus a closed syllable such as ''kal'' requires two ''aksharas'' to write.\n\nThe Róng script used for the Lepcha language goes further than other Indic abugidas, in that a single ''akshara'' can represent a closed syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable sok would be written as something like s̥̽, here with an underring representing and an overcross representing the diacritic for final . Most other Indic abugidas can only indicate a very limited set of final consonants with diacritics, such as or , if they can indicate any at all.\n\n===Ethiopic===\nThe Ge'ez script, an abugida of Eritrea and Ethiopia\nIn Ethiopic (where the term ''abugida'' originates) the diacritics have been fused to the consonants to the point that they must be considered modifications of the form of the letters. Children learn each modification separately, as in a syllabary; nonetheless, the graphic similarities between syllables with the same consonant is readily apparent, unlike the case in a true syllabary.\n\nThough now an abugida, the Ge'ez script, until the advent of Christianity (''ca.'' AD 350), had originally been what would now be termed an ''abjad''. In the Ge'ez abugida (or ''fidel''), the base form of the letter (also known as ''fidel'') may be altered. For example, ሀ ''hä'' (base form), ሁ ''hu'' (with a right-side diacritic that doesn't alter the letter), ሂ ''hi'' (with a subdiacritic that compresses the consonant, so it is the same height), ህ ''hə'' or (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm).\n\n===Canadian Aboriginal syllabics===\n\n\nIn the family known as Canadian Aboriginal syllabics, which was inspired by the Devanagari script of India, vowels are indicated by changing the orientation of the syllabogram. Each vowel has a consistent orientation; for example, Inuktitut ᐱ ''pi,'' ᐳ ''pu,'' ᐸ ''pa;'' ᑎ ''ti,'' ᑐ ''tu,'' ᑕ ''ta''. Although there is a vowel inherent in each, all rotations have equal status and none can be identified as basic. Bare consonants are indicated either by separate diacritics, or by superscript versions of the ''aksharas''; there is no vowel-killer mark.\n", "\n===Vowelled abjads===\nConsonantal scripts (\"abjads\") are normally written without indication of many vowels. However, in some contexts like teaching materials or scriptures, Arabic and Hebrew are written with full indication of vowels via diacritic marks (''harakat'', ''niqqud'') making them effectively alphasyllabaries. The Brahmic and Ethiopic families are thought to have originated from the Semitic abjads by the addition of vowel marks.\n\n\nThe Arabic scripts used for Kurdish in Iraq and for Uyghur in Xinjiang, China, as well as the Hebrew script of Yiddish, are fully vowelled, but because the vowels are written with full letters rather than diacritics (with the exception of distinguishing between /a/ and /o/ in the latter) and there are no inherent vowels, these are considered alphabets, not abugidas.\n\n===Phagspa===\nThe imperial Mongol script called Phagspa was derived from the Tibetan abugida, but all vowels are written in-line rather than as diacritics. However, it retains the features of having an inherent vowel /a/ and having distinct initial vowel letters.\n\n===Pahawh===\nPahawh Hmong is a non-segmental script that indicates syllable onsets and rimes, such as consonant clusters and vowels with final consonants. Thus it is not segmental and cannot be considered an abugida. However, it superficially resembles an abugida with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed. Most syllables are written with two letters in the order rime–onset (typically vowel-consonant), even though they are pronounced as onset-rime (consonant-vowel), rather like the position of the vowel in Devanagari, which is written before the consonant. Pahawh is also unusual in that, while an inherent rime (with mid tone) is unwritten, it also has an inherent onset . For the syllable , which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is that is written. Thus it is the rime (vowel) that is basic to the system.\n\n===Meroitic===\nIt is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scripts. For example, the Meroitic script of ancient Sudan did not indicate an inherent ''a'' (one symbol stood for both ''m'' and ''ma,'' for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family of abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel.\n\n===Shorthand===\nSeveral systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish script than to the Brahmic scripts. The Gabelsberger shorthand system and its derivatives modify the ''following'' consonant to represent vowels. The Pollard script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone. Pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quarter-circle marks in different orientations as the principal \"alphabet\" of consonants; vowels are shown as light and heavy dots, dashes and other marks in one of 3 possible positions to indicate the various vowel-sounds. However, to increase writing speed, Pitman has rules for \"vowel indication\" using the positioning or choice of consonant signs so that writing vowel-marks can be dispensed with.\n", "As the term ''alphasyllabary'' suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads (vowelless alphabets). They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other, and typically develop directly from logographic scripts. Compare the Devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese hiragana syllabary: か ''ka'', き ''ki'', く ''ku'', け ''ke'', こ ''ko'' have nothing in common to indicate ''k;'' while ら ''ra'', り ''ri'', る ''ru'', れ ''re'', ろ ''ro'' have neither anything in common for ''r'', nor anything to indicate that they have the same vowels as the ''k'' set.\n\nMost Indian and Indochinese abugidas appear to have first been developed from abjads with the Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī scripts; the abjad in question is usually considered to be the Aramaic one, but while the link between Aramaic and Kharosthi is more or less undisputed, this is not the case with Brahmi. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendants include most of the modern scripts of South and Southeast Asia. Ge'ez derived from a different abjad, the Sabean script of Yemen; the advent of vowels coincided with the introduction of Christianity about AD 350.\n\nThe Ethiopic script is the elaboration of an abjad.\n\nThe Cree family was invented with full knowledge of the Devanagari system.\n\nThe Meroitic script was developed from Egyptian hieroglyphs, within which various schemes of 'group writing' had been used for showing vowels.\n", "* Featural alphabet\n* Abjad\n* Alphabet\n* Logogram\n* Syllabary\n", "\n\nComparison of various abugidas descended from Brahmi script. ''May Śiva protect those who take delight in the language of the gods.'' (Kalidasa)\n\nBrahmic family, descended from Brāhmī (c. 6th century BC)\nAhom\nBrahmiSanskrit, Prakrit,\nBalinese\nBatakToba and other Batak languages\nBaybayinIlokano, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Tagalog, Bikol languages, Visayan languages, and possibly other Philippine languages\nBengali-Assamese scriptBengali, Assamese, Meithei, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Kokborok, Khasi language, Bodo language.\nBhaiksuki \nBuhid\nBurmeseBurmese, Karen languages, Mon, and Shan\nCham\nChakma \nDehongDehong Dai\nDevanagariHindi, Sanskrit, Marathi, Nepali, and many other languages of northern India\nDhives Akuru\nGranthaSanskrit\nGujaratiGujarāti, Kachchi\nGurmukhi scriptPunjabi\nHanuno’o\nJavanese\nKaithi\nKannadaKannada, Tulu, Konkani, Kodava\nKawi\nKhojki \nKhotanese\nKhudawadi \nKhmer\nKolezhuthuTamil, Malayalam\nLao\nLepcha\nLeke\nLimbu\nLontara’Buginese, Makassar, and Mandar\nMahajani\nMalayalamMalayalam\nMalayanmaMalayalam\nMarchenZhang-Zhung \nMeetei Mayek\nModiMarathi\nMultaniSaraiki \nNandinagariSanskrit\nNewarNepal Bhasa, Sanskrit\nNew Tai Lue\nOriya\nPallava scriptTamil, Prakrit, Sanskrit\nPhags-paMongolian, Chinese, and other languages of the Yuan dynasty Mongol Empire\nRanjanaNepal Bhasa, Sanskrit\nRejang\nSharadaSanskrit\nSiddhamSanskrit\nSinhala\nSourashtra\nSoyombo\nSundanese\nSyloti NagriSylheti\nTagbanwaLanguages of Palawan\nTai Le\nTai Dam\nTai ThamKhün, and Northern Thai\nTakri \nTamil\nTelugu\nThai\nTibetan\nTigalariSanskrit\nTirhutaMaithili\nTocharian\nVatteluttuTamil, Malayalam\nZanabazar Square \nZhang zhung scripts\nKharoṣṭhī (extinct), from the 3rd century BC\nGe'ez (Ethiopic), from the 4th century AD\nCanadian Aboriginal syllabics\nCreeOjibwe syllabics\nInuktitut syllabics\nBlackfoot syllabics\nCarrier syllabics\nThaana\nPollard script\nPitman shorthand\nTengwar (fictional)\n* Ihathvé Sabethired (fictional)\n\n===Abugida-like scripts===\nMeroitic (extinct) (an alphabet with an inherent vowel)\n", "\n", " Syllabic alphabets – Omniglot's list of abugidas, including examples of various writing systems\n* Alphabets – list of abugidas and other scripts (in Spanish)\n* Comparing Devanagari with Burmese, Khmer, Thai, and Tai Tham scripts\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "General description", "Family-specific features", "Borderline cases", "Development", "Other types of writing systems", "List of abugidas", "References", "External links" ]	Abugida
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''ABBA''' () were a Swedish pop group, formed in Stockholm in 1972 by members '''A'''gnetha Fältskog, '''B'''jörn Ulvaeus, '''B'''enny Andersson, and '''A'''nni-Frid Lyngstad. They became one of the most commercially successful acts in the history of popular music, topping the charts worldwide from 1974 to 1982. ABBA won the Eurovision Song Contest 1974 at The Dome in Brighton, UK, giving Sweden its first triumph in the contest, and are the most successful group to have ever taken part in the competition.\n\nABBA's record sales figure is uncertain and various estimates range from over 140 to over 500 million sold records. This makes them one of the best-selling music artists of all time. They are also the best-selling band of all time from continental Europe and from outside the English-speaking world. ABBA were the first group from a non-English-speaking country to achieve consistent success in the charts of English-speaking countries, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. They have a joint record eight consecutive number-one albums in the UK. The group also enjoyed significant success in Latin America, and recorded a collection of their hit songs in Spanish.\n\nDuring the band's active years, Fältskog & Ulvaeus and Lyngstad & Andersson were married. At the height of their popularity, both relationships were suffering strain which ultimately resulted in the collapse of the Ulvaeus–Fältskog marriage in 1979 and the Andersson–Lyngstad marriage in 1981. These relationship changes were reflected in the group's music, with later compositions featuring more introspective and dark lyrics in contrast to their usual pure-pop sound.\n\nAfter ABBA disbanded in December 1982, Andersson and Ulvaeus achieved success writing music for the stage, while Lyngstad and Fältskog pursued solo careers with mixed success. ABBA's music declined in popularity until the purchase of ABBA's catalogue and record company Polar by Polygram in 1989 enabled the groundwork to be laid for an international re-issue of all their original material and a new Greatest Hits (ABBA Gold) collection in September 1992 which became a worldwide smash. Several films, notably ''Muriel's Wedding'' (1994) and ''The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert'' (1994), further revived public interest in the group and the spawning of several tribute bands. In 1999, ABBA's music was adapted into the successful musical ''Mamma Mia!'' that toured worldwide. A film of the same name, released in 2008, became the highest-grossing film in the United Kingdom that year.\n\nABBA were honoured at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Eurovision Song Contest in 2005, when their hit \"Waterloo\" was chosen as the best song in the competition's history. The group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010. In 2015, their song \"Dancing Queen\" was inducted into the Recording Academy's Grammy Hall of Fame.\n", "\n===1958–1970: Before ABBA===\n\n\n\n====Member origins and collaboration====\nBenny Andersson (born 16 December 1946 in Stockholm, Sweden) became (at age 18) a member of a popular Swedish pop-rock group, the Hep Stars, that performed covers, amongst other things, of international hits. The Hep Stars were known as \"the Swedish Beatles\". They also set up Hep House, their equivalent of Apple Corps. Andersson played the keyboard and eventually started writing original songs for his band, many of which became major hits, including \"No Response\" that hit number-three in 1965, \"Sunny Girl\", \"Wedding\", and \"Consolation\", all of which hit number-one in 1966. Andersson also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with Lasse Berghagen, with whom he wrote his first Svensktoppen entry, \"Sagan om lilla Sofie\" (\"The Story of Little Sophie\"), in 1968.\n\nBjörn Ulvaeus (born 25 April 1945 in Gothenburg, Sweden) also began his musical career at 18 (as a singer and guitarist), when he fronted the Hootenanny Singers, a popular Swedish folk–skiffle group. Ulvaeus started writing English-language songs for his group, and even had a brief solo career alongside. The Hootenanny Singers and the Hep Stars sometimes crossed paths while touring. In June 1966, Ulvaeus and Andersson decided to write a song together. Their first attempt was \"Isn't It Easy to Say\", a song later recorded by the Hep Stars. Stig Anderson was the manager of the Hootenanny Singers and founder of the Polar Music label. He saw potential in the collaboration, and encouraged them to write more. The two also began playing occasionally with the other's bands on stage and on record, although it was not until 1969 that the pair wrote and produced some of their first real hits together: \"Ljuva sextital\" (\"Sweet Sixties\"), recorded by Brita Borg, and the Hep Stars' 1969 hit \"Speleman\" (\"Fiddler\").\n\nAndersson wrote and submitted the song \"Hej, Clown\" for Melodifestivalen 1969, the national festival to select the Swedish entry to the Eurovision Song Contest. The song tied for first place, but re-voting relegated Andersson's song to second place. On that occasion Andersson briefly met his future spouse, singer Anni-Frid Lyngstad, who also participated in the contest. A month later, the two had become a couple. As their respective bands began to break up during 1969, Andersson and Ulvaeus teamed up and recorded their first album together in 1970, called ''Lycka'' (\"Happiness\"), which included original songs sung by both men. Their spouses were often present in the recording studio, and sometimes added backing vocals; Fältskog even co-wrote a song with the two. Ulvaeus still occasionally recorded and performed with the Hootenanny Singers until the middle of 1974, and Andersson took part in producing their records.\n\nAgnetha Fältskog (born 5 April 1950 in Jönköping, Sweden) sang with a local dance band headed by Bernt Enghardt who sent a demo recording of the band to Karl Gerhard Lundkvist. The demo tape featured a song written and sung by Agnetha: \"Jag var så kär\". Lundkvist was so impressed with her voice that he was convinced she would be a star. After going through considerable effort to locate the singer, he arranged for Agnetha to come to Stockholm and to record two of her own songs. This led to Agnetha at the age of 18 having a number-one record in Sweden with a self-composed song, which later went on to sell over 80,000 copies. She was soon noticed by the critics and songwriters as a talented singer/songwriter of schlager style songs. Fältskog's main inspiration in her early years were singers such as Connie Francis. Along with her own compositions, she recorded covers of foreign hits and performed them on tours in Swedish folkparks. Most of her biggest hits were self-composed, which was quite unusual for a female singer in the 1960s. Agnetha released four solo LPs between 1968 and 1971. She had many successful singles in the Swedish charts.\n\nDuring filming of a Swedish TV special in May 1969, Fältskog met Ulvaeus, and they married on 6 July 1971. Fältskog and Ulvaeus eventually were involved in each other's recording sessions, and soon even Andersson and Lyngstad added backing vocals to her third studio album, ''Som jag är'' (''As I Am'') (1970). In 1972, Fältskog starred as Mary Magdalene in the original Swedish production of ''Jesus Christ Superstar'' and attracted favourable reviews. Between 1967 and 1975, Fältskog released five studio albums.\n\nAnni-Frid \"Frida\" Lyngstad (born 15 November 1945 in Bjørkåsen in Ballangen, Norway) sang from the age of 13 with various dance bands, and worked mainly in a jazz-oriented cabaret style. She also formed her own band, the Anni-Frid Four. In the middle of 1967, she won a national talent competition with \"En ledig dag\" (\"A Day Off\") a Swedish version of the bossa nova song \"A Day in Portofino\", which is included in the EMI compilation ''Frida 1967–1972''. The first prize was a recording contract with EMI Sweden and to perform live on the most popular TV shows in the country. This TV performance, amongst many others, is included in the 3½-hour documentary ''Frida – The DVD''. Lyngstad released several schlager style singles on EMI without much success. When Benny Andersson started to produce her recordings in 1971, she had her first number-one single, \"Min egen stad\" (\"My Own Town\"), written by Benny and featuring all the future ABBA members on backing vocals. Lyngstad toured and performed regularly in the folkpark circuit and made appearances on radio and TV. She met Ulvaeus briefly in 1963 during a talent contest, and Fältskog during a TV show in early 1968.\n\nLyngstad finally linked up with her future bandmates in 1969. On 1 March 1969, she participated in the Melodifestival, where she met Andersson for the first time. A few weeks later they met again during a concert tour in southern Sweden and they soon became a couple. Andersson produced her single \"Peter Pan\" in September 1969—her first collaboration with Benny & Björn, as they had written the song. Andersson would then produce Lyngstad's debut studio album, ''Frida'', which was released in March 1971. Lyngstad also played in several revues and cabaret shows in Stockholm between 1969 and 1973. After ABBA formed, she recorded another successful album in 1975, ''Frida ensam'', which included a Swedish rendition of \"Fernando\", a hit on the Swedish radio charts before the English version was released.\n\n====First live performance and the start of \"Festfolket\"====\nAn attempt at combining their talents occurred in April 1970 when the two couples went on holiday together to the island of Cyprus. What started as singing for fun on the beach ended up as an improvised live performance in front of the United Nations soldiers stationed on the island. Andersson and Ulvaeus were at this time recording their first album together, ''Lycka'', which was to be released in September 1970. Fältskog and Lyngstad added backing vocals on several tracks during June, and the idea of their working together saw them launch a stage act, \"Festfolket\" (which translates from Swedish to mean both \"Party People\" and \"Engaged Couples\"), on 1 November 1970 in Gothenburg.\n\nThe cabaret show attracted generally negative reviews, except for the performance of the Andersson and Ulvaeus hit \"Hej, gamle man\" (\"Hello, Old Man\")–the first Björn and Benny recording to feature all four. They also performed solo numbers from respective albums, but the lukewarm reception convinced the foursome to shelve plans for working together for the time being, and each soon concentrated on individual projects again.\n\n====First record together \"Hej, gamle man\"====\n\"Hej, gamle man\", a song about an old Salvation Army soldier, became the quartet's first hit. The record was credited to '''Björn & Benny''' and reached number-five on the sales charts and number one on Svensktoppen, staying there for 15 weeks.\n\nIt was during 1971 that the four artists began working together more, adding vocals to the others' recordings. Fältskog, Andersson and Ulvaeus toured together in May, while Lyngstad toured on her own. Frequent recording sessions brought the foursome closer together during the summer.\n\n===1970–1973: Forming the group===\nAfter the 1970 release of ''Lycka'', two more singles credited to 'Björn & Benny' were released in Sweden, \"Det kan ingen doktor hjälpa\" (\"No Doctor Can Help with That\") and \"Tänk om jorden vore ung\" (\"Imagine If the Earth Were Young\"), with more prominent vocals by Fältskog and Lyngstad–and moderate chart success.\n\nFältskog and Ulvaeus, now married, started performing together with Andersson on a regular basis at the Swedish folkparks in the middle of 1971.\n\nStig Anderson, founder and owner of Polar Music, was determined to break into the mainstream international market with music by Andersson and Ulvaeus. \"One day the pair of you will write a song that becomes a worldwide hit\", he predicted. Stig Anderson encouraged Ulvaeus and Andersson to write a song for Melodifestivalen, and after two rejected entries in 1971, Andersson and Ulvaeus submitted their new song \"Säg det med en sång\" (\"Say It with a Song\") for the 1972 contest, choosing newcomer Lena Anderson to perform. The song came in third place, encouraging Stig Anderson, and became a hit in Sweden.\n\nThe first signs of foreign success came as a surprise, as the Andersson and Ulvaeus single \"She's My Kind of Girl\" was released through Epic Records in Japan in March 1972, giving the duo a Top 10 hit. Two more singles were released in Japan, \"En Carousel\" (\"En Karusell\" in Scandinavia, an earlier version of \"Merry-Go-Round\") and \"Love Has Its Ways\" (a song they wrote with Kōichi Morita).\n\n====First hit as Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid (Frida)====\nUlvaeus and Andersson persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements. \"People Need Love\" was released in June 1972, featuring guest vocals by the women, who were now given much greater prominence. Stig Anderson released it as a single, credited to ''Björn & Benny, Agnetha & Anni-Frid''. The song peaked at number 17 in the Swedish combined single and album charts, enough to convince them they were on to something. The single also became the first record to chart for the quartet in the United States, where it peaked at number 114 on the ''Cashbox'' singles chart and number 117 on the ''Record World'' singles chart. Labeled as ''Björn & Benny (with Svenska Flicka)'', it was released there through Playboy Records. However, according to Stig Anderson, \"People Need Love\" could have been a much bigger American hit, but a small label like Playboy Records did not have the distribution resources to meet the demand for the single from retailers and radio programmers.\n\nThe foursome decided to record their first album together in late 1972, and sessions began on 26 September 1972. The women shared lead vocals on \"Nina, Pretty Ballerina\" (a top ten hit in Austria) that day, and their voices in harmony for the first time gave the foursome an idea of the quality of their combined talents.\n\n====\"Ring Ring\"====\nABBA (known as Björn & Benny Agnetha & Anni-Frid/Frida) at Popzien, 1973\nIn 1973, the band and their manager Stig Anderson decided to have another try at Melodifestivalen, this time with the song \"Ring Ring\". The studio sessions were handled by Michael B. Tretow, who experimented with a \"wall of sound\" production technique that became the wholly new sound. Stig Anderson arranged an English translation of the lyrics by Neil Sedaka and Phil Cody and they thought this would be a surefire winner. However, on 10 February 1973, the song came third in Melodifestivalen; thus it never reached the Eurovision Song Contest itself. Nevertheless, the group released their debut studio album, also called ''Ring Ring''. The album did well and the \"Ring Ring\" single was a hit in many parts of Europe and also in South Africa. However, Stig Anderson felt that the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit.\n\nWhen Agnetha Fältskog gave birth to her first child in 1973, she was replaced for a short period by Inger Brundin on a trip to West Germany.\n\n====Official naming====\nIn 1973, Stig Anderson, tired of unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ABBA. At first, this was a play on words, as Abba is also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden, and itself an acronym. However, since the fish-canners were unknown outside Sweden, Anderson came to believe the name would work in international markets. A competition to find a suitable name for the group was held in a Gothenburg newspaper and it was officially announced in the summer that the group were to be known as \"ABBA.\" The group negotiated with the canners for the rights to the name. \"ABBA\" is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group member's first name: Agnetha, Björn, Benny and Anni-Frid. The earliest known example of \"ABBA\" written on paper is on a recording session sheet from the Metronome Studio in Stockholm dated 16 October 1973. This was first written as \"Björn, Benny, Agnetha & Frida\", but was subsequently crossed out with \"ABBA\" written in large letters on top.\n\n====Official logo====\nThis well-known logo for ABBA was designed by Rune Söderqvist in 1976.\nTheir official logo, distinct with the backward ‘B', was designed by Rune Söderqvist, who designed most of ABBA’s record sleeves. The logo first appeared on the French compilation album, Golden Double Album, released in May 1976 by Disques Vogue, and would henceforth be used for all official releases.\n\nThe idea for the official logo was made by the German photographer Wolfgang \"Bubi\" Heilemann (de) on a velvet jumpsuit photo shoot for the teenage magazine Bravo. On the photo, the ABBA members held a giant initial letter of his/her name. After the pictures were made, Heilemann found out that Benny Andersson reversed his letter \"B\"; this prompted discussions about the mirrored \"B\", and the members of ABBA agreed on the mirrored letter. From 1976 onwards, the first 'B' in the logo version of the name was \"mirror-image\" reversed on the band's promotional material, thus becoming the group's registered trademark. \n\nFollowing their acquisition of the group's catalogue, PolyGram began using variations of the ABBA logo, using a different font and adding a crown emblem to it in 1992 for the first release of the ''ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits'' compilation. When Universal Music purchased PolyGram (and, thus, ABBA's label Polar Music International), control of the group's catalogue was returned to Stockholm. Since then, the original logo has been reinstated on all official products.\n\n===1973–1976: Breakthrough===\n\n====Eurovision Song Contest 1974====\nABBA on Dutch TV in April 1974: Clockwise from top left Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad \nAs the group entered the Melodifestivalen with \"Ring Ring\" but failed to qualify as the 1973 Swedish entry, Stig Anderson immediately started planning for the 1974 contest.\n\nUlvaeus, Andersson and Stig Anderson believed in the possibilities of using the Eurovision Song Contest as a way to make the music business aware of them as songwriters, as well as the band itself. In late 1973, they were invited by Swedish television to contribute a song for the Melodifestivalen 1974 and from a number of new songs, the upbeat song \"Waterloo\" was chosen; the group was now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in England.\n\nABBA won their national heats on Swedish television on 9 February 1974, and with this third attempt were far more experienced and better prepared for the Eurovision Song Contest. Winning the 1974 Contest on 6 April 1974 gave ABBA the chance to tour Europe and perform on major television shows; thus the band saw the \"Waterloo\" single chart in many European countries. \"Waterloo\" was ABBA's first number-one single in big markets such as the UK and West Germany. In the United States, the song peaked at number-six on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, paving the way for their first album and their first trip as a group there. Albeit a short promotional visit, it included their first performance on American television, ''The Mike Douglas Show''. The album ''Waterloo'' only peaked at number 145 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart, but received unanimous high praise from the US critics: ''Los Angeles Times'' called it \"a compelling and fascinating debut album that captures the spirit of mainstream pop quite effectively … an immensely enjoyable and pleasant project\", while ''Creem'' characterized it as \"a perfect blend of exceptional, lovable compositions\".\n\nABBA's follow-up single, \"Honey, Honey\", peaked at number 27 on the US ''Billboard'' Hot 100, and was a number-two hit in West Germany. However, in the United Kingdom, ABBA's British record label, Epic, decided to re-release a remixed version of \"Ring Ring\" instead of \"Honey, Honey\", and a cover version of the latter by Sweet Dreams peaked at number 10. Both records debuted on the UK chart within one week of each other. \"Ring Ring\" failed to reach the Top 30 in the United Kingdom, increasing growing speculation that the group was simply a Eurovision one-hit wonder.\n\n====Post-Eurovision====\nIn November 1974, ABBA embarked on their first European tour, playing dates in Denmark, West Germany and Austria. It was not as successful as the band had hoped, since most of the venues did not sell out. Due to a lack of demand, they were even forced to cancel a few shows, including a sole concert scheduled in Switzerland. The second leg of the tour, which took them through Scandinavia in January 1975, was very different. They played to full houses everywhere and finally got the reception they had aimed for. Live performances continued in the middle of 1975 when ABBA embarked on a fourteen open-air date tour of Sweden and Finland. Their Stockholm show at the Gröna Lund amusement park had an estimated audience of 19,200. Björn Ulvaeus later said that \"If you look at the singles we released straight after Waterloo, we were trying to be more like the Sweet, a semi-glam rock group, which was stupid because we were always a pop group.\"\n\nIn late 1974, \"So Long\" was released as a single in the United Kingdom but it received no airplay from Radio 1 and failed to chart. In the middle of 1975, ABBA released \"I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do\", which again received little airplay on Radio 1 but managed to climb the charts, to number 38. Later that year, the release of their self-titled third studio album ''ABBA'' and single \"SOS\" brought back their chart presence in the UK, where the single hit number six and the album peaked at number 13. \"SOS\" also became ABBA's second number-one single in Germany and their third in Australia. Success was further solidified with \"Mamma Mia\" reaching number-one in the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia. In the United States, \"SOS\" peaked at number 10 on the Record World Top 100 singles chart and number 15 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, picking up the BMI Award along the way as one of the most played songs on American radio in 1975.\n\nThe success of the group in the United States had until that time been limited to single releases. By early 1976, the group already had four Top 30 singles on the US charts, but the album market proved to be tough to crack. The eponymous ''ABBA '' album generated three American hits, but it only peaked at number 165 on the ''Cashbox'' album chart and number 174 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart. Opinions were voiced, by ''Creem'' in particular, that in the US ABBA had endured \"a very sloppy promotional campaign\". Nevertheless, the group enjoyed warm reviews from the American press. ''Cashbox'' went as far as saying that \"there is a recurrent thread of taste and artistry inherent in Abba's marketing, creativity and presentation that makes it almost embarrassing to critique their efforts\", while ''Creem'' wrote: \"SOS is surrounded on this LP by so many good tunes that the mind boggles\".\n\nIn Australia, the airing of the music videos for \"I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do\" and \"Mamma Mia\" on the nationally broadcast TV pop show ''Countdown'' (which premiered in November 1974) saw the band rapidly gain enormous popularity, and ''Countdown'' become a key promoter of the group via their distinctive music videos. This started an immense interest for ABBA in Australia, resulting in both the single and album holding down the No. 1 positions on the charts for months.\n\n===1976–1981: Superstardom===\nIn March 1976, the band released the compilation album ''Greatest Hits'', despite having had only six top 40 hits in the United Kingdom and the United States. Nevertheless, it became their first UK number-one album, and also took ABBA into the Top 50 on the US album charts for the first time, eventually selling more than a million copies there. At the same time, Germany released a compilation named ''The Very Best of ABBA'', also becoming a number-one album there whereas the ''Greatest Hits'' compilation followed a few months later to number-two on the German charts, despite all similarities with ''The Very Best'' album. Also included on ''Greatest Hits'' was a new single, \"Fernando\", which went to number-one in at least thirteen countries worldwide, including the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia, and the single went on to sell over 10 million copies worldwide. In Australia, the song occupied the top position for 14 weeks (and stayed in the chart for 40 weeks), tying with the Beatles' \"Hey Jude\" for longest-running number-one, and making \"Fernando\" one of the best-selling singles of all time in Australia. That same year, the group received its first international prize, with \"Fernando\" being chosen as the \"Best Studio Recording of 1975\". In the United States, \"Fernando\" reached the Top 10 of the Cashbox Top 100 singles chart and number 13 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. It also topped the ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary chart, ABBA's first American number-one single on any chart.\n\nBenny Andersson and Anni-Frid Lyngstad in Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, 1976\|left\n\nThe group's fourth studio album, ''Arrival'', a number-one bestseller in Europe and Australia, represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work, prompting rave reviews from more rock-oriented UK music weeklies such as ''Melody Maker'' and ''New Musical Express'', and mostly appreciative notices from US critics. Hit after hit flowed from ''Arrival'': \"Money, Money, Money\", another number-one in Germany and Australia, and \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\", ABBA's sixth consecutive German number-one as well as another UK number-one. The real sensation was \"Dancing Queen\", not only topping the charts in loyal markets the UK, Germany and Australia, but also reaching number-one in the United States. In South Africa, ABBA had astounding success with \"Fernando\", \"Dancing Queen\" and \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\" being among the top 20 best-selling singles for 1976–77. In 1977, ''Arrival'' was nominated for the inaugural BRIT Award in the category \"Best International Album of the Year\". By this time ABBA were popular in the United Kingdom, most of Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand. In ''Frida – The DVD'', Lyngstad explains how she and Fältskog developed as singers, as ABBA's recordings grew more complex over the years.\n\nThe band's popularity in the United States would remain on a comparatively smaller scale, and \"Dancing Queen\" became the only ''Billboard'' Hot 100 number-one single ABBA had there (they did, however, get three more singles to the number-one position on other ''Billboard'' charts, including ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary and Hot Dance Club Play). Nevertheless, ''Arrival'' finally became a true breakthrough release for ABBA on the US album market where it peaked at number 20 on the ''Billboard'' 200 chart and was certified gold by RIAA.\n\n====European and Australian tour====\nIn January 1977, ABBA embarked on their first major tour. The group's status had changed dramatically and they were clearly regarded as superstars. They opened their much anticipated tour in Oslo, Norway, on 28 January, and mounted a lavishly produced spectacle that included a few scenes from their self-written mini-operetta ''The Girl with the Golden Hair''. The concert attracted immense media attention from across Europe and Australia. They continued the tour through Western Europe, visiting Gothenburg, Copenhagen, Berlin, Cologne, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Essen, Hanover, and Hamburg and ending with shows in the United Kingdom in Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow and two sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall. Tickets for these two shows were available only by mail application and it was later revealed that the box-office received 3.5 million requests for tickets, enough to fill the venue 580 times. Along with praise (\"ABBA turn out to be amazingly successful at reproducing their records\", wrote ''Creem''), there were complaints that \"ABBA performed slickly...but with a zero personality coming across from a total of 16 people on stage\" (''Melody Maker''). One of the Royal Albert Hall concerts was filmed as a reference for the filming of the Australian tour for what became ''ABBA: The Movie'', though it is not exactly known how much of the concert was filmed.\n\nAgnetha Fältskog at the opening concert of ABBA's European and Australian Tour in Oslo, 28 January 1977.\nAfter the European leg of the tour, in March 1977, ABBA played 11 dates in Australia before a total of 160,000 people. The opening concert in Sydney at the Sydney Showground on 3 March to an audience of 20,000 was marred by torrential rain with Lyngstad slipping on the wet stage during the concert. However, all four members would later recall this concert as the most memorable of their career. Upon their arrival in Melbourne, a civic reception was held at the Melbourne Town Hall and ABBA appeared on the balcony to greet an enthusiastic crowd of 6,000. In Melbourne, the group played three concerts at the Sidney Myer Music Bowl with 14,500 at each including the Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser and his family. At the first Melbourne concert, an additional 16,000 people gathered outside the fenced-off area to listen to the concert. In Adelaide, the group performed one concert at West Lakes Football Stadium before 20,000 people, with another 10,000 listening outside. During the first of five concerts in Perth, there was a bomb scare with everyone having to evacuate the Entertainment Centre. The trip was accompanied by mass hysteria and unprecedented media attention (\"Swedish ABBA stirs box-office in Down Under tour...and the media coverage of the quartet rivals that set to cover the upcoming Royal tour of Australia\", wrote ''Variety''), and is captured on film in ''ABBA: The Movie'', directed by Lasse Hallström.\n\nThe Australian tour and its subsequent ''ABBA: The Movie'' produced some ABBA lore, as well. Fältskog's blonde good looks had long made her the band's \"pin-up girl\", a role she disdained. During the Australian tour, she performed in a skin-tight white jumpsuit, causing one Australian newspaper to use the headline \"Agnetha's bottom tops dull show\". When asked about this at a news conference, she replied: \"Don't they have bottoms in Australia?\"\n\nIn December 1977, ABBA followed up ''Arrival'' with the more ambitious fifth album ''ABBA: The Album'', released to coincide with the debut of ''ABBA: The Movie''. Although the album was less well received by UK reviewers, it did spawn more worldwide hits: \"The Name of the Game\" and \"Take a Chance on Me\", which both topped the UK charts, and peaked at number 12 and number three, respectively, on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart in the US. Although \"Take a Chance on Me\" did not top the American charts, it proved to be ABBA's biggest hit single there, selling more copies than \"Dancing Queen\". ''The Album'' also included \"Thank You for the Music\", the B-side of \"Eagle\" in countries where the latter had been released as a single, and was belatedly released as an A-side single in the United Kingdom and Ireland in 1983. \"Thank You for the Music\" has become one of the best loved and best known ABBA songs without being released as a single during the group's lifetime.\n\n====Polar Music Studio formation====\nPolar Music Studios was situated in this building at 58 Sankt Eriksgatan in Stockholm until 2004\n\nBy 1978 ABBA were one of the biggest bands in the world. They converted a vacant movie theatre into the Polar Music Studio, a state-of-the-art studio in Stockholm. The studio was used by several other bands; notably Genesis' ''Duke'' and Led Zeppelin's ''In Through the Out Door'' were recorded there. During May, the group went to the United States for a promotional campaign, performing alongside Andy Gibb on Olivia Newton-John's TV show. Recording sessions for the single \"Summer Night City\" were an uphill struggle, but upon release the song became another hit for the group. The track would set the stage for ABBA's foray into disco with their next album.\n\nOn 9 January 1979, the group performed \"Chiquitita\" at the Music for UNICEF Concert held at the United Nations General Assembly to celebrate UNICEF's Year of the Child. ABBA donated the copyright of this worldwide hit to the UNICEF; see Music for UNICEF Concert. The single was released the following week, and reached number-one in ten countries.\n\n====North American and European tours====\nABBA at Edmonton, Canada, 1979 In mid-January 1979, Ulvaeus and Fältskog announced they were getting divorced. The news caused interest from the media and led to speculation about the band's future. ABBA assured the press and their fan base they were continuing their work as a group and that the divorce would not affect them. Nonetheless, the media continued to confront them with this in interviews. To escape the media swirl and concentrate on their writing, Andersson and Ulvaeus secretly travelled to Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas, where for two weeks they prepared their next album's songs.\n\nThe group's sixth studio album, ''Voulez-Vous'', was released in April 1979, the title track of which was recorded at the famous Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida, with the assistance of recording engineer Tom Dowd amongst others. The album topped the charts across Europe and in Japan and Mexico, hit the Top 10 in Canada and Australia and the Top 20 in the United States. None of the singles from the album reached number-one on the UK charts, but \"Chiquitita\", \"Does Your Mother Know\", \"Angeleyes\" (with \"Voulez-Vous\", released as a double A-side) and \"I Have a Dream\" were all UK Top 5 hits. In Canada, \"I Have a Dream\" became ABBA's second number-one on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart (after \"Fernando\" hit the top previously). Also in 1979, the group released their second compilation album, ''Greatest Hits Vol. 2'', which featured a brand new track: \"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)\", another number-three hit in both the UK and Germany. In Russia during the late 1970s, the group was paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the ruble.\n\nOn 13 September 1979, ABBA began ABBA: The Tour at Northlands Coliseum in Edmonton, Canada, with a full house of 14,000. \"The voices of the band, Agnetha's high sauciness combined with round, rich lower tones of Anni-Frid, were excellent...Technically perfect, melodically correct and always in perfect pitch...The soft lower voice of Anni-Frid and the high, edgy vocals of Agnetha were stunning\", raved ''Edmonton Journal''.\n\nDuring the next four weeks they played a total of 17 sold-out dates, 13 in the United States and four in Canada. The last scheduled ABBA concert in the United States in Washington, D.C. was cancelled due to Fältskog's emotional distress suffered during the flight from New York to Boston, when the group's private plane was subjected to extreme weather conditions and was unable to land for an extended period. They appeared at the Boston Music Hall for the performance 90 minutes late. The tour ended with a show in Toronto, Canada at Maple Leaf Gardens before a capacity crowd of 18,000. \"ABBA plays with surprising power and volume; but although they are loud, they're also clear, which does justice to the signature vocal sound...Anyone who's been waiting five years to see Abba will be well satisfied\", wrote ''Record World''.\n\nOn 19 October 1979, the tour resumed in Western Europe where the band played 23 sold-out gigs, including six sold-out nights at London's Wembley Arena.\n\n====Progression====\nSuper Trouper'', seventh studio album released by the group in 1980\nIn March 1980, ABBA travelled to Japan where upon their arrival at Narita International Airport, they were besieged by thousands of fans. The group played eleven concerts to full houses, including six shows at Tokyo's Budokan. This tour was the last \"on the road\" adventure of their career.\nIn the middle of 1980, the group released the single \"The Winner Takes It All\" the group's eighth UK chart topper (and their first since 1978). The song is widely misunderstood as being written about Ulvaeus and Fältskog's marital tribulations; Ulvaeus wrote the lyrics, but has stated they were not about his own divorce; Fältskog has repeatedly stated she was not the loser in their divorce. In the United States, the single peaked at number-eight on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart and became ABBA's second ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary number-one. It was also re-recorded by Andersson and Ulvaeus with a slightly different backing track, by French chanteuse Mireille Mathieu at the end of 1980 – as \"Bravo Tu As Gagné\", with French lyrics by Alain Boublil. November the same year saw the release of ABBA's seventh album ''Super Trouper'', which reflected a certain change in ABBA's style with more prominent use of synthesizers and increasingly personal lyrics. It set a record for the most pre-orders ever received for a UK album after one million copies were ordered before release. The second single from the album, \"Super Trouper\", also hit number-one in the UK, becoming the group's ninth and final UK chart-topper. Another track from the ''Super Trouper'' album, \"Lay All Your Love on Me\", released in 1981 as a single only in selected territories, managed to top the ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Club Play chart and peaked at number-seven on the UK singles chart becoming, at the time, the highest ever charting release in UK chart history.\n\nAlso in 1980, ABBA recorded a compilation of Spanish-language versions of their hits called ''Gracias Por La Música''. This was released in Spanish-speaking countries as well as in Japan and Australia. The album became a major success, and along with the Spanish version of \"Chiquitita\", this signalled the group's breakthrough in Latin America. ''ABBA Oro: Grandes Éxitos'', the Spanish equivalent of ''ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits'', was released in 1999.\n\n===1981–1982: Final album and performances===\nABBA during a TV special ''Dick Cavett Meets ABBA'' in April 1981\n\nIn January 1981, Ulvaeus married Lena Källersjö, and manager Stig Anderson celebrated his 50th birthday with a party. For this occasion, ABBA recorded the track \"Hovas Vittne\" (a pun on the Swedish name for Jehovah's Witness and Anderson's birthplace, Hova) as a tribute to him, and released it only on 200 red vinyl copies, to be distributed to the guests attending the party. This single has become a sought-after collectible. In mid-February 1981, Andersson and Lyngstad announced they were filing for divorce. Information surfaced that their marriage had been an uphill struggle for years, and Benny had already met another woman, Mona Nörklit, whom he married in November 1981.\n\nAndersson and Ulvaeus had songwriting sessions in early 1981, and recording sessions began in mid-March. At the end of April, the group recorded a TV special, ''Dick Cavett Meets ABBA'' with the US talk show host Dick Cavett. ''The Visitors'', ABBA's eighth and final studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placing the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies. Although not revealed at the time of its release, the album's title track, according to Ulvaeus, refers to the secret meetings held against the approval of totalitarian governments in Soviet-dominated states, while other tracks address topics like failed relationships, the threat of war, ageing, and loss of innocence. The album's only major single release, \"One of Us\", proved to be the last of ABBA's nine number-one singles in Germany, this being in December 1981; and the swansong of their sixteen Top 5 singles on the South African chart. \"One of Us\" was also ABBA's final Top 3 hit in the UK, reaching No. 1 on some charts (such as Record Mirror).\n\nAlthough it topped the album charts across most of Europe, including Ireland, the UK and Germany, ''The Visitors'' was not as commercially successful as its predecessors, showing a commercial decline in previously loyal markets such as France, Australia and Japan. A track from the album, \"When All Is Said and Done\", was released as a single in North America, Australia and New Zealand, and fittingly became ABBA's final Top 40 hit in the US (debuting on the US charts on 31 December 1981), while also reaching the US Adult Contemporary Top 10, and number-four on the RPM Adult Contemporary chart in Canada. The song's lyrics, as with \"The Winner Takes It All\" and \"One of Us\", dealt with the painful experience of separating from a long-term partner, though it looked at the trauma more optimistically. With the now publicised story of Andersson and Lyngstad's divorce, speculation increased of tension within the band. Also released in the United States was the title track of ''The Visitors'', which hit the Top Ten on the ''Billboard'' Hot Dance Club Play chart.\n\n====Final recording sessions====\nIn the spring of 1982, songwriting sessions had started and the group came together for more recordings. Plans were not completely clear, but a new album was discussed and the prospect of a small tour suggested. The recording sessions in May and June 1982 were a struggle, and only three songs were eventually recorded: \"You Owe Me One\", \"I Am the City\" and \"Just Like That\". Andersson and Ulvaeus were not satisfied with the outcome, so the tapes were shelved and the group took a break for the summer.\n\nBack in the studio again in early August, the group had changed plans for the rest of the year: they settled for a Christmas release of a double album compilation of all their past single releases to be named ''The Singles: The First Ten Years''. New songwriting and recording sessions took place, and during October and December, they released the singles \"The Day Before You Came\"/\"Cassandra\" and \"Under Attack\"/\"You Owe Me One\", the A-sides of which were included on the compilation album. Neither single made the Top 20 in the United Kingdom, though \"The Day Before You Came\" became a Top 5 hit in many European countries such as Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium. The album went to number-one in the UK and Belgium, Top 5 in the Netherlands and Germany and Top 20 in many other countries. \"Under Attack\", the group's final release before disbanding, was a Top 5 hit in the Netherlands and Belgium.\n\n\"I Am the City\" and \"Just Like That\" were left unreleased on ''The Singles: The First Ten Years'' for possible inclusion on the next projected studio album, though this never came to fruition. \"I Am the City\" was eventually released on the compilation album ''More ABBA Gold'' in 1993, while \"Just Like That\" has been recycled in new songs with other artists produced by Andersson and Ulvaeus. A reworked version of the verses ended up in the musical ''Chess''. The chorus section of \"Just Like That\" was eventually released on a retrospective box set in 1994, as well as in the ''ABBA Undeleted'' medley featured on disc 9 of ''The Complete Studio Recordings''. Despite a number of requests from fans, Ulvaeus and Andersson are still refusing to release ABBA's version of \"Just Like That\" in its entirety, even though the complete version surfaced on bootlegs.\n\nThe group travelled to London to promote ''The Singles: The First Ten Years'' in the first week of November 1982, appearing on ''Saturday Superstore'' and ''The Late, Late Breakfast Show'', and also to West Germany in the second week, to perform on Show Express. On 19 November 1982, ABBA appeared for the last time in Sweden on the TV programme Nöjesmaskinen, and on 11 December 1982, they made their last performance ever, transmitted to the UK on Noel Edmonds' ''The Late, Late Breakfast Show'', through a live link from a TV studio in Stockholm.\n\n====Final performances====\nAndersson and Ulvaeus began collaborating with Tim Rice in early 1983 on writing songs for the musical project ''Chess'', while Fältskog and Lyngstad both concentrated on international solo careers. While Andersson and Ulvaeus were working on the musical, a further co-operation among the three of them came with the musical ''Abbacadabra'' that was produced in France for television. It was a children's musical utilising 14 ABBA songs. Alain and Daniel Boublil, who wrote ''Les Misérables'', had been in touch with Stig Anderson about the project, and the TV musical was aired over Christmas on French TV and later a Dutch version was also broadcast. Boublil previously also wrote the French lyric for Mireille Mathieu's version of \"The Winner Takes It All\".\n\nLyngstad, who had recently moved to Paris, participated in the French version, and recorded a single, \"Belle\", a duet with French singer Daniel Balavoine. The song was a cover of ABBA's 1976 instrumental track \"Arrival\". As the single \"Belle\" sold well in France, Cameron Mackintosh wanted to stage an English-language version of the show in London, with the French lyrics translated by David Wood and Don Black; Andersson and Ulvaeus got involved in the project, and contributed with one new song, \"I Am the Seeker\". \"Abbacadabra\" premiered on 8 December 1983 at the Lyric Hammersmith Theatre in London, to mixed reviews and full houses for eight weeks, closing on 21 January 1984. Lyngstad was also involved in this production, recording \"Belle\" in English as \"Time\", a duet with actor and singer B. A. Robertson: the single sold well, and was produced and recorded by Mike Batt.\n\nAnni-Frid Lyngstad performed \"I Have A Dream\" with a children's choir on French television in 1984, solo.\n\nAll four members made their final public appearance, as four friends more than as ABBA, in January 1986, when they recorded a video of themselves performing an acoustic version of \"Tivedshambo\", which was the first song written by their manager, Stig Anderson, for a Swedish TV show honouring Anderson on his 55th birthday. The four had not seen each other for more than two years. That same year they also performed privately at another friend's 40th birthday: their old tour manager, Claes af Geijerstam. They sang a self-written song titled \"Der Kleine Franz\" that was later to resurface in ''Chess''. Also in 1986, ''ABBA Live'' was released, featuring selections of live performances from the group's 1977 and 1979 tours. The four members were guests at the 50th birthday of Görel Hanser in 1999. Hanser was a long-time friend of all four, and also former secretary of Stig Anderson. Honouring Görel, ABBA performed a Swedish birthday song \"Med En Enkel Tulipan\" a cappella.\n\nBenny Andersson has on several occasions performed old ABBA songs. In June 1992, he and Ulvaeus appeared with U2 at a Stockholm concert, singing the chorus of \"Dancing Queen\", and a few years later during the final performance of the B & B in Concert in Stockholm, Andersson joined the cast for an encore at the piano. Andersson frequently adds an ABBA song to the playlist when he performs with his BAO band. He also played the piano during new recordings of the ABBA songs \"Like an Angel Passing Through My Room\" with opera singer Anne Sofie von Otter, and \"When All Is Said and Done\" with Swede Viktoria Tolstoy. In 2002, Andersson and Ulvaeus both performed an a cappella rendition of the first verse of \"Fernando\" as they accepted their Ivor Novello award in London. Lyngstad performed and recorded an a cappella version of \"Dancing Queen\" with the Swedish group the Real Group in 1993, and also re-recorded \"I Have a Dream\" with Swiss singer Dan Daniell in 2003.\n\n====Permanent break====\nABBA has never officially announced the end of the group, but it has long been considered dissolved. Their final public performance together as ABBA was on the British TV programme ''The Late, Late Breakfast Show'' (live from Stockholm) on 11 December 1982. While reminiscing on \"The Day Before You Came\", Ulvaeus said: \"we might have continued for a while longer if that had been a number one\". In January 1983, Fältskog started recording sessions for a solo album, as Lyngstad had successfully released her album ''Something's Going On'' some months earlier. Ulvaeus and Andersson, meanwhile, started songwriting sessions for the musical ''Chess''. In interviews at the time, Björn and Benny denied the split of ABBA (\"Who are we without our ladies? Initials of Brigitte Bardot?\"), and Lyngstad and Fältskog kept claiming in interviews that ABBA would come together for a new album repeatedly during 1983 and 1984. Internal strife between the group and their manager escalated and the band members sold their shares in Polar Music during 1983. Except for a TV appearance in 1986, the foursome did not come together publicly again until they were reunited at the Swedish premiere of the ''Mamma Mia!'' movie on 4 July 2008.\n\nIn an interview with the ''Sunday Telegraph'', following the premiere, Ulvaeus and Andersson confirmed that there was nothing that could entice them back on stage again. Ulvaeus said: \"We will never appear on stage again. ... There is simply no motivation to re-group. Money is not a factor and we would like people to remember us as we were. Young, exuberant, full of energy and ambition. I remember Robert Plant saying Led Zeppelin were a cover band now because they cover all their own stuff. I think that hit the nail on the head.\"\nHowever, on 3 January 2011, Fältskog, who has been long considered to be the most reclusive member of the group and a major obstacle to any reunion, raised the possibility of reuniting for a one-off engagement. She admitted that she has not yet brought the idea up to the other three members. In April 2013, she reiterated her hopes for reunion during an interview with ''Die Zeit'', stating: \"If they ask me, I'll say yes.\"\n\nIn a May 2013 interview, Fältskog, aged 63 at the time, confirmed that an ABBA reunion will never occur: \"I think we have to accept that it will not happen, because we are too old and each one of us has their own life. Too many years have gone by since we stopped, and there's really no meaning in putting us together again.\" Fältskog further explained that the band members remained on amicable terms: \"It's always nice to see each other now and then and to talk a little and to be a little nostalgic.\" In an April 2014 interview, Fältskog, when asked about whether the band might reunite for a new recording said: \"It's difficult to talk about this because then all the news stories will be: 'ABBA is going to record another song!' But as long as we can sing and play, then why not? I would love to, but it's up to Björn and Benny.\"\n\n===2016–present: Reunion and upcoming project===\n\nOn 20 January 2016, all four original members of ABBA made a public appearance at ''Mamma Mia the Party'' in Stockholm. It was the first time all four original members of ABBA had appeared in public together since the ''Mamma Mia'' movie premiere 8 years earlier.\n\nOn 6 June 2016, the four members of ABBA appeared together for first time since 1986 at a private party at Berns Salonger in Stockholm, which was held to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Andersson and Ulvaeus' first meeting. Fältskog and Lyngstad sang the ABBA song \"The Way Old Friends Do\" before they were joined on stage by Andersson and Ulvaeus. Some sources incorrectly reported that all four members performed the song, \"Me and I\". The confusion came from the opening lines of the song performed by Agnetha and Frida, \"The Way Old Friends Do\", as the opening lines to that song are, \"You and I can share the silence\".\n\nSimon Fuller announced in a statement in October 2016 that the group would be reuniting to work on a new 'digital entertainment experience'. More details on this project are to be announced in 2017.\n\n===Solo careers===\n\n====Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus====\n\nIn October 1984, Ulvaeus and Andersson together with lyricist Tim Rice released the musical concept double-album ''Chess''. The singles \"One Night in Bangkok\" (with vocals by Murray Head and Anders Glenmark ) and \"I Know Him So Well\" (a duet by Barbara Dickson and Elaine Paige, and later also recorded by both Barbra Streisand and Whitney Houston) were both hugely successful. The former reached number-one in Australia, Germany, Spain and Switzerland; number-two in Austria, France and New Zealand; number-three in Canada, Norway, Sweden and the US, as well as reaching the top 10 in a few other countries. In May 1986, the musical premiered in London's West End, and ran for almost three years. ''Chess'' also opened on Broadway in April 1988, but closed within two months due to bad reviews. In Stockholm, the composers staged ''Chess på svenska'' (''Chess in Swedish'') in 2003, with some new material, including the musical numbers ''\"Han är en man, han är ett barn\"'' (\"He's a Man, He's a Child\") and ''\"Glöm mig om du kan\"'' (\"Forget Me If You Can\"). In 2008, the musical was again revived for a successful staging at London's Royal Albert Hall which was subsequently released on DVD, and then in two successful separate touring productions in the United States and United Kingdom, in 2010.\n\nBenny Andersson during a performance in Minnesota, 2006\n\nAndersson and Ulvaeus' next project, ''Kristina från Duvemåla'', an epic Swedish musical, premiered in Malmö, in southern Sweden in October 1995. The musical ran for five years in Stockholm, and an English version has been in development for some considerable time. It has been reported that a Broadway production is in its earliest stages of pre-production. In the meantime, following some earlier workshops, a full presentation of the English translation of the musical in concert, now with the shortened name of ''\"Kristina\"'', took place to capacity crowds in September 2009 at New York's Carnegie Hall, and in April 2010 at London's Royal Albert Hall, followed by a CD release of the New York recordings.\n\nSince 1983, besides ''Chess'' and ''Kristina från Duvemåla'', Benny Andersson has continued writing songs with Ulvaeus. The pair produced two English-language pop albums with Swedish duo Gemini in 1985 and 1987. In 1987, Andersson also released his first solo album on his own label, Mono Music, called \"''Klinga mina klockor''\" (\"Ring My Bells\"), all new material inspired by Swedish folk music – and followed it with his second album titled ''November 1989''.\n\nDuring the 1990s, Andersson wrote music for the popular Swedish cabaret quartet Ainbusk Singers, giving them two hits: \"Lassie\" and \"''Älska mig''\" (\"Love me\"), and later produced ''Shapes'', an English-language album by group's Josefin Nilsson with all-new material by Andersson and Ulvaeus. Andersson has also regularly written music for films (most notably to Roy Andersson's ''Songs from the Second Floor''). In 2001, Andersson formed his own band, Benny Anderssons Orkester (BAO), which released three successful albums in 2001, 2004 and 2007. Andersson has the distinction of remaining the longest in the Swedish Radio Svensktoppen charts; the song ''\"Du är min man\"'' (\"You Are My Man\"), sung by Helen Sjöholm, spent 278 weeks there between 2004 and 2009. Andersson released his third album BAO 3 in October 2007, of new material with his band BAO and vocalists Helen Sjöholm and Tommy Körberg, as well as playing to full houses at two of Sweden's largest concert venues in October and November 2007, with an audience of 14,000.\n\nBjörn Ulvaeus lecturing in Stockholm, 2015 Ulvaeus has not appeared on stage performing music since ABBA, but had a reunion with his co-members of the Hootenanny Singers on 16 July 2005 at a music festival in his hometown of Västervik, singing their 1966 hit \"Marianne\".\n\nAndersson and Ulvaeus have been highly involved in the worldwide productions of the musical ''Mamma Mia!'', alongside Lyngstad who attends premieres. They were also involved in the production of the successful film version of the musical, which opened in July 2008. Andersson produced the soundtrack utilising many of the musicians ABBA used on their albums and tours. Andersson made a cameo appearance in the movie as a 'fisherman' piano player in the \"Dancing Queen\" scene, while Ulvaeus is seen as a Greek god playing a lyre during the closing credits.\n\nAndersson and Ulvaeus have continuously been writing new material; most recently the two wrote 7 songs for Anderssons 'BAO' 2011 album 'O Klang Och Jubeltid', performed as usual by vocalists Sjöholm, Körberg and Moreus. In July 2009, 'BAO' released their first international release, now named the Benny Andersson Band, with the album ''The Story of a Heart''. The album was a compilation of 14 tracks from Andersson's five Swedish-language releases between 1987 and 2007, including five songs now recorded with lyrics by Ulvaeus in English, and the new title song premiered on BBC2's ''Ken Bruce Show''. A Swedish-language version of the title track, ''\"Sommaren Du Fick\"'' (\"The Summer You Got\"), was released as a single in Sweden prior to the English version, with vocals by Helen Sjöholm. In May 2009, Andersson also released a single recorded by the staff at his privately owned Stockholm hotel ''Hotel Rival'', titled \"2nd Best to None\", accompanied by a video showing the staff at work. In 2008, Andersson and Ulvaeus wrote a song for Swedish singer Sissela Kyle, titled ''\"Jag vill bli gammal\"'' (\"I Wanna Grow Old\"), for her Stockholm stage show ''\"Your Days Are Numbered\"'', which was never recorded and released, but did get a TV performance. Ulvaeus also contributed lyrics to ABBA's 1976 instrumental track \"Arrival\" for Sarah Brightman's cover version recorded for her 2008 album ''Winter Symphony''. New English lyrics have also been written for Andersson's 1999 song ''\"Innan Gryningen\"'' (then also named \"Millennium Hymn\"), with the new title \"The Silence of the Dawn\" for Barbara Dickson (performed live, but not yet recorded and released). In 2007, they wrote the new song ''\"Han som har vunnit allt\"'' (\"He Who's Won It All\") for actor/singer Anders Ekborg. Björn wrote English lyrics for two older songs from Benny's solo albums: \"I Walk with You Mama\" (\"Stockholm by Night\", 1989) and \"After the Rain\" (\"Efter regnet\", 1987) for opera singer Anne Sofie von Otter, for her Andersson tribute album ''I Let the Music Speak''. Barbara Dickson recorded (but not yet released) a Björn & Benny song called \"The Day The Wall Came Tumbling Down\"; the song eventually was released by Australian 'Mamma Mia!' musical star Anne Wood 201 album of ABBA covers, Divine Discontent. As of October 2012, Björn Ulvaeus has mentioned writing new material with Benny for a 'BAO' Christmas release (also mentioned as a BAO 'box'), and Benny is busy writing music for a Swedish language obscure musical, 'Hjälp Sökes' ('Help is Wanted') together with Kristina Lugn and Lars Rudolfsson, premiering 8 February 2013. Andersson has also written music for a documentary film about Olof Palme, re-recording the track 'Sorgmarch' from his last album throughout the film.\n\n====Agnetha Fältskog and Anni-Frid Lyngstad====\n\nLyngstad in 1982\nBoth female members of ABBA pursued solo careers on the international scene after their work with the group. In 1982, Lyngstad chose Genesis drummer and vocalist Phil Collins to produce the album ''Something's Going On'' and unveiled the hit single and video \"I Know There's Something Going On\" in August of that year. The single became a number-one hit in France (where it spent five weeks at the top), Belgium, Switzerland and Costa Rica. The track reached number-three in Austria, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Poland, and was also a Top 10 hit in Germany, Italy, Finland, South Africa and Australia. The track also proved successful in the USA, peaking at No. 13 (and spending almost four months on the Billboard Hot 100). Sveriges Television documented this historical event, by filming the whole recording process. The result became a one-hour TV documentary, including interviews with Lyngstad, Collins, Ulvaeus and Andersson as well as all the musicians. This documentary and the promotion videos from the album are included in ''Frida – The DVD''.\n\nLyngstad's second solo album after ABBA was called ''Shine'', produced by Steve Lillywhite. ''Shine'' was recorded in Paris and released in 1984. ''Shine'' was Lyngstad's final studio album release for twelve years. It featured \"Slowly\", the last known Andersson-Ulvaeus composition to have been recorded by one of the former female ABBA vocalists to date. The promotion videos and clips for \"Shine\" are included in ''Frida – The DVD''.\n\nIn 1980, Agnetha Fältskog recorded Nu tändas tusen juleljus (Now a thousand Christmas candles are lit), a Swedish Christmas album along with her 7-year-old daughter Linda. The album was released in 1981. Nu tändas tusen julejus, which was Fältskog's first Swedish language recording for the Polar Music label after having left CBS-Cupol, peaked at No. 6 on the Swedish album chart in January 1982, has been re-released on CD by Polar Music/PolyGram/Universal Music all through the 1990s and 2000s and is one of the best-selling Swedish Christmas albums of all time. The album name is derived from one of Scandinavia's best-known Christmas carols.\n\nIn 1983, Fältskog released the solo album ''Wrap Your Arms Around Me'' which achieved platinum sales in Sweden. This included the single \"The Heat Is On\", which was a hit all over Europe and Scandinavia. It reached number-one in Sweden and Norway and number-two in the Netherlands and Belgium. In the United States, Fältskog earned a ''Billboard'' Top 30 hit with \"Can't Shake Loose\". In Europe, the single \"Wrap Your Arms Around Me\" was another successful hit, topping the charts in Belgium and Denmark, reaching the Top 5 in Sweden, the Netherlands and South Africa, and the Top 20 in Germany and France. The album sold 1.2 million copies worldwide. The album was produced by the highly successful producer and songwriter Mike Chapman, also known for his work with the Sweet, Mud, Suzi Quatro, Blondie, Pat Benatar and the Knack.\nFältskog in 1982\n\"It's So Nice to be Rich\" was Agnetha's fourth top ten hit in Sweden in 1983. Her duet with Tomas Ledin, \"Never Again\" was the first one.\n\nFältskog's second English-language solo album, ''Eyes of a Woman'', was released in March 1985, peaking at number-two in Sweden and another platinum seller and performing reasonably well in Europe. The album was produced by Eric Stewart of 10cc. The first single from the album was her self-penned \"I Won't Let You Go\". Agnetha's duet with Ola Håkansson \"The Way You Are\" was a number-one hit in Sweden in 1986 and was awarded double platinum.\n\nIn early 1987, Agnetha recorded an album \"Kom följ med I vår karusell\" ('Come ride with me on my carousel') with her son Christian. The album contained songs for children and was sung in Swedish. For the album Agnetha recorded duets with her son and with a choir of children. She also recorded a few solo songs. The production was modern and fresh. The single 'Pa Sondag' was much played at the radio and even made the Swedish top 10, unique for a song made for kids to enjoy.\n\nAlso in November 1987, Fältskog released her third post-ABBA solo album, the Peter Cetera-produced ''I Stand Alone'', which also included the ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary duet with Cetera, \"I Wasn't the One (Who Said Goodbye)\", as well as the European charting singles \"The Last Time\" and \"Let It Shine\". The album was extremely successful in Sweden, where it spent eight weeks at number-one and was awarded double-platinum. Shortly after some minor European promotion for the album in early 1988, Fältskog withdrew from public life and halted her music career. In 1996, she released her autobiography, ''As I Am'', and a compilation album featuring her solo hits alongside some ABBA classics.\n\nIn 2004, she made a successful comeback, when she released the critically acclaimed album ''My Colouring Book'' containing 1960s covers who had the most impact on her teenage years as a music contender. It debuted at number-one in Sweden (achieving triple-platinum status), number-six in Germany, and number 12 in the UK, winning a silver award, and achieving gold status in Finland. The single \"If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind\" (a cover of the Cilla Black 1960s song) became Fältskog's biggest solo hit in the United Kingdom, reaching number 11. The single peaked at number-two in Sweden and was a hit throughout Scandinavia and Europe. A further single, \"When You Walk in the Room\", was released but met with less success, only peaking at number 34 in the United Kingdom. In January 2007, she sang a live duet on stage with Swedish singer Tommy Körberg at the after party for the final performance of the musical, ''Mamma Mia!'', in Stockholm, at which Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus were also present.\n\nIn 1992, Lyngstad had been asked and chosen to be the chairperson for the environmental organisation ''\"Artister för miljön\"'' (Artists for the Environment) in Sweden. She became chairperson for this organisation from 1992 to 1995. To mark her interests for the environment, she recorded the Julian Lennon song \"Saltwater\" and performed it live in Stockholm. She arranged and financed summer camps for poor children in Sweden, focusing on environmental and ecological issues. Her environmental work for this organisation led up to the decision to record again. The album ''Djupa andetag'' (''Deep Breaths'') was released towards the end of 1996 and became a success in Sweden, where it reached number-one. The lyrics for the single from this album, \"Även en blomma\" (\"Even a Flower\"), deal with environmental issues. In 2004, Lyngstad recorded a song called \"The Sun Will Shine Again\", written especially for her and released with former Deep Purple member Jon Lord. The couple made several TV performances with this song in Germany. Lyngstad lives a relatively low-profile life but occasionally appears at a party or charity function. On 26 August 1992, she married Prince Heinrich Ruzzo Reuss von Plauen, of the German Reuss family. Reuss von Plauen died of lymphoma in 1999 at the age of 49. In addition to losing her husband, Lyngstad had also lost her daughter Lise-Lotte in a car crash a year earlier.\n\nOn 5 December 2005, Universal released her box set, Frida – 4xCD 1xDVD, consisting of the solo albums she recorded for the Polar Label and the 3-hour documentary ''Frida – The DVD''. On this DVD, which covers her entire singing career, the viewer is guided by Lyngstad herself through the years from her TV debut in Sweden in 1967 to the TV performances she made in Germany in 2004. Many rare clips are included in the set and each performance is explained by Lyngstad herself. The interview with Lyngstad was filmed in the Swiss Alps in mid-2005.\n\nLyngstad returned to the recording studio in 2010 to record vocals for the Cat Stevens song \"Morning Has Broken\", for Swedish guitarist Georg Wadenius's October 2010 album ''Reconnection''. The album, which featured other guest vocalists, reached number 17 in the Swedish charts.\n\nIn May 2013, Fältskog released a solo album entitled ''A'' through Universal International. In a promotional interview, Fältskog explained that the album was unplanned and it was after she heard the first three songs that she felt that she \"had to do this record the album\". She also revealed that she completed singing lessons prior to recording ''A'', as she felt \"a bit rusty\" in her throat. Fältskog stated that she would not be undertaking any tours or live performances in support of the album, explaining: \"I'm not that young anymore. I don’t have the energy to do that, and also I don’t want to travel too much.\" The title of the album was conceived of by the studio production team. \"A\" has been very successful, earning her 4 Gold Records in UK where it peaked at number-six, Australia, Germany and Sweden. In both UK and Australia it was in the top 100 albums of 2013.\n\n===Resurgence of public interest===\nThe same year the members of ABBA went their separate ways, the French production of a \"tribute\" show (a children's TV musical named ''Abbacadabra'' using 14 ABBA songs) spawned new interest in the group's music.\n\nAfter receiving little attention during the mid-to-late-1980s, ABBA's music experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s due to the UK synth-pop duo Erasure, who released a cover extended play featuring versions of ABBA songs which topped the charts in 1992. As U2 arrived in Stockholm for a concert in June of that year, the band paid homage to ABBA by inviting Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson to join them on stage for a rendition of \"Dancing Queen\", playing guitar and keyboards. September 1992 saw the release of ''ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits'', a new compilation album. The single \"Dancing Queen\" received radio airplay in the UK in the middle of 1992 to promote the album. The song returned to the Top 20 of the UK singles chart in August that year, this time peaking at number 16.\n\nThe enormous interest in the ''ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits'' compilation saw the release of ''More ABBA Gold: More ABBA Hits'' in 1993.\n\nIn 1994, two Australian cult films caught the attention of the world's media, both focusing on admiration for ABBA: ''The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert'' and ''Muriel's Wedding''. The same year, ''Thank You for the Music'', a four-disc box set comprising all the group's hits and stand-out album tracks, was released with the involvement of all four members. \"By the end of the twentieth century\", American critic Chuck Klosterman wrote a decade later, \"it was far more contrarian to hate ABBA than to love them.\"\n\nABBA were soon recognised and embraced by other acts: Evan Dando of the Lemonheads recorded a cover version of \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\"; Sinéad O'Connor and Boyzone's Stephen Gately have recorded \"Chiquitita\"; Tanita Tikaram, Blancmange and Steven Wilson paid tribute to \"The Day Before You Came\". Cliff Richard covered \"Lay All Your Love on Me\", while Dionne Warwick, Peter Cetera, and Celebrity Skin recorded their versions of \"SOS\". U.S. alternative-rock musician Marshall Crenshaw has also been known to play a version of \"Knowing Me, Knowing You\" in concert appearances, while legendary English Latin pop songwriter Richard Daniel Roman has recognized ABBA as a major influence. Swedish metal guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen covered \"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)\" with slightly altered lyrics.\n\nTwo different compilation albums of ABBA songs have been released. ''ABBA: A Tribute'' coincided with the 25th anniversary celebration and featured 17 songs, some of which were recorded especially for this release. Notable tracks include Go West's \"One of Us\", Army of Lovers \"Hasta Mañana\", Information Society's \"Lay All Your Love on Me\", Erasure's \"Take a Chance on Me\" (with MC Kinky), and Lyngstad's a cappella duet with the Real Group of \"Dancing Queen\". A second 12-track album was released in 1999, entitled ''ABBAmania'', with proceeds going to the Youth Music charity in England. It featured all new cover versions: notable tracks were by Madness (\"Money, Money, Money\"), Culture Club (\"Voulez-Vous\"), the Corrs (\"The Winner Takes It All\"), Steps (\"Lay All Your Love on Me\", \"I Know Him So Well\"), and a medley entitled \"Thank ABBA for the Music\" performed by several artists and as featured on the Brits Awards that same year.\n\nIn 1997, an ABBA tribute group was formed, the ABBA Teens, which was subsequently renamed the A-Teens to allow the group some independence. The group's first album, \"The ABBA Generation\", consisting solely of ABBA covers reimagined as 1990s pop songs, was a worldwide success and so were subsequent albums. The group disbanded in 2004 due to a grueling schedule and intentions to go solo.\n\nIn Sweden, the growing recognition of the legacy of Andersson and Ulvaeus resulted in the 1998 ''B & B Concerts'', a tribute concert (with Swedish singers who had worked with the songwriters through the years) showcasing not only their ABBA years, but hits both before and after ABBA. The concert was a success, and was ultimately released on CD. It later toured Scandinavia and even went to Beijing in the People's Republic of China for two concerts.\n\nIn 2000, ABBA was reported to have turned down an offer of approximately US$1,000,000,000 (one billion US dollars) to do a reunion tour consisting of 100 concerts.\n\nFor the 2004 semi-final of the Eurovision Song Contest, staged in Istanbul 30 years after ABBA had won the contest in Brighton, all four members made cameo appearances in a special comedy video made for the interval act, entitled \"Our Last Video Ever\". Other well-known stars such as Rik Mayall, Cher and Iron Maiden's Eddie also made appearances in the video. It was not included in the official DVD release of the Eurovision Contest, but was issued as a separate DVD release, retitled ''The Last Video'' at the request of the former ABBA members.\n\nIn 2005, all four members of ABBA appeared at the Stockholm premiere of the musical ''Mamma Mia!''.\n\nOn 22 October 2005, at the 50th anniversary celebration of the Eurovision Song Contest, \"Waterloo\" was chosen as the best song in the competition's history.\n\nOn 4 July 2008, all four ABBA members were reunited at the Swedish premiere of the film ''Mamma Mia!''. It was only the second time all of them had appeared together in public since 1986. During the appearance, they re-emphasized that they intended never to officially reunite, citing the opinion of Robert Plant that the re-formed Led Zeppelin was more like a cover band of itself than the original band. Ulvaeus stated that he wanted the band to be remembered as they were during the peak years of their success.\n\nMamma Mia! The Movie'' on 4 July 2008, are the original ABBA members. Far left, Benny Andersson. Fifth from left, Agnetha Fältskog, with her hand on Anni-Frid Lyngstad's shoulder. Second from right, Björn Ulvaeus.\n\nThe compilation album ''ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits'', originally released in 1992, returned to number-one in the UK album charts for the fifth time on 3 August 2008. On 14 August 2008, the ''Mamma Mia! The Movie'' film soundtrack went to number-one on the US ''Billboard'' charts, ABBA's first US chart-topping album. During the band's heyday the highest album chart position they had ever achieved in America was number 14.\n\nIn November 2008, all eight studio albums, together with a ninth of rare tracks, was released as ''The Albums''. It hit several charts, peaking at number-four in Sweden and reaching the Top 10 in several other European territories.\n\nIn 2008, Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, in collaboration with Universal Music Group Sweden AB, released ''SingStar ABBA'' on both the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3 games consoles, as part of the SingStar music video games. The PS2 version features 20 ABBA songs, while 25 songs feature on the PS3 version.\n\nOn 22 January 2009, Fältskog and Lyngstad appeared together on stage to receive the Swedish music award ''\"Rockbjörnen\"'' (for \"lifetime achievement\"). In an interview, the two women expressed their gratitude for the honorary award and thanked their fans.\n\nOn 25 November 2009, PRS for Music announced that the British public voted ABBA as the band they would most like to see re-form.\n\nOn 27 January 2010, ABBAWORLD, a 25-room touring exhibition featuring interactive and audiovisual activities, debuted at Earls Court Exhibition Centre in London. According to the exhibition's website, ABBAWORLD is \"approved and fully supported\" by the band members.\n\n\"Mamma Mia\" was released as one of the first few non-premium song selections for the online RPG game ''Bandmaster''. On 17 May 2011, \"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme!\" was added as a non-premium song selection for the Bandmaster Philippines server. On 15 November 2011, Ubisoft released a dancing game called ''ABBA: You Can Dance'' for the Wii.\n\nIn January 2012, Universal Music announced the re-release of ABBA's final album ''The Visitors'', featuring a previously unheard track \"From a Twinkling Star to a Passing Angel\".\n\nA book entitled ''ABBA: The Official Photo Book'' was published in early 2014 to mark the 40-year anniversary of the band's Eurovision victory. The book reveals that part of the reason for the band's outrageous costumes were the Swedish tax laws at the time that allowed the cost of brazen outfits that were not suitable for public display to be deducted against Tax.\n\nA sequel to the 2008 movie \"Mamma Mia!\", titled \"Mamma Mia: Here We Go Again!\", was announced on 20 May 2017 and is expected to be released on 20 July 2018.\n\nIn June 2017, a blue plaque outside Brighton Dome was set to commemorate their 1974 Eurovision win.\n", "\n===Recording process===\nABBA were perfectionists in the studio, working on tracks until they got them right rather than leaving them to come back later on.\n \nThe band created a basic rhythm track with a drummer, guitarist and bass player, and overlaid other arrangements and instruments. Vocals were then added, and orchestra overdubs were usually left until last.\n\nAgnetha and Frida contributed ideas at the studio stage. Benny and Björn played them in the backing tracks and they made comments and suggestions. According to Agnetha, she and Frida had the final say in how the lyrics were shaped. -- \"When we gather around the piano to get our voices tuned up, we often come up with things we can use in the backing vocals.\" After vocals and overdubs were done, the band took up to five days to mix a song.\n\n===Fashion, style, videos, advertising campaigns===\nABBA was widely noted for the colourful and trend-setting costumes its members wore. The reason for the wild costumes was Swedish tax law. The cost of the clothes was deductible only if they could not be worn other than for performances. Choreography by Graham Tainton also contributed to their performance style.\n\nThe videos that accompanied some of the band's biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Most of ABBA's videos (and ''ABBA: The Movie'') were directed by Lasse Hallström, who would later direct the films ''My Life as a Dog'', ''The Cider House Rules'' and ''Chocolat''.\n\nABBA made videos because their songs were hits in many different countries and personal appearances were not always possible. This was also done in an effort to minimize travelling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Fältskog and Ulvaeus had two young children and Fältskog, who was also afraid of flying, was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager, Stig Anderson, realized the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicize a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos became classics because of the 1970s-era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one singer's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another.\n\nIn 1976, ABBA participated in a high-profile advertising campaign by the Matsushita Electric Industrial (today's Panasonic), which was designed to promote the brand National. This campaign was designed initially for Australia, where \"National\" was still the primary brand used by Matsushita, who had not introduced the \"Panasonic\" brand to Australia yet despite its widespread use in other parts of the world. However, the campaign was also aired in Japan. Five commercials, each approximately one minute long, were produced, each using the \"National Song\" sung by ABBA, which used the melody and instrumental arrangement of \"Fernando\", adapted with new lyrics promoting National, and working in several slogans used by National in their advertising.\n\n===Political position===\nIn September 2010, band members Andersson and Ulvaeus criticized the right-wing Danish People's Party (DF) for using the ABBA song \"Mamma Mia\" (with modified lyrics) at rallies. The band threatened to file a lawsuit against the DF, saying they never allowed their music to be used politically and that they had absolutely no interest in supporting the party. Their record label Universal Music later said that no legal action would be taken because an agreement had been reached.\n", "During their active career, from 1972 to 1982, ABBA placed twenty singles on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, fourteen of which made the top 40 (13 on the Cashbox Top 100) and ten of which made the Top 20 on both charts. A total of four of those singles reached the Top 10, including \"Dancing Queen\" which reached number-one in April 1977. While \"Fernando\" and \"SOS\" did not break the Top 10 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 chart, reaching number 13 and 15 respectively, they did reach the Top 10 on Cashbox (\"Fernando\") and Record World (\"SOS\") charts. Both \"Dancing Queen\" and \"Take A Chance On Me\" were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for sales of over one million copies each.\n\nThe group also had 12 Top 20 singles on the ''Billboard'' Adult Contemporary chart with two of them, \"Fernando\" and \"The Winner Takes It All\", reaching number-one. \"Lay All Your Love on Me\" was ABBA's fourth number-one single on a ''Billboard'' chart, topping the Hot Dance Club Play chart. The singles \"Dancing Queen\" and \"Take a Chance on Me\" were certified gold (more than 1 million copies sold) by the RIAA.\n\nNine ABBA albums made their way into the top half of the ''Billboard'' 200 album chart, with seven of them reaching the Top 50 and four reaching the Top 20. ''ABBA: The Album'' was the highest-charting album of the group's career, peaking at No. 14. Five albums received RIAA gold certification (more than 500,000 copies sold), while three acquired platinum status (selling more than one million copies). \n\nThe album, More Abba Gold, was released in the United States in 1993. It topped the Billboard Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in August, 2008, being the group’s first number one album ever on any of the Billboard album charts. It sold 7x Platinum (1x Platinum = one million copies). It contains the previously unreleased single, I Am the City.\n\nOn 15 March 2010, ABBA were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame by Bee Gees members Barry Gibb and Robin Gibb. The ceremony was held at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel in New York City. The group was represented by Anni-Frid Lyngstad and Benny Andersson.\n", "\n* Agnetha Fältskog – lead vocals\n* Anni-Frid \"Frida\" Lyngstad – lead vocals\n* Bjorn Ulvaeus – guitars, vocals\n* Benny Andersson – keyboards, vocals\n", "\n===Musical groups===\n* Abbaesque – An Irish ABBA tribute band\n* ATeens – A pop music group from Stockholm, Sweden\n Björn Again – The earliest-formed ABBA tribute band (1988)\n* The Concert – A Swedish ABBA tribute band\n* Gabba – An ABBA–Ramones tribute band that covers the former in the style of the latter, the name being a pun on \"Gabba Gabba Hey\".\n\n===Media===\n* ''Abbacadabra'' – A French children's musical based on songs from ABBA\n* ''Abba-esque'' – A 1992 cover EP by Erasure\n* ''Abbasalutely'' – A compilation album released in 1995 as a tribute album to ABBA\n* ''Mamma Mia!'' – A musical stage show based on songs of ABBA\n* ''ABBAmania'' – An ITV programme and tribute album to ABBA released in 1999\n* ''Mamma Mia!'' – A film adaption of the musical stage show\n* ''ABBA: You Can Dance'' – A dance video game released by Ubisoft in 2011 with songs from ABBA and also a spin-off of ''Just Dance'' video game series\n", "\n\n'''Studio albums'''\n* ''Ring Ring'' (1973)\n* ''Waterloo'' (1974)\n* ''ABBA'' (1975)\n* ''Arrival'' (1976)\n* ''''The Album'''' (1977)\n* ''Voulez-Vous'' (1979)\n* ''Super Trouper'' (1980)\n* ''The Visitors'' (1981)\n", "* 1973: Swedish Folkpark Tour\n* 1974–75: European Tour\n* 1977: European & Australian Tour\n* 1979–80: ABBA: The Tour\n", "\n", "\n* ABBA: The Museum\n* ABBA City Walks – Stockholm City Museum\n* ABBAMAIL\n* List of best-selling music artists\n* List of Swedes in music\n* Music of Sweden\n* Swedish popular music\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n* \n\n===Further reading===\n''ABBA – 5 Years''. Billboard, 1979-9-8, pp. 23–46 ( online copy (Google))\n Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus, Judy Craymer: ''Mamma Mia! How Can I Resist You?: The Inside Story of Mamma Mia! and the Songs of ABBA''. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 2006\nCarl Magnus Palm. ''ABBA – The Complete Recording Sessions'' (1994)\n Carl Magnus Palm (2000). ''From \"ABBA\" to \"Mamma Mia!\"'' \n* Elisabeth Vincentelli: ''ABBA Treasures: A Celebration of the Ultimate Pop Group''. Omnibus Press, 2010, \n* Oldham, Andrew, Calder, Tony & Irvin, Colin (1995) \"ABBA: The Name of the Game\", \n* Potiez, Jean-Marie (2000). ''ABBA – The Book'' \n* Simon Sheridan: ''The Complete ABBA''. Titan Books, 2012, \nAnna Henker (ed.), Astrid Heyde (ed.): ''Abba – Das Lexikon''. Northern Europe Institut, Humboldt-University Berlin, 2015 (German)\n Steve Harnell (ed.): ''Classic Pop Presents Abba: A Celebration''. Classic Pop Magazine (special edition), November 2016\n", "\n* \n* \n* ABBAinter.net TV-performances archive\n* \n* ABBA Stars – funpage Czech revival ABBA Stars.\n* ABBA Songs – ABBA Album and Song details.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Artistry", "Success in the United States", "Members", "Notable ABBA related tributes", "Discography", "Tours", "Awards and nominations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	ABBA
[ "\n\n\nAn '''allegiance''' is a duty of fidelity said to be owed, or freely committed, by the people, subjects or citizens to their state or sovereign.\n", "From Middle English ''ligeaunce'' (see medieval Latin ''ligeantia'', \"a liegance\"). The ''al-'' prefix was probably added through confusion with another legal term, ''allegeance'', an \"allegation\" (the French ''allegeance'' comes from the English). ''Allegiance'' is formed from \"liege,\" from Old French ''liege'', \"liege, free\", of Germanic origin. The connection with Latin ''ligare'', \"to bind,\" is erroneous.\n", "Traditionally, English legal commentators used the term ''allegiance'' in two ways. In one sense, it referred to the deference which anyone, even foreigners, were expected to pay to the institutions of the country where one lived. In the other sense, it meant national character and the subjection due to that character.\n", "* Local allegiance\n* Natural allegiance\n", "The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible: \"Nemo potest exuere patriam\". As the law stood prior to 1870, every person who by birth or naturalisation satisfied the conditions set forth, (though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided), owed an allegiance to the British crown which he/she could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided.\n\nThis refusal to accept any renunciation of allegiance to the Crown led to conflict with the United States over impressment, which led to further conflicts during the War of 1812, when thirteen Irish American prisoners of war were executed as traitors after the Battle of Queenston Heights; Winfield Scott urged American reprisal, but none was carried out.\n\nAllegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the Sovereign in return for that protection which the Sovereign affords the subject. It was the mutual bond and obligation between monarch and subjects, whereby subjects are called his liege subjects, because they are bound to obey and serve him; and he is called their liege lord, because he should maintain and defend them (''Ex parte Anderson'' (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525; ''China Navigation Co v Attorney-General'' (1932) 48 TLR 375; ''Attorney-General v Nissan'' 1969 1 All ER 629; ''Oppenheimer v Cattermole'' 1972 3 All ER 1106). The duty of the Crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect. The reciprocal duty of the subject towards the Crown is that of allegiance.\n\nAt common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his Sovereign. As the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience, so the Sovereign\n\n* ''duplex et reciprocum ligamen; quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam, ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem; merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando, quia continet in se duplex ligamen'' (''Calvin's Case'' (1608) 7 Co Rep 1a; Jenk 306; 2 State Tr 559; 77 ER 377).\n\nNatural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for parte Anderson (1861) 3 El & El 487; 121 ER 525). Natural-born subjects owe allegiance wherever they may be. Where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)).\n\nAllegiance is owed both to the Sovereign as a natural person and to the Sovereign in the political capacity (''Re Stepney Election Petition, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54 (per Lord Coleridge CJ)). Attachment to the person of the reigning Sovereign is not sufficient. Loyalty requires affection also to the office of the Sovereign, attachment to royalty, attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm, and he who would, by force or by fraud, endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution, though he may retain his affection for its head, can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty (''R v O'Connell'' (1844) 7 ILR 261).\n\nThere were four kinds of allegiances (''Rittson v Stordy'' (1855) 3 Sm & G 230; ''De Geer v Stone'' (1882) 22 Ch D 243; ''Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 54 LT 684; ''Gibson, Gavin v Gibson'' 1913 3 KB 379; ''Joyce v DPP'' 1946 AC 347; ''Collingwood v Pace'' (1661) O Bridg 410; ''Lane v Bennett'' (1836) 1 M & W 70; ''Lyons Corp v East India Co'' (1836) 1 Moo PCC 175; ''Birtwhistle v Vardill'' (1840) 7 Cl & Fin 895; ''R v Lopez, R v Sattler'' (1858) Dears & B 525; Ex p Brown (1864) 5 B & S 280);\n\n(a) ''Ligeantia naturalis, absoluta, pura et indefinita'', and this originally is due by nature and birthright, and is called ''alta ligeantia'', and those that owe this are called ''subditus natus'';\n\n(b) ''Ligeantia acquisita'', not by nature but by acquisition or denization, being called a denizen, or rather denizon, because they are ''subditus datus'';\n\n(c) ''Ligeantia localis'', by operation of law, when a friendly alien enters the country, because so long as they are in the country they are within the Sovereign's protection, therefore they owe the Sovereign a local obedience or allegiance (''R v Cowle'' (1759) 2 Burr 834; ''Low v Routledge'' (1865) 1 Ch App 42; ''Re Johnson, Roberts v Attorney-General'' 1903 1 Ch 821; ''Tingley v Muller'' 1917 2 Ch 144; ''Rodriguez v Speyer'' 1919 AC 59; ''Johnstone v Pedlar'' 1921 2 AC 262; ''R v Tucker'' (1694) Show Parl Cas 186; ''R v Keyn'' (1876) 2 Ex D 63; ''Re Stepney Election Petn, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54);\n\n(d) A legal obedience, where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike.\n\nNatural allegiance was acquired by birth within the Sovereign's dominions (except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory). The natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as they are born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the Sovereign (''Ex p. Anderson'' (1861) 3 E & E 487). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever they may be, so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)).\n\nAcquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization. Denization, or ''ligeantia acquisita'', appears to be threefold (''Thomas v Sorrel'' (1673) 3 Keb 143);\n\n* (a) absolute, as the common denization, without any limitation or restraint;\n* (b) limited, as when the Sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien, and the alien's male heirs, or to an alien for the term of their life;\n* (c) It may be granted upon condition, ''cujus est dare, ejus est disponere'', and this denization of an alien may come about three ways: by Parliament; by letters patent, which was the usual manner; and by conquest.\n\nLocal allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the Crown. All friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects (''The Angelique'' (1801) 3 Ch Rob App 7). An alien, coming into a colony also became, temporarily a subject of the Crown, and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony, and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony (''Routledge v Low'' (1868) LR 3 HL 100; 37 LJ Ch 454; 18 LT 874; 16 WR 1081, HL; ''Reid v Maxwell'' (1886) 2 TLR 790; ''Falcon v Famous Players Film Co'' 1926 2 KB 474).\n\nA resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the Crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy, because the absence of the Crown's protection was temporary and involuntary (''de Jager v Attorney-Geneneral of Natal'' 1907 AC 326).\n\nLegal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the Crown.\n\nBy the Naturalisation Act 1870, it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who from having been born within British territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion.\n", "The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and Chief Justice John Rutledge also declared in Talbot v. Janson, \"a man may, at the same time, enjoy the rights of citizenship under two governments.\" On July 27, 1868, the day before the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted, U.S. Congress declared in the preamble of the Expatriation Act that \"the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,\" and (Section I) one of \"the fundamental principles of this government\" (United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every natural-born citizen of a foreign state who is also an American citizen and every natural-born American citizen who is a citizen of a foreign land owes a double allegiance, one to the United States, and one to his homeland (in the event of an immigrant becoming a citizen of the US), or to his adopted land (in the event of an emigrant natural born citizen of the US becoming a citizen of another nation). If these allegiances come into conflict, he or she may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law; likewise, those of the foreign land have paramount authority in their legal system. In such a situation, it may be incumbent on the individual to renounce one of his citizenships to avoid possibly being forced into situations where countervailing duties are required of him, such as might occur in the event of war.\n", "\nThe oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of 12, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth I of England (1558) and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution the promise was, \"to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom.\" This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time – \"I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty ...\"\n\nIn United States and some other republics, the oath is known as the Pledge of Allegiance. Instead of declaring fidelity to a monarch, the pledge is made to the flag, the republic, and to the core values of the country, specifically liberty and justice. The reciting of the pledge in the United States is voluntary because of the rights guaranteed to the people under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.\n", "\nThe word used in the Arabic language for allegiance is ''bay'at'' (Arabic: بيعة), which means \"taking hand\". The practice is sanctioned in the Quran by Surah 48:10: \"Verily, those who give thee their allegiance, they give it but to Allah Himself\". The word is used for the oath of allegiance to an emir. It is also used for the initiation ceremony specific to many Sufi orders.\n", "\n* Impressment\n* Legitimacy (political)\n* Mandate of Heaven\n* Pledge of Allegiance\n* Renunciation of citizenship\n* Treason\n* Usurpation\n* War of 1812\n* Winfield Scott\n", "\n", "* Salmond on \"Citizenship and Allegiance,\" in the ''Law Quarterly Review'' (July 1901, January 1902).\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Usage", "Types", "United Kingdom", "United States", "Oath of allegiance", "In Islam{{anchor\|Bayat}}", "See also", "References", "Further reading" ]	Allegiance
[ "\n'''Altenberg''' (German for \"old mountain\") may refer to:\n", "\n===Germany===\n* Altenberg, Saxony, a town in the Free State of Saxony\n** Altenberg bobsleigh, luge, and skeleton track, a venue for bobsleigh, luge and skeleton located in Altenberg, Saxony\n* Altenberg (Bergisches Land), an area in Odenthal, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany\n Altenberg Abbey, Cistercian monastery in Altenberg (Bergisches Land)\n \"Altenberg Cathedral\", the former church of this Cistercian monastery\n* Altenberg, part of Oberasbach, Bavaria\n* Altenberg, part of Denkendorf, Bavaria\n* Altenberg, part of Syrgenstein, Bavaria\n* Altenberg is also a lost town and archaeological site in the Kreis Siegen-Wittgenstein, North Rhine-Westphalia\n* Altenberga, municipality in the Saale-Holzfeld district, Thuringia\n* Altenberg Abbey, Hesse, a former Premonstratensian nunnery near Wetzlar in Hesse\n* Altenberg, a former zinc factory in Oberhausen, North Rhine-Westphalia, now the Rheinische Industriemuseum\n* Grube Altenberg, a derelict mine near Müsen in the Siegerland\n\n===Austria===\n* Altenberg in Tulln near Vienna, part of Sankt Andrä-Wördern in Lower Austria\n* Altenberg bei Linz, in Upper Austria\n* Altenberg an der Rax, in Styria\n\n===Switzerland===\n* Altenberg, a district in the city of Bern\n\n===Belgium===\n* Altenberg, the German name for Moresnet and Neutral Moresnet\n** Altenberg, the German name for Vieille Montagne (\"old mountain\" in French), the former zinc mine in Kelmis, Moresnet\n", "Any place called Altenberg may have given rise to Altenberg as a family name, such as:\n* Jakob Altenberg (1875-1944), Austrian businessman\n* Peter Altenberg (1859-1919), Austrian writer and poet\n* Altenberg Publishing (1880-1934), a family business in Poland\n", "* Altenberg Lieder, Five Orchestral Songs by Alban Berg\n* Altenburg (disambiguation)\n\n__NOTOC__\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Places", "People", "See also" ]	Altenberg
[ "\n\n\nThe '''MessagePad''' is the first series of personal digital assistant devices developed by Apple Computer for the Newton platform in 1993. Some electronic engineering and the manufacture of Apple's MessagePad devices was undertaken in Japan by the Sharp Corporation. The devices were based on the ARM 610 RISC processor and all featured handwriting recognition software and were developed and marketed by Apple. The devices ran the Newton OS.\n", "\n===Screen and input===\nWith the MessagePad 120 with Newton OS 2.0, the Newton Keyboard by Apple became available, which can also be used via the dongle on Newton devices with a Newton InterConnect port, most notably the Apple MessagePad 2000/2100 series, as well as the Apple eMate 300.\n\nNewton devices featuring Newton OS 2.1 or higher can be used with the screen turned horizontally (\"landscape\") as well as vertically (\"portrait\"). A change of a setting rotates the contents of the display by 90, 180 or 270 degrees. Handwriting recognition still works properly with the display rotated, although display calibration is needed when rotation in any direction is used for the first time or when the Newton device is reset.\n\neMate 300\nMP2000\n\n====Handwriting recognition====\n\nIn initial versions (Newton OS 1.x) the handwriting recognition gave extremely mixed results for users and was sometimes inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. Calligrapher's design was quite sophisticated; it attempted to learn the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen, whether hand-printed, in cursive, or a mix of the two. By contrast, Palm Pilot's Graffiti had a less sophisticated design than Calligrapher, but was sometimes found to be more accurate and precise due to its reliance on a fixed, predefined stroke alphabet. The stroke alphabet used letter shapes which resembled standard handwriting, but which were modified to be both simple and very easy to differentiate. Palm Computing also released two versions of Graffiti for Newton devices. Ironically, the Newton version sometimes performed better and could also show strokes as they were being written as input was done on the display itself, rather than on a silkscreen area.\n\nFor editing text, Newton had a very intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts.\n\nLater releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a hand-printed-text-only (not cursive) recognizer, called \"Rosetta\", which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta is generally considered a significant improvement and many reviewers, testers, and most users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives even 10 years after it was introduced. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as \"1 + 2 =\" was also under development but never released. However, users wrote similar programs which could evaluate mathematical formulas using the Newton OS Intelligent Assistant, a unique part of every Newton device.\n\nThe handwriting recognition and parts of the user interface for the Newton are best understood in the context of the broad history of Pen computing, which is quite extensive.\n\nA vital feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system is the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situ without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures. If a word is recognized improperly, the user could double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus. Most of the time, the correct word will be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allows the user to edit individual characters in that word. Other pen gestures could do such things as transpose letters (also in situ). The correction popup also allowed the user to revert to the original, un-recognized letter shapes - this would be useful in note-taking scenarios if there was insufficient time to make corrections immediately. To conserve memory and storage space, alternative recognition hypotheses would not be saved indefinitely. If the user returned to a note a week later, for example, they would only see the best match. Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires.\n\n====User interface====\n\nText could also be entered by tapping with the stylus on a small on-screen pop-up QWERTY virtual keyboard, although more layouts were developed by users. Newton devices could also accept free-hand \"Sketches\", \"Shapes\", and \"Ink Text\", much like a desktop computer graphics tablet. With \"Shapes\", Newton could recognize that the user was attempting to draw a circle, a line, a polygon, etc., and it would clean them up into perfect vector representations (with modifiable control points and defined vertices) of what the user was attempting to draw. \"Shapes\" and \"Sketches\" could be scaled or deformed once drawn. \"Ink text\" captured the user's free-hand writing but allowed it to be treated somewhat like recognized text when manipulating for later editing purposes (\"ink text\" supported word wrap, could be formatted to be bold, italic, etc.). At any time a user could also direct their Newton device to recognize selected \"ink text\" and turn it into recognized text (deferred recognition). A Newton note (or the notes attached to each contact in Names and each Dates calendar or to-do event) could contain any mix of interleaved text, Ink Text, Shapes, and Sketches.\n\nWhile the Newton offered handwriting recognition training and would clean up sketches into vector shapes, both were unreliable and required much rewriting and redrawing. The most reliable application of the Newton was collecting and organizing address and phone numbers. While handwritten messages could be stored, they could not be easily filed, sorted or searched. While the technology was a probable cause for the failure of the device (which otherwise met or exceeded expectations), the technology has been instrumental in producing the future generation of handwriting software that realizes the potential and promise that began in the development of Newton-Apple's Ink Handwriting Recognition.\n\n===Connectivity===\nThe MessagePad 100 series of devices used Macintosh's proprietary serial ports—round Mini-DIN 8 connectors. The MessagePad 2000/2100 models (as well as the eMate 300) have a small, proprietary ''Newton InterConnect'' port. However, the development of the Newton hardware/software platform was canceled by Steve Jobs on February 27, 1998, so the InterConnect port, while itself very advanced, can only be used to connect a serial dongle. A prototype multi-purpose InterConnect device containing serial, audio in, audio out, and other ports was also discovered. In addition, all Newton devices have infrared connectivity, initially only the Sharp ASK protocol, but later also IrDA, though the Sharp ASK protocol was kept in for compatibility reasons. Unlike the Palm Pilot, all Newton devices are equipped with a standard PC Card expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100). This allows native modem and even Ethernet connectivity; Newton users have also written drivers for 802.11b wireless networking cards and ATA-type flash memory cards (including the popular CompactFlash format), as well as for Bluetooth cards. Newton can also dial a phone number through the built-in speaker of the Newton device by simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker and transmitting the appropriate tones. Fax and printing support is also built in at the operating system level, although it requires peripherals such as parallel adapters, PCMCIA cards, or serial modems, the most notable of which is the lightweight Newton Fax Modem released by Apple in 1993. It is powered by 2 AA batteries, and can also be used with a power adapter. It provides data transfer at 2400 bit/s, and can also send and receive fax messages at 9600 and 4800 bit/s respectively.\n\n===Power options===\nThe original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 used four AAA batteries. They were eventually replaced by AA batteries with the release of the Apple MessagePad 110.\n\nThe use of 4 AA NiCd (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA NiMH cells (MP2x00 series, eMate 300) give a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP2100 with two 20 MB Linear Flash memory PC Cards, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the handheld Newton devices than AAA batteries or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gives the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the flash memory used as internal storage starting with the Apple MessagePad 120 (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the non-volatility of this storage), gave birth to the slogan \"Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries\".\n\n===Later efforts and improvements===\nThe Apple MessagePad 2000/2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162 MHz StrongARM SA-110 RISC processor, Newton OS 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits. \n\n\n===Cases===\nApple and third parties marketed several \"wallets\" (cases) for the handheld Newton devices, which would hold them securely along with the owner's credit cards, driver's license, business cards, and cash. Most also protected the LCD screen. \n", "Fourteen months after Sculley demoed it at the May 1992, Chicago CES, the MessagePad was first offered for sale on August 2, 1993, at the Boston Macworld Expo. The hottest item at the show, it cost $900. 50,000 MessagePads were sold in the device’s first three months on the market.\n\nThe original Apple MessagePad and MessagePad 100 were limited by the very short lifetime of their inadequate AAA batteries.\n\nThe Original Apple Newton's handwriting recognition was made light of in ''The Simpsons'' episode \"Lisa on Ice\".\nCritics also panned the handwriting recognition that was available in the debut models, which had been trumpeted in the Newton's marketing campaign. It was this problem that was skewered in the ''Doonesbury'' comic strips in which a written text entry is (erroneously) translated as \"Egg Freckles?\", as well as in the animated series ''The Simpsons''. However, the word 'freckles' was not included in the Newton dictionary, although a user could add it themselves. Difficulties were in part caused by the long time requirements for the Calligrapher handwriting recognition software to \"learn\" the user's handwriting; this process could take from two weeks to two months.\n\nAnother factor which limited the early Newton devices' appeal was that desktop connectivity was not included in the basic retail package, a problem that was later solved with 2.x Newton devices - these were bundled with a serial cable and the appropriate Newton Connection Utilities software.\n\nLater versions of Newton OS offered improved handwriting recognition, quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the devices among Newton users. Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of comparatively aged PDAs produced by other companies. In 2006 CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to a Samsung Q1, and the Newton was declared better. In 2009, CNET compared an Apple MessagePad 2000 to an iPhone, and the Newton was still declared better.\n\nA chain of dedicated Newton only stores called Newton Source existed from 1994 until 1998. Locations included New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago and Boston. The Westwood Village, California, near U.C.L.A. featured the trademark red and yellow lightbulb Newton logo in neon. The stores provided an informative educational venue to learn about the Newton platform in a hands on relaxed fashion. The stores had no traditional computer retail counters and featured oval desktops where interested users could become intimately involved with the Newton product range. The stores were a model for the later Apple Stores. \n", "\n\n\n\n Device \n Model No. \n Processor \n Memory \n Display \n Newton OS version \n Newton OS languages \n Ports \n PCMCIA \n Power \n Weight & dimensions \n Introduced \n Discontinued \n Code name\n\n OMP ('''O'''riginal Newton '''M'''essage'''P'''ad)\n H1000 \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB ROM, 640 KB RAM \n 336 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11 \n English or German \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.41 kg, 18.42 cm H × 11.43 cm W × 1.91 cm D \n August 3, 1993, in the US, December 1993 in Germany \n March 1994 \n Junior\n\n Sharp ExpertPad PI-7000 \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB ROM, 640 KB RAM \n 336 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11 \n English or Japanese \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 182mm × 112mm × 28mm (with screen lid open) \n August 3, 1993, in the US, ? in Japan \n March 1994 \n ?\n\n Apple MessagePad 100 \n H1000 \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB ROM, 640 KB RAM \n 336 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 \n English, German or French \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.41 kg, 18.42 cm H × 11.43 cm W × 1.91 cm D \n March 1994 \n April 1995 \n ?\n\n Apple MessagePad 110 \n H0059 \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB ROM, 1 MB RAM \n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.2 or 1.3 \n English or French \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.45 kg, 20.32 cm H × 10.16 cm W × 3 cm D \n March 1994 \n April 1995 \n Lindy\n\n Sharp ExpertPad PI-7100 \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB ROM, 640 KB RAM \n 336 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 \n English or Japanese \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AAA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 182mm × 112mm × 28mm (with screen lid open) \n April 1994 \n late 1994 \n ?\n\n Apple MessagePad 120 \n H0131 \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB (OS 1.3) or 8 MB (OS 2.0) ROM, 1.0 MB, or 2.0 MB RAM \n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 or 2.0 \n English, German or French \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.45 kg, 20.32 cm H × 10.16 cm W × 3 cm D \n October 1994 in Germany, January 1995 in the US \n June 1996 \n Gelato\n\n Digital Ocean Tarpon \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB (OS 1.3) or 8 MB (OS 2.0) ROM, 687 KB RAM, Flash memory\n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 or 2.0 \n English \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 10\" × 4.5\" × 2.5\" (3 lb. 3 oz.) \n January 1995 in the US \n ? \n ?\n\n Motorola Marco \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB (OS 1.3) ROM, 687 KB RAM, Flash memory \n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 \n English \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n ? \n January 1995 in the US \n ? \n ?\n\n Harris SuperTech 2000 \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 4 MB (OS 1.3) ROM, 687 KB RAM, Flash memory\n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 1.3 \n English \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n ? \n August 1995 in the US \n ? \n ?\n\n Digital Ocean Seahorse \n ? \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 8 MB (OS 2.0) ROM, 687 KB RAM, Flash memory\n 320 × 240 (B&W) \n 2.0 \n English \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 9.5\" × 4.5\" × 2.5\" (48 oz.) \n January 1996 in the US \n ? \n ?\n\n Apple MessagePad 130 \n H0196 \n ARM 610 (20 MHz) \n 8 MB ROM, 2.5 MB RAM \n 320 × 240 (B&W) w/ backlight \n 2.0 \n English or German \n RS422, LocalTalk & SHARP ASK Infrared \n 1 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiCd rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.45 kg, 20.32 cm H × 10.16 cm W × 3 cm D \n March 1996 \n April 1997 \n Dante\n\n Apple eMate 300 \n H0208 \n ARM 710a (25 MHz) \n 8 MB ROM, 1 MB RAM, 2 MB Flash Memory, Expandable Internally to 2 MB Random Access Memory and 4 MB Flash Memory \n 480 × 320 greyscale (16 shades) w/ backlight \n 2.1 (2.2)\n English \n IrDA, headphone port, Interconnect port, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock \n 1 PCMCIA-slot I/II/III, 5v \n NiMH battery pack (built-in) or external power supply \n 1.81 kg, 30.5 cm H × 29 cm W × 5.33 cm D \n March 1997 \n February 1998 \n ?\n\n Apple MessagePad 2000 \n H0136 \n StrongARM SA-110 (162 MHz) \n 8 MB ROM, 1 MB RAM, 4 MB Flash memory \n 480 × 320 greyscale (16 shades) w/ backlight \n 2.1 \n English \n Dual-mode IR; IrDA & SHARP ASK Infrared, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock, Phone I/O \n 2 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.64 kg, 21.1 cm H × 11.94 cm W × 2.79 cm D \n March 1997 \n February 1998 \n Q\n\n Apple MessagePad 2100 \n H0149 \n StrongARM SA-110 (162 MHz) \n 8 MB ROM, 4 MB RAM, 4 MB Flash memory \n 480 × 320 greyscale (16 shades) w/ backlight \n 2.1 \n English or German \n Dual-mode IR; IrDA & SHARP ASK Infrared, LocalTalk, Audio I/O, Autodock \n 2 PCMCIA-slot II, 5v or 12v \n 4 AA or NiMH rechargeable or external power supply \n 0.64 kg, 21.1 cm H × 11.94 cm W × 2.79 cm D \n November 1997 \n February 1998 \n ?\n\n'''Notes:''' The eMate 300 actually has ROM chips silk screened with 2.2 on them. Stephanie Mak on her website discusses this:\nIf one removes all patches to the eMate 300 (by replacing the ROM chip, and then putting in the original one again, as the eMate and the MessagePad 2000/2100 devices erase their memory completely after replacing the chip), the result will be the Newton OS saying that this is version 2.2.00. Also, the Original MessagePad and the MessagePad 100 share the same model number, as they only differ in the ROM chip version. (The OMP has OS versions 1.0 to 1.05, or 1.10 to 1.11, while the MP100 has 1.3 that can be upgraded with various patches.)\n\n \n\n", "Petrosains uses Newton technology.\nThere were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.\n\nIn 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc., was awarded the contract to design a new science museum in the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton device to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit.\n\nThe device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for \"wise man\" or \"seer\" and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 300 are still in use today. The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since.\n\nThe Newton was also used in healthcare applications, for example in collecting data directly from patients. Newtons were used as electronic diaries, with patients entering their symptoms and other information concerning their health status on a daily basis. The compact size of the device and its ease of use made it possible for the electronic diaries to be carried around and used in the patients' everyday life setting. This was an early example of electronic patient-reported outcomes (ePRO)\n", "* Newton (platform)\n* Newton OS\n* eMate 300\n* NewtonScript\n* Orphaned technology\n* Pen computing\n", "\n", "* Apple's press release on the debut of the MessagePad 2100\n* Apple's overview of features & limitations of Newton Connection Utilities\n* Newton overview at Newton Source archived from Apple\n* Newton FAQ\n* Pen Computing's First Look at Newton OS 2.0\n* Newton Gallery\n* Birth of the Newton\n* The Newton Hall of Fame: People behind the Newton\n* Pen Computing's Why did Apple kill the Newton?\n* Pen Computing's Newton Notes column archive\n* A.I. Magazine article by Yaeger on Newton HWR design, algorithms, & quality and associated slides\n* Info on Newton HWR from Apple's HWR Technical Lead\n* \n", "\n\n===Additional Resources & Information===\n* ''''' Defying Gravity: The Making of Newton, by Kounalakis & Menuez''''' (Hardcover)\n Hardcover: 192 pages\n Publisher: Beyond Words Publishing (October 1993)\n \n \n* \n* Complete Developer's manual for the StrongARM SA-110\n* Beginner's overview of the StrongARM SA-110 Microprocessor\n\n===Reviews===\n* MessagePad 2000 review at \"The History and Macintosh Society\"\n* Prof. Wittmann's collection of Newton & MessagePad reviews\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Details", "Market reception", "Newton device models", "Other uses", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	MessagePad
[ "\n\n'''Alfred Elton van Vogt''' (; April 26, 1912 – January 26, 2000) was a Canadian-born science fiction author. He is regarded as one of the most popular, influential and complex practitioners of the mid-twentieth century, the genre's so-called Golden Age.\n", "Van Vogt was born on a farm in Edenburg (a Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada). Until age four, van Vogt and his family spoke only a dialect of Low German at home. Van Vogt's father, a lawyer, moved his family several times. His son found these moves difficult, remarking in later life:\n\n\n\nAfter starting his writing career by writing for true-confession style pulp magazines such as ''True Story'', van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, science fiction. He was inspired by the August 1938 issue of ''Astounding Science Fiction,'' which he picked up at a newsstand. The story \"Who Goes There?\" led him to write \"Vault of the Beast\", which he submitted to that same magazine. It was rejected, but the rejection letter encouraged him to try again. He sent in a story called \"Black Destroyer,\" which was accepted. A rewritten version of \"Vault of the Beast\" would be published in 1940.\nvan Vogt's \"Ship of Darkness\" was the cover story in the second issue of ''Fantasy Book'' in 1948\nVan Vogt's first SF publication was inspired by ''The Voyage of the Beagle'' by Charles Darwin. \"The Black Destroyer\" was published in July 1939 by John W. Campbell in ''Astounding Science Fiction'', the centennial year of Darwin's journal. It featured a fierce, carnivorous alien, the coeurl, stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. \"Discord in Scarlet\" was his second story to be published, also appearing as the cover story. It was accompanied by interior illustrations created by Frank Kramer and Paul Orban. (Van Vogt and Kramer thus debuted in the issue of ''Astounding'' that is sometimes singled out for ushering in the \"Golden Age\" of science fiction.) The former story served as the inspiration for multiple science fiction movies. In 1950, the two were combined with two other stories as a fix-up novel, ''The Voyage of the Space Beagle'' (Simon & Schuster), which was published in at least five European languages by 1955. Positing the need for exobiologists who will appreciate the differences between the inhabitants of other planets and ourselves, it stresses the importance of the civilian rather than military in exploration of other cultures.\n\nVan Vogt's first completed novel, and one of his most famous, is ''Slan'' (Arkham House, 1946), which Campbell serialized in ''Astounding'' September to December 1940. Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by ''Homo sapiens''.\n\nIn 1941, van Vogt decided to become a full-time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence. Prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote many short stories. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or \"fixups\" as he called them, a term that entered the vocabulary of science-fiction criticism. When the original stories were related (e.g., ''The War against the Rull'') this was often successful. When not (e.g., ''Quest for the Future'') the disparate stories thrown together generally made for a less coherent plot.\n", "In 1944, van Vogt moved to Hollywood, where his writing took on new dimensions after World War II. He was always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern meta-systems)—the characters in his very first story used a system called \"Nexialism\" to analyze the alien's behavior, and he became interested in the general semantics of Alfred Korzybski.\n\nHe subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, ''The World of Null-A'' and ''The Pawns of Null-A'' in the late 1940s, and ''Null-A Three'' in the early 1980s. ''Null-A'', or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive reasoning.\n\nVan Vogt was profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after World War II. He wrote a mainstream novel that he set in Communist China, ''The Violent Man'' (1962); he said that to research this book he had read 100 books about China. Into this book he incorporated his view of \"the violent male type\", which he described as a \"man who had to be right\", a man who \"instantly attracts women\" and who he said were the men who \"run the world\".\n\nAt the same time, in his fiction, van Vogt was consistently sympathetic to absolute monarchy as a form of government. This was the case, for instance, in the ''Weapon Shop'' series, the ''Mixed Men'' series, and in single stories such as \"Heir Apparent\" (1945), whose protagonist was described as a \"benevolent dictator\".\n\nVan Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved. Several of his stories hinge on temporal conundra, a favorite theme. He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from three books: ''Narrative Technique'' by Thomas Uzzell, ''The Only Two Ways to Write a Story'' by John Gallishaw, and ''Twenty Problems of the Fiction Writer'' by Gallishaw.\n\nHe also claimed many of his ideas came from dreams; throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams.\n\nVan Vogt published perhaps his most famous story, \"Enchanted Village\", in the July 1950 issue of ''Other Worlds Science Stories''. It was reprinted in over 20 collections or anthologies, and appeared many times in translation.\n\nIn 1950, van Vogt was briefly appointed as head of L. Ron Hubbard's Dianetics operation in California. Dianetics was the secular precursor to Hubbard's Church of Scientology. The operation went broke nine months later, but never went bankrupt, due to van Vogt's arrangements with creditors. Van Vogt and his wife opened their own Dianetics centre, partly financed by his writings, until he \"signed off\" around 1961. At the time of his interview with Charles Platt, van Vogt was still president of the Californian Association of Dianetic Auditors.\n\nIn 1951, he published ''The Weapon Shops of Isher.'' In the same decade, van Vogt also produced collections and fixups such as ''The Mixed Men'' (1952), ''The War Against the Rull'' (1959), and the two \"Clane\" novels, ''Empire of the Atom'' (1957) and ''The Wizard of Linn'' (1962), which were inspired (like Asimov's Foundation series) by Roman imperial history, specifically the reign of Claudius. His later novels included fixups such as ''The Beast'' (also known as ''Moonbeast'') (1963), ''Rogue Ship'' (1965), ''Quest for the Future'' (1970) and ''Supermind'' (1977); expanded short stories (''The Darkness on Diamondia'' (1972), ''Future Glitter'' (also known as ''Tyranopolis''; 1973); original novels such as ''Children of Tomorrow'' (1970), ''The Battle of Forever'' (1971) and ''The Anarchistic Colossus'' (1977); plus sequels to his classic works, many of which were promised, but only one of which appeared, ''Null-A Three'' (1984; originally published in French). Several later books were original in Europe, and at least one novel only ever appeared in Italian.\n\nOn January 26, 2000, van Vogt died in Los Angeles, United States from Alzheimer's disease, survived by his second wife, the former Lydia Bereginsky.\n", "Critical opinion about the quality of van Vogt's work is sharply divided.\n\nOne early and articulate critic was Damon Knight. In a 1945 chapter-long essay reprinted in ''In Search of Wonder,'' entitled \"Cosmic Jerrybuilder: A. E. van Vogt\", Knight famously remarked that van Vogt \"is no giant; he is a pygmy who has learned to operate an overgrown typewriter\". Knight described ''The World of Null-A'' as \"one of the worst allegedly adult science fiction stories ever published\". About van Vogt's writing, Knight said:\n\n\n\nAbout ''Empire of the Atom'' Knight wrote:\n\n\nKnight also expressed misgivings about van Vogt's politics, noting that his stories almost invariably present absolute monarchy in a favorable light. But in 1974, he went partly back on his criticism after finding out about Vogt's working methods about writing down his dreams:\n\n\nOn the other hand, when science fiction author Philip K. Dick was asked which science fiction writers had influenced his work the most, he replied:\n\n\n\nDick also defended van Vogt against Damon Knight’s criticisms:\n\n\n\nIn a review of ''Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt'', science fiction writer Paul Di Filippo said:\n\n\nIn ''The John W. Campbell Letters'', Campbell says, \"The son-of-a-gun gets hold of you in the first paragraph, ties a knot around you, and keeps it tied in every paragraph thereafter—including the ultimate last one\".\n\nHarlan Ellison (who began reading van Vogt as a teenager) wrote, \"Van was the first writer to shine light on the restricted ways in which I had been taught to view the universe and the human condition\".\n\nWriting in 1984 David Hartwell said:\n\n\n\nThe literary critic Leslie A. Fiedler said something similar:\n\n\n\nThe American literary critic Fredric Jameson says of van Vogt:\n\n\n\nNevertheless, van Vogt still has his critics. For example, Darrell Schweitzer writing to ''The New York Review of Science Fiction'' in 1999 quoted a passage from the original van Vogt novelette \"The Mixed Men\", which he was then reading, and remarked:\n\n\n", "In 1946, van Vogt and his first wife, Edna Mayne Hull, were Guests of Honor at the fourth World Science Fiction Convention.\n\nIn 1980, van Vogt received a \"Casper Award\" (precursor to the Canadian Prix Aurora Awards) for Lifetime Achievement.\n\nThe Science Fiction Writers of America named him its 14th Grand Master in 1995 (presented 1996). Great controversy within SFWA accompanied its long wait in bestowing its highest honor (limited to living writers, no more than one annually). Writing an obituary of van Vogt, Robert J. Sawyer, a fellow Canadian writer of science fiction remarked:\n\n\n\nIt is generally held that the \"damnable SFWA politics\" concerns Damon Knight, the founder of the SFWA, who abhorred van Vogt's style and politics and thoroughly demolished his literary reputation in the 1950s.\n\nHarlan Ellison was more explicit in 1999 introduction to ''Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A. E. van Vogt'':\n\n\n\nIn 1996, van Vogt received a Special Award from the World Science Fiction Convention \"for six decades of golden age science fiction\". That same year, the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame inducted him in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons, along with writer Jack Williamson (also living) and editors Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell.\n\nThe works of van Vogt were translated into French by the surrealist Boris Vian (''The World of Null-A'' as ''Le Monde des Å'' in 1958), and van Vogt's works were \"viewed as great literature of the surrealist school\". In addition, ''Slan'' was published in French, translated by Jean Rosenthal, under the title ''À la poursuite des Slans'', as part of the paperback series 'Editions J'ai Lu: Romans-Texte Integral' in 1973, this edition also listing the following works by van Vogt as having been published in French as part of this series: ''Le Monde des Å'', ''La faune de l'espace'', ''Les joueurs du Å'', ''L'empire de l'atome'', ''Le sorcier de Linn'', ''Les armureries d'Isher'', ''Les fabricants d'armes'', and ''Le livre de Ptath''.\n", "\n\n===Novels===\nPrimary dates represent first publication in book form.\n* ''Slan'' (1946) from serial\n* ''The Weapon Makers'' (1947) (serial 1943, revised 1952) (also published as ''One Against Eternity'' (1964))\n* ''The Book of Ptath'' (1947) (in Unknown Worlds, 1947) (later as ''Two Hundred Million A.D.'' 1964 and ''Ptath'' 1976)\n* ''The World of Null-A'' (1948) (revised from 1945 serial, and again 1970)\n* ''The House That Stood Still'' (1950), also published as ''The Mating Cry'' and ''The Undercover Aliens''. The sexual interludes added by Van Vogt to ''The Mating Cry'' for its Galaxy Beacon edition have been retained in many later editions.\n* ''The Voyage of the Space Beagle'' (1950) from shorts\n* ''The Weapon Shops of Isher'' (1951) fix up\n* ''The Mixed Men'' (1952), also published as ''Mission to the Stars'' fix up\n* ''The Universe Maker'' (1953) (revised from 1950 story, 'The Shadow Men')\n* ''Planets for Sale'' (1954), with Edna Mayne Hull from shorts\n* ''The Pawns of Null-A'' (1956), also published as ''The Players of Null-A''\n* ''The Mind Cage'' (1957) expanded from short, 'The Great Judge', 1948\n* ''Empire of the Atom'' (1957) from shorts\n* ''Siege of the Unseen'' (1959) as 'The Chronicler' (1946) also published as ''The Three Eyes of Evil''\n* ''The War Against the Rull'' (1959) fixup\n* ''Earth's Last Fortress'' (1960), first stand-alone publication, previously titled ''Recruiting Station'' and ''Masters of Time''\n* ''The Wizard of Linn'' (1962) (serial, 1950)\n* ''The Violent Man'' (1962), political thriller set in China\n* ''The Beast'' (1963), also published as ''Moonbeast'' fixup\n* ''Rogue Ship'' (1965) fixup\n* ''The Winged Man'' (1966), with Edna Mayne Hull\n* ''The Changeling'' (1967) stand-alone publication of story first published in 1942 and 1944 in ''Astounding Stories''\n* ''The Silkie'' (1969) from short stories\n* ''Children of Tomorrow'' (1970)\n* ''Quest for the Future'' (1970) fixup\n* ''The Battle of Forever'' (1971)\n* ''The Darkness on Diamondia'' (1972) from short story\n* ''Future Glitter'' (1973), also published as ''Tyranopolis''\n* ''The Man with a Thousand Names'' (1974)\n* ''The Secret Galactics'' (1974), also published as ''Earth Factor X''\n* ''Supermind'' (1977) from short stories; including a collaboration with James H. Schmitz and Edna Mayne Hull\n* ''The Anarchistic Colossus'' (1977)\n* ''The Enchanted Village'' (1979), chapbook\n* ''Renaissance'' (1979)\n* ''Cosmic Encounter'' (1979)\n* ''Computerworld'' (1983), also published as ''Computer Eye''\n* ''Null-A Three'' (1984)\n* ''To Conquer Kiber'' (1985) never published in English; published in French as ''A la conquête de Kiber'' and in Romanian as ''Cucerirea Kiberului'' \n* ''Slan Hunter'' (2007), with Kevin J. Anderson\n\n===Collections===\n* ''Out of the Unknown'' (1948), with Edna Mayne Hull\n* ''Masters of Time'' (1950) (a.k.a. Recruiting Station) also includes ''The Changeling'', both works were later published separately\n* ''Triad'' (1951) omnibus of ''The World of Null A'', ''The Voyage of the Space Beagle'', ''Slan''.\n* ''Away and Beyond'' (1952) (abridged in paperback in 1959; abridged (differently) in paperback in 1963)\n* ''Destination: Universe!'' (1952)\n* ''The Twisted Men'' (1964)\n* ''Monsters'' (1965) (later as ''SF Monsters'' (1967)) abridged as ''The Blal'' (1976)\n* ''A Van Vogt Omnibus'' (1967), omnibus of ''Planets for Sale'' (with Edna Mayne Hull), ''The Beast'', ''The Book of Ptath''\n* ''The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt'' (1968)\n* ''The Sea Thing and Other Stories'' (1970) (expanded from ''Out of the Unknown'' by adding an original story by Hull; later abridged in paperback as ''Out of the Unknown'' by removing 2 of the stories)\n* ''M33 in Andromeda'' (1971)\n* ''More Than Superhuman'' (1971)\n* ''The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders'', ), with Edna Mayne Hull (1971), revised as ''The Gryb'' (1976)\n* ''Van Vogt Omnibus 2'' (1971), omnibus of ''The Mind Cage'', ''The Winged Man'' (with Edna Mayne Hull), ''Slan''.\n* ''The Book of Van Vogt'' (1972), also published as ''Lost: Fifty Suns'' (1979)\n* ''The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress'' (1973)\n* ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt'' (1974) later split into 2 volumes\n* ''The Worlds of A. E. van Vogt (1974) (expanded from ''The Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt'' by adding 3 stories)\n* ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt'' (1976) differs to 1974 edition\n* ''Away and Beyond'' (1977)\n* ''Pendulum'' (1978) (almost all original stories and articles)\n* ''Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt'' (1999)\n* ''Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt'' (2002)\n* ''Transgalactic'' (2006)\n\n===Nonfiction===\n* ''The Hypnotism Handbook'' (1956, Griffin Publishing Company, with Charles Edward Cooke)\n* ''The Money Personality'' (1972, Parker Publishing Company Inc., West Nyack, NY, )\n* ''Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant'' (1979, Fictioneer Books Ltd., Lakemont, GA)\n* ''A Report on the Violent Male'' (1992, Paupers' Press, UK, )\n", " \n", "\n", "\n", " \n* \n* Sevagram, the A.E. van Vogt information site\n* Obituary at ''LocusOnline'' (Locus Publications)\n* \"Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912–2000, Canada)\" – bibliography at SciFan\n* A. E. van Vogt Papers (MS 322) at the Kenneth Spencer Research Library, University of Kansas\n* \n* \n* \n* A. E. van Vogt's fiction at Free Speculative Fiction Online\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life and writings", "Post-war life and work", "Critical reception", "Recognition", "Works", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	A. E. van Vogt
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova''' (; born 7 June 1981) is a Russian former professional tennis player. Her appearance and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide. At the peak of her fame, fans looking for images of Kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on Google Search.\n\nDespite never winning a singles title, she reached No. 8 in the world in 2000. She achieved greater success playing doubles, where she was at times the World No. 1 player. With Martina Hingis as her partner, she won Grand Slam titles in Australia in 1999 and 2002, and the WTA Championships in 1999 and 2000. They referred to themselves as the \"Spice Girls of Tennis\".\n\nKournikova's professional tennis career ended prematurely at the age of 21 due to serious back and spinal problems, including a herniated disk. She lives in Miami Beach, Florida, and plays in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the St. Louis Aces of World Team Tennis. She was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show ''The Biggest Loser'', replacing Jillian Michaels, but did not return for season 13. In addition to her tennis and television work, Kournikova serves as a Global Ambassador for Population Services International's \"Five & Alive\" program, which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families.\n", "Anna Kournikova was born in Moscow, Russia, on 7 June 1981. Her father, Sergei Kournikov (born 1961), a former Greco-Roman wrestling champion, eventually earned a PhD and was a professor at the University of Physical Culture and Sport in Moscow. As of 2001, he was still a part-time martial arts instructor there. Her mother Alla (born 1963) had been a 400-metre runner. Her younger brother, Allan, is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film ''The Short Game''.\n\nSergei Kournikov has said, \"We were young and we liked the clean, physical life, so Anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning\".\n\nKournikova received her first tennis racquet as a New Year gift in 1986 at age 5. Describing her early regimen, she said, \"I played two times a week from age six. It was a children's program. And it was just for fun; my parents didn't know I was going to play professionally, they just wanted me to do something because I had lots of energy. It was only when I started playing well at seven that I went to a professional academy. I would go to school, and then my parents would take me to the club, and I'd spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids.\" In 1986, Kournikova became a member of the Spartak Tennis Club, coached by Larissa Preobrazhenskaya. In 1989, at the age of eight, Kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments, and by the following year, was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world. Kournikova signed a management deal at age ten and went to Bradenton, Florida, to train at Nick Bollettieri's celebrated tennis academy.\n", "\n=== 1989–1997: Early years and breakthrough ===\nFollowing her arrival in the United States, Kournikova became prominent on the tennis scene. At 14, she won the European Championships and the Italian Open Junior tournament. She became the youngest player to win the 18-and-under division of the Junior Orange Bowl tennis tournament. By the end of the year, Kournikova was crowned the ITF Junior World Champion U-18 and Junior European Champion U-18.\n\nIn 1994, Kournikova received a wild card into ITF tournament in Moscow qualifications, but lost to third seeded Sabine Appelmans. She debuted in professional tennis at 14 in the Fed Cup for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. In 1995, she turned pro, and won two ITF titles, in Midland, Michigan and Rockford, Illinois. The same year Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour doubles final at the Kremlin Cup. Partnering with 1995 Wimbledon girls' champion in both singles and doubles Aleksandra Olsza, they lost to Meredith McGrath and Larisa Neiland.\n\nIn 1996, she started playing under a new coach, Ed Nagel. Her six-year tenure with Ed would produce terrific results. At 15, she made her grand slam debut, when she reached the fourth round of the 1996 US Open, only to be stopped by then-top ranked player Steffi Graf, the eventual champion. After this tournament, Kournikova's ranking jumped from No. 144 to debut in the Top 100 at No. 69. Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1996, she was named WTA Newcomer of the Year, and she was ranked No. 57 in the end of the season.\n\nKournikova entered the 1997 Australian Open as World No. 67, where she lost in the first round to World No. 12 Amanda Coetzer. At the Italian Open, Kournikova lost to Amanda Coetzer in the second round. However, she reached the semi-finals in the doubles partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, before losing to the sixth seeds Mary Joe Fernández and Patricia Tarabini.\n\nAt the 1997 French Open, Kournikova made it to the third round before losing to World No. 1 Martina Hingis. She also reached the third round in doubles with Likhovtseva. At the 1997 Wimbledon Championships, Kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semi-finals in her Wimbledon debut, the first being Chris Evert in 1972; she still holds the record for being the youngest Wimbledon semi-finalist in history (15 years of age). There she lost to eventual champion Martina Hingis.\n\nAt the 1997 US Open, she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed Irina Spîrlea. Partnering with Likhovtseva, she reached the third round of the women's doubles event. Kournikova played her last WTA Tour event of 1997 at Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, losing to Amanda Coetzer in the second round of singles, and in the first round of doubles to Lindsay Davenport and Jana Novotná partnering with Likhovtseva. She broke into the top 50 on 19 May, and was ranked No. 32 in singles and No. 41 in doubles at the end of the season.\n\n=== 1998–2000: Success and stardom ===\nIn 1998, Kournikova broke into the WTA's top 20 rankings for the first time, when she was ranked No. 16. At the 1998 Australian Open, Kournikova lost in the third round to World No. 1 player Martina Hingis. She also partnered with Larisa Neiland in women's doubles, and they lost to eventual champions Hingis and Mirjana Lučić in the second round. Although she lost in the second round of the Paris Open to Anke Huber in singles, Kournikova reached her second doubles WTA Tour final, partnering with Larisa Neiland. They lost to Sabine Appelmans and Miriam Oremans. Kournikova and Neiland reached their second consecutive final at the Linz Open, losing to Alexandra Fusai and Nathalie Tauziat. At the Miami Open, Kournikova reached her first WTA Tour singles final, before losing to Venus Williams in the final.\n\nAnna Kournikova practices her backhand for a match at the Family Circle Cup Tennis Tournament on Daniel Island in Charleston, South Carolina\nKournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals, at Amelia Island and the Italian Open, losing respectively to Lindsay Davenport and Martina Hingis. At the German Open, she reached the semi-finals in both singles and doubles, partnering with Larisa Neiland. At the 1998 French Open Kournikova had her best result at this tournament, making it to the fourth round before losing to Jana Novotná. She also reached her first Grand Slam doubles semi-finals, losing with Neiland to Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva. During her quarterfinals match at the grass-court Eastbourne Open versus Steffi Graf, Kournikova injured her thumb, which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 Wimbledon Championships. However, she won that match, but then withdrew from her semi-finals match against Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Kournikova returned for the Du Maurier Open and made it to the third round, before losing to Conchita Martínez. At the 1998 US Open Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. Her strong year qualified her for the year-end 1998 WTA Tour Championships, but she lost to Monica Seles in the first round. However, with Seles, she won her first WTA doubles title, in Tokyo, beating Mary Joe Fernández and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario in the final. At the end of the season, she was ranked No. 10 in doubles.\n\nAt the start of the 1999 season, Kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles before losing to Mary Pierce. However, Kournikova won her first doubles Grand Slam title, partnering Martina Hingis. The two defeated Lindsay Davenport and Natasha Zvereva in the final. At the Tier I Family Circle Cup, Kournikova reached her second WTA Tour final, but lost to Martina Hingis. She then defeated Jennifer Capriati, Lindsay Davenport and Patty Schnyder on her route to the Bausch & Lomb Championships semi-finals, losing to Ruxandra Dragomir. At The French Open, Kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion Steffi Graf. Once the grass-court season commenced in England, Kournikova lost to Nathalie Tauziat in the semi-finals in Eastbourne. At Wimbledon, Kournikova lost to Venus Williams in the fourth round. She also reached the final in mixed doubles, partnering with Jonas Björkman, but they lost to Leander Paes and Lisa Raymond. Kournikova again qualified for year-end WTA Tour Championships, but lost to Mary Pierce in the first round, and ended the season as World No. 12.\n\nKournikova (left) with doubles partner Martina Hingis\nWhile Kournikova had a successful singles season, she was even more successful in doubles. After their victory at the Australian Open, she and Martina Hingis won tournaments in Indian Wells, Rome, Eastbourne and the WTA Tour Championshiops, and reached the final of The French Open where they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering with Elena Likhovtseva, Kournikova also reached the final in Stanford. On 22 November 1999 she reached the World No. 1 ranking in doubles, and ended the season at this ranking. Anna Kournikova and Martina Hingis were presented with the WTA Award for Doubles Team of the Year.\n\nKournikova opened her 2000 season winning the Gold Coast Open doubles tournament partnering with Julie Halard. She then reached the singles semi-finals at the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Lindsay Davenport. At the 2000 Australian Open, she reached the fourth round in singles and the semi-finals in doubles. That season, Kournikova reached eight semi-finals (Sydney, Scottsdale, Stanford, San Diego, Luxembourg, Leipzig and 2000 WTA Tour Championships), seven quarterfinals (Gold Coast, Tokyo, Amelia Island, Hamburg, Eastbourne, Zürich and Philadelphia) and one final. On 20 November 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time, reaching No. 8. She was also ranked No. 4 in doubles at the end of the season. Kournikova was once again, more successful in doubles. She reached the final of the 2000 US Open in mixed doubles, partnering with Max Mirnyi, but they lost to Jared Palmer and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario. She also won six doubles titles – Gold Coast (with Julie Halard), Hamburg (with Natasha Zvereva), Filderstadt, Zürich, Philadelphia and the 2000 WTA Tour Championships (with Martina Hingis).\n\n=== 2001–2003: Injuries and final years ===\nHer 2001 season was dominated by injury, including a left foot stress fracture which forced her withdrawal from twelve tournaments, including the French Open and Wimbledon. She underwent surgery in April. She reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals, at the Australian Open. Kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until Leipzig. With Barbara Schett, she won the doubles title in Sydney. She then lost in the finals in Tokyo, partnering with Iroda Tulyaganova, and at San Diego, partnering with Martina Hingis. Hingis and Kournikova also won the Kremlin Cup. At the end of the 2001 season, she was ranked No. 74 in singles and No. 26 in doubles.\n\nAt the Medibank International Sydney in 2002\nKournikova was quite successful in 2002. She reached the semi-finals of Auckland, Tokyo, Acapulco and San Diego, and the final of the China Open, losing to Anna Smashnova. This was Kournikova's last singles final. With Martina Hingis, she lost in the final at Sydney, but they won their second grand slam title together, the Australian Open. They also lost in the quarterfinals of the US Open. With Chanda Rubin, Kournikova played the semi-finals of Wimbledon, but they lost to Serena and Venus Williams. Partnering Janet Lee, she won the Shanghai title. At the end of 2002 season, she was ranked No. 35 in singles and No. 11 in doubles.\n\nIn 2003, Anna Kournikova collected her first grand slam match victory in two years at the Australian Open. She defeated Henrieta Nagyová in the 1st round, and then lost to Justine Henin-Hardenne in the 2nd round. She withdrew from Tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the Australian Open and did not return to Tour until Miami. On 9 April, in what would be the final WTA match of her career, Kournikova retired in the 1st round of the Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, due to a left adductor strain. Her singles world ranking was 67. She reached the semi-finals at the ITF tournament in Sea Island, before withdrawing from a match versus Maria Sharapova due to the adductor injury. She lost in the 1st round of the ITF tournament in Charlottesville. She did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury. At the end of the 2003 season and her professional career, she was ranked No. 305 in singles and No. 176 in doubles.\n\nKournikova's two Grand Slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002, both at the Australian Open in the Women's Doubles event with partner Martina Hingis. Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the US Open and at Wimbledon, and reaching the No. 1 ranking in doubles in the Women's Tennis Association tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200–71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 (her career high singles ranking was No.8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one.\n\nHer singles record is 209–129. Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which caused her ranking to erode gradually. As a personality Kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime.\n\n=== 2004–present: Exhibitions and World Team Tennis ===\nKournikova at a USO-sponsored tour at Forward Operating Base Sharana on December 15, 2009\n\nKournikova has not played on the WTA Tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by Elton John and by fellow tennis players Serena Williams and Andy Roddick. In January 2005, she played in a doubles charity event for the Indian Ocean tsunami with John McEnroe, Andy Roddick, and Chris Evert. In November 2005, she teamed up with Martina Hingis, playing against Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur in the WTT finals for charity. Kournikova is also a member of the St. Louis Aces in the World Team Tennis (WTT), playing doubles only.\n\nIn September 2008, Kournikova showed up for the 2008 Nautica Malibu Triathlon held at Zuma Beach in Malibu, California. The Race raised funds for children's Hospital Los Angeles. She won that race for women's K-Swiss team. On 27 September 2008, Kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in Charlotte, North Carolina, partnering with Tim Wilkison and Karel Nováček. Kournikova and Wilkison defeated Jimmy Arias and Chanda Rubin, and then Kournikova and Novacek defeated Rubin and Wilkison.\n\nOn 12 October 2008, Anna Kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event, hosted by Billie Jean King and Elton John, and raised more than $400,000 for the Elton John AIDS Foundation and Atlanta AIDS Partnership Fund. She played doubles with Andy Roddick (they were coached by David Chang) versus Martina Navratilova and Jesse Levine (coached by Billie Jean King); Kournikova and Roddick won.\n\nKournikova competed alongside John McEnroe, Tracy Austin and Jim Courier at the \"Legendary Night\", which was held on 2 May 2009, at the Turning Stone Event Center in Verona, New York. The exhibition included a mixed doubles match of McEnroe and Austin against Courier and Kournikova.\n\nIn 2008, she was named a spokesperson for K-Swiss. In 2005, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.\n\nIn June 2010, Kournikova reunited with her doubles partner Martina Hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the Invitational Ladies Doubles event at Wimbledon. On 29 June 2010 they defeated the British pair Samantha Smith and Anne Hobbs.\n", "Kournikova plays right-handed with a two-handed backhand. She is a great player at the net. She can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots.\n\nHer playing style fits the profile for a doubles player, and is complemented by her height. She has been compared to such doubles specialists as Pam Shriver and Peter Fleming.\n", "Kournikova was in a relationship with fellow Russian Pavel Bure, an NHL ice hockey player. The two met in 1999 when Kournikova was still linked to Bure's former Russian teammate Sergei Fedorov. Bure and Kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a Florida restaurant where Bure supposedly asked Kournikova to marry him. As the story made headlines in Russia, where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities, Bure and Kournikova both denied any engagement. Kournikova, 10 years younger than Bure, was 18 years old at the time.\n\nThe following year, Kournikova and Fedorov were married in Moscow. Fedorov claimed he and Kournikova were married in 2001, and divorced in 2003. Kournikova's representatives deny any marriage to Fedorov; however, Fedorov's agent Pat Brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married, he knew \"Fedorov was married\".\n\nKournikova started dating pop star Enrique Iglesias in late 2001 (she appeared in his video, \"Escape\"). Kournikova has consistently refused to directly confirm or deny the status of her personal relationships. In June 2008, Iglesias was quoted by the ''Daily Star'' as having married Kournikova the previous year and subsequently separated. The couple have invested in a $20 million home to be built on a private island in Miami.\n", "Kournikova preparing to serve in 2002\nMost of Kournikova's fame has come from the publicity surrounding her looks and her personal life. During her debut at the 1996 US Open at the age of 15, the western world noticed her beauty, and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines worldwide.\n\nIn 2000, Kournikova became the new face for Berlei's shock absorber sports bras, and appeared in the \"only the ball should bounce\" billboard campaign. Following that, she was cast by the Farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film ''Me, Myself & Irene'' starring Jim Carrey and Renée Zellweger. Photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications, including men's magazines, such as one in the much-publicized 2004 ''Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue'', where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, as well as in ''FHM'' and ''Maxim''. Kournikova was named one of ''People's'' 50 Most Beautiful People in 1998 and was voted \"hottest female athlete\" on ESPN.com. In 2002 she also placed first in ''FHM's 100 Sexiest Women in the World'' in US and UK editions. By contrast, ESPN—citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player—ranked Kournikova 18th in its \"25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years\". Kournikova was also ranked No. 1 in the ESPN Classic series \"Who's number 1?\" when the series featured sport's most overrated athletes.\n\nShe continued to be the most searched athlete on the Internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier. After slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009, she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010.\n\nIn October 2010, Kournikova headed to NBC's ''The Biggest Loser'' where she led the contestants in a tennis-workout challenge. In May 2011, it was announced that Kournikova would join ''The Biggest Loser'' as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12. She did not return for season 13.\n\nIn November 2010, she became an American citizen. In 2011, ''Men's Health'' named her one of the \"100 Hottest Women of All-Time\", ranking her at No. 29.\n", "* A variation of a White Russian made with skim milk is known as an Anna Kournikova.\n* A video game featuring Kournikova's licensed appearance, titled ''Anna Kournikova's Smash Court Tennis'', was developed by Namco and released for the PlayStation in Japan and Europe in November 1998.\n* A computer virus named after her arose on 12 February 2001 and infected computers worldwide through internet mail.\n", "\n\n* 1996: WTA Newcomer of the Year\n* 1999: WTA Doubles Team of the Year (with Martina Hingis)\n", "* ''Anna Kournikova'' by Susan Holden (2001) ( / )\n* ''Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win)'' by Connie Berman (2001) ( / )\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early life ", " Tennis career ", " Playing style ", " Personal life ", " Media publicity ", " Influences on popular culture ", " Career statistics and awards ", " Books ", " References ", "External links" ]	Anna Kournikova
[ "\n'''Alfons Maria Jakob''' (2 July 1884 in Aschaffenburg/Bavaria – 17 October 1931 in Hamburg) was a German neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology.\n\nHe was born in Aschaffenburg, Bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Strasbourg, where he received his doctorate in 1908. During the following year, he began clinical work under the psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin and did laboratory work with Franz Nissl and Alois Alzheimer in Munich.\n\nIn 1911, by way of an invitation from Wilhelm Weygandt, he relocated to Hamburg, where he worked with Theodor Kaes and eventually became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric State Hospital Hamburg-Friedrichsberg. Following the death of Kaes in 1913, Jakob succeeded him as prosector. During World War I he served as an army physician in Belgium, and afterwards returned to Hamburg. In 1919 he obtained his habilitation for neurology and in 1924 became a professor of neurology. Under Jakob's guidance the department grew rapidly. He made significant contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology.\n\nJakob was the author of five monographs and nearly 80 scientific papers. His neuropathological research contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases, including multiple sclerosis and Friedreich's ataxia. He first recognised and described Alper's disease and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (named along with Munich neuropathologist Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt). He gained experience in neurosyphilis, having a 200-bed ward devoted entirely to that disorder. Jakob made a lecture tour of the United States (1924) and South America (1928), of which, he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever.\n\nHe suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last seven years of his life. This eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation.\n", "* Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease: A very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease. It is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions. Eponym introduced by Walther Spielmeyer in 1922.\n", "* ''Die extrapyramidalen Erkrankungen''. In: ''Monographien aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Neurologie und Psychiatry'', Berlin, 1923\n* ''Normale und pathologische Anatomie und Histologie des Grosshirns''. Separate printing of ''Handbuch der Psychiatry''. Leipzig, 1927–1928\n* ''Das Kleinhirn''. In: ''Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie'', Berlin, 1928\n* ''Die Syphilis des Gehirns und seiner Häute''. In: Oswald Bumke (edit.): ''Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten'', Berlin, 1930.\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Associated eponym", "Bibliography", " References " ]	Alfons Maria Jakob
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Agnosticism''' is the view that the existence of God or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable.\n\nAccording to the philosopher William L. Rowe, \"agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist\". Agnosticism is a doctrine or set of tenets rather than a religion.\n\nEnglish biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the word \"agnostic\" in 1869.\nEarlier thinkers, however, had written works that promoted agnostic points of view, such as Sanjaya Belatthaputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife; and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of \"the gods\". The Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda is agnostic about the origin of the universe.\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBeing a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting objective, testable evidence is not an objective, scientific claim. As such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, of the claim at hand. Karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic. According to philosopher William L. Rowe, in this strict sense, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.\n\nOthers have redefined this concept. George H. Smith, while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word, and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word, promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism (the view of those who do not ''believe'' in the existence of any deity, but do not claim to ''know'' if a deity does or does not exist) and agnostic theism (the view of those who do not claim to ''know'' of the existence of any deity, but still ''believe'' in such an existence).\n\n===Etymology===\n''Agnostic'' () was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge.\n\nEarly Christian church leaders used the Greek word ''gnosis'' (knowledge) to describe \"spiritual knowledge\". Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular; Huxley used the term in a broader, more abstract sense.\nHuxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry.\n\nIn recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean \"not knowable\".\nIn technical and marketing literature, \"agnostic\" can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, \"platform agnostic\"\nor \"hardware agnostic\".\n\n===Qualifying agnosticism===\nScottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt. He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition (e.g. tautologies such as \"all bachelors are unmarried\" or \"all triangles have three corners\").\n\n===Types===\n;Strong agnosticism (also called \"hard\", \"closed\", \"strict\", or \"permanent agnosticism\"): The view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities, and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any experience with anything but another subjective experience. A strong agnostic would say, \"I cannot know whether a deity exists or not, and neither can you.\"\n;Weak agnosticism (also called \"soft\", \"open\", \"empirical\", or \"temporal agnosticism\"): The view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable; therefore, one will withhold judgment until evidence, if any, becomes available. A weak agnostic would say, \"I don't know whether any deities exist or not, but maybe one day, if there is evidence, we can find something out.\"\n;Apathetic agnosticism: The view that no amount of debate can prove or disprove the existence of one or more deities, and if one or more deities exist, they do not appear to be concerned about the fate of humans. Therefore, their existence has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little interest.\n", "\n===Greek philosophy===\nAgnostic thought, in the form of skepticism, emerged as a formal philosophical position in ancient Greece. Its proponents included Protagoras, Pyrrho, Carneades, Sextus Empiricus\nand, to some degree, Socrates, who was a strong advocate for a skeptical approach to epistemology.\n\nPyrrho said that we should refrain from making judgment as we can never know the true reality. According to Pyrrho, having opinion was possible, but certainty and knowledge are impossible.\nCarneades was also a skeptic in relation to all knowledge claims. He proposed a probability theory, however. According to him, certainty could never be attained. Protagoras rejected the conventional accounts of the gods. He said:\n\n\n\n===Hindu philosophy===\n\nThroughout the history of Hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism.\n\nThe Rig Veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created. Nasadiya Sukta (''Creation Hymn'') in the tenth chapter of the Rig Veda says:\n\n\n===Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard===\nAristotle,\nAnselm,\nAquinas,\nand Descartes\npresented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of God. The skeptical empiricism of David Hume, the antinomies of Immanuel Kant, and the existential philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts, regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or non-existence of God.\n\nIn his 1844 book, ''Philosophical Fragments'', Kierkegaard writes:\n\n\nHume was Huxley's favourite philosopher, calling him \"the Prince of Agnostics\". Diderot wrote to his mistress, telling of a visit by Hume to the Baron D'Holbach, and describing how a word for the position that Huxley would later describe as agnosticism didn't seem to exist, or at least wasn't common knowledge, at the time.\n\n\n\n===Thomas Henry Huxley===\nThomas Henry Huxley\nAgnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism, but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the \"unconditioned\" (William Hamilton) and the \"unknowable\" (Herbert Spencer). Though Huxley began to use the term \"agnostic\" in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively:\n\n\nAnd again, to the same correspondent, May 6, 1863:\n\n\nOf the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave the following account:\n\n\nIn 1889, Huxley wrote:Therefore, although it be, as I believe, demonstrable that we have no real knowledge of the authorship, or of the date of composition of the Gospels, as they have come down to us, and that nothing better than more or less probable guesses can be arrived at on that subject.\n\n===William Stewart Ross===\nWilliam Stewart Ross wrote under the name of Saladin. He championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of Charles Bradlaugh as an open-ended spiritual exploration.\nIn ''Why I am an Agnostic'' (c. 1889) he claims that agnosticism is \"the very reverse of atheism\".\n\n===Robert G. Ingersoll===\nRobert G. Ingersoll\nRobert G. Ingersoll, an Illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a well-known and sought-after orator in 19th-century America, has been referred to as the \"Great Agnostic\".\n\nIn an 1896 lecture titled ''Why I Am An Agnostic'', Ingersoll related why he was an agnostic:\n\n\nIn the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as:\n\n\n\n\n===Bertrand Russell===\nBertrand Russell\nBertrand Russell's pamphlet, ''Why I Am Not a Christian'', based on a speech delivered in 1927 and later included in a book of the same title, is considered a classic statement of agnosticism.\nHe calls upon his readers to \"stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence\".\n\nIn 1939, Russell gave a lecture on ''The existence and nature of God'', in which he characterized himself as an atheist. He said:\n\n\nHowever, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states:\n\n\nIn Russell's 1947 pamphlet, ''Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic?'' (subtitled ''A Plea For Tolerance in the Face of New Dogmas''), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself:\n\n\nIn his 1953 essay, ''What Is An Agnostic?'' Russell states:\n\n\nLater in the essay, Russell adds:\n\n\n===Leslie Weatherhead===\n\n\nIn 1965 Christian theologian Leslie Weatherhead published ''The Christian Agnostic'', in which he argues:\n\n\nAlthough radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians, Weatherhead's ''agnosticism'' falls far short of Huxley's, and short even of ''weak agnosticism'':\n\n\n===Charles Darwin===\n Charles Darwin\n\nRaised in a religious environment, Charles Darwin studied to be an Anglican clergyman. While eventually doubting parts of his faith, Darwin continued to help in church affairs, even while avoiding church attendance. Darwin stated that it would be \"absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist\". Although reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that \"I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind.\"\n", "Percentage of people in various European countries who said: \"I don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force.\" (2005)\n\nDemographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non-religious respondents, so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non-religious people.\n\nA 2010 survey published in ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' found that the non-religious people or the agnostics made up about 9.6% of the world's population.\nA November–December 2006 poll published in the ''Financial Times'' gives rates for the United States and five European countries. The rates of agnosticism in the United States were at 14%, while the rates of agnosticism in the European countries surveyed were considerably higher: Italy (20%), Spain (30%), Great Britain (35%), Germany (25%), and France (32%).\n\nA study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that about 16% of the world's people, the third largest group after Christianity and Islam, have no religious affiliation.\nAccording to a 2012 report by the Pew Research Center, agnostics made up 3.3% of the US adult population.\nIn the ''U.S. Religious Landscape Survey'', conducted by the Pew Research Center, 55% of agnostic respondents expressed \"a belief in God or a universal spirit\",\nwhereas 41% stated that they thought that they felt a tension \"being non-religious in a society where most people are religious\".\n\nProportion of atheists and agnostics around the world\nAccording to the 2011 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 22% of Australians have \"no religion\", a category that includes agnostics.\nBetween 64% and 65%\nof Japanese and up to 81%\nof Vietnamese are atheists, agnostics, or do not believe in a god. An official European Union survey reported that 3% of the EU population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit.\n", "Agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints. Some religious thinkers see agnosticism as limiting the mind's capacity to know reality to materialism. Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label.\n\n===Theistic===\nTheistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice, since a person can live only either as if God did not exist (''etsi deus non-daretur''), or as if God did exist (''etsi deus daretur'').\n\nReligious scholars such as Laurence B. Brown criticize the misuse of the word agnosticism, claiming that it has become one of the most misapplied terms in metaphysics. Brown raises the question, \"You claim that nothing can be known with certainty ... how, then, can you be so sure?\"\n\n====Christian====\nAccording to Pope Benedict XVI, strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth. He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters.\n\"Agnosticism\", said Ratzinger, \"is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man ... The knowledge of God has always existed\". He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort, pride, dominion, and utility over truth, and is opposed by the following attitudes: the keenest self-criticism, humble listening to the whole of existence, the persistent patience and self-correction of the scientific method, a readiness to be purified by the truth.\n\nThe Catholic Church sees merit in examining what it calls \"partial agnosticism\", specifically those systems that \"do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable, but at excluding special kinds of truth, notably religious, from the domain of knowledge\". However, the Church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know God. The Council of the Vatican declares, \"God, the beginning and end of all, can, by the natural light of human reason, be known with certainty from the works of creation\".\n\nBlaise Pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for God, agnostics should consider what is now known as Pascal's Wager: the infinite expected value of acknowledging God is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence, and thus it is a safer \"bet\" to choose God.\n\nPeter Kreeft and Ronald Tacelli cited 20 arguments for God's existence, asserting that any demand for evidence testable in a laboratory is in effect asking God, the supreme being, to become man's servant.\n\n===Atheistic===\nAccording to Richard Dawkins, a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god-like entity. About himself, Dawkins continues, \"I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden.\" Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics; \"Temporary Agnostics in Practice\" (TAPs), and \"Permanent Agnostics in Principle\" (PAPs). He states that \"agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in the temporary or TAP category. Either he exists or he doesn't. It is a scientific question; one day we may know the answer, and meanwhile we can say something pretty strong about the probability.\", and considers PAP a \"deeply inescapable kind of fence-sitting\".\n", "Ignosticism is the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed. If the chosen definition is not coherent, the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable.\n\nA.J. Ayer, Theodore Drange, and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept \"a deity exists\" as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against.\n", "\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Bibliography'''\n\n* \n* Richard Dawkins, \"The poverty of agnosticism\", in ''The God Delusion'', Black Swan, 2007 ().\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* Albert Einstein on Religion Shapell Manuscript Foundation\n* Why I Am An Agnostic by Robert G. Ingersoll, 1896.\n* '' Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': Agnosticism\n* Agnosticism from INTERS – Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science\n* Agnosticism – from ReligiousTolerance.org\n* What do Agnostics Believe? – A Jewish perspective\n* Fides et Ratio '' – the relationship between faith and reason'' Karol Wojtyla 1998\n* For a utilitarian analysis of religion, see ''The (F)Utility of Religion: Who Needs God(s)?–A Prospective Bible for Non-Believers'' at http://bradmusil.kramernet.org\n* The Natural Religion by Dr Brendan Connolly, 2008\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Defining agnosticism", "History", "Demographics", "Criticism", "Related concepts", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Agnosticism
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Argon''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Ar''' and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earth's atmosphere, at 0.934% (9340 ppmv). It is more than twice as abundant as water vapor (which averages about 4000 ppmv, but varies greatly), 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide (400 ppmv), and more than 500 times as abundant as neon (18 ppmv). Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earth's crust, comprising 0.00015% of the crust.\n\nNearly all of the argon in Earth's atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in the Earth's crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, being the preferred argon isotope produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas.\n\nThe name \"argon\" is derived from the Greek word , neuter singular form of meaning \"lazy\" or \"inactive\", as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet (eight electrons) in the outer atomic shell makes argon stable and resistant to bonding with other elements. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990.\n\nArgon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air. Argon is mostly used as an inert shielding gas in welding and other high-temperature industrial processes where ordinarily unreactive substances become reactive; for example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning. Argon is also used in incandescent, fluorescent lighting, and other gas-discharge tubes. Argon makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser. Argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters.\n", "A small piece of rapidly melting solid argon\nArgon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas. Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature.\n\nAlthough argon is a noble gas, it can form some compounds under extreme conditions. Argon fluorohydride (HArF), a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below , has been demonstrated. Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of argon are trapped in a lattice of water molecules. Ions, such as , and excited-state complexes, such as ArF, have been demonstrated. Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized.\n", "Lord Rayleigh's method for the isolation of argon, based on an experiment of Henry Cavendish's. The gases are contained in a test-tube (A) standing over a large quantity of weak alkali (B), and the current is conveyed in wires insulated by U-shaped glass tubes (CC) passing through the liquid and round the mouth of the test-tube. The inner platinum ends (DD) of the wire receive a current from a battery of five Grove cells and a Ruhmkorff coil of medium size.\n''Argon'' (, neuter singular form of , meaning \"inactive\", in reference to its chemical inactivity) was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785. Argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen from a sample of clean air. They had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 0.5% lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference was slight, but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months. They concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen. Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall and W. N. Hartley. Each observed new lines in the emission spectrum of air that did not match known elements. Argon was the first noble gas to be discovered. Until 1957, the symbol for argon was \"A\", but now is \"Ar\".\n", "Argon constitutes 0.934% by volume and 1.288% by mass of the Earth's atmosphere, and air is the primary industrial source of purified argon products. Argon is isolated from air by fractionation, most commonly by cryogenic fractional distillation, a process that also produces purified nitrogen, oxygen, neon, krypton and xenon. The Earth's crust and seawater contain 1.2 ppm and 0.45 ppm of argon, respectively.\n", "\n\nThe main isotopes of argon found on Earth are (99.6%), (0.34%), and (0.06%). Naturally occurring , with a half-life of 1.25 years, decays to stable (11.2%) by electron capture or positron emission, and also to stable (88.8%) by beta decay. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by K–Ar dating.\n\nIn the Earth's atmosphere, is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily by neutron capture of followed by two-neutron emission. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron capture by , followed by proton emission. is created from the neutron capture by followed by an alpha particle emission as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days.\n\nBetween locations in the Solar System, the isotopic composition of argon varies greatly. Where the major source of argon is the decay of in rocks, will be the dominant isotope, as it is on Earth. Argon produced directly by stellar nucleosynthesis, is dominated by the alpha-process nuclide . Correspondingly, solar argon contains 84.6% (according to solar wind measurements), and the ratio of the three isotopes 36Ar : 38Ar : 40Ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is 8400 : 1600 : 1. This contrasts with the low abundance of primordial in Earth's atmosphere, which is only 31.5 ppmv (= 9340 ppmv × 0.337%), comparable with that of neon (18.18 ppmv) on Earth and with interplanetary gasses, measured by probes.\n\nThe atmospheres of Mars, Mercury and Titan (the largest moon of Saturn) contain argon, predominantly as , and its content may be as high as 1.93% (Mars).\n\nThe predominance of radiogenic is the reason the standard atomic weight of terrestrial argon is greater than that of the next element, potassium, a fact that was puzzling when argon was discovered. Mendeleev positioned the elements on his periodic table in order of atomic weight, but the inertness of argon suggested a placement ''before'' the reactive alkali metal. Henry Moseley later solved this problem by showing that the periodic table is actually arranged in order of atomic number (see History of the periodic table).\n", "\nSpace-filling model of argon fluorohydride\nArgon's complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells. This full valence shell makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements. Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and unable to form compounds; however, compounds of the heavier noble gases have since been synthesized. The first argon compound with tungsten pentacarbonyl, W(CO)5Ar, was isolated in 1975. However it was not widely recognised at that time. In August 2000, another argon compound, argon fluorohydride (HArF), was formed by researchers at the University of Helsinki, by shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride with caesium iodide. This discovery caused the recognition that argon could form weakly bound compounds, even though it was not the first. It is stable up to 17 kelvins (−256 °C). The metastable dication, which is valence-isoelectronic with carbonyl fluoride and phosgene, was observed in 2010. Argon-36, in the form of argon hydride (argonium) ions, has been detected in interstellar medium associated with the Crab Nebula supernova; this was the first noble-gas molecule detected in outer space.\n\nSolid argon hydride (Ar(H2)2) has the same crystal structure as the MgZn2 Laves phase. It forms at pressures between 4.3 and 220 GPa, though Raman measurements suggest that the H2 molecules in Ar(H2)2 dissociate above 175 GPa.\n", "\n===Industrial===\nArgon is produced industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air in a cryogenic air separation unit; a process that separates liquid nitrogen, which boils at 77.3 K, from argon, which boils at 87.3 K, and liquid oxygen, which boils at 90.2 K. About 700,000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year.\n\n===In radioactive decays===\n40Ar, the most abundant isotope of argon, is produced by the decay of 40K with a half-life of 1.25 years by electron capture or positron emission. Because of this, it is used in potassium–argon dating to determine the age of rocks.\n", "Cylinders containing argon gas for use in extinguishing fire without damaging server equipment\n\nArgon has several desirable properties:\n* Argon is a chemically inert gas.\n* Argon is the cheapest alternative when nitrogen is not sufficiently inert.\n* Argon has low thermal conductivity.\n* Argon has electronic properties (ionization and/or the emission spectrum) desirable for some applications.\n\nOther noble gases would be equally suitable for most of these applications, but argon is by far the cheapest. Argon is inexpensive, since it occurs naturally in air and is readily obtained as a byproduct of cryogenic air separation in the production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen: the primary constituents of air are used on a large industrial scale. The other noble gases (except helium) are produced this way as well, but argon is the most plentiful by far. The bulk of argon applications arise simply because it is inert and relatively cheap.\n\n===Industrial processes===\nArgon is used in some high-temperature industrial processes where ordinarily non-reactive substances become reactive. For example, an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning.\n\nFor some of these processes, the presence of nitrogen or oxygen gases might cause defects within the material. Argon is used in some types of arc welding such as gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, as well as in the processing of titanium and other reactive elements. An argon atmosphere is also used for growing crystals of silicon and germanium.\n\n\nArgon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds, either for mass culling following disease outbreaks, or as a means of slaughter more humane than the electric bath. Argon is denser than air and displaces oxygen close to the ground during gassing. Its non-reactive nature makes it suitable in a food product, and since it replaces oxygen within the dead bird, argon also enhances shelf life.\n\nArgon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where valuable equipment may be damaged by water or foam.\n\n===Scientific research===\nLiquid argon is used as the target for neutrino experiments and direct dark matter searches. The interaction between the hypothetical WIMPs and an argon nucleus produces scintillation light that is detected by photomultiplier tubes. Two-phase detectors containing argon gas are used to detect the ionized electrons produced during the WIMP–nucleus scattering. As with most other liquefied noble gases, argon has a high scintillation light yield (about 51 photons/keV), is transparent to its own scintillation light, and is relatively easy to purify. Compared to xenon, argon is cheaper and has a distinct scintillation time profile, which allows the separation of electronic recoils from nuclear recoils. On the other hand, its intrinsic beta-ray background is larger due to contamination, unless one uses argon from underground sources, which has much less contamination. Most of the argon in the Earth’s atmosphere was produced by electron capture of long-lived ( + e− → + ν) present in natural potassium within the Earth. The activity in the atmosphere is maintained by cosmogenic production through the knockout reaction (n,2n) and similar reactions. The half-life of is only 269 years. As a result, the underground Ar, shielded by rock and water, has much less contamination. Dark-matter detectors currently operating with liquid argon include DarkSide, WArP, ArDM, microCLEAN and DEAP. Neutrino experiments include ICARUS and MicroBooNE, both of which use high-purity liquid argon in a time projection chamber for fine grained three-dimensional imaging of neutrino interactions.\n\n===Preservative===\n\nA sample of caesium is packed under argon to avoid reactions with air\nArgon is used to displace oxygen- and moisture-containing air in packaging material to extend the shelf-lives of the contents (argon has the European food additive code E938). Aerial oxidation, hydrolysis, and other chemical reactions that degrade the products are retarded or prevented entirely. High-purity chemicals and pharmaceuticals are sometimes packed and sealed in argon.\n\nIn winemaking, argon is used in a variety of activities to provide a barrier against oxygen at the liquid surface, which can spoil wine by fueling both microbial metabolism (as with acetic acid bacteria) and standard redox chemistry.\n\nArgon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans for such products as varnish, polyurethane, and paint, and to displace air when preparing a container for storage after opening.\n\nSince 2002, the American National Archives stores important national documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution within argon-filled cases to inhibit their degradation. Argon is preferable to the helium that had been used in the preceding five decades, because helium gas escapes through the intermolecular pores in most containers and must be regularly replaced.\n\n===Laboratory equipment===\nGloveboxes are often filled with argon, which recirculates over scrubbers to maintain an oxygen-, nitrogen-, and moisture-free atmosphere\n\n\nArgon may be used as the inert gas within Schlenk lines and gloveboxes. Argon is preferred to less expensive nitrogen in cases where nitrogen may react with the reagents or apparatus.\n\nArgon may be used as the carrier gas in gas chromatography and in electrospray ionization mass spectrometry; it is the gas of choice for the plasma used in ICP spectroscopy. Argon is preferred for the sputter coating of specimens for scanning electron microscopy. Argon gas is also commonly used for sputter deposition of thin films as in microelectronics and for wafer cleaning in microfabrication.\n\n===Medical use===\nCryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquid argon to destroy tissue such as cancer cells. It is used in a procedure called \"argon-enhanced coagulation\", a form of argon plasma beam electrosurgery. The procedure carries a risk of producing gas embolism and has resulted in the death of at least one patient.\n\nBlue argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries, destroy tumors, and correct eye defects.\n\nArgon has also been used experimentally to replace nitrogen in the breathing or decompression mix known as Argox, to speed the elimination of dissolved nitrogen from the blood.\n\n===Lighting===\nArgon gas-discharge lamp forming the symbol for argon \"Ar\"\n\nIncandescent lights are filled with argon, to preserve the filaments at high temperature from oxidation. It is used for the specific way it ionizes and emits light, such as in plasma globes and calorimetry in experimental particle physics. Gas-discharge lamps filled with pure argon provide lilac/violet light; with argon and some mercury, blue light. Argon is also used for blue and green argon-ion lasers.\n\n===Miscellaneous uses===\nArgon is used for thermal insulation in energy-efficient windows. Argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate a dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.\n\nArgon is used as a propellant in the development of the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR). Compressed argon gas is allowed to expand, to cool the seeker heads of some versions of the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile and other missiles that use cooled thermal seeker heads. The gas is stored at high pressure.\n\nArgon-39, with a half-life of 269 years, has been used for a number of applications, primarily ice core and ground water dating. Also, potassium–argon dating is used to date igneous rocks.\n\nArgon has been used by athletes as a doping agent to simulate hypoxic conditions. In 2014, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) added argon and xenon to the list of prohibited substances and methods, although at this time there is no reliable test for abuse.\n", "Although argon is non-toxic, it is 38% denser than air and therefore considered a dangerous asphyxiant in closed areas. It is difficult to detect because it is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. A 1994 incident, in which a man was asphyxiated after entering an argon-filled section of oil pipe under construction in Alaska, highlights the dangers of argon tank leakage in confined spaces and emphasizes the need for proper use, storage and handling.\n", "Industrial gas\nOxygen–argon ratio, a ratio of two physically similar gases, which has importance in various sectors.\n\n", "\n", "* \n* Triple point temperature: 83.8058 K – \n* Triple point pressure: 69 kPa – \n", "* Argon at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* USGS Periodic Table – Argon\n* Diving applications: Why Argon?\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "History", " Occurrence ", " Isotopes ", "Compounds", "Production", "Applications", "Safety", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Argon
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arsenic''' is a chemical element with symbol '''As''' and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, but only the gray form is important to industry.\n\nThe primary use of metallic arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition). Arsenic is a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices, and the optoelectronic compound gallium arsenide is the second most commonly used semiconductor after doped silicon. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides, treated wood products, herbicides, and insecticides. These applications are declining, however.\n\nA few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of arsenic are an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, chickens, and presumably many other species, including humans. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world.\n", "\n=== Physical characteristics ===\nSb, AsSb and gray As\n\nThe three most common arsenic allotropes are metallic gray, yellow, and black arsenic, with gray being the most common. Gray arsenic (α-As, space group Rm No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, gray arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm3. Gray arsenic is a semimetal, but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–1.4 eV if amorphized. Gray arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus (). Both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, . It is rapidly transformed into gray arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm3. Black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus.\nBlack arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220 °C. It is glassy and brittle. It is also a poor electrical conductor.\n\n=== Isotopes ===\n\n\nArsenic occurs in nature as a monoisotopic element, composed of one stable isotope, 75As. As of 2003, at least 33 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 60 to 92. The most stable of these is 73As with a half-life of 80.30 days. All other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exception of 71As (''t''1/2=65.30 hours), 72As (''t''1/2=26.0 hours), 74As (''t''1/2=17.77 days), 76As (''t''1/2=1.0942 days), and 77As (''t''1/2=38.83 hours). Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 75As tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay, with some exceptions.\n\nAt least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is 68mAs with a half-life of 111 seconds.\n\n=== Chemistry ===\n\nArsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter congener phosphorus and as such readily forms covalent molecules with most of the nonmetals. Though stable in dry air, arsenic forms a golden-bronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer. When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. It burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide, which have the same structure as the more well-known phosphorus compounds, and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride. Arsenic (and some arsenic compounds) sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure, converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at . The triple point is 3.63 MPa and . Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid, arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid, and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid; however, it does not react with water, alkalis, or non-oxidising acids. Arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides, though these are not ionic compounds containing the As3− ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds. Like germanium, selenium, and bromine, which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series, arsenic is much less stable in the group oxidation state of +5 than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony, and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers.\n", "\n\nCompounds of arsenic resemble in some respects those of phosphorus which occupies the same group (column) of the periodic table. The most common oxidation states for arsenic are: −3 in the arsenides, which are alloy-like intermetallic compounds, +3 in the arsenites, and +5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square As ions in the mineral skutterudite. In the +3 oxidation state, arsenic is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons.\n\n=== Inorganic compounds ===\n\nOne of the simplest arsenic compound is the trihydride, the highly toxic, flammable, pyrophoric arsine (AsH3). This compound is generally regarded as stable, since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of 250–300 °C decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid. Several factors, such as humidity, presence of light and certain catalysts (namely aluminium) facilitate the rate of decomposition. It oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water, and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen.\n\nArsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides As2O3 (\"white arsenic\") and As2O5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid and the salts are called arsenates, the most common arsenic contamination of groundwater, and a problem that affects many people. Synthetic arsenates include Scheele's Green (cupric hydrogen arsenate, acidic copper arsenate), calcium arsenate, and lead hydrogen arsenate. These three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons.\n\nThe protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid. Unlike phosphorous acid, arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH)3.\n\nA broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment (As2S3) and realgar (As4S4) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments. In As4S10, arsenic has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As4S4 which features As-As bonds so that the total covalency of As is still 3. Both orpiment and realgar, as well as As4S3, have selenium analogs; the analogous As2Te3 is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite, and the anion As2Te− is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes.\n\nAll trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide, which is unknown. Arsenic pentafluoride (AsF5) is the only important pentahalide, reflecting the lower stability of the +5 oxidation state; even so, it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent. (The pentachloride is stable only below −50 °C, at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride, releasing chlorine gas.)\n\n==== Alloys ====\n\nArsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V semiconductors gallium arsenide, indium arsenide, and aluminium arsenide. The valence electron count of GaAs is the same as a pair of Si atoms, but the band structure is completely different which results distinct bulk properties. Other arsenic alloys include the II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide.\n\n=== Organoarsenic compounds ===\n\nTrimethylarsine\n\nA large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known. Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite. Cacodylic acid, which is of historic and practical interest, arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry. Indeed, cacodyl was the first organometallic compound known, and was named from the Greek ''κακωδἰα'' \"stink\" for its offensive odor; like all arsenic compounds, it is very poisonous.\n\n", "\nA large sample of native arsenic\n\nArsenic comprises about 1.5 ppm (0.00015%) of the Earth's crust, and is the 53rd most abundant element.\n\nMinerals with the formula MAsS and MAs2 (M = Fe, Ni, Co) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is structurally related to iron pyrite. Many minor As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment.\n\nArsenic output in 2006\n\nIn 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey. Most arsenic refinement operations in the US and Europe have closed over environmental concerns. Arsenic is found of the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters, and is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust.\n\nOn roasting arsenopyrite in air, arsenic sublimes as arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides, while roasting without air results in the production of metallic arsenic. Further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture.\n\n\n\n Rank !! Country !! 2014 As2O3 Production\n\n 1 \n \n 25,000 T\n\n 2 \n \n 8,800 T\n\n 3 \n \n 1,500 T\n\n 4 \n \n 1,000 T\n\n 5 \n \n 52 T\n\n 6 \n \n 45 T\n\n — \n '''World Total (rounded)''' \n '''36,400 T'''\n\n", "Realgar\nAlchemical symbol for arsenic\n\nThe word ''arsenic'' has its origin in the Syriac word ''(al) zarniqa'', from the Persian word ''zarnikh'', meaning \"yellow\" (literally \"gold-colored\") and hence \"(yellow) orpiment\". It was adopted into Greek as ''arsenikon'' (), a form that is folk etymology, being the neuter form of the Greek word ''arsenikos'' (), meaning \"male\", \"virile\". The Greek word was adopted in Latin as ''arsenicum'', which in French became ''arsenic'', from which the English word arsenic is taken. Arsenic sulfides (orpiment, realgar) and oxides have been known and used since ancient times. Zosimos (circa 300 AD) describes roasting ''sandarach'' (realgar) to obtain ''cloud of arsenic'' (arsenic trioxide), which he then reduces to metallic arsenic. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the \"poison of kings\" and the \"king of poisons\".\n\nThe arsenic labyrinth, part of Botallack Mine, Cornwall.\n\nDuring the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in bronze, which made the alloy harder (so-called \"arsenical bronze\").\nAlbertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) is believed to have been the first to isolate the element from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide. In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature, although rare.\n\nCadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), often claimed as the first synthetic organometallic compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt by the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide.\n\nSatirical cartoon by Honoré Daumier of a chemist giving a public demonstration of arsenic, 1841\n\nIn the Victorian era, \"arsenic\" (\"white arsenic\" or arsenic trioxide) was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to \"improve their complexion\". The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in around 20 deaths.\n\nTwo arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery – Paris Green and Scheele's Green. After the toxicity of arsenic became widely known, these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic byproduct of dye production, London Purple was widely used. This was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime, and ferrous oxide, insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion But it was later replaced with Paris Green, another arsenic-based dye. With better understanding of the toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s. Arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of DDT in 1942.\n", "\n=== Agricultural ===\nRoxarsone is a controversial arsenic compound used as a feed ingredient for chickens.\n\nThe toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as a wood preservative. In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate (also known as CCA or Tanalith) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States. However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations).\n\nArsenic was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees, but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming.\n\nThe biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite () is more soluble than arsenate () and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity.\n\nArsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production, in particular in the U.S. to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency, and to prevent disease. An example is roxarsone, which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers. The Poison-Free Poultry Act of 2009 proposed to ban the use of roxarsone in industrial swine and poultry production. Alpharma, a subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens. A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis, continues to sell nitarsone, primarily for use in turkeys.\n\nArsenic is intentionally added to the feed of chickens raised for human consumption. Organic arsenic compounds are less toxic than pure arsenic, and promote the growth of chickens. Under some conditions, the arsenic in chicken feed is converted to the toxic inorganic form.\n\nA 2006 study of the remains of the Australian racehorse, Phar Lap, determined that the 1932 death of the famous champion was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, \"In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution (Fowler's Solution) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system.\"\n\n=== Medical use ===\n\nDuring the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler). Arsphenamine, as well as neosalvarsan, was indicated for syphilis and trypanosomiasis, but has been superseded by modern antibiotics.\n\nArsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 500 years, most commonly in the treatment of cancer, but in medications as diverse as Fowler's solution in psoriasis. The US Food and Drug Administration in the year 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid.\n\nRecently, researchers have been locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer PET scan images than the previous radioactive agent, iodine-124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise.\n\nIn subtoxic doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants, and were once popular in small doses as medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries.\n\n=== Alloys ===\n\nThe main use of metallic arsenic is in alloying with lead. Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic. Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic. \"Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper\" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits. Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from silicon. Unlike silicon, GaAs has a direct bandgap, and can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to convert electrical energy directly into light.\n\n=== Military ===\n\nAfter World War I, the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tonnes of weaponized lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl2), a vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s. During the Vietnam War, the United States used Agent Blue, a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice.\n\n=== Other uses ===\n* Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many names, including Paris Green and Emerald Green. It caused numerous arsenic poisonings. Scheele's Green, a copper arsenate, was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets.\n* Arsenic is used in bronzing and pyrotechnics\n* As much as 2% of produced arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shot and bullets.\n* Arsenic is added in small quantities to alpha-brass to make it dezincification-resistant. This grade of brass is used in plumbing fittings and other wet environments.\n* Arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation.\n* Until recently, arsenic was used in optical glass. Modern glass manufacturers, under pressure from environmentalists, have ceased using both arsenic and lead.\n", "\n\n=== Bacteria ===\nArsenobetaine\n\nSome species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria oxidize arsenite to arsenate as fuel for their metabolism. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr).\n\nIn 2000, bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors, producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). This may be classified as chemolithoautotrophic arsenite oxidation, for which oxygen is used as the terminal electron acceptor, arsenite is the electron donor, and carbon dioxide is the carbon source. Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain PHS-1 has been isolated and is related to the gammaproteobacterium ''Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii''. The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues.\n\nAlthough the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally, no evidence exists for the replacement of phosphate in ATP or nucleic acids by arsenic.\n", "\nSome evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in birds (chickens), and in mammals (rats, hamsters, and goats). However, the biological function is not known.\n\n=== Heredity ===\n\nArsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes, heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence. These include DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA interference. Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53, thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis. These epigenetic events have been studied ''in vitro'' using human kidney cells and ''in vivo'' using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of DNA. Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility.\n\nThe Chinese brake fern (''Pteris vittata'') hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation.\n\n=== Biomethylation ===\n\nInorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the food chain, are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation. For example, the mold ''Scopulariopsis brevicaulis'' produces significant amounts of trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present. The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50 µg/day. Values about 1000 µg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms, but there is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic.\n", "\n=== Exposure ===\n\nNaturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash, weathering of minerals and ores, and mineralized groundwater. Arsenic is also found in food, water, soil, and air. Arsenic is absorbed by all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables, rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood. An additional route of exposure is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts.\n\n=== Occurrence in drinking water ===\n\n\nExtensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and neighboring countries. It is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the Bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization's standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb). However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater, caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater was used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia, have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand in 1987, and the Chao Phraya River probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of the public uses bottled water. In Pakistan, more than 60 million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a recent report of Science (journal). Podgorski’s team investigated more than 1200 samples and more than 66% samples exceeded the WHO minimum contamination level. \n\nIn the United States, arsenic is most commonly found in the ground waters of the southwest. Parts of New England, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Dakotas are also known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water. Increased levels of skin cancer have been associated with arsenic exposure in Wisconsin, even at levels below the 10 part per billion drinking water standard. According to a recent film funded by the US Superfund, millions of private wells have unknown arsenic levels, and in some areas of the US, more than 20% of the wells may contain levels that exceed established limits.\n\nLow-level exposure to arsenic at concentrations of 100 parts per billion (i.e., above the 10 parts per billion drinking water standard) compromises the initial immune response to H1N1 or swine flu infection according to NIEHS-supported scientists. The study, conducted in laboratory mice, suggests that people exposed to arsenic in their drinking water may be at increased risk for more serious illness or death from the virus.\n\nSome Canadians are drinking water that contains inorganic arsenic. Private-dug–well waters are most at risk for containing inorganic arsenic. Preliminary well water analysis typically does not test for arsenic. Researchers at the Geological Survey of Canada have modeled relative variation in natural arsenic hazard potential for the province of New Brunswick. This study has important implications for potable water and health concerns relating to inorganic arsenic.\n\nEpidemiological evidence from Chile shows a dose-dependent connection between chronic arsenic exposure and various forms of cancer, in particular when other risk factors, such as cigarette smoking, are present. These effects have been demonstrated at contaminations less than 50 ppb. Arsenic is itself a constituent of tobacco smoke.\n\nAnalyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable increase in risk for bladder cancer at 10 ppb. According to Peter Ravenscroft of the Department of Geography at the University of Cambridge, roughly 80 million people worldwide consume between 10 and 50 ppb arsenic in their drinking water. If they all consumed exactly 10 ppb arsenic in their drinking water, the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict an additional 2,000 cases of bladder cancer alone. This represents a clear underestimate of the overall impact, since it does not include lung or skin cancer, and explicitly underestimates the exposure. Those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current WHO standard should weigh the costs and benefits of arsenic remediation.\n\n\nEarly (1973) evaluations of the processes for removing dissolved arsenic from drinking water demonstrated the efficacy of co-precipitation with either iron or aluminum oxides. In particular, iron as a coagulant was found to remove arsenic with an efficacy exceeding 90%. Several adsorptive media systems have been approved for use at point-of-service in a study funded by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). A team of European and Indian scientists and engineers have set up six arsenic treatment plants in West Bengal based on in-situ remediation method (SAR Technology). This technology does not use any chemicals and arsenic is left in an insoluble form (+5 state) in the subterranean zone by recharging aerated water into the aquifer and developing an oxidation zone that supports arsenic oxidizing micro-organisms. This process does not produce any waste stream or sludge and is relatively cheap.\n\nAnother effective and inexpensive method to avoid arsenic contamination is to sink wells 500 feet or deeper to reach purer waters. A recent 2011 study funded by the US National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences' Superfund Research Program shows that deep sediments can remove arsenic and take it out of circulation. In this process, called ''adsorption'', arsenic sticks to the surfaces of deep sediment particles and is naturally removed from the ground water.\n\nMagnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic field gradients with high-surface-area and monodisperse magnetite (Fe3O4) nanocrystals have been demonstrated in point-of-use water purification. Using the high specific surface area of Fe3O4 nanocrystals, the mass of waste associated with arsenic removal from water has been dramatically reduced.\n\nEpidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between chronic consumption of drinking water contaminated with arsenic and the incidence of all leading causes of mortality. The literature indicates that arsenic exposure is causative in the pathogenesis of diabetes.\n\nChaff-based filters have recently been shown to reduce the arsenic content of water to 3 µg/L. This may find applications in areas where the potable water is extracted from underground aquifers.\n\n==== San Pedro de Atacama ====\n\nFor several centuries, the people of San Pedro de Atacama in Chile have been drinking water that is contaminated with arsenic, and some evidence suggests they have developed some immunity.\n\n==== Hazard maps for contaminated groundwater ====\nAround one-third of the world’s population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10 percent, approximately 300 million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are contaminated with unhealthy levels of arsenic or fluoride. These trace elements derive mainly from minerals.\n\n=== Redox transformation of arsenic in natural waters ===\n\nArsenic is unique among the trace metalloids and oxyanion-forming trace metals (e.g. As, Se, Sb, Mo, V, Cr, U, Re). It is sensitive to mobilization at pH values typical of natural waters (pH 6.5–8.5) under both oxidizing and reducing conditions. Arsenic can occur in the environment in several oxidation states (−3, 0, +3 and +5), but in natural waters it is mostly found in inorganic forms as oxyanions of trivalent arsenite As(III) or pentavalent arsenate As(V). Organic forms of arsenic are produced by biological activity, mostly in surface waters, but are rarely quantitatively important. Organic arsenic compounds may, however, occur where waters are signiﬁcantly impacted by industrial pollution.\n\nArsenic may be solubilized by various processes. When pH is high, arsenic may be released from surface binding sites that lose their positive charge. When water level drops and sulfide minerals are exposed to air, arsenic trapped in sulfide minerals can be released into water. When organic carbon is present in water, bacteria are fed by directly reducing As(V) to As(III) or by reducing the element at the binding site, releasing inorganic arsenic.\n\nThe aquatic transformations of arsenic are affected by pH, reduction-oxidation potential, organic matter concentration and the concentrations and forms of other elements, especially iron and manganese. The main factors are pH and the redox potential. Generally, the main forms of arsenic under oxic conditions are H3AsO4, H2AsO4−, HAsO42−, and AsO43− at pH 2, 2–7, 7–11 and 11, respectively. Under reducing conditions, H3AsO4 is predominant at pH 2–9.\n\nOxidation and reduction affects the migration of arsenic in subsurface environments. Arsenite is the most stable soluble form of arsenic in reducing environments and arsenate, which is less mobile than arsenite, is dominant in oxidizing environments at neutral pH. Therefore, arsenic may be more mobile under reducing conditions. The reducing environment is also rich in organic matter which may enhance the solubility of arsenic compounds. As a result, the adsorption of arsenic is reduced and dissolved arsenic accumulates in groundwater. That is why the arsenic content is higher in reducing environments than in oxidizing environments.\n\nThe presence of sulfur is another factor that affects the transformation of arsenic in natural water. Arsenic can precipitate when metal sulfides form. In this way, arsenic is removed from the water and its mobility decreases. When oxygen is present, bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur to generate energy, potentially releasing bound arsenic.\n\nRedox reactions involving Fe also appear to be essential factors in the fate of arsenic in aquatic systems. The reduction of iron oxyhydroxides plays a key role in the release of arsenic to water. So arsenic can be enriched in water with elevated Fe concentrations. Under oxidizing conditions, arsenic can be mobilized from pyrite or iron oxides especially at elevated pH. Under reducing conditions, arsenic can be mobilized by reductive desorption or dissolution when associated with iron oxides. The reductive desorption occurs under two circumstances. One is when arsenate is reduced to arsenite which adsorbs to iron oxides less strongly. The other results from a change in the charge on the mineral surface which leads to the desorption of bound arsenic.\n\nSome species of bacteria catalyze redox transformations of arsenic. Dissimilatory arsenate-respiring prokaryotes (DARP) speed up the reduction of As(V) to As(III). DARP use As(V) as the electron acceptor of anaerobic respiration and obtain energy to survive. Other organic and inorganic substances can be oxidized in this process. Chemoautotrophic arsenite oxidizers (CAO) and heterotrophic arsenite oxidizers (HAO) convert As(III) into As(V). CAO combine the oxidation of As(III) with the reduction of oxygen or nitrate. They use obtained energy to fix produce organic carbon from CO2. HAO cannot obtain energy from As(III) oxidation. This process may be an arsenic detoxification mechanism for the bacteria.\n\nEquilibrium thermodynamic calculations predict that As(V) concentrations should be greater than As(III) concentrations in all but strongly reducing conditions, i.e. where SO42− reduction is occurring. However, abiotic redox reactions of arsenic are slow. Oxidation of As(III) by dissolved O2 is a particularly slow reaction. For example, Johnson and Pilson (1975) gave half-lives for the oxygenation of As(III) in seawater ranging from several months to a year. In other studies, As(V)/As(III) ratios were stable over periods of days or weeks during water sampling when no particular care was taken to prevent oxidation, again suggesting relatively slow oxidation rates. Cherry found from experimental studies that the As(V)/As(III) ratios were stable in anoxic solutions for up to 3 weeks but that gradual changes occurred over longer timescales. Sterile water samples have been observed to be less susceptible to speciation changes than non-sterile samples. Oremland found that the reduction of As(V) to As(III) in Mono Lake was rapidly catalyzed by bacteria with rate constants ranging from 0.02 to 0.3 day−1.\n\n=== Wood preservation in the US ===\n\nAs of 2002, US-based industries consumed 19,600 metric tons of arsenic. Ninety percent of this was used for treatment of wood with chromated copper arsenate (CCA). In 2007, 50% of the 5,280 metric tons of consumption was still used for this purpose. In the United States, the voluntary phasing-out of arsenic in production of consumer products and residential and general consumer construction products began on 31 December 2003, and alternative chemicals are now used, such as Alkaline Copper Quaternary, borates, copper azole, cyproconazole, and propiconazole.\n\nAlthough discontinued, this application is also one of the most concern to the general public. The vast majority of older pressure-treated wood was treated with CCA. CCA lumber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material. Although the use of CCA lumber was banned in many areas after studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the wood into the surrounding soil (from playground equipment, for instance), a risk is also presented by the burning of older CCA timber. The direct or indirect ingestion of wood ash from burnt CCA lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans; the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash. Scrap CCA lumber from construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic fires. Protocols for safe disposal of CCA lumber are not consistent throughout the world. Widespread landfill disposal of such timber raises some concern, but other studies have shown no arsenic contamination in the groundwater.\n\n=== Mapping of industrial releases in the US ===\n\nOne tool that maps the location (and other information) of arsenic releases in the United State is TOXMAP. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) funded by the US Federal Government. With marked-up maps of the United States, TOXMAP enables users to visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET), PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.\n\n=== Bioremediation ===\n\nPhysical, chemical, and biological methods have been used to remediate arsenic contaminated water. Bioremediation is said to be cost effective and environmentally friendly Bioremediation of ground water contaminated with arsenic aims to convert arsenite, the toxic form of arsenic to humans, to arsenate. Arsenate (+5 oxidation state) is the dominant form of arsenic in surface water, while arsenite (+3 oxidation state) is the dominant form in hypoxic to anoxic environments. Arsenite is more soluble and mobile than arsenate. Many species of bacteria can transform arsenite to arsenate in anoxic conditions by using arsenite as an electron donor. This is a useful method in ground water remediation. Another bioremediation strategy is to use plants that accumulate arsenic in their tissues via phytoremediation but the disposal of contaminated plant material needs to be considered.\n\nBioremediation requires careful evaluation and design in accordance with existing conditions. Some sites may require the addition of an electron acceptor while others require microbe supplementation (bioaugmentation). Regardless of the method used, only constant monitoring can prevent future contamination.\n", "\n\nArsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons.\n\n=== Classification ===\n\nElemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as \"toxic\" and \"dangerous for the environment\" in the European Union under directive 67/548/EEC.\n\nThe International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens, and the EU lists arsenic trioxide, arsenic pentoxide, and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens.\n\nArsenic is known to cause arsenicosis when present in drinking water, \"the most common species being arsenate ; As(V) and arsenite H3AsO3; As(III)\".\n\n=== Legal limits, food, and drink ===\n\nIn the United States since 2006, the maximum concentration in drinking water allowed by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is 10 ppb and the FDA set the same standard in 2005 for bottled water. The Department of Environmental Protection for New Jersey set a drinking water limit of 5 ppb in 2006. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value for arsenic metal and inorganic arsenic compounds is 5 mg/m3. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set the permissible exposure limit (PEL) to a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.01 mg/m3, and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the recommended exposure limit (REL) to a 15-minute constant exposure of 0.002 mg/m3. The PEL for organic arsenic compounds is a TWA of 0.5 mg/m3.\n\nIn 2008, based on its ongoing testing of a wide variety of American foods for toxic chemicals, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the \"level of concern\" for inorganic arsenic apple and pear juices at 23 ppb, based on non-carcinogenic effects, and began blocking importation of products in excess of this level; it also required recalls for non-conforming domestic products. In 2011, the national ''Dr. Oz'' television show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed by an independent lab hired by the producers. Though the methodology was disputed (it did not distinguish between organic and inorganic arsenic) the tests showed levels of arsenic up to 36 ppb. In response, FDA tested the worst brand from the ''Dr.'' ''Oz'' show and found much lower levels. Ongoing testing found 95% of the apple juice samples were below the level of concern. Later testing by Consumer Reports showed inorganic arsenic at levels slightly above 10 ppb, and the organization urged parents to reduce consumption. In July 2013, on consideration of consumption by children, chronic exposure, and carcinogenic effect, the FDA established an \"action level\" of 10 ppb for apple juice, the same as the drinking water standard.\n\nConcern about arsenic in rice in Bangladesh was raised in 2002, but at the time only Australia had a legal limit for food (one milligram per kilogram). Concern was raised about people who were eating U.S. rice exceeding WHO standards for personal arsenic intake in 2005. In 2011, the People's Republic of China set a food standard of 150 ppb for arsenic.\n\nIn the United States in 2012, testing by separate groups of researchers at the Children's Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research Center at Dartmouth College (early in the year, focusing on urinary levels in children) and Consumer Reports (in November) found levels of arsenic in rice that resulted in calls for the FDA to set limits. The FDA released some testing results in September 2012, and as of July 2013, is still collecting data in support of a new potential regulation. It has not recommended any changes in consumer behavior.\n\nConsumer Reports recommended: \n# That the EPA and FDA eliminate arsenic-containing fertilizer, drugs, and pesticides in food production; \n# That the FDA establish a legal limit for food; \n# That industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels, especially in food for children; and \n# That consumers test home water supplies, eat a varied diet, and cook rice with excess water, then draining it off (reducing inorganic arsenic by about one third along with a slight reduction in vitamin content). \n# Evidence-based public health advocates also recommend that, given the lack of regulation or labeling for arsenic in the U.S., children should eat no more than 1.5 servings per week of rice and should not drink rice milk as part of their daily diet before age 5. They also offer recommendations for adults and infants on how to limit arsenic exposure from rice, drinking water, and fruit juice.\nA 2014 World Health Organization advisory conference was scheduled to consider limits of 200–300 ppb for rice.\n\n=== Occupational exposure limits ===\n\n\nCountry\nLimit\n\nArgentina\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\nAustralia\nTWA 0.05 mg/m3Carcinogen\n\nBelgium\nTWA 0.1 mg/m3Carcinogen\n\nBulgaria\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\nColombia\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\nDenmark\nTWA 0.01 mg/m3\n\nFinland\nCarcinogen\n\nEgypt\nTWA 0.2 mg/m3\n\nHungary\nCeiling concentration 0.01 mg/m3 Skin, carcinogen\n\nIndia\nTWA 0.2 mg/m3\n\nJapan\nGroup 1 carcinogen\n\nJordan\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\nMexico\nTWA 0.2 mg/m3\n\nNew Zealand\nTWA 0.05 mg/m3Carcinogen\n\nNorway\nTWA 0.02 mg/m3\n\nPhilippines\nTWA 0.5 mg/m3\n\nPoland\nTWA 0.01 mg/m3\n\nSingapore\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\nSouth Korea\nTWA 0.01 mg/m3\n\nSweden\nTWA 0.01 mg/m3\n\nThailand\nTWA 0.5 mg/m3\n\nTurkey\nTWA 0.5 mg/m3\n\nUnited Kingdom\nTWA 0.1 mg/m3\n\nUnited States\nTWA 0.01 mg/m3\n\nVietnam\nConfirmed human carcinogen\n\n\n=== Ecotoxicity ===\n\nArsenic is bioaccumulative in many organisms, marine species in particular, but it does not appear to biomagnify significantly in food webs. In polluted areas, plant growth may be affected by root uptake of arsenate, which is a phosphate analog and therefore readily transported in plant tissues and cells. In polluted areas, uptake of the more toxic arsenite ion (found more particularly in reducing conditions) is likely in poorly-drained soils.\n\n=== Toxicity in Animals ===\n\nCompound\nAnimal\nLD50\nRoute\n\nArsenic\nRat\n763 mg/kg\noral\n\nArsenic\nMouse\n145 mg/kg\noral\n\nCalcium arsenate\nRat\n20 mg/kg\noral\n\nCalcium arsenate\nMouse\n794 mg/kg\noral\n\nCalcium arsenate\nRabbit\n50 mg/kg\noral\n\nCalcium arsenate\nDog\n38 mg/kg\noral\n\nLead arsenate\nRabbit\n75 mg/kg\noral\n\n\n\nCompound\nAnimal\nLD50\nRoute\n\nArsenic trioxide (As(III))\nMouse\n26 mg/kg\noral\n\nArsenite (As(III))\nMouse\n8 mg/kg\nim\n\nArsenate (As(V))\nMouse\n21 mg/kg\nim\n\nMMA (As(III))\nHamster\n2 mg/kg\nip\n\nMMA (As(V))\nMouse\n916 mg/kg\noral\n\nDMA (As(V))\nMouse\n648 mg/kg\noral\n\nim = injected intramuscularly\nip = administered intraperitoneally\n\n\n=== Biological mechanism ===\n\nArsenic's toxicity comes from the affinity of arsenic(III) oxides for thiols. Thiols, in the form of cysteine residues and cofactors such as lipoic acid and coenzyme A, are situated at the active sites of many important enzymes.\n\nArsenic disrupts ATP production through several mechanisms. At the level of the citric acid cycle, arsenic inhibits lipoic acid, which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase. By competing with phosphate, arsenate uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, thus inhibiting energy-linked reduction of NAD+, mitochondrial respiration and ATP synthesis. Hydrogen peroxide production is also increased, which, it is speculated, has potential to form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress. These metabolic interferences lead to death from multi-system organ failure. The organ failure is presumed to be from necrotic cell death, not apoptosis, since energy reserves have been too depleted for apoptosis to occur.\n\n\nAlthough arsenic causes toxicity it can also play a protective role.\n\n=== Exposure risks and remediation ===\n\nOccupational exposure and arsenic poisoning may occur in persons working in industries involving the use of inorganic arsenic and its compounds, such as wood preservation, glass production, nonferrous metal alloys, and electronic semiconductor manufacturing. Inorganic arsenic is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the smelter industry.\n\nThe conversion between As(III) and As(V) is a large factor in arsenic environmental contamination. According to Croal, Gralnick, Malasarn and Newman, \"the understanding of what stimulates As(III) oxidation and/or limits As(V) reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites (Croal). The study of chemolithoautotrophic As(III) oxidizers and the heterotrophic As(V) reducers can help the understanding of the oxidation and/or reduction of arsenic.\n\n=== Treatment ===\n\nTreatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is possible. British anti-lewisite (dimercaprol) is prescribed in doses of 5 mg/kg up to 300 mg every 4 hours for the first day, then every 6 hours for the second day, and finally every 8 hours for 8 additional days. However the USA's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) states that the long-term effects of arsenic exposure cannot be predicted. Blood, urine, hair, and nails may be tested for arsenic; however, these tests cannot foresee possible health outcomes from the exposure. Long-term exposure and consequent excretion through urine has been linked to bladder and kidney cancer in addition to cancer of the liver, prostate, skin, lungs, and nasal cavity.\n", "\n\n* Aqua Tofana\n* Arsenic biochemistry\n* Arsenic compounds\n* Arsenic poisoning\n* Arsenic toxicity\n* Arsenic trioxide\n* Fowler's solution\n* GFAJ-1\n* Grainger challenge\n* Hypothetical types of biochemistry\n* Organoarsenic chemistry\n* Toxic heavy metal\n* White arsenic\n\n", "\n", "* \n\n", " \n", "\n\n* CTD's Arsenic page and CTD's Arsenicals page from the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database\n* A Small Dose of Toxicology\n* Arsenic in groundwater Book on arsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society\n* Contaminant Focus: Arsenic by the EPA.\n* Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001 by the WHO.\n* Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds by the IARC.\n* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Arsenic Page\n* Arsenic at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Characteristics ", " Compounds ", " Occurrence and production ", " History ", " Applications ", " Biological role ", " Essential trace element in higher animals ", " Environmental issues ", " Toxicity and precautions ", " See also ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Arsenic
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Antimony''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Sb''' (from ) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl. Metallic antimony was also known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. In the West, it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540.\n\nFor some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron.\n\nThe largest applications for metallic antimony is an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead–acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardants found in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics.\n", "\n===Properties===\nA vial containing the black allotrope of antimony\noxidation products\nAsSb and gray As\nAntimony is in a pnictogen (a member of group 15) and has an electronegativity of 2.05. In accordance with periodic trends, it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth, and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic. Antimony is stable in air at room temperature, but reacts with oxygen if heated to produce antimony trioxide, Sb2O3.\n\nAntimony is a silvery, lustrous gray metalloid with a Mohs scale hardness of 3, which is too soft to make hard objects; coins of antimony were issued in China's Guizhou province in 1931 but the durability was poor and the minting was soon discontinued. Antimony is resistant to attack by acids.\n\nFour allotropes of antimony are known: a stable metallic form and three metastable forms (explosive, black and yellow). Elemental antimony is a brittle, silver-white shiny metalloid. When slowly cooled, molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell, isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic. A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride. When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, a strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor. It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic, it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously. At 100 °C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable. It has only been generated by oxidation of stibine (SbH3) at −90 °C. Above this temperature and in ambient light, this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope.\n\nElemental antimony adopts a layered structure (space group Rm No. 166) in which layers consist of fused, ruffled, six-membered rings. The nearest and next-nearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex, with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6.697 g/cm3, but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\nAntimony has two stable isotopes: 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57.36% and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42.64%. It also has 35 radioisotopes, of which the longest-lived is 125Sb with a half-life of 2.75 years. In addition, 29 metastable states have been characterized. The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half-life of 5.76 days. Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β+ decay, and those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay, with some exceptions.\n\n===Occurrence===\n\nStibnite\nThe abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated to be 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million, comparable to thallium at 0.5 parts per million and silver at 0.07 ppm. Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in more than 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found natively (e.g. on Antimony Peak), but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral.\n", "\nAntimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state: Sb(III) and Sb(V). The +5 oxidation state is more stable.\n\n===Oxides and hydroxides===\nAntimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air. In the gas phase, the molecule of the compound is , but it polymerizes upon condensing. Antimony pentoxide () can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid. Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide (), which features both Sb(III) and Sb(V). Unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic, these oxides are amphoteric, do not form well-defined oxoacids, and react with acids to form antimony salts.\n\nAntimonous acid is unknown, but the conjugate base sodium antimonite () forms upon fusing sodium oxide and . Transition metal antimonites are also known. Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate , forming salts as the antimonate anion . When a solution containing this anion is dehydrated, the precipitate contains mixed oxides.\n\nMany antimony ores are sulfides, including stibnite (), pyrargyrite (), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite. Antimony pentasulfide is non-stoichiometric and features antimony in the +3 oxidation state and S-S bonds. Several thioantimonides are known, such as and .\n\n===Halides===\nAntimony forms two series of halides: and . The trihalides , , , and are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry.\n\nThe trifluoride is prepared by the reaction of with HF:\n: + 6 HF → 2 + 3 \n\nIt is Lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions and . Molten is a weak electrical conductor. The trichloride is prepared by dissolving in hydrochloric acid:\n: + 6 HCl → 2 + 3 \nStructure of gaseous SbF5\n\nThe pentahalides and have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, is polymeric, whereas is monomeric. is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid (\"H2SbF7\").\n\nOxyhalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as SbOCl and .\n\n===Antimonides, hydrides, and organoantimony compounds===\nCompounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of Sb3−. Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb) and silver antimonide (). The alkali metal and zinc antimonides, such as Na3Sb and Zn3Sb2, are more reactive. Treating these antimonides with acid produces the unstable gas stibine, :\n: + 3 → \nStibine can also be produced by treating salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride. Stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature. Because stibine has a positive heat of formation, it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly.\n\nOrganoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with Grignard reagents. A large variety of compounds are known with both Sb(III) and Sb(V) centers, including mixed chloro-organic derivatives, anions, and cations. Examples include Sb(C6H5)3 (triphenylstibine), Sb2(C6H5)4 (with an Sb-Sb bond), and cyclic Sb(C6H5)n. Pentacoordinated organoantimony compounds are common, examples being Sb(C6H5)5 and several related halides.\n", "One of the alchemical symbols for antimony\nAntimony(III) sulfide, Sb2S3, was recognized in predynastic Egypt as an eye cosmetic (kohl) as early as about 3100 BC, when the cosmetic palette was invented.\n\nAn artifact, said to be part of a vase, made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt. Austen, at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that \"we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' (artifact mentioned above) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable.\"\n\nMoorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase, mentioning that Selimkhanov, after his analysis of the Tello object (published in 1975), \"attempted to relate the metal to Transcaucasian natural antimony\" (i.e. native metal) and that \"the antimony objects from Transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments.\" This weakens the evidence for a lost art \"of rendering antimony malleable.\"\n\nThe Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise ''Natural History''. Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between \"male\" and \"female\" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.\n\nThe Roman naturalist Pedanius Dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air. It is thought that this produced metallic antimony.\n\nThe Italian metallurgist Vannoccio Biringuccio described the first procedure of how to isolate antimony.\n\nThe first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the 1540 book ''De la pirotechnia'' by Vannoccio Biringuccio, predating the more famous 1556 book by Agricola, ''De re metallica''. In this context Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. The book ''Currus Triumphalis Antimonii'' (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), describing the preparation of metallic antimony, was published in Germany in 1604. It was purported to be written by a Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century; if it were authentic, which it is not, it would predate Biringuccio.\n\nThe metal antimony was known to German chemist Andreas Libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide, salt and potassium tartrate. This procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface.\n\nWith the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory, it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides, oxides, and other compounds, as do other metals.\n\nThe first natural occurrence of pure antimony in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783; the type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.\n\n===Etymology===\nThe medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek take their names for antimony, is ''antimonium''. The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός ''anti-monachos'' or French ''antimoine'', still has adherents; this would mean \"monk-killer\", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous.\n\nAnother popular etymology is the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος ''antimonos'', \"against aloneness\", explained as \"not found as metal\", or \"not found unalloyed\". Lippmann conjectured a hypothetical Greek word ανθήμόνιον ''anthemonion'', which would mean \"floret\", and cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.\n\nThe early uses of ''antimonium'' include the translations, in 1050–1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises. Several authorities believe ''antimonium'' is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ''ithmid''; other possibilities include ''athimar'', the Arabic name of the metalloid, and a hypothetical ''as-stimmi'', derived from or parallel to the Greek.\n\nThe standard chemical symbol for antimony (Sb) is credited to Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who derived the abbreviation from ''stibium''.\n\nThe ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony.\nThe Egyptians called antimony ''mśdmt''; in hieroglyphs, the vowels are uncertain, but an Arabic tradition holds that the word is ميسديميت ''mesdemet''. The Greek word, στίμμι ''stimmi'', is probably a loan word from Arabic or from Egyptian ''stm'' O34:D46-G17-F21:D4 and is used by Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC. Later Greeks also used στἰβι ''stibi'', as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names ''stimi'' , ''larbaris'', alabaster, and the \"very common\" ''platyophthalmos'', \"wide-eye\" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as ''stibium''. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as إثمد ''ithmid, athmoud, othmod'', or ''uthmod''. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from ''stimmida'', an accusative for ''stimmi''.\n", "World antimony output in 2010.\nWorld production trend of antimony.\n\n===Top producers and production volumes===\nThe British Geological Survey (BGS) reported that in 2005, China was the top producer of antimony with approximately 84% of the world share, followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan. Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan province has the largest deposits in China with an estimated deposit of 2.1 million metric tons.\n\nIn 2016, according to the US Geological Survey, China accounted for 76.9% of total antimony production, followed in second place by Russia with 6.9% and Tajikistan with 6.2%.\n\n\n+Antimony production in 2016\n Country !! Tonnes !! % of total\n\n\n100,000\n76.9\n\n\n9,000\n6.9\n\n\n8,000\n6.2\n\n\n4,000\n3.1\n\n\n3,500\n2.7\n\n''Top 5''\n124,500\n95.8\n\nTotal world\n130,000\n100.0\n\n\nChinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control. Especially due to a new environmental protection law having gone into effect on January 2015 and revised “Emission Standards of Pollutants for Stanum, Antimony, and Mercury”having gone into effect, hurdles for economic production are higher. According to the National Bureau of Statistics in China, by September 2015 50% of antimony production capacity in the Hunan province (the province with biggest antimony reserves in China) had not been used.\n\nReported production of antimony in China has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years, according to the Roskill report. No significant antimony deposits in China have been developed for about ten years, and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted.\n\nThe world's largest antimony producers, according to Roskill, are listed below:\n\n\n+Largest antimony producers in 2010.\n Country !! Company !! Capacity (tonnes per year)\n\n\nMandalay Resources\n2,750\n\n\nvarious\n5,460\n\n\nBeaver Brook\n6,000\n\n\nHsikwangshan Twinkling Star\n55,000\n\n\nHunan Chenzhou Mining\n20,000\n\n\nChina Tin Group\n20,000\n\n\nShenyang Huachang Antimony\n15,000\n\n\nKazzinc\n1,000\n\n\nKadamdzhai\n500\n\n\nSRS\n500\n\n\nUS Antimony\n70\n\n\nvarious\n6,000\n\n\nGeoProMining\n6,500\n\n\nConsolidated Murchison\n6,000\n\n\nUnzob\n5,500\n\n\nunknown\n600\n\n\nCengiz & Özdemir Antimuan Madenleri\n2,400\n\n\n===Reserves===\nAccording to statistics from the USGS, current global reserves of antimony will be depleted in 13 years. However, the USGS expects more resources will be found.\n\n\n+World antimony reserves in 2015\n Country !! Reserves (tonnes of antimony content) !! % of total\n\n\n950,000\n47.81\n\n\n350,000\n17.61\n\n\n310,000\n15.60\n\n\n140,000\n7.05\n\n\n60,000\n3.02\n\n\n50,000\n2.52\n\n\n27,000\n1.36\n\nOther countries\n100,000\n5.03\n\nTotal world\n1,987,000\n100.0\n\n\n===Production process===\nThe extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore. Most antimony is mined as the sulfide; lower-grade ores are concentrated by froth flotation, while higher-grade ores are heated to 500–600 °C, the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals. Antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron:\n\n: + 3 Fe → 2 Sb + 3 FeS\n\nThe sulfide is converted to an oxide; the product is then roasted, sometimes for the purpose of vaporizing the volatile antimony(III) oxide, which is recovered. This material is often used directly for the main applications, impurities being arsenic and sulfide. Antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction:\n\n:2 + 3 C → 4 Sb + 3 \n\nThe lower-grade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the higher-grade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces.\n\n===Supply risk and critical mineral rankings===\nAntimony has consistently been ranked high in European and US Risk Lists concerning criticality of the element indicating the relative risk to the supply of chemical elements or element groups required to maintain the current economy and lifestyle.\n\nWith most of the antimony imported into Europe and the US coming from China, Chinese production is critical to supply. As China is revising and increasing environmental control standards, antimony production is becoming increasingly restricted. Additionally Chinese export quotas for antimony have been decreasing in the past years. These two factors increase supply risk for both Europe and US.\n\n====Europe====\nAccording to the BGS Risk List 2015, antimony is ranked second highest (after rare earth elements) on the relative supply risk index. This indicates that it has currently the second highest supply risk for chemical elements or element groups which are of economic value to the British economy and lifestyle.\nFurthermore, antimony was identified as one of 20 critical raw materials for the EU in a report published in 2014 (which revised the initial report published in 2011). As seen in Figure xxx antimony maintains high supply risk relative to its economic importance. 92% of the antimony is imported from China, which is a significantly high concentration of production.\n\n====U.S.====\nMuch analysis has been conducted in the U.S. toward defining which metals should be called strategic or critical to the nation's security. Exact definitions do not exist, and views as to what constitutes a strategic or critical mineral to U.S. security diverge.\n\nIn 2015, no antimony was mined in the U.S. The metal is imported from foreign countries. From 2011-2014 68% of America's antimony came from China, 14% from India, 4% from Mexico, and 14% from other sources. There are no government stockpiles in place currently.\n\nThe U.S. “Subcommittee on Critical and Strategic Mineral Supply Chains” has screened 78 mineral resources from 1996-2008. It found that a small subset of minerals including antimony has fallen into the category of potentially critical minerals consistently. In the future, a second assessment will be made of the found subset of minerals to identify which should be defined of significant risk and critical to U.S. interests.\n", "About 60% of antimony is consumed in flame retardants, and 20% is used in alloys for batteries, plain bearings, and solders.\n\n===Flame retardants===\nAntimony is mainly used in the trioxide for flame-proofing compounds, always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogen-containing polymers. The flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds, which react with hydrogen atoms, and probably also with oxygen atoms and OH radicals, thus inhibiting fire. Markets for these flame-retardants include children's clothing, toys, aircraft, and automobile seat covers. They are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame, but will extinguish when the external flame is removed.\n\n===Alloys===\nAntimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead, increasing its hardness and mechanical strength. For most applications involving lead, varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal. In lead–acid batteries, this addition improves the charging characteristics and reduces generation of unwanted hydrogen during charging. It is used in antifriction alloys (such as Babbitt metal), in bullets and lead shot, electrical cable sheathing, type metal (for example, for linotype printing machines), solder (some \"lead-free\" solders contain 5% Sb), in pewter, and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.\n\n===Other applications===\nThree other applications consume nearly all the rest of the world's supply. One application is a stabilizer and a catalyst for the production of polyethyleneterephthalate. Another is a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass, mostly for TV screens; antimony ions interact with oxygen, suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles. The third application is pigments.\n\nAntimony is increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in n-type silicon wafers for diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. In the 1950s, the emitters and collectors of n-p-n alloy junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy. Indium antimonide is used as a material for mid-infrared detectors.\n\nBiology and medicine have few uses for antimony. Treatments containing antimony, known as antimonials, are used as emetics. Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Potassium antimonyl tartrate, or tartar emetic, was once used as an anti-schistosomal drug from 1919 on. It was subsequently replaced by praziquantel. Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations, such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate, as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals.\n\nAntimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Unfortunately, besides having low therapeutic indices, the drugs have minimal penetration of the bone marrow, where some of the ''Leishmania'' amastigotes reside, and curing the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult. Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination.\n\nAntimony(III) sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches.\n\nAntimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials.\n\nAntimony is used in bullets, bullet tracers, paint, glass art, and as an opacifier in enamel.\n\nAntimony-124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources; the gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium. The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV. Natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources.\n", "The effects of antimony and its compounds on human and environmental health differ widely. The elemental antimony metal does not affect human and environmental health. Inhalation of antimony trioxide (and similar poorly soluble Sb(III) dust particles such as antimony dust) is considered harmful and suspected of causing cancer. However, these effects are only observed with female rats and after long-term exposure to high dust concentrations. The effects are hypothesized to be attributed to inhalation of poorly soluble Sb particles leading to impaired lung clearance, lung overload, inflammation and ultimately tumour formation, not to exposure to antimony ions (OECD, 2008). Antimony chlorides are corrosive to skin. The effects of antimony are not comparable to arsenic; this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake, metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony.\n\nFor oral absorption, ICRP (1994) recommended values of 10% for tartar emetic and 1% for all other antimony compounds. Dermal absorption for metals is estimated at most 1% (HERAG, 2007). Inhalation absorption of antimony trioxide and other poorly soluble Sb(III) substances (such as antimony dust) is estimated at 6.8% (OECD, 2008), whereas a value 3).\n\nThe 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) is set at 0.5 mg/m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as a legal permissible exposure limit (PEL) in the workplace. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.5 mg/m3 as an 8 hour TWA. Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) production. Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids, but levels are below drinking water guidelines. Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates were somewhat higher (up to 44.7 µg/L of antimony), but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations. The drinking water guidelines are:\n\nWorld Health Organization: 20 µg/L\nJapan: 15 µg/L\nUnited States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment: 6 µg/L\nEU and German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5 µg/L\n\nThe TDI proposed by WHO is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight. The IDLH (immediately dangerous to life and health) value for antimony is 50 mg/m3.\n", "\nPhase change memory\n", "\n", "\n", "\nEdmund Oscar von Lippmann (1919) Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1. Berlin: Julius Springer (in German).\n Public Health Statement for Antimony\n", "\n\n* International Antimony Association vzw (i2a)\n* Chemistry in its element podcast (MP3) from the Royal Society of Chemistry's Chemistry World: Antimony\n* Antimony at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Antimony\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "Compounds", "History", "Production", "Applications", "Precautions", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Antimony
[ "\n\n'''Actinium''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Ac''' and atomic number 89. Actinium gave the name to the actinide series, a group of 15 similar elements between actinium and lawrencium in the periodic table. It is also sometimes considered the first of the 7th-period transition metals, although lawrencium is less commonly given that position. Discovered in 1899, it was the first non-primordial radioactive element to be isolated. Polonium, radium and radon were observed before actinium, but they were not isolated until 1902.\n\nA soft, silvery-white radioactive metal, actinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that prevents further oxidation. As with most lanthanides and many actinides, actinium assumes oxidation state +3 in nearly all its chemical compounds. Actinium is found only in traces in uranium and thorium ores as the isotope 227Ac, which decays with a half-life of 21.772 years, predominantly emitting beta and sometimes alpha particles, and 228Ac, which is beta active with a half-life of 6.15 hours. One tonne of natural uranium in ore contains about 0.2 milligrams of actinium-227, and one tonne of natural thorium contains about 5 nanograms of actinium-228. The close similarity of physical and chemical properties of actinium and lanthanum makes separation of actinium from the ore impractical. Instead, the element is prepared, in milligram amounts, by the neutron irradiation of 226 in a nuclear reactor. Owing to its scarcity, high price and radioactivity, actinium has no significant industrial use. Its current applications include a neutron source and an agent for radiation therapy targeting cancer cells in the body.\n", "André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, announced the discovery of a new element in 1899. He separated it from pitchblende residues left by Marie and Pierre Curie after they had extracted radium. In 1899, Debierne described the substance as similar to titanium and (in 1900) as similar to thorium. Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902 as a substance being similar to lanthanum and called it \"emanium\" in 1904. After a comparison of the substances half-lives determined by Debierne, Harriet Brooks in 1904, and Otto Hahn and Otto Sackur in 1905, Debierne's chosen name for the new element was retained because it had seniority, despite the contradicting chemical properties he claimed for the element at different times.\n\nArticles published in the 1970s and later suggest that Debierne's results published in 1904 conflict with those reported in 1899 and 1900. Furthermore, the now-known chemistry of actinium precludes its presence as anything other than a minor constituent of Debierne's 1899 and 1900 results; in fact, the chemical properties he reported make it likely that he had, instead, accidentally identified protactinium, which would not be discovered for another fourteen years, only to have it disappear due to its hydrolysis and adsorption onto his laboratory equipment. This has led some authors to advocate that Giesel alone should be credited with the discovery. A less confrontational vision of scientific discovery is proposed by Adloff. He suggests that hindsight criticism of the early publications should be mitigated by the then nascent state of radiochemistry: highlighting the prudence of Debierne's claims in the original papers, he notes that nobody can contend that Debierne's substance did not contain actinium. Debierne, who is now considered by the vast majority of historians as the discoverer, lost interest in the element and left the topic. Giesel, on the other hand, can rightfully be credited with the first preparation of radiochemically pure actinium and with the identification of its atomic number 89.\n\nThe name actinium originates from the Ancient Greek ''aktis, aktinos'' (ακτίς, ακτίνος), meaning beam or ray. Its symbol Ac is also used in abbreviations of other compounds that have nothing to do with actinium, such as acetyl, acetate and sometimes acetaldehyde.\n", "Actinium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive, metallic element. Its estimated shear modulus is similar to that of lead. Owing to its strong radioactivity, actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light, which originates from the surrounding air ionized by the emitted energetic particles. Actinium has similar chemical properties to lanthanum and other lanthanides, and therefore these elements are difficult to separate when extracting from uranium ores. Solvent extraction and ion chromatography are commonly used for the separation.\n\nThe first element of the actinides, actinium gave the group its name, much as lanthanum had done for the lanthanides. The group of elements is more diverse than the lanthanides and therefore it was not until 1928 that Charles Janet proposed the most significant change to Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table since the recognition of the lanthanides, by introducing the actinides, a move suggested again in 1945 by Glenn T. Seaborg.\n\nActinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that impedes further oxidation. As with most lanthanides and actinides, actinium exists in the oxidation state +3, and the Ac3+ ions are colorless in solutions. The oxidation state +3 originates from the Rn6d17s2 electronic configuration of actinium, with three valence electrons that are easily donated to give the stable closed-shell structure of the noble gas radon. The rare oxidation state +2 is only known for actinium dihydride (AcH2); even this may in reality be an electride compound like its lighter congener LaH2.\n", "Only a limited number of actinium compounds are known including AcF3, AcCl3, AcBr3, AcOF, AcOCl, AcOBr, Ac2S3, Ac2O3 and AcPO4. Except for AcPO4, they are all similar to the corresponding lanthanum compounds. They all contain actinium in the oxidation state +3. In particular, the lattice constants of the analogous lanthanum and actinium compounds differ by only a few percent.\n\n\n Formula\n color\n symmetry\n space group\n No\n Pearson symbol\n ''a'' (pm)\n ''b'' (pm)\n ''c'' (pm)\n ''Z''\n density, g/cm3\n\n Ac\n silvery\n ''fcc''\n Fmm\n 225\n cF4\n 531.1\n 531.1\n 531.1\n 4\n 10.07\n\n AcH2\nunknown\n cubic\n Fmm\n 225\n cF12\n 567\n 567\n 567\n 4\n 8.35\n\n Ac2O3\n white\n trigonal\n Pm1\n 164\n hP5\n 408\n 408\n 630\n 1\n 9.18\n\n Ac2S3\n black\n cubic\n I3d\n 220\n cI28\n 778.56\n 778.56\n 778.56\n 4\n 6.71\n\n AcF3\n white\n hexagonal\n Pc1\n 165\n hP24\n 741\n 741\n 755\n 6\n 7.88\n\n AcCl3\nwhite\n hexagonal\n P63/m\n 165\n hP8\n 764\n 764\n 456\n 2\n 4.8\n\n AcBr3\n white\n hexagonal\n P63/m\n 165\n hP8\n 764\n 764\n 456\n 2\n 5.85\n\n AcOF\n white\n cubic\n Fmm\n\n\n 593.1\n\n\n\n 8.28\n\n AcOCl\nwhite\n tetragonal\n\n\n\n 424\n 424\n 707\n\n 7.23\n\n AcOBr\nwhite\n tetragonal\n\n\n\n 427\n 427\n 740\n\n 7.89\n\n AcPO4·0.5H2O\nunknown\n hexagonal\n\n\n\n 721\n 721\n 664\n\n 5.48\n\n\nHere ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' are lattice constants, No is space group number and ''Z'' is the number of formula units per unit cell. Density was not measured directly but calculated from the lattice parameters.\n\n===Oxides===\n\nActinium oxide (Ac2O3) can be obtained by heating the hydroxide at 500 °C or the oxalate at 1100 °C, in vacuum. Its crystal lattice is isotypic with the oxides of most trivalent rare-earth metals.\n\n===Halides===\nActinium trifluoride can be produced either in solution or in solid reaction. The former reaction is carried out at room temperature, by adding hydrofluoric acid to a solution containing actinium ions. In the latter method, actinium metal is treated with hydrogen fluoride vapors at 700 °C in an all-platinum setup. Treating actinium trifluoride with ammonium hydroxide at 900–1000 °C yields oxyfluoride AcOF. Whereas lanthanum oxyfluoride can be easily obtained by burning lanthanum trifluoride in air at 800 °C for an hour, similar treatment of actinium trifluoride yields no AcOF and only results in melting of the initial product.\n\n:AcF3 + 2 NH3 + H2O → AcOF + 2 NH4F\n\nActinium trichloride is obtained by reacting actinium hydroxide or oxalate with carbon tetrachloride vapors at temperatures above 960 °C. Similar to oxyfluoride, actinium oxychloride can be prepared by hydrolyzing actinium trichloride with ammonium hydroxide at 1000 °C. However, in contrast to the oxyfluoride, the oxychloride could well be synthesized by igniting a solution of actinium trichloride in hydrochloric acid with ammonia.\n\nReaction of aluminium bromide and actinium oxide yields actinium tribromide:\n:Ac2O3 + 2 AlBr3 → 2 AcBr3 + Al2O3\n\nand treating it with ammonium hydroxide at 500 °C results in the oxybromide AcOBr.\n\n===Other compounds===\nActinium hydride was obtained by reduction of actinium trichloride with potassium at 300 °C, and its structure was deduced by analogy with the corresponding LaH2 hydride. The source of hydrogen in the reaction was uncertain.\n\nMixing monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4) with a solution of actinium in hydrochloric acid yields white-colored actinium phosphate hemihydrate (AcPO4·0.5H2O), and heating actinium oxalate with hydrogen sulfide vapors at 1400 °C for a few minutes results in a black actinium sulfide Ac2S3. It may possibly be produced by acting with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide on actinium oxide at 1000 °C.\n", "\nNaturally occurring actinium is composed of two radioactive isotopes; (from the radioactive family of ) and (a granddaughter of ). decays mainly as a beta emitter with a very small energy, but in 1.38% of cases it emits an alpha particle, so it can readily be identified through alpha spectrometry. Thirty-six radioisotopes have been identified, the most stable being with a half-life of 21.772 years, with a half-life of 10.0 days and with a half-life of 29.37 hours. All remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 10 hours and the majority of them have half-lives shorter than one minute. The shortest-lived known isotope of actinium is (half-life of 69 nanoseconds) which decays through alpha decay and electron capture. Actinium also has two known meta states. The most significant isotopes for chemistry are 225Ac, 227Ac, and 228Ac.\n\nPurified comes into equilibrium with its decay products after about a half of year. It decays according to its 21.772-year half-life emitting mostly beta (98.62%) and some alpha particles (1.38%); the successive decay products are part of the actinium series. Owing to the low available amounts, low energy of its beta particles (maximum 44.8 keV) and low intensity of alpha radiation, is difficult to detect directly by its emission and it is therefore traced via its decay products. The isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from 206 u () to 236 u ().\n\n\n !Isotope\n !Production\n !Decay\n !Half-life\n \|-\n \|221Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(d,9n)→225Pa(α)→221Ac\n \|α\n \|52 ms\n \|-\n \|222Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(d,8n)→226Pa(α)→222Ac\n \|α\n \|5.0 s\n \|-\n \|223Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(d,7n)→227Pa(α)→223Ac\n \|α\n \|2.1 min\n \|-\n \|224Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(d,6n)→228Pa(α)→224Ac\n \|α\n \|2.78 hours\n \|-\n \|225Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(n,γ)→233Th(β−)→233Pa(β−)→233U(α)→229Th(α)→225Ra(β−)→225Ac\n \|α\n \|10 days\n \|-\n \|226Ac\n \|align=right \|226Ra(d,2n)→226Ac\n \|α, β− electron capture\n \|29.37 hours\n \|-\n \|227Ac\n \|align=right \|235U(α)→231Th(β−)→231Pa(α)→227Ac\n \|α, β−\n \|21.77 years\n \|-\n \|228Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(α)→228Ra(β−)→228Ac\n \|β−\n \|6.15 hours\n \|-\n \|229Ac\n \|align=right \|228Ra(n,γ)→229Ra(β−)→229Ac\n \|β−\n \|62.7 min\n \|-\n \|230Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(d,α)→230Ac\n \|β−\n \|122 s\n \|-\n \|231Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(γ,p)→231Ac\n \|β−\n \|7.5 min\n \|-\n \|232Ac\n \|align=right \|232Th(n,p)→232Ac\n \|β−\n \|119 s\n \|}\n", "Uraninite ores have elevated concentrations of actinium.\nActinium is found only in traces in uranium ores – one tonne of uranium in ore contains about 0.2 milligrams of 227Ac – and in thorium ores, which contain about 5 nanograms of 228Ac per one tonne of thorium. The actinium isotope 227Ac is a transient member of the uranium-actinium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 235U (or 239Pu) and ends with the stable lead isotope 207Pb. The isotope 228Ac is a transient member of the thorium series decay chain, which begins with the parent isotope 232Th and ends with the stable lead isotope 208Pb. Another actinium isotope (225Ac) was transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain, beginning with 237Np (or 233U) and ending with thallium (205Tl) and near-stable bismuth (209Bi), but this chain existed only in the early Solar System, due to the short half-life of neptunium-237.\n\nThe low natural concentration, and the close similarity of physical and chemical properties to those of lanthanum and other lanthanides, which are always abundant in actinium-bearing ores, render separation of actinium from the ore impractical, and complete separation was never achieved. Instead, actinium is prepared, in milligram amounts, by the neutron irradiation of 226 in a nuclear reactor.\n\n:\n\nThe reaction yield is about 2% of the radium weight. 227Ac can further capture neutrons resulting in small amounts of 228Ac. After the synthesis, actinium is separated from radium and from the products of decay and nuclear fusion, such as thorium, polonium, lead and bismuth. The extraction can be performed with thenoyltrifluoroacetone-benzene solution from an aqueous solution of the radiation products, and the selectivity to a certain element is achieved by adjusting the pH (to about 6.0 for actinium). An alternative procedure is anion exchange with an appropriate resin in nitric acid, which can result in a separation factor of 1,000,000 for radium and actinium vs. thorium in a two-stage process. Actinium can then be separated from radium, with a ratio of about 100, using a low cross-linking cation exchange resin and nitric acid as eluant.\n\n225Ac was first produced artificially at the Institute for Transuranium Elements (ITU) in Germany using a cyclotron and at St George Hospital in Sydney using a linac in 2000. This rare isotope has potential applications in radiation therapy and is most efficiently produced by bombarding a radium-226 target with 20–30 MeV deuterium ions. This reaction also yields 226Ac which however decays with a half-life of 29 hours and thus does not contaminate 225Ac.\n\nActinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor in vacuum at a temperature between 1100 and 1300 °C. Higher temperatures resulted in evaporation of the product and lower ones lead to an incomplete transformation. Lithium was chosen among other alkali metals because its fluoride is most volatile.\n", "Owing to its scarcity, high price and radioactivity, actinium currently has no significant industrial use.\n\n227Ac is highly radioactive and was therefore studied for use as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators, for example in spacecraft. The oxide of 227Ac pressed with beryllium is also an efficient neutron source with the activity exceeding that of the standard americium-beryllium and radium-beryllium pairs. In all those applications, 227Ac (a beta source) is merely a progenitor which generates alpha-emitting isotopes upon its decay. Beryllium captures alpha particles and emits neutrons owing to its large cross-section for the (α,n) nuclear reaction:\n\n: \n\nThe 227AcBe neutron sources can be applied in a neutron probe – a standard device for measuring the quantity of water present in soil, as well as moisture/density for quality control in highway construction. Such probes are also used in well logging applications, in neutron radiography, tomography and other radiochemical investigations.\n\nDOTA carrier for 225Ac in radiation therapy.\n225Ac is applied in medicine to produce 213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radiation therapy, in particular targeted alpha therapy (TAT). This isotope has a half-life of 10 days that makes it much more suitable for radiation therapy than 213Bi (half-life 46 minutes). Not only 225Ac itself, but also its daughters, emit alpha particles which kill cancer cells in the body. The major difficulty with application of 225Ac was that intravenous injection of simple actinium complexes resulted in their accumulation in the bones and liver for a period of tens of years. As a result, after the cancer cells were quickly killed by alpha particles from 225Ac, the radiation from the actinium and its daughters might induce new mutations. To solve this problem, 225Ac was bound to a chelating agent, such as citrate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) or diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA). This reduced actinium accumulation in the bones, but the excretion from the body remained slow. Much better results were obtained with such chelating agents as HEHA(1,4,7,10,13,16-hexaazacyclohexadecane-N,N',N'`,N'``,N'``',N'``'`-hexaacetic acid) or DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid) coupled to trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the HER2/neu receptor. The latter delivery combination was tested on mice and proved to be effective against leukemia, lymphoma, breast, ovarian, neuroblastoma and prostate cancers.\n\nThe medium half-life of 227Ac (21.77 years) makes it very convenient radioactive isotope in modeling the slow vertical mixing of oceanic waters. The associated processes cannot be studied with the required accuracy by direct measurements of current velocities (of the order 50 meters per year). However, evaluation of the concentration depth-profiles for different isotopes allows estimating the mixing rates. The physics behind this method is as follows: oceanic waters contain homogeneously dispersed 235U. Its decay product, 231Pa, gradually precipitates to the bottom, so that its concentration first increases with depth and then stays nearly constant. 231Pa decays to 227Ac; however, the concentration of the latter isotope does not follow the 231Pa depth profile, but instead increases toward the sea bottom. This occurs because of the mixing processes which raise some additional 227Ac from the sea bottom. Thus analysis of both 231Pa and 227Ac depth profiles allows to model the mixing behavior.\n", "227Ac is highly radioactive and experiments with it are carried out in a specially designed laboratory equipped with a tight glove box. When actinium trichloride is administered intravenously to rats, about 33% of actinium is deposited into the bones and 50% into the liver. Its toxicity is comparable to, but slightly lower than that of americium and plutonium. For trace quantities, fume hoods with good aeration suffice; for gram amounts, hot cells with shielding from the intense gamma radiation emitted by 227Ac are necessary.\n", "* Actinium series\n\n", "\n", "* Meyer, Gerd and Morss, Lester R. (1991) ''Synthesis of lanthanide and actinide compounds'', Springer. \n", "* Actinium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Actinium, Radioactive\n* Actinium in \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Properties", "Chemical compounds", "Isotopes", "Occurrence and synthesis", "Applications", "Precautions", "See also", "References", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Actinium
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Americium''' is a radioactive chemical element with symbol '''Am''' and atomic number 95. It is a transuranic member of the actinide series, in the periodic table located under the lanthanide element europium, and thus by analogy was named after the Americas.\n\nAmericium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley, California, at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, a part of the Manhattan Project. Although it is the third element in the transuranic series, it was discovered fourth, after the heavier curium. The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945. Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium. It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors, as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges. Several unusual applications, such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion, have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm, but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer.\n\nAmericium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with silvery appearance. Its common isotopes are 241Am and 243Am. In chemical compounds, americium usually assumes the oxidation state +3, especially in solutions. Several other oxidation states are known, which range from +2 to +8 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra. The crystal lattice of solid americium and its compounds contain small instrinsic radiogenic defects, due to metamictization induced by self-irradiation with alpha particles, which accumulates with time; this can cause a drift of some material properties over time, more noticeable in older samples.\n", "The 60-inch cyclotron at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, in August 1939.\nThe triangle in the glass tube contains the first sample of americium (as the hydroxide (Am(OH)3)), produced in 1944.\n\nAlthough americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments, it was first intentionally synthesized, isolated and identified in late autumn 1944, at the University of California, Berkeley, by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso. They used a 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California, Berkeley. The element was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) of the University of Chicago. Following the lighter neptunium, plutonium, and heavier curium, americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered. At the time, the periodic table had been restructured by Seaborg to its present layout, containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one. This led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium; it was thus by analogy named after the Americas: \"The name americium (after the Americas) and the symbol Am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rare-earth series, analogous to europium, Eu, of the lanthanide series.\"\n\nThe new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex, multi-step process. First plutonium-239 nitrate (239PuNO3) solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 0.5 cm2 area, the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide (PuO2) by annealing. After cyclotron irradiation, the coating was dissolved with nitric acid, and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution. The residue was dissolved in perchloric acid. Further separation was carried out by ion exchange, yielding a certain isotope of curium. The separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the Berkeley group as ''pandemonium'' (from Greek for ''all demons'' or ''hell'') and ''delirium'' (from Latin for ''madness'').\n\nInitial experiments yielded four americium isotopes: 241Am, 242Am, 239Am and 238Am. Americium-241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of one neutron. It decays by emission of a α-particle to 237Np; the half-life of this decay was first determined as 510 ± 20 years but then corrected to 432.2 years.\n\n:\n\n: The times are half-lives\n\nThe second isotope 242Am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the already-created 241Am. Upon rapid β-decay, 242Am converts into the isotope of curium 242Cm (which had been discovered previously). The half-life of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours, which was close to the presently accepted value of 16.02 h.\n\n: \n\nThe discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the Manhattan Project; the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945. Seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the U.S. radio show for children ''Quiz Kids'' five days before the official presentation at an American Chemical Society meeting on 11 November 1945, when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element beside plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war. After the discovery of americium isotopes 241Am and 242Am, their production and compounds were patented listing only Seaborg as the inventor. The initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms; they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity. The first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40–200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americium(III) fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100 °C.\n", "\nAmericium was detected in the fallout from the ''Ivy Mike'' nuclear test.\nThe longest-lived and most common isotopes of americium, 241Am and 243Am, have half-lives of 432.2 and 7,370 years, respectively. Therefore, any primordial americium (americium that was present on Earth during its formation) should have decayed by now.\n\nExisting americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980, as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents, such as the Chernobyl disaster. For example, the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, Ivy Mike, (1 November 1952, Enewetak Atoll), revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium; but due to military secrecy, this result was not published until later, in 1956. Trinitite, the glassy residue left on the desert floor near Alamogordo, New Mexico, after the plutonium-based Trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 July 1945, contains traces of americium-241. Elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a US Boeing B-52 bomber aircraft, which carried four hydrogen bombs, in 1968 in Greenland.\n\nIn other regions, the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 0.01 picocuries/g (0.37 mBq/g). Atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles. Soil analysis revealed about 1,900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores; an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils.\n\nAmericium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities, for research purposes. A tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes, mostly 241Am and 243Am. Their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal, and therefore americium, together with other long-lived actinides, must be neutralized. The associated procedure may involve several steps, where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to short-lived nuclides. This procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation, but it is still being developed for americium. The transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at Oklo, but no longer do so.\n", "\n===Isotope nucleosyntheses===\nChromatographic elution curves revealing the similarity between the lanthanides Tb, Gd, and Eu and the corresponding actinides Bk, Cm, and Am.\n\nAmericium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades, and kilograms of its 241Am and 243Am isotopes have been accumulated by now. Nevertheless, since it was first offered for sale in 1962, its price, about 1,500 USD per gram of 241Am, remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure. The heavier isotope 243Am is produced in much smaller amounts; it is thus more difficult to separate, resulting in a higher cost of the order 100,000–160,000 USD/g.\n\nAmericium is not synthesized directly from uranium – the most common reactor material – but from the plutonium isotope 239Pu. The latter needs to be produced first, according to the following nuclear process:\n\n: \n\nThe capture of two neutrons by 239Pu (a so-called (n,γ) reaction), followed by a β-decay, results in 241Am:\n\n: \n\nThe plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12% of 241Pu. Because it spontaneously converts to 241Am, 241Pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further 241Am. However, this process is rather slow: half of the original amount of 241Pu decays to 241Am after about 15 years, and the 241Am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years.\n\nThe obtained 241Am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor. In a light water reactor (LWR), 79% of 241Am converts to 242Am and 10% to its nuclear isomer 242mAm:\n\n:79%: \n\n:10%: \n\nAmericium-242 has a half-life of only 16 hours, which makes its further up-conversion to 243Am, extremely inefficient. The latter isotope is produced instead in a process where 239Pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux:\n\n: \n\n=== Metal generation ===\nMost synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms, from which isotopes of americium can be separated. In a typical procedure, the spent reactor fuel (e.g. MOX fuel) is dissolved in nitric acid, and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a PUREX-type extraction ('''P'''lutonium–'''UR'''anium '''EX'''traction) with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon. The lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue (raffinate) by a diamide-based extraction, to give, after stripping, a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides. Americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multi-step chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent. A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium. For example, a 2003 EU-funded project codenamed \"EUROPART\" studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents. A ''bis''-triazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium (and curium). Separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone, at elevated temperatures. Both Am and Cm are mostly present in solutions in the +3 valence state; whereas curium remains unchanged, americium oxidizes to soluble Am(IV) complexes which can be washed away.\n\nMetallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds. Americium(III) fluoride was first used for this purpose. The reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water- and oxygen-free environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten.\n\n: \n\nAn alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium:\n\n: \n", "Double-hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC in the crystal structure of α-americium (A: green, B: blue, C: red).\n\nIn the periodic table, americium is located to the right of plutonium, to the left of curium, and below the lanthanide europium, with which it shares many similarities in physical and chemical properties. Americium is a highly radioactive element. When freshly prepared, it has a silvery-white metallic lustre, but then slowly tarnishes in air. With a density of 12 g/cm3, americium is less dense than both curium (13.52 g/cm3) and plutonium (19.8 g/cm3); but has a higher density than europium (5.264 g/cm3)—mostly because of its higher atomic mass. Americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it: Th, Pa, U, Np and Pu. Its melting point of 1173 °C is significantly higher than that of plutonium (639 °C) and europium (826 °C), but lower than for curium (1340 °C).\n\nAt ambient conditions, americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry, and a space group P63/mmc with lattice parameters ''a'' = 346.8 pm and ''c'' = 1124 pm, and four atoms per unit cell. The crystal consists of a double-hexagonal close packing with the layer sequence ABAC and so is isotypic with α-lanthanum and several actinides such as α-curium. The crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature. When compressed at room temperature to 5 GPa, α-Am transforms to the β modification, which has a face-centered cubic (''fcc'') symmetry, space group Fmm and lattice constant ''a'' = 489 pm. This ''fcc'' structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence ABC. Upon further compression to 23 GPa, americium transforms to an orthorhombic γ-Am structure similar to that of α-uranium. There are no further transitions observed up to 52 GPa, except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 GPa. There is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature, which also sometimes lists the α, β and γ phases as I, II and III. The β-γ transition is accompanied by a 6% decrease in the crystal volume; although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the α-β transition, it is not observed experimentally. The pressure of the α-β transition decreases with increasing temperature, and when α-americium is heated at ambient pressure, at 770 °C it changes into an ''fcc'' phase which is different from β-Am, and at 1075 °C it converts to a body-centered cubic structure. The pressure-temperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum, praseodymium and neodymium.\n\nAs with many other actinides, self-damage of the crystal lattice due to alpha-particle irradiation is intrinsic to americium. It is especially noticeable at low temperatures, where the mobility of the produced lattice defects is relatively low, by broadening of X-ray diffraction peaks. This effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties, such as electrical resistivity. So for americium-241, the resistivity at 4.2 K increases with time from about 2 µOhm·cm to 10 µOhm·cm after 40 hours, and saturates at about 16 µOhm·cm after 140 hours. This effect is less pronounced at room temperature, due to annihilation of radiation defects; also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity. In fresh samples, the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 µOhm·cm at liquid helium to 69 µOhm·cm at room temperature; this behavior is similar to that of neptunium, uranium, thorium and protactinium, but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60 K followed by saturation. The room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium, plutonium and curium, but higher than for uranium, thorium and protactinium.\n\nAmericium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range, from that of liquid helium, to room temperature and above. This behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52 K. The thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to (7.5 ± 0.2)/°C along the shorter ''a'' axis and (6.2 ± 0.4)/°C for the longer ''c'' hexagonal axis. The enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is −620.6 ± 1.3 kJ/mol, from which the standard enthalpy change of formation (Δf''H''°) of aqueous Am3+ ion is −621.2 ± 2.0 kJ/mol−1. The standard potential Am3+/Am0 is −2.08 ± 0.01 V.\n", "Americium ions in solution: Am3+ (left) and Am4+ (right). Am3+ is colorless at low and reddish at higher concentrations.\nAmericium readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves well in acids. The most common oxidation state for americium is +3, in which americium compounds are rather stable against oxidation and reduction. In this sense, americium is chemically similar to most lanthanides. The trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride, oxalate, iodate, hydroxide, phosphate and other salts. Other oxidation states have been observed between +2 and +7, which is the widest range among the actinide elements. Their color in aqueous solutions varies as follows: Am3+ (colorless to yellow-reddish), Am4+ (yellow-reddish), AmV; (yellow), AmVI (brown) and AmVII (dark green). All oxidation states have their characteristic optical absorption spectra, with a few sharp peaks in the visible and mid-infrared regions, and the position and intensity of these peaks can be converted into the concentrations of the corresponding oxidation states. For example, Am(III) has two sharp peaks at 504 and 811 nm, Am(V) at 514 and 715 nm, and Am(VI) at 666 and 992 nm.\n\nAmericium compounds with oxidation state +4 and higher are strong oxidizing agents, comparable in strength to the permanganate ion () in acidic solutions. Whereas the Am4+ ions are unstable in solutions and readily convert to Am3+, the +4 oxidation state occurs well in solids, such as americium dioxide (AmO2) and americium(IV) fluoride (AmF4).\n\nAll pentavalent and hexavalent americium compounds are complex salts such as KAmO2F2, Li3AmO4 and Li6AmO6, Ba3AmO6, AmO2F2. These high oxidation states Am(IV), Am(V) and Am(VI) can be prepared from Am(III) by oxidation with ammonium persulfate in dilute nitric acid, with silver(I) oxide in perchloric acid, or with ozone or sodium persulfate in sodium carbonate solutions. The pentavalent oxidation state of americium was first observed in 1951. It is present in aqueous solution in the form of ions (acidic) or ions (alkaline) which are however unstable and subject to several rapid disproportionation reactions:\n\n: {3AmO2+} + 4H+ -> {2AmO2^2+} + {Am^3+} + {2H2O}\n\n: {2Am^V} -> {Am^{VI}} + Am^{IV}\n", "\n===Oxygen compounds===\nThree americium oxides are known, with the oxidation states +2 (AmO), +3 (Am2O3) and +4 (AmO2). Americium(II) oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in details. Americium(III) oxide is a red-brown solid with a melting point of 2205 °C. Americium(IV) oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications. As most other actinide dioxides, it is a black solid with a cubic (fluorite) crystal structure.\n\nThe oxalate of americium(III), vacuum dried at room temperature, has the chemical formula Am2(C2O4)3·7H2O. Upon heating in vacuum, it loses water at 240 °C and starts decomposing into AmO2 at 300 °C, the decomposition completes at about 470 °C. The initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 0.25 g/L.\n\n===Halides===\nHalides of americium are known for the oxidation states +2, +3 and +4, where the +3 is most stable, especially in solutions.\n\n\n\n Oxidation state\n F\n Cl\n Br\n I\n\n +4\n Americium(IV) fluoride AmF4 pale pink\n\n\n\n\n +3\n Americium(III) fluoride AmF3 pink\n Americium(III) chloride AmCl3 pink\n Americium(III) bromide AmBr3 light yellow\n Americium(III) iodide AmI3 light yellow\n\n +2\n\n Americium(II) chloride AmCl2 black \n Americium(II) bromide AmBr2 black \n Americium(II) iodide AmI2 black \n\n\nReduction of Am(III) compounds with sodium amalgam yields Am(II) salts – the black halides AmCl2, AmBr2 and AmI2. They are very sensitive to oxygen and oxidize in water, releasing hydrogen and converting back to the Am(III) state. Specific lattice constants are:\n* Orthorhombic AmCl2: ''a'' = 896.3 ± 0.8 pm, ''b'' = 757.3 ± 0.8 pm and ''c'' = 453.2 ± 0.6 pm\n* Tetragonal AmBr2: ''a'' = 1159.2 ± 0.4 and ''c'' = 712.1 ± 0.3 pm. They can also be prepared by reacting metallic americium with an appropriate mercury halide HgX2, where X = Cl, Br or I:\n: {Am} + \\overbrace{HgX2}^{mercury\\ halide} ->\\ce{400 - 500 ^\\circ C} {AmX2} + {Hg}\n\nAmericium(III) fluoride (AmF3) is poorly soluble and precipitates upon reaction of Am3+ and fluoride ions in weak acidic solutions:\n\n: {Am^3+} + 3F^- -> {AmF3(v)}\n\nThe tetravalent americium(IV) fluoride (AmF4) is obtained by reacting solid americium(III) fluoride with molecular fluorine:\n\n: {2AmF3} + F2 -> {2AmF4}\n\nAnother known form of solid tetravalent americium chloride is KAmF5. Tetravalent americium has also been observed in the aqueous phase. For this purpose, black Am(OH)4 was dissolved in 15-M NH3F with the americium concentration of 0.01 M. The resulting reddish solution had a characteristic optical absorption spectrum which is similar to that of AmF4 but differed from other oxidation states of americium. Heating the Am(IV) solution to 90 °C did not result in its disproportionation or reduction, however a slow reduction was observed to Am(III) and assigned to self-irradiation of americium by alpha particles.\n\nMost americium(III) halides form hexagonal crystals with slight variation of the color and exact structure between the halogens. So, chloride (AmCl3) is reddish and has a structure isotypic to uranium(III) chloride (space group P63/m) and the melting point of 715 °C. The fluoride is isotypic to LaF3 (space group P63/mmc) and the iodide to BiI3 (space group R). The bromide is an exception with the orthorhombic PuBr3-type structure and space group Cmcm. Crystals of americium hexahydrate (AmCl3·6H2O) can be prepared by dissolving americium dioxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the liquid. Those crystals are hygroscopic and have yellow-reddish color and a monoclinic crystal structure.\n\nOxyhalides of americium in the form AmVIO2X2, AmVO2X, AmIVOX2 and AmIIIOX can be obtained by reacting the corresponding americium halide with oxygen or Sb2O3, and AmOCl can also be produced by vapor phase hydrolysis:\n: {AmCl3} + H2O -> {AmOCl} + {2HCl}\n\n===Chalcogenides and pnictides===\nThe known chalcogenides of americium include the sulfide AmS2, selenides AmSe2 and Am3Se4, and tellurides Am2Te3 and AmTe2. The pnictides of americium (243Am) of the AmX type are known for the elements phosphorus, arsenic, antimony and bismuth. They crystallize in the rock-salt lattice.\n\n===Silicides and borides===\nAmericium monosilicide (AmSi) and \"disilicide\" (nominally AmSix with: 1.87 x). AmSi is a black solid isomorphic with LaSi, it has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry. AmSix has a bright silvery lustre and a tetragonal crystal lattice (space group ''I''41/amd), it is isomorphic with PuSi2 and ThSi2. Borides of americium include AmB4 and AmB6. The tetraboride can be obtained by heating an oxide or halide of americium with magnesium diboride in vacuum or inert atmosphere.\n\n===Organoamericium compounds===\nFile:Uranocene-3D-balls.png\|thumb\|120px\|Predicted structure of amerocene (η8-C8H8)2\nAnalogous to uranocene, americium forms the organometallic compound amerocene with two cyclooctatetraene ligands, with the chemical formula (η8-C8H8)2Am. It also makes the trigonal tricyclopentadienylamericium (η5-C5H5)3Am) complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings surrounding one atom of americium.\n\nFormation of the complexes of the type Am(n-C3H7-BTP)3, where BTP stands for 2,6-di(1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)pyridine, in solutions containing n-C3H7-BTP and Am3+ ions has been confirmed by EXAFS. Some of these BTP-type complexes selectively interact with americium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides.\n", "Americium is an artificial element of recent origin, and thus does not have a biological requirement. It is harmful to life. It has been proposed to use bacteria for removal of americium and other heavy metals from rivers and streams. Thus, Enterobacteriaceae of the genus ''Citrobacter'' precipitate americium ions from aqueous solutions, binding them into a metal-phosphate complex at their cell walls. Several studies have been reported on the biosorption and bioaccumulation of americium by bacteria and fungi.\n", "The isotope 242mAm (half-life 141 years) has the largest cross sections for absorption of thermal neutrons (5,700 barns), that results in a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The critical mass for a bare 242mAm sphere is about 9–14 kg (the uncertainty results from insufficient knowledge of its material properties). It can be lowered to 3–5 kg with a metal reflector and should become even smaller with a water reflector. Such small critical mass is favorable for portable nuclear weapons, but those based on 242mAm are not known yet, probably because of its scarcity and high price. The critical masses of two other readily available isotopes, 241Am and 243Am, are relatively high – 57.6 to 75.6 kg for 241Am and 209 kg for 243Am. Scarcity and high price yet hinder application of americium as a nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors.\n\nThere are proposals of very compact 10-kW high-flux reactors using as little as 20 grams of 242mAm. Such low-power reactors would be relatively safe to use as neutron sources for radiation therapy in hospitals.\n", "\nAbout 19 isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers are known for americium. There are two long-lived alpha-emitters, 241Am and 243Am with half-lives of 432.2 and 7,370 years, respectively, and the nuclear isomer 242m1Am has a long half-life of 141 years. The half-lives of other isotopes and isomers range from 0.64 microseconds for 245m1Am to 50.8 hours for 240Am. As with most other actinides, the isotopes of americium with odd number of neutrons have relatively high rate of nuclear fission and low critical mass.\n\nAmericium-241 decays to 237Np emitting alpha particles of 5 different energies, mostly at 5.486 MeV (85.2%) and 5.443 MeV (12.8%). Because many of the resulting states are metastable, they also emit gamma rays with the discrete energies between 26.3 and 158.5 keV.\n\nAmericium-242 is a short-lived isotope with a half-life of 16.02 h. It mostly (82.7%) converts by β-decay to 242Cm, but also by electron capture to 242Pu (17.3%). Both 242Cm and 242Pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through 238Pu down to 234U.\n\nNearly all (99.541%) of 242m1Am decays by internal conversion to 242Am and the remaining 0.459% by α-decay to 238Np. The latter subsequently decays to 238Pu and then to 234U.\n\nAmericium-243 transforms by α-emission into 239Np, which converts by β-decay to 239Pu, and the 239Pu changes into 235U by emitting an α-particle.\n", "\n\n===Ionization-type smoke detector===\n\n\nAmericium is the only synthetic element to have found its way into the household, where the most common type of smoke detector uses 241Am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation. This isotope is preferred over 226Ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation. Element collector Theodore Gray mentions in his book ''The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe'':\n\nThe amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1 microcurie (37 kBq) or 0.29 microgram. This amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium-237, a different transuranic element with a much longer half-life (about 2.14 million years). With its half-life of 432.2 years, the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3% neptunium after 19 years, and about 5% after 32 years. The radiation passes through an ionization chamber, an air-filled space between two electrodes, and permits a small, constant current between the electrodes. Any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles, which reduces the ionization and affects this current, triggering the alarm. Compared to the alternative optical smoke detector, the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering; however, it is more prone to false alarms.\n\n===Radionuclide===\nAs 241Am has a roughly similar half-life to 238Pu (432.2 years vs. 87 years), it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators, for example in spacecraft. Although americium produces less heat and electricity – the power yield is 114.7 mW/g for 241Am and 6.31 mW/g for 243Am (cf. 390 mW/g for 238Pu) – and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission, the European Space Agency is considering using americium for its space probes.\n\nAnother proposed space-related application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion. It relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of 242mAm, which can be maintained even in a micrometer-thick foil. Small thickness avoids the problem of self-absorption of emitted radiation. This problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods, in which only surface layers provide alpha-particles. The fission products of 242mAm can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat up a thrusting gas; they can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator.\n\nOne more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of 242mAm is a nuclear battery. Its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles, but on their charge, that is the americium acts as the self-sustaining \"cathode\". A single 3.2 kg 242mAm charge of such battery could provide about 140 kW of power over a period of 80 days. Even with all the potential benefits, the current applications of 242mAm are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this particular nuclear isomer.\n\n===Neutron source===\nThe oxide of 241Am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source. Here americium acts as the alpha source, and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large cross-section for the (α,n) nuclear reaction:\n\n: \n\n: \n\nThe most widespread use of 241AmBe neutron sources is a neutron probe – a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil, as well as moisture/density for quality control in highway construction. 241Am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications, as well as in neutron radiography, tomography and other radiochemical investigations.\n\n===Production of other elements===\nAmericium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides – for example, 82.7% of 242Am decays to 242Cm and 17.3% to 242Pu. In the nuclear reactor, 242Am is also up-converted by neutron capture to 243Am and 244Am, which transforms by β-decay to 244Cm:\n\n: \n\nIrradiation of 241Am by 12C or 22Ne ions yields the isotopes 247Es (einsteinium) or 260Db (dubnium), respectively. Furthermore, the element berkelium (243Bk isotope) had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding 241Am with alpha particles, in 1949, by the same Berkeley group, using the same 60-inch cyclotron. Similarly, nobelium was produced at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, Russia, in 1965 in several reactions, one of which included irradiation of 243Am with 15N ions. Besides, one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium, discovered by scientists at Berkeley and Dubna, included bombardment of 243Am with 18O.\n\n===Spectrometer===\nAmericium-241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses. The 59.5409 keV gamma ray emissions from 241Am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers. For example, the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass. Americium-241 is also suitable for calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers in the low-energy range, since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible Compton continuum (at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity). Americium-241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function. This medical application is however obsolete.\n", "As a highly radioactive element, americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements. Although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials, many of the daughter products emit gamma-rays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth.\n\nIf consumed, most of the americium is excreted within a few days, with only 0.05% absorbed in the blood, of which roughly 45% goes to the liver and 45% to the bones, and the remaining 10% is excreted. The uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age. In the bones, americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time. The biological half-life of 241Am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver, whereas in the gonads (testicles and ovaries) it remains permanently; in all these organs, americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity.\n\nAmericium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors. The rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions. In 1994, 17-year-old David Hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor. There have been a few cases of exposure to americium, the worst case being that of chemical operations technician Harold McCluskey, who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium-241 as a result of an explosion in his lab. McCluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated pre-existing disease.\n", "\n* Actinides in the environment\n* :Category:Americium compounds\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* Penneman, R. A. and Keenan T. K. The radiochemistry of americium and curium, University of California, Los Alamos, California, 1960\n* \n", "* ''Nuclides and Isotopes – 14th Edition'', GE Nuclear Energy, 1989.\n* \n* \n", "\n\n* Americium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Americium\n* World Nuclear Association – Smoke Detectors and Americium \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Occurrence", "Synthesis and extraction", "Physical properties", "Chemical properties", "Chemical compounds", "Biological aspects", "Fission", "Isotopes", "Applications", "Health concerns", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Bibliography", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Americium
[ "\n\n'''Astatine''' is a radioactive chemical element with symbol '''At''' and atomic number 85. It is the rarest naturally occurring element on the Earth's crust. It occurs on Earth as the decay product of various heavier elements. All its isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.1 hours. Elemental astatine has never been viewed because any macroscopic sample would be immediately vaporized by its radioactive heating. It has yet to be determined if this obstacle could be overcome with sufficient cooling.\n\nThe bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty. Many of these have been estimated based on its periodic table position as a heavier analog of iodine, and a member of the halogens – the group of elements including fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. It is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a semiconductor or possibly a metal; it probably has a higher melting point than that of iodine. Chemically, several anionic species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine. It also shows some metallic behavior, including being able to form a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution (unlike the lighter halogens).\n\nDale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè synthesized the element at the University of California, Berkeley in 1940, naming it after the Greek ''astatos'' (ἄστατος), \"unstable\". Four isotopes of astatine were subsequently found in nature, although it is the least abundant of all the naturally occurring elements, with much less than one gram being present at any given time in the Earth's crust. Neither the most stable isotope astatine-210 nor the medically useful astatine-211 occurs naturally. They can only be produced synthetically, usually by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles.\n", "Astatine is an extremely radioactive element; all its isotopes have short half-lives of 8.1 hours or less, decaying into other astatine isotopes, bismuth, polonium or radon. Most of its isotopes are very unstable with half-lives of one second or less. Of the first 101 elements in the periodic table, only francium is less stable, and all the astatine isotopes more stable than francium are in any case synthetic and do not occur in nature.\n\nThe bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty. Research is limited by its short half-life, which prevents the creation of weighable quantities. A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity. It remains to be seen if, with sufficient cooling, a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film. Astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid; metal formation has also been predicted.\n\n=== Physical ===\nMost of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated (by interpolation or extrapolation), using theoretically or empirically derived methods. For example, halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight – fluorine is nearly colorless, chlorine is yellow-green, bromine is red-brown, and iodine is dark gray/violet. Astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid (assuming it follows this trend), or as having a metallic appearance (if it is a metalloid or a metal). The melting and boiling points of astatine are also expected to follow the trend seen in the halogen series, increasing with atomic number. On this basis they are estimated to be , respectively. Some experimental evidence suggests astatine may have lower melting and boiling points than those implied by the halogen trend. Astatine sublimes less readily than does iodine, having a lower vapor pressure. Even so, half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at room temperature. The absorption spectrum of astatine in the middle ultraviolet region has lines at 224.401 and 216.225 nm, suggestive of 6p to 7s transitions.\n\nThe structure of solid astatine is unknown. As an analogue of iodine it may have an orthorhombic crystalline structure composed of diatomic astatine molecules, and be a semiconductor (with a band gap of 0.7 eV). Alternatively, if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase, as has been predicted, it may have a monatomic face-centered cubic structure. Evidence for (or against) the existence of diatomic astatine (At2) is sparse and inconclusive. Some sources state that it does not exist, or at least has never been observed, while other sources assert or imply its existence. Despite this controversy, many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted; for example, its bond length would be 300 ±10 pm, dissociation energy 83.7 ±12.5 kJ·mol−1, and heat of vaporization (∆Hvap) 54.39 kJ·mol−1. The latter figure means that astatine may (at least) be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with a heat of vaporization greater than ~42 kJ·mol−1 are metallic when liquid; diatomic iodine, with a value of 41.71 kJ·mol−1, falls just short of the threshold figure.\n\n=== Chemical ===\nThe chemistry of astatine is \"clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted, and the possibility of reactions with impurities, walls and filters, or radioactivity by-products, and other unwanted nano-scale interactions.\" Many of its apparent chemical properties have been observed using tracer studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions, typically less than 10−10 mol·L−1. Some properties – such as anion formation – align with other halogens. Astatine has some metallic characteristics as well, such as plating onto a cathode, coprecipitating with metal sulfides in hydrochloric acid, and forming a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution. It forms complexes with EDTA, a metal chelating agent, and is capable of acting as a metal in antibody radiolabeling; in some respects astatine in the +1 state is akin to silver in the same state. Most of the organic chemistry of astatine is, however, analogous to that of iodine.\n\nAstatine has an electronegativity of 2.2 on the revised Pauling scale – lower than that of iodine (2.66) and the same as hydrogen. In hydrogen astatide (HAt) the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom, implying that this compound should instead be referred to as astatine hydride. That would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the Allred–Rochow scale (1.9) being less than that of hydrogen (2.2). The electron affinity of astatine is predicted to be reduced by one-third because of spin-orbit interactions.\n", "Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens, although its compounds have been synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration. The reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine. Acting as a carrier, the iodine ensures there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques (such as filtration and precipitation) to work. Like iodine, astatine has been shown to adopt odd-numbered oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.\n\nOnly a few compounds with metals have been reported, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead. Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide, and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides, have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides.\n\nHydrogen astatide space-filling model\n\nThe formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen – usually referred to as hydrogen astatide – was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry. As mentioned, there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride. It is easily oxidized; acidification by dilute nitric acid gives the At0 or At+ forms, and the subsequent addition of silver(I) may only partially, at best, precipitate astatine as silver(I) astatide (AgAt). Iodine, in contrast, is not oxidized, and precipitates readily as silver(I) iodide.\n\nAstatine is known to bind to boron, carbon, and nitrogen. Various boron cage compounds have been prepared with At–B bonds, these being more stable than At–C bonds. Carbon tetraastatide (CAt4) has been synthesized. Astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in benzene to form astatobenzene C6H5At; this may be oxidized to C6H5AtCl2 by chlorine. By treating this compound with an alkaline solution of hypochlorite, C6H5AtO2 can be produced. In the molecules dipyridine-astatine(I) perchlorate At(C5H5N)2ClO4 and the analogous nitrate, the astatine atom is bonded to each nitrogen atom in the two pyridine rings.\n\nWith oxygen, there is evidence of the species AtO−, , and AtO+ in aqueous solution, formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or (in the last case) by sodium persulfate in a solution of perchloric acid. The well characterized anion can be obtained by, for example, the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of potassium hydroxide. Preparation of lanthanum triastatate La(AtO3)3, following the oxidation of astatine by a hot Na2S2O8 solution, has been reported. Further oxidation of , such as by xenon difluoride (in a hot alkaline solution) or periodate (in a neutral or alkaline solution), yields the perastatate ion ; this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions. Astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as iodate or dichromate; this is based on the observation that, in acidic solutions, monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silver(I) iodate or thallium(I) dichromate.\n\nAstatine may form bonds to the other chalcogens; these include S7At+ and with sulfur, a coordination selenourea compound with selenium, and an astatine–tellurium colloid with tellurium.\n\nStructure of astatine monoiodide, one of the astatine interhalogens and the heaviest known diatomic interhalogen.\n\nAstatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine, bromine, and chlorine in the vapor state; these reactions produce diatomic interhalogen compounds with formulas AtI, AtBr, and AtCl. The first two compounds may also be produced in water – astatine reacts with iodine/iodide solution to form AtI, whereas AtBr requires (aside from astatine) an iodine/iodine monobromide/bromide solution. The excess of iodides or bromides may lead to and ions, or in a chloride solution, they may produce species like or via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides. Oxidation of the element with dichromate (in nitric acid solution) showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either AtCl or AtOCl. Similarly, or may be produced. The polyhalides PdAtI2, CsAtI2, TlAtI2, and PbAtI are known or presumed to have been precipitated. In a plasma ion source mass spectrometer, the ions AtI+, AtBr+, and AtCl+ have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a helium-filled cell containing astatine, supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state. No astatine fluorides have been discovered yet. Their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds, including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a non-volatile product. Thus, although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible, it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent, as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride.\n", "\n\n\nIn 1869, when Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, the space under iodine was empty; after Niels Bohr established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements, it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there. Before its officially recognized discovery, it was called \"eka-iodine\" (from Sanskrit ''eka'' – \"one\") to imply it was one space under iodine (in the same manner as eka-silicon, eka-boron, and others). Scientists tried to find it in nature; given its extreme rarity, these attempts resulted in several false discoveries.\n\nThe first claimed discovery of eka-iodine was made by Fred Allison and his associates at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute (now Auburn University) in 1931. The discoverers named element 85 \"alabamine\", and assigned it the symbol Ab, designations that were used for a few years. In 1934, H. G. MacPherson of University of California, Berkeley disproved Allison's method and the validity of his discovery. There was another claim in 1937, by the chemist Rajendralal De. Working in Dacca in British India (now Dhaka in Bangladesh), he chose the name \"dakin\" for element 85, which he claimed to have isolated as the thorium series equivalent of radium F (polonium-210) in the radium series. The properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine; moreover, astatine is not found in the thorium series, and the true identity of dakin is not known.\n\nIn 1936, a team of Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French physicist Yvette Cauchois claimed to have discovered element 85 via X-ray analysis. In 1939 they published another paper which supported and extended previous data. In 1944, Hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time, claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers. He chose the name \"dor\", presumably from the Romanian for \"longing\" for peace, as World War II had started five years earlier. As Hulubei was writing in French, a language which does not accommodate the \"ine\" suffix, dor would likely have been rendered in English as \"dorine\", had it been adopted. In 1947, Hulubei's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Paneth, who would later chair the IUPAC committee responsible for recognition of new elements. Even though Hulubei's samples did contain astatine, his means to detect it were too weak, by current standards, to enable correct identification. He had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 (francium) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work.\nEmilio Segrè, one of the discoverers of astatine\n\nIn 1940, the Swiss chemist Walter Minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium A (polonium-218), choosing the name \"helvetium\" (from , \"Switzerland\"). Karlik and Bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments, and subsequently attributed Minder's results to contamination of his radon stream (radon-222 is the parent isotope of polonium-218). In 1942, Minder, in collaboration with the English scientist Alice Leigh-Smith, announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85, presumed to be the product of thorium A (polonium-216) beta decay. They named this substance \"anglo-helvetium\", but Karlik and Bernert were again unable to reproduce these results.\n\nLater in 1940, Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California, Berkeley. Instead of searching for the element in nature, the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron (particle accelerator) to produce, after emission of two neutrons, astatine-211. The discoverers, however, did not immediately suggest a name for the element. The reason for this was that at the time, an element created synthetically in \"invisible quantities\" that had not yet discovered in nature was not seen as a completely valid one; in addition, chemists were reluctant to recognize radioactive isotopes as legitimately as stable ones. In 1943, astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert, first in the so-called uranium series, and then in the actinium series. (Since then, astatine has been determined in a third decay chain, the neptunium series.) Friedrich Paneth in 1946 called to finally recognize synthetic elements, quoting, among other reasons, recent confirmation of their natural occurrence, and proposed the discoverers of the newly discovered unnamed elements name these elements. In early 1947, ''Nature'' published the discoverers' suggestions; a letter from Corson, MacKenzie, and Segrè suggested the name \"astatine\" coming from the Greek ''astatos'' (αστατος) meaning \"unstable\", because of its propensity for radioactive decay, with the ending \"-ine\", found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens. The name was also chosen to continue the tradition of the four stable halogens, where the name referred to a property of the element.\n\nCorson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its analytical chemistry. Subsequent investigators reported iodine-like, cationic, or amphoteric behavior. In a 2003 retrospective, Corson wrote that \"some of the properties of astatine are similar to iodine … it also exhibits metallic properties, more like its metallic neighbors Po and Bi.\"\n", "\n\n\n\n Alpha decay characteristics for sample astatine isotopes\n\n Massnumber\n Massexcess\n Half-life\n Probabilityof alphadecay\n Alphadecayhalf-life\n\n 207\n \n \n %\n \n\n 208\n \n \n %\n \n\n 209\n \n \n %\n \n\n 210\n \n \n %\n \n\n 211\n \n \n %\n \n\n 212\n \n \n ≈100%\n \n\n 213\n \n \n %\n \n\n 214\n \n \n %\n \n\n 219\n \n \n %\n \n\n 220\n \n \n %\n \n\n 221\n \n \n experimentallyalpha stable\n ∞\n\n\nThere are 39 known isotopes of astatine, with atomic masses (mass numbers) of 191–229. Theoretical modeling suggests that 37 more isotopes could exist. No stable or long-lived astatine isotope has been observed, nor is one expected to exist.\n\nAstatine's alpha decay energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements. Lighter astatine isotopes have quite high energies of alpha decay, which become lower as the nuclei become heavier. Astatine-211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope, because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons, and 126 is a magic number corresponding to a filled neutron shell. Despite having a similar half-life to the previous isotope (8.1 hours for astatine-210 and 7.2 hours for astatine-211), the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter: 41.81% against only 0.18%. The two following isotopes release even more energy, with astatine-213 releasing the most energy. For this reason, it is the shortest-lived astatine isotope. Even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy, no long-lived astatine isotope exists, because of the increasing role of beta decay (electron emission). This decay mode is especially important for astatine; as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay. Beta decay modes have been found for all astatine isotopes except astatine-213, -214, -215, and -216m. Astatine-210 and lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay (positron emission), astatine-216 and heavier isotopes exhibit beta (minus) decay, and astatine-212 decays via both modes, while astatine-211 undergoes electron capture.\n\nThe most stable isotope is astatine-210, which has a half-life of 8.1 hours. The primary decay mode is beta plus, to the relatively long-lived (in comparison to astatine isotopes) alpha emitter polonium-210. In total, only five isotopes have half-lives exceeding one hour (astatine-207 to -211). The least stable ground state isotope is astatine-213, with a half-life of 125 nanoseconds. It undergoes alpha decay to the extremely long-lived bismuth-209.\n\nAstatine has 24 known nuclear isomers, which are nuclei with one or more nucleons (protons or neutrons) in an excited state. A nuclear isomer may also be called a \"meta-state\", meaning the system has more internal energy than the \"ground state\" (the state with the lowest possible internal energy), making the former likely to decay into the latter. There may be more than one isomer for each isotope. The most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine-202m1, which has a half-life of about 3 minutes, longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203–211 and 220. The least stable is astatine-214m1; its half-life of 265 nanoseconds is shorter than those of all ground states except that of astatine-213.\n", "Neptunium series, showing the decay products, including astatine-217, formed from neptunium-237\n\nAstatine is the rarest naturally occurring element. The total amount of astatine in the Earth's crust (quoted mass 2.36 × 1025 grams) is estimated to be less than one gram at any given time.\n\nAny astatine present at the formation of the Earth has long since disappeared; the four naturally occurring isotopes (astatine-215, -217, -218 and -219) are instead continuously produced as a result of the decay of radioactive thorium and uranium ores, and trace quantities of neptunium-237. The landmass of North and South America combined, to a depth of 16 kilometers (10 miles), contains only about one trillion astatine-215 atoms at any given time (around 3.5 × 10−10 grams). Astatine-217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium-237. Primordial remnants of the latter isotope—due to its relatively short half-life of 2.14 million years—are no longer present on Earth. However, trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in uranium ores. Astatine-218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature. Astatine-219, with a half-life of 56 seconds, is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes.\n\nIsotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions that there are no such isotopes, or discrepancies in the literature. Astatine-216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation (which were described as doubtful) have not been confirmed.\n", "\n=== Formation ===\n\n\n+ Possible reactions after bombarding bismuth-209 with alpha particles\n Reaction\n Energy of alpha particle\n\n + → + 2 n\n 26 MeV\n\n + → + 3 n\n 40 MeV\n\n + → + 4 n\n 60 MeV\n\n\nAstatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth-209 with energetic alpha particles, and this is still the major route used to create the relatively long-lived isotopes astatine-209 through astatine-211. Astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities, with modern techniques allowing production runs of up to 6.6 gigabecquerels (about 86 nanograms or 2.47 × 1014 atoms). Synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target. Solvent radiolysis due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay is a related problem. With cryogenic technology, microgram quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of thorium or uranium to yield radon-211, in turn decaying to astatine-211. Contamination with astatine-210 is expected to be a drawback of this method.\n\nThe most important isotope is astatine-211, the only one in commercial use. To produce the bismuth target, the metal is sputtered onto a gold, copper, or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter. Bismuth oxide can be used instead; this is forcibly fused with a copper plate. The target is kept under a chemically neutral nitrogen atmosphere, and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization. In a particle accelerator, such as a cyclotron, alpha particles are collided with the bismuth. Even though only one bismuth isotope is used (bismuth-209), the reaction may occur in three possible ways, producing astatine-209, astatine-210, or astatine-211. In order to eliminate undesired nuclides, the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to a value (optimally 29.17 MeV) above that for the reaction producing astatine-211 (to produce the desired isotope) and below the one producing astatine-210 (to avoid producing other astatine isotopes).\n\n=== Separation methods ===\nSince astatine is the main product of the synthesis, after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants. Several methods are available, \"but they generally follow one of two approaches—dry distillation or wet acid treatment of the target followed by solvent extraction.\" The methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures, as reviewed by Kugler and Keller. Pre-1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of co-produced toxic polonium; this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam.\n\n==== Dry ====\nThe astatine-containing cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650 °C. The astatine volatilizes and is condensed in (typically) a cold trap. Higher temperatures of up to around 850 °C may increase the yield, at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization. Redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth (as bismuth can interfere with astatine labeling reactions). The astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as sodium hydroxide, methanol or chloroform. Astatine yields of up to around 80% may be achieved. Dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine.\n\n==== Wet ====\nThe bismuth (or sometimes bismuth trioxide) target is dissolved in, for example, concentrated nitric or perchloric acid. Astatine is extracted using an organic solvent such as butyl or isopropyl ether, or thiosemicarbazide. A separation yield of 93% using nitric acid has been reported, falling to 72% by the time purification procedures were completed (distillation of nitric acid, purging residual nitrogen oxides, and redissolving bismuth nitrate to enable liquid-liquid extraction). Wet methods involve \"multiple radioactivity handling steps\" and are not well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine. They can enable the production of astatine in a specific oxidation state and may have greater applicability in experimental radiochemistry.\n", "\n:{\| class=\"wikitable\"\n+ Several 211At-containing molecules and their experimental uses\n Agent\n Applications\n\n 211Atastatine-tellurium colloids\n Compartmental tumors\n\n 6-211Atastato-2-methyl-1,4-naphtaquinol diphosphate\n Adenocarcinomas\n\n 211At-labeled methylene blue\n Melanomas\n\n Meta-211Atastatobenzyl guanidine\n Neuroendocrine tumors\n\n 5-211Atastato-2'-deoxyuridine\n Various\n\n 211At-labeled biotin conjugates\n Various pretargeting\n\n 211At-labeled octreotide\n Somatostatin receptor\n\n 211At-labeled monoclonal antibodies and fragments\n Various\n\n 211At-labeled bisphosphonates\n Bone metastases\n\n\nNewly formed astatine-211 is the subject of ongoing research in nuclear medicine. It must be used quickly as it decays with a half-life of 7.2 hours; this is long enough to permit multistep labeling strategies. Astatine-211 has potential for targeted alpha particle radiotherapy, since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle (to bismuth-207), or via electron capture (to an extremely short-lived nuclide, polonium-211, which undergoes further alpha decay). Polonium X-rays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch, in the range of 77–92 keV, enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients. Although astatine-210 has a slightly longer half-life, it is wholly unsuitable because it usually undergoes beta plus decay to the extremely toxic polonium-210.\n\nThe principal medicinal difference between astatine-211 and iodine-131 (a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine) is that iodine-131 emits high-energy beta particles, and astatine does not. Beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles. An average alpha particle released by astatine-211 can travel up to 70 µm through surrounding tissues; an average-energy beta particle emitted by iodine-131 can travel nearly 30 times as far, to about 2 mm. The short half-life and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in situations where the \"tumor burden is low and/or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues.\" Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine-211 atoms bound per cell.\n\n\nSeveral obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatine-based radiopharmaceuticals for cancer treatment. World War II delayed research for close to a decade. Results of early experiments indicated that a cancer-selective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that monoclonal antibodies became available for this purpose. Unlike iodine, astatine shows a tendency to dehalogenate from molecular carriers such as these, particularly at sp3 carbon sites (less so from sp2 sites). Given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body, this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule. While astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy, more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine. Mitigating the effects of astatine-induced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development. A practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a \"staggering\" number of patients; production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue.\n\nAnimal studies show that astatine, similarly to iodine, although to a lesser extent, is preferentially concentrated in the thyroid gland. Unlike iodine, astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen, possibly because of in-body oxidation of At– to At+. If administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the liver. Experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine-211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine-131, with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell dysplasia within the gland. Early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue; this conclusion remained controversial for many years. General agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries. Trace amounts of astatine can be handled safely in fume hoods if they are well-aerated; biological uptake of the element must be avoided.\n\n\n", "\n* Radiation protection\n\n", "\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Astatine at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* Astatine: Halogen or Metal?\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Characteristics ", " Compounds ", " History ", " Isotopes ", " Natural occurrence ", " Synthesis ", " Uses and precautions ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " Bibliography ", " External links " ]	Astatine
[ "\n\n\n\n\nAn '''atom''' is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms. Atoms are very small; typical sizes are around 100 picometers (a ten-billionth of a meter, in the short scale).\n\nAtoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics – as if they were billiard balls, for example – gives noticeably incorrect predictions due to quantum effects. Through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior.\n\nEvery atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a similar number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons. More than 99.94% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus. The protons have a positive electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge, and the neutrons have no electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an ion.\n\nThe electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by this electromagnetic force. The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by a different force, the nuclear force, which is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force repelling the positively charged protons from one another. Under certain circumstances, the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force, and nucleons can be ejected from the nucleus, leaving behind a different element: nuclear decay resulting in nuclear transmutation.\n\nThe number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs: for example, all copper atoms contain 29 protons. The number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of electrons influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature and is the subject of the discipline of chemistry.\n", "\n\n===Atoms in philosophy===\n\nThe idea that matter is made up of discrete units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece and India. The word \"atom\" was coined by ancient Greek philosophers. However, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. As a result, their views on what atoms look like and how they behave were incorrect. They also could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, when the blossoming science of chemistry produced discoveries that only the concept of atoms could explain.\n\n===First evidence-based theory===\nVarious atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's ''A New System of Chemical Philosophy'' (1808).\nIn the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers (the law of multiple proportions). For instance, there are two types of tin oxide: one is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen and the other is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen (tin(II) oxide and tin dioxide respectively). This means that 100g of tin will combine either with 13.5g or 27g of oxygen. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2, a ratio of small whole numbers. This common pattern in chemistry suggested to Dalton that elements react in whole number multiples of discrete units—in other words, atoms. In the case of tin oxides, one tin atom will combine with either one or two oxygen atoms.\n\nDalton also believed atomic theory could explain why water absorbs different gases in different proportions. For example, he found that water absorbs carbon dioxide far better than it absorbs nitrogen. Dalton hypothesized this was due to the differences between the masses and configurations of the gases' respective particles, and carbon dioxide molecules (CO2) are heavier and larger than nitrogen molecules (N2).\n\n===Brownian motion===\nIn 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water and discovered that they moved about erratically, a phenomenon that became known as \"Brownian motion\". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905, Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first Statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's work to experimentally determine the mass and dimensions of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.\n\n===Discovery of the electron===\nThe '''Geiger–Marsden experiment''' ''Top:'' Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom with negligible deflection. ''Bottom:'' Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected by the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus.\nThe physicist J. J. Thomson measured the mass of cathode rays, showing they were made of particles, but were around 1800 times lighter than the lightest atom, hydrogen. Therefore, they were not atoms, but a new particle, the first ''subatomic'' particle to be discovered, which he originally called \"''corpuscle''\" but was later named ''electron'', after particles postulated by George Johnstone Stoney in 1874. He also showed they were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials. It was quickly recognized that they are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires, and carry the negative electric charge within atoms. Thomson was given the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work. Thus he overturned the belief that atoms are the indivisible, ultimate particles of matter. Thomson also incorrectly postulated that the low mass, negatively charged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a uniform sea of positive charge. This became known as the plum pudding model.\n\n===Discovery of the nucleus===\n\nIn 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Ernest Rutherford, bombarded a metal foil with alpha particles to observe how they scattered. They expected all the alpha particles to pass straight through with little deflection, because Thomson's model said that the charges in the atom are so diffuse that their electric fields could not affect the alpha particles much. However, Geiger and Marsden spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°, which was supposed to be impossible according to Thomson's model. To explain this, Rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. Rutherford compared his findings to one firing a 15-inch shell at a sheet of tissue paper and it coming back to hit the person who fired it.\n\n===Discovery of isotopes===\nWhile experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for different atoms that belong to the same element. J.J. Thomson created a technique for separating atom types through his work on ionized gases, which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes.\n\n===Bohr model===\nThe Bohr model of the atom, with an electron making instantaneous \"quantum leaps\" from one orbit to another. This model is obsolete.\n\n\nIn 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see ''synchrotron radiation'') and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.\n\nLater in the same year Henry Moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of Niels Bohr's theory. These results refined Ernest Rutherford's and Antonius Van den Broek's model, which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its (atomic) number in the periodic table. Until these experiments, atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity. That it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today.\n\n===Chemical bonding explained===\nChemical bonds between atoms were now explained, by Gilbert Newton Lewis in 1916, as the interactions between their constituent electrons. As the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law, in 1919 the American chemist Irving Langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner. Groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus.\n\n===Further developments in quantum physics===\nThe Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922 provided further evidence of the quantum nature of the atom. When a beam of silver atoms was passed through a specially shaped magnetic field, the beam was split based on the direction of an atom's angular momentum, or spin. As this direction is random, the beam could be expected to spread into a line. Instead, the beam was split into two parts, depending on whether the atomic spin was oriented up or down.\n\nIn 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles behave to an extent like waves. In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger used this idea to develop a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as three-dimensional waveforms rather than point particles. A consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time; this became known as the uncertainty principle, formulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1926. In this concept, for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum, and vice versa.\nThis model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not, such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen. Thus, the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed.\n\n===Discovery of the neutron===\nThe development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy. The device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions, and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atom's mass to its charge. The chemist Francis William Aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses. The atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts, called the whole number rule. The explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron, an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton, by the physicist James Chadwick in 1932. Isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus.\n\n===Fission, high-energy physics and condensed matter===\nIn 1938, the German chemist Otto Hahn, a student of Rutherford, directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements. Instead, his chemical experiments showed barium as a product. A year later, Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch verified that Hahn's result were the first experimental ''nuclear fission''. In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel prize in chemistry. Despite Hahn's efforts, the contributions of Meitner and Frisch were not recognized.\n\nIn the 1950s, the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies. Neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons, or composites of smaller particles called quarks. The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.\n", "===Subatomic particles===\n\nThough the word ''atom'' originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles, in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles. The constituent particles of an atom are the electron, the proton and the neutron; all three are fermions. However, the hydrogen-1 atom has no neutrons and the hydron ion has no electrons.\n\nThe electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. It is the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details.\n\nProtons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at . The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. Ernest Rutherford (1919) observed that nitrogen under alpha-particle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei. By 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton.\n\nNeutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1,839 times the mass of the electron, or , the heaviest of the three constituent particles, but it can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy. Neutrons and protons (collectively known as nucleons) have comparable dimensions—on the order of —although the 'surface' of these particles is not sharply defined. The neutron was discovered in 1932 by the English physicist James Chadwick.\n\nIn the Standard Model of physics, electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure. However, both protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks. There are two types of quarks in atoms, each having a fractional electric charge. Protons are composed of two up quarks (each with charge +) and one down quark (with a charge of −). Neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks. This distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles.\n\nThe quarks are held together by the strong interaction (or strong force), which is mediated by gluons. The protons and neutrons, in turn, are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force, which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different range-properties (see the article on the nuclear force for more). The gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons, which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces.\n\n===Nucleus===\n\nThe binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes\n\nAll the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus, and are collectively called nucleons. The radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to 1.07 fm, where ''A'' is the total number of nucleons. This is much smaller than the radius of the atom, which is on the order of 105 fm. The nucleons are bound together by a short-ranged attractive potential called the residual strong force. At distances smaller than 2.5 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other.\n\nAtoms of the same element have the same number of protons, called the atomic number. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may vary, determining the isotope of that element. The total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide. The number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus, with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay.\n\nThe proton, the electron, and the neutron are classified as fermions. Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle which prohibits ''identical'' fermions, such as multiple protons, from occupying the same quantum state at the same time. Thus, every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons, and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud. However, a proton and a neutron are allowed to occupy the same quantum state.\n\nFor atoms with low atomic numbers, a nucleus that has more neutrons than protons tends to drop to a lower energy state through radioactive decay so that the neutron–proton ratio is closer to one. However, as the atomic number increases, a higher proportion of neutrons is required to offset the mutual repulsion of the protons. Thus, there are no stable nuclei with equal proton and neutron numbers above atomic number ''Z'' = 20 (calcium) and as ''Z'' increases, the neutron–proton ratio of stable isotopes increases. The stable isotope with the highest proton–neutron ratio is lead-208 (about 1.5).\n\nIllustration of a nuclear fusion process that forms a deuterium nucleus, consisting of a proton and a neutron, from two protons. A positron (e+)—an antimatter electron—is emitted along with an electron neutrino.\n\nThe number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified, although this can require very high energies because of the strong force. Nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus, such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei. For example, at the core of the Sun protons require energies of 3–10 keV to overcome their mutual repulsion—the coulomb barrier—and fuse together into a single nucleus. Nuclear fission is the opposite process, causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nuclei—usually through radioactive decay. The nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons. If this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus, the atom changes to a different chemical element.\n\nIf the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles, then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy (such as a gamma ray, or the kinetic energy of a beta particle), as described by Albert Einstein's mass–energy equivalence formula, ''E'' = ''mc''2, where ''m'' is the mass loss and ''c'' is the speed of light. This deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus, and it is the non-recoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate.\n\nThe fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickel—a total nucleon number of about 60—is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together. It is this energy-releasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a self-sustaining reaction. For heavier nuclei, the binding energy per nucleon in the nucleus begins to decrease. That means fusion processes producing nuclei that have atomic numbers higher than about 26, and atomic masses higher than about 60, is an endothermic process. These more massive nuclei can not undergo an energy-producing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star.\n\n===Electron cloud===\n\n\nA potential well, showing, according to classical mechanics, the minimum energy ''V''(''x'') needed to reach each position ''x''. Classically, a particle with energy ''E'' is constrained to a range of positions between ''x''1 and ''x''2.\nThe electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. This force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus, which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape. The closer an electron is to the nucleus, the greater the attractive force. Hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations.\n\nElectrons, like other particles, have properties of both a particle and a wave. The electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of three-dimensional standing wave—a wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus. This behavior is defined by an atomic orbital, a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured. Only a discrete (or quantized) set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus, as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form. Orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures, and differ from each other in size, shape and orientation.\n\nnode that has an orientation and a minimum at the center. How atoms are constructed from electron orbitals and link to the periodic table\n\nEach atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron. The electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state. Likewise, through spontaneous emission, an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon. These characteristic energy values, defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states, are responsible for atomic spectral lines.\n\nThe amount of energy needed to remove or add an electron—the electron binding energy—is far less than the binding energy of nucleons. For example, it requires only 13.6 eV to strip a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom, compared to 2.23 ''million'' eV for splitting a deuterium nucleus. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions. Electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms. By this mechanism, atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals.\n", "===Nuclear properties===\n\n\nBy definition, any two atoms with an identical number of ''protons'' in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element. Atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of ''neutrons'' are different isotopes of the same element. For example, all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton, but isotopes exist with no neutrons (hydrogen-1, by far the most common form, also called protium), one neutron (deuterium), two neutrons (tritium) and more than two neutrons. The known elements form a set of atomic numbers, from the single proton element hydrogen up to the 118-proton element oganesson. All known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive, although the radioactivity of element 83 (bismuth) is so slight as to be practically negligible.\n\nAbout 339 nuclides occur naturally on Earth, of which 254 (about 75%) have not been observed to decay, and are referred to as \"stable isotopes\". However, only 90 of these nuclides are stable to all decay, even in theory. Another 164 (bringing the total to 254) have not been observed to decay, even though in theory it is energetically possible. These are also formally classified as \"stable\". An additional 34 radioactive nuclides have half-lives longer than 80 million years, and are long-lived enough to be present from the birth of the solar system. This collection of 288 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides. Finally, an additional 51 short-lived nuclides are known to occur naturally, as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay (such as radium from uranium), or else as products of natural energetic processes on Earth, such as cosmic ray bombardment (for example, carbon-14).\n\nFor 80 of the chemical elements, at least one stable isotope exists. As a rule, there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements, the average being 3.2 stable isotopes per element. Twenty-six elements have only a single stable isotope, while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten, for the element tin. Elements 43, 61, and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes.\n\nStability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons, and also by the presence of certain \"magic numbers\" of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells. These quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus; filled shells, such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin, confers unusual stability on the nuclide. Of the 254 known stable nuclides, only four have both an odd number of protons ''and'' odd number of neutrons: hydrogen-2 (deuterium), lithium-6, boron-10 and nitrogen-14. Also, only four naturally occurring, radioactive odd–odd nuclides have a half-life over a billion years: potassium-40, vanadium-50, lanthanum-138 and tantalum-180m. Most odd–odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even–even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.\n\n===Mass===\n\n\nThe large majority of an atom's mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up. The total number of these particles (called \"nucleons\") in a given atom is called the mass number. It is a positive integer and dimensionless (instead of having dimension of mass), because it expresses a count. An example of use of a mass number is \"carbon-12,\" which has 12 nucleons (six protons and six neutrons).\n\nThe actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed using the unified atomic mass unit (u), also called dalton (Da). This unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon-12, which is approximately . Hydrogen-1 (the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass) has an atomic weight of 1.007825 u. The value of this number is called the atomic mass. A given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal (within 1%) to its mass number times the atomic mass unit (for example the mass of a nitrogen-14 is roughly 14 u). However, this number will not be exactly an integer except in the case of carbon-12 (see below). The heaviest stable atom is lead-208, with a mass of .\n\nAs even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly, chemists instead use the unit of moles. One mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms (about ). This number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u, a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram. Because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit, each carbon-12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 u, and so a mole of carbon-12 atoms weighs exactly 0.012 kg.\n\n===Shape and size===\n\nAtoms lack a well-defined outer boundary, so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius. This is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus. However, this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape, which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space. Atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond. The radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart, the type of chemical bond, the number of neighboring atoms (coordination number) and a quantum mechanical property known as spin. On the periodic table of the elements, atom size tends to increase when moving down columns, but decrease when moving across rows (left to right). Consequently, the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm, while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm.\n\nWhen subjected to external forces, like electrical fields, the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry. The deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons, as shown by group-theoretical considerations. Aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals, where large crystal-electrical fields may occur at low-symmetry lattice sites. Significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyrite-type compounds.\n\nAtomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light (400–700 nm) so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope. However, individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope. To visualize the minuteness of the atom, consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width. A single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion () atoms of oxygen, and twice the number of hydrogen atoms. A single carat diamond with a mass of contains about 10 sextillion (1022) atoms of carbon. If an apple were magnified to the size of the Earth, then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple.\n\n===Radioactive decay===\n\n\nThis diagram shows the half-life (T½) of various isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.\n\nEvery element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay, causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force, which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm.\n\nThe most common forms of radioactive decay are:\n* Alpha decay: this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number.\n* Beta decay (and electron capture): these processes are regulated by the weak force, and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton, or a proton into a neutron. The neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino, while proton to neutron transition (except in electron capture) causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino. The electron or positron emissions are called beta particles. Beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one. Electron capture is more common than positron emission, because it requires less energy. In this type of decay, an electron is absorbed by the nucleus, rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus. A neutrino is still emitted in this process, and a proton changes to a neutron.\n* Gamma decay: this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state, resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle. Thus, gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay.\n\nOther more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus, or more than one beta particle. An analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way, is internal conversion— a process that produces high-speed electrons that are not beta rays, followed by production of high-energy photons that are not gamma rays. A few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons, in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission.\n\nEach radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time period—the half-life—that is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay. This is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50% every half-life. Hence after two half-lives have passed only 25% of the isotope is present, and so forth.\n\n===Magnetic moment===\n\n\nElementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin. This is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass, although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be point-like and cannot be said to be rotating. Spin is measured in units of the reduced Planck constant (ħ), with electrons, protons and neutrons all having spin ½ ħ, or \"spin-½\". In an atom, electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin, while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin.\n\nThe magnetic field produced by an atom—its magnetic moment—is determined by these various forms of angular momentum, just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field. However, the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin. Due to the nature of electrons to obey the Pauli exclusion principle, in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state, bound electrons pair up with each other, with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite, spin down state. Thus these spins cancel each other out, reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons.\n\nIn ferromagnetic elements such as iron, cobalt and nickel, an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment. The orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other, a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction. When the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up, the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field. Paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present, but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field.\n\nThe nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons, but for other cases of odd numbers, the nucleus may have a spin. Normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium. However, for certain elements (such as xenon-129) it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same direction—a condition called hyperpolarization. This has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging.\n\n===Energy levels===\nThese electron's energy levels (not to scale) are sufficient for ground states of atoms up to cadmium (5s2 4d10) inclusively. Do not forget that even the top of the diagram is lower than an unbound electron state.\nThe potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative, its dependence of its position reaches the minimum (the most absolute value) inside the nucleus, and vanishes when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity, roughly in an inverse proportion to the distance. In the quantum-mechanical model, a bound electron can only occupy a set of states centered on the nucleus, and each state corresponds to a specific energy level; see time-independent Schrödinger equation for theoretical explanation. An energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom, and is usually given in units of electronvolts (eV). The lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state, i.e. stationary state, while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state. The electron's energy raises when ''n'' increases because the (average) distance to the nucleus increases. Dependence of the energy on is caused not by electrostatic potential of the nucleus, but by interaction between electrons.\n\nFor an electron to transition between two different states, e.g. grounded state to first excited level (ionization), it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels, according to Niels Bohr model, what can be precisely calculated by the Schrödinger equation.\nElectrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the electrons, only a single electron changes states in response to the photon; see Electron properties.\n\nThe energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency, so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge, subshells filled by electrons, the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors.\n\nAn example of absorption lines in a spectrum\n\nWhen a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma, some of the photons are absorbed by atoms, causing electrons to change their energy level. Those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon, traveling in a random direction, and so drop back to lower energy levels. Thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output. (An observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background, instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms.) Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined.\n\nClose examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting. This occurs because of spin–orbit coupling, which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron. When an atom is in an external magnetic field, spectral lines become split into three or more components; a phenomenon called the Zeeman effect. This is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons. Some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level, which thus appear as a single spectral line. The interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels, resulting in multiple spectral lines. The presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels, a phenomenon called the Stark effect.\n\nIf a bound electron is in an excited state, an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level. For this to occur, the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon. The emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases. That is, the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized. This physical property is used to make lasers, which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band.\n\n===Valence and bonding behavior===\n\n\nValency is the combining power of an element. It is equal to number of hydrogen atoms that atom can combine or displace in forming compounds. The outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell, and the electrons in\nthat shell are called valence electrons. The number of valence electrons determines the bonding\nbehavior with other atoms. Atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills (or empties) their outer valence shells. For example, a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with one-electron more than a filled shell, and others that are one-electron short of a full shell, such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts. However, many elements display multiple valences, or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds. Thus, chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electron-sharing that are more than simple electron transfers. Examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds.\n\nThe chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties, and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table. (The horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons.) The elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons, which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases.\n\n===States===\n\n\nSnapshots illustrating the formation of a Bose–Einstein condensate\nQuantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure. By varying the conditions, materials can transition between solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. Within a state, a material can also exist in different allotropes. An example of this is solid carbon, which can exist as graphite or diamond. Gaseous allotropes exist as well, such as dioxygen and ozone.\n\nAt temperatures close to absolute zero, atoms can form a Bose–Einstein condensate, at which point quantum mechanical effects, which are normally only observed at the atomic scale, become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This super-cooled collection of atoms\nthen behaves as a single super atom, which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior.\n\n", "Scanning tunneling microscope image showing the individual atoms making up this gold (100) surface. The surface atoms deviate from the bulk crystal structure and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them (See surface reconstruction).\nThe scanning tunneling microscope is a device for viewing surfaces at the atomic level. It uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon, which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would normally be insurmountable. Electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two planar metal electrodes, on each of which is an adsorbed atom, providing a tunneling-current density that can be measured. Scanning one atom (taken as the tip) as it moves past the other (the sample) permits plotting of tip displacement versus lateral separation for a constant current. The calculation shows the extent to which scanning-tunneling-microscope images of an individual atom are visible. It confirms that for low bias, the microscope images the space-averaged dimensions of the electron orbitals across closely packed energy levels—the Fermi level local density of states.\n\nAn atom can be ionized by removing one of its electrons. The electric charge causes the trajectory of an atom to bend when it passes through a magnetic field. The radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom. The mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. If a sample contains multiple isotopes, the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions. Techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis.\n\nA more area-selective method is electron energy loss spectroscopy, which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample. The atom-probe tomograph has sub-nanometer resolution in 3-D and can chemically identify individual atoms using time-of-flight mass spectrometry.\n\nSpectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars. Specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms. These colors can be replicated using a gas-discharge lamp containing the same element. Helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the Sun 23 years before it was found on Earth.\n", "Atoms form about 4% of the total energy density of the observable Universe, with an average density of about 0.25 atoms/m3. Within a galaxy such as the Milky Way, atoms have a much higher concentration, with the density of matter in the interstellar medium (ISM) ranging from 105 to 109 atoms/m3. The Sun is believed to be inside the Local Bubble, a region of highly ionized gas, so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atoms/m3. Stars form from dense clouds in the ISM, and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ISM with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium. Up to 95% of the Milky Way's atoms are concentrated inside stars and the total mass of atoms forms about 10% of the mass of the galaxy. (The remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter.)\n\n===Formation===\nElectrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.\n\nUbiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy, which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons. Where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential, the matter exists in the form of plasma—a gas of positively charged ions (possibly, bare nuclei) and electrons. When the temperature drops below the ionization potential, atoms become statistically favorable. Atoms (complete with bound electrons) became to dominate over charged particles 380,000 years after the Big Bang—an epoch called recombination, when the expanding Universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei.\n\nSince the Big Bang, which produced no carbon or heavier elements, atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium, and (via the triple alpha process) the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron; see stellar nucleosynthesis for details.\n\nIsotopes such as lithium-6, as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation. This occurs when a high-energy proton strikes an atomic nucleus, causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected.\n\nElements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae through the r-process and in AGB stars through the s-process, both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei. Elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements.\n\n===Earth===\nMost of the atoms that make up the Earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the Solar System. The rest are the result of radioactive decay, and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the Earth through radiometric dating. Most of the helium in the crust of the Earth (about 99% of the helium from gas wells, as shown by its lower abundance of helium-3) is a product of alpha decay.\n\nThere are a few trace atoms on Earth that were not present at the beginning (i.e., not \"primordial\"), nor are results of radioactive decay. Carbon-14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere. Some atoms on Earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as by-products of nuclear reactors or explosions. Of the transuranic elements—those with atomic numbers greater than 92—only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on Earth. Transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the Earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed, with the exception of traces of plutonium-244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust. Natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore.\n\nThe Earth contains approximately atoms. Although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist, such as argon, neon, and helium, 99% of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules, including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen. At the surface of the Earth, an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds, including water, salt, silicates and oxides. Atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules, including crystals and liquid or solid metals. This atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of small-scale interrupted order associated with molecular matter.\n\n===Rare and theoretical forms===\n\n====Superheavy elements====\n\n\nWhile isotopes with atomic numbers higher than lead (82) are known to be radioactive, an \"island of stability\" has been proposed for some elements with atomic numbers above 103. These superheavy elements may have a nucleus that is relatively stable against radioactive decay. The most likely candidate for a stable superheavy atom, unbihexium, has 126 protons and 184 neutrons.\n\n====Exotic matter====\n\n\nEach particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge. Thus, the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton. When a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet, they annihilate each other. Because of this, along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles, the latter are rare in the universe. The first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood, although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation. As a result, no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature. However, in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom (antihydrogen) was synthesized at the CERN laboratory in Geneva.\n\nOther exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons, neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge. For example, an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon, forming a muonic atom. These types of atoms can be used to test the fundamental predictions of physics.\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n\n", "\n* \n\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* The actual physics lesson begins 2:20 into the video.\n* \n* \n* —a guide to the atom for teens.\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History of atomic theory", "Structure", "Properties", "Identification", "Origin and current state", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Sources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Atom
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''Aluminium''' or '''aluminum''' is a chemical element with symbol '''Al''' and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal in the boron group. By mass, aluminium makes up about 8% of the Earth's crust; it is the third most abundant element after oxygen and silicon and the most abundant metal in the crust, though it is less common in the mantle below. Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.\n\nAluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and important in transportation and building industries, such as building facades and window frames. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium.\n\nDespite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts' abundance, the potential for a biological role for them is of continuing interest, and studies continue.\n", "\"Bauxite tailings\" storage facility in Stade, Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.\n\n===Physical===\nAluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile, and malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.\n\nAluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.\n\nAluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).\nAluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits.\n\n====Supertetrahedral crystal form====\nIn September 2017, a team of scientists from Southern Federal University (Russia) and Utah State University (United States) demonstrated a metastable ultralight crystalline allotropic form of aluminum based on the diamond’s tetrahedral structure with each diamond atom replaced by a tetrahedron of aluminium atoms (hence supertetrahedron). The material is a semimetal and shows high plasticity, and with a density of 0.61 g/cm3 is less dense than water (1 g/cm3) and would therefore float on water.\n\n===Chemical===\nCorrosion resistance can be excellent because a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide forms when the bare metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation, in a process termed passivation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.\n\nIn highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, and in highly alkaline ones to form aluminates— protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. Primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium.\n\nHowever, because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 nm (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.\n\nAluminium is oxidized by water at temperatures below 280 °C to produce hydrogen, aluminium hydroxide and heat:\n:2 Al + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2\nThis conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. However, commercial application of this fact has challenges in circumventing the passivating oxide layer, which inhibits the reaction, and in storing the energy required to regenerate the aluminium metal.\n\n===Isotopes===\n\nAluminium has many known isotopes, with mass numbers range from 21 to 42; however, only 27Al (stable) and 26Al (radioactive, t1⁄2 = 7.2×105 years) occur naturally. 27Al has a natural abundance above 99.9%. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes are useful in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales. Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding drastically reduces 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.\n\n===Natural occurrence===\n\nStable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium, either in large stars or in supernovae. It is estimated to be the 14th most common element in the Universe, by mass-fraction. However, among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, aluminium is the third most abundant by mass fraction, after hydrogen and nitrogen.\n\nIn the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by mass) metallic element and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). The Earth's crust has a greater abundance of aluminium than the rest of the planet, primarily in aluminium silicates. In the Earth's mantle, which is only 2% aluminium by mass, these aluminium silicate minerals are largely replaced by silica and magnesium oxides. Overall, the Earth is about 1.4% aluminium by mass (eighth in abundance by mass). Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth than in the Solar system and Universe because the more common elements (hydrogen, helium, neon, nitrogen, carbon as hydrocarbon) are volatile at Earth's proximity to the Sun and large quantities of those were lost.\n\nBecause of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea. Chen ''et al.'' (2011) propose the theory that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.\n\nAluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium and iron, yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.\n\nAlthough aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO''x''(OH)3–2''x''). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. Bauxite is mined from large deposits in Australia, Brazil, Guinea, and Jamaica; it is also mined from lesser deposits in China, India, Indonesia, Russia, and Suriname.\n", "\nBauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of iron minerals.\n\n===Bayer process and Hall–Héroult processes===\nBauxite is converted to aluminium oxide (Al2O3) by the Bayer process. Relevant chemical equations are:\n:Al2O3 + 2 NaOH → 2 NaAlO2 + H2O \n:2 H2O + NaAlO2 → Al(OH)3 + NaOH\nThe intermediate, sodium aluminate, with the simplified formula NaAlO2, is soluble in strongly alkaline water, and the other components of the ore are not. Depending on the quality of the bauxite ore, twice as much waste (\"Bauxite tailings\") as alumina is generated.\n\nThe conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the Hall–Héroult process. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten () mixture of cryolite (Na3AlF6) with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium:\n: Al3+ + 3 e− → Al\nThe liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing. Carbon dioxide is produced at the carbon anode:\n: 2 O2− + C → CO2 + 4 e−\nThe carbon anode is consumed by reaction with oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas, with a small quantity of fluoride gases. In modern smelters, the gas is filtered through alumina to remove fluorine compounds and return aluminium fluoride to the electrolytic cells. The anode (i.e. the reduction cell) must be replaced regularly, since it is consumed in the process. The cathode is also eroded, mainly by electrochemical processes and liquid metal movement induced by intense electrolytic currents. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell must be rebuilt because of cathode wear.\n\nWorld production trend of aluminium\n\nAluminium electrolysis with the Hall–Héroult process consumes a lot of energy. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). Some smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Minimizing line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes; state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350 kA.\n\nThe Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoopes process. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.\n\nElectric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the US. Aluminium producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive—such as the United Arab Emirates with its large natural gas supplies, and Iceland and Norway with energy generated from renewable sources. The world's largest smelters of alumina are located in the People's Republic of China, Russia and the provinces of Quebec and British Columbia in Canada.\n\nAluminium spot price 1987–2012\nIn 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and the US, reports the British Geological Survey.\n\nOver the last 50 years, Australia has become the world's top producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina (before being overtaken by China in 2007). Australia produced 77 million tonnes of bauxite in 2013. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica, but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.\n\n===Aluminium chloride electrolysis process===\nThe high energy consumption of Hall–Héroult process motivated the development of the electrolytic process based on aluminium chloride. The pilot plant with 6500 tons/year output was started in 1976 by Alcoa. The plant offered two advantages: (i) energy requirements were 40% less than plants using the Hall–Héroult process, and (ii) the more accessible kaolinite (instead of bauxite and cryolite) was used for feedstock. Nonetheless, the pilot plant was shut down. The reasons for failure were the cost of aluminium chloride, general technology maturity problems, and leakage of the trace amounts of toxic polychlorinated biphenyl compounds.\n\nAluminium chloride process can also be used for the co-production of titanium, depending on titanium contents in kaolinite.\n\n===Aluminium carbothermic process===\nThe non-electrolytic ''aluminium carbothermic'' process of aluminium production would theoretically be cheaper and consume less energy. However, it has been in the experimental phase for decades because the high operating temperature creates difficulties in material technology that have not yet been solved.\n\n===Recycling===\nAluminium recycling code\n\nAluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is . Much of this is in more-developed countries ( per capita) rather than less-developed countries ( per capita). Knowing the per capita stocks and their approximate lifespans is important for planning recycling.\n\nRecovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness.\n\nRecycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%. The dross can undergo a further process to extract aluminium.\n\nEurope has achieved high rates of aluminium recycling ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of construction materials, and 95% of transport vehicles.\n\nRecycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of alloy injections. Another important use is extrusion.\n\nWhite dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air; contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.\n", "\n\n===Oxidation state +3===\nThe vast majority of compounds, including all Al-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is six-coordinate or tetracoordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.\n\n====Halides====\nAll four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate Al. The octahedral coordination environment for AlF3 is related to the compactness of the fluoride ion, six of which can fit around the small Al3+ center. AlF3 sublimes (with cracking) at . With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral Al centers. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen, although other methods exist. Acidification of the oxides or hydroxides affords hydrates. In aqueous solution, the halides often form mixtures, generally containing six-coordinate Al centers that feature both halide and aquo ligands. When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as , , and . In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters are formed such as Al13O4(OH)24(H2O)127+.\n\n====Oxide and hydroxides====\nAluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted.\nAluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula Al2O3. It can be found in nature in the mineral corundum. Aluminium oxide is also commonly called alumina. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore. There are three trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.\n\n====Carbide, nitride, and related materials====\nAluminium carbide (Al4C3) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above . The pale yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centers. It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.\n\nAluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides, it features tetrahedral Al centers. It can be made from the elements at . It is air-stable material with a usefully high thermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly; it hydrolyses to give phosphine:\n\n: AlP + 3 H2O → Al(OH)3 + PH3\n\n===Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides===\n\nStructure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.\n\nA variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist. These species usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some R or Cl bridging between both Al atoms, e.g. \"trimethylaluminium\" has the formula Al2(CH3)6 (see figure). With large organic groups, triorganoaluminium compounds exist as three-coordinate monomers, such as triisobutylaluminium. Such compounds are widely used in industrial chemistry, despite the fact that they are often highly pyrophoric. Few analogues exist between organoaluminium and organoboron compounds other than large organic groups.\n\nThe important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride:\n\n: 4 LiH + AlCl3 → LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl\n\nSeveral useful derivatives of LiAlH4 are known, e.g. sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate. The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remains a laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)''n'', in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.\n\n===Oxidation states +1 and +2===\nAlthough the great majority of aluminium compounds feature Al3+ centers, compounds with lower oxidation states are known and sometime of significance as precursors to the Al3+ species.\n\n====Aluminium(I)====\nAlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the trihalide is heated with aluminium. The composition is unstable at room temperature, converting to triiodide:\n\n: 3 AlI -> {AlI3} + 2 Al\n\nA stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, . Also of theoretical interest but only of fleeting existence are Al2O and Al2S. Al2O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at in a vacuum. Such materials quickly disproportionate to the starting materials.\n\n====Aluminium(II)====\nVery simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al-Al bond and where R is a large organic ligand.\n\n===Analysis===\nThe presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.\n", "\nEtched surface from a high purity (99.9998%) aluminium bar, size 55×37 mm\n\n===General use===\nAluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. The global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).\n\nAluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.\n\nHousehold aluminium foil\nAustin ''\"A40 Sports\"'' (c. 1951)\nAluminium slabs being transported from a smelter\n\nSome of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:\n* Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft, etc.) as sheet, tube, and castings.\n* Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.).\n* Food and beverage containers, because of its resistance to corrosion.\n* Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing, etc.).\n* A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats and watches.\n* Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles.\n* Outer shells and cases for consumer electronics and photographic equipment.\n* Electrical transmission lines for power distribution (\"creep\" and oxidation are not issues in this application as the terminations are usually multi-sided \"crimps\" which enclose all sides of the conductor with a gas-tight seal).\n* MKM steel and Alnico magnets.\n* Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs, and also in wires/cabling.\n* Heat sinks for transistors, CPUs, and other components in electronic appliances.\n* Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.\n* Light reflective surfaces and paint.\n* Pyrotechnics, solid rocket fuels, and thermite.\n* Production of hydrogen gas by reaction with water or sodium hydroxide.\n* In alloy with magnesium to make aircraft bodies and other transportation components.\n* Cooking utensils, because of its resistance to corrosion and light-weight.\n* Coins in such countries as France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the former Yugoslavia struck from aluminium or an aluminium-copper alloy.\n* Musical instruments. Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the instruments, usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars and Travis Bean are both known for having produced guitars with necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very distinctive sound. Aluminium is used to make some guitar resonators and some electric guitar speakers.\n\nAluminium is usually alloyed – it is used as pure metal only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. The strength of aluminium alloys is abruptly increased with small additions of scandium, zirconium, or hafnium. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapor deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapor deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors.\n\n===Aluminium compounds===\nBecause aluminium is abundant and most of its derivatives exhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminium enjoy wide and sometimes large-scale applications.\n\n====Alumina====\n\nAluminium oxide (Al2O3) and the associated oxy-hydroxides and trihydroxides are produced or extracted from minerals on a large scale. The great majority of this material is converted to metallic aluminium. In 2013, about 10% of the domestic shipments in the United States were used for other applications. One major use is to absorb water where it is viewed as a contaminant or impurity. Alumina is used to remove water from hydrocarbons in preparation for subsequent processes that would be poisoned by moisture.\n\nAluminium oxides are common catalysts for industrial processes; e.g. the Claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines. Many industrial catalysts are \"supported\" by alumina, meaning that the expensive catalyst material (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina.\n\nBeing a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive; being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps.\n\n====Sulfates====\nSeveral sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3·(H2O)18) is produced on the annual scale of several billions of kilograms. About half of the production is consumed in water treatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant, in fire extinguishers, in fireproofing, as a food additive (E number E173), and in leather tanning. Aluminium ammonium sulfate, which is also called ammonium alum, (NH4)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, is used as a mordant and in leather tanning, as is aluminium potassium sulfate (Al(K)(SO4)2)·(H2O)12. The consumption of both alums is declining.\n\n====Chlorides====\nAluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber and polymers. Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very different applications, particularly as a colloidal agent in water purification and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate in the production of aluminium metal.\n\n====Niche compounds====\n\nMany aluminium compounds have niche applications:\n* Aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent.\n* Aluminium borate (Al2O3·B2O3) and aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) are used in the production of glass, ceramics, synthetic gemstones. \n* Aluminium phosphate (AlPO4) used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes, and in dental cement. \n* Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used as an antacid, and mordant; it is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing fabrics. \n* Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry. \n* Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts.\n* Methylaluminoxane is a cocatalyst for Ziegler-Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene. \n* Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as ''Gyrodactylus salaris''. \n* In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.\n\n===Aluminium alloys in structural applications===\n\nAluminium foam\n\nAluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO).\n\nThe strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.\n\nOne important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. Engineers must assess applications and design for a fixed and finite life of the structure, rather than infinite life.\n\nAnother important property of aluminium alloys is sensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Manual blow torch operations require additional skill and experience. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, are subject to internal stresses after heat operations such as welding and casting. The lower melting points of aluminium alloys make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Stress can be relieved and controlled during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses.\n\nThe low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded use in rocketry, even in combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used regeneratively cooled aluminium in some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.\n\nAnother alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu-Al alloy).\n", "The statue of Anteros in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.\n\nAlthough ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds, metallic aluminium was not refined until the modern era. Alum, a salt of aluminium and potassium, is still used as a styptic.\n\nIn 1782, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the \"base\" of (i.e., the metallic element in) alum ''alumine''. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed ''alumium'' and later ''aluminum'' (see etymology section, below).\n\nThe metal was first produced in 1825 in an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after repeating Ørsted's experiments, he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced aluminium. Wöhler is therefore generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin ''alumen'', alum). Further, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore. Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846. As described in his 1859 book, aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used. \nIn the mid-1880s, aluminium metal was exceedingly difficult to produce, which made pure aluminium more valuable than gold. So celebrated was the metal that bars of aluminium were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle of 1855. Napoleon III of France is reputed to have held a banquet where the most honored guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with gold.\n\nAluminium was selected as the material for the capstone of the Washington Monument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project (in 1884 about $1 for 10 hours of labor. The capstone, which was set in place on 6 December 1884 in an elaborate dedication ceremony, was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time. It suffered some damage from lightning strikes, and was reengineered, redesigned and replaced in the 1934 renovation of the monument.\n\nThe Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.\n\n===Hall-Heroult process: availability of cheap aluminium metal===\nCharles Martin Hall of Ohio in the US and Paul Héroult of France independently developed the Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that facilitated large-scale production of metallic aluminium. This process remains in use today. In 1888, with the financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, the Pittsburgh Reduction Company started; today it is known as Alcoa. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.\n\nBy 1895, the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia, in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.\n\nWith the explosive expansion of the airplane industry during World War I (1914–1917), major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light, strong airframes. They often subsidized factories and the necessary electrical supply systems.\n\nMany navies have used an aluminium superstructure for their vessels; the 1975 fire aboard USS ''Belknap'' that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures.\n\nAluminium wire was once widely used for domestic electrical wiring in the United States, and a number of fires resulted from creep and corrosion-induced failures at junctions and terminations; additional and preventable factors in the failures have been identified. Aluminium is still used in electrical services with specially designed wire termination hardware.\n", "\nThe various names all derive from its elemental presence in alum. The word comes into English from Old French, from ''alumen'', a Latin word meaning \"bitter salt\".\n\nTwo variants of the name are in current use: ''aluminium'' () and ''aluminum'' (). There is also an obsolete variant ''alumium''. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990 but, three years later, recognized ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. The IUPAC periodic table uses the ''aluminium'' spelling only. IUPAC internal publications use the two spelling with nearly equal frequency.\n\n=== Different endings ===\nMost countries use the ending \"-ium\" for \"aluminium\". In the United States and Canada, the ending \"-um\" predominates. The ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' prefers ''aluminum'', whereas the Australian ''Macquarie Dictionary'' prefers ''aluminium''. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as \"chiefly British\". The earliest citation given in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' for any word used as a name for this element is ''alumium'', which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral ''alumina''. The citation is from the journal ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'': \"Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium.\"\n\nDavy settled on ''aluminum'' by the time he published his book ''Elements of Chemical Philosophy'' in June 1812: \"This substance appears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina.\" In September 1812, fellow British scientist Thomas Young wrote a review of Davy's book, which was published anonymously in the ''Quarterly Review'', a British literary and political periodical, in which he objected to ''aluminum'' and proposed the name ''aluminium'': \"for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound.\"\n\nThe ''-ium'' suffix followed the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself). Nevertheless, element names ending in ''-um'' were not unknown at the time; for example, platinum (known to Europeans since the 16th century), molybdenum (discovered in 1778), and tantalum (discovered in 1802). The ''-um'' suffix is consistent with the universal spelling alumina for the oxide (as opposed to aluminia), as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.\n\nThe ''aluminum'' spelling is used in the ''Webster's Dictionary'' of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal in 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the ''-um'' spelling, despite his constant use of the ''-ium'' spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that ''aluminum'' became the standard English spelling in North America.\n", "Schematic of Al absorption by human skin.\nThere are five major Al forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(aq)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al0(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/−(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/endothelia through five major routes: (1) paracellular; (2) transcellular; (3) active transport; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated endocytosis.\n\nDespite its widespread occurrence in the Earth crust, aluminium has no known function in biology. Aluminium salts are remarkably nontoxic, aluminium sulfate having an LD50 of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500 grams for an person. The extremely low acute toxicity notwithstanding, the health effects of aluminium are of interest in view of the widespread occurrence of the element in the environment and in commerce.\n", "In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier. A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as antiperspirants and antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in amounts greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass. The use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, however excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues. Aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory. The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as metalloestrogens.\n\nThere is little evidence that aluminium in antiperspirants causes skin irritation. Nonetheless, its occurrence in antiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and food additives has caused concern. Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults, some studies point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal. Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water. It is classified as a non-carcinogen by the US Department of Health and Human Services.\n\nIn case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, deferoxamine mesylate may be given to help eliminate it from the body by chelation.\n\n=== Occupational safety ===\nExposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 15 mg/m3 time weighted average (TWA) for total exposure and 5 mg/m3 TWA for respiratory exposure. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recommended exposure limit is the same for respiratory exposure but is 10 mg/m3 for total exposure, and 5 mg/m3 for fumes and powder.\n\nFine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.\n\n===Alzheimer's disease===\nAluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease. According to the Alzheimer's Society, the medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease. Nevertheless, some studies, such as those on the PAQUID cohort, cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent.\n", "Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.\n\nMost acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore, a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds. The concept of \"corrected lime potential\" is now used to define the degree of base saturation in soil testing to determine the \"lime requirement\".\n\nWheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium, releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This adaptation is not found in all plants.\n", "A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus ''Geotrichum candidum'' consumes the aluminium in compact discs. Other reports all refer back to the 2001 Spanish report and there is no supporting original research. Better documented, the bacterium ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' and the fungus ''Cladosporium resinae'' are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels (not AV gas), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium. However, these life forms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium; rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.\n", "\n* Aluminium granules\n* ''Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element''\n* Aluminium–air battery\n* Institute for the History of Aluminium\n* List of countries by aluminium production\n* Panel edge staining\n* Quantum clock\n* The Aluminum Association\n\n\n\n", "\n", "* Mimi Sheller, ''Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity.'' Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014.\n", "\n\n* Aluminium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n* '' Toxic Substances Portal - Aluminum'' – from the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, United States Department of Health and Human Services\n* CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum\n* World production of primary aluminium, by country\n* Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF\n* History of Aluminium – from the website of the International Aluminium Institute\n* Emedicine – Aluminium\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characteristics", "Production and refinement", "Compounds", "Applications", "History", "Etymology", "Biology", "Health concerns", "Effect on plants", " Biodegradation ", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aluminium
[ "\n\n\n'''Advanced Chemistry''' is a German hip hop group from Heidelberg, a scenic city in Baden-Württemberg, South Germany. Advanced Chemistry was founded in 1987 by Toni L, Linguist, Gee-One, DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon) and MC Torch. Each member of the group holds German citizenship, and Toni L, Linguist, and Torch are of Italian, Ghanaian, and Haitian backgrounds, respectively.\n\nInfluenced by North American socially conscious rap and the Native tongues movement, Advanced Chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in German hip hop. They were one of the first groups to rap in German (although their name is in English). Furthermore, their songs tackled controversial social and political issues, distinguishing them from early German hip hop group \"Die Fantastischen Vier\" (The Fantastic Four), which had a more light-hearted, playful, party image.\n\nThe rivalry between Advanced Chemistry and Die Fantastischen Vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the German soundscape. While Die Fantastischen Vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form, Advanced Chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created. For Advanced Chemistry, hip hop is a “vehicle of general human emancipation,”. In their undertaking of social and political issues, the band introduced the term \"Afro-German\" into the context of German hip hop, and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music.\n\nWith the release of the single “Fremd im eigenen Land”, Advanced Chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in Germany. This single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating US rap and addressed the current issues of the time. Fremd im eigenen Land which translates to “foreign in my own country” dealt with the widespread racism that non-white German citizens faced. This change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of German identification with rap. The sound of “Fremd im eigenen Land” was influenced by the 'wall of noise' created by Public Enemy's producers, The Bomb Squad.\n\nAfter the reunification of Germany, an abundance of anti-immigrant sentiment emerged, as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 90's. Advanced Chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their pro-multicultural society stance in their music. Advanced Chemistry's attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct \"Germanness\" in hip hop, as opposed to imitating American hip hop as other groups had done. Torch has said, \"What the Americans do is exotic for us because we don't live like they do. What they do seems to be more interesting and newer. But not for me. For me it's more exciting to experience my fellow Germans in new contexts...For me, it's interesting to see what the kids try to do that's different from what I know.\" Advanced Chemistry were the first to use the term \"Afro-German\" in a hip hop context. This was part of the pro-immigrant political message they sent via their music.\n\nWhile Advanced Chemistry's use of the German language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true German heritage, bolstering pro-immigration sentiment, their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots. Indeed, part of the Turkish ethnic minority of Frankfurt views Advanced Chemistry's appeal to the German image as a \"symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to 'roots' or to any expression of cultural heritage.\" In this sense, their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the German soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic German culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions. It is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pure-blooded German demographic that drive Advanced Chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their \"Germanness\" as a group composed primarily of ethnic others. The response to this pseudo-German authenticity can be seen in what Andy Bennett refers to as \"alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and, in many cases, reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots.\" These alternative local hip hop cultures include Oriental hip hop, the members of which cling to their Turkish heritage and are confused by Advanced Chemistry's elicitation of a German identity politics to which they technically do not belong. This cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in Germany and that, even among an already isolated immigrant population, there is still disunity and, especially, disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance. According to German hip hop enthusiast 9@home, Advanced Chemistry is part of a \"hip-hop movement which took a clear stance for the minorities and against the marginalization of immigrants who...might be German on paper, but not in real life,\" which speaks to the group's hope of actually being recognized as German citizens and not foreigners, despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties.\n", "One of the first issues that confronts us when we move outside the English-speaking market for recorded music is to establish whether or not the discrete musical genres we know from that market are fully congruent with similar divisions in other pop worlds. This is important in two ways. First, although no single country comes close to matching the amounts spent on recorded music in the United States, these markets are nonetheless economically significant. Germany, for instance, is the largest single market in western Europe, with estimated annual sales of U.S. $3.74 billion in 1996. This represents around 30 percent of reported U.S. sales and makes Germany the third biggest music market in the world.\n\nAdvanced Chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants, exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in Germany, and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a German identity can cause. The song \"Fremd im eigenem Land\" (Foreign in your own nation) was released by Advanced Chemistry in November 1992. The single became a staple in the German hip hop scene. It made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout Germany, as the group was composed of multi-national and multi-racial members. The video shows several members brandishing their German passports as a demonstration of their German citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting 'ethnic' Germans.\n\nThis idea of national identity is important, as many rap artists in Germany have been of foreign origin. These so-called ''Gastarbeiter'' (guest workers) children saw breakdance, graffiti, rap music, and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves. Since the release of \"Fremd im eigenen Land\", many other German-language rappers have also tried to confront anti-immigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship. However, though many ethnic minority youth in Germany find these German identity themes appealing, others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as German negatively, and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins.\n\nAdvanced Chemistry helped to found the German chapter of the Zulu nation.\n", "Advanced Chemistry's work was rooted in German history and the country's specific political realities. However, they also drew inspiration from African-American hip-hop acts like A Tribe Called Quest and Public Enemy, who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to American hip-hop. One member, Torch, later explicitly listed his references on his solo song \"Als (When I Was in School):\" \"My favorite subject, which was quickly discovered poetry in load Poets, awakens the intellect or policy at Chuck D I'll never forget the lyrics by Public Enemy.\" Torch goes on to list other American rappers like Biz Markie, Big Daddy Kane and Dr. Dre as influences.\n", "* 1992 - \"Fremd im eigenen Land\" (12\"/MCD, MZEE)\n* 1993 - \"Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte\" (12\"/MCD, MZEE)\n* 1994 - \"Operation § 3\" (12\"/MCD)\n* 1994 - \"Dir fehlt der Funk!\" (12\"/MCD)\n* 1995 - ''Advanced Chemistry'' (2xLP/CD)\n", "* Official Website of MC Torch\n* Website of Toni L.\n* Official Website of Linguist\n* Official Website DJ Mike MD (Mike Dippon)\n* Website of 360° Records\n", "El-Tayeb, Fatima “‘If You Cannot Pronounce My Name, You Can Just Call Me \nPride.’ Afro-German Activism, Gender, and Hip Hop,” ''Gender & History''15/3(2003):459-485.\n\nFelbert, Oliver von. “Die Unbestechlichen.” ''Spex'' (March 1993): 50-53.\n\nWeheliye, Alexander G. ''Phonographies:Grooves in Sonic Afro-Modernity'', Duke University Press, 2005.\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Market conditions for rap", "Influences", "Discography", "External links", "Bibliography", "References" ]	Advanced Chemistry
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe '''Anglican Communion''' is an international association of autonomous churches consisting of the Church of England and national and regional Anglican churches (\"provinces\") in full communion with it. Full participation in the sacramental life of each church is available to all communicant Anglicans.\n\nThe Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England, has a place of honour among the bishops of the Anglican churches. He is recognised as ''primus inter pares'' (\"first among equals\"). The archbishop does not exercise authority in the provinces outside England, but instead acts as a focus of unity.\n\nThe churches of the Anglican Communion considers themselves to be part of the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, Anglicanism represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as Luther, Knox, Calvin, Zwingli or Wesley. For others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. The communion encompasses a wide spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal and Anglo-Catholic.\n\nWith a membership estimated at around 85 million members, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, such as the Anglican Church of Canada, due to their historical link to England (''Ecclesia Anglicana'' means \"English Church\"). Some, for example the Church of Ireland, the Scottish and American Episcopal churches, and some other associated churches have a separate name. Each independent church has its own doctrine and liturgy, aligned in most cases with that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal polity, under the leadership of a local primate.\n", "\n\nThe Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury, but it only serves in a supporting and organisational role. The Communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies.\n\nThree elements have been important in holding the Communion together: first, the shared ecclesial structure of the component churches, manifested in an episcopal polity maintained through the apostolic succession of bishops and synodical government; second, the principle of belief expressed in worship, investing importance in approved prayer books and their rubrics; and third, the historical documents and the writings of early Anglican divines that have influenced the ethos of the Communion.\n\nOriginally, the Church of England was self-contained and relied for its unity and identity on its own history, its traditional legal and episcopal structure and its status as an established church of the state. As such Anglicanism was, from the outset, a movement with an explicitly episcopal polity, a characteristic which has been vital in maintaining the unity of the Communion by conveying the episcopate's role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism.\n\nEarly in its development, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, called the Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine (such as the Westminster Confession of the Presbyterian Church). Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer (1662) and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and practice. This had the effect of inculcating the principle of ''Lex orandi, lex credendi'' (Latin loosely translated as \"the law of praying is the law of believing\") as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession.\n\nProtracted conflict through the seventeenth century with more radical Protestants on the one hand and Catholics who recognised the primacy of the Pope on the other, resulted in an association of churches that were both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the various rubrics of the successive prayer books, as well as the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion. These Articles have historically shaped and continue to direct the ethos of the Communion, an ethos reinforced by their interpretation and expansion by such influential early theologians as Richard Hooker, Lancelot Andrewes, John Cosin, and others.\n\nWith the expansion of the British Empire, and hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the Communion sought to establish new vehicles of unity. The first major expression of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communion's bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles Longley in 1869. From the beginning, these were not intended to displace the autonomy of the emerging provinces of the Communion, but to \"discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action.\"\n", "\nOne of the enduringly influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but it had the ancillary effect of establishing parameters of Anglican identity. It establishes four principles with these words:\n\n: That, in the opinion of this Conference, the following Articles supply a basis on which approach may be by God's blessing made towards Home Reunion:\n\n: (a) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, as \"containing all things necessary to salvation,\" and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith.\n: (b) The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.\n: (c) The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's Words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him.\n: (d) The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church.\n", "\nAs mentioned above, the Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. The Archbishop of Canterbury's role is strictly symbolic and unifying and the communion's three international bodies are consultative and collaborative, their resolutions having no legal effect on the autonomous provinces of the communion. Taken together, however, the four do function as \"instruments of communion\", since all churches of the communion participate in them. In order of antiquity, they are:\n\nThe Chair of St Augustine (the episcopal throne in Canterbury Cathedral, Kent), seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury in his role as head of the Anglican Communion\n\n# The Archbishop of Canterbury functions as the spiritual head of the Communion. He is the focus of unity, since no church claims membership in the Communion without being in communion with him. The present incumbent is Justin Welby.\n# The Lambeth Conference (first held in 1867) is the oldest international consultation. It is a forum for bishops of the Communion to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the episcopate, to discuss matters of mutual concern, and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts. It is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury.\n# The Anglican Consultative Council (first met in 1971) was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets usually at three-yearly intervals. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president.\n# The Primates' Meeting (first met in 1979) is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan as a forum for \"leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation\".\n\nSince there is no binding authority in the Anglican Communion, these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion. In recent years, persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine, discipline, worship and ethics. The most notable example has been the objection of many provinces of the communion (particularly in Africa and Asia) to the changing role of homosexuals in the North American churches (e.g., by blessing same-sex unions and ordaining and consecrating gays and lesbians in same-sex relationships) and to the process by which changes were undertaken. (See Anglican realignment.)\n\nThose who objected condemned these actions as unscriptural, unilateral, and without the agreement of the Communion prior to these steps being taken. In response, the American Episcopal Church and the Anglican Church of Canada answered that the actions had been undertaken after lengthy scriptural and theological reflection, legally in accordance with their own canons and constitutions and after extensive consultation with the provinces of the communion. \n\nThe Primates' Meeting voted to request the two churches to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council. Canada and the United States decided to attend the meeting but without exercising their right to vote. They have not been expelled or suspended, since there is no mechanism in this voluntary association to suspend or expel an independent province of the communion. Since membership is based on a province's communion with Canterbury, expulsion would require the Archbishop of Canterbury's refusal to be in communion with the affected jurisdiction(s). In line with the suggestion of the Windsor Report, Rowan Williams (the previous Archbishop of Canterbury) established a working group to examine the feasibility of an Anglican covenant which would articulate the conditions for communion in some fashion.\n", "}\n\nNote that the ''Church of Ireland'' serves both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the ''Episcopal Church of the Sudan'' serves both Sudan and South Sudan and the ''Anglican Church of Korea'' serves South Korea and, theoretically, North Korea. Indian Anglicanism is divided into a Church of North India and a Church of South India. The Diocese in Europe (formally the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe), in the Province of Canterbury, is also present in Portugal and Spain. The Episcopal Church, USA affiliated Convocation of Episcopal Churches in Europe has affiliates in France, Belgium, Austria, Switzerland, Italy and Kazakhstan.\n\n\n\nAll 38 provinces of the Anglican Communion are autonomous, each with its own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or Southeast Asia).\n\n\n\n Provinces & National Churches\n Territorial Jurisdiction\n Membership (in thousands of people)\n\n Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia\n Aotearoa New Zealand, Cook Islands, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga\n581\n\n\n Anglican Church of Australia\n Australia\n3,900\n\n\n Church of Bangladesh\n Bangladesh\n16\n\n\n Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil\n Brazil\n120\n\n\n Province of the Anglican Church of Burundi\n Burundi\n800\n\n\n Anglican Church of Canada\n Canada\n1,600\n\n\n Church of the Province of Central Africa\n Botswana, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe\n900\n\n\n Anglican Church in Central America\n Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama\n35\n\n\n Province of the Anglican Church of the Congo\n Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of Congo\n500\n\n\n Church of England comprising the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York\n England, Europe, Morocco\n26,000\n\n\n Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui\n Hong Kong, Macau\n29\n\n\n Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean\n Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles\n505\n\n\n Church of Ireland comprising the Province of Armagh and the Province of Dublin\n Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland\n410\n\n\n Nippon Sei Ko Kai\n Japan\n57\n\n\n Episcopal Church (United States)\n United States, Taiwan, Micronesia, Palau, Northern Marianas, Marshall Islands, Puerto Rico, US Virgin Islands\n 3000\n\n\n Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East\n Algeria, Bahrain, Cyprus, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Palestine, Somalia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen\n40\n\n\n Anglican Church of Kenya\n Kenya\n5,000\n\n\n Anglican Church of Korea\n South Korea, North Korea\n65\n\n\n Anglican Church of Melanesia\n New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu\n200\n\n\n Anglican Church of Mexico\n Mexico\n100\n\n\n Church of the Province of Myanmar\n Myanmar\n62\n\n\n Church of Nigeria\n Nigeria\n18,000\n\n\n Church of North India\n East India, North India, Northeast India, West India\n1,500\n\n\n Church of Pakistan\n Pakistan\n500\n\n\n Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea\n Papua New Guinea\n167\n\n\n Episcopal Church in the Philippines\n Philippines\n125\n\n Province of the Anglican Church of Rwanda\n Rwanda\n1,000\n\n Scottish Episcopal Church\n Scotland\n44\n\n\n Church of the Province of South East Asia\n Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Nepal, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam\n98\n\n\n Church of South India\n South India & Jaffna, Sri Lanka\n4,000\n\n\n Anglican Church of Southern Africa\n Angola, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Saint Helena, South Africa, Swaziland\n3,000 - 4,000\n\n\n Anglican Church of South America\n Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay\n23\n\n\n Province of the Episcopal Church of South Sudan and Sudan\n South Sudan, Sudan\n4,500\n\n\n Anglican Church of Tanzania\n Tanzania\n2,000\n\n\n Church of the Province of Uganda\n Uganda\n8,000\n\n\n Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America\n Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Europe, Guam, Haiti, Honduras, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Saipan, Taiwan, United States, Venezuela, Virgin Islands\n2,000\n\n\n Church in Wales\n Wales\n 84\n\n\n Church of the Province of West Africa\n Cameroon, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Senegal, Sierra Leone\n300\n\n\n Church in the Province of the West Indies\n Aruba, Barbados, Bahamas, Belize, Cayman Islands, Guyana, Jamaica, Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, Windward Islands\n770\n\n\nIn addition, there are six extraprovincial churches, five of which are under the metropolitical authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury.\n\n\n\n Extra-Provincial Church\n Metropolitan\n Territorial Jurisdiction\n\n\n Anglican Church of Bermuda\n Archbishop of Canterbury\n Bermuda\n\n\n Church of Ceylon\n Archbishop of Canterbury\n Sri Lanka\n\n\n Episcopal Church of Cuba\n Metropolitan Council comprising:\n:* Primate of the Anglican Church of Canada\n:* Archbishop of the West Indies\n:* Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (USA)\n Cuba\n\n\n Parish of the Falkland Islands\n Archbishop of Canterbury\n Falkland Islands\n\n\n Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church\n Archbishop of Canterbury\n Portugal\n\n\n Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church\n Archbishop of Canterbury\n Spain\n\n\nIn addition to other member churches, the churches of the Anglican Communion are in full communion with the Old Catholic churches of the Union of Utrecht and the Scandinavian Lutheran churches of the Porvoo Communion in Europe, the India-based Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian and Malabar Independent Syrian churches and the Philippine Independent Church, also known as the Aglipayan Church.\n", "\n\n\n\nThe Anglican Communion traces much of its growth to the older mission organisations of the Church of England such as the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded 1698), the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (founded 1701) and the Church Missionary Society (founded 1799). The Church of England (which until the 20th century included the Church in Wales) initially separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1538 in the reign of King Henry VIII, reunited in 1555 under Queen Mary I and then separated again in 1570 under Queen Elizabeth I (the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570 in response to the Act of Supremacy 1559).\n\nThe Church of England has always thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient \"English Church\" (''Ecclesia Anglicana'') and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly national phenomenon. The Church of Scotland was formed as a separate church from the Roman Catholic Church as a result of the Scottish Reformation in 1560 and the later formation of the Scottish Episcopal Church began in 1582 in the reign of James VI of Scotland over disagreements about the role of bishops.\n\nThe oldest-surviving Anglican church building outside of the British Isles (Britain and Ireland) is St Peter's Church in St. George's, Bermuda, established in 1612 (though the actual building had to be rebuilt several times over the following century). This is also the oldest surviving non-Roman Catholic church in the New World. It remained part of the Church of England until 1978 when the Anglican Church of Bermuda separated. The Church of England was the established church not only in England, but in its trans-Oceanic colonies.\n\nThus the only member churches of the present Anglican Communion existing by the mid-18th century were the Church of England, its closely linked sister church the Church of Ireland (which also separated from Roman Catholicism under Henry VIII) and the Scottish Episcopal Church which for parts of the 17th and 18th centuries was partially underground (it was suspected of Jacobite sympathies).\n\n=== Global spread of Anglicanism ===\n\nThe enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the British Empire brought Anglicanism along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London. After the American Revolution, the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose supreme governor was (and remains) the British monarch. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, in a mostly amicable separation.\n\nAt about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of Nova Scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day Canada. In 1814 a bishop of Calcutta was made; in 1824 the first bishop was sent to the West Indies and in 1836 to Australia. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In 1841 a \"Colonial Bishoprics Council\" was set up and soon many more dioceses were created.\n\nIn time, it became natural to group these into provinces and a metropolitan was appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in 1861 it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England.\n\nA crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the Lambeth Conferences (discussed above). These conferences demonstrated that the bishops of disparate churches could manifest the unity of the church in their episcopal collegiality despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held roughly every 10 years since 1878 (the second such conference) and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole Communion.\n\n===Lambeth 1998===\n\nThe Lambeth Conference of 1998 included what has been seen by Philip Jenkins and others as a \"watershed in global Christianity\". The 1998 Lambeth Conference considered the issue of the theology of same-sex attraction in relation to human sexuality. At this 1998 conference for the first time in centuries the Christians of developing regions, especially, Africa, Asia, and Latin America, prevailed over the bishops of more prosperous countries (many from the USA, Canada, and the UK) who supported a redefinition of Anglican doctrine. Seen in this light 1998 is a date that marked the shift from a West-dominated Christianity to one wherein the growing churches of the two-thirds world are predominant, but the gay bishop controversy in subsequent years led to the reassertion of Western dominance, this time of the liberal variety.\n", "\n", "\nThe churches of the Anglican Communion have traditionally held that ordination in the historic episcopate is a core element in the validity of clerical ordinations. The Roman Catholic Church does not recognise most Anglican orders (see ''Apostolicae curae''). Some Eastern Orthodox Churches have issued statements to the effect that Anglican orders could be accepted, yet have still reordained former Anglican clergy; other Orthodox churches have rejected Anglican orders altogether. Orthodox bishop Kallistos Ware explains this apparent discrepancy as follows:\n\n''Anglican clergy who join the Orthodox Church are reordained; but some Orthodox Churches hold that if Anglicanism and Orthodoxy were to reach full unity in the faith, perhaps such reordination might not be found necessary. It should be added, however, that a number of individual Orthodox theologians hold that under no circumstances would it be possible to recognise the validity of Anglican Orders.''\n", "\n\nOne effect of the Communion's dispersed authority has been that conflict and controversy can arise over the effect divergent practices and doctrines in one part of the Communion have on others. Disputes that had been confined to the Church of England could be dealt with legislatively in that realm, but as the Communion spread out into new nations and disparate cultures, such controversies multiplied and intensified. These controversies have generally been of two types: liturgical and social.\n\n; Anglo-Catholicism\n\nThe first such controversy of note concerned that of the growing influence of the Catholic Revival manifested in the tractarian and so-called ritualism controversies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This controversy produced the Free Church of England and, in the United States and Canada, the Reformed Episcopal Church.\n\n; Social changes\n\nLater, rapid social change and the dissipation of British cultural hegemony over its former colonies contributed to disputes over the role of women, the parameters of marriage and divorce, and the practices of contraception and abortion. In the late 1970s, the Continuing Anglican movement produced a number of new church bodies in opposition to women's ordination, prayer book changes, and the new understandings concerning marriage.\n\n=== Same-sex unions and LGBT Clergy ===\n\nMore recently, disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the Communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations, leading to another round of withdrawals from the Anglican Communion. Some churches were founded outside the Anglican Communion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, largely in opposition to the ordination of openly homosexual bishops and other clergy and are usually referred to as belonging to the Anglican realignment movement, or else as \"orthodox\" Anglicans. These disagreements were especially noted when the Episcopal Church (US) consecrated an openly gay bishop in a same-sex relationship, Gene Robinson, in 2003; then, the debate re-ignited when the Church of England agreed to allow clergy to enter into same-sex civil partnerships in 2005. The Church of Nigeria opposed the Episcopal Church's decision as well as the Church of England's approval for civil partnerships.\n\n\"The more liberal provinces that are open to changing Church doctrine on marriage in order to allow for same-sex unions include Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Scotland, South India, South Africa, the US and Wales\". The Church of England does not allow same-gender marriages or blessing rites, but does permit special prayer services for same-sex couples following a civil marriage or partnership. The Church of England also permits clergy to enter into same-sex civil partnerships. The Church of Ireland has no official position on civil unions, and one senior cleric has entered into a same-sex civil partnership. The Church of Ireland recognised that it will \"treat civil partners the same as spouses.\" The Anglican Church of Australia does not have an official position on homosexuality.\n\nThe conservative Anglican churches, encouraging the realignment movement, are more concentrated in the Global South. For example, the Anglican Church of Kenya, the Church of Nigeria, and Church of Uganda have opposed homosexuality. GAFCON, or a fellowship of conservative Anglican churches, has appointed 'missionary bishops' in response to the disagreements with the perceived liberalisation in the Anglican churches in North America and Europe.\n\nSuch debates about social theology and ethics, have occurred at the same time as debates on prayer book revision and the acceptable grounds for achieving full communion with non-Anglican churches.\n", "\n\n* Affirming Catholicism\n* Anglican ministry\n* Anglicans Online\n* Anglo-Catholicism\n* Church Mission Society\n* Church's Ministry Among Jewish People\n* Flag of the Anglican Communion\n* Liberal Anglo-Catholicism\n* Reform (Anglican)\n* List of the largest Protestant bodies\n\n", "\n", "===Citations===\n\n\n===Bibliography===\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "\n* \n* \n* Wild, John. ''What is the Anglican Communion?,'' in series, ''The Advent Papers''. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 196-. ''Note''.: Expresses the \"Anglo-Catholic\" viewpoint.\n* Hebert, A.G. ''The Form of the Church''. London: Faber and Faber, 1944.\n\n", "* \n* Anglicans Online\n* Decentralised nature of worldwide Anglicanism\n* Project Canterbury Anglican historical documents from around the world\n* Brief description and history of the Anglican Communion\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Ecclesiology, polity and ethos ", " Chicago Lambeth Quadrilateral ", " Instruments of communion ", " Provinces ", " History ", " Ecumenical relations ", " Historic episcopate ", " Controversies ", " See also ", " Notes ", "References", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Anglican Communion
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Arne Kaijser''' (born 1950) is a professor of History of Technology at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and the head of the university's department of History of science and technology.\n\nKaijser has published two books in Swedish: ''Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken'' and ''I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar'', and has co-edited several anthologies. Kaijser is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences since 2007 and also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: ''Journal of Urban Technology'' and ''Centaurus''. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of Large Technical Systems.\n", "\n", "* Homepage\n* Extended homepage\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " References ", " External links " ]	Arne Kaijser
[ "\n\n\nThe Mergui Archipelago in Burma (Myanmar).An '''archipelago''' ( ), sometimes called an '''island group''' or '''island chain''', is a chain, cluster or collection of islands, or sometimes a sea containing a small number of scattered islands.\n\nThe word ''archipelago'' is derived from the Greek ''ἄρχι- – arkhi-'' (\"chief\") and ''πέλαγος – pélagos'' (\"sea\") through the Italian ''arcipelago''. In Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the '''''Archipelago''''' (from medieval Greek ''ἀρχιπέλαγος'' and Latin ''archipelagus'') was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea is remarkable for its large number of islands).\n", "Archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition, and land elevation. Depending on their geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as 'oceanic islands', 'continental fragments', and 'continental islands'. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin. Continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Finally, sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf so islands are just exposed continental shelf.\n\nIndonesia, Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, New Zealand, Maldives, the Bahamas, Greece, Hawaii, the Polynesian islands and the Azores are examples of well-known archipelagos. The largest archipelagic state in the world by area and population is Indonesia.\n", "\n Island arc\n* List of landforms\n* List of archipelagos by number of islands\n* List of archipelagos\n* List of islands\n", "\n", "\n\n* \n* 30 Most Incredible Island Archipelagos\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Types ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Archipelago
[ "\n\nAn '''author''' is the originator of any written work such as a book or play, and is thus also a writer. More broadly defined, an author is \"the person who originated or gave existence to anything\" and whose authorship determines responsibility for what was created.\n", "Fermat theorem, issued by the State Department of Intellectual Property of Ukraine.\nTypically, the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work i.e. the author. But, what if more than one person created the work? Then, a case of joint authorship can be made provided some criteria are met. In the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as \"a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S. Code) to authors of \"original works of authorship\". Holding the title of \"author\" over any \"literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, or certain other intellectual works\" gives rights to this person, the owner of the copyright, especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work. Any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work, and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, where it can be used without limit. Copyright laws in many jurisdictions – mostly following the lead of the United States, in which the entertainment and publishing industries have very strong lobbying power – have been amended repeatedly since their inception, to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder. However, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time it's created. An interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon one's death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, but enjoys the same legal benefits.\n\nQuestions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the complex issue of fan fiction? If the media agency responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music, and other considerations, come into play? Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books? What powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction? This particular sort of case also illustrates how complex intellectual property law can be, since such fiction may also involved trademark law (e.g. for names of characters in media franchises), likeness rights (such as for actors, or even entirely fictional entities), fair use rights held by the public (including the right to parody or satirize), and many other interacting complications. Authors may portion out different rights they hold to different parties, at different times, and for different purposes or uses, such as the right to adapt a plot into a film, but only with different character names, because the characters have already been optioned by another company for a television series or a video game. An author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would otherwise have, such as when creating a work for hire (e.g., hired to write a city tour guide by a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work), or when writing material using intellectual property owned by others (such as when writing a novel or screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise).\n", "Mark Twain was a prominent American author in multiple genres including fiction and journalism during the 19th century.\nIn literary theory, critics find complications in the term ''author'' beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting. In the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text.\n\nBarthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author. He writes, in his essay \"Death of the Author\" (1968), that \"it is language which speaks, not the author\". The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production. Every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions, or, as Barthes puts it, \"the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centres of culture\"; it is never original. With this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it, \"as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author 'confiding' in us\". The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak, rather than author.\n\nMichel Foucault argues in his essay \"What is an author?\" (1969) that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that \"a private letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author\". For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which, for Foucault, are working in conjunction with the idea of \"the author function\". Foucault's author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work, a part of its structure, but not necessarily part of the interpretive process. The author's name \"indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture\", and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text, a practice which Barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavor.\n\nExpanding upon Foucault's position, Alexander Nehamas writes that Foucault suggests \"an author ... is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it\", not necessarily who penned the text. It is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both Barthes and Foucault are interested in. Foucault warns of the risks of keeping the author's name in mind during interpretation, because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation.\n\nLiterary critics Barthes and Foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work, because of the complications inherent with a writer's title of \"author\". They warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice. Instead, readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as \"author\".\n", "\n===Modern Publishing===\nModern Publishing, Self-Publishing, Independent Publishing, or Artisanal Publishing is the \"publication of any book, album or other media by its author without the involvement of a traditional publisher. It is the modern equivalent to traditional publishing.\n====Types====\nUnless a book is to be sold directly from the author to the public, an ISBN number is required to uniquely identify the title. ISBN is a global standard used for all titles worldwide. Most self-publishing companies either provide their own ISBN to a title or can provide direction; it may be in the best interest of the self-published author to retain ownership of ISBN and copyright instead of using a number owned by a vanity press. A separate ISBN number is needed for each edition of the book.\n\n===== Electronic (e-book) publishing =====\n\nThere are a variety of e-book formats and tools that can be used to create them. Because it is possible to create e-books with no up-front or per-book costs, this is a popular option for self-publishers. E-book publishing platforms include Pronoun, Smashwords, Blurb, Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing, CinnamonTeal Publishing, Papyrus Editor, ebook leap, Bookbaby, Pubit, Lulu, Llumina Press, and CreateSpace. E-book formats include e-pub, mobi, and PDF, among others.\n\n=====Print on demand=====\n\nPrint-on-demand (POD) publishing refers to the ability to print high-quality books as needed. For self-published books, this is often a more economical option than conducting a print run of hundreds or thousands of books. Many companies, such as Createspace (owned by Amazon.com), Outskirts Press, Blurb, Lulu, Llumina Press, Readers Magnet, and iUniverse, allow printing single books at per-book costs not much higher than those paid by publishing companies for large print runs.\n\n===Traditional Publishing===\nWith commissioned publishing, the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the author covers all expenses.\n\nThe more specific phrase published author refers to an author (especially but not necessarily of books) whose work has been independently accepted for publication by a reputable publisher , versus a self-publishing author or an unpublished one.\n\nThe author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price or a fixed amount on each book sold. Publishers, at times, reduced the risk of this type of arrangement, by agreeing only to pay this after a certain amount of copies had sold. In Canada, this practice occurred during the 1890s, but was not commonplace until the 1920s. Established and successful authors may receive advance payments, set against future royalties, but this is no longer common practice. Most independent publishers pay royalties as a percentage of net receipts - how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to publisher. Under this arrangement, the author does not pay anything towards the expense of publication. The costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher, who will then take the greatest percentage of the receipts. See Compensation for more.\n\n===Vanity Publishing===\nThis type of publisher normally charges a flat fee for arranging publication, offers a platform for selling, and then takes a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book. The author receives the rest of the money made.\n", "Ezra Pound (pictured as a young man in 1913) made significant editing suggestions to T.S. Eliot's \"The Waste Land,\" helping transform the original drafts into the work known today.\nThe relationship between the author and the editor, often the author's only liaison to the publishing company, is often characterized as the site of tension. For the author to reach his or her audience, the work usually must attract the attention of the editor. The idea of the author as the sole meaning-maker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher in order to engage the audience in writing as a social act. There are three principal areas covered by editors - Proofing (checking the Grammar and spelling, looking for typing errors), Story (potentially an area of deep angst for both author and publisher), and Layout (the setting of the final proof ready for publishing often requires minor text changes so a layout editor is required to ensure that these do not alter the sense of the text).\n\nPierre Bourdieu's essay \"The Field of Cultural Production\" depicts the publishing industry as a \"space of literary or artistic position-takings\", also called the \"field of struggles\", which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field. Bourdieu claims that the \"field of position-takings ... is not the product of coherence-seeking intention or objective consensus\", meaning that an industry characterized by position-takings is not one of harmony and neutrality. In particular for the writer, their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity, and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity. However, it is the editor who has \"the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer\". As \"cultural investors,\" publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in \"cultural capital\" which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions.\n\nAccording to the studies of James Curran, the system of shared values among editors in Britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors' expectations, removing the focus from the reader-audience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act. Even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readership's reception.\n", "A standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in the form of an advance and royalties. An advance is a lump sum paid in advance of publication. An advance must be earned out before royalties are payable. An advance may be paid in two lump sums: the first payment on contract signing, and the second on delivery of the completed manuscript or on publication.\n\nAn author's contract may specify, for example, that they will earn 10% of the retail price of each book sold. Some contracts specify a scale of royalties payable (for example, where royalties start at 10% for the first 10,000 sales, but then increase to a higher percentage rate at higher sale thresholds).\n\nAn author's book must earn the advance before any further royalties are paid. For example, if an author is paid a modest advance of $2000, and their royalty rate is 10% of a book priced at $20 - that is, $2 per book - the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made. Publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns.\n\nIn some countries, authors also earn income from a government scheme such as the ELR (educational lending right) and PLR (public lending right) schemes in Australia. Under these schemes, authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational and/or public libraries.\n\nThese days, many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements, school visits, residencies, grants, and teaching positions.\n\nGhostwriters, technical writers, and textbooks writers are typically paid in a different way: usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales.\n", "Academic authorship\nAuteur\nLead author\nAuthors' editor\nNovelist\nLists of poets\nList of novelists\nLists of writers\n*Professional writing\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Legal significance of authorship", "Philosophical views of the nature of authorship", "Relationship with publisher", "Relationship with editor", " Compensation ", "See also", "References" ]	Author
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Andrey (Andrei) Andreyevich Markov''' (, in older works also spelled '''Markoff''') (14 June 1856 N.S. – 20 July 1922) was a Russian mathematician. He is best known for his work on stochastic processes. A primary subject of his research later became known as Markov chains and Markov processes.\n\nMarkov and his younger brother Vladimir Andreevich Markov (1871–1897) proved Markov brothers' inequality.\nHis son, another Andrei Andreevich Markov (1903–1979), was also a notable mathematician, making contributions to constructive mathematics and recursive function theory.\n", "Andrey Markov was born on 14 June 1856 in Russia. He attended Petersburg Grammar, where he was seen as a rebellious student by a select few teachers. In his academics he performed poorly in most subjects other than mathematics (which later became his profession). Later in life he attended Petersburg University and was lectured by Pafnuty Chebyshev. Among his teachers were Yulian Sokhotski (differential calculus, higher algebra), Konstantin Posse (analytic geometry), Yegor Zolotarev (integral calculus), Pafnuty Chebyshev (number theory and probability theory), Aleksandr Korkin (ordinary and partial differential equations), Mikhail Okatov (mechanism theory), Osip Somov (mechanics), and Nikolai Budaev (descriptive and higher geometry). He completed his studies at the University and was later asked if he would like to stay and have a career as a Mathematician. He later taught at high schools and continued his own mathematical studies. In this time he found a practical use for his mathematical skills. He figured out that he could use chains to model the alliteration of vowels and consonants in Russian literature. He also contributed to many other mathematical aspects in his time. He died at age 66 on 20 July 1922.\n\n== Andrey Markov Timeline == \nIn 1877, Markov was awarded a gold medal for his outstanding solution of the problem\n\n''About Integration of Differential Equations by Continuous Fractions with an Application to the Equation'' .\n\nDuring the following year, he passed the candidate's examinations, and he remained at the university to prepare for a lecturer's position.\n\nIn April 1880, Markov defended his master's thesis \"About Binary Quadratic Forms with Positive Determinant\", which was encouraged by Aleksandr Korkin and Yegor Zolotarev.\n\nFive years later, in January 1885, there followed his doctoral thesis \"About Some Applications of Algebraic Continuous Fractions\".\n\nHis pedagogical work began after the defense of his master's thesis in autumn 1880. As a privatdozent he lectured on differential and integral calculus. Later he lectured alternately on \"introduction to analysis\", probability theory (succeeding Chebyshev, who had left the university in 1882) and the calculus of differences. From 1895 through 1905 he also lectured in differential calculus.\n\nMarkov in 1886\nOne year after the defense of his doctoral thesis, Markov was appointed extraordinary professor (1886) and in the same year he was elected adjunct to the Academy of Sciences. In 1890, after the death of Viktor Bunyakovsky, Markov became an extraordinary member of the academy. His promotion to an ordinary professor of St. Petersburg University followed in the fall of 1894.\n\nIn 1896, Markov was elected an ordinary member of the academy as the successor of Chebyshev. In 1905, he was appointed merited professor and was granted the right to retire, which he did immediately. Until 1910, however, he continued to lecture in the calculus of differences.\n\nIn connection with student riots in 1908, professors and lecturers of St. Petersburg University were ordered to monitor their students. Markov refused to accept this decree, and he wrote an explanation in which he declined to be an \"agent of the governance\". Markov was removed from further teaching duties at St. Petersburg University, and hence he decided to retire from the university.\n\nMarkov was an atheist. In 1912 he protested Leo Tolstoy's excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church by requesting his own excommunication. The Church complied with his request.\n\nMarkov's headstone\nIn 1913, the council of St. Petersburg elected nine scientists honorary members of the university. Markov was among them, but his election was not affirmed by the minister of education. The affirmation only occurred four years later, after the February Revolution in 1917. Markov then resumed his teaching activities and lectured on probability theory and the calculus of differences until his death in 1922.\n", "\n* Chebyshev–Markov–Stieltjes inequalities\n* Gauss–Markov theorem\n* Gauss–Markov process\n* Hidden Markov model\n* Markov blanket\n* Markov chain\n* Markov decision process\n* Markov's inequality\n* Markov information source\n* Markov network\n* Markov number\n* Markov property\n* Markov process\n* Stochastic matrix (also known as Markov matrix)\n* Subjunctive possibility\n\n", "\n", "* \n* А. А. Марков. \"Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга\". \"Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете\", 2-я серия, том 15, ст. 135–156, 1906.\n* A.A. Markov. \"Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain\". reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. ''Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains''. John Wiley and Sons, 1971.\nhttp://blog.wolfram.com/2013/02/04/centennial-of-markov-chains/\nAndrey Markov Jnr\n\n▪ Markov Biography - Extracted from a number of sources \"written by Joseph Brooks\" 2016 Markov early life: Russia, Petersburg.\n", "\n\n\n* Biography of A.A. Markov by his son, A.A. Markov-jnr \n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Biography ", " See also ", " Notes ", " References ", " External links " ]	Andrey Markov
[ "\n\n\n\nEdvard Munch tried to represent \"an infinite scream passing through nature\" in ''The Scream'' (1893).\n\n'''Angst''' means fear or anxiety (''anguish'' is its Latinate equivalent, and ''anxious,'' ''anxiety'' are of similar origin). The word ''angst'' was introduced into English from the Danish, Norwegian and Dutch word ''angst'' and the German word ''Angst''. It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Kierkegaard and Freud. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil.\n\nIn German, the technical terminology of psychology and philosophy distinguishes between ''Angst'' and ''Furcht'' in that ''Furcht'' is a negative anticipation regarding a concrete threat, while ''Angst'' is a non-directional and unmotivated emotion. In common language, however, ''Angst'' is the normal word for \"fear\", while ''Furcht'' is an elevated synonym.\n\nIn other languages having the meaning of the Latin word ''pavor'' for \"fear\", the derived words differ in meaning, e.g. as in the French ''anxiété'' and ''peur''. The word ''Angst'' has existed since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo-European root ''anghu-'', \"restraint\" from which Old High German ''angust'' developed. It is pre-cognate with the Latin ''angustia'', \"tensity, tightness\" and ''angor'', \"choking, clogging\"; compare to the Ancient Greek ἄγχω (''ankho'') \"strangle\".\n", "\nIn Existentialist philosophy the term ''angst'' carries a specific conceptual meaning. The use of the term was first attributed to Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855). In ''The Concept of Anxiety'' (also known as ''The Concept of Dread'', depending on the translation), Kierkegaard used the word ''Angest'' (in common Danish, ''angst'', meaning \"dread\" or \"anxiety\") to describe a profound and deep-seated condition. Where animals are guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying. It is the anxiety of understanding of being free when considering undefined possibilities of one's life and one's power of choice over them. Kierkegaard's concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who followed, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger, each of whom developed the idea further in individual ways. While Kierkegaard's angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom within a religious personal belief system, later existentialists discussed conflicts of personal principles, cultural norms, and existential despair.\nLudger Gerdes, ''Angst'', 1989\n", "Existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the war-torn times. Notable composers whose works are often linked with the concept include Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss (operas ''Elektra'' and ''Salome'', Claude-Achille Debussy (opera ''Pelleas et Melisande'', ballet ''Jeux'', other works), Jean Sibelius (especially the Fourth Symphony), Arnold Schoenberg ''(A Survivor from Warsaw'', other works), Alban Berg, Francis Poulenc (opera ''Dialogues of the Carmelites''), Dmitri Shostakovich (opera ''Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District'', symphonies and chamber music), Béla Bartók (opera ''Bluebeard's Castle'', other works), and Krzysztof Penderecki (especially ''Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima'').\n \nAngst began to be discussed in reference to popular music in the mid- to late 1950s amid widespread concerns over international tensions and nuclear proliferation. Jeff Nuttall's book ''Bomb Culture'' (1968) traced angst in popular culture to Hiroshima. Dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as Bob Dylan's ''Masters of War'' (1963) and ''A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall''. The term often makes an appearance in reference to punk rock, grunge, nu metal, and works of emo where expressions of melancholy, existential despair or nihilism predominate.\n", "\nAnger\nByronic hero\nEmotion\nExistentialism\nKafkaesque\nList of emotions\nFear of death\n''Sehnsucht''\nAlienation\n''Sturm und Drang''\nTerror management theory\nThe Mean Reds\n''Weltschmerz''\n\n", "\n", "*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Existentialism ", " Music ", " See also ", "References", "External links" ]	Angst
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Anxiety''' is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil, often accompanied by nervous behavior, such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination. It is the subjectively unpleasant feelings of dread over anticipated events, such as the feeling of imminent death. Anxiety is not the same as fear, which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat, whereas anxiety is the expectation of future threat. Anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness and worry, usually generalized and unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing. It is often accompanied by muscular tension, restlessness, fatigue and problems in concentration. Anxiety can be appropriate, but when experienced regularly the individual may suffer from an anxiety disorder.\n\nPeople facing anxiety may withdraw from situations which have provoked anxiety in the past. There are various types of anxiety. Existential anxiety can occur when a person faces angst, an existential crisis, or nihilistic feelings. People can also face mathematical anxiety, somatic anxiety, stage fright, or test anxiety. Social anxiety and stranger anxiety are caused when people are apprehensive around strangers or other people in general. Furthermore, anxiety has been linked with physical symptoms such as IBS and can heighten other mental health illnesses such as OCD and panic disorder. The first step in the management of a person with anxiety symptoms is to evaluate the possible presence of an underlying medical cause, whose recognition is essential in order to decide its correct treatment. Anxiety symptoms may be masking an organic disease, or appear associated or as a result of a medical disorder.\n\nAnxiety can be either a short term \"state\" or a long term \"trait\". Whereas trait anxiety represents worrying about future events, anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear. Anxiety disorders are partly genetic but may also be due to drug use, including alcohol, caffeine, and benzodiazepines (which are often prescribed to treat anxiety), as well as withdrawal from drugs of abuse. They often occur with other mental disorders, particularly bipolar disorder, eating disorders, major depressive disorder, or certain personality disorders. Common treatment options include lifestyle changes, medication, and therapy.\n\n", "A job applicant with a worried facial expression\nAnxiety is distinguished from fear, which is an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat. Anxiety is related to the specific behaviors of fight-or-flight responses, defensive behavior or escape. It occurs in situations only perceived as uncontrollable or unavoidable, but not realistically so. David Barlow defines anxiety as \"a future-oriented mood state in which one is not ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events,\" and that it is a distinction between future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear. Another description of anxiety is agony, dread, terror, or even apprehension. In positive psychology, anxiety is described as the mental state that results from a difficult challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills.\n\nFear and anxiety can be differentiated in four domains: (1) duration of emotional experience, (2) temporal focus, (3) specificity of the threat, and (4) motivated direction. Fear is defined as short lived, present focused, geared towards a specific threat, and facilitating escape from threat; anxiety, on the other hand, is defined as long-acting, future focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting excessive caution while approaching a potential threat and interferes with constructive coping.\n\nAnxiety can be experienced with long, drawn out daily symptoms that reduce quality of life, known as chronic (or generalized) anxiety, or it can be experienced in short spurts with sporadic, stressful panic attacks, known as acute anxiety. Symptoms of anxiety can range in number, intensity, and frequency, depending on the person. While almost everyone has experienced anxiety at some point in their lives, most do not develop long-term problems with anxiety.\n\nAnxiety may cause psychiatric and physiological symptoms.\n\nThe behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past. Other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns, changes in habits, increase or decrease in food intake, and increased motor tension (such as foot tapping).\n\nThe emotional effects of anxiety may include \"feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank\" as well as \"nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, déjà vu, a trapped in your mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary.\"\n\nThe cognitive effects of anxiety may include thoughts about suspected dangers, such as fear of dying. \"You may ... fear that the chest pains are a deadly heart attack or that the shooting pains in your head are the result of a tumor or an aneurysm. You feel an intense fear when you think of dying, or you may think of it more often than normal, or can't get it out of your mind.\"\n\nThe physiological symptoms of anxiety may include:\nNeurological, as headache, paresthesias, vertigo, or presyncope.\nDigestive, as abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, indigestion, dry mouth, or bolus.\nRespiratory, as shortness of breath or sighing breathing.\nCardiac, as palpitations, tachycardia, or chest pain.\nMuscular, as fatigue, tremors, or tetany.\nCutaneous, as perspiration, or itchy skin.\nUro-genital, as frequent urination, urinary urgency, dyspareunia, or impotence.\n", "Painting entitled ''Anxiety'', 1894, by Edvard Munch\n===Existential===\n\n\nThe philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, in ''The Concept of Anxiety'' (1844), described anxiety or dread associated with the \"dizziness of freedom\" and suggested the possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the self-conscious exercise of responsibility and choosing. In ''Art and Artist'' (1932), the psychologist Otto Rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the pre-eminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the creative person's simultaneous fear of – and desire for – separation, individuation, and differentiation.\n\nThe theologian Paul Tillich characterized existential anxiety as \"the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing\" and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral (guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness). According to Tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety, i.e. spiritual anxiety, is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods. Tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences. In its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to \"drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority\" even though such \"undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality\".\n\nAccording to Viktor Frankl, the author of ''Man's Search for Meaning'', when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers, the most basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the \"trauma of nonbeing\" as death is near.\n\n===Test and performance===\n\nAccording to Yerkes-Dodson law, an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam, performance, or competitive event. However, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, the result is a decline in performance.\n\nTest anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students who have test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth; fear of embarrassment by a teacher; fear of alienation from parents or friends; time pressures; or feeling a loss of control. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, uncontrollable crying or laughing and drumming on a desk are all common. Because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation, debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia. The DSM-IV classifies test anxiety as a type of social phobia.\n\nWhile the term \"test anxiety\" refers specifically to students, many workers share the same experience with regard to their career or profession. The fear of failing at a task and being negatively evaluated for failure can have a similarly negative effect on the adult. Management of test anxiety focuses on achieving relaxation and developing mechanisms to manage anxiety.\n\n===Stranger, social, and intergroup===\n\n\nHumans generally require social acceptance and thus sometimes dread the disapproval of others. Apprehension of being judged by others may cause anxiety in social environments.\n \nAnxiety during social interactions, particularly between strangers, is common among young people. It may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia. \"Stranger anxiety\" in small children is not considered a phobia. In adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage; it is called social anxiety. According to Cutting, social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively.\n\nSocial anxiety varies in degree and severity. For some people, it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether. Those suffering from this condition may restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible. Social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders, including avoidant personality disorder.\n\nTo the extent that a person is fearful of social encounters with unfamiliar others, some people may experience anxiety particularly during interactions with outgroup members, or people who share different group memberships (i.e., by race, ethnicity, class, gender, etc.). Depending on the nature of the antecedent relations, cognitions, and situational factors, intergroup contact may be stressful and lead to feelings of anxiety. This apprehension or fear of contact with outgroup members is often called interracial or intergroup anxiety.\n\nAs is the case the more generalized forms of social anxiety, intergroup anxiety has behavioral, cognitive, and affective effects. For instance, increases in schematic processing and simplified information processing can occur when anxiety is high. Indeed, such is consistent with related work on attentional bias in implicit memory. Additionally recent research has found that implicit racial evaluations (i.e. automatic prejudiced attitudes) can be amplified during intergroup interaction. Negative experiences have been illustrated in producing not only negative expectations, but also avoidant, or antagonistic, behavior such as hostility. Furthermore, when compared to anxiety levels and cognitive effort (e.g., impression management and self-presentation) in intragroup contexts, levels and depletion of resources may be exacerbated in the intergroup situation.\n\n===Trait===\nAnxiety can be either a short term 'state' or a long term \"trait\". Trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency to respond with state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations. A meta-analysis showed that a high level of neuroticism is a risk factor for development of anxiety symptoms and disorders. Such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious.\n\n===Choice or decision===\nAnxiety induced by the need to choose between similar options is increasingly being recognized as a problem for individuals and for organizations. In 2004, Capgemini wrote: \"Today we're all faced with greater choice, more competition and less time to consider our options or seek out the right advice.\"\n\nIn a decision context, unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decision-making. There are primarily two forms of this anxiety type. The first form refers to a choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with known or calculable probabilities. The second form refers to the uncertainty and ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible outcomes with unknown probabilities.\n\n===Anxiety disorders===\n\n\nAnxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear. Anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events. These feelings may cause physical symptoms, such as a fast heart rate and shakiness. There are a number of anxiety disorders: including generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, and selective mutism. The disorder differs by what results in the symptoms. People often have more than one anxiety disorder.\n\n\nThe cause of anxiety disorders is a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include a history of child abuse, family history of mental disorders, and poverty. Anxiety disorders often occur with other mental disorders, particularly major depressive disorder, personality disorder, and substance use disorder. To be diagnosed symptoms typically need to be present at least six months, be more than would be expected for the situation, and decrease functioning. Other problems that may result in similar symptoms including hyperthyroidism, heart disease, caffeine, alcohol, or cannabis use, and withdrawal from certain drugs, among others.\n\n\nWithout treatment, anxiety disorders tend to remain. Treatment may include lifestyle changes, counselling, and medications. Counselling is typically with a type of cognitive behavioural therapy. Medications, such as antidepressants or beta blockers, may improve symptoms.\n\n\nAbout 12% of people are affected by an anxiety disorder in a given year and between 5-30% are affected at some point in their life. They occur about twice as often in females as males, and generally begin before the age of 25. The most common are specific phobia which affects nearly 12% and social anxiety disorder which affects 10% at some point in their life. They affect those between the ages of 15 and 35 the most and become less common after the age of 55. Rates appear to be higher in the United States and Europe.\n", "A marble bust of the Roman Emperor Decius from the Capitoline Museum. This portrait \"conveys an impression of anxiety and weariness, as of a man shouldering heavy state responsibilities\".\n\n=== Neuroanatomy ===\nNeural circuitry involving the amygdala (which regulates emotions like anxiety and fear, stimulating the HPA Axis and sympathetic nervous system) and hippocampus (which is implicated in emotional memory along with the amygdala) is thought to underlie anxiety. People who have anxiety tend to show high activity in response to emotional stimuli in the amygdala. Some writers believe that excessive anxiety can lead to an overpotentiation of the limbic system (which includes the amygdala and nucleus accumbens), giving increased future anxiety, but this does not appear to have been proven.\n\nResearch upon adolescents who as infants had been highly apprehensive, vigilant, and fearful finds that their nucleus accumbens is more sensitive than that in other people when deciding to make an action that determined whether they received a reward. This suggests a link between circuits responsible for fear and also reward in anxious people. As researchers note, \"a sense of 'responsibility', or self-agency, in a context of uncertainty (probabilistic outcomes) drives the neural system underlying appetitive motivation (i.e., nucleus accumbens) more strongly in temperamentally inhibited than noninhibited adolescents\".\n\n=== Genetics ===\nGenetics and family history (e.g., parental anxiety) may predispose an individual for an increased risk of an anxiety disorder, but generally external stimuli will trigger its onset or exacerbation. Genetic differences account for about 43% of variance in panic disorder and 28% in generalized anxiety disorder. Although single genes are neither necessary nor sufficient for anxiety by themselves, several gene polymorphisms have been found to correlate with anxiety: PLXNA2, SERT, CRH, COMT and BDNF. Several of these genes influence neurotransmitters (such as serotonin and norepinephrine) and hormones (such as cortisol) which are implicated in anxiety. The epigenetic signature of at least one of these genes BDNF has also been associated with anxiety and specific patterns of neural activity.\n\n===Medical conditions===\nMany medical conditions can cause anxiety. This includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe, like COPD and asthma, and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death. Conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety; the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions. Conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents, and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well. Life-threatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety.\n\nFurthermore, certain organic diseases may present with anxiety or symptoms that mimic anxiety. These disorders include certain endocrine diseases (hypo- and hyperthyroidism, hyperprolactinemia), metabolic disorders (diabetes), deficiency states (low levels of vitamin D, B2, B12, folic acid), gastrointestinal diseases (celiac disease, non-celiac gluten sensitivity, inflammatory bowel disease), heart diseases, blood diseases (anemia), cerebral vascular accidents (transient ischemic attack, stroke), and brain degenerative diseases (Parkinson's disease, dementia, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease), among others.\n\n=== Substance-induced ===\nSeveral drugs can cause or worsen anxiety, whether in intoxication, withdrawal or from chronic use. These include alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, sedatives (including prescription benzodiazepines), opioids (including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs like heroin), stimulants (such as caffeine, cocaine and amphetamines), hallucinogens, and inhalants. While many often report self-medicating anxiety with these substances, improvements in anxiety from drugs are usually short-lived (with worsening of anxiety in the long-term, sometimes with acute anxiety as soon as the drug effects wear off) and tend to be exaggerated. Acute exposure to toxic levels of benzene may cause euphoria, anxiety, and irritability lasting up to 2 weeks after the exposure.\n\n=== Psychological ===\nPoor coping skills (e.g., rigidity/inflexible problem solving, denial, avoidance, impulsivity, extreme self-expectation, affective instability, and inability to focus on problems) are associated with anxiety. Anxiety is also linked and perpetuated by the person's own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with feedback negativity. Temperament (e.g., neuroticism) and attitudes (e.g. pessimism) have been found to be risk factors for anxiety.\n\nCognitive distortions such as overgeneralizing, catastrophizing, mind reading, emotional reasoning, binocular trick, and mental filter can result in anxiety. For example, an overgeneralized belief that something bad \"always\" happens may lead someone to have excessive fears of even minimally risky situations and to avoid benign social situations due to anticipatory anxiety of embarrassment. Such unhealthy thoughts can be targets for successful treatment with cognitive therapy.\n\nPsychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms (such as suppression, repression, anticipation, regression, somatization, passive aggression, dissociation) that develop to adapt to problems with early objects (e.g., caregivers) and empathic failures in childhood. For example, persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repression/suppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress (somatization) when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individual's awareness. Such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy.\n\n==== Evolutionary psychology ====\nAn evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.\n\nWhen people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala. In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors.\n\n=== Social ===\nSocial risk factors for anxiety include a history of trauma (e.g., physical, sexual or emotional abuse or assault), early life experiences and parenting factors (e.g., rejection, lack of warmth, high hostility, harsh discipline, high parental negative affect, anxious childrearing, modelling of dysfunctional and drug-abusing behaviour, discouragement of emotions, poor socialization, poor attachment, and child abuse and neglect), cultural factors (e.g., stoic families/cultures, persecuted minorities including the disabled), and socioeconomics (e.g., uneducated, unemployed, impoverished (although developed countries have higher rates of anxiety disorders than developing countries)).\n\n====Gender socialization====\nContextual factors that are thought to contribute to anxiety include gender socialization and learning experiences. In particular, learning mastery (the degree to which people perceive their lives to be under their own control) and instrumentality, which includes such traits as self-confidence, independence, and competitiveness fully mediate the relation between gender and anxiety. That is, though gender differences in anxiety exist, with higher levels of anxiety in women compared to men, gender socialization and learning mastery explain these gender differences. Research has demonstrated the ways in which facial prominence in photographic images differs between men and women. More specifically, in official online photographs of politicians around the world, women's faces are less prominent than men's. Interestingly enough, the difference in these images actually tended to be greater in cultures with greater institutional gender equality.\n", "Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Descriptions", "Types", "Risk factors", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Anxiety
[ "\n\n\n'''Alan Alexander Milne''' (; 18 January 1882 – 31 January 1956) was an English author, best known for his books about the teddy bear Winnie-the-Pooh and for various poems. Milne was a noted writer, primarily as a playwright, before the huge success of Pooh overshadowed all his previous work. Milne served in both World Wars, joining the British Army in World War I, and was a captain of the British Home Guard in World War II.\n", "Alan Alexander Milne was born in Kilburn, London to parents John Vine Milne, who was born in Jamaica, and Sarah Marie Milne (née Heginbotham) and grew up at Henley House School, 6/7 Mortimer Road (now Crescent), Kilburn, a small public school run by his father. One of his teachers was H. G. Wells, who taught there in 1889–90. Milne attended Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge where he studied on a mathematics scholarship, graduating with a B.A. in Mathematics in 1903. He edited and wrote for ''Granta'', a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine ''Punch'', where Milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor. Milne played for the amateur English cricket team the Allahakbarries alongside authors J. M. Barrie and Arthur Conan Doyle.\n\nMilne joined the British Army in World War I and served as an officer in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment and later, after a debilitating illness, the Royal Corps of Signals. He was commissioned into the 4th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment on 17 February 1915 as a second lieutenant (on probation). His commission was confirmed on 20 December 1915. On 7 July 1916, he was injured while serving in the Battle of the Somme and invalided back to England. Having recuperated, he was recruited into Military Intelligence to write propaganda articles for MI 7b between 1916 and 1918. He was discharged on 14 February 1919, and settled in Mallord Street, Chelsea. He relinquished his commission on 19 February 1920, retaining the rank of lieutenant.\n\nAfter the war, he wrote a denunciation of war titled ''Peace with Honour'' (1934), which he retracted somewhat with 1940's ''War with Honour''. During World War II, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow English writer P. G. Wodehouse, who was captured at his country home in France by the Nazis and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the light-hearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend (e.g., in ''The Mating Season'') by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories, and claiming that Milne \"was probably jealous of all other writers.... But I loved his stuff.\"\n\nMilne married Dorothy \"Daphne\" de Sélincourt in 1913 and their son Christopher Robin Milne was born in 1920. In 1925, Milne bought a country home, Cotchford Farm, in Hartfield, East Sussex.\n\nDuring World War II, Milne was Captain of the British Home Guard in Hartfield & Forest Row, insisting on being plain \"Mr. Milne\" to the members of his platoon. He retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid, and by August 1953 \"he seemed very old and disenchanted\". Milne died in January 1956, aged 74.\n", "\n===1903 to 1925===\nA. A. Milne in 1922\nAfter graduating from Cambridge in 1903, A. A. Milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to ''Punch'', joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor.\n\nDuring this period he published 18 plays and three novels, including the murder mystery ''The Red House Mystery'' (1922). His son was born in August 1920 and in 1924 Milne produced a collection of children's poems ''When We Were Very Young'', which were illustrated by ''Punch'' staff cartoonist E. H. Shepard. A collection of short stories for children ''Gallery of Children'', and other stories that became part of the Winnie-the-Pooh books, were first published in 1925.\n\nMilne was an early screenwriter for the nascent British film industry, writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company Minerva Films (founded in 1920 by the actor Leslie Howard and his friend and story editor Adrian Brunel). These were ''The Bump'', starring Aubrey Smith; ''Twice Two''; ''Five Pound Reward''; and ''Bookworms''. Some of these films survive in the archives of the British Film Institute. Milne had met Howard when the actor starred in Milne’s play ''Mr Pim Passes By'' in London.\n\nLooking back on this period (in 1926), Milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story, he was told that what the country wanted from a \"''Punch'' humorist\" was a humorous story; when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes, his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story; and after another two years, he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for children's books. He concluded that \"the only excuse which I have yet discovered for writing anything is that I want to write it; and I should be as proud to be delivered of a Telephone Directory ''con amore'' as I should be ashamed to create a Blank Verse Tragedy at the bidding of others.\"\n\n===1926 to 1928===\nMilne with his son Christopher Robin and Pooh Bear, at Cotchford Farm, their home in Sussex. Photo by Howard Coster, 1926.\nMilne is most famous for his two ''Pooh'' books about a boy named Christopher Robin after his son, Christopher Robin Milne, and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named Winnie-the-Pooh. Christopher Robin Milne's stuffed bear, originally named \"Edward\", was renamed \"Winnie-the-Pooh\" after a Canadian black bear named Winnie (after Winnipeg), which was used as a military mascot in World War I, and left to London Zoo during the war. \"The pooh\" comes from a swan called \"Pooh\". E. H. Shepard illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own son's teddy, Growler (\"a magnificent bear\"), as the model. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into A. A. Milne's stories, and two more characters – Rabbit and Owl – were created by Milne's imagination. Christopher Robin Milne's own toys are now under glass in New York where 750,000 people visit them every year.\nThe real stuffed toys owned by Christopher Robin Milne and featured in the ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' stories. They are on display in the Stephen A. Schwarzman Building in New York.\nThe fictional Hundred Acre Wood of the Pooh stories derives from Five Hundred Acre Wood in Ashdown Forest in East Sussex, South East England, where the Pooh stories were set. Milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at Cotchford Farm, , and took his son walking there. E. H. Shepard drew on the landscapes of Ashdown Forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the Pooh books. The adult Christopher Robin commented: \"Pooh's Forest and Ashdown Forest are identical\". Popular tourist locations at Ashdown Forest include: ''Galleon's Lap'', ''The Enchanted Place'', the ''Heffalump Trap'' and ''Lone Pine'', ''Eeyore’s Sad and Gloomy Place'', and the wooden ''Pooh Bridge'' where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks.\n\nNot yet known as Pooh, he made his first appearance in a poem, \"Teddy Bear\", published in ''Punch'' magazine in February 1924. Pooh first appeared in the ''London Evening News'' on Christmas Eve, 1925, in a story called \"The Wrong Sort Of Bees\". ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' was published in 1926, followed by ''The House at Pooh Corner'' in 1928. A second collection of nursery rhymes, ''Now We Are Six'', was published in 1927. All four books were illustrated by E. H. Shepard. Milne also published four plays in this period. He also \"gallantly stepped forward\" to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising P. G. Wodehouse's ''A Damsel in Distress''. ''The World of Pooh'' won the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1958.\n\n===1929 onwards===\nThe success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had, until then, found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war ''Punch'' from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol J. M. Barrie) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in ''The Red House Mystery'' (although this was severely criticised by Raymond Chandler for the implausibility of its plot). But once Milne had, in his own words, \"said goodbye to all that in 70,000 words\" (the approximate length of his four principal children's books), he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.\n\nIn his literary home, ''Punch'', where the ''When We Were Very Young'' verses had first appeared, Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem \"The Norman Church\" and an assembly of articles entitled ''Year In, Year Out'' (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author).\n\nIn 1930, Milne adapted Kenneth Grahame's novel ''The Wind in the Willows'' for the stage as ''Toad of Toad Hall''. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as Chapter 7, \"The Piper at the Gates of Dawn\", could not survive translation to the theatre. A special introduction written by Milne is included in some editions of Grahame's novel.\n\nMilne and his wife became estranged from their son, who came to resent what he saw as his father's exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye. Marrying his first cousin, Lesley de Sélincourt, distanced Christopher still further from his parents - Lesley's father and Christopher's mother hadn't spoken to each other for 30 years.\n", "\n\nThe rights to A. A. Milne's Pooh books were left to four beneficiaries: his family, the Royal Literary Fund, Westminster School and the Garrick Club. After Milne's death in 1956, one week and six days after his 74th birthday, his widow sold her rights to the Pooh characters to Stephen Slesinger, whose widow sold the rights after Slesinger's death to the Walt Disney Company, which has made many Pooh cartoon movies, a Disney Channel television show, as well as Pooh-related merchandise. In 2001, the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the Disney Corporation for $350m. Previously Disney had been paying twice-yearly royalties to these beneficiaries. The estate of E. H. Shepard also received a sum in the deal. The U.K. copyright on the text of the original Winnie the Pooh books expires on 1 January 2027; at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the author's death (PMA-70), and has already expired in those countries with a PMA-50 rule. This applies to all of Milne's works except those first published posthumously. The illustrations in the Pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time has passed, after the illustrator's death. In the United States, copyright will not expire until 95 years after publication for each of Milne's books first published before 1978, but this includes the illustrations.\n\nIn 2008, a collection of original illustrations featuring Winnie-the-Pooh and his animal friends sold for more than £1.2 million at auction in Sotheby's, London. ''Forbes'' magazine ranked Winnie the Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002; Winnie the Pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than $5.9 billion. In 2005, Winnie the Pooh generated $6 billion, a figure surpassed by only Mickey Mouse.\nA. A. Milne and E. H. Shepard memorial plaque at Ashdown Forest, East Sussex, the setting for ''Winnie the Pooh''\nA memorial plaque in Ashdown Forest, unveiled by Christopher Robin in 1979, commemorates the work of A. A. Milne and Shepard in creating the world of Pooh. Milne once wrote of Ashdown Forest: \"In that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing\".\n\nIn 2003, ''Winnie the Pooh'' was listed at number 7 on the BBC's poll The Big Read which determined the UK's \"best-loved novels\" of all time. In 2006, Winnie the Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne's creation. That same year a UK poll saw Winnie the Pooh voted onto the list of icons of England.\n\nMarking the 90th anniversary of Milne's creation of the character, and the 90th birthday of Elizabeth II, in 2016 a new story sees Winnie the Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace. The illustrated and audio adventure is titled ''Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen'', and has been narrated by actor Jim Broadbent. Also in 2016, a new character, a Penguin, was unveiled in ''The Best Bear in All the World'', which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin.\n\nSeveral of Milne's children's poems were set to music by the composer Harold Fraser-Simson. His poems have been parodied many times, including with the books ''When We Were Rather Older'' and ''Now We Are Sixty''. The 1963 film ''The King's Breakfast'' was based on Milne's poem of the same name.\n", "Milne did not speak out much on the subject of religion, although he used religious terms to explain his decision, while remaining a pacifist, to join the British Home Guard: \"In fighting Hitler\", he wrote, \"we are truly fighting the Devil, the Anti-Christ ... Hitler was a crusader against God.\"\n\nHis best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death:\n\n\nHe wrote in the poem \"Explained\":\nElizabeth Ann\nSaid to her Nan:\n\"Please will you tell me how God began?\n''Somebody'' must have made Him. So\nWho could it be, 'cos I want to know?\"\n\n\nHe also wrote in the poem \"Vespers\":\n\"Oh! Thank you, God, for a lovely day.\nAnd what was the other I had to say?\nI said \"Bless Daddy,\" so what can it be?\nOh! Now I remember it. God bless Me.\"\n\n", "\n===Novels===\n* ''Lovers in London'' (1905. Some consider this more of a short story collection; Milne did not like it and considered ''The Day's Play'' as his first book.)\n* ''Once on a Time'' (1917)\n* ''Mr. Pim'' (1921) (A novelisation of his 1919 play ''Mr. Pim Passes By'')\n* ''The Red House Mystery'' (1922)\n* ''Two People'' (1931) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.)\n* ''Four Days' Wonder'' (1933)\n* ''Chloe Marr'' (1946)\n\n===Non-fiction===\n* ''Peace With Honour'' (1934)\n* ''It's Too Late Now: The Autobiography of a Writer'' (1939)\n* ''War With Honour'' (1940)\n* ''War Aims Unlimited'' (1941)\n* ''Year In, Year Out'' (1952) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n\n====''Punch'' articles====\n* ''The Day's Play'' (1910)\n* ''Once a Week'' (1914)\n* ''The Holiday Round'' (1912)\n* ''The Sunny Side'' (1921)\n* ''Those Were the Days'' (1929) The four volumes above, compiled\n\n===Newspaper articles and book introductions===\n* ''The Chronicles of Clovis'' by \"Saki\" (1911) Introduction to\n* ''Not That It Matters'' (1920)\n* ''By Way of Introduction'' (1929)\n* ''It Depends on the Book'' (1943, in September issue of Red Cross Newspaper ''The Prisoner of War'')\n\n===Story collections for children===\n* ''A Gallery of Children'' (1925)\n* ''Winnie-the-Pooh'' (1926) (illustrated by Ernest H. Shepard)\n* ''The House at Pooh Corner'' (1928) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n* ''Short Stories''\n\n===Poetry collections for children===\n* ''When We Were Very Young'' (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n* ''Now We Are Six'' (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n\n===Story collections===\n* ''The Secret and other stories'' (1929)\n* ''The Birthday Party'' (1948)\n* ''A Table Near the Band'' (1950)\n\n===Poetry===\n* ''For the Luncheon Interval'' poems from ''Punch''\n* ''When We Were Very Young'' (1924) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n* ''Now We Are Six'' (1927) (illustrated by E. H. Shepard)\n* ''Behind the Lines'' (1940)\n* ''The Norman Church'' (1948)\n\n===Screenplays and plays===\n* ''Wurzel-Flummery'' (1917)\n* ''Belinda'' (1918)\n* ''The Boy Comes Home'' (1918)\n* ''Make-Believe'' (1918) (children's play)\n* ''The Camberley Triangle'' (1919)\n* ''Mr. Pim Passes By'' (1919)\n* ''The Red Feathers'' (1920)\n* ''The Romantic Age'' (1920)\n* ''The Stepmother'' (1920)\n* ''The Truth about Blayds'' (1920)\n* ''The Bump'' (1920, Minerva Films), starring Aubrey Smith\n* ''Twice Two'' (1920, Minerva Films)\n* ''Five Pound Reward'' (1920, Minerva Films)\n* ''Bookworms'' (1920, Minerva Films)\n* ''The Great Broxopp'' (1921)\n* ''The Dover Road'' (1921)\n* ''The Lucky One'' (1922)\n* ''The Truth About Blayds'' (1922)\n* ''The Artist: A Duologue'' (1923)\n* ''Give Me Yesterday'' (1923) (a.k.a. ''Success'' in the UK)\n* ''Ariadne'' (1924)\n* ''The Man in the Bowler Hat: A Terribly Exciting Affair'' (1924)\n* ''To Have the Honour'' (1924)\n* ''Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers'' (1926)\n* ''Success'' (1926)\n* ''Miss Marlow at Play'' (1927)\n* ''The Fourth Wall'' or ''The Perfect Alibi'' (1928) (later adapted for the film ''Birds of Prey'' (1930), directed by Basil Dean)\n* ''The Ivory Door'' (1929)\n* ''Toad of Toad Hall'' (1929) (adaptation of ''The Wind in the Willows'')\n* ''Michael and Mary'' (1930)\n* ''Other People's Lives'' (1933) (a.k.a. ''They Don't Mean Any Harm'')\n* ''Miss Elizabeth Bennet'' (1936) based on ''Pride and Prejudice''\n* ''Sarah Simple'' (1937)\n* ''Gentleman Unknown'' (1938)\n* ''The General Takes Off His Helmet'' (1939) in ''The Queen's Book of the Red Cross''\n* ''The Ugly Duckling'' (1941)\n* ''Before the Flood'' (1951).\n", "\n", "* Thwaite, Ann. ''A.A. Milne: His Life''. London: Faber and Faber, 1990. \n* Toby, Marlene. ''A.A. Milne, Author of Winnie-the-Pooh''. Chicago: Children's Press, 1995. \n* \n", "\n* \n* \n* Works by A. A. Milne at BiblioWiki (Canada) includes the complete text of the four Pooh books\n* \n* \n* Portraits of A. A. Milne in the National Portrait Gallery\n* Essays by Milne at Quotidiana.org\n* Milne extract in ''The Guardian''\n* Profile at Just-Pooh.com\n* A. A. Milne at poeticous.com\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Literary career", "Legacy and commemoration", "Religious views", "Works", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	A. A. Milne
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Asociación Alumni''', usually just '''Alumni''', is a rugby union club located in Tortuguitas, Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina. The senior squad currently competes at Grupo I, the first division of Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires league system.\n\nThe club has ties with former association football club Alumni because both were established by Buenos Aires English High School students.\n", "===Background===\n\nThe first club with the name \"Alumni\" played association football, having been found in 1898 by students of Buenos Aires English High School (BAEHS) along with director Alexander Watson Hutton. Originally under the name \"English High School A.C.\", the team would be later obliged by the Association to change its name, therefore \"Alumni\" was chosen, following a proposal by Carlos Bowers, a former student of the school.\n\nAlumni was the most successful team during the first years of Argentine football, winning 10 of 14 league championships contested. Alumni is still considered the first great football team in the country. Alumni was reorganised in 1908, \"in order to encourage people to practise all kind of sports, specially football\". This was the last try to develop itself as a sports club rather than just a football team, such as Lomas, Belgrano and Quilmes had successfully done in the past, but the efforts were not enough. Alumni played its last game in 1911 and was definitely dissolved on April 24, 1913.\n\n===Rebirth through rugby===\nIn 1951 a group of BAEHS students asked school's alumni for permission to re-establish the name \"Alumni\" for a rugby union team. This request was immediately approved in a meeting presided by Carlos Bowers, who had proposed the name \"Alumni\" to the original football team 50 years before.\n\nThe team achieved good results and in 1960 the club presented a team that won the third division of the Buenos Aires league, reaching the second division. Since then, Alumni has played at the highest level of Argentine rugby and its rivalry with Belgrano Athletic Club is one of the fiercest local derbies in Buenos Aires. Alumni would later climb up to first division winning 5 titles: 4 consecutive between 1989 and 1992, and the other in 2001.\n\nIn 2002, Alumni won its first Nacional de Clubes title, defeating Jockey Club de Rosario 23-21 in the final.\n", "'''Nacional de Clubes (1)''': 2002\n'''Torneo de la URBA (5)''': 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 2001\n", "* Buenos Aires English High School\n* Alumni Athletic Club\n", "\n", "* Official website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Honours", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Asociación Alumni
[ "\n\n\n\nAn '''axiom''' or '''postulate''' is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Greek ''axíōma'' () 'that which is thought worthy or fit' or 'that which commends itself as evident.' \n\nThe term has subtle differences in definition when used in the context of different fields of study. As defined in classic philosophy, an axiom is a statement that is so evident or well-established, that it is accepted without controversy or question. As used in modern logic, an axiom is simply a premise or starting point for reasoning. \n \nAs used in mathematics, the term ''axiom'' is used in two related but distinguishable senses: \"logical axioms\" and \"non-logical axioms\". Logical axioms are usually statements that are taken to be true within the system of logic they define (e.g., (''A'' and ''B'') implies ''A''), often shown in symbolic form, while non-logical axioms (e.g., ) are actually substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory (such as arithmetic). When used in the latter sense, \"axiom\", \"postulate\", and \"assumption\" may be used interchangeably. In general, a non-logical axiom is not a self-evident truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory. To axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small, well-understood set of sentences (the axioms). There are typically multiple ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain.\n\nIn both senses, an axiom is any mathematical statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived. Whether it is meaningful (and, if so, what it means) for an axiom, or any mathematical statement, to be \"true\" is an open question in the philosophy of mathematics.\n", "The word ''axiom'' comes from the Greek word (''axíōma''), a verbal noun from the verb (''axioein''), meaning \"to deem worthy\", but also \"to require\", which in turn comes from (''áxios''), meaning \"being in balance\", and hence \"having (the same) value (as)\", \"worthy\", \"proper\". Among the ancient Greek philosophers an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof.\n\nThe root meaning of the word ''postulate'' is to \"demand\"; for instance, Euclid demands that one agree that some things can be done, e.g. any two points can be joined by a straight line, etc.\n\nAncient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates. While commenting on Euclid's books, Proclus remarks that, \"Geminus held that this 4th Postulate should not be classed as a postulate but as an axiom, since it does not, like the first three Postulates, assert the possibility of some construction but expresses an essential property.\" Boethius translated 'postulate' as ''petitio'' and called the axioms ''notiones communes'' but in later manuscripts this usage was not always strictly kept.\n", "\n===Early Greeks===\nThe logico-deductive method whereby conclusions (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge) through the application of sound arguments (syllogisms, rules of inference), was developed by the ancient Greeks, and has become the core principle of modern mathematics. Tautologies excluded, nothing can be deduced if nothing is assumed. Axioms and postulates are the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge. They are accepted without demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, if we are talking about mathematics) must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions. However, the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed from ancient times to the modern, and consequently the terms ''axiom'' and ''postulate'' hold a slightly different meaning for the present day mathematician, than they did for Aristotle and Euclid.\n\nThe ancient Greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences, and held the theorems of geometry on par with scientific facts. As such, they developed and used the logico-deductive method as a means of avoiding error, and for structuring and communicating knowledge. Aristotle's posterior analytics is a definitive exposition of the classical view.\n\nAn \"axiom\", in classical terminology, referred to a self-evident assumption common to many branches of science. A good example would be the assertion that ''When an equal amount is taken from equals, an equal amount results.''\n\nAt the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses which were accepted without proof. Such a hypothesis was termed a ''postulate''. While the axioms were common to many sciences, the postulates of each particular science were different. Their validity had to be established by means of real-world experience. Indeed, Aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated, if the learner is in doubt about the truth of the postulates.\n\nThe classical approach is well-illustrated by Euclid's Elements, where a list of postulates is given (common-sensical geometric facts drawn from our experience), followed by a list of \"common notions\" (very basic, self-evident assertions).\n\n:;Postulates\n:# It is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point.\n:# It is possible to extend a line segment continuously in both directions.\n:# It is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius.\n:# It is true that all right angles are equal to one another.\n:# (\"Parallel postulate\") It is true that, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.\n\n:;Common notions:\n:# Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.\n:# If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.\n:# If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.\n:# Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.\n:# The whole is greater than the part.\n\n===Modern development===\nA lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathematical assertions (axioms, postulates, propositions, theorems) and definitions. One must concede the need for primitive notions, or undefined terms or concepts, in any study. Such abstraction or formalization makes mathematical knowledge more general, capable of multiple different meanings, and therefore useful in multiple contexts. Alessandro Padoa, Mario Pieri, and Giuseppe Peano were pioneers in this movement.\n\nStructuralist mathematics goes further, and develops theories and axioms (e.g. field theory, group theory, topology, vector spaces) without ''any'' particular application in mind. The distinction between an \"axiom\" and a \"postulate\" disappears. The postulates of Euclid are profitably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric facts. The truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses. However, by throwing out Euclid's fifth postulate we get theories that have meaning in wider contexts, hyperbolic geometry for example. We must simply be prepared to use labels like \"line\" and \"parallel\" with greater flexibility. The development of hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that postulates should be regarded as purely formal statements, and not as facts based on experience.\n\nWhen mathematicians employ the field axioms, the intentions are even more abstract. The propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application; the mathematician now works in complete abstraction. There are many examples of fields; field theory gives correct knowledge about them all.\n\nIt is not correct to say that the axioms of field theory are \"propositions that are regarded as true without proof.\" Rather, the field axioms are a set of constraints. If any given system of addition and multiplication satisfies these constraints, then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system.\n\nModern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as mathematical objects, and mathematics itself can be regarded as a branch of logic. Frege, Russell, Poincaré, Hilbert, and Gödel are some of the key figures in this development.\n\nIn the modern understanding, a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally stated assertions follow by the application of certain well-defined rules. In this view, logic becomes just another formal system. A set of axioms should be consistent; it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axiom. A set of axioms should also be non-redundant; an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded as an axiom.\n\nIt was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics, perhaps all of mathematics, could be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms. An early success of the formalist program was Hilbert's formalization of Euclidean geometry, and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms.\n\nIn a wider context, there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on Cantor's set theory. Here the emergence of Russell's paradox, and similar antinomies of naïve set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn out to be inconsistent.\n\nThe formalist project suffered a decisive setback, when in 1931 Gödel showed that it is possible, for any sufficiently large set of axioms (Peano's axioms, for example) to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of axioms. As a corollary, Gödel proved that the consistency of a theory like Peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion within the scope of that theory.\n\nIt is reasonable to believe in the consistency of Peano arithmetic because it is satisfied by the system of natural numbers, an infinite but intuitively accessible formal system. However, at present, there is no known way of demonstrating the consistency of the modern Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms for set theory. Furthermore, using techniques of forcing (Cohen) one can show that the continuum hypothesis (Cantor) is independent of the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms. Thus, even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the definitive foundation for mathematics.\n\n===Other sciences===\nAxioms play a key role not only in mathematics, but also in other sciences, notably in theoretical physics. In particular, the monumental work of Isaac Newton is essentially based on Euclid's axioms, augmented by a postulate on the non-relation of spacetime and the physics taking place in it at any moment.\n\nIn 1905, Newton's axioms were replaced by those of Albert Einstein's special relativity, and later on by those of general relativity.\n\nAnother paper of Albert Einstein and coworkers (see EPR paradox), almost immediately contradicted by Niels Bohr, concerned the interpretation of quantum mechanics. This was in 1935. According to Bohr, this new theory should be probabilistic, whereas according to Einstein it should be deterministic. Notably, the underlying quantum mechanical theory, i.e. the set of \"theorems\" derived by it, seemed to be identical. Einstein even assumed that it would be sufficient to add to quantum mechanics \"hidden variables\" to enforce determinism. However, thirty years later, in 1964, John Bell found a theorem, involving complicated optical correlations (see Bell inequalities), which yielded measurably different results using Einstein's axioms compared to using Bohr's axioms. And it took roughly another twenty years until an experiment of Alain Aspect got results in favour of Bohr's axioms, not Einstein's. (Bohr's axioms are simply: The theory should be probabilistic in the sense of the Copenhagen interpretation.)\n\nAs a consequence, it is not necessary to explicitly cite Einstein's axioms, the more so since they concern subtle points on the \"reality\" and \"locality\" of experiments.\n\nRegardless, the role of axioms in mathematics and in the above-mentioned sciences is different. In mathematics one neither \"proves\" nor \"disproves\" an axiom for a set of theorems; the point is simply that in the conceptual realm identified by the axioms, the theorems logically follow. In contrast, in physics a comparison with experiments always makes sense, since a falsified physical theory needs modification.\n", "In the field of mathematical logic, a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: ''logical'' and ''non-logical'' (somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between \"axioms\" and \"postulates\" respectively).\n\n===Logical axioms===\nThese are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid, that is, formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms ''at least'' some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language; in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required, in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense.\n\n====Examples====\n\n=====Propositional logic=====\nIn propositional logic it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms, where , , and can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only \"\" for negation of the immediately following proposition and \"\" for implication from antecedent to consequent propositions:\n\n#\n#\n#\n\nEach of these patterns is an ''axiom schema'', a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if , , and are propositional variables, then and are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and ''modus ponens'', one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with ''modus ponens''.\n\nOther axiom schemas involving the same or different sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed.\n\nThese axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus, but additional logical axioms are needed to include a quantifier in the calculus.\n\n=====First-order logic=====\n\n'''Axiom of Equality.''' Let be a first-order language. For each variable , the formula\n\n\n\n\n\nis universally valid.\n\n\nThis means that, for any variable symbol the formula can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of \"primitive notions\", either a precise notion of what we mean by (or, for that matter, \"to be equal\") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol has to be enforced, only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols, and mathematical logic does indeed do that.\n\nAnother, more interesting example axiom scheme, is that which provides us with what is known as '''Universal Instantiation''':\n\n\n'''Axiom scheme for Universal Instantiation.''' Given a formula in a first-order language , a variable and a term that is substitutable for in , the formula\n\n\n\n\n\nis universally valid.\n\n\nWhere the symbol stands for the formula with the term substituted for . (See Substitution of variables.) In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property holds for every and that stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim . Again, ''we are claiming that the formula'' ''is valid'', that is, we must be able to give a \"proof\" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a ''metaproof''. Actually, these examples are ''metatheorems'' of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of ''proof'' itself. Aside from this, we can also have '''Existential Generalization''':\n\n\n'''Axiom scheme for Existential Generalization.''' Given a formula in a first-order language , a variable and a term that is substitutable for in , the formula\n\n\n\n\n\nis universally valid.\n\n\n===Non-logical axioms===\n'''Non-logical axioms''' are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example the natural numbers and the integers, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as groups). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not ''tautologies''. Another name for a non-logical axiom is ''postulate''.\n\nAlmost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas.\n\nNon-logical axioms are often simply referred to as ''axioms'' in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some groups, the group operation is commutative, and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups.\n\nThus, an ''axiom'' is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a '''deductive system'''.\n\n====Examples====\nThis section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms.\n\nBasic theories, such as arithmetic, real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced non-axiomatically, but implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with choice, abbreviated ZFC, or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory like Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory, a conservative extension of ZFC. Sometimes slightly stronger theories such as Morse-Kelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a Grothendieck universe are used, but in fact most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than ZFC, such as second-order arithmetic.\n\nThe study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology, algebraic topology, differential topology, and all the related paraphernalia, such as homology theory, homotopy theory. The development of ''abstract algebra'' brought with itself group theory, rings, fields, and Galois theory.\n\nThis list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including measure theory, ergodic theory, probability, representation theory, and differential geometry.\n\nCombinatorics is an example of a field of mathematics which does not, in general, follow the axiomatic method.\n\n=====Arithmetic=====\nThe Peano axioms are the most widely used ''axiomatization'' of first-order arithmetic. They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem.\n\nWe have a language where is a constant symbol and is a unary function and the following axioms:\n\n# \n# \n# for any formula with one free variable.\n\nThe standard structure is where is the set of natural numbers, is the successor function and is naturally interpreted as the number 0.\n\n=====Euclidean geometry=====\nProbably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 Euclid's postulates of plane geometry. The axioms are referred to as \"4 + 1\" because for nearly two millennia the fifth (parallel) postulate (\"through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel\") was suspected of being derivable from the first four. Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four. Indeed, one can assume that exactly one parallel through a point outside a line exists, or that infinitely many exist. This choice gives us two alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees or less, respectively, and are known as Euclidean and hyperbolic geometries. If one also removes the second postulate (\"a line can be extended indefinitely\") then elliptic geometry arises, where there is no parallel through a point outside a line, and in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to more than 180 degrees.\n\n=====Real analysis=====\nThe objectives of study are within the domain of real numbers. The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to isomorphism) by the properties of a ''Dedekind complete ordered field'', meaning that any nonempty set of real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires use of second-order logic. The Löwenheim-Skolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to first-order logic, any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger. Some of the latter are studied in non-standard analysis.\n\n===Role in mathematical logic===\n\n====Deductive systems and completeness====\nA '''deductive system''' consists of a set of logical axioms, a set of non-logical axioms, and a set of ''rules of inference''. A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be '''complete'''. A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas ,\n\n\n\n\nthat is, for any statement that is a ''logical consequence'' of there actually exists a ''deduction'' of the statement from . This is sometimes expressed as \"everything that is true is provable\", but it must be understood that \"true\" here means \"made true by the set of axioms\", and not, for example, \"true in the intended interpretation\". Gödel's completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system.\n\nNote that \"completeness\" has a different meaning here than it does in the context of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem, which states that no ''recursive'', ''consistent'' set of non-logical axioms of the Theory of Arithmetic is ''complete'', in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement such that neither nor can be proved from the given set of axioms.\n\nThere is thus, on the one hand, the notion of ''completeness of a deductive system'' and on the other hand that of ''completeness of a set of non-logical axioms''. The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another.\n\n===Further discussion===\nEarly mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space, and obviously there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as Boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic. Galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted. Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and modern algebra was born. In the modern view axioms may be any set of formulas, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent.\n", "\n* Axiomatic system\n* Dogma\n* List of axioms\n* Model theory\n* Regulæ Juris\n* Theorem\nPresupposition\n", "\n", " Mendelson, Elliot (1987). ''Introduction to mathematical logic.'' Belmont, California: Wadsworth & Brooks. \n* \n", "\n\n \n* \n* ''Metamath'' axioms page\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "Historical development", "Mathematical logic", "See also", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Axiom
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Alpha''' (uppercase , lowercase ; , ''álpha'', modern pronunciation ''álfa'') is the first letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals it has a value of 1. \n\nIt was derived from the Phoenician and Hebrew letter aleph Aleph - an ox or leader.\n\nLetters that arose from alpha include the Latin A and the Cyrillic letter А.\n\nIn English, the noun \"alpha\" is used as a synonym for \"beginning\", or \"first\" (in a series), reflecting its Greek roots.\n", "\n===Greek===\nIn Ancient Greek, alpha was pronounced and could be either phonemically long (a:) or short (a). Where there is ambiguity, long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today: Ᾱᾱ, Ᾰᾰ.\nὥρα = ὥρᾱ ''hōrā'' \"a time\"\nγλῶσσα = γλῶσσᾰ ''glôssa'' \"tongue\"\n\nIn Modern Greek, vowel length has been lost, and all instances of alpha simply represent .\n\nIn the polytonic orthography of Greek, alpha, like other vowel letters, can occur with several diacritic marks: any of three accent symbols (), and either of two breathing marks (), as well as combinations of these. It can also combine with the iota subscript ().\n\n====Greek grammar====\nIn the Attic-Ionic dialect of Ancient Greek, long alpha fronted to (eta). In Ionic, the shift took place in all positions. In Attic, the shift did not take place after epsilon, iota, and rho (ε, ι, ρ; ''e'', ''i'', ''r''). In Doric and Aeolic, long alpha is preserved in all positions.\nDoric, Aeolic, Attic ''chṓrā'' — Ionic ''chṓrē, \"country\"\nDoric, Aeolic ''phā́mā'' — Attic, Ionic ''phḗmē, \"report\"\n\nPrivative a is the Ancient Greek prefix ἀ- or ἀν- ''a-'', ''an-'', added to words to negate them. It originates from the Proto-Indo-European '''' (syllabic nasal) and is cognate with English ''un-''.\n\nCopulative a is the Greek prefix ἁ- or ἀ- ''ha-'', ''a-''. It comes from Proto-Indo-European ''''.\n\n===Math and science===\n\nThe letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry, including alpha radiation, angular acceleration, alpha particles, alpha carbon and strength of electromagnetic interaction (as Fine-structure constant). Alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry. It is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles. Furthermore, in mathematics, the letter alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null and alternative hypotheses. In zoology, it is used to name the dominant individual in a wolf or dog pack.\n\nThe proportionality operator \"∝\" (in Unicode: U+221D) is sometimes mistaken for alpha.\n\nThe uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase Latin A.\n\n===International Phonetic Alphabet===\nIn the International Phonetic Alphabet, the letter ɑ, which looks similar to the lower-case alpha, represents the open back unrounded vowel.\n", "\n===Etymology===\nAlpha was derived from ''aleph'', which in Phoenician means \"ox\".\n\n===Plutarch===\nPlutarch, in ''Moralia'', presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Ammonius asks Plutarch what he, being a Boeotian, has to say for Cadmus, the Phoenician who reputedly settled in Thebes and introduced the alphabet to Greece, placing ''alpha'' first because it is the Phoenician name for ox—which, unlike Hesiod, the Phoenicians considered not the second or third, but the first of all necessities. \"Nothing at all,\" Plutarch replied. He then added that he would rather be assisted by Lamprias, his own grandfather, than by Dionysus' grandfather, i.e. Cadmus. For Lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is \"alpha\", because it is very plain and simple—the air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongue—and therefore this is the first sound that children make.\n\nAccording to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets, alpha was connected with the Moon.\n\n===Alpha and Omega===\nMemorial Stained Glass window, Royal Military College of Canada features Alpha and Omega\nAlpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, including the first or most significant occurrence of something. The New Testament has God declaring himself to be the \"Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last.\" (Revelation 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8).\n\n===Language===\n\nThe term \"alpha\" has been used to denote position in social hierarchy, examples being \"alpha males\" or pack leaders.\n", "* Greek alpha / Coptic alfa\n\n\n\nFor accented Greek characters, see Greek diacritics: Computer encoding.\n\n* Latin / IPA alpha\n\n\n\n* Mathematical / Technical alpha\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Uses", "History and symbolism", "Computer encodings", "References" ]	Alpha
[ "\n\n\n'''Alvin Toffler''' (October 4, 1928 – June 27, 2016) was an American writer, futurist, and businessman known for his works discussing modern technologies, including the digital revolution and the communication revolution, with emphasis on their effects on cultures worldwide.\n\nToffler was an associate editor of ''Fortune'' magazine. In his early works he focused on technology and its impact, which he termed \"information overload.\" In 1970 his first major book about the future, ''Future Shock'', became a worldwide best-seller and has sold over 6 million copies.\n\nHe and his wife Heidi Toffler, who collaborated with him for most of his writings, moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society with another best-selling book, ''The Third Wave'' in 1980. In it, he foresaw such technological advances as cloning, personal computers, the Internet, cable television and mobile communication. His later focus, via their other best-seller, ''Powershift'', (1990), was on the increasing power of 21st-century military hardware and the proliferation of new technologies.\n\nHe founded Toffler Associates, a management consulting company, and was a visiting scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation, visiting professor at Cornell University, faculty member of the New School for Social Research, a White House correspondent, and a business consultant. Toffler's ideas and writings were a significant influence on the thinking of business and government leaders worldwide, including United States politician Newt Gingrich, China's Zhao Ziyang, and AOL founder Steve Case.\n", "Alvin Toffler was born on October 4, 1928, in New York City, and raised in Brooklyn. He was the son of Rose (Albaum) and Sam Toffler, a furrier, both Jewish immigrants from Poland. He had one younger sister. He was inspired to become a writer at the age of 7 by his aunt and uncle, who lived with the Tofflers. \"They were Depression-era literary intellectuals,\" Toffler said, \"and they always talked about exciting ideas.\"\n\nToffler graduated from New York University in 1950 as an English major, though by his own account he was more focused on political activism than grades. He met his future wife, Adelaide Elizabeth Farrell (nicknamed \"Heidi\"), when she was starting a graduate course in linguistics. Being radical students, they decided against further graduate work and moved to the Midwest, where they married on April 29, 1950.\n", "Seeking experiences to write about, Alvin and Heidi Toffler spent the next five years as blue collar workers on assembly lines while studying industrial mass production in their daily work. He compared his own desire for experience to other writers, such as Jack London, who in his quest for subjects to write about sailed the seas, and John Steinbeck, who went to pick grapes with migrant workers. In their first factory jobs, Heidi became a union shop steward in the aluminum foundry where she worked. Alvin became a millwright and welder. In the evenings Alvin would write poetry and fiction, but discovered he was proficient at neither.\n\nHis hands-on practical labor experience helped Alvin Toffler land a position at a union-backed newspaper, a transfer to its Washington bureau in 1957, then three years as a White House correspondent, covering Congress and the White House for a Pennsylvania daily newspaper.\n\nThey returned to New York City in 1959 when ''Fortune'' magazine invited Alvin to become its labor columnist, later having him write about business and management. After leaving ''Fortune'' magazine in 1962, Toffler began a freelance career, writing long form articles for scholarly journals and magazines. His 1964 ''Playboy interviews'' with Russian novelist Vladimir Nabokov and Ayn Rand were considered among the magazine's best. His interview with Rand was the first time the magazine had given such a platform to a female intellectual, which as one commentator said, \"the real bird of paradise Toffler captured for Playboy in 1964 was Ayn Rand.\"\n\nToffler was hired by IBM to conduct research and write a paper on the social and organizational impact of computers, leading to his contact with the earliest computer \"gurus\" and artificial intelligence researchers and proponents. Xerox invited him to write about its research laboratory and AT&T consulted him for strategic advice. This AT&T work led to a study of telecommunications, which advised the company's top management to break up the company more than a decade before the government forced AT&T to break up.\n\nIn the mid-1960s, the Tofflers began five years of research on what would become ''Future Shock'', published in 1970. It has sold over 6 million copies worldwide, according to the ''New York Times,'' or over 15 million copies according to the Tofflers' Web site. Toffler coined the term \"future shock\" to refer to what happens to a society when change happens too fast, which results in social confusion and normal decision-making processes breaking down. The book has never been out of print and has been translated into dozens of languages.\n\nHe continued the theme in ''The Third Wave'' in 1980. While he describes the first and second waves as the agricultural and industrial revolutions, the \"third wave,\" a phrase he coined, represents the current information, computer-based revolution. He forecast the spread of the Internet and email, interactive media, cable television, cloning, and other digital advancements. He claimed that one of the side effects of the digital age has been \"information overload,\" another term he coined. In 1990 he wrote ''Powershift'', also with the help of his wife, Heidi.\n\nIn 1996, with American business consultant Tom Johnson, they co-founded Toffler Associates, an advisory firm designed to implement many of the ideas the Tofflers had written on. The firm worked with businesses, NGOs, and governments in the United States, South Korea, Mexico, Brazil, Singapore, Australia, and other countries. During this period in his career, Toffler lectured worldwide, taught at several schools and met world leaders, such as Mikhail Gorbachev, along with key executives and military officials.\n\n===Ideas and opinions===\n\n\nToffler stated many of his ideas during an interview with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1998. Among a few of his opinions, he said that \"Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest. Society needs people who work in hospitals. Society needs all kinds of skills that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional. You can't run the society on data and computers alone.\"\n\nHis opinions about the future of education, many of which were in ''Future Shock'', have often been quoted. An often misattributed quote, however, is that of psychologist Herbert Gerjuoy: \"Tomorrow's illiterate will not be the man who can't read; he will be the man who has not learned how to learn.\"\n\nEarly in his career, after traveling to other countries, he became aware of the new and myriad inputs that visitors received from these other cultures. He explained during an interview that some visitors would become \"truly disoriented and upset\" by the strange environment, which he described as a reaction to culture shock. From that issue, he foresaw another problem for the future, when a culturally \"new environment comes to you ... and comes to you rapidly.\" That kind of sudden cultural change within one's own country, which he felt many would not understand, would lead to a similar reaction, one of \"future shock\", which he wrote about in his book by that title. Toffler writes:\n\n\nIn his book ''The Third Wave'', Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of \"waves\" — each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside. He describes the \"First Wave\" as the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first hunter-gatherer cultures. The \"Second Wave,\" he labels society during the Industrial Revolution (ca. late 17th century through the mid-20th century). That period saw the increase of urban industrial populations which had undermined the traditional nuclear family, and initiated a factory-like education system, and the growth of the corporation. Toffler said:\n\n\n\nThe \"Third Wave\" was a term he coined to describe the post-industrial society, which began in the late 1950s. His description of this period dovetails with other futurist writers, who also wrote about the Information Age, Space Age, Electronic Era, Global Village, terms which highlighted a scientific-technological revolution. The Tofflers claimed to have predicted a number of geopolitical events, such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the future economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region.\n", "Toffler often visited with dignitaries in Asia, including China's Zhao Ziyang, Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew and South Korea's Kim Dae Jung, all of whom were influenced by his views as Asia's emerging markets increased in global significance during the 1980s and 1990s. Although they had originally censored some of his books and ideas, China's government cited him along with Franklin Roosevelt and Bill Gates as being among the Westerners who had most influenced their country. ''The Third Wave'' along with a video documentary based on it became best-sellers in China and were widely distributed to schools. Toffler's influence on Asian thinkers was summed up in an article in ''Daedulus'', published by the American Academy of Arts & Sciences:\n\n\nU.S. House Speaker Newt Gingrich publicly lauded his ideas about the future, and urged members of Congress to read Toffler's book, ''Creating a New Civilization'' (1995). Others, such as AOL founder Steve Case, cited Toffler's ''The Third Wave'' as a formative influence on his thinking, which inspired him to write ''The Third Wave: An Entrepreneur's Vision of the Future'' in 2016. Case said that Toffler was a \"real pioneer in helping people, companies and even countries lean into the future.\"\n\nIn 1980 Ted Turner founded CNN, which he said was inspired by Toffler's forecasting the end of the dominance of the three main television networks. Turner's company, Turner Broadcasting, published Toffler's ''Creating a New Civilization'' in 1995. Shortly after the book was released, Russian president Mikhail Gorbachev hosted the Global Governance Conference in San Francisco with the theme, ''Toward a New Civilization'', which was attended by dozens of world figures, including the Tofflers, George H. W. Bush, Margaret Thatcher, Carl Sagan, Abba Eban and Turner with his wife, actress Jane Fonda.\n\nMexican billionaire Carlos Slim, was influenced by his works, and became a friend of the writer. And global marketer J.D. Power also said he was inspired by Toffler's works.\n\nSince the 1960s, people had tried to make sense out of the effect of new technologies and social change, a problem which made Toffler's writings widely influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic, and public policy. His works and ideas have been subject to various criticisms, usually with the same argumentation used against futurology: that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible.\n\nTechno music pioneer Juan Atkins cites Toffler's phrase \"techno rebels\" in ''The Third Wave'' as inspiring him to use the word \"techno\" to describe the musical style he helped to create\n\nMusicians Curtis Mayfield and Herbie Hancock both wrote songs called \"Future Shock.\" Science fiction author John Brunner wrote \"The Shockwave Rider,\" from the concept of \"future shock.\"\n", "Accenture, the management consultancy firm, identified Toffler in 2002 as being among the most influential voices in business leaders, along with Bill Gates and Peter Drucker. Toffler has also been described in a ''Financial Times'' interview as the \"world's most famous futurologist\". In 2006 the ''People's Daily'' classed him among the 50 foreigners who shaped modern China, which one U.S. newspaper notes made him a \"guru of sorts to world statesmen.\" Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang of China convened conferences to discuss ''The Third Wave'' in the early 1980s, and in 1985 the book was the No. 2 best seller in China.\n\nAuthor Mark Satin characterizes Toffler as an important early influence on radical centrist political thought.\n\nNewt Gingrich became close to the Tofflers in the 1970s and said ''The Third Wave'' had immensely influenced his own thinking and was \"one of the great seminal works of our time.\"\n", "Toffler has received several prestigious prizes awards, including the McKinsey Foundation Book Award for Contributions to Management Literature, Officier de L'Ordre des Arts et Lettres, and appointments, including Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the International Institute for Strategic Studies.\n\nIn 2006, the Alvin and Heidi Toffler were recipients of Brown University's Independent Award.\n", "Toffler was married to Heidi Toffler, also a writer and futurist. They lived in the Bel Air section of Los Angeles, California, and previously lived in Redding, Connecticut.\n\nThe couple's only child, Karen Toffler (1954–2000), died at age 46 after more than a decade suffering from Guillain–Barré syndrome.\n\nAlvin Toffler died in his sleep on June 27, 2016, at his home in Los Angeles. No cause of death was given.\n", "Alvin Toffler co-wrote his books with his wife Heidi.\n* ''The Culture Consumers'' (1964) St. Martin's Press, \n* ''The Schoolhouse in the City'' (1968) Praeger (editors), ASIN: B000HUAUGW\n* ''Future Shock'' (1970) Bantam Books, \n* ''The Futurists'' (1972) Random House (editors), \n* ''Learning for Tomorrow'' (1974) Random House (editors), \n* ''The Eco-Spasm Report'' (1975) Bantam Books, \n* ''The Third Wave'' (1980) Bantam Books, \n* ''Previews & Premises'' (1983) William Morrow & Co, \n* ''The Adaptive Corporation (1985) McGraw-Hill, \n* ''Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century'' (1990) Bantam Books, \n* ''Creating a New Civilization'' (1995) Turner Pub, \n* ''War and Anti-War'' (1995) Warner Books, \n* ''Revolutionary Wealth'' (2006) Knopf, \n", "* Daniel Bell\n* Norman Swan\n* Human nature\n* John Naisbitt\n", "\n", "\n\n* — official Alvin Toffler site\n* Toffler Associates\n* Interview with Alvin Toffler by the World Affairs Council\n* \n* Discuss Alvin Toffler's ''Future Shock'' with other readers, BookTalk.org\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", " Career", "Influences and popular culture", "Critical assessment ", "Selected awards", "Personal life", "Bibliography", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Alvin Toffler
[ "\n\n\n\n'''''The Amazing Spider-Man''''' is an American comic book series published by Marvel Comics, featuring the adventures of the fictional superhero Spider-Man. Being the mainstream continuity of the franchise, it began publication in 1963 as a monthly periodical and was published continuously, with a brief interruption in 1995, until its relaunch with a new numbering order in 1999. In 2003 the series reverted to the numbering order of the first volume. The title has occasionally been published biweekly, and was published three times a month from 2008 to 2010. A film named after the comic was released July 3, 2012.\n\nAfter DC Comics' relaunch of ''Action Comics'' and ''Detective Comics'' with new #1 issues in 2011, it had been the highest-numbered American comic still in circulation until it was cancelled. The title ended its 50-year run as a continuously published comic with issue #700 in December 2012. It was replaced by ''The Superior Spider-Man'' as part of the Marvel NOW! relaunch of Marvel's comic lines.\n\nThe title was relaunched in April 2014, starting fresh from issue #1, after the \"Goblin Nation\" story arc published in ''The Superior Spider-Man'' and ''Superior Spider-Man Team-Up''. In late 2015, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' was relaunched again with a new volume with issue #1 following the 2015 ''Secret Wars'' event.\n", "''Amazing Fantasy'' #15 (Aug. 1962), was Spider-Man's first appearance. Cover art by Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko \nThe character was created by writer-editor Stan Lee and artist and co-plotter Steve Ditko, and the pair produced 38 issues from March 1963 to July 1966. Ditko left after the 38th issue, while Lee remained as writer until issue 100. Since then, many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic through the years, chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero.\n\n''The Amazing Spider-Man'' has been the character's flagship series for his first fifty years in publication, and was the only monthly series to star Spider-Man until ''Peter Parker, The Spectacular Spider-Man'' in 1976, although 1972 saw the debut of ''Marvel Team-Up'', with the vast majority of issues featuring Spider-Man along with a rotating cast of other Marvel characters. Most of the major characters and villains of the Spider-Man saga have been introduced in ''Amazing'', and with few exceptions, it is where most key events in the character's history have occurred. The title was published continuously until #441 (Nov. 1998) when Marvel Comics relaunched it as vol. 2 #1 (Jan. 1999), but on Spider-Man's 40th anniversary, this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, beginning again with issue #500 (Dec. 2003) and lasting until the final issue, #700 (Feb. 2013).\n\n\n===1960s===\nDue to strong sales on the character's first appearance in ''Amazing Fantasy'' #15, Spider-Man was given his own ongoing series in March 1963. The initial years of the series, under Lee and Ditko, chronicled Spider-Man's nascent career with his civilian life as hard-luck yet perpetually good-humored teenager Peter Parker. Peter balanced his career as Spider-Man with his job as a freelance photographer for ''The Daily Bugle'' under the bombastic editor-publisher J. Jonah Jameson to support himself and his frail Aunt May. At the same time, Peter dealt with public hostility towards Spider-Man and the antagonism of his classmates Flash Thompson and Liz Allan at Midtown High School, while embarking on a tentative, ill-fated romance with Jameson's secretary, Betty Brant.\n\nBy focusing on Parker's everyday problems, Lee and Ditko created a groundbreakingly flawed, self-doubting superhero, and the first major teenaged superhero to be a protagonist and not a sidekick. Ditko's quirky art provided a stark contrast to the more cleanly dynamic stylings of Marvel's most prominent artist, Jack Kirby, and combined with the humor and pathos of Lee's writing to lay the foundation for what became an enduring mythos.\n\nMost of Spider-Man's key villains and supporting characters were introduced during this time. Issue #1 (March 1963) featured the first appearances of J. Jonah Jameson and his astronaut son John Jameson, and the supervillain the Chameleon. It included the hero's first encounter with the superhero team the Fantastic Four. Issue #2 (May 1963) featured the first appearance of the Vulture and the beginning of Parker's freelance photography career at the newspaper ''The Daily Bugle''.\n\nThe Lee-Ditko era continued to usher in a significant number of villains and supporting characters, including Doctor Octopus in #3 (July 1963); the Sandman and Betty Brant in #4 (Sept. 1963); the Lizard in #6 (Nov. 1963); Living Brain in (#8, January, 1964); Electro in #9 (March 1964); Mysterio in #13 (June 1964); the Green Goblin in #14 (July 1964); Kraven The Hunter in #15 (Aug. 1964); reporter Ned Leeds in #18 (Nov. 1964); and the Scorpion in #20 (Jan. 1965). The Molten Man was introduced in #28 (Sept. 1965) which also featured Parker's graduation from high school. Peter began attending Empire State University in #31 (Dec. 1965), the issue which featured the first appearances of friends and classmates Gwen Stacy and Harry Osborn. Harry's father, Norman Osborn first appeared in #23 (April 1965) as a member of Jameson's country club but is not named nor revealed as Harry's father until #37 (June 1966). One of the most celebrated issues of the Lee-Ditko run is #33 (Feb. 1966), the third part of the story arc \"If This Be My Destiny...!\", which features the dramatic scene of Spider-Man, through force of will and thoughts of family, escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery. Comics historian Les Daniels noted that \"Steve Ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of Spider-Man's predicament, complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save.\" Peter David observed that \"After his origin, this two-page sequence from ''Amazing Spider-Man'' #33 is perhaps the best-loved sequence from the Stan Lee/Steve Ditko era.\" Steve Saffel stated the \"full page Ditko image from ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come.\" and Matthew K. Manning wrote that \"Ditko's illustrations for the first few pages of this Lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in Spider-Man's history.\" The story was chosen as #15 in the 100 Greatest Marvels of All Time poll of Marvel's readers in 2001. Editor Robert Greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that \"These first five pages are a modern-day equivalent to Shakespeare as Parker's soliloquy sets the stage for his next action. And with dramatic pacing and storytelling, Ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics.\"\n\n''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #23 (April 1965), featuring nemesis the Green Goblin. Cover art by co-creator Steve Ditko.\nAlthough credited only as artist for most of his run, Ditko would eventually plot the stories as well as draw them, leaving Lee to script the dialogue. A rift between Ditko and Lee developed, and the two men were not on speaking terms long before Ditko completed his last issue, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #38 (July 1966). The exact reasons for the Ditko-Lee split have never been fully explained. Spider-Man successor artist John Romita Sr., in a 2010 deposition, recalled that Lee and Ditko \"ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything, cultural, social, historically, everything, they disagreed on characters...\"\n\nIn successor penciler Romita Sr.'s first issue, #39 (Aug. 1966), nemesis the Green Goblin discovers Spider-Man's secret identity and reveals his own to the captive hero. Romita's Spider-Man – more polished and heroic-looking than Ditko's – became the model for two decades. The Lee-Romita era saw the introduction of such characters as ''Daily Bugle'' managing editor Robbie Robertson in #52 (Sept. 1967) and NYPD Captain George Stacy, father of Parker's girlfriend Gwen Stacy, in #56 (Jan. 1968). The most important supporting character to be introduced during the Romita era was Mary Jane Watson, who made her first full appearance in #42, (Nov. 1966), although she first appeared in #25 (June 1965) with her face obscured and had been mentioned since #15 (Aug. 1964). Peter David wrote in 2010 that Romita \"made the definitive statement of his arrival by pulling Mary Jane out from behind the oversized potted plant that blocked the readers' view of her face in issue #25 and placing her on panel in what would instantly become an iconic moment.\" Romita has stated that in designing Mary Jane, he \"used Ann-Margret from the movie ''Bye Bye Birdie'' as a guide, using her coloring, the shape of her face, her red hair and her form-fitting short skirts.\"\n\nLee and Romita toned down the prevalent sense of antagonism in Parker's world by improving Parker's relationship with the supporting characters and having stories focused as much on the social and college lives of the characters as they did on Spider-Man's adventures. The stories became more topical, addressing issues such as civil rights, racism, prisoners' rights, the Vietnam War, and political elections.\n\nIssue #50 (June 1967) introduced the highly enduring criminal mastermind the Kingpin, who would become a major force as well in the superhero series ''Daredevil''. Other notable first appearances in the Lee-Romita era include the Rhino in #41 (Oct. 1966), the Shocker in #46 (March 1967), the Prowler in #78 (Nov. 1969), and the Kingpin's son, Richard Fisk, in #83 (April 1970).\n\n===1970s===\n\nSeveral spin-off series debuted in the 1970s: ''Marvel Team-Up'' in 1972, and ''The Spectacular Spider-Man'' in 1976. A short-lived series titled ''Giant-Size Spider-Man'' began in July 1974 and ran six issues through 1975. ''Spidey Super Stories'', a series aimed at children ages 6–10, ran for 57 issues from October 1974 through 1982. \nThe flagship title's second decade took a grim turn with a story in #89-90 (Oct.-Nov. 1970) featuring the death of Captain George Stacy. This was the first Spider-Man story to be penciled by Gil Kane, who would alternate drawing duties with Romita for the next year-and-a-half and would draw several landmark issues.\n\nOne such story took place in the controversial issues #96-98 (May–July 1971). Writer-editor Lee defied the Comics Code Authority with this story, in which Parker's friend Harry Osborn, was hospitalized after over-dosing on pills. Lee wrote this story upon a request from the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare for a story about the dangers of drugs. Citing its dictum against depicting drug use, even in an anti-drug context, the CCA refused to put its seal on these issues. With the approval of Marvel publisher Martin Goodman, Lee had the comics published without the seal. The comics sold well and Marvel won praise for its socially conscious efforts. The CCA subsequently loosened the Code to permit negative depictions of drugs, among other new freedoms.\n\n\"The Six Arms Saga\" of #100-102 (Sept.–Nov. 1971) introduced Morbius, the Living Vampire. The second installment was the first ''Amazing Spider-Man'' story not written by co-creator Lee, with Roy Thomas taking over writing the book for several months before Lee returned to write #105-110 (Feb.-July 1972). Lee, who was going on to become Marvel Comics' publisher, with Thomas becoming editor-in-chief, then turned writing duties over to 19-year-old Gerry Conway, who scripted the series through 1975. Romita penciled Conway's first half-dozen issues, which introduced the gangster Hammerhead in #113 (Oct. 1972). Kane then succeeded Romita as penciler, although Romita would continue inking Kane for a time.\n\nIssues 121-122 (June–July 1973, by Conway-Kane-Romita), which featured the death of Gwen Stacy at the hands of the Green Goblin in \"The Night Gwen Stacy Died\" in issue #121. Her demise and the Goblin's apparent death one issue later formed a story arc widely considered as the most defining in the history of Spider-Man. The aftermath of the story deepened both the characterization of Mary Jane Watson and her relationship with Parker.\n\nIn 1973, Gil Kane was succeeded by Ross Andru, whose run lasted from issue #125 (October 1973) to #185 (October 1978). Issue #129 (Feb. 1974) introduced the Punisher, who would become one of Marvel Comics' most popular characters. The Conway-Andru era featured the first appearances of the Man-Wolf in #124-125 (Sept.-Oct. 1973); the near-marriage of Doctor Octopus and Aunt May in #131 (April 1974); Harry Osborn stepping into his father's role as the Green Goblin in #135-137 (Aug.-Oct.1974); and the original \"Clone Saga\", containing the introduction of Spider-Man's clone, in #147-149 (Aug.-Oct. 1975).\nArchie Goodwin and Gil Kane produced the title's 150th issue (Nov. 1975) before Len Wein became writer with issue #151. During Wein's tenure, Harry Osborn and Liz Allen dated and became engaged, J. Jonah Jameson was introduced to his eventual second wife, Marla Madison, and Aunt May suffered a heart attack. Wein's last story on ''Amazing'' was a five-issue arc in #176-180 (Jan.-May 1978) featuring a third Green Goblin (Harry Osborn’s psychiatrist, Bart Hamilton). Marv Wolfman, Marvel's editor-in-chief from 1975 to 1976, succeeded Wein as writer, and in his first issue, #182 (July 1978), had Parker propose marriage to Watson who refused, in the following issue. Keith Pollard succeeded Ross Andru as artist shortly afterward, and with Wolfman introduced the likable rogue the Black Cat (Felicia Hardy) in #194 (July 1979). As a love interest for Spider-Man, the Black Cat would go on to be an important supporting character for the better part of the next decade, and remain a friend and occasional lover into the 2010s.\n\n===1980s===\n''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #252 (May 1984): Spider-Man's black costume debuts. Cover art by Ron Frenz and Klaus Janson.\n''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #200 (Jan. 1980) featured the return and death of the burglar who killed Spider-Man's Uncle Ben. Writer Marv Wolfman and penciler Keith Pollard both left the title by mid-year, succeeded by Dennis O'Neil, a writer known for groundbreaking 1970s work at rival DC Comics, and penciler John Romita Jr.. O'Neil wrote two issues of ''The Amazing Spider-Man Annual'' which were both drawn by Frank Miller. The 1980 Annual featured a team-up with Doctor Strange while the 1981 Annual showcased a meeting with the Punisher. Roger Stern, who had written nearly 20 issues of sister title ''The Spectacular Spider-Man'', took over ''Amazing'' with issue #224 (January 1982). During his two years on the title, Stern augmented the backgrounds of long-established Spider-Man villains, and with Romita Jr. created the mysterious supervillain the Hobgoblin in #238-239 (March–April 1983). Fans engaged with the mystery of the Hobgoblin's secret identity, which continued throughout #244-245 and 249-251 (Sept.-Oct. 1983 and Feb.-April 1984). One lasting change was the reintroduction of Mary Jane Watson as a more serious, mature woman who becomes Peter's confidante after she reveals that she knows his secret identity. Stern wrote \"The Kid Who Collects Spider-Man\" in ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #248 (January 1984), a story which ranks among his most popular.\n\nBy mid-1984, Tom DeFalco and Ron Frenz took over scripting and penciling. DeFalco helped establish Parker and Watson's mature relationship, laying the foundation for the characters' wedding in 1987. Notably, in #257 (Oct. 1984), Watson tells Parker that she knows he is Spider-Man, and in #259 (Dec. 1984), she reveals to Parker the extent of her troubled childhood. Other notable issues of the DeFalco-Frenz era include #252 (May 1984), with the first appearance of Spider-Man's black costume, which the hero would wear almost exclusively for the next four years' worth of comics; the debut of criminal mastermind the Rose, in #253 (June 1984); the revelation in #258 (Nov. 1984) that the black costume is a living being, a symbiote; and the introduction of the female mercenary Silver Sable in #265 (June 1985).\n\nTom DeFalco and Ron Frenz were both removed from ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' in 1986 by editor Owsley under acrimonious circumstances. A succession of artists including Alan Kupperberg, John Romita Jr., and Alex Saviuk penciled the series from 1987 to 1988; Owsley wrote the book for the first half of 1987, scripting the five-part \"Gang War\" story (#284-288) that DeFalco plotted. Former ''Spectacular Spider-Man'' writer Peter David scripted #289 (June 1987), which revealed Ned Leeds as being the Hobgoblin although this was retconned in 1996 by Roger Stern into Leeds not being the original Hobgoblin after all.\n\nDavid Michelinie took over as writer in the next issue, for a story arc in #290-292 (July-Sept. 1987) that led to the marriage of Peter Parker and Mary Jane Watson in ''Amazing Spider-Man Annual'' #21. The \"Kraven's Last Hunt\" storyline by writer J.M. DeMatteis and artists Mike Zeck and Bob McLeod crossed over into ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #293 and 294. Issue #298 (March 1988) was the first Spider-Man comic to be drawn by future industry star Todd McFarlane, the first regular artist on ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' since Frenz's departure. McFarlane revolutionized Spider-Man's look. His depiction – large-eyed, with wiry, contorted limbs, and messy, knotted, convoluted webbing – influenced the way virtually all subsequent artists would draw the character. McFarlane's other significant contribution to the Spider-Man canon was the design for what would become one of Spider-Man's most wildly popular antagonists, the supervillain Venom. Issue #299 (April 1988) featured Venom's first appearance (a last-page cameo) before his first full appearance in #300 (May 1988). The latter issue featured Spider-Man reverting to his original red-and-blue costume.\n\nOther notable issues of the Michelinie-McFarlane era include #312 (Feb. 1989), featuring the Green Goblin vs. the Hobgoblin; and #315-317 (May–July 1989), with the return of Venom. In July 2012, Todd McFarlane's original cover art for ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #328 sold for a bid of $657,250, making it the most expensive American comic book art ever sold at auction.\n\n===1990s===\nWith a civilian life as a married man, the Spider-Man of the 1990s was different from the superhero of the previous three decades. McFarlane left the title in 1990 to write and draw a new series titled simply ''Spider-Man''. His successor, Erik Larsen, penciled the book from early 1990 to mid-1991. After issue #350, Larsen was succeeded by Mark Bagley, who had won the 1986 Marvel Tryout Contest and was assigned a number of low-profile penciling jobs followed by a run on ''New Warriors'' in 1990. Bagley penciled the flagship Spider-Man title from 1991 to 1996.\n\nIssues #361-363 (April–June 1992) introduced Carnage, a second symbiote nemesis for Spider-Man. The series' 30th-anniversary issue, #365 (Aug. 1992), was a double-sized, hologram-cover issue with the cliffhanger ending of Peter Parker's parents, long thought dead, reappearing alive. It would be close to two years before they were revealed to be impostors, who are killed in #388 (April 1994), scripter Michelinie's last issue. His 1987–1994 stint gave him the second-longest run as writer on the title, behind Stan Lee.\n\nIssue #375 was released with a gold foil cover. There was an error affecting some issues and which are missing the majority of the foil.\n\nWith #389, writer J. M. DeMatteis, whose Spider-Man credits included the 1987 \"Kraven's Last Hunt\" story arc and a 1991–1993 run on ''The Spectacular Spider-Man'', took over the title. From October 1994 to June 1996, ''Amazing'' stopped running stories exclusive to it, and ran installments of multi-part stories that crossed over into all the Spider-Man books. One of the few self-contained stories during this period was in #400 (April 1995), which featured the death of Aunt May — later revealed to have been faked (although the death still stands in the MC2 continuity). The \"Clone Saga\" culminated with the revelation that the Spider-Man who had appeared in the previous 20 years of comics was a clone of the real Spider-Man. This plot twist was massively unpopular with many readers, and was later reversed in the \"Revelations\" story arc that crossed over the Spider-Man books in late 1996.\n\nThe Clone Saga tied into a publishing gap after #406 (Oct. 1995), when the title was temporarily replaced by ''The Amazing Scarlet Spider'' #1-2 (Nov.-Dec. 1995), featuring Ben Reilly. The series picked up again with #407 (Jan. 1996), with Tom DeFalco returning as writer. Bagley completed his 5½-year run by September 1996. A succession of artists, including Ron Garney, Steve Skroce, Joe Bennett, and Rafael Kayanan, penciled the book until the final issue, #441 (Nov. 1998), after which Marvel rebooted the title with vol. 2, #1 (Jan. 1999).\n\n===Relaunch and the 2000s===\nMarvel began ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' anew with vol. 2, #1 (Jan. 1999). Howard Mackie wrote the first 29 issues. The relaunch included the Sandman being regressed to his criminal ways and the \"death\" of Mary Jane, which was ultimately reversed. Other elements included the introduction of a new Spider-Woman (who was spun off into her own short-lived series) and references to John Byrne's ''Spider-Man: Chapter One'', which launched at the same time as the reboot. Mackie's run ended with ''The Amazing Spider-Man Annual 2001'', which saw the return of Mary Jane, who then left Parker upon reuniting with him.\n\nWith #30 (June 2001), J. Michael Straczynski took over as writer and oversaw additional storylines — most notably his lengthy \"Spider-Totem\" arc, which raised the issue of whether Spider-Man's powers were magic-based, rather than as the result of a radioactive spider's bite. Additionally, Straczynski resurrected the plot point of Aunt May discovering her nephew was Spider-Man, and returned Mary Jane, with the couple reuniting in ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #50. Straczynski gave Spider-Man a new profession, having Parker teach at his former high school.\n\nIssue #30 began a dual numbering system, with the original series numbering (#471) returned and placed alongside the volume-two number on the cover. Other longtime, rebooted Marvel Comics titles, including ''Fantastic Four'', likewise were given the dual numbering around this time. In October 2000, John Romita Jr. succeeded John Byrne as artist. After vol. 2, #58 (Nov. 2003), the title reverted completely to its original numbering for #500 (Dec. 2003). Mike Deodato, Jr. penciled the series from mid-2004 until 2006.\n\nThat year Peter Parker revealed his Spider-Man identity on live television in the company-crossover storyline \"Civil War\", in which the superhero community is split over whether to conform to the federal government's new Superhuman Registration Act. This knowledge was erased from the world with the event of the four-part, crossover story arc, \"One More Day\", written partially by J. Michael Straczynski and illustrated by Joe Quesada, running through ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #544-545 (Nov.-Dec. 2007), ''Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man'' #24 (Nov. 2007) and ''The Sensational Spider-Man'' #41 (Dec. 2007), the final issues of those two titles. Here, the demon Mephisto makes a Faustian bargain with Parker and Mary Jane, offering to save Parker's dying Aunt May if the couple will allow their marriage to have never existed, rewriting that portion of their pasts. This story arc marked the end of Straczynski's tenure as writer.\n\nFollowing this, Marvel made ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' the company's sole Spider-Man title, increasing its frequency of publication to three issues monthly, and inaugurating the series with a sequence of \"back to basics\" story arcs under the banner of \"Brand New Day\". Parker now exists in a changed world where he and Mary Jane had never married, and Parker has no memory of being married to her, with domino effect differences in their immediate world. The most notable of these revisions to Spider-Man continuity are the return of Harry Osborn, whose death in ''The Spectacular Spider-Man'' #200 (May 1993) is erased; and the reestablishment of Spider-Man's secret identity, with no one except Mary Jane able to recall that Parker is Spider-Man (although he soon reveals his secret identity to the New Avengers and the Fantastic Four). The alternating regular writers were initially Dan Slott, Bob Gale, Marc Guggenheim, Fred Van Lente, and Zeb Wells, joined by a rotation of artists that included Chris Bachalo, Phil Jimenez, Mike McKone, John Romita Jr. and Marcos Martín. Joe Kelly, Mark Waid and Roger Stern later joined the writing team and Barry Kitson the artist roster. Waid's work on the series included a meeting between Spider-Man and Stephen Colbert in ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #573 (Dec. 2008).\nIssue #583 (March 2009) included a back-up story in which Spider-Man meets President Barack Obama.\n\n===2010s and temporary end of publication===\nMark Waid scripted the opening of \"The Gauntlet\" storyline in issue #612 (Jan. 2010). With issue #648 (Jan. 2011), the series became a twice-monthly title with Dan Slott as sole writer. Eight additional pages were added per issue. This publishing format lasted until issue #700, which concluded the \"Dying Wish\" storyline, in which Parker and Doctor Octopus swapped bodies, and the latter taking on the mantle of Spider-Man when Parker apparently died in Doctor Octopus' body. ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' ended with this issue, with the story continuing in the new series ''The Superior Spider-Man''. In December 2013, the series returned for five issues, numbered 700.1 through 700.5, with the first two written by David Morrell and drawn by Klaus Janson.\n\n===2014 relaunch===\nIn January 2014, Marvel confirmed that ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' would be relaunched on April 30, 2014, starting from issue #1, with Peter Parker as Spider-Man once again. Issues #1-6 were a story arc called \"Lucky to be Alive\", taking place immediately after \"Goblin Nation\", with issues #4 and #5 being a cross-over with the ''Original Sin'' storyline. Issue #4 introduced Silk, a new heroine, that was bitten by the same spider as Peter Parker. Issues #7-8 featured a team-up between Ms. Marvel and Spider-Man, and had backup stories that tied into Edge of Spider-Verse. The next major plot arc, titled \"Spider-Verse\", began in Issue #9 and ended in #15, features every Spider-Man from across the dimensions being hunted by Morlun, and a team-up to stop him, with Peter Parker of Earth-616 in command of the Spider-Men's Alliance. ''The Amazing Spider-Man Annual'' #1 of the relaunched series, was released in December 2014, featuring stories unrelated to \"Spider-Verse\".\n\n===2015 relaunch===\nFollowing the 2015 ''Secret Wars'' event, a number of Spider-Man-related titles were either relaunched or created as part of the \"All-New, All-Different Marvel\" event. Among them, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' was relaunched as well and primarily focuses on Peter Parker continuing to run Parker Industries, and becoming a successful businessman who is operating worldwide. It also tied with ''Civil War II'' (involving an Inhuman who can predict possible future named Ulysses Cain), ''Dead No More'' (where Ben Reilly (the original Scarlet Spider) revealed to be revived and as one of the antagonists instead), and ''Secret Empire'' (during Hydra's reign led by a Hydra influenced Captain America/Steve Rogers, and the dismissal of Parker Industries by Peter Parker/Spider-Man himself).\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' comic book sales figures from 1966–present at The Comics Chronicles\n* Spider-Man at Marvel Comics wikia\n* ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' cover gallery\n* Spiderman Videos\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Publication history", "Collected editions", "References", "External links" ]	The Amazing Spider-Man
[ "\n\n'''AM''' may refer to:\n\n\n", "===Music===\n* AM (musician), American musician\n* A.M. (musician), Canadian musician\n* DJ AM, American DJ and producer\n* ''A.M.'' (Wilco album)\n* ''A.M.'' (Chris Young album)\n* ''AM'' (Arctic Monkeys album)\n* Am, the A minor chord symbol\n* A minor, a minor scale in music\n\n===Television and radio===\n* ''AM'' (ABC Radio), Australian radio programme\n* ''American Morning'', American television program\n* ''Am, Antes del Mediodia'', Argentine television program\n\n===Other media===\n* The antagonist of the short story \"I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream\"\n", "* Master of Arts, an academic degree\n* ''Arts et Métiers ParisTech'', a French engineering school\n* Active Minds, a mental health awareness charity\n", "* Americium, a chemical element\n* Attometre, a unit of length\n* Adrenomedullin, a protein\n* Air mass (astronomy)\n* Am, a Köppen climate classification code\n* AM, a complexity class related to Arthur–Merlin protocol\n", "* .am, Internet domain for Armenia\n* .am, a file extension associated with Automake software\n* Agile modeling, a software engineering methodology for modeling and documenting software systems\n* Amplitude modulation, an electronic communication technique\n* Additive Manufacturing, a process of making a three-dimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model.\n* AM broadcasting, radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation\n* Anti-materiel rifle\n* Automated Mathematician, an artificial intelligence program\n", "* ''ante meridiem'', Latin for \"before midday\"\n* ''Anno Mundi'', a calendar era based on the Biblical creation of the world\n* ''Anno Martyrum'', a method of numbering years in the Coptic calendar\n", "* A.M. (automobile), a 1906 French car\n* Aeroméxico (IATA airline code AM)\n* Arkansas and Missouri Railroad\n* All-mountain, a discipline of mountain biking\n", "* AM, the United States Navy hull classification symbol for \"minesweeper\"\n* Air marshal, a senior air officer rank used in Commonwealth countries\n* Anti-materiel rifle\n* Aviation Structural Mechanic, a U.S. Navy occupational rating\n", "* Member of the Order of Australia, postnominal letters which can be used by a Member of the Order\n* Assembly Member (disambiguation), a political office\n Member of the National Assembly for Wales\n Member of the London Assembly\n* Amharic language (ISO 639-1 language code am)\n* Armenia (ISO country code AM)\n* Attacking midfielder, a position in association football\n", "* `am (disambiguation)\n* A&M (disambiguation)\n* AM2 (disambiguation)\n* \n* \n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Arts and entertainment", "Education", "Science", "Technology", "Timekeeping", "Transportation", "Military", "Other uses", " See also " ]	AM
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Azincourt''' (; historically, '''Agincourt''' in English) is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France.\n\nIt is named after the Battle of Agincourt of 1415 which took place here.\n", "Situated north-west of Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise on the D71 road between Hesdin and Fruges\n", "The toponym is attested as ''Aisincurt'' in 1175, derived from a Germanic masculine name Aizo, Aizino and the early Northern French word ''curt'' 'farm with a courtyard' (Late Latin ''cortem''). It has no etymological connection in French with Agincourt, Meurthe-et-Moselle (attested as ''Egincourt'' 875), which is derived from another Germanic male name ''Ingin-''.\nThe battle was named after a nearby castle called Azincourt. The modern settlement has in turn been named after the battle in the 17th century.\n", "Azincourt is famous as being near the site of the battle fought on 25 October 1415 in which the army led by King Henry V of England defeated the forces led by Charles d'Albret on behalf of Charles VI of France, which has gone down in English history as the Battle of Agincourt. According to M. Forrest, the French knights were so encumbered by their armour that they were exhausted even before the start of the battle.\n\nLater on, when he became king in 1509, Henry VIII is supposed to have commissioned an English translation of a Life of Henry V so that he could emulate him, on the grounds that he thought that launching a campaign against France would help him to impose himself on the European stage. In 1513, Henry VIII conclusively crossed the English Channel and stopped at Azincourt. \n\n\nThe battle, as was the tradition, was named after a nearby castle called Azincourt. The castle has since disappeared and the settlement now known as Azincourt adopted the name in the seventeenth century.\nJohn Cassell wrote in 1857 that \"the village of Azincourt itself is a group of dirty farmhouses and wretched cottages, but where the hottest of the battle raged, between that village and the commune of Tramecourt, there still remains a wood precisely corresponding with the one in which Henry placed his ambush; and there are yet existing the foundations of the castle of Azincourt, from which the king named the field.\"\n", "\n\n", "The original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of Action Man figures. However, this has now been replaced by the Centre Historique Medieval (CHM) a more professional museum, conference centre and exhibition space incorporating laser, video, slide shows, audio commentaries, and some interactive elements. The museum building is shaped like a longbow similar to those used at the battle by archers under King Henry.\n\nSince 2004 a large medieval festival organised by the local community, the CHM, The Azincourt Alliance, and various other UK societies commemorating the battle, local history and medieval life, arts and crafts has been held in the village, on a July. Prior to this date the festival was held in October, but due to the inclement weather and local heavy clay soil (like the battle) making the festival difficult it was moved to July. No festival will be held in 2014, with a number of events planned for 2015 on the 600th anniversary of the original battle.\nCommemorative monument near to the battlefield\n", "\n\n===Twin towns/sister cities===\nAzincourt is twinned with:\n\n Middleham, United Kingdom\n", "* Communes of the Pas-de-Calais department\n* Agincourt, Ontario, Canada named for Azincourt, not Agincourt, Meurthe-et-Moselle\n", "* INSEE commune file\n\n", "\n* Azincourt on the Quid website \n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Geography", "Etymology", "History", "Population", "Sights", "International relations", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Azincourt
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer''' (; ; March 19, 1905 – September 1, 1981) was a German architect who was, for most of World War II, Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production for Nazi Germany. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office. As \"the Nazi who said sorry\", he accepted moral responsibility at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs for complicity in crimes of the Nazi regime, while insisting he had been ignorant of the Holocaust.\n\nSpeer joined the Nazi Party in 1931, launching himself on a political and governmental career which lasted fourteen years. His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party and he became a member of Hitler's inner circle. Hitler instructed him to design and construct structures including the Reich Chancellery and the ''Zeppelinfeld'' stadium in Nuremberg where Party rallies were held. Speer also made plans to reconstruct Berlin on a grand scale, with huge buildings, wide boulevards, and a reorganized transportation system.\n\nIn February 1942, Hitler appointed Speer Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production. He was fêted at the time, and long afterwards, for performing an \"armaments miracle\" in which German war production dramatically increased; this \"miracle\", however, was brought to a halt by the summer of 1943 by, among other factors, the first sustained Allied bombing of 1943.\n\nAfter the war, he was tried at Nuremberg and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his role in the Nazi regime, principally for the use of forced labor. Despite repeated attempts to gain early release, he served his full sentence, most of it at Spandau Prison in West Berlin. Following his release in 1966, Speer published two bestselling autobiographical works, ''Inside the Third Reich'' and ''Spandau: The Secret Diaries'', detailing his close personal relationship with Hitler, and providing readers and historians with a unique perspective on the workings of the Nazi regime. He later wrote a third book, ''Infiltration'', about the SS. Speer died of a stroke in 1981 while on a visit to London.\n", "Speer was born in Mannheim, into an upper-middle-class family. He was the second of three sons of Luise Máthilde Wilhelmine (Hommel) and Albert Friedrich Speer. In 1918, the family moved permanently to their summer home Villa Speer on Schloss-Wolfsbrunnenweg, Heidelberg. According to Henry T. King, deputy prosecutor at Nuremberg who later wrote a book about Speer, \"Love and warmth were lacking in the household of Speer's youth.\" Speer was active in sports, taking up skiing and mountaineering. Speer's Heidelberg school offered rugby football, unusual for Germany, and Speer was a participant. He wanted to become a mathematician, but his father said if Speer chose this occupation he would \"lead a life without money, without a position and without a future\". Instead, Speer followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture.\n\nSpeer began his architectural studies at the University of Karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents' income. In 1924 when the crisis had abated, he transferred to the \"much more reputable\" Technical University of Munich. In 1925 he transferred again, this time to the Technical University of Berlin where he studied under Heinrich Tessenow, whom Speer greatly admired. After passing his exams in 1927, Speer became Tessenow's assistant, a high honor for a man of 22. As such, Speer taught some of Tessenow's classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies. In Munich, and continuing in Berlin, Speer began a close friendship, ultimately spanning over 50 years, with Rudolf Wolters, who also studied under Tessenow.\n\nIn mid-1922, Speer began courting Margarete (Margret) Weber (1905–1987), the daughter of a successful craftsman who employed 50 workers. The relationship was frowned upon by Speer's class-conscious mother, who felt that the Webers were socially inferior. Despite this opposition, the two married in Berlin on August 28, 1928; seven years were to elapse before Margarete Speer was invited to stay at her in-laws' home.\n", "\n=== Joining the Nazis (1930–1934) ===\nAlbert Speer shows a project to Hitler at Obersalzberg\n\nSpeer stated he was apolitical when he was a young man, and that he attended a Berlin Nazi rally in December 1930 at the urging of some of his students. On March 1, 1931, he applied to join the Nazi Party and became member number 474,481.\n\nIn 1931, Speer surrendered his position as Tessenow's assistant and moved to Mannheim. His father gave him a job as manager of the elder Speer's properties. In July 1932, the Speers visited Berlin to help out the Party prior to the ''Reichstag'' elections. While they were there, his friend, Nazi Party official Karl Hanke, recommended the young architect to Joseph Goebbels to help renovate the Party's Berlin headquarters. Speer agreed to do the work. When the commission was completed, Speer returned to Mannheim and remained there as Hitler took office in January 1933.\n\nThe organizers of the 1933 Nuremberg Rally asked Speer to submit designs for the rally, bringing him into contact with Hitler for the first time. Neither the organizers nor Rudolf Hess were willing to decide whether to approve the plans, and Hess sent Speer to Hitler's Munich apartment to seek his approval. This work won Speer his first national post, as Nazi Party \"Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations\".\n\nShortly after Hitler had come into power, he had started to make plans to rebuild the chancellery. At the end of 1933 he contracted Paul Troost to renovate the entire building. Hitler appointed Speer, whose work for Goebbels had impressed him, to manage the building site for Troost. As Chancellor, Hitler had a residence in the building and came by every day to be briefed by Speer and the building supervisor on the progress of the renovations. After one of these briefings, Hitler invited Speer to lunch, to the architect's great excitement. Hitler evinced considerable interest in Speer during the luncheon, and later told Speer that he had been looking for a young architect capable of carrying out his architectural dreams for the new Germany. Speer quickly became part of Hitler's inner circle; he was expected to call on Hitler in the morning for a walk or chat, to provide consultation on architectural matters, and to discuss Hitler's ideas. Most days he was invited to dinner.\n\nThe two men found much in common: Hitler spoke of Speer as a \"kindred spirit\" for whom he had always maintained \"the warmest human feelings\". The young, ambitious architect was dazzled by his rapid rise and close proximity to Hitler, which guaranteed him a flood of commissions from the government and from the highest ranks of the Party. Speer testified at Nuremberg, \"I belonged to a circle which consisted of other artists and his personal staff. If Hitler had had any friends at all, I certainly would have been one of his close friends.\"\n\n=== First Architect of Nazi Germany (1934–1939) ===\n\nCathedral of Light above the ''Zeppelintribune''\n\nWhen Troost died on January 21, 1934, Speer effectively replaced him as the Party's chief architect. Hitler appointed Speer as head of the Chief Office for Construction, which placed him nominally on Hess's staff.\n\nOne of Speer's first commissions after Troost's death was the ''Zeppelinfeld'' stadium—the Nürnberg parade grounds seen in Leni Riefenstahl's propaganda masterpiece ''Triumph of the Will''. This huge work was able to hold 340,000 people. Speer insisted that as many events as possible be held at night, both to give greater prominence to his lighting effects and to hide the individual Nazis, many of whom were overweight. Speer surrounded the site with 130 anti-aircraft searchlights. Speer described this as his most beautiful work, and as the only one that stood the test of time.\n\nNürnberg was to be the site of many more official Nazi buildings, most of which were never built; for example, the German Stadium would have accommodated 400,000 spectators, while an even larger rally ground would have held half a million people. While planning these structures, Speer conceived the concept of \"ruin value\": that major buildings should be constructed in such a way they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins for thousands of years into the future. Such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of Nazi Germany, just as ancient Greek or Roman ruins were symbols of the greatness of those civilizations.\n\nAdolf Hitler looks over the designs for Nuremberg\n\nWhen Hitler deprecated Werner March's design for the Olympic Stadium for the 1936 Summer Olympics as too modern, Speer modified the plans by adding a stone exterior. Speer designed the German Pavilion for the 1937 international exposition in Paris. The German and Soviet pavilion sites were opposite each other. On learning (through a clandestine look at the Soviet plans) that the Soviet design included two colossal figures seemingly about to overrun the German site, Speer modified his design to include a cubic mass which would check their advance, with a huge eagle on top looking down on the Soviet figures. Speer received, from Hitler Youth leader and later fellow Spandau prisoner Baldur von Schirach, the Golden Hitler Youth Honor Badge with oak leaves.\n\nIn 1937, Hitler appointed Speer as General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital with the rank of undersecretary of state in the Reich government. The position carried with it extraordinary powers over the Berlin city government and made Speer answerable to Hitler alone. It also made Speer a member of the ''Reichstag'', though the body by then had little effective power. Hitler ordered Speer to develop plans to rebuild Berlin. The plans centered on a three-mile long grand boulevard running from north to south, which Speer called the ''Prachtstrasse'', or Street of Magnificence; he also referred to it as the \"North-South Axis\". At the northern end of the boulevard, Speer planned to build the ''Volkshalle'', a huge assembly hall with a dome which would have been over high, with floor space for 180,000 people. At the southern end of the avenue a great triumphal arch would rise; it would be almost high, and able to fit the Arc de Triomphe inside its opening. The outbreak of World War II in 1939 led to the postponement, and later the abandonment, of these plans. Part of the land for the boulevard was to be obtained by consolidating Berlin's railway system. Speer hired Wolters as part of his design team, with special responsibility for the ''Prachtstrasse''. When Speer's father saw the model for the new Berlin, he said to his son, \"You've all gone completely insane.\"\n\nMarble Gallery of the New Reich Chancellery\n\nAll the while plans to build a new Reich chancellery had been underway since 1934. Land had been purchased by the end of 1934 and starting in March 1936 the first buildings were demolished to create space at Voßstraße. Speer was involved virtually from the beginning. He had been commissioned to renovate the Borsig Palace on the corner of Voßstraße and Wilhelmstraße as a headquarter for the SA, who were about to be relocated from Munich to Berlin in the aftermath of the Röhm purge. and completed the preliminary work for the new chancellery by May 1936. In June 1936 he charged a personal honorarium of 30,000 Reichsmark and estimated that the chancellery would be completed within three to four years. Detailed plans were completed in July 1937 and the first shell of the new chancellery was complete on 1 January 1938. On 27 January 1938 Speer received plenipotentiary powers from Hitler to finish the new chancellery by 1 January 1939. Yet for propagandistic reasons, to prove the vigor and organizational skills of National Socialism, Hitler claimed during the topping-out ceremony on 2 August 1938 that he had ordered Speer to build the new chancellery just that year. Speer reiterated this claim in his memoirs to show that he had been up to that supposed challenge, and some of his biographers, most notably Joachim Fest, have followed that account. The building itself, hailed by Hitler as the \"crowning glory of the greater German political empire\", was designed as a theatrical set for representation, \"to intimidate and humiliate\", as historian Martin Kitchen puts it. Because of shortages of labor, the construction workers had to work in two ten- to twelve-hour shifts to have the chancellery completed by early January 1939.\n\nDuring the war the chancellery was destroyed, except for the exterior walls, by air raids and in the Battle of Berlin in 1945. It was eventually dismantled by the Soviets and rumors have it, that the remains have been used for other building projects like the Humboldt University, Mohrenstraße metro station or Soviet war memorials in Berlin, but none of these are true.\n\nDuring the Chancellery project, the pogrom of Kristallnacht took place. Speer made no mention of it in the first draft of ''Inside the Third Reich'', and it was only on the urgent advice of his publisher that he added a mention of seeing the ruins of the Central Synagogue in Berlin from his car.\n\nSpeer was under significant psychological pressure during this period of his life. He would later remember:\n\n\n\n=== Wartime architect (1939–1942) ===\nHitler visits Paris in 1940 with Speer (left) and sculptor Arno Breker.\n\nSpeer supported the German invasion of Poland and subsequent war, though he recognized that it would lead to the postponement, at the least, of his architectural dreams. In his later years, Speer, talking with his biographer-to-be Gitta Sereny, explained how he felt in 1939: \"Of course I was perfectly aware that Hitler sought world domination ...t that time I asked for nothing better. That was the whole point of my buildings. They would have looked grotesque if Hitler had sat still in Germany. All I ''wanted'' was for this great man to dominate the globe.\"\n\nSpeer placed his department at the disposal of the ''Wehrmacht''. When Hitler remonstrated, and said it was not for Speer to decide how his workers should be used, Speer simply ignored him. Among Speer's innovations were quick-reaction squads to construct roads or clear away debris; before long, these units would be used to clear bomb sites. As the war progressed, initially to great German success, Speer continued preliminary work on the Berlin and Nürnberg plans. Speer also oversaw the construction of buildings for the ''Wehrmacht'' and ''Luftwaffe''.\n\nIn 1940, Joseph Stalin proposed that Speer pay a visit to Moscow. Stalin had been particularly impressed by Speer's work in Paris, and wished to meet the \"Architect of the Reich\". Hitler, alternating between amusement and anger, did not allow Speer to go, fearing that Stalin would put Speer in a \"rat hole\" until a new Moscow arose. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Speer came to doubt, despite Hitler's reassurances, that his projects for Berlin would ever be completed.\n", "\n=== Appointment and increasing power ===\nSpeer inspects a Panther tank, 1944.\n\nOn February 8, 1942, Minister of Armaments Fritz Todt died in a plane crash shortly after taking off from Hitler's eastern headquarters at Rastenburg. Speer, who had arrived in Rastenburg the previous evening, had accepted Todt's offer to fly with him to Berlin, but had canceled some hours before takeoff (Speer stated in his memoirs that the cancellation was because of exhaustion from travel and a late-night meeting with Hitler). Later that day, Hitler appointed Speer as Todt's successor to all of his posts. In ''Inside the Third Reich'', Speer recounts his meeting with Hitler and his reluctance to take ministerial office, saying that he only did so because Hitler commanded it. Speer also states that Hermann Göring raced to Hitler's headquarters on hearing of Todt's death, hoping to claim Todt's powers. Hitler instead presented Göring with the ''fait accompli'' of Speer's appointment.\n\nAt the time of Speer's accession to the office, the German economy, unlike the British one, was not fully geared for war production. Consumer goods were still being produced at nearly as high a level as during peacetime. No fewer than five \"Supreme Authorities\" had jurisdiction over armament production—one of which, the Ministry of Economic Affairs, had declared in November 1941 that conditions did not permit an increase in armament production. Few women were employed in the factories, which were running only one shift. One evening soon after his appointment, Speer went to visit a Berlin armament factory; he found no one on the premises.\n\nSpeer overcame these difficulties by centralizing power over the war economy in himself. Factories were given autonomy, or as Speer put it, \"self-responsibility\", and each factory concentrated on a single product. Backed by Hitler's strong support (the dictator stated, \"Speer, I'll sign anything that comes from you\"), he divided the armament field according to weapon system, with experts rather than civil servants overseeing each department. No department head could be older than 55—anyone older being susceptible to \"routine and arrogance\"—and no deputy older than 40. Over these departments was a central planning committee headed by Speer, which took increasing responsibility for war production, and as time went by, for the German economy itself. According to the minutes of a conference at ''Wehrmacht'' High Command in March 1942, \"It is only Speer's word that counts nowadays. He can interfere in all departments. Already he overrides all departments ... On the whole, Speer's attitude is to the point.\" Goebbels would note in his diary in June 1943, \"Speer is still tops with the ''Führer''. He is truly a genius with organization.\" Speer was so successful in his position that by late 1943, he was widely regarded among the Nazi elite as a possible successor to Hitler.\n\nSpeer (right, with swastika armband) looks on with Field Marshal Erhard Milch (left) during weapons testing.\nWhile Speer had tremendous power, he was of course subordinate to Hitler. Nazi officials sometimes went around Speer by seeking direct orders from the dictator. When Speer ordered peacetime building work suspended, the ''Gauleiters'' (Nazi Party district leaders) obtained an exemption for their pet projects. When Speer sought the appointment of Hanke as a labor czar to optimize the use of German and slave labor, Hitler, under the influence of Martin Bormann, instead appointed Fritz Sauckel. Rather than increasing female labor and taking other steps to better organize German labor, as Speer favored, Sauckel advocated importing more slave labour from the occupied nations – and did so, obtaining workers for (among other things) Speer's armament factories, often using the most brutal methods.\n\nOn December 10, 1943, Speer visited the underground Mittelwerk V-2 rocket factory that used concentration camp labor. Speer claimed after the war that he had been shocked by the conditions there (5.7 percent of the work force died that month).\n\nBy 1943, the Allies had gained air superiority over Germany, and bombings of German cities and industry had become commonplace. However, the Allies in their strategic bombing campaign did not concentrate on industry, and Speer was able to overcome bombing losses. In spite of these losses, German production of tanks more than doubled in 1943, production of planes increased by 80 percent, and production time for ''Kriegsmarine'' submarines was reduced from one year to two months. Production would continue to increase until the second half of 1944.\n\n=== Consolidation of arms production ===\n\nIn January 1944, Speer fell ill with complications from an inflamed knee, necessitating a leave. According to Speer's post-war memoirs, his political rivals (mainly Göring and Martin Bormann), attempted to have some of his powers permanently transferred to them during his absence. Speer claimed that SS chief Heinrich Himmler tried to have him physically isolated by having Himmler's personal physician Karl Gebhardt treat him, though his \"care\" did not improve his health. Speer's case was transferred to his friend Dr. Karl Brandt, and he slowly recovered.\n\nInternal view of the planned underground factory, Weingut I, one of Jägerstab's projects, as found by the U.S. Army in 1945.\nIn response to the Allied air raids that crippled aircraft production, Adolf Hitler authorised the creation of a Jägerstab, a governmental task force composed of Reich Aviation Ministry, Armaments Ministry and SS personnel. Its aim was to ensure the preservation and growth of fighter aircraft production. The task force was established by the 1 March 1944 order of Speer, with support from Erhard Milch of the Reich Aviation Ministry. Speer and Milch played a key role in directing the activities of the agency, while the day-to-day operations were handled by Chief of Staff Karl Saur, the head of the Technical Office in the Armaments Ministry.\n\nIn April, Speer's rivals for power succeeded in having him deprived of responsibility for construction. Speer sent Hitler a bitter letter, concluding with an offer of his resignation. Judging Speer indispensable to the war effort, Field Marshal Erhard Milch persuaded Hitler to try to get his minister to reconsider. Hitler sent Milch to Speer with a message not addressing the dispute but instead stating that he still regarded Speer as highly as ever. According to Milch, upon hearing the message, Speer burst out, \"The ''Führer'' can kiss my ass!\" After a lengthy argument, Milch persuaded Speer to withdraw his offer of resignation, on the condition his powers were restored. On April 23, 1944, Speer went to see Hitler who agreed that \"everything will stay as it was, Speer will remain the head of all German construction\". According to Speer, while he was successful in this debate, Hitler had also won, \"because he wanted and needed me back in his corner, and he got me\".\n\nThe Jägerstab was given extraordinary powers over labour, production and transportation resources, with its functions taking priority over housing repairs for bombed out civilians or restoration of vital city services. The factories that came under the Jägerstab program saw their work-weeks extended to 72 hours. At the same time, Milch took steps to rationalise production by reducing the number of variants of each type of aircraft produced.\n\nThe last remaining arch of Weingut I, one of seven that were completed out of a planned twelve.\nThe Jägerstab was instrumental in bringing about the increased exploitation of slave labour for the benefit of Germany's war industry and its air force, the Luftwaffe. The task force immediately began implementing plans to expand the use of slave labour in the aviation manufacturing. Records show that SS provided 64,000 prisoners for 20 separate projects at the peak of Jägerstab's construction activities. Taking into account the high mortality rate associated with the underground construction projects, the historian Marc Buggeln estimates that the workforce involved amounted to 80,000−90,000 inmates. They belonged to the various sub-camps of Mittelbau-Dora, Mauthausen-Gusen, Buchenwald and other camps. The prisoners worked for Junkers, Messerschmitt, Henschel and BMW, among others.\n\nThe cooperation between the Reich Ministry of Aviation, the Ministry of Armaments and the SS proved especially productive. Although intended to function for only six months, already in late May Speer and Milch discussed with Goring the possibility of centralising all of Germany's arms manufacturing under a similar task force. On 1 August 1944, Speer reorganised the Jägerstab into the Rüstungsstab (Armament Staff) to apply the same model of operation to all top-priority armament programs.\n\nThe formation of the Rüstungsstab allowed Speer, for the first time, to consolidate key arms manufacturing projects for the three branches of the Wehrmacht under the authority of his ministry, further marginalising the Reich Ministry of Aviation. Several departments, including the once powerful Technical Office, were disbanded or transferred to the new task force. The task force oversaw the day-to-day development and production activities relating to the He 162, the ''Volksjäger'' (\"people's fighter\"), as part of the Emergency Fighter Program.\n\nThe Rüstungsstab assumed responsibilities for the underground transfer projects of the Jägerstab. In November 1944, 1.8 million square meters of underground space were ready for occupancy, encompassing over 1,000 spaces commissioned by the task force. (Post-war, Speer sought to downplay his involvement with these projects and claimed that only 300,000 square meters had been completed). According Buggeln, the Rüstungsstab played a key role in maintaining and increasing production of fighter aircraft and V-2 rockets.\n\n=== Defeat of Nazi Germany ===\n''Reichsminister'' Speer\nSpeer's name was included on the list of members of a post-Hitler government drawn up by the conspirators behind the July 1944 assassination plot to kill Hitler. The list had a question mark and the annotation \"to be won over\" by his name, which likely saved him from the extensive purges that followed the scheme's failure.\n\nWhen Speer learned in February 1945 that the Red Army had overrun the Silesian industrial region, he drafted a memo to Hitler noting that Silesia's coal mines now supplied 60 percent of the Reich's coal. Without them, Speer wrote, Germany's coal production would only be a quarter of its 1944 total—not nearly enough to continue the war. He told Hitler in no uncertain terms that without Silesia, \"the war is lost.\" Hitler merely filed the memo in his safe.\n\nBy February 1945, Speer was working to supply areas about to be occupied with food and materials to get them through the hard times ahead. On March 19, 1945, Hitler issued his Nero Decree, ordering a scorched earth policy in both Germany and the occupied territories. Hitler's order, by its terms, deprived Speer of any power to interfere with the decree, and Speer went to confront Hitler, reiterating that the war was lost. Hitler gave Speer 24 hours to reconsider his position, and when the two met the following day, Speer answered, \"I stand unconditionally behind you.\" However, he demanded the exclusive power to implement the Nero Decree, and Hitler signed an order to that effect. Using this order, Speer worked to persuade generals and ''Gauleiters'' to circumvent the Nero Decree and avoid needless sacrifice of personnel and destruction of industry that would be needed after the war.\n\nSpeer managed to reach a relatively safe area near Hamburg as the Nazi regime finally collapsed, but decided on a final, risky visit to Berlin to see Hitler one more time. Speer stated at Nuremberg, \"I felt that it was my duty not to run away like a coward, but to stand up to him again.\" Speer visited the ''Führerbunker'' on April 22. Hitler seemed calm and somewhat distracted, and the two had a long, disjointed conversation in which the dictator defended his actions and informed Speer of his intent to commit suicide and have his body burned. In the published edition of ''Inside the Third Reich'', Speer relates that he confessed to Hitler that he had defied the Nero Decree, but then assured Hitler of his personal loyalty, bringing tears to the dictator's eyes. Speer biographer Gitta Sereny argued, \"Psychologically, it is possible that this is the way he remembered the occasion, because it was how he would have liked to behave, and the way he would have liked Hitler to react. But the fact is that none of it happened; our witness to this is Speer himself.\" Sereny notes that Speer's original draft of his memoirs lacks the confession and Hitler's tearful reaction, and contains an explicit denial that any confession or emotional exchange took place, as had been alleged in a French magazine article.\n\nThe following morning, Speer left the ''Führerbunker''; Hitler curtly bade him farewell. Speer toured the damaged Chancellery one last time before leaving Berlin to return to Hamburg. On April 29, the day before committing suicide, Hitler dictated a final political testament which dropped Speer from the successor government. Speer was to be replaced by his own subordinate, Karl-Otto Saur.\n", "=== Nuremberg trial ===\n\nMembers of the Flensburg Government after their arrest. Speer (left), Karl Dönitz (center) and Alfred Jodl (right).\n\nAfter Hitler's death, Speer offered his services to the so-called Flensburg Government, headed by Hitler's successor, Karl Dönitz, and took a significant role in that short-lived regime. On May 15, an allied delegation arrived and asked Speer if he would be willing to provide information on the effects of the air war. Speer agreed, and over the next several days, provided information on a broad range of subjects. On May 23, two weeks after the surrender of German forces, British troops arrested the members of the Flensburg Government and brought Nazi Germany to a formal end.\n\nSpeer was taken to several internment centres for Nazi officials and interrogated. In September 1945, he was told that he would be tried for war crimes, and several days later, he was taken to Nuremberg and incarcerated there. Speer was indicted on all four possible counts: first, participating in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace; second, planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace; third, war crimes; and lastly, crimes against humanity.\n\nNuremberg defendants listen to the proceedings (Speer, top seated row, fifth from right).\n\nU.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson, the chief U.S. prosecutor at Nuremberg, alleged, \"Speer joined in planning and executing the program to dragoon prisoners of war and foreign workers into German war industries, which waxed in output while the workers waned in starvation.\" Speer's attorney, Dr. Hans Flächsner, presented Speer as an artist thrust into political life, who had always remained a non-ideologue and who had been promised by Hitler that he could return to architecture after the war. During his testimony, Speer accepted responsibility for the Nazi regime's actions.\n\nAn observer at the trial, journalist and author William L. Shirer, wrote that, compared to his codefendants, Speer \"made the most straightforward impression of all and ... during the long trial spoke honestly and with no attempt to shirk his responsibility and his guilt\". Speer claimed that he had planned to kill Hitler in early 1945 by introducing tabun poison gas into the ''Führerbunker'' ventilation shaft. He said his efforts were frustrated by the impracticability of tabun and his lack of ready access to a replacement nerve agent, and also by the unexpected construction of a tall chimney that put the air intake out of reach. Speer stated his motive was despair at realising that Hitler intended to take the German people down with him. Speer's supposed assassination plan subsequently met with some skepticism, with Speer's architectural rival Hermann Giesler sneering, \"the second most powerful man in the state did not have a ladder.\"\n\nOctober 17, 1946 newsreel of Nuremberg Trials sentencing\n\nSpeer was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity, though he was acquitted on the other two counts. His claim that he was unaware of Nazi extermination plans, which probably saved him from hanging, was finally revealed to be false in a private correspondence written in 1971 and publicly disclosed in 2007. On 1 October 1946, he was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. While three of the eight judges (two Soviet and one American) initially advocated the death penalty for Speer, the other judges did not, and a compromise sentence was reached \"after two days' discussion and some rather bitter horse-trading\".\n\nThe court's judgment stated that:\n\n\n\n=== Imprisonment ===\n\n: ''For additional detail on Speer's time at Spandau Prison, see Rudolf Wolters#Spandau years''\nSpeer spent most of his sentence at Spandau Prison.\n\nOn July 18, 1947, Speer and his six fellow prisoners, all former high officials of the Nazi regime, were flown from Nuremberg to Berlin under heavy guard. The prisoners were taken to Spandau Prison in the British Sector of what would become West Berlin, where they would be designated by number, with Speer given Number Five. Initially, the prisoners were kept in solitary confinement for all but half an hour a day, and were not permitted to address each other or their guards. As time passed, the strict regimen was relaxed, especially during the three months in four that the three Western powers were in control; the four occupying powers took overall control on a monthly rotation. Speer considered himself an outcast among his fellow prisoners for his acceptance of responsibility at Nuremberg.\n\nSpeer made a deliberate effort to make as productive a use of his time as possible. He wrote, \"I am obsessed with the idea of using this time of confinement for writing a book of major importance ... That could mean transforming prison cell into scholar's den.\" The prisoners were forbidden to write memoirs, and mail was severely limited and censored. However, as a result of an offer from a sympathetic orderly, Speer was able to have his writings, which eventually amounted to 20,000 sheets, sent to Wolters. By 1954, Speer had completed his memoirs, which became the basis of ''Inside the Third Reich'', and which Wolters arranged to have transcribed onto 1,100 typewritten pages. He was also able to send letters and financial instructions, and to obtain writing paper and letters from the outside. His many letters to his children, all secretly transmitted, eventually formed the basis for ''Spandau: The Secret Diaries''.\n\nWith the draft memoir complete and clandestinely transmitted, Speer sought a new project. He found one while taking his daily exercise, walking in circles around the prison yard. Measuring the path's distance carefully, Speer set out to walk the distance from Berlin to Heidelberg. He then expanded his idea into a worldwide journey, visualizing the places he was \"traveling\" through while walking the path around the prison yard. Speer ordered guidebooks and other materials about the nations through which he imagined he was passing, so as to envisage as accurate a picture as possible. Meticulously calculating every meter traveled, and mapping distances to the real-world geography, he began in northern Germany, passed through Asia by a southern route before entering Siberia, then crossed the Bering Strait and continued southwards, finally ending his sentence south of Guadalajara, Mexico.\n\nSpeer devoted much of his time and energy to reading. Though the prisoners brought some books with them in their personal property, Spandau Prison had no library so books were sent from Spandau's municipal library. From 1952 the prisoners were also able to order books from the Berlin central library in Wilmersdorf. Speer was a voracious reader and he completed well over 500 books in the first three years at Spandau alone. He read classic novels, travelogues, books on ancient Egypt, and biographies of such figures as Lucas Cranach, Édouard Manet, and Genghis Khan. Speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work, at first to do something constructive while afflicted with writer's block. He was allowed to build an ambitious garden, transforming what he initially described as a \"wilderness\" into what the American commander at Spandau described as \"Speer's Garden of Eden\".\n\nSpeer's supporters maintained a continual call for his release. Among those who pledged support for Speer's sentence to be commuted were Charles de Gaulle, U.S. diplomat George Ball, former U.S. High Commissioner John J. McCloy, and former Nuremberg prosecutor Hartley Shawcross. Willy Brandt was a strong advocate of Speer's, supporting his release, sending flowers to his daughter on the day of his release, and putting an end to the de-Nazification proceedings against Speer, which could have caused his property to be confiscated. A reduced sentence required the consent of all four of the occupying powers, and the Soviets adamantly opposed any such proposal. Speer served his full sentence, and was released at midnight on October 1, 1966.\n\n=== Release and later life ===\nSpeer's grave in Heidelberg\n\nSpeer's release from prison was a worldwide media event, as reporters and photographers crowded both the street outside Spandau and the lobby of the Berlin hotel where Speer spent his first hours of freedom in over 20 years. He said little, reserving most comments for a major interview published in ''Der Spiegel'' in November 1966, in which he again took personal responsibility for crimes of the Nazi regime. Abandoning plans to return to architecture (two proposed partners died shortly before his release), he revised his Spandau writings into two autobiographical books, and later researched and published a third work, about Himmler and the SS. His books, most notably ''Inside the Third Reich'' (in German, ''Erinnerungen'', or ''Reminiscences'') and ''Spandau: The Secret Diaries'', provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the Nazi era, and have become much valued by historians. Speer was aided in shaping the works by Joachim Fest and Wolf Jobst Siedler from the publishing house Ullstein. Speer found himself unable to re-establish his relationship with his children, even with his son Albert, who had also become an architect. According to Speer's daughter Hilde, \"One by one my sister and brothers gave up. There was no communication.\"\n\nFollowing the publication of his bestselling books, Speer donated a considerable amount of money to Jewish charities. According to Siedler, these donations were as high as 80% of his royalties. Speer kept the donations anonymous, both for fear of rejection, and for fear of being called a hypocrite.\n\nAs early as 1953, when Wolters strongly objected to Speer referring to Hitler in the memoirs draft as a criminal, Speer had predicted that were the writings to be published, he would lose a \"good many friends\". This came to pass, as following the publication of ''Inside the Third Reich'', close friends, such as Wolters and sculptor Arno Breker, distanced themselves from him. Hans Baur, Hitler's personal pilot, suggested, \"Speer must have taken leave of his senses.\" Wolters wondered that Speer did not now \"walk through life in a hair shirt, distributing his fortune among the victims of National Socialism, forswear all the vanities and pleasures of life and live on locusts and wild honey\".\n\nSpeer made himself widely available to historians and other enquirers. He did an extensive, in-depth interview for the June 1971 issue of ''Playboy'' magazine, in which he stated, \"If I didn't see it, then it was because I didn't want to see it.\" In October 1973, Speer made his first trip to Britain, flying to London under an assumed name to be interviewed by Ludovic Kennedy on the BBC ''Midweek'' programme. Upon arrival, he was detained for almost eight hours at Heathrow Airport when British immigration authorities discovered his true identity. The Home Secretary, Robert Carr, allowed Speer into the country for 48 hours. In the same year he appeared in the television programme ''The World at War''. While in London eight years later to participate in the BBC ''Newsnight'' program, Speer suffered a stroke and died on September 1, 1981. Speer had formed a relationship with an Englishwoman of German origin, and was with her at the time of his death.\n\nEven to the end of his life, Speer continued to question his actions under Hitler. In his final book, ''Infiltration'', he asks, \"What would have happened if Hitler had asked me to make decisions that required the utmost hardness? ... How far would I have gone? ... If I had occupied a different position, to what extent would I have ordered atrocities if Hitler had told me to do so?\" Speer leaves the questions unanswered.\n", "The view of Speer as an unpolitical \"miracle man\" is challenged by Columbia historian Adam Tooze. In his 2006 book, ''The Wages of Destruction'', Tooze, following Gitta Sereny, argues that Speer's ideological commitment to the Nazi cause was greater than he claimed. Tooze further contends that an insufficiently challenged Speer \"mythology\" (partly fostered by Speer himself through politically motivated, tendentious use of statistics and other propaganda) had led many historians to assign Speer far more credit for the increases in armaments production than was warranted and give insufficient consideration to the \"highly political\" function of the so-called armaments miracle.\n\n=== Architectural legacy ===\n The Schwerbelastungskörper built by Speer 1941–1942\nLittle remains of Speer's personal architectural works, other than the plans and photographs. No buildings designed by Speer during the Nazi era are extant in Berlin, other than the ''Schwerbelastungskörper'' (heavy load bearing body), built around 1941. The high concrete cylinder was used to measure ground subsidence as part of feasibility studies for a massive triumphal arch and other large structures proposed as part of ''Welthauptstadt Germania'', Hitler's planned postwar renewal project for the city. The cylinder is now a protected landmark and is open to the public. Along the Strasse des 17. Juni, a double row of lampposts designed by Speer still stands. The tribune of the ''Zeppelinfeld'' stadium in Nuremberg, though partly demolished, can also be seen.\n\nMore of Speer's own personal work can be found in London, where he redesigned the interior of the German Embassy to the United Kingdom, then located at 7–9 Carlton House Terrace. Since 1967, it has served as the offices of the Royal Society. His work there, stripped of its Nazi fixtures and partially covered by carpets, survives in part.\n\nAnother legacy was the ''Arbeitsstab Wiederaufbau zerstörter Städte'' (Working group on Reconstruction of destroyed cities), authorized by Speer in 1943 to rebuild bombed German cities to make them more livable in the age of the automobile. Headed by Wolters, the working group took a possible military defeat into their calculations. The ''Arbeitsstab'''s recommendations served as the basis of the postwar redevelopment plans in many cities, and ''Arbeitsstab'' members became prominent in the rebuilding.\n\n=== Actions regarding the Jews ===\nAs General Building Inspector, Speer was responsible for the Central Department for Resettlement. From 1939 onward, the Department used the Nuremberg Laws to evict Jewish tenants of non-Jewish landlords in Berlin, to make way for non-Jewish tenants displaced by redevelopment or bombing. Eventually, 75,000 Jews were displaced by these measures. Speer was aware of these activities, and inquired as to their progress. At least one original memo from Speer so inquiring still exists, as does the ''Chronicle'' of the Department's activities, kept by Wolters.\n\nFollowing his release from Spandau, Speer presented to the German Federal Archives an edited version of the ''Chronicle'', stripped by Wolters of any mention of the Jews. When David Irving discovered discrepancies between the edited ''Chronicle'' and other documents, Wolters explained the situation to Speer, who responded by suggesting to Wolters that the relevant pages of the original ''Chronicle'' should \"cease to exist\". Wolters did not destroy the ''Chronicle'', and, as his friendship with Speer deteriorated, allowed access to the original ''Chronicle'' to doctoral student Matthias Schmidt (who, after obtaining his doctorate, developed his thesis into a book, ''Albert Speer: The End of a Myth''). Speer considered Wolters' actions to be a \"betrayal\" and a \"stab in the back\". The original ''Chronicle'' reached the Archives in 1983, after both Speer and Wolters had died.\n\n=== Knowledge of the Holocaust ===\nHeinrich Himmler in 1945\nSpeer maintained at Nuremberg and in his memoirs that he had no knowledge of the Holocaust. In ''Inside the Third Reich'', he wrote that in mid-1944, he was told by Hanke (by then ''Gauleiter'' of Lower Silesia) that the minister should never accept an invitation to inspect a concentration camp in neighbouring Upper Silesia, as \"he had seen something there which he was not permitted to describe and moreover could not describe\". Speer later concluded that Hanke must have been speaking of Auschwitz and blamed himself for not inquiring further of Hanke or seeking information from Himmler or Hitler:\n\n\n\nMuch of the controversy over Speer's knowledge of the Holocaust has centered on his presence at the Posen Conference on October 6, 1943, at which Himmler gave a speech detailing the ongoing Holocaust to Nazi leaders. Himmler said, \"The grave decision had to be taken to cause this people to vanish from the earth ... In the lands we occupy, the Jewish question will be dealt with by the end of the year.\" Speer is mentioned several times in the speech, and Himmler seems to address him directly. In ''Inside the Third Reich'', Speer mentions his own address to the officials (which took place earlier in the day) but does not mention Himmler's speech.\n\nIn October 1971, American historian Erich Goldhagen published an article arguing that Speer was present for Himmler's speech. According to Fest in his biography of Speer, \"Goldhagen's accusation certainly would have been more convincing\" had he not placed supposed incriminating statements linking Speer with the Holocaust in quotation marks, attributed to Himmler, which were in fact invented by Goldhagen. In response, after considerable research in the German Federal Archives in Koblenz, Speer said he had left Posen around noon (long before Himmler's speech) to journey to Hitler's headquarters at Rastenburg. In ''Inside the Third Reich'', published before the Goldhagen article, Speer recalled that on the evening after the conference, many Nazi officials were so drunk that they needed help boarding the special train which was to take them to a meeting with Hitler. One of his biographers, Dan van der Vat, suggests this necessarily implies he must have still been present at Posen then and must have heard Himmler's speech. In response to Goldhagen's article, Speer had alleged that in writing ''Inside the Third Reich'', he erred in reporting an incident that happened at another conference at Posen a year later, as happening in 1943. In 2007, ''The Guardian'' reported that a letter from Speer dated December 23, 1971, had been found in Britain in a collection of his correspondence to Hélène Jeanty, widow of a Belgian resistance fighter. In the letter, Speer states that he had been present for Himmler's presentation in Posen. Speer wrote: \"There is no doubt – I was present as Himmler announced on October 6, 1943, that all Jews would be killed.\"\n\nIn 2005, the ''Daily Telegraph'' reported that documents had surfaced indicating that Speer had approved the allocation of materials for the expansion of Auschwitz after two of his assistants toured the facility on a day when almost a thousand Jews were killed. The documents bore annotations in Speer's own handwriting. Speer biographer Gitta Sereny stated that, due to his workload, Speer would not have been personally aware of such activities.\n\nThe debate over Speer's knowledge of, or complicity in, the Holocaust made him a symbol for people who were involved with the Nazi regime yet did not have (or claimed not to have had) an active part in the regime's atrocities. As film director Heinrich Breloer remarked, \"Speer created a market for people who said, 'Believe me, I didn't know anything about the Holocaust. Just look at the ''Führer's'' friend, he didn't know about it either.\n", "\nJoined NSDAP: March 1, 1931\nParty Number: 474,481\n\n=== Nazi Party positions ===\n\n* Member, National Socialist Motor Corps: 1931\n* Commissioner for the Artistic and Technical Presentation of Party Rallies and Demonstrations: 1933\n* Department Chief, German Labor Front: 1934\n* Chief, NSDAP Directorate for Technical Matters: 1942\n\nFrom 1934 to 1939, Speer was often referred to as \"First Architect of the Reich\", however this was mainly a title given to him by Hitler and not an actual political position within the Nazi Party or German government.\n\n=== Government positions ===\n\n* General Building Inspector for the Reich Capital: 1937\n* Reich Minister for Weapons, Munitions, and Armaments: 1942\n* Director of Organisation Todt: 1943, under his authority as Reich Minister of Armaments\n\n=== Political ranks ===\n\nAlbert Speer held the following Nazi Party political ranks.\n\n* ''Mitglied'': 1931\n* ''Amtsleiter der Reichsleitung'' (later replaced by ''Einsatzleiter''; equivalent to ''Leutnant'' or Second Lieutenant): 1934\n* ''Hauptamtsleiter der Reichsleitung'' (later replaced by ''Haupteinsatzleiter''; equivalent to Captain): 1935\n* ''Dienstleiter'' (no equivalent, but senior to Colonel) : 1939\n* ''Hauptdienstleiter'' (no equivalent, but senior to Colonel): 1941\n* ''Befehlsleiter'' (equivalent to ''Generalmajor'' or Brigadier-General): 1942\n* ''Oberbefehlsleiter'' (equivalent to ''Generalleutnant'' or Major-General): 1944\n\n=== Awards and decorations ===\n\nAlbert Speer held the following Nazi Party political awards.\n\n* Golden Party Badge\n* Golden Hitler Youth Badge (with Oak Leaves)\n* Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross\n* NSDAP Long Service Award (Silver – 15 Years)\n* Honour Chevron for the Old Guard\n", "\n* Glossary of Nazi Germany\n* List of Nazi Party leaders and officials\n", "\n=== Explanatory notes ===\n\n\n\n=== Citations ===\n\n\n=== Bibliography ===\n* \n* \n\n \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* . Republished in paperback in 1997 by Simon & Schuster, \n: (Original German edition: )\n* \n: (Original German edition: )\n* \n: (Original German edition: )\n* \n\n \n\n==== Online sources ====\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "* \n* \n", "\n\n* \n* Review of ''Albert Speer: His Battle with Truth'' in Foreign Affairs\n* \n* Affidavit of Albert Speer: affidavit, sworn and signed at Munich on June 15, 1977, translated from the German original.\n* 3D-stereoscopic images of New Reich Chancellery\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Early years ", " Nazi architect ", " Minister of Armaments ", " Post-war ", " Legacy and controversy ", " Career summary ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Albert Speer
[ "\n\n\n'''Asteraceae''' or '''Compositae''' (commonly referred to as the '''aster''', '''daisy''', '''composite''', or '''sunflower family''') is a very large and widespread family of flowering plants (Angiospermae).\n\nThe family currently has 32,913 accepted species names, in 1,911 genera (list) and 13 subfamilies. In terms of numbers of species, the Asteraceae are rivaled only by the Orchidaceae. (Which of the two families is actually larger is unclear, owing to uncertainty about exactly how many species exist in each family.) Many members have composite flowers in the form of flower heads (capitula or pseudanthia) surrounded by involucral bracts. When viewed from a distance, each capitulum may have the appearance of being a single flower. The name Asteraceae comes from the type genus ''Aster'', from the Greek ἀστήρ, meaning star, and refers to the star-like form of the inflorescence. Compositae is an older (but still valid) name which refers to the fact that the family is one of the few angiosperm families to have composite flowers.\n\nMost members of Asteraceae are herbaceous, but a significant number are also shrubs, vines, or trees. The family has a worldwide distribution, from the polar regions to the tropics, colonizing a wide variety of habitats. It is most common in the arid and semiarid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes. The Asteraceae may represent as much as 10% of autochthonous flora in many regions of the world.\n\nAsteraceae is an economically important family, providing products such as cooking oils, lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes and herbal teas. Several genera are of horticultural importance, including pot marigold, ''Calendula officinalis'', ''Echinacea'' (cone flowers), various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias, and heleniums. Asteraceae are important in herbal medicine, including ''Grindelia'', yarrow, and many others. A number of species are considered invasive, including, most notably in North America, dandelion, which was originally introduced by European settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green.\n\nThe study of this family is known as synantherology.\n", "The name Asteraceae () comes to international scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from ''Aster'', the type genus, + ''-aceae'', a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word ''aster'', \"star\", which came from Ancient Greek ἀστήρ (astḗr), \"star\".\n\nCompositae (an alternate name) means \"composite\" and refers to the characteristic inflorescence, a special type of pseudanthium found in only a few other angiosperm families.\n\nThe vernacular name \"daisy\", widely applied to members of this family, is derived from the Old English name of daisy (''Bellis perennis''): ''dægesege'', from ''dæges eage'', meaning \"day's eye\". This is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk.\n", "Asteraceae species have a cosmopolitan distribution, and are found everywhere except Antarctica and the extreme Arctic. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions (notably Central America, eastern Brazil, the Mediterranean, the Levant part of the Middle East, southern Africa, central Asia, and southwestern China).\n", "Compositae, the original name for Asteraceae, were first described in 1792 by the German botanist Paul Dietrich Giseke. Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised: Asteroideae (or Tubuliflorae) and Cichorioideae (or Liguliflorae). The latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands. The phylogenetic tree presented below is based on Panero & Funk (2002) updated in 2014, and now also includes the monotypic Famatinanthoideae.\nThe diamond denotes a very poorly supported node (<50% bootstrap support), the dot a poorly supported node (<80%).\n\n\n\nIt is noteworthy that the four subfamilies Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Carduoideae and Mutisioideae contain 99% of the species diversity of the whole family (approximately 70%, 14%, 11% and 3% respectively).\n\nBecause of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family, agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists. As a result, several of these genera have required multiple revisions.\n", "Members of the Asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants, but some shrubs, trees and climbers do exist. They are generally easy to distinguish from other plants, mainly because of their characteristic inflorescence and other shared characteristics. However, determining genera and species of some groups such as ''Hieracium'' is notoriously difficult (see \"damned yellow composite\" for example).\n\n=== Roots and stems ===\nMembers of the Asteraceae generally produce taproots, but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems. Stems are herbaceous aerial branched cylindrical with glandular hairs generally erect but can be prostrate to ascending. Some species have underground stems in the form of caudices or rhizomes. These can be fleshy or woody depending on the species.\n\n=== Leaves ===\nThe leaves and the stems very often contain secretory canals with resin or latex (particularly common among the Cichorioideae). The leaves can be alternate, opposite, or whorled. They may be simple, but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised, often conduplicate or revolute. The margins can be entire or lobed or toothed.\n\n=== Flowers ===\n\n==== Floral heads ====\n\nIn plants of the family Asteraceae, what appears to be a single flower is actually a cluster of much smaller flowers. The overall appearance of the cluster, as a single flower, functions in attracting pollinators in the same way as the structure of an individual flower in some other plant families. The older family name, Compositae, comes from the fact that what appears to be a single flower, is actually a ''composite'' of smaller flowers. The \"petals\" or \"sunrays\" in a sunflower head are actually individual strap-shaped flowers called \"ray flowers\", and the \"sun disk\" is made of smaller circular shaped individual flowers called \"disc flowers\". The word \"aster\" means \"star\" in Greek, referring to the appearance of some family members, as a \"star\" surrounded by \"rays\". The cluster of flowers that may appear to be a single flower, is called a ''head''. The entire head may move tracking the sun, like a \"smart\" solar panel, which maximizes reflectivity of the whole unit and can thereby attract more pollinators.\nAt the base of the head, and surrounding the flowers before opening, is a bundle of sepal-like bracts or scales called ''phyllaries'', which together form the ''involucre'' that protects the individual flowers in the head before opening. The individual heads have the smaller individual flowers arranged on a round or dome-like structure called the ''receptacle''. The flowers mature first at the outside, moving toward the center, with the youngest in the middle.\n\nThe individual flowers in a head have 5 fused petals (rarely 4), but instead of sepals, have threadlike, hairy, or bristly structures called ''pappus'', which surround the fruit and can stick to animal fur or be lifted by wind, aiding in seed dispersal. The whitish fluffy head of a dandelion commonly blown on by children, is made of the pappus, with tiny seeds attached at the ends, whereby the pappus provides a parachute like structure to help the seed be carried away in the wind.\n\n\nRay floret: A = ovary, B = pappus, C = anthers, D = ligule, E = style with stigmas\nDisc floret: A = ovary, B = pappus, C = anthers, D = style with stigmas\nA ''ray flower'' is a 3-tipped (3-lobed), strap-shaped, individual flower in the head of some members of the family Asteraceae. Sometimes a ray flower is 2-tipped (2-lobed). The corolla of the ray flower may have 2 tiny teeth opposite the 3-lobed strap, or tongue, indicating evolution by fusion from an originally 5-part corolla. Sometimes, the 3:2 arrangement is reversed, with 2 tips on the tongue, and 0 or 3 tiny teeth opposite the tongue. A ''ligulate flower'' is a 5-tipped, strap-shaped, individual flower in the heads of other members. A ''ligule'' is the strap-shaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower. A ''disk flower'' (or ''disc flower'') is a radially symmetric (i.e., with identical shaped petals arranged in circle around the center) individual flower in the head, which is ringed by ray flowers when both are present. Sometimes ray flowers may be slightly off from radial symmetry, or weakly bilaterally symmetric, as in the case of desert pincushions ''Chaenactis fremontii''.\n\nA ''radiate head'' has disc flowers surrounded by ray flowers. A ''ligulate head'' has all ligulate flowers. When a sunflower family flower head has only disc flowers that are sterile, male, or have both male and female parts, it is a ''discoid head''. ''Disciform heads'' have only disc flowers, but may have two kinds (male flowers and female flowers) in one head, or may have different heads of two kinds (all male, or all female). ''Pistillate heads'' have all female flowers. ''Staminate heads'' have all male flowers.\n\nSometimes, but rarely, the head contains only a single flower, or has a single flowered pistillate (female) head, and a multi-flowered male staminate (male) head.\n\n\n\n==== Floral structures ====\nFlower diagram of ''Carduus'' (Carduoideae) shows (outermost to innermost): subtending bract and stem axis; fused calyx; fused corolla; stamens fused to corolla; gynoecium with two carpels and one locule\nThe distinguishing characteristic of Asteraceae is their inflorescence, a type of specialised, composite flower head or ''pseudanthium'', technically called a calathium or ''capitulum'', that may look superficially like a single flower. The ''capitulum'' is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers, called ''florets'', all sharing the same receptacle.\n\nA set of bracts forms an involucre surrounding the base of the capitulum. These are called \"phyllaries\", or \"involucral bracts\". They may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium. These are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured (e.g. ''Helichrysum'') or have a scarious (dry and membranous) texture. The phyllaries can be free or fused, and arranged in one to many rows, overlapping like the tiles of a roof (''imbricate'') or not (this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera).\n\nEach floret may be subtended by a bract, called a \"palea\" or \"receptacular bract\". These bracts are often called \"chaff\". The presence or absence of these bracts, their distribution on the receptacle, and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes.\n\nThe florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic. ''Disc florets'' are usually actinomorphic, with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube. The petal lips may be either very short, or long, in which case they form deeply lobed petals. The latter is the only kind of floret in the Carduoideae, while the first kind is more widespread. ''Ray florets'' are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a ''ligule'', a strap-shaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals. In the Asteroideae and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 3+2 scheme — above the fused corolla tube, three very long fused petals form the ligule, with the other two petals being inconspicuously small. The Cichorioideae has only ray florets, with a 5+0 scheme — all five petals form the ligule. A 4+1 scheme is found in the Barnadesioideae. The tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth, each one representing a petal. Some marginal florets may have no petals at all (filiform floret).\n\nThe calyx of the florets may be absent, but when present is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth, scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds. As with the bracts, the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature.\n\nThere are usually five stamens. The filaments are fused to the corolla, while the anthers are generally connate (''syngenesious'' anthers), thus forming a sort of tube around the style (''theca''). They commonly have basal and/or apical appendages. Pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style, and then, as the style elongates, is pushed out of the tube (''nüdelspritze'').\n\nThe pistil consists of two connate carpels. The style has two lobes. Stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines. The ovary is inferior and has only one ovule, with basal placentation.\n\n=== Fruits and seeds ===\nIn members of the Asteraceae the fruit is achene-like, and is called a ''cypsela'' (plural ''cypselae''). Although there are two fused carpels, there is only one locule, and only one seed per fruit is formed. It may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus, which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit (for example in dandelion). In some species, however, the pappus falls off (for example in ''Helianthus''). Cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level. The mature seeds usually have little endosperm or none.\n\n=== Metabolites ===\nIn Asteraceae, the energy store is generally in the form of inulin rather than starch. They produce iso/chlorogenic acid, sesquiterpene lactones, pentacyclic triterpene alcohols, various alkaloids, acetylenes (cyclic, aromatic, with vinyl end groups), tannins. They have terpenoid essential oils which never contain iridoids.\n", "The oldest known fossils of members of Asteraceae are pollen grains from the Late Cretaceous of Antarctica, dated to ∼76–66 Mya (Campanian to Maastrichtian) and assigned to the extant genus ''Dasyphyllum''. Barreda, ''et al.'' (2015) estimated that the crown group of Asteraceae evolved at least 85.9 Mya (Late Cretaceous, Santonian) with a stem node age of 88-89 Mya (Late Cretaceous, Coniacian).\n\nIt is still unknown whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum, their ability to store energy as fructans (mainly inulin), which is an advantage in relatively dry zones, or some combination of these and possibly other factors.\n", "\nAsteraceans are especially common in open and dry environments.\n\nMany members of Asteraceae are pollinated by insects, which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects, but anemophyly is also present (e.g. ''Ambrosia'', ''Artemisia''). There are many apomictic species in the family.\n\nSeeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body, the cypsela. ''Anemochory'' (wind dispersal) is common, assisted by a hairy pappus. ''Epizoochory'' is another common method, in which the dispersal unit, a single cypsela (e.g. ''Bidens'') or entire capitulum (e.g. ''Arctium'') has hooks, spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage (or even clothes, as in the photo) of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant.\n", "Commercially important plants in Asteraceae include the food crops ''Lactuca sativa'' (lettuce), ''Cichorium'' (chicory), ''Cynara scolymus'' (globe artichoke), ''Helianthus annuus'' (sunflower), ''Smallanthus sonchifolius'' (yacón), ''Carthamus tinctorius'' (safflower) and ''Helianthus tuberosus'' (Jerusalem artichoke). Plants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages. Chamomile, for example, comes from two different species: the annual ''Matricaria chamomilla'' (German chamomile) and the perennial ''Chamaemelum nobile'' (Roman chamomile). ''Calendula'' (known as pot marigold) is grown commercially for herbal teas and potpourri. Echinacea is used as a medicinal tea. The wormwood genus ''Artemisia'' includes absinthe (''A. absinthium'') and tarragon (''A. dracunculus''). Winter tarragon (''Tagetes lucida''), is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive.\n\nMany members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry. Some examples are ''Chrysanthemum'', ''Gerbera'', ''Calendula'', ''Dendranthema'', ''Argyranthemum'', ''Dahlia'', ''Tagetes'', ''Zinnia'', and many others.\n\nSeveral species of this family possess medicinal properties. These are medically important in areas that don't have access to Western medicine.\n\nMembers of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis. Allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the US. Pollen from ragweed ''Ambrosia'' is among the main causes of so-called hay fever in the United States.\n\nAsteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes. Marigold (''Tagetes patula'') is common in commercial poultry feeds and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry.\n\nSeveral members of the family are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom. ''Centaurea'' (knapweed), ''Helianthus annuus'' (domestic sunflower), and some species of ''Solidago'' (goldenrod) are major \"honey plants\" for beekeepers. ''Solidago'' produces relatively high protein pollen, which helps honey bees over winter.\n\nSome members of Asteraceae are economically important as weeds. Notable in the United States are ''Senecio jacobaea'' (ragwort), ''Senecio vulgaris'' (groundsel), and ''Taraxacum'' (dandelion).\n\nThe genera ''Chrysanthemum'', ''Pulicaria'', ''Tagetes'', and ''Tanacetum'' contain species with useful insecticidal properties.\n\n''Parthenium argentatum'' (guayule) is a source of hypoallergenic latex.\n", "\n", "* Terminology for Asteraceae\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* Compositae at ''The Plant List''\n* Compositae at ''The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA)''\n* Asteraceae at the ''Encyclopedia of Life''\n* Asteraceae at the ''Angiosperm Phylogeny Website''\n* Asteraceae at the ''Tree of Life Web Project''\n* Asteraceae at the online ''Flora of North America''\n* Asteraceae at the online ''Flora of Pakistan''\n* Asteraceae at the online ''Flora of Zimbabwe''\n* Compositae at the online ''Flora of Taiwan''\n* Asteraceae at the online FloraBase—the Western Australian Flora\n* Compositae at the online ''Flora of New Zealand''\n* The International Composite Alliance (TICA) A worldwide group of composite systematists\n* Compositae in BoDD – Botanical Dermatology Database\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology and pronunciation", " Distribution ", " Taxonomy ", " Characteristics ", " Evolution ", " Ecology ", " Uses ", " Genera ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Asteraceae
[ "\n\n\n'''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae''', is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus ''Apium'' and commonly known as the '''celery''', '''carrot''' or '''parsley family'''. It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,700 species in 434 genera including such well-known and economically important plants such as angelica, anise, asafoetida, caraway, carrot, celery, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, hemlock, lovage, cow parsley, parsley, parsnip, sea holly, giant hogweed and silphium (a plant whose identity is unclear and which may be extinct).\n", "\nMost Apiaceae are annual, biennial or perennial herbs (frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as ''Bupleurum fruticosum''. Their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged, or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may be petiolate or sessile. There are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing and the leaves may be perfoliate. The leaf blade is usually dissected, ternate or pinnatifid, but simple and entire in some genera, e.g. ''Bupleurum''. Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to foetid, but absent in some species. \n\nThe defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence, the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels, that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliform cymes. The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic) and actinomorphic but there may be zygomorphic petals at the edges of the umbel, as in carrot (''Daucus carota''). Some are andromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious (as in ''Acronema''), with a distinct calyx and corolla, but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous, with five petals, sepals, and stamens.\nThe androecium consists of five stamens, but there is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. The gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary. Stylopodia support two styles and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of ''Daucus'' spp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicle ''Sanicula europaea'' and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oily endosperm and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise, cumin and coriander. The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.\n", "\nApiaceae was first described by John Lindley in 1836. The name is derived from the type genus ''Apium'', which was originally used by Pliny the Elder circa 50 AD for a celery-like plant. The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel. The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586 ''Historia generalis plantarum''. With Robert Morison’s 1672 ''Plantarum umbelilliferarum distribution nova'' it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.\n\nThe family is solidly placed within the Apiales order in the APG III classification system. It is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology, and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic.\n\n=== Genera ===\n\n\nAccording to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website 434 genera are in the family Apiaceae.\n\n\nFile:Chaerophyllum_bulbosum_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-177.jpg\|''Chaerophyllum bulbosum''\nFile:Apiaceae Pimpinella anisum.jpg\|Anise (''Pimpinella anisum'') from Woodville (1793)\nFile:Angelica archangelica (1118596627).jpg\|''Angelica archangelica''\nFile:Coriandrum sativum 003.JPG\|Umbel of ''Coriandrum sativum'' showing strong zygomorphy (asymmetry) of petals in the outer flowers.\n\n", "The black swallowtail butterfly, ''Papilio polyxenes'', uses the Apiaceae family for food and host plants for oviposition.\n", "\nMany members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Parsnips (''Pastinaca sativa''), carrots (''Daucus carota'') and Hamburg parsley (''Petroselinum crispum''), produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food. Many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. Examples are parsley (''Petroselinum crispum''), coriander (''Coriandrum sativum''), culantro, and dill (''Anethum graveolens''). The seeds may be used in cuisine, as with coriander (''Coriandrum sativum''), fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare''), cumin (''Cuminum cyminum''), and caraway (''Carum carvi'').\n\nOther notable cultivated Apiaceae include chervil (''Anthriscus cerefolium''), angelica (''Angelica'' spp.), celery (''Apium graveolens''), arracacha (''Arracacia xanthorrhiza''), sea holly (''Eryngium'' spp.), asafoetida (''Ferula asafoetida''), galbanum (''Ferula gummosa''), cicely (''Myrrhis odorata''), anise (''Pimpinella anisum''), lovage (''Levisticum officinale''), and hacquetia (''Hacquetia epipactis'').\n\n=== Cultivation ===\n\nGenerally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; indeed, they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant. One reason is because the tiny flowers clustered into umbels, are well suited for ladybugs, parasitic wasps, and predatory flies, which actually drink nectar when not reproducing. They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered \"herbs\" produce scents that are believed to ...mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find.\n\n=== Other uses ===\n\nThe poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonous ''Oenanthe crocata'' has been used to stupefy fish, ''Cicuta douglasii'' has been used as an aid in suicides, and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species.\n\n''Daucus carota'' has been used as coloring for butter.\n\n''Dorema ammoniacum'', ''Ferula galbaniflua'', and ''Ferula sumbul'' are sources of incense.\n\nThe woody ''Azorella compacta'' Phil. has been used in South America for fuel.\n", "Apiaceae vegetables including carrot, celery, fennel, parsley and parsnip, contain polyynes, an unusual class of organic compounds that show cytotoxic activities. Many species contain coumarins or coumarin derivatives, such as furanocoumarins.\n", "* Autumnalia\n", "\n", "* Apiaceae. 2011. Utah State University Intermountain Herbarium. 20 October 2011. http://herbarium.usu.edu/taxa/apiaceae.htm\n* Constance, L. (1971). \"History of the classification of Umbelliferae (Apiaceae).\" in Heywood, V. H. ed., The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 1–11. Academic Press, London.\n* Cronquist, A. (1968). The Evolution and Classification of Flowering Plants. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.\n* French, D. H. (1971). \"Ethnobotany of the Umbelliferae.\" in Heywood, V. H. ed., The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 385–412. Academic Press, London.\n* Hegnauer, R. (1971) \"Chemical Patterns and Relationships of Umbelliferae.\" in Heywood, V. H. ed., The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 267–277. Academic Press, London.\n* Heywood, V. H. (1971). \"Systematic survey of Old World Umbelliferae.\" in Heywood, V. H. ed., The biology and chemistry of the Umbelliferae, 31–41. Academic Press, London.\n* Judd, W. S. et al. (1999). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.\n* \n* \n* \n* Nieto Feliner, Gonzalo; Jury, Stephen Leonard & Herrero Nieto, Alberto (eds.) ''Flora iberica. Plantas vasculares de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares.'' Vol. X. \"Araliaceae-Umbelliferae\" (2003) Madrid: Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC (in Spanish).\n", "\n\n\n\n \n* Apiaceae at ''The Plant List''\n* Umbelliferae at ''The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA)''\n* Apiaceae at the ''Encyclopedia of Life''\n* Apiaceae at the ''Angiosperm Phylogeny Website''\n* Apiaceae at the online ''Flora of Northern Ireland''\n* Apiaceae at the online ''Michigan Flora''\n* Apiaceae at the online ''Flora of China''\n* Apiaceae at the online ''Flora of Zimbabwe''\n* Apiaceae at the online ''Flora of Western Australia''\n \n* Umbelliferae at the online ''Flora of New Zealand''\n* Umbelliferae at the online ''Flora of Pakistan''\n* Apiaceae at ''Chileflora''\n* Apiaceae at ''Flowers in Israel''\n* Apiaceae at ''Discover Life''\n* Apiaceae at the ''Utah Valley University Herbarium''\n* Apiaceae at the ''Plantarium Photo Database (Russia)''\n* Umbellifer Resource Centre at the ''Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh''\n* Umbellifer Information Server at ''Moscow State University''\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " Systematics ", " Ecology ", " Uses ", " Chemistry ", "See also", " References ", " Further reading ", " External links " ]	Apiaceae
[ "\n\n\n\nAn '''axon''' (from Greek ἄξων ''áxōn'', axis), is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or neuron, that typically conducts electrical impulses away from the neuron's cell body. Axons are also known as nerve fibers. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles and glands. In certain sensory neurons (pseudounipolar neurons), such as those for touch and warmth, the electrical impulse travels along an axon from the periphery to the cell body, and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction has caused many inherited and acquired neurological disorders which can affect both the peripheral and central neurons. Nerve fibers are classed into three types – A delta fibers, B fibers, and C fibres. A and B are myelinated and C are unmyelinated.\n\nAn axon is one of two types of protoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a dendrite. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). All of these rules have exceptions, however. \n \nAxons are covered by a membrane known as axolemma; the cytoplasm of axon is called axoplasm.The branched end of an axon is formed by telodendria; the swollen end of a telodendron is known as the axon terminal; which joins the dendron or cell body of another neurone forming a synaptic connection.\n\nSome types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely.\n\nAxons make contact with other cells—usually other neurons but sometimes muscle or gland cells—at junctions called synapses. At a synapse, the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear partway along an axon as it extends—these are called ''en passant'' (\"in passing\") synapses. Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can innervate multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals.\n", "Cross section of an axon.\n1. Axon\n2. Nucleus of Schwann Cell\n3. Schwann Cell\n4. Myelin Sheath\n5. Neurilemma\nAxons are the primary transmission lines of the nervous system, and as bundles they form nerves. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the sciatic nerve, which run from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one micrometer (µm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 µm. The squid giant axon, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimetre in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. Axonal arborization (the branching structure at the end of a nerve fiber) also differs from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the central nervous system typically show complex trees with many branch points. In comparison, the cerebellar granule cell axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend. Elaborate arborization allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain.\n\nThere are two types of axons occurring in the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system: unmyelinated and myelinated axons. Myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of glial cells: Schwann cells ensheathing peripheral neurons and oligodendrocytes insulating those of the central nervous system. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of Ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction. Demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis.\nA dissected human brain, showing grey matter and white matter\nIf the brain of a vertebrate is extracted and sliced into thin sections, some parts of each section appear dark and other parts lighter in color. The dark parts are known as grey matter and the lighter parts as white matter. White matter gets its light color from the myelin sheaths of axons: the white matter parts of the brain are characterized by a high density of myelinated axons passing through them, and a low density of cell bodies of neurons. The cerebral cortex has a thick layer of grey matter on the surface and a large volume of white matter underneath: what this means is that most of the surface is filled with neuron cell bodies, whereas much of the area underneath is filled with myelinated axons that connect these neurons to each other.\n\n\n===Initial segment===\nThe axon initial segment — the thick, unmyelinated part of an axon that connects directly to the cell body — consists of a specialized complex of proteins. It is approximately 25μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation. The density of voltage-gated sodium channels is much higher in the initial segment than in the remainder of the axon or in the adjacent cell body, excepting the axon hillock. The voltage-gated ion channels are known to be found within certain areas of the axonal membrane and initiate action potential, conduction, and synaptic transmission.\n\n===Nodes of Ranvier===\n\nNodes of Ranvier (also known as ''myelin sheath gaps'') are short unmyelinated segments of a myelinated axon, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter. These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In saltatory conduction, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively \"jump\" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain.\n", "\nMost axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is that it is \"all-or-nothing\" — every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This all-or-nothing characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude.\n\nWhen an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes vesicles (tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through exocytosis. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron.\n\nA)pyramidal cell, interneuron, and short durationwaveform (Axon). (B) overlay of the three average waveforms; (C) average and standard error of peak-trough time for pyramidal cells interneurons, and putative axons.(D)Scatter plot of signal to noise ratios for individual units againstpeak-trough time for axons, pyramidal cells (PYR) and interneurons (INT).\n\nExtracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as place cells, axonal activity in both white and gray matter can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (~150μs) than of pyramidal cells (~500μs) or interneurons (~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter.\n\nIn fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.\n\nIn addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms, voltage-gated sodium channels in the axons possess lower threshold and shorter refractory period in response to short-term pulses.\n", "\n===Development===\nStudies done on cultured hippocampal neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple neurites that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon. It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa, although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites. Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon. Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal dynamics.\n\n====Extracellular signaling====\nThe extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development. These signaling molecules include proteins, neurotrophic factors, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. \nUNC-6 or netrin, a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the UNC-6 receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly. The neurotrophic factors nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin 3 (NT3) are also involved in axon development and bind to Trk receptors.\n\nThe ganglioside-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside sialidase (PMGS), which is involved in the activation of TrkA at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon.\n\n====Intracellular signaling====\nDuring axonal development, the activity of PI3K is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate (PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of phosphatases that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization.\n\n====Cytoskeletal dynamics====\nThe neurite with the lowest actin filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and f-actin content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased. In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates Rho-signaling) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon.\n\n===Growth===\nAxon of 9 day old mouse with growth cone visible\nGrowing axons move through their environment via the growth cone, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet like extension called lamellipodia which contain protrusions called filopodia. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system.\nEnvironments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a \"sticky\" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAM's specific to neural systems include N-CAM, neuroglial CAM or NgCAM, TAG-1, and MAG all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily. Another set of molecules called extracellular matrix adhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include laminin, fibronectin, tenascin, and perlecan. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects.\n\nCells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells are typically other, sometimes immature, neurons.\n\nIt has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells. This is also referred to as neuroregeneration.\n\nNogo-A is a type of neurite growth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo- A is blocked and neutralized, it is possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans. A recent study has also found that macrophages activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the Dectin-1 receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing neurotoxicity in the neuron.\n", "German anatomist Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites. Swiss Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker and German Robert Remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896. Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the Hodgkin–Huxley model. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the Nobel Prize for this work in 1963. The formulas detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. Louis-Antoine Ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the nodes of Ranvier. Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality. Erlanger and Gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers, based on axonal conduction velocity, myelination, fiber size etc.\nEven recently our understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced, and now includes many details about individual ion channels.\n\nThe longfin inshore squid has been used as a model organism – it has the longest known axon.\n", "\nIn order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve can be described as neurapraxia, axonotmesis, or neurotmesis.\nConcussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons.\n", "\nThe axons that make up nerves in the human peripheral nervous system can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties.\n\n===Motor=== \nLower motor neurons have two kind of fibers:\n\n\n+Motor fiber types\n\n Type !! Erlanger-Gasser Classification \n Diameter (µm) \n Myelin \n Conduction velocity !! Associated muscle fibers\n\n α\n Aα \n 13-20 \n Yes \n 80–120 m/s \nExtrafusal muscle fibers\n\n β\n Aβ \n \n \n \n\n\n γ\n Aγ \n 5-8 \n Yes \n 4–24 m/s \n Intrafusal muscle fibers\n\n\n===Sensory=== \nDifferent sensory receptors innervate different types of nerve fibers. Proprioceptors are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, mechanoreceptors by type II and III sensory fibers and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type III and IV sensory fibers.\n\n\n+Sensory fiber types\n\n Type !! Erlanger-Gasser Classification \n Diameter (µm) \n Myelin \n Conductionvelocity !! Associated sensory receptors !! Proprioceptors !! Mechanoceptors !! Nociceptors andthermoreceptors\n\n Ia\n Aα \n 13-20 \n Yes \n 80–120 m/s \n Primary receptors of muscle spindle \n ✔ \n \n\n\n Ib\n Aα \n 13-20 \n Yes \n 80–120 m/s \n Golgi tendon organ\n\n II\n Aβ \n 6-12 \n Yes \n 33–75 m/s \n Secondary receptors of muscle spindle All cutaneous mechanoreceptors \n ✔\n\n III\n Aδ \n 1-5 \n Thin \n 3–30 m/s \n Free nerve endings of touch and pressure Nociceptors of neospinothalamic tract Cold thermoreceptors \n \n ✔\n\n IV\n C \n 0.2-1.5 \n No \n 0.5-2.0 m/s \n Nociceptors of paleospinothalamic tract Warmth receptors \n\n\n\n===Autonomic===\nThe autonomic nervous system has two kinds of peripheral fibers:\n\n\n+Fiber types\n\n Type !! Erlanger-Gasser Classification \n Diameter (µm) \n Myelin \n Conduction velocity\n\n preganglionic fibers\n B \n 1–5 \n Yes \n 3–15 m/s\n\n postganglionic fibers\n C \n 0.2–1.5 \n No \n 0.5–2.0 m/s\n\n", "Axon guidance\nElectrophysiology\nPioneer axon\n", "\n", " - \"Slide 3 Spinal cord\"\n* - Bialowas, Andrzej, Carlier, Edmond, Campanac, Emilie, Debanne, Dominique, Alcaraz. Axon Physiology, GisèlePHYSIOLOGICAL REVIEWS, V. 91 (2), 04/2011, p. 555-602.\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Anatomy", "Action potentials", "Development and growth", "History", "Injury", "Classification", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Axon
[ "\n\n\n\nThe ancient '''Aramaic alphabet''' is adapted from the Phoenician alphabet and became distinctive from it by the 8th century BCE. It was used to write the Aramaic language and had displaced the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, itself a derivative of the Phoenician alphabet, for the writing of Hebrew. The letters all represent consonants, some of which are also used as ''matres lectionis'' to indicate long vowels.\n\nThe Aramaic alphabet is historically significant since virtually all modern Middle Eastern writing systems can be traced back to it as well as numerous non-Chinese writing systems of Central and East Asia. That is primarily from the widespread usage of the Aramaic language as both a ''lingua franca'' and the official language of the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, and their successor, the Achaemenid Empire. Among the scripts in modern use, the Hebrew alphabet bears the closest relation to the Imperial Aramaic script of the 5th century BC, with an identical letter inventory and, for the most part, nearly identical letter shapes. The Aramaic alphabet was an ancestor to the Nabataean alphabet and the later Arabic alphabet.\n\nWriting systems (like the Aramaic one) that indicate consonants but do not indicate most vowels other than by means of ''matres lectionis'' or added diacritical signs, have been called abjads by Peter T. Daniels to distinguish them from alphabets, such as the Greek alphabet, which represent vowels more systematically. The term was coined to avoid the notion that a writing system that represents sounds must be either a syllabary or an alphabet, which would imply that a system like Aramaic must be either a syllabary (as argued by Ignace Gelb) or an incomplete or deficient alphabet (as most other writers have said). Rather, it is a different type.\n", "Mauryan emperor Ashoka at Kandahar, Afghanistan, 3rd century BC.\nThe earliest inscriptions in the Aramaic language use the Phoenician alphabet. Over time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. Aramaic gradually became the ''lingua franca'' throughout the Middle East, with the script at first complementing and then displacing Assyrian cuneiform, as the predominant writing system.\n", "Around 500 BC, following the Persian Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Old Aramaic was adopted by the Iranians as the \"vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast Persian empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed as Official Aramaic, Imperial Aramaic or Achaemenid Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenid Persians in holding their far-flung empire together for as long as they did.\"\n\nImperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was inevitably influenced by Old Persian. The Aramaic glyph forms of the period are often divided into two main styles, the \"lapidary\" form, usually inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments, and a cursive form whose lapidary form tended to be more conservative by remaining more visually similar to Phoenician and early Aramaic. Both were in use through the Achaemenid Persian period, but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary, which had largely disappeared by the 3rd century BC.\nStele with dedicatory lapidary Aramaic inscription to the god Salm. Sandstone, 5th century BC. Found in Tayma by Charles Huber in 1884 and now in the Louvre.\n\nFor centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BC, Imperial Aramaic, or something near enough to it to be recognisable, would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. The Aramaic script would survive as the essential characteristics of the Iranian Pahlavi writing system.\n\n30 Aramaic documents from Bactria have been recently discovered, an analysis of which was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC in the Persian Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.\n\nThe widespread usage of Achaemenid Aramaic in the Middle East led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing Hebrew. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of Phoenician, the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet.\n\n===Aramaic-derived scripts===\nSince the evolution of the Aramaic alphabet out of the Phoenician one was a gradual process, the division of the world's alphabets into the ones derived from the Phoenician one directly and the ones derived from Phoenician via Aramaic is somewhat artificial. In general, the alphabets of the Mediterranean region (Anatolia, Greece, Italy) are classified as Phoenician-derived, adapted from around the 8th century BC, and those of the East (the Levant, Persia, Central Asia and India) are considered Aramaic-derived, adapted from around the 6th century BC from the Imperial Aramaic script of the Achaemenid Empire.\n\nAfter the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, diversifying into a number of descendant cursives.\n\nThe Hebrew and Nabataean alphabets, as they stood by the Roman era, were little changed in style from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet.\n\nA cursive Hebrew variant developed from the early centuries AD, but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive. By contrast, the cursive developed out of the Nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing Arabic, evolving into the Arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of Islam.\n\nThe development of cursive versions of Aramaic also led to the creation of the Syriac, Palmyrene and Mandaic alphabets, which formed the basis of the historical scripts of Central Asia, such as the Sogdian and Mongolian alphabets.\n\nThe Old Turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in Aramaic, in particular via the Pahlavi or Sogdian alphabets, as suggested by V. Thomsen, or possibly via Karosthi (''cf''., Issyk inscription).\n\nAramaic is also considered to be the most likely source of the Brahmi script, ancestor of the Brahmic family of scripts, which includes Devanagari.\n", "Today, Biblical Aramaic, Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the Aramaic language of the Talmud are written in the Hebrew alphabet. Syriac and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the Syriac alphabet. Mandaic is written in the Mandaic alphabet. The near-identity of the Aramaic and the classical Hebrew alphabets caused Aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard Hebrew script in scholarly literature.\n\n===Ma'loula===\nIn Ma'loula, one of few surviving communities in which a Western Aramaic dialect is still spoken, the Arameans started a programme in 2007 to give their language a written abjad for the Aramaic alphabet. The program ran into trouble in early 2010 as a Syrian newspaper suggested that the alphabet being used to teach written Aramaic bore an uncanny resemblance to the Hebrew characters found in modern Israel. Worried that a flagship heritage scheme might in any way be associated with the country’s neighboring enemy, the government-run University of Damascus, which established the institute, acted quickly to freeze the Aramaic programme. They started to use the Syriac alphabet (serto) instead.\n", "{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"text-align:center;\"\n\nLettername\nAramaic written using\nIPA\nEquivalent letter in\n\n Syriac script\n Imperial Aramaic\n Hebrew\n Phoenician\n Arabic\n Brahmi\n Nabataean\n Kharosthi\n\n Image !! Text !! Image !! Text\n\nĀlap\n26px\nܐ\n18px\n𐡀\n; , \nא\n𐤀\nا\n18px\n70px\n16px\n\nBēth\n26px\nܒ\n18px\n𐡁\n, \nב\n𐤁\nب\n18px\n42px\n20px\n\nGāmal\n26px\nܓ\n18px\n𐡂\n, \nג\n𐤂\nج\n18px\n21px\n19px\n\nDālath\n30px\nܕ\n18px\n𐡃\n, \nד\n𐤃\nد ذ\n18px\n19px\n21px\n\nHē\n26px\nܗ\n18px\n𐡄\n\nה\n𐤄\nه\n18px\n53px\n18px\n\nWaw\n26px\nܘ\n18px\n𐡅\n; , \nו\n𐤅\nو\n18px\n40px\n18px\n\nZain\n26px\nܙ\n18px\n𐡆\n\nז\n𐤆\nز\n18px\n13px\n18px\n\nḤēth\n26px\nܚ\n18px\n𐡇\n\nח\n𐤇\nح خ\n18px\n53px\n18px\n\nṬēth\n26px\nܛ\n18px\n𐡈\nemphatic \nט\n𐤈\nط ظ\n18px\n19px\n17px\n\nYodh\n26px\nܝ\n18px\n𐡉\n; , \nי\n𐤉\nي\n18px\n53px\n15px\n\nKāp\n26px\nܟ\n18px\n𐡊\n, \nכ ך \n𐤊\n ک\n18px\n49px\n17px\n\nLāmadh\n26px\nܠ\n18px\n𐡋\n\nל\n𐤋\nل\n18px\n34px\n21px\n\nMem\n26px\nܡ\n18px\n𐡌\n\nמ ם\n𐤌\nم\n18px\n38px\n20px\n\nNun\n26px\nܢ\n18px\n𐡍\n\nנ ן\n𐤍\n ن\n18px\n34px\n21px\n\nSemkath\n26px\nܣ\n18px\n𐡎\n\nס\n𐤎\nس \n18px\n21px\n17px\n\nʿĒ\n26px\nܥ\n18px\n𐡏\n\nע\n𐤏\nع غ\n18px\n15px\n18px\n\nPē\n26px\nܦ\n18px\n𐡐\n, \nפ ף \n𐤐\nف\n18px\n43px\n18px\n\nṢādhē\n26px\nܨ\n18px, 18px\n𐡑\nemphatic \nצ ץ\n𐤑\nص ض\n18px\n47px\n18px\n\nQop\n26px\nܩ\n18px\n𐡒\n\nק\n𐤒\nق \n18px\n17px\n18px\n\nRēsh\n26px\nܪ\n18px\n𐡓\n\nר\n𐤓\nر\n18px\n13px\n17px\n\nShin\n26px\nܫ\n18px\n𐡔\n\nש\n𐤔\nش\n18px\n17px\n15px\n\nTaw\n26px\nܬ\n18px\n𐡕\n, \nת\n𐤕\nت ث\n18px\n47px\n17px\n\n\n===Matres lectionis===\n\n\nIn Aramaic writing, Waw and Yodh serve a double function. Originally, they represented only the consonants ''w'' and ''y'', but they were later adopted to indicate the long vowels ''ū'' and ''ī'' respectively as well (often also ''ō'' and ''ē'' respectively). In the latter role, they are known as ''matres lectionis'' or \"mothers of reading\".\n\nĀlap, likewise, has some of the characteristics of a ''mater lectionis'' because in initial positions, it indicates a glottal stop (followed by a vowel), but otherwise, it often also stands for the long vowels ''ā'' or ''ē''. Among Jews, the influence of Hebrew often led to the use of Hē instead, at the end of a word.\n\nThe practice of using certain letters to hold vowel values spread to Aramaic-derived writing systems, such as in Arabic and Hebrew, which still follow the practice.\n", "\n\nThe Syriac Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999, with the release of version 3.0.\n\nThe Syriac Abbreviation (a type of overline) can be represented with a special control character called the Syriac Abbreviation Mark (U+070F). The Unicode block for Syriac Aramaic is U+0700–U+074F:\n\n\n\nThe Imperial Aramaic alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in October 2009, with the release of version 5.2.\n\nThe Unicode block for Imperial Aramaic is U+10840–U+1085F:\n\n\n", "Syriac alphabet\n", "\n", " Byrne, Ryan. “Middle Aramaic Scripts.” ''Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics''. Elsevier. (2006)\n* Daniels, Peter T., et al. eds. ''The World's Writing Systems''. Oxford. (1996)\n* Coulmas, Florian. ''The Writing Systems of the World''. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Oxford. (1989)\n* Rudder, Joshua. ''Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts''. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. . Includes a wide variety of Aramaic scripts.\n* Ancient Hebrew and Aramaic on Coins, reading and transliterating Proto-Hebrew, online edition (Judaea Coin Archive).\n", "\n* Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets\n* Omniglot entry\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "Achaemenid period", "Languages using the alphabet", "Letters", "Unicode", "See also", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Aramaic alphabet
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\"'''American shot'''\" is a translation of a phrase from French film criticism, \"''plan américain''\" and refers to a medium-long (\"knee\") film shot of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot.\n\nOne of the other main reasons why French critics called it 'American Shot' was its frequent use in westerns. This was because a shot that started at knee level would reveal the weapon of a cowboy, usually holstered at his waist. It's actually the closest you can get to an actor while keeping both his face and his holstered gun in frame.\n\nThe French critics thought it was characteristic of American films of the 1930s or 1940s; however, it was mostly characteristic of ''cheaper'' American movies, such as Charlie Chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago.\n\nHoward Hawks legitimized this style in his films, allowing characters to act, even when not talking, when most of the audience would not be paying attention. It became his trademark style.\n", "\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " References " ]	American shot
[ "\n\n'''Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis''' ('''ADEM'''), or '''acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis''', is a rare autoimmune disease marked by a sudden, widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. As well as causing the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed, ADEM also attacks the nerves of the central nervous system and damages their myelin insulation, which, as a result, destroys the white matter. It is often triggered after the patient has received a viral infection or, perhaps exceedingly rarely specific non-routine vaccinations.\n\nADEM's symptoms resemble the symptoms of multiple sclerosis (MS), so the disease itself is sorted into the classification of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases. However, ADEM has several features that distinguish it from MS. Unlike MS, ADEM occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever, although adolescents and adults can get the disease too. ADEM consists of a single flare-up whereas MS is marked with several flare-ups (or relapses), over a long period of time. Relapses following ADEM are reported in up to a quarter of patients, but the majority of these 'multiphasic' presentations following ADEM likely represent MS. ADEM is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness, coma and death, which is very rare in MS, except in severe cases.\n\nThe incidence rate is about 8 per 1,000,000 people per year. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and adolescents, with the average age around 5 to 8 years old. The disease affects males and females almost equally. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%; however, full recovery is seen in 50 to 75% of cases with increase in survival rates up to 70 to 90% with figures including minor residual disability as well. The average time to recover from ADEM flare-ups is one to six months.\n\nADEM produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord, particularly in the white matter. Usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical gray-white junction of both cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem, and spinal cord, but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex, thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved.\n\nWhen the patient suffers more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called '''recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis''' or '''multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis''' ('''MDEM'''). Also, a fulminant course in adults has been described.\n", "ADEM has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begin 1–3 weeks after infection. Major symptoms include fever, headache, nausea and vomiting, confusion, vision impairment, drowsiness, seizures and coma. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days, with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days. Additional symptoms include hemiparesis, paraparesis, and cranial nerve palsies.\n", "A preceding antigenic challenge can be identified in approximately two-thirds of people. Viral infections thought to induce ADEM include influenza virus, enterovirus, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella zoster, Epstein Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis A, and coxsackievirus; while the bacterial infections include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira, and beta-hemolytic Streptococci. The only vaccine proven to induce ADEM is the Semple form of the rabies vaccine, but hepatitis B, pertussis, diphtheria, measles, mumps, rubella, pneumococcus, varicella, influenza, Japanese encephalitis, and polio vaccines have all been implicated. The majority of the studies that correlate vaccination with ADEM onset use small samples or case studies. Large scale epidemiological studies (e.g., of MMR vaccine or smallpox vaccine) do not show increased risk of ADEM following vaccination. In rare cases, ADEM seems to follow from organ transplantation. An upper bound for the risk of ADEM from measles vaccination, if it exists, can be estimated to be 10 per million, which is far lower than the risk of developing ADEM from an actual measles infection, which is about 1 per 1,000 cases. For a rubella infection, the risk is 1 per 5,000 cases. Some early vaccines, later shown to have been contaminated with host animal CNS tissue, had ADEM incident rates as high as 1 in 600.\n", "\nCurrently, the commonly accepted international standard for the clinical case definition is the one published by the International Pediatric MS Study Group, revision 2007.\n", "No controlled clinical trials have been conducted on ADEM treatment, but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the CNS is standard. The widely accepted first-line treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone, followed by 3–6 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone. Patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone. Oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing, and tend to show poorer outcomes. Other anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect, such as plasmapheresis, high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg), mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide. These are considered alternative therapies, used when corticosteroids cannot be used or fail to show an effect.\n\nThere is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately\nIn a study of 16 children with ADEM, 10 recovered completely after high-dose methylprednisolone, one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after IV Ig; the five most severe cases -with ADAM and severe peripheral neuropathy- were treated with combined high-dose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin, two remained paraplegic, one had motor and cognitive handicaps, and two recovered. A recent review of IVIg treatment of ADEM (of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases) found that 70% of children showed complete recovery after treatment with IVIg, or IVIg plus corticosteroids. A study of IVIg treatment in adults with ADEM showed that IVIg seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances, while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition, consciousness and rigor. This same study found one subject, a 71-year-old man who had not responded to steroids, that responded to an IVIg treatment 58 days after disease onset.\n", "Full recovery is seen in 50 to 70% of cases, ranging to 70 to 90% recovery with some minor residual disability (typically assessed using measures such as mRS or EDSS), average time to recover is one to six months. The mortality rate may be as high as 5%. Poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy, unusually severe neurological symptoms, or sudden onset. Children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults, and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes. The latter effect may be due to either protective effects of fever, or that diagnosis and treatment is sought more rapidly when fever is present.\n\n===Motor deficits===\nResidual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30% of cases, the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis.\n\n===Neurocognitive===\nPatients with demyelinating illnesses, such as MS, have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability. Research suggests that similar effects are seen after ADEM, but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in MS. A study of six children with ADEM (mean age at presentation 7.7 years) were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 3.5 years of recovery. All six children performed in the normal range on most tests, including verbal IQ and performance IQ, but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain, such as complex attention (one child), short-term memory (one child) and internalizing behaviour/affect (two children). Group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms, demonstrating that, as a group, they were normal. These deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of MS.\n\nAnother study compared nineteen children with a history of ADEM, of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time (average age 3.8 years old, tested an average of 3.9 years later) and nine were older (mean age 7.7y at time of ADEM, tested an average of 2.2 years later) to nineteen matched controls. Scores on IQ tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset ADEM group (average IQ 90) compared to the late onset (average IQ 100) and control groups (average IQ 106), while the late onset ADEM children scored lower on verbal processing speed. Again, all groups means were within one standard deviation of the controls, meaning that while effects were statistically reliable, the children were as a whole, still within the normal range. There were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group, although there is some suggestion that this may be due, at least in part, to the stress of hospitalization at a young age.\n", "While ADEM and MS both involve autoimmune demyelination, they differ in many clinical, genetic, imaging, and histopathological aspects. Some authors consider MS and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum, differing only in chronicity, severity, and clinical course, while others consider them discretely different diseases.\n\nTypically, ADEM appears in children following an antigenic challenge and remains monophasic. Nevertheless, ADEM does occur in adults, and can also be clinically multiphasic.\n\nProblems for differential diagnosis increase due to the lack of agreement for a definition of multiple sclerosis. If MS were defined just by the separation in time and space of the demyelinating lesions as McDonald did, it would not be enough to make a difference, as some cases of ADEM satisfy these conditions. Therefore, some authors propose to establish the separation line in the shape of the lesions around the veins, being therefore \"perivenous vs. confluent demyelination\".\n\nThe pathology of ADEM is very similar to that of MS with some differences. The pathological hallmark of ADEM is perivenular inflammation with limited \"sleeves of demyelination\". Nevertheless, MS-like plaques (confluent demyelination) can appear\n\nPlaques in the white matter in MS are sharply delineated, while the glial scar in ADEM is smooth. Axons are better preserved in ADEM lesions. Inflammation in ADEM is widely disseminated and ill-defined, and finally, lesions are strictly perivenous, while in MS they are disposed around veins, but not so sharply.\n\nNevertheless, the co-occurrence of perivenous and confluent demyelination in some individuals suggests pathogenic overlap between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and misclassification even with biopsy or even postmortem ADEM in adults can progress to MS\n", "\nWhen the patient suffers more than one demyelinating episode of ADEM, the disease is then called '''recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis''' or '''multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis''' (MDEM).\n\nIt has been found that anti-MOG auto-antibodies are related to this kind of ADEM\n\nAnother variant of ADEM in adults has been described, also related to anti-MOG auto-antibodies, has been named '''fulminant disseminated encephalomyelitis''', and it has been reported to be clinically ADEM, but showing MS-like lesions on autopsy. It has been classified inside the anti-MOG associated inflammatory demyelinating diseases.\n", "\nAcute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (AHL, or AHLE), also known as acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE), acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis (AHEM), acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis (ANHLE), Weston-Hurst syndrome, or Hurst's disease, is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of ADEM. AHL is relatively rare (less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature ), it is seen in about 2% of ADEM cases, and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage, and edema. Death is common in the first week and overall mortality is about 70%, but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, cyclophosphamide, and plasma exchange. About 70% of survivors show residual neurological deficits, but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the magnitude of the white matter affected.\n\nThis disease has been occasionally associated with ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, malaria, septicemia associated with immune complex deposition, methanol poisoning, and other underlying conditions. Also anecdotal association with MS has been reported\n", "\nExperimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) is an animal model of CNS inflammation and demyelination frequently used to investigate potential MS treatments. An acute monophasic illness, EAE is far more similar to ADEM than MS.\n", "* Optic neuritis\n* Transverse myelitis\n", "\n", "\n* Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM) at myelitis.org\n\n\n* Information for parents about Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Signs and symptoms", "Causes", "Diagnosis", "Treatment", "Prognosis", "Multiple sclerosis", "Multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis", "Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis", "Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis", "See also", "References", " External links " ]	Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Ataxia''' is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that includes gait abnormality. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum. Ataxia can be limited to one side of the body, which is referred to as hemiataxia. Several possible causes exist for these patterns of neurological dysfunction. Dystaxia is a mild degree of ataxia. Friedreich's ataxia has gait abnormality as the most commonly presented symptom. The word is from Greek ''α-'' a negative prefix + ''-τάξις'' order = \"lack of order\".\n", "\n=== Cerebellar ===\n\nThe term cerebellar ataxia is used to indicate ataxia that is due to dysfunction of the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible for integrating a significant amount of neural information that is used to coordinate smoothly ongoing movements and to participate in motor planning. Although ataxia is not present with all cerebellar lesions, many conditions affecting the cerebellum do produce ataxia. People with cerebellar ataxia may have trouble regulating the force, range, direction, velocity and rhythm of muscle contractions. This results in a characteristic type of irregular, uncoordinated movement that can manifest itself in many possible ways, such as asthenia, asynergy, delayed reaction time, and dyschronometria. Individuals with cerebellar ataxia could also display instability of gait, difficulty with eye movements, dysarthria, dysphagia, hypotonia, dysmetria and dysdiadochokinesia. These deficits can vary depending on which cerebellar structures have been damaged, and whether the lesion is bilateral or unilateral.\n\nPeople with cerebellar ataxia may initially present with poor balance, which could be demonstrated as an inability to stand on one leg or perform tandem gait. As the condition progresses, walking is characterized by a widened base and high stepping, as well as staggering and lurching from side to side. Turning is also problematic and could result in falls. As cerebellar ataxia becomes severe, great assistance and effort are needed to stand and walk. Dysarthria, an impairment with articulation, may also be present and is characterized by \"scanning\" speech that consists of slower rate, irregular rhythm and variable volume. There may also be slurring of speech, tremor of the voice and ataxic respiration. Cerebellar ataxia could result with incoordination of movement, particularly in the extremities. There is overshooting (or hypermetria) with finger to nose testing, and heel to shin testing; thus, dysmetria is evident. Impairments with alternating movements (dysdiadochokinesia), as well as dysrhythmia, may also be displayed. There may also be tremor of the head and trunk (titubation) in individuals with cerebellar ataxia.\n\nIt is thought that dysmetria is caused by a deficit in the control of interaction torques in multijoint motion. Interaction torques are created at an associated joint when the primary joint is moved. For example, if a movement required reaching to touch a target in front of the body, flexion at the shoulder would create a torque at the elbow, while extension of the elbow would create a torque at the wrist. These torques increase as the speed of movement increases and must be compensated and adjusted for to create coordinated movement. This may, therefore, explain decreased coordination at higher movement velocities and accelerations.\n\n* '''Dysfunction of the vestibulocerebellum''' (flocculonodular lobe) impairs the balance and the control of eye movements. This presents itself with postural instability, in which the person tends to separate his/her feet upon standing, to gain a wider base and to avoid titubation (bodily oscillations tending to be forward-backward ones). The instability is therefore worsened when standing with the feet together, regardless of whether the eyes are open or closed. This is a negative Romberg's test, or more accurately, it denotes the individual's inability to carry out the test, because the individual feels unstable even with open eyes. \n* '''Dysfunction of the spinocerebellum''' (vermis and associated areas near the midline) presents itself with a wide-based \"drunken sailor\" gait (called truncal ataxia), characterised by uncertain starts and stops, lateral deviations, and unequal steps. As a result of this gait impairment, falling is a concern in patients with ataxia. Studies examining falls in this population show that 74-93% of patients have fallen at least once in the past year and up to 60% admit to fear of falling.\n* '''Dysfunction of the cerebrocerebellum''' (lateral hemispheres) presents as disturbances in carrying out voluntary, planned movements by the extremities (called appendicular ataxia). These include:\nintention tremor (coarse trembling, accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements, possibly involving the head and eyes as well as the limbs and torso);\npeculiar writing abnormalities (large, unequal letters, irregular underlining);\na peculiar pattern of dysarthria (slurred speech, sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm).\ninability to perform rapidly alternating movements, known as dysdiadochokinesia. This could involve rapidly switching from pronation to supination of the forearm. Movements become more irregular with increases of speed.\ninability to judge distances or ranges of movement. This is known as dysmetria and is often seen as undershooting, hypometria, or overshooting, hypermetria, the required distance or range to reach a target. This is sometimes seen when a patient is asked to reach out and touch someone's finger or touch his or her own nose.\nthe rebound phenomenon, also known as the loss of the check reflex is also sometimes seen in patients with cerebellar ataxia. For example, when a patient is flexing his or her elbow isometrically against a resistance. When the resistance is suddenly removed without warning, the patient's arm may swing up and even strike themselves. With an intact check reflex, the patient will check and activate the opposing triceps to slow and stop the movement.\n*patients may exhibit a constellation of subtle to overt cognitive symptoms. These symptoms are gathered under the terminology of Schmahmann's syndrome.\n\n=== Sensory ===\n\nThe term sensory ataxia is employed to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception, the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts. This is generally caused by dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord, because they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain. In some cases, the cause of sensory ataxia may instead be dysfunction of the various parts of the brain which receive positional information, including the cerebellum, thalamus, and parietal lobes.\n\nSensory ataxia presents itself with an unsteady \"stomping\" gait with heavy heel strikes, as well as a postural instability that is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments.\n\nPhysicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having the patient stand with his/her feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall. This is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when the patient is standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes are closed, the patient's finger will tend to \"fall down\" and then be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden muscular contractions (the \"ataxic hand\").\n\n=== Vestibular ===\n\nThe term ''vestibular ataxia'' is employed to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system, which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo, nausea and vomiting. In slow-onset, chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction, these characteristic manifestations may be absent, and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation.\n", "\nThe three types of ataxia have overlapping causes, and therefore can either coexist or occur in isolation.\n\n=== Focal lesions ===\n\nAny type of focal lesion of the central nervous system (such as stroke, brain tumor, multiple sclerosis) will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion: cerebellar if in the cerebellum, sensory if in the dorsal spinal cord (and rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe), vestibular if in the vestibular system (including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex).\n\n=== Exogenous substances (metabolic ataxia) ===\n\nExogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function. The most common example is ethanol (alcohol), which is capable of causing reversible cerebellar and vestibular ataxia. Other examples include various prescription drugs (e.g. most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect), Lithium level over 1.5mEq/L, synthetic cannabinoid HU-211 ingestion and various other recreational drugs (e.g. ketamine, PCP or dextromethorphan, all of which are NMDA receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses). A further class of pharmaceuticals which can cause short term ataxia, especially in high doses are the benzodiazepines. Exposure to high levels of methylmercury, through consumption of fish with high mercury concentrations, is also a known cause of ataxia and other neurological disorders.\n\n=== Radiation poisoning ===\n\nAtaxia can be induced as a result of severe acute radiation poisoning with an absorbed dose of more than 30 Grays.\n\n=== Vitamin B12 deficiency ===\n\nVitamin B12 deficiency may cause, among several neurological abnormalities, overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia.\n\n=== Hypothyroidism ===\n\nSymptoms of neurological dysfunction may be the presenting feature in some patients with hypothyroidism. These include reversible cerebellar ataxia, dementia, peripheral neuropathy, psychosis and coma. Most of the neurological complications improve completely after thyroid hormone replacement therapy.\n\n=== Causes of isolated sensory ataxia ===\n\nPeripheral neuropathies may cause generalised or localised sensory ataxia (e.g. a limb only) depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement. Spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below, when they involve the dorsal columns\n\n=== Non-hereditary cerebellar degeneration ===\nNon-hereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic ethanol abuse, head injury, paraneoplastic and non-paraneoplastic autoimmune ataxia, high altitude cerebral oedema, coeliac disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus and infectious or post-infectious cerebellitis.\n\n=== Hereditary ataxias ===\n\nAtaxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum and/or of the spine; most cases feature both to some extent, and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia, even though one is often more evident than the other. Hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia, episodic ataxia, and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy, as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as Friedreich's ataxia (sensory and cerebellar, with the former predominating) and Niemann Pick disease, ataxia-telangiectasia (sensory and cerebellar, with the latter predominating), and abetalipoproteinaemia. An example of X-linked ataxic condition is the rare fragile X-associated tremor/ataxia syndrome.\n\n=== Arnold-Chiari malformation (congenital ataxia) ===\n\nArnold-Chiari malformation is a malformation of the brain. It consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum, sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow.\n\n=== Succinic Semialdehyde Dehydrogenase Deficiency ===\n\nSuccinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder where mutations in the ALDH5A1 gene results in the accumulation of gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in the body. GHB accumulates in the nervous system and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological dysfunction.\n\n=== Wilson's disease ===\n\nWilson's disease is an autosomal-recessive gene disorder whereby an alteration of the ATP7B gene results in an inability to properly excrete copper from the body. Copper accumulates in the nervous system and liver and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological and organ impairments.\n\n=== Gluten ataxia ===\n\nGluten ataxia is a gluten-related disorder, a wide spectrum of disorders marked by an abnormal immunological response to gluten. Like celiac disease, it is an autoimmune disease. With gluten ataxia, damage takes place in the cerebellum, the balance center of the brain that controls coordination and complex movements like walking, speaking and swallowing. Gluten ataxia is the single most common cause of sporadic idiopathic ataxia.\n\nGluten ataxia is an immune-mediated disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. It should be considered in the differential diagnosis of all patients with idiopathic sporadic ataxia. Early diagnosis and treatment with a gluten free diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. Readily available and sensitive markers of gluten ataxia include anti-gliadin antibodies. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) deposits against transglutaminase 2 (TG2) in the small bowel and at extraintestinal sites are proving to be additionally reliable and perhaps more specific markers of the whole spectrum of gluten sensitivity. They may also hold the key to its pathogenesis.\n\nGluten ataxia is defined as sporadic cerebellar ataxia associated with the presence circulating antigliadin antibodies and in the absence of an alternative cause for ataxia.\n\n=== Sodium-potassium pump ===\n\nMalfunction of the sodium-potassium pump may be a factor in some ataxias. The - pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons. This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, \"housekeeping\" molecule for ionic gradients; but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, an ouabain block of - pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia. Ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations, dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations.\n\n=== Cerebellar ataxia associated with anti-GAD antibodies ===\nAntibodies against the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD: enzyme changing glutamate in GABA) cause cerebellar deficits. The antibodies impair motor learning and cause behavioral deficits.\n", "\n", "\nThe treatment of ataxia and its effectiveness depend on the underlying cause. Treatment may limit or reduce the effects of ataxia, but it is unlikely to eliminate them entirely. Recovery tends to be better in individuals with a single focal injury (such as stroke or a benign tumour), compared to those who have a neurological degenerative condition. A review of the management of degenerative ataxia was published in 2009. A small number of rare conditions presenting with prominent cerebellar ataxia are amenable to specific treatment and recognition of these disorders is critical. Diseases include vitamin E deficiency, abetalipoproteinemia, cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis, Niemann–Pick type C disease, Refsum's disease, glucose transporter type 1 deficiency, episodic ataxia type 2, gluten ataxia, glutamic acid decarboxylase ataxia.\n\nThe movement disorders associated with ataxia can be managed by pharmacological treatments and through physical therapy and occupational therapy to reduce disability. Some drug treatments that have been used to control ataxia include: 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), idebenone, amantadine, physostigmine, L-carnitine or derivatives, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, vigabatrin, phosphatidylcholine, acetazolamide, 4-aminopyridine, buspirone, and a combination of coenzyme Q10 and vitamin E.\n\nPhysical therapy requires a focus on adapting activity and facilitating motor learning for retraining specific functional motor patterns. A recent systematic review suggested that physical therapy is effective, but there is only moderate evidence to support this conclusion. The most commonly used physical therapy interventions for cerebellar ataxia are vestibular habituation, Frenkel exercises, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), and balance training; however, therapy is often highly individualized and gait and coordination training are large components of therapy.\n\nCurrent research suggests that, if a person is able to walk with or without a mobility aid, physical therapy should include an exercise program addressing five components: static balance, dynamic balance, trunk-limb coordination, stairs, and contracture prevention. Once the physical therapist determines that the individual is able to safely perform parts of the program independently, it is important that the individual be prescribed and regularly engage in a supplementary home exercise program that incorporates these components to further improve long term outcomes. These outcomes include balance tasks, gait, and individual activities of daily living. While the improvements are attributed primarily to changes in the brain and not just the hip and/or ankle joints, it is still unknown whether the improvements are due to adaptations in the cerebellum or compensation by other areas of the brain.\n\nDecomposition, simplification, or slowing of multijoint movement may also be an effective strategy that therapists may use to improve function in patients with ataxia. Training likely needs to be intense and focused—as indicated by one study performed with stroke patients experiencing limb ataxia who underwent intensive upper limb retraining. Their therapy consisted of constraint-induced movement therapy which resulted in improvements of their arm function. Treatment should likely include strategies to manage difficulties with everyday activities such as walking. Gait aids (such as a cane or walker) can be provided to decrease the risk of falls associated with impairment of balance or poor coordination. Severe ataxia may eventually lead to the need for a wheelchair. To obtain better results, possible coexisting motor deficits need to be addressed in addition to those induced by ataxia. For example, muscle weakness and decreased endurance could lead to increasing fatigue and poorer movement patterns.\n\nThere are several assessment tools available to therapists and health care professionals working with patients with ataxia. The International Cooperative Ataxia Rating Scale (ICARS) is one of the most widely used and has been proven to have very high reliability and validity. Other tools that assess motor function, balance and coordination are also highly valuable to help the therapist track the progress of their patient, as well as to quantify the patient's functionality. These tests include, but are not limited to:\n The Berg Balance Scale\n* Tandem Walking (to test for Tandem gaitability)\n* Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia\n* tapping tests – The person must quickly and repeatedly tap their arm or leg while the therapist monitors the amount of dysdiadochokinesia.\n* finger-nose testing – This test has several variations including finger-to-therapist's finger, finger-to-finger, and alternate nose-to-finger.\n", "\nThe term \"ataxia\" is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process. Examples include '''optic ataxia''' (lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements, resulting in inability to reach and grab objects) and '''ataxic respiration''' (lack of coordination in respiratory movements, usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata). Optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex, which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement. Outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord, brain stem motor pathways, pre-motor and pre-frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the cerebellum. Some neurons in the posterior parietal cortex are modulated by intention. Optic ataxia is usually part of Balint's syndrome, but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule, as it represents a disconnection between visual-association cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex.\n", "Ataxic cerebral palsy\nSpinocerebellar ataxia\nBruns apraxia\n", "\n", " \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Types ", " Causes ", "Diagnosis", " Treatment ", " Other uses ", " See also ", " References ", " Further reading " ]	Ataxia
[ "\n\n'''Abdul Alhazred''' is a fictional character created by American horror writer H. P. Lovecraft. He is the so-called \"Mad Arab\" credited with authoring the fictional book ''Kitab al-Azif'' (the ''Necronomicon''), and as such is an integral part of Cthulhu Mythos lore.\n", "\n\n''Abdul Alhazred'' was a pseudonym adopted by Lovecraft after reading ''1001 Arabian Nights'' in his early childhood. The name may have been invented by Lovecraft himself or the Phillips' family lawyer Albert Baker.\n\n''Abdul'' is a common Arabic name component meaning servant of the powerful but never a name by itself. ''Alhazred'' may allude to ''Hazard'', a reference to the book's destructive and dangerous nature, or to Lovecraft's ancestors by that name. It might also have been a play on \"all-has-read\", since Lovecraft was an avid reader in youth. With Abdul meaning \"slave of\" Abdul Alhazred could mean a slave of all that has been read, in reference to Lovecraft and his youthful all-consuming pursuit, or to his creation of the Cthulhu mythos and being a slave of it even while its creator; it more aptly applies to the character Abdul Alhazred who truly was enslaved by what he read, and became a servant of unfathomable evil.\n\nAnother possibility, raised in an essay by the Swedish fantasy writer and editor Rickard Berghorn, is that the name ''Alhazred'' was influenced by references to two historical authors whose names were Latinized as ''Alhazen'': Alhazen ben Josef, who translated Ptolemy into Arabic; and Abu 'Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, who wrote about optics, mathematics and physics. Ibn al-Haytham is said to have pretended to be mad to escape the wrath of a ruler.\n\n''Abdul Alhazred'' is not a real Arabic name, and seems to contain the Arabic definite article morpheme ''al-'' twice in a row (anomalous in terms of Arabic grammar). The more proper Arabic form might be ''Abd-al-Hazred'' or ''Abdul Hazred''. In Arabic translations, his name has appeared as ''Abdullah Alḥa ẓred'' (عبدالله الحظرد): Arabic ''''حظر = \"he fenced in\", \"he prohibited\". Hazred could come from the Arabic word \"Hazrat\" meaning Great Lord with a twist that makes it sound like \"red\" and \"hazard\" both indicative of danger. It is also thought by some to be a corruption of sorts on the phrase \"All has read,\" to imply he has read much, and has immense amounts of knowledge. However Abdul is a common Arabic prefix meaning \"Servant\" and \"Al\" is Arabic for \"the\", and if \"hazra\" means \"he prohibited\", \"he fenced in\" or \"Great Lord\", then the name would mean \"Servant of the Prohibited\", \"Servant of the Fenced in\", or \"Servant of the Great Lord\" which would make sense considering his role, even if it is not a proper Arabic name.\n\nAn explanation that is more in sync with Arabic usage and existing Sufi tradition is that it is a corruption of \"Abd-al-Hazrah\" عبدالحضرة, where \"haẓrat\" is the Persian and Ottoman Turkish form of the Arabic word \"Haḍrat\" \| Hadrat حضرة meaning \"presence\" used by some speakers as an honorific title before the names of prophets, saints, and also as a mnemonic for the name of Allah, as well as a common honorific title for ordinary people. The final taa marbuta is customarily variably turned into \"t\" or omitted in spoken Arabic in various varieties. \"Haḍra\" is also the name of the Sufi Dhikr.\n\nSimilarly, an article (written from an in-universe perspective) in the ''Call of Cthulhu'' tabletop role-playing game speculates that it may be a corruption of ''Abd Al-Azrad'', which it claims translates to ''The Worshipper of the Great Devourer''.\n\nThe phrase \"mad Arab\", sometimes with both words capitalized in Lovecraft's stories, is used so commonly before Alhazred's name that it almost constitutes a title. A reference to the \"Mad Arab\" in Cthulhu Mythos fiction is invariably a synonym for Abdul Alhazred. Later writers sometimes preface Alhazred with words such as \"monk\" (such as in the Chick parody tract \"Who will be Eaten First?\" by Howard Hallis) or \"scholar\" replacing Arab to avoid any racist overtones.\n", "\n\n===H. P. Lovecraft===\n\nAccording to Lovecraft's \"History of the Necronomicon\" (written 1927, first published 1938), Alhazred was:\n\n:a mad poet of Sanaá, in Yemen, who is said to have flourished during the period of the Ommiade caliphs, circa 700 A.D. He visited the ruins of Babylon and the subterranean secret of Memphis and spent ten years alone in the great southern desert of Arabia—the Roba El Khaliyeh or \"Empty Space\" of the ancients—and \"Dahna\" or \"Crimson\" desert of the modern Arabs, which is held to be inhabited by protective evil spirits and monsters of death. Of this desert many strange and unbelievable marvels are told by those who pretend to have penetrated it. In his last years Alhazred dwelt in Damascus.\n\nIn 730, while still living in Damascus, Alhazred supposedly wrote a book of ultimate evil in Arabic, ''al-Azif'', which would later become known as the ''Necronomicon''. Those who have dealings with this book usually come to an unpleasant end, and Alhazred was no exception. Again according to Lovecraft's \"History\":\n\n:Of his final death or disappearance (738 A.D.) many terrible and conflicting things are told. He is said by Ebn Khallikan (12th cent. biographer) to have been seized by an invisible monster in broad daylight and devoured horribly before a large number of fright-frozen witnesses. Of his madness many things are told. He claimed to have seen the fabulous Irem, or City of Pillars, and to have found beneath the ruins of a certain nameless desert town the shocking annals and secrets of a race older than mankind. He was only an indifferent Moslem, worshipping unknown entities whom he called Yog-Sothoth and Cthulhu.\n\n===August Derleth===\n\nAugust Derleth later made alterations to the biography of Alhazred, such as redating his death to 731. Derleth also changed Alhazred's final fate, as described in his short story \"The Keeper of the Key\", first published in May 1951. In the story, Professor Laban Shrewsbury (a recurring Derleth character) and his assistant at the time, Nayland Colum, discover Alhazred's burial site.\n\nWhile the two are heading a caravan from Salalah, Oman, they cross the border into Yemen and find the unexplored desert area that the ''Necronomicon'' calls \"Roba el Ehaliyeh\" or \"Roba el Khaliyeh\" — presumably a reference to the Empty Quarter or \"Rub al Khali\".\n\nAt the center of the area they discover the Nameless City (the setting of the Lovecraft story of the same name) and in Derleth's text the domain of the Great Old One Hastur. Shrewsbury, an old agent of Hastur and the devoted enemy of Hastur's half-brother, Cthulhu, crosses its gates in search of Alhazred's burial site.\n\nHe indeed finds Alhazred's burial chamber and learns of his fate. Alhazred had been kidnapped in Damascus and brought to the Nameless City, where he had earlier studied and learned some of the ''Necronomicon''s lore. As punishment for betraying their secrets, Alhazred was tortured. Then they blinded him, severed his tongue and executed him.\n\nAlthough the entrance to the chamber warns against disturbing him, Shrewsbury opens Alhazred's sarcophagus anyway, finding that only rags, bones, and dust remain of Alhazred. However, the sarcophagus also contains Alhazred's personal, incomplete copy of the ''Necronomicon'', written in the Arabic alphabet. Shrewsbury then uses necromancy to recall Alhazred's spirit and orders it to draw a map of the world as he knew it. After obtaining the map, which reveals the location of R'lyeh and other secret places, Shrewsbury finally lets Alhazred return to his eternal rest.\n", "Alchemy and chemistry in Islam\nIslamic astrology\nAbdul Alhazred (comics)\nAlhazred (novel)\nSana'a manuscripts\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Name", "Biography", "See also", "Notes", "References" ]	Abdul Alhazred
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Augusta Ada King-Noel, Countess of Lovelace''' (''née'' '''Byron'''; 10 December 1815 – 27 November 1852) was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation, and created the first algorithm intended to be carried out by such a machine. As a result, she is often regarded as the first to recognise the full potential of a \"computing machine\" and the first computer programmer.\n\nAda Lovelace was the only legitimate child of the poet Lord Byron, and his wife Anne Isabella Milbanke (\"Annabella\"), Lady Wentworth. All of Byron's other children were born out of wedlock to other women. Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever four months later, eventually dying of disease in the Greek War of Independence when Ada was eight years old. Her mother remained bitter towards Lord Byron and promoted Ada's interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing what she saw as the insanity seen in her father, but Ada remained interested in him despite this (and was, upon her eventual death, buried next to him at her request). Often ill, she spent most of her childhood sick. Ada married William King in 1835. King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, and she became Countess of Lovelace.\n\nHer educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens, which she used to further her education. Ada described her approach as \"poetical science\" and herself as an \"Analyst (& Metaphysician)\".\n\nWhen she was a teenager, her mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow British mathematician Charles Babbage, also known as \"the father of computers\", and in particular, Babbage's work on the Analytical Engine. Lovelace first met him in June 1833, through their mutual friend, and her private tutor, Mary Somerville. Between 1842 and 1843, Ada translated an article by Italian military engineer Luigi Menabrea on the engine, which she supplemented with an elaborate set of notes, simply called ''Notes''. These notes contain what many consider to be the first computer program—that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers. She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while many others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities. Her mindset of \"poetical science\" led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine (as shown in her notes) examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool.\n\nShe died of uterine cancer in 1852 at the age of 36.\n", "\n===Early life===\nByron expected his baby to be a \"glorious boy\" and was disappointed when his wife gave birth to a girl. Augusta was named after Byron's half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called \"Ada\" by Byron himself.\n\nAda, aged four\nOn 16 January 1816 Ada's mother, Annabella, at Byron's behest, left for her parents' home at Kirkby Mallory taking one-month-old Ada with her. Although English law at the time gave fathers full custody of their children in cases of separation, Byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights but did request that his sister keep him informed of Ada's welfare. On 21 April Byron signed the Deed of Separation, although very reluctantly, and left England for good a few days later. Aside from an acrimonious separation, Annabella continually made allegations about Byron's immoral behaviour throughout her life.\n\nThis set of events made Ada famous in Victorian society. Byron did not have a relationship with his daughter, and never saw her again. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old. Her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Ada was not shown the family portrait of her father (covered in green shroud) until her twentieth birthday. Her mother became Baroness Wentworth in her own right in 1856.\n\nAnnabella did not have a close relationship with the young Ada and often left her in the care of her own mother Judith, Hon. Lady Milbanke who doted on her grandchild. However, because of societal attitudes of the time—which favoured the husband in any separation, with the welfare of any child acting as mitigation—Annabella had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society. This included writing anxious letters to Lady Milbanke about Ada's welfare, with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern. In one letter to Lady Milbanke, she referred to Ada as \"it\": \"I talk to it for your satisfaction, not my own, and shall be very glad when you have it under your own.\" In her teenage years, several of her mother's close friends watched Ada for any sign of moral deviation. Ada dubbed these observers the \"Furies\" and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her.\n\nAda, aged seventeen, 1832\nAda was often ill, beginning in early childhood. At the age of eight, she experienced headaches that obscured her vision. In June 1829, she was paralysed after a bout of measles. She was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year, which may have extended her period of disability. By 1831, she was able to walk with crutches. Despite being ill Ada developed her mathematical and technological skills. At age 12 this future \"Lady Fairy\", as Charles Babbage affectionately called her, decided she wanted to fly. Ada went about the project methodically, thoughtfully, with imagination and passion. Her first step, in February 1828, was to construct wings. She investigated different material and sizes. She considered various materials for the wings: paper, oilsilk, wires, and feathers. She examined the anatomy of birds to determine the right proportion between the wings and the body. She decided to write a book, ''Flyology,'' illustrating, with plates, some of her findings. She decided what equipment she would need; for example, a compass, to \"cut across the country by the most direct road\", so that she could surmount mountains, rivers, and valleys. Her final step was to integrate steam with the \"art of flying\".\n\nIn early 1833 Ada had an affair with a tutor and, after being caught, tried to elope with him. The tutor's relatives recognised her and contacted her mother. Annabella and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal. Ada never met her younger half-sister, Allegra, the daughter of Lord Byron and Claire Clairmont. Allegra died in 1822 at the age of five. Ada did have some contact with Elizabeth Medora Leigh, the daughter of Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh, who purposely avoided Ada as much as possible when introduced at Court.\n\n===Adult years===\nLovelace became close friends with her tutor Mary Somerville, who introduced her to Charles Babbage in 1833. She had a strong respect and affection for Somerville, and they corresponded for many years. Other acquaintances included the scientists Andrew Crosse, Sir David Brewster, Charles Wheatstone, Michael Faraday and the author Charles Dickens. She was presented at Court at the age of seventeen \"and became a popular belle of the season\" in part because of her \"brilliant mind.\" By 1834 Ada was a regular at Court and started attending various events. She danced often and was able to charm many people, and was described by most people as being dainty, although John Hobhouse, Byron's friend, described her as \"a large, coarse-skinned young woman but with something of my friend's features, particularly the mouth\". This description followed their meeting on 24 February 1834 in which Ada made it clear to Hobhouse that she did not like him, probably because of the influence of her mother, which led her to dislike all of her father's friends. This first impression was not to last, and they later became friends.\n\nOn 8 July 1835, she married William, 8th Baron King, becoming Lady King. They had three homes: Ockham Park, Surrey, a Scottish estate on Loch Torridon in Ross-shire, and a house in London. They spent their honeymoon at Worthy Manor in Ashley Combe near Porlock Weir, Somerset. The Manor had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by King in preparation for their honeymoon. It later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time. From 1845 the family's main house was East Horsley Towers, rebuilt in the Victorian Gothic fashion by the architect of the Houses of Parliament, Charles Barry.\n\nThey had three children: Byron (born 12 May 1836); Anne Isabella (called Annabella; born 22 September 1837); and Ralph Gordon (born 2 July 1839). Immediately after the birth of Annabella, Lady King experienced \"a tedious and suffering illness, which took months to cure.\" Ada was a descendant of the extinct Barons Lovelace and in 1838, her husband was made Earl of Lovelace and Viscount Ockham, meaning Ada became the Countess of Lovelace. In 1843–44, Ada's mother assigned William Benjamin Carpenter to teach Ada's children and to act as a \"moral\" instructor for Ada. He quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections, claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an \"unbecoming\" manner. When it became clear that Carpenter was trying to start an affair, Ada cut it off.\n\nIn 1841 Lovelace and Medora Leigh (the daughter of Lord Byron's half-sister Augusta Leigh) were told by Ada's mother that her father was also Medora's father. On 27 February 1841, Ada wrote to her mother: \"I am not in the least ''astonished''. In fact, you merely ''confirm'' what I have for ''years and years'' felt scarcely a doubt about, but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that I in any way suspected.\" She did not blame the incestuous relationship on Byron, but instead blamed Augusta Leigh: \"I fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was.\" In the 1840s Ada flirted with scandals: first, from a relaxed relationship with men who were not her husband, which led to rumours of affairs—and secondly, her love of gambling. She apparently lost more than £3,000 on the horses during the later 1840s. The gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends, and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets. This went disastrously wrong, leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate, forcing her to admit it all to her husband. She had a shadowy relationship with Andrew Crosse's son John from 1844 onwards. John Crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement. She bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her. During her final illness, she would panic at the idea of the younger Crosse being kept from visiting her.\n\n===Education===\nThroughout her illnesses, she continued her education. Her mother's obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Byron was one of the reasons that Ada was taught mathematics from an early age. She was privately schooled in mathematics and science by William Frend, William King, and Mary Somerville, the noted researcher and scientific author of the 19th century. One of her later tutors was the mathematician and logician Augustus De Morgan. From 1832, when she was seventeen, her mathematical abilities began to emerge, and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life. In a letter to Lady Byron, De Morgan suggested that her daughter's skill in mathematics could lead her to become \"an original mathematical investigator, perhaps of first-rate eminence\".\n\nLovelace often questioned basic assumptions by integrating poetry and science. While studying differential calculus, she wrote to De Morgan:\nI may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo, the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight, is I think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies. I am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of, who are at one's elbows in ''one'' shape now, and the next minute in a form most dissimilar \nLovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts. She valued metaphysics as much as mathematics, viewing both as tools for exploring \"the unseen worlds around us\".\n\n===Death===\nPainting of Ada Lovelace at a piano in 1852 by Henry Phillips. While she was in great pain at the time, she sat for the painting as Phillips' father, Thomas Phillips, had painted Ada's father, Lord Byron.\nLovelace died at the age of 36 – the same age that her father had died – on 27 November 1852, from uterine cancer probably exacerbated by bloodletting by her physicians. The illness lasted several months, in which time Annabella took command over whom Ada saw, and excluded all of her friends and confidants. Under her mother's influence, she had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making Annabella her executor. She lost contact with her husband after she confessed something to him on 30 August which caused him to abandon her bedside. What she told him is unknown. She was buried, at her request, next to her father at the Church of St. Mary Magdalene in Hucknall, Nottinghamshire. A memorial plaque in Latin to her and her father is in the chapel attached to Horsley Towers.\n", "Throughout her life, Lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day, including phrenology and mesmerism. After her work with Babbage, Lovelace continued to work on other projects. In 1844 she commented to a friend Woronzow Greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings (\"a calculus of the nervous system\"). She never achieved this, however. In part, her interest in the brain came from a long-running pre-occupation, inherited from her mother, about her 'potential' madness. As part of her research into this project, she visited the electrical engineer Andrew Crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments. In the same year, she wrote a review of a paper by Baron Karl von Reichenbach, ''Researches on Magnetism'', but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft. In 1851, the year before her cancer struck, she wrote to her mother mentioning \"certain productions\" she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music.\n\nPortrait of Ada by British painter Margaret Sarah Carpenter (1836)\nLovelace first met Charles Babbage in June 1833, through their mutual friend Mary Somerville. Later that month Babbage invited Lovelace to see the prototype for his Difference Engine. She became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with Somerville to visit Babbage as often as she could. Babbage was impressed by Lovelace's intellect and analytic skills. He called her \"The Enchantress of Number\". In 1843 he wrote to her:\n\n\n\n\nDuring a nine-month period in 1842–43, Lovelace translated the Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea's article on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended a set of notes. Explaining the Analytical Engine's function was a difficult task, as even many other scientists did not really grasp the concept and the British establishment was uninterested in it. Lovelace's notes even had to explain how the Analytical Engine differed from the original Difference Engine. Her work was well received at the time; the scientist Michael Faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing.\n\nThe notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include (in Section G), in complete detail, a method for calculating a sequence of Bernoulli numbers with the Engine, which could have run correctly had Babbage's Analytical Engine been built. (Only his Difference Engine has been built, completed in London in 2002.) Based on this work Lovelace is now widely considered the first computer programmer and her method is recognised as the world's first computer program.\n\nSection G also contains Lovelace's dismissal of artificial intelligence. She wrote that \"The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to ''originate'' anything. It can do ''whatever we know how to order it'' to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths.\" This objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal, for example by Alan Turing in his paper \"Computing Machinery and Intelligence\".\n\nLovelace and Babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published when he tried to leave his own statement (a criticism of the government's treatment of his Engine) as an unsigned preface—which would imply that she had written that also. When Taylor's ''Scientific Memoirs'' ruled that the statement should be signed, Babbage wrote to Lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper. This was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned, and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper. The historian Benjamin Woolley theorised that: \"His actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought Ada's involvement, and so happily indulged her ... because of her 'celebrated name'.\" Their friendship recovered, and they continued to correspond. On 12 August 1851, when she was dying of cancer, Lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor, though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority. Part of the terrace at Worthy Manor was known as ''Philosopher's Walk'', as it was there that Lovelace and Babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles.\n\n===First computer program===\nLovelace's diagram from Note G, the first published computer algorithm\nIn 1840, Babbage was invited to give a seminar at the University of Turin about his Analytical Engine. Luigi Menabrea, a young Italian engineer, and the future Prime Minister of Italy wrote up Babbage's lecture in French, and this transcript was subsequently published in the Bibliothèque universelle de Genève in October 1842.\nBabbage's friend Charles Wheatstone commissioned Ada Lovelace to translate Menabrea's paper into English. She then augmented the paper with notes, which were added to the translation. Ada Lovelace spent the better part of a year doing this, assisted with input from Babbage. These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in Taylor's ''Scientific Memoirs'' under the initialism ''AAL''.\n\nAda Lovelace's notes were labelled alphabetically from A to G. In note G, she describes an algorithm for the Analytical Engine to compute Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and Ada Lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason. The engine was never completed so her program was never tested.\n\nIn 1953, more than a century after her death, Ada Lovelace's notes on Babbage's Analytical Engine were republished. The engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software.\n\n===Beyond numbers===\nIn her notes, Lovelace emphasised the difference between the Analytical Engine and previous calculating machines, particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity. She realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching. In her notes, she wrote:\n\n\nThis analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised. Walter Isaacson ascribes Lovelace's insight regarding the application of computing to ''any'' process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles: \"When she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns, it reminded her of how Babbage's engine used punched cards to make calculations.\" This insight is seen as significant by writers such as Betty Toole and Benjamin Woolley, as well as the programmer John Graham-Cumming, whose project Plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete Analytical Engine.\n\nAccording to the historian of computing and Babbage specialist Doron Swade: Ada saw something that Babbage in some sense failed to see. In Babbage's world his engines were bound by number...What Lovelace saw—what Ada Byron saw—was that number could represent entities other than quantity. So once you had a machine for manipulating numbers, if those numbers represented other things, letters, musical notes, then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance, according to rules. It is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computation—to general-purpose computation—and looking back from the present high ground of modern computing, if we are looking and sifting history for that transition, then that transition was made explicitly by Ada in that 1843 paper.\n\n===Controversy over extent of contributions===\nThough Lovelace is referred to as the first computer programmer, some biographers and historians of computing claim otherwise.\n\nAllan G. Bromley, in the 1990 article ''Difference and Analytical Engines'':\n\n\nBruce Collier, who later wrote a biography of Babbage, wrote in his 1970 Harvard University PhD thesis that Lovelace \"made a considerable contribution to publicizing the Analytical Engine, but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way\".\n\nEugene Eric Kim and Betty Alexandra Toole consider it \"incorrect\" to regard Lovelace as the first computer programmer, as Babbage wrote the initial programs for his Analytical Engine, although the majority were never published. Bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by Babbage between 1837 and 1840, all substantially predating Lovelace's notes. Dorothy K. Stein regards Lovelace's notes as \"more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author, the political purposes of the inventor, and, above all, of the social and cultural context in which it was written, than a blueprint for a scientific development\".\n\nIn his book, ''Idea Makers'', Stephen Wolfram defends Lovelace's contributions. While acknowledging that Babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the Analytical Engine prior to Lovelace's notes, Wolfram argues that \"there's nothing as sophisticated—or as clean—as Ada's computation of the Bernoulli numbers. Babbage certainly helped and commented on Ada's work, but she was definitely the driver of it.\" Wolfram then suggests that Lovelace's main achievement was to distill from Babbage's correspondence \"a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machine—something which Babbage never did.\"\n\nDoron Swade, a specialist on history of computing known for his work on Babbage, analyzed four claims about Lovelace during a lecture on Babbage's analytical engine:\n#She was a mathematical genius\n#She made an influential contribution to the analytical engine\n#She was the first computer programmer\n#She was a prophet of the computer age\n\nAccording to him, only the fourth claim had \"any substance at all\". He explained that Ada was only a \"promising beginner\" instead of genius in mathematics, that she began studying basic concepts of mathematics five years after Babbage conceived the analytical engine so she couldn't have made important contributions to it, and that she only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it. But he agrees that Ada was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as a machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities.\n", "An illustration inspired by the A. E. Chalon portrait created for the Ada Initiative, which supported open technology and women\nLovelace has been portrayed in Romulus Linney's 1977 play ''Childe Byron'', the 1990 steampunk novel ''The Difference Engine'' by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, the 1997 film ''Conceiving Ada'', and in John Crowley's 2005 novel ''Lord Byron's Novel: The Evening Land'', where she is featured as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and anti-heroic efforts to archive her father's lost novel.\n\nIn Tom Stoppard's 1993 play ''Arcadia'', the precocious teenage genius Thomasina Coverly (a character \"apparently based\" on Ada Lovelace—the play also involves Lord Byron) comes to understand chaos theory, and theorises the second law of thermodynamics, before either is officially recognised. The 2015 play ''Ada and the Memory Engine'' by Lauren Gunderson portrays Lovelace and Charles Babbage in unrequited love, and it imagines a post-death meeting between Lovelace and her father.\n\nLovelace and Babbage are the main characters in Sydney Padua's webcomic and graphic novel ''The Thrilling Adventures of Lovelace and Babbage''. The comic features extensive footnotes on the history of Ada Lovelace, and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence.\n\nLovelace and Mary Shelley as teenagers are the central characters in Jordan Stratford's steampunk series, The Wollstonecraft Detective Agency.\n\nIn 2017, a Google Doodle honoured her on International Women's Day. Lovelace and Babbage appear as characters in the ITV series Victoria. In September 2017, the Family Coppola launched a gin named after Ada Lovelace.\n", "Blue plaque to Lovelace in St. James's Square, London\nThe computer language Ada, created on behalf of the United States Department of Defense, was named after Lovelace. The reference manual for the language was approved on 10 December 1980 and the Department of Defense Military Standard for the language, ''MIL-STD-1815'', was given the number of the year of her birth.\n\nSince 1998 the British Computer Society (BCS) has awarded the Lovelace Medal, and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students. BCSWomen sponsors the Lovelace Colloquium, an annual conference for women undergraduates. Ada College is a further-education college in Tottenham Hale, London focused on digital skills.\n\nAda Lovelace Day is an annual event celebrated in mid-October whose goal is to \"... raise the profile of women in science, technology, engineering, and maths,\" (see Women in STEM fields) and to \"create new role models for girls and women\" in these fields. The Ada Initiative was a non-profit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements.\n\nThe Engineering in Computer Science and Telecommunications College building in Zaragoza University is called the Ada Byron Building. The computer centre in the village of Porlock, near where Lovelace lived, is named after her. Ada Lovelace House is a council-owned building in Kirkby-in-Ashfield, Nottinghamshire, near where Lovelace spent her infancy; the building was once an internet centre\n\nShe is also the inspiration and influence for the Ada Developers Academy in Seattle, Washington. The academy is a non-profit that seeks to increase diversity in tech by training women, trans and non-binary people to be software engineers.\n \nOne of the tunnel boring machines excavating London's Crossrail project is named ''Ada''.\n\n''Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology'' is an \"open-access, multi-modal, open peer review\|open-peer-reviewed feminist journal concerned with the intersections of gender, new media, and technology\" that began in 2012 and is run by the Fembot Collective.\n", "* 10 December 1815 – 8 July 1835: The Honourable Ada Byron\n* 8 July 1835 – 30 June 1838: The Right Honourable The Lady King\n* 30 June 1838 – 27 November 1852: The Right Honourable The Countess of Lovelace\n", "\n\n\n", "The bicentenary of Ada Lovelace's birth was celebrated with a number of events, including:\n\n* ''The Ada Lovelace Bicentenary Lectures on Computability'', Israel Institute for Advanced Studies, 20 December 2015 – 31 January 2016.\n* ''Ada Lovelace Symposium'', University of Oxford, 13–14 October 2015.\n\nSpecial exhibitions were displayed by the Science Museum in London and the Weston Library (part of the Bodleian Library) in Oxford, England.\n", "* \n", "\n* ''Great Lives'' (BBC Radio 4) aired on 17 September 2013 was dedicated to the story of Ada Lovelace.\n''Code: Debugging the Gender Gap''\n List of pioneers in computer science\n* Women in computing\n", "\n\n", "\n", "\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* .\n* With notes upon the memoir by the translator.\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* .\n* \n* .\n* .\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Work", "In popular culture", "Commemoration<!--'Ada Lovelace Day' redirects here-->", "Titles and styles by which she was known", "Ancestry", "Bicentenary", "Publications", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Sources", "External links" ]	Ada Lovelace
[ "\n\n'''August William Derleth''' (February 24, 1909 – July 4, 1971) was an American writer and anthologist. Though best remembered as the first book publisher of the writings of H. P. Lovecraft, and for his own contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos genre of horror, as well as his founding of the publisher Arkham House (which did much to bring supernatural fiction into print in hardcover in the US that had only been readily available in the UK), Derleth was a leading American regional writer of his day, as well as prolific in several other genres, including historical fiction, poetry, detective fiction, science fiction, and biography.\n\nA 1938 Guggenheim Fellow, Derleth considered his most serious work to be the ambitious ''Sac Prairie Saga'', a series of fiction, historical fiction, poetry, and non-fiction naturalist works designed to memorialize life in the Wisconsin he knew. Derleth can also be considered a pioneering naturalist and conservationist in his writing.\n", "The son of William Julius Derleth and Rose Louise Volk, Derleth grew up in Sauk City, Wisconsin. He was educated in local parochial and public high school. Derleth wrote his first fiction at age 13. He was interested most in reading, and he made three trips to the library a week. He would save his money to buy books (his personal library exceeded 12,000 later on in life). Some of his biggest influences were Ralph Waldo Emerson's essays, Walt Whitman, H. L. Mencken's The American Mercury, Samuel Johnson's The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia, Alexandre Dumas, Edgar Allan Poe, Walter Scott, and Henry David Thoreau's Walden.\n\nForty rejected stories and three years later, according to anthologist Jim Stephens, he sold his first story, \"Bat's Belfry\", to ''Weird Tales'' magazine. Derleth wrote throughout his four years at the University of Wisconsin, where he received a B.A. in 1930. During this time he also served briefly as associate editor of Minneapolis-based Fawcett Publications ''Mystic Magazine''.\n\nReturning to Sauk City in the summer of 1931, Derleth worked in a local canning factory and collaborated with childhood friend Mark Schorer (later Chairman of the University of California, Berkeley English Department). They rented a cabin, writing Gothic and other horror stories and selling them\nto ''Weird Tales'' magazine. Derleth won a place on the O'Brien Roll of Honor for ''Five Alone'', published in ''Place of Hawks'', but was first found in ''Pagany'' magazine.\n\nAs a result of his early work on the ''Sac Prairie Saga'', Derleth was awarded the prestigious Guggenheim Fellowship; his sponsors were Helen C. White, Nobel Prize-winning novelist Sinclair Lewis and poet Edgar Lee Masters of ''Spoon River Anthology'' fame.\n\nIn the mid-1930s, Derleth organized a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local school board, served as a parole officer, organized a local men's club and a parent-teacher association. He also lectured in American regional literature at the University of Wisconsin and was a contributing editor of ''Outdoors Magazine''.\n\nWith longtime friend Donald Wandrei, Derleth in 1939 founded Arkham House. Its initial objective was to publish the works of H. P. Lovecraft, with whom Derleth had corresponded since his teenage years. At the same time, he began teaching a course in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin.\n\nIn 1941, he became literary editor of ''The Capital Times'' newspaper in Madison, a post he held until his resignation in 1960. His hobbies included fencing, swimming, chess, philately and comic-strips (Derleth reportedly deployed the funding from his Guggenheim Fellowship to bind his comic book collection, most recently valued in the millions of dollars, rather than to travel abroad as the award intended.). Derleth's true avocation, however, was hiking the terrain of his native Wisconsin lands, and observing and recording nature with an expert eye.\n\nDerleth once wrote of his writing methods, \"I write very swiftly, from 750,000 to a million words yearly, very little of it pulp material.\"\n\nIn 1948, he was elected president of the Associated Fantasy Publishers at the 6th World Science Fiction Convention in Toronto.\n\nHe was married April 6, 1953, to Sandra Evelyn Winters. They divorced six years later. Derleth retained custody of the couple's two children, April Rose and Walden William. April earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1977. She became majority stockholder, President, and CEO of Arkham House in 1994. She remained in that capacity until her death. She was known in the community as a naturalist and humanitarian. April died on March 21, 2011.\n\nIn 1960, Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called ''Hawk and Whippoorwill'', dedicated to poems of man and nature.\n\nDerleth died of a heart attack on July 4, 1971, and is buried in St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sauk City. The U.S. 12 bridge over the Wisconsin River is named in his honor.\n", "Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime.\n\n===The ''Sac Prairie Saga''===\nDerleth wrote an expansive series of novels, short stories, journals, poems, and other works about Sac Prairie (whose prototype is Sauk City). Derleth intended this series to comprise up to 50 novels telling the projected life-story of the region from the 19th century onwards, with analogies to Balzac's ''Human Comedy'' and Proust's ''Remembrance of Things Past''.\n\nThis, and other early work by Derleth, made him a well-known figure among the regional literary figures of his time: early Pulitzer Prize winners Hamlin Garland and Zona Gale, as well as Sinclair Lewis, the last both an admirer and critic of Derleth.\n\nAs Edward Wagenknecht wrote in ''Cavalcade of the American Novel'', \"What Mr. Derleth has that is lacking...in modern novelists generally, is a country. He belongs. He writes of a land and a people that are bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh. In his fictional world, there is a unity much deeper and more fundamental than anything that can be conferred by an ideology. It is clear, too, that he did not get the best, and most fictionally useful, part of his background material from research in the library; like Scott, in his Border novels, he gives, rather, the impression of having drunk it in with his mother's milk.\"\n\nJim Stephens, editor of ''An August Derleth Reader'', (1992), argues: \"what Derleth accomplished....was to gather a Wisconsin mythos which gave respect to the ancient fundament of our contemporary life.\"\n\nThe author inaugurated the ''Sac Prairie Saga'' with four novellas comprising ''Place of Hawks'', published by Loring & Mussey in 1935. At publication, ''The Detroit News'' wrote: \"Certainly with this book Mr. Derleth may be added to the American writers of distinction.\"\n\nDerleth's first novel, ''Still is the Summer Night'', was published two years later by the famous Charles Scribners' editor Maxwell Perkins, and was the second in his Sac Prairie Saga.\n\n''Village Year'', the first in a series of journals–meditations on nature, Midwestern village American life, and more–was published in 1941 to praise from ''The New York Times Book Review'': \"A book of instant sensitive responsiveness...recreates its scene with acuteness and beauty, and makes an unusual contribution to the Americana of the present day.\" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' observed that \"Derleth...deepens the value of his village setting by presenting in full the enduring natural background; with the people projected against this, the writing comes to have the quality of an old Flemish picture, humanity lively and amusing and loveable in the foreground and nature magnificent beyond.\" James Grey, writing in the ''St. Louis Dispatch'' concluded, \"Derleth has achieved a kind of prose equivalent of the ''Spoon River Anthology''.\"\n\nIn the same year, ''Evening in Spring'' was published by Charles Scribners & Sons. This work Derleth considered among his finest. What ''The Milwaukee Journal'' called \"this beautiful little love story\", is an autobiographical novel of first love beset by small-town religious bigotry. The work received critical praise: ''The New Yorker'' considered it a story told \"with tenderness and charm\", while the ''Chicago Tribune'' concluded: \"It's as though he turned back the pages of an old diary and told, with rekindled emotion, of the pangs of pain and the sharp, clear sweetness of a boy's first love.\" Helen Constance White, wrote in ''The Capital Times'' that it was \"...the best articulated, the most fully disciplined of his stories.\"\n\nThese were followed in 1943 with ''Shadow of Night'', a Scribners' novel of which ''The Chicago Sun'' wrote: \"Structurally it has the perfection of a carved jewel...A psychological novel of the first order, and an adventure tale that is unique and inspiriting.\"\n\nIn November 1945, however, Derleth's work was attacked by his one-time admirer and mentor, Sinclair Lewis. Writing in ''Esquire'', Lewis observed, \"It is a proof of Mr. Derleth's merit that he makes one want to make the journey and see his particular Avalon: The Wisconsin River shining among its islands, and the castles of Baron Pierneau and Hercules Dousman. He is a champion and a justification of regionalism. Yet he is also a burly, bounding, bustling, self-confident, opinionated, and highly-sweatered young man with faults so grievous that a melancholoy perusal of them may be of more value to apprentices than a study of his serious virtues. If he could ever be persuaded that he isn't half as good as he thinks he is, if he would learn the art of sitting still and using a blue pencil, he might become twice as good as he thinks he is–which would about rank him with Homer.\" Derleth good humoredly reprinted the criticism along with a photograph of himself sans sweater, on the back cover of his 1948 country journal: ''Village Daybook''.\n\nA lighter side to the ''Sac Prairie Saga'' is a series of quasi-autobiographical short stories known as the \"Gus Elker Stories\", amusing tales of country life that Peter Ruber, Derleth's last editor, said were \"...models of construction and...fused with some of the most memorable characters in American literature.\" Most were written between 1934 and the late 1940s, though the last, \"Tail of the Dog\", was published in 1959 and won the ''Scholastic Magazine'' short story award for the year. The series was collected and republished in ''Country Matters'' in 1996.\n\n''Walden West'', published in 1961, is considered by many Derleth's finest work. This prose meditation is built out of the same fundamental material as the series of Sac Prairie journals, but is organized around three themes: \"the persistence of memory...the sounds and odors of the country...and Thoreau's observation that the 'mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation.'\" A blend of nature writing, philosophic musings, and careful observation of the people and place of \"Sac Prairie.\" Of this work, George Vukelich, author of \"North Country Notebook\", writes: \"Derleth's ''Walden West'' is...the equal of Sherwood Anderson's ''Winesburg,Ohio'', Thornton Wilder's ''Our Town'', and Edgar Lee Masters' ''Spoon River Anthology''.\" This was followed eight years later by ''Return to Walden West'', a work of similar quality, but with a more noticeable environmentalist edge to the writing, notes critic Norbert Blei.\n\nA close literary relative of the ''Sac Prairie Saga'' was Derleth's ''Wisconsin Saga'', which comprises several historical novels.\n\n===Detective and mystery fiction===\nDetective fiction represented another substantial body of Derleth's work. Most notable among this work was a series of 70 stories in affectionate pastiche of Sherlock Holmes, whose creator, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, he admired greatly. These included one published novel as well (''Mr. Fairlie's Final Journey''). The series features a (Sherlock Holmes-styled) British detective named Solar Pons, of Praed Street in London. The series was greatly admired by such notable writers and critics of mystery and detective fiction as Ellery Queen (Frederic Dannay), Anthony Boucher, Vincent Starrett and Howard Haycraft.\n\nIn his 1944 volume ''The Misadventures of Sherlock Holmes'', Ellery Queen wrote of Derleth's ''The Norcross Riddle'', an early Pons story: \"How many budding authors, not even old enough to vote, could have captured the spirit and atmosphere with as much fidelity?\" Queen adds, \"...and his choice of the euphonic Solar Pons is an appealing addition to the fascinating lore of Sherlockian nomenclature.\" Vincent Starrett, in his foreword to the 1964 edition of ''The Casebook of Solar Pons'', wrote that the series is \"...as sparkling a galaxy of Sherlockian pastiches as we have had since the canonical entertainments came to an end.\"\n\nDespite close similarities to Doyle's creation, Pons lived in the post-World War I era, in the decade of the 1920s. Though Derleth never wrote a Pons novel to equal ''The Hound of the Baskervilles'', editor Peter Ruber wrote: \"...Derleth produced more than a few Solar Pons stories almost as good as Sir Arthur's, and many that had better plot construction.\"\n\nAlthough these stories were a form of diversion for Derleth, Ruber, who edited ''The Original Text Solar Pons Omnibus Edition'' (2000), argued: \"Because the stories were generally of such high quality, they ought to be assessed on their own merits as a unique contribution in the annals of mystery fiction, rather than suffering comparison as one of the endless imitators of Sherlock Holmes.\"\n\nSome of the stories were self-published, through a new imprint called \"Mycroft & Moran\", an appellation of humorous significance to Holmesian scholars. For approximately a decade, an active supporting group was the Praed Street Irregulars, patterned after the Baker Street Irregulars.\n\nIn 1946, Conan Doyle's two sons made some attempts to force Derleth to cease publishing the Solar Pons series, but the efforts were unsuccessful and eventually withdrawn.\n\nDerleth's mystery and detective fiction also included a series of works set in Sac Prairie and featuring Judge Peck as the central character.\n\n===Youth and children's fiction===\nDerleth wrote many and varied children's works, including biographies meant to introduce younger readers to explorer Fr. Marquette, as well as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. Arguably most important among his works for younger readers, however, is the Steve and Sim Mystery Series, also known as the Mill Creek Irregulars series. The ten-volume series, published between 1958 and 1970, is set in Sac Prairie of the 1920s and can thus be considered in its own right a part of the ''Sac Prairie Saga'', as well as an extension of Derleth's body of mystery fiction. Robert Hood, writing in the ''New York Times'' said: \"Steve and Sim, the major characters, are twentieth-century cousins of Huck Finn and Tom Sawyer; Derleth's minor characters, little gems of comic drawing.\" The first novel in the series, ''The Moon Tenders'', does, in fact, involve a rafting adventure down the Wisconsin River, which led regional writer Jesse Stuart to suggest the novel was one that \"older people might read to recapture the spirit and dream of youth.\" The connection to the ''Sac Prairie Saga'' was noted by the ''Chicago Tribune'': \"Once again a small midwest community in 1920s is depicted with perception, skill, and dry humor.\"\n\nDerleth's first Mythos story, \"Beyond the Threshold\" was featured on the cover of ''Weird Tales'' in September 1941\n\n===Arkham House and the \"Cthulhu Mythos\"===\nDerleth was a correspondent and friend of H. P. Lovecraft – when Lovecraft wrote about \"le Comte d'Erlette\" in his fiction, it was in homage to Derleth. Derleth invented the term \"Cthulhu Mythos\" to describe the fictional universe described in the series of stories shared by Lovecraft and other writers in his circle.\n\nWhen Lovecraft died in 1937, Derleth and Donald Wandrei assembled a collection of Lovecraft's stories and tried to get them published. Existing publishers showed little interest, so Derleth and Wandrei founded Arkham House in 1939 for that purpose. The name of the company derived from Lovecraft's fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts, which features in many of his stories. In 1939 Arkham House published ''The Outsider and Others'', a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's known short stories. Derleth and Wandrei soon expanded Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, ''Someone in the Dark'', a collection of some of Derleth's own horror stories, was published in 1941.\n\nFollowing Lovecraft's death, Derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by Lovecraft. These were published in ''Weird Tales'' and later in book form, under the byline \"H. P. Lovecraft and August Derleth\", with Derleth calling himself a \"posthumous collaborator.\" This practice has raised objections in some quarters that Derleth simply used Lovecraft's name to market what was essentially his own fiction; S. T. Joshi refers to the \"posthumous collaborations\" as marking the beginning of \"perhaps the most disreputable phase of Derleth's activities\".\n\nA significant number of H. P. Lovecraft fans and critics, such as Dirk W. Mosig, S. T. Joshi, and Richard L. Tierney were dissatisfied with Derleth's invention of the term ''Cthulhu Mythos'' (Lovecraft himself used ''Yog-Sothothery'') and his presentation of Lovecraft's fiction as having an overall pattern reflecting Derleth's own Christian world view, which they contrast with Lovecraft's depiction of an amoral universe. However Robert M. Price points out that while Derleth's tales are distinct from Lovecraft's in their use of hope and his depiction of a struggle between good and evil, nevertheless the basis of Derlerth's systemization are found in Lovecraft. He also suggests that the differences can be over stated:\n\nDerleth ''was'' more optimistic than Lovecraft in his conception of the Mythos, but we are dealing with a difference more of degree than kind. There are indeed tales wherein Derleth's protagonists get off scot-free (like \"The Shadow in the Attic\", \"Witches' Hollow\", or \"The Shuttered Room\"), but often the hero is doomed (e.g., \"The House in the Valley\", \"The Peabody Heritage\", \"Something in Wood\"), as in Lovecraft. And it must be remembered that an occasional Lovecraftian hero does manage to overcome the odds, e.g., in \"The Horror in the Museum\", \"The Shunned House\", and 'The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'. \n \n\nDerleth also treated Lovecraft's Old Ones as representatives of elemental forces, creating new fictional entities to flesh out this framework.\n\nSuch debates aside, Derleth's founding of Arkham House and his successful effort to rescue Lovecraft from literary obscurity are widely acknowledged by practitioners in the horror field as seminal events in the field. For instance, Ramsey Campbell has acknowledged Derleth's encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career, and Kirby McCauley has cited Derleth and Arkham House as an inspiration for his own anthology, ''Dark Forces''. Arkham House and Derleth published ''Dark Carnival'', the first book by Ray Bradbury, as well. Brian Lumley cites the importance of Derleth to his own Lovecraftian work, and contends in a 2009 introduction to Derleth's work that he was \"...one of the first, finest, and most discerning editors and publishers of macabre fiction.\"\n\nImportant as was Derleth's work to rescue H.P. Lovecraft from literary obscurity at the time of Lovecraft's death, Derleth also built a body of horror and spectral fiction of his own; still frequently anthologized. The best of this work, recently reprinted in four volumes of short stories–most of which were originally published in ''Weird Tales'', illustrates Derleth's original abilities in the genre. While Derleth considered his work in this genre less important than his most serious literary efforts, the compilers of these four anthologies, including Ramsey Campbell, note that the stories still resonate after more than fifty years.\n\nIn 2009, The Library of America selected Derleth's story ''The Panelled Room'' for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American Fantastic Tales.\n\n===Other works===\nDerleth also wrote many historical novels, as part of both the ''Sac Prairie Saga'' and the ''Wisconsin Saga''. He also wrote history; arguably most notable among these was ''The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles'', published in 1942. The work was one in a series entitled \"The Rivers of America\", conceived by writer Constance Lindsay Skinner in the Great Depression as a series that would connect Americans to their heritage through the history of the great rivers of the nation. Skinner wanted the series to be written by artists, not academicians. Derleth, while not a trained historian, was, according to former Wisconsin state historian William F. Thompson, \"...a very competent regional historian who based his historical writing upon research in the primary documents and who regularly sought the help of professionals... .\" In the foreword to the 1985 reissue of the work by The University of Wisconsin Press, Thompson concluded: \"No other writer, of whatever background or training, knew and understood his particular 'corner of the earth' better than August Derleth.\"\n\nDerleth wrote several volumes of poems, as well as biographies of Zona Gale, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.\n\nHe also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics, such as ''Buster Brown'', ''Little Nemo in Slumberland'', and ''Katzenjammer Kids'', as well as a book of children's poetry entitled ''A Boy's Way'', and the foreword to ''Tales from an Indian Lodge'' by ''Phebe Jewell Nichols.'' Derleth also wrote under the noms de plume Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason.\n\nDerleth's papers and comic book collection (valued at a considerable sum upon his death) were donated to the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison.\n", "\n===Novels===\n\n\n===Sac Prairie Saga===\n* ''Place of Hawks'' (1935)\n* ''Country Growth'' (1940)\n* ''Wisconsin Earth: A Sac Prairie Sampler'' (1948)\n* ''Sac Prairie People'' (1948)\n* ''Wisconsin in Their Bones'' (1961)\n* ''Country Matters'' (1996)\n* ''Return to Sac Prairie'' (1996)\n* ''The Lost Sac Prairie Novels'' (2000), including ''The Odyssey of Janna Meade'' (first published in the ''Star Weekly'' magazine December 3, 1949); ''The Wind in the Cedars'' (also as ''Happiness Shall Not Escape'') (first published in Redbook Magazine, January 1946), ''Lamplight for the Dark'' (first published in Redbook Magazine January 1941); ''Shane's Girls'' (also as ''Happiness is a Gift'') (first published in Redbook Magazine 1948)\n\n===Solar Pons===\n* ''\"In Re: Sherlock Holmes\" – The Adventures of Solar Pons'' (UK: ''The Adventures of Solar Pons'') (1945)\n* ''The Memoirs of Solar Pons'' (1951)\n* ''Three Problems for Solar Pons'' (1952)\n* ''The Return of Solar Pons'' (1958)\n* ''The Reminiscences of Solar Pons'' (1961)\n* ''Mr. Fairlie's Final Journey'' (1968)\n* ''The Casebook of Solar Pons'' (1965)\n* ''A Praed Street Dossier'' (1968)\n* ''The Chronicles of Solar Pons'' (1973)\n* ''The Solar Pons Omnibus'' (1982)\n* ''The Final Adventures of Solar Pons'' (1998)\n\n''' Horror & Lovecraft-Mythos'''\n* ''Someone in the Dark'' (1941)\n* ''Something Near'' (1945)\n* ''Not Long for this World'' (1948)\n* ''The Survivor and Others'' (1957) with H. P. Lovecraft\n* ''The Mask of Cthulhu'' (1958)\n* ''Lonesome Places'' (1962)\n* ''The Trail of Cthulhu'' (1962)\n* ''Mr. George and Other Odd Persons'' (1963) as Stephen Grendon\n* ''Colonel Markesan and Less Pleasant People'' (1966) with Mark Schorer\n* ''The Watchers Out of Time and Others'' (1974) with H. P. Lovecraft\n* ''Dwellers in Darkness'' (1976)\n* ''In Lovecraft's Shadow'' (1998)\n* ''Who Shall I Say is Calling & Other Stories'' S. Deziemianowicz, ed. (2009)\n* ''The Sleepers and Other Wakeful Things''(2009)\n* ''August Derleth's Eerie Creatures'' (2009)\n* ''That Is Not Dead: The Black Magic & Occult Stories by August Derleth'' (2009)\n\n'''Science fiction'''\n* ''Harrigan's File'' (1975)\n\n'''Other'''\n* ''Consider Your Verdict'' (1937) as Tally Mason\n\n===Short fiction===\nDerleth's novelette \"The Seal of the Damned\" was the cover story in the July 1957 issue of ''Fantastic Universe'', illustrated by Virgil Finlay\n\n\n===Journals (Sac Prairie Saga)===\n* ''Atmosphere of Houses'' (1939)\n* ''Village Year: A Sac Prairie Journal'' (1941)\n* ''Village Daybook'' (1947)\n* ''Countryman's Journal'' (1963)\n* ''Walden West'' (1961)\n* ''Wisconsin Country: A Sac Prairie Journal'' (1965)\n* ''Return to Walden West'' (1970)\n\n===Poems===\n* Incubus (1934)\n* Omega (1934)\n* To a Spaceship (1934)\n* Man and the Cosmos (1935)\n* \"Only Deserted\" (1937)\n* The Shores of Night (1947)\n* Providence: Two Gentlemen Meet at Midnight (1948)\n* Jacksnipe Over (1971)\n* Something Left Behind (1971)\n\n===Poetry collections===\n\n\n===Essays/articles===\n\n\n===Biography===\n* ''Still Small Voice'' (1940) – biography of newspaperwoman and writer Zona Gale\n* ''H.P.L.: A Memoir'' (1945)\n* ''Some Notes on H. P. Lovecraft'' (1959)\n* ''Concord Rebel: A Life of Henry D. Thoreau'' (1962)\n* ''Emerson, Our Contemporary'' (1970)\n\n===History===\n* ''The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles'' (1942)\n* ''The Milwaukee Road: Its First Hundred Years'' (1948)\n* ''Saint Ignatius and the Company of Jesus'' (1956)\n* ''Columbus and the New World'' (1957)\n* ''Father Marquette and the Great Rivers'' (1959)\n* ''Wisconsin Murders'' (1968)\n\n===Anthologies===\n\n\n====As Stephen Grendon====\n\n\n====With H. P. Lovecraft====\n\n\n====With Marc R. Schorer====\n\n\n====Other collaborations====\n* The Churchyard Yew (1947) as Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu\n* The Adventure of the Snitch in Time (1953) with Mack Reynolds\n* The Adventure of the Ball of Nostradamus (1955) with Mack Reynolds\n* The House in the Oaks (1971) with Robert E. Howard\n\n====Media adaptations====\n* \"The Metronome\" – ''The Unforeseen'' (TV,1960)\n* \"The Incredible Doctor Markesan\" – ''Thriller'' (TV, 1962)\n* \"House – with Ghost\" – ''Night Gallery'' (TV, 1971)\n* \"The Dark Boy\" – ''Night Gallery'' (TV, 1971)\n* \"Logoda's Head\" – ''Night Gallery'' (TV, 1971)\n\n\n====Awards====\n* O'Brien Roll of Honour for short story, 1933\n* Guggenheim fellow, 1938\n", "\n* August Derleth Award\n* List of authors of new Sherlock Holmes stories\n* List of horror fiction authors\n* List of people from Wisconsin\n* Mark Schorer\n* Sherlock Holmes pastiches\n* Sauk City, Wisconsin\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Meudt, Edna. 'August Derleth: \"A simple, honorable man\",' ''Wisconsin Academy Review'', 19:2 (Summer, 1972) 8–11.\n* \n* \n* Schorer, Mark. \"An Appraisal of the Work of August Derleth\", ''The Capital Times'', July 9, 1971.\n* \n", "* Robert Bloch. \"Two Great Editors\". ''Is'' No 4 (Oct 1971). Reprint in Bloch's ''Out of My Head.'' Cambridge MA: NESFA Press, 1986, 71-79.\n* Lin Carter. \"A Day in Derleth Country\". ''Is'' No 4 (Oct 1971). Reprint in ''Crypt of Cthulhu'' 1, No 6.\n* John Howard. \"The Ghosts of Sauk County\". ''All Hallows'' 18 (1998); in Howard's ''Touchstones: Essays on the Fantastic''. Staffordshire UK: Alchemy Press, 2014.\n", "* The August Derleth Society\n* A short autobiography\n* A more detailed biography\n* Arkham House Publishers founded by Derleth\n* Stanton & Lee Publishers founded by Derleth\n* August Derleth Bibliography\n;Works\n* \n* \n* \n* Online catalog of Derleth's collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society\n* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Career", "Bibliography", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	August Derleth
[ "\n\n\n\nBelledonne massif (France)\n\nThe '''Alps''' (; ; ; ; ; ) are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries: Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn. Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres (just over 13,000 feet).\n\nThe altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe; in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of , and plants such as Edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era. A mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991.\n\nBy the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established. Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800, Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular the Romantics, followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks. In World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war.\n\nThe Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. The traditional culture of farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still exists in Alpine villages, although the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded greatly after World War II to become the dominant industry by the end of the century. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. At present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors.\n", "\nAn \"Alp\" refers to a high mountain pasture, often with a structure, such as this one on the south side of the Alps, where cows are taken for grazing.\nThe English word ''Alps'' derives from the Latin ''Alpes'' (through French). Maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary (''A.'' X 13) that all high mountains are called ''Alpes'' by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from ''alp''.\n\nThis may be consistent with the theory that in Greek ''Alpes'' is a name of non-Indo-European origin (which is common for prominent mountains and mountain ranges in the Mediterranean region). According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin ''Alpes'' might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word ''alb'' \"hill\"; \"Albania\" is a related derivation. Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, \"Albania\" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English languages \"Albania\" (or \"Albany\") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland, although many scholars point out this is more likely derived from the Latin ''albus'', the color white.\n\nIn modern languages the term ''alp'', ''alm'', ''albe'' or ''alpe'' refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An ''alp'' refers to a high mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found, and the term \"the Alps\", referring to the mountains, is a misnomer. The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as ''Horn'', ''Kogel'', ''Kopf'', ''Gipfel'', ''Spitze'', ''Stock'', and ''Berg'' are used in German speaking regions; ''Mont'', ''Pic'', ''Tête'', ''Pointe'', ''Dent'', ''Roche'', and ''Aiguille'' in French speaking regions; and ''Monte'', ''Picco'', ''Corno'', ''Punta'', ''Pizzo'', or ''Cima'' in Italian speaking regions.\n", "\nThe Alps extend in an arc from France in the south and west to Slovenia in the east, and from Monaco in the south to Germany in the north.\n\nThe Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a arc from east to west and is in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is . The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany. In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Allgäu, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear. The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Switzerland, France, Austria and Italy.\n\nThe highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhone valley, with the Pennine Alps from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.\n\nThe variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps makes classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid, near the Splügen Pass.\n\nThe highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at and Piz Bernina at . The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at and Ortler at , respectively\n\nSeries of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.\n", "''Teufelsbrücke'' (Devil's Bridge) at the Gotthard Pass; the currently used bridge from 1958 over the first drivable bridge from 1830.\n\n\nThe Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train or foot are known as ''passes'', and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones. In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes. The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, the Simplon Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.\nCrossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at , the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of , the Great St. Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800. \nThe col du Mont-Cenis (2081m) at the centre left of the picture gives access to a large alpine lake, and further away to the Italian peninsula 10 kilometres beyond the pass.\nThe Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From Constantine I, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV, Napoléon and more recently the German Gebirgsjägers during World War II.\nNow the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Road (opened 1980) and Rail Tunnel (opened 1871).\n\nThe Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in 1882 the long Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel ( long) connecting the A2 motorway in Göschenen on the German-Swiss side with Airolo on the Italian-Swiss side, exactly like the railway tunnel. On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel was opened, which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of . It is the first tunnel, which traverses the Alps on ground level. From 11 December 2016 it will be part of the official railway timetable for 2017 and be used hourly as standard way to ride between Basel/Luzern/Zurich and Bellinzona/Lugano/Milano.\n\nThe highest pass in the alps is the col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at , followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at ; the road was built in the 1820s.\n", "\n\nImportant geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century the now defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of \"folded\" mountain chains but by the mid-20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted.\n\nfolding seen at the Arpanaz waterfall, shown here in a mid-18th century drawing, was noted by 18th-century geologists.\n\nThe formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago. In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period. The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process, caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates that began in the late Cretaceous Period.\n\nUnder extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or ''nappes'', and thrust faults. As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse. The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.\nThe crystalline basement of the Mont Blanc Massif\n\nThe Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains. A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions. The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structure according to the orogenic events that affected them. The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.\n\nCompressed metamorphosed Tethyan sediments and their oceanic basement are sandwiched between the tip of the Matterhorn, which consists of gneisses originally part of the African plate, and the base of the peak, which is part of the Eurasian plate.\n\nAccording to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations. Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.\n\nPeaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the \"Houillière zone\", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era. High \"massifs\" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs. Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.\n\nIn simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African and oceanic (Tethyan) origin. The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate. The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.\nHaute Maurienne (Ambin and Vanoise massifs) and its exposed crystalline basement made of high-pressure subduction rocks such as blueschist and metaquartzite (picture taken at 2400 metres)\nThe core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas. Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.\n", "\nThe Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 \"official\" Alpine summits that reach at least . The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 22 \"four-thousanders\" with at least of prominence.\n\nWhile Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century; the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.\n\nThe first British Mont Blanc ascent was in 1788; the first female ascent in 1819. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger ''Nordwand'' (north face of the Eiger).\n\n\n+ The 22 Alpine four-thousanders with at least 500 metres of topographic prominence\n Name\n Height\n Range\n Name\n Height\n Range\n\n Mont Blanc\n \n Graian Alps\n Dent d'Hérens\n \n Pennine Alps\n\n Monte Rosa\n \n Pennine Alps\n Jungfrau\n \n Bernese Alps\n\n Dom\n \n Pennine Alps\n Aiguille Verte\n \n Graian Alps\n\n Weisshorn\n \n Pennine Alps\n Mönch\n \n Bernese Alps\n\n Matterhorn\n \n Pennine Alps\n Barre des Écrins\n \n Dauphiné Alps\n\n Dent Blanche\n \n Pennine Alps\n Schreckhorn\n \n Bernese Alps\n\n Grand Combin\n \n Pennine Alps\n Ober Gabelhorn\n \n Pennine Alps\n\n Finsteraarhorn\n \n Bernese Alps\n Gran Paradiso\n \n Graian Alps\n\n Grandes Jorasses\n \n Graian Alps\n Piz Bernina\n \n Bernina Range\n\n Rimpfischhorn\n \n Pennine Alps\n Weissmies\n \n Pennine Alps\n\n Aletschhorn\n \n Bernese Alps\n Lagginhorn\n \n Pennine Alps\n\n\n\n", "The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals are found throughout much of the Alpine region such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.\n\nAlpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years, and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.\n", "\nIn the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation, which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the \"father of the ice-age concept\" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.\n\nLouis Agassiz's studies of the Unteraar Glacier in the 1840s showed that it moved at per year.\n\nAgassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.\n\nGlaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages. Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys. Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre and the terminus of glaciers.\n\nInside a glacier at the top of the train station at the Jungfraujoch\n\nAlpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which cause the greatest danger to mountaineers.\n\nGlaciers end in ice caves (the Rhone Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage and loss of life. In the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French-Italian border; in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche.\n\nHigh levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the level. The of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels. Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.\n", "St. Bartholomew's chapel on the Königssee in Bavaria is a popular tourist destination.\n\nThe Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power. Although the area is only about 11 percent of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90 percent of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff. Water from the rivers is used in over 500 hydroelectricity power plants, generating as much as 2900 GWh of electricity.\n\nMajor European rivers flow from Switzerland, such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, the Ticino and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps. The Rhone is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants. The Rhine originates in a 30 square kilometre area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 percent of water exported from the country. Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snow melt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.\n\nThe rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.\n\nScientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.\n", "\n\nThe Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain. The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.\n\nThe Aletsch Glacier with pine trees growing on the hillside (2007, the surface is lower than 150 years ago)\n\nThe severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists. Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.\n\nThe areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff. The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of per year to per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between , snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from , above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.\n\nThe Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between , depending on the location. The montane zone extends from , followed by the sub-Alpine zone from . The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.\n\nVarious models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff. Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations.\n", "\n=== Flora ===\n\n\nStemless gentian (''Gentiana acaulis'')\n\nThirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions. Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges. A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to , sometimes even to .\n\nAbove the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (''Pinus mugo''), which is in turn superseded by ''Alpenrosen'', dwarf shrubs, typically ''Rhododendron ferrugineum'' (on acid soils) or ''Rhododendron hirsutum'' (on alkaline soils). Although the Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region. Above the tree line is the area defined as \"alpine\" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.\n\nLeontopodium alpinum'')\n\nAlpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of . Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as \"darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom.\" Gentians tend to \"appear\" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer.\n\nAt these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above , including ''Ranunculus glacialis'', ''Androsace alpina'' and ''Saxifraga biflora''. ''Eritrichium nanum'', commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at . Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as and as high as . The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.\n\nThe extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.\nPreserved internal alpine forest and meadow, Vanoise National Park\nHuman interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries. The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural ''piste'' type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.\n\n=== Fauna ===\nThe Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.\n\nYoung alpine ibex. When fully grown its horns will be about one metre wide.\n\nThe largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as . The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses. Classified as antelopes, chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range. Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.\n\nMany rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as . They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth, and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures. Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of . The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination.\n\nThe alpine Apollo butterfly has adapted to alpine conditions.\n\nReptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges. The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line. Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.\n\nA number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as . The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to . Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is ''Rosalia alpina''. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as . Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.\n\nSome of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.\n", "\n\n=== Prehistory to Christianity ===\nPre-historic petroglyphs from Valcamonica\n\nAbout 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Palaeolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.\n\nIn 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death – an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder – suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named ''K1ö'' for ''Ötzi''.\n\nCeltic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 and 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewellery. The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned, and skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.\n\nDuring the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.\n\nChâteau de Chillon, an early medieval castle on the north shore of Lake Geneva, is shown here against the backdrop of the Dents du Midi\n\nThe Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.\n\n=== Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars ===\nChristianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.\n\nMuch of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighbouring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.\n\nRussian troops under Suvorov crossing the Alps in 1799\nDuring the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.\nBuilt from 1300 to 1500 metres high on a rock of quartzite and surrounded by deep cliffs, those forts prevented any invasion\nAfter the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombards. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte.\nThe Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.\n\nIn the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travellers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the centre of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travellers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.\n\n=== Exploration ===\n\n''The first ascent of the Matterhorn'' (1865), lithograph by Gustave Doré\n\nRadiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the ''Drachloch'' (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.\n\nCharles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as \"horrifying and terrifying.\" Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a \"blue like that of a gentian\" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.\n\nConrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the \"theatre of the Lord\". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.\n\n=== The Romantics ===\n''Wanderer above the Sea of Fog'', Caspar David Friedrich (1818) \nAlbrecht von Haller's poem ''Die Alpen'' (1732) described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was another writer who presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel ''Julie, or the New Heloise'' (1761), Later the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in ''The Prelude'' (1799). Schiller later wrote the play ''William Tell'' (1804), which tells the story the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.\n\nIn 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem \"Mont Blanc\", Byron wrote \"The Prisoner of Chillon\" and the dramatic poem ''Manfred'', and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel ''Frankenstein'' in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself \"Atheos\" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, \"Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders\".\n\nBy the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.\n\n=== The Nazis ===\nThe Nazis hid looted art in salt mines at Altaussee, such as the Early Netherlandish ''Ghent Altarpiece'' which sustained significant damage.\n\nAustrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.\n\nBy 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to avoid invasion. The Swiss Confederation mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of \"armed neutrality\" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country with explosives, and threatened to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and roads across passes in the event of a Nazi invasion; and if there was an invasion the Swiss army would then retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks, where conditions were harsher, and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.\n\nGerman Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945. At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.\n\n", "\nThe population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries. On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus and the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and in the mountains farming is still essential to the economy. Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.\n\nHallstatt is known for its production of salt, dating back to prehistoric times.\nMuch of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and in the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking and pastry-making, and cheesemaking.\n\nFarming had been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers. Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes («coming down from the alps») is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.\n\nIn the summers the cows are brought up to the high mountain meadows for grazing. Small summer villages such as this one shown in this photograph taken in Savoie are used.\n\nCheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to , and the Beaufort in Savoy can weight up to . Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion in relation to the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages which has become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that usually scythes are necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days. Alpine festivals vary from country to country and often include the display of local costumes such as dirndl and trachten, the playing of Alpenhorns, wrestling matches, some pagan traditions such as Walpurgis Night and, in many areas, Carnival is celebrated before Lent.\n\nIn the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the ''stube'', the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill, and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.\nHerding sheep in Austria\n\nFood is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served in a traditional manner on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.\nAlpine chalet being built in Haute-Maurienne (Savoy), the use of thick pieces of orthogneiss (4–7 cm) is in accordance with the strict architural regulations in the region bordering the national parks of Vanoise-Grand Paradis.\nRoofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called \"tavaillon\".\nThe Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common, and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the French dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Old Provençal; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages. Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.\n", "\nSpeikboden, South Tyrol\n\nThe Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component.\n\nThe tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.\n\nKarl Schranz running the Lauberhorn in 1966\n\nIn the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the ''Lauberhorn Rennen'' (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at and poses danger to racers who reach within seconds of leaving the start gate.\n\nDuring the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.\n", "Zentralbahn Interregio train following the Lake Brienz shoreline, near Niederried in Switzerland.\n\nThe region is serviced by of roads used by 6 million vehicles. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance of track for every in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. On 2007 the new Lötschberg Base Tunnel has been opened, which circumvents the 100 years older Lötschberg Tunnel. With the opening of the Gotthard Base Tunnel on 1 June 2016 it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps.\n\nSome high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Chamois (in Italy), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.\n\nThe lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A number of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.\n\n", "\n\n=== References ===\n\n\n'''Works cited'''\n\n Allaby, Michael et al. ''The Encyclopedia of Earth''. (2008). Berkeley: University of California Press. \n* Beattie, Andrew. (2006). ''The Alps: A Cultural History''. New York: Oxford University Press. \n* Benniston, Martin, et al. (2011). \"Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps\". ''Environmental Science and Policy''. Volume 30. 1–9\n* Cebon, Peter, et al. (1998). ''Views from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change''. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. \n* Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010). ''The Alps: People and Pressures in the Mountains, the Facts at a Glance''. Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention (alpconv.org). Retrieved August 4, 2012. \n* De Graciansky, Pierre-Charles et al. (2011). ''The Western Alps, From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt''. Amsterdam: Elsevier. \n* Feuer, A.B. (2006). ''Packs On!: Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II''. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. \n* Fleming, Fergus. (2000). ''Killing Dragons: The Conquest of the Alps''. New York: Grove. \n* Gerrard, AJ. (1990) ''Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains''. Boston: MIT Press. \n* Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). ''Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II''. Rockville Center, NY: Sarpedon. \n* Halbrook, Stephen P. (2006). ''The Swiss and the Nazis: How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich''. Havertown, PA: Casemate. \n* Hudson, Simon. (2000). ''Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry''. New York: Cengage \n* \n* Körner, Christian. (2003). ''Alpine Plant Life''. New York: Springer Verlag. \n* Lancel, Serge. (1999). ''Hannibal''. Oxford: Blackwell. \n* Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). ''Hitler's Mountain''. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. \n* Prevas, John. (2001). ''Hannibal Crosses The Alps: The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars''. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. \n* Reynolds, Kev. (2012) ''The Swiss Alps''. Cicerone Press. \n* Roth, Philipe. (2007). ''Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland''. Lausanne, CH: Museum of Geology. \n* Schmid, Stefan M. (2004). \"Regional tectonics: from the Rhine graben to the Po plain, a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands\". Basel: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut\n* Sharp, Hilary. (2002). ''Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps''. London: New Holland. \n* Schmid, Stefan M.et al. (2004). \" Tectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen\". ''Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae''. Volume 97. 93–117\n* Shoumatoff, Nicholas and Nina. (2001). ''The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart''. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. \n* Viazzo, Pier Paolo. (1980). ''Upland Communities: Environment, Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. \n\n", "\n* 17, 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps, taken on 31 August 2005 by MODIS aboard Terra\n* Official website of the Alpine Space Programme This EU co-funded programme co-finances transnational projects in the Alpine region\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Etymology and toponymy ", " Geography ", " Passes ", " Orogeny and geology ", " \"Four-thousanders\" and ascents ", " Minerals ", " Glaciers ", " Rivers and lakes ", " Climate ", " Ecology ", " History ", " Alpine people and culture ", " Tourism ", " Transportation ", "Notes ", " External links " ]	Alps
[ "\n\n\n'''Albert Camus''' (; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, and journalist. His views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism. He wrote in his essay ''The Rebel'' that his whole life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957.\n\nCamus did not consider himself to be an existentialist despite usually being classified as a follower of it, even in his lifetime. In a 1945 interview, Camus rejected any ideological associations: \"No, I am not an existentialist. Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked.\"\n\nCamus was born in French Algeria to a ''Pied-Noir'' family and studied at the University of Algiers, from which he graduated in 1936. In 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons to \"denounce two ideologies found in both the USSR and the USA\".\n", "\n===Early years===\nAlbert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Dréan (then known as Mondovi) in French Algeria. His mother was of Spanish descent and could only hear out of her left ear. His father, Lucien, a poor agricultural worker of Alsatian descent, was wounded in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during World War I, while serving as a member of a Zouave infantry regiment. Lucien died from his wounds in a makeshift army hospital on 11 October. Camus and his mother, an illiterate house cleaner, lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers.\n\nIn 1923, Camus was accepted into the and eventually was admitted to the University of Algiers. After he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, he had to end his football activities; he had been a goalkeeper for a prominent Algerian university team. In addition, he was only able to study part-time. To earn money, he took odd jobs: as a private tutor, car parts clerk, and assistant at the Meteorological Institute. He completed his ''licence de philosophie'' (BA) in 1936; in May 1936, he successfully presented his thesis on Plotinus, \"Rapports de l'hellénisme et du christianisme à travers les oeuvres de Plotin et de saint Augustin\" (\"Relationship of Greek and Christian thought in Plotinus and St. Augustine\"), for his '''' (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis).\n\nCamus joined the French Communist Party in early 1935, seeing it as a way to \"fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria.\" He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read ''Das Kapital'', but did write, \"We might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities.\" In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian People's Party (''Le Parti du Peuple Algérien''), which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades, who in 1937 denounced him as a Trotskyite and expelled him from the party. Camus then became associated with the French anarchist movement.\n\nThe anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the ''Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes'' (Anarchist Student Circle) as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as ''Le Libertaire'', ''La révolution Prolétarienne'', and ''Solidaridad Obrera'' (Workers' Solidarity), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT (National Confederation of Labor). Camus stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany. He again allied with the anarchists in 1956, first in support of the workers' uprising in Poznań, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution.\n\nCamus was an agnostic. “I do not believe in God and I am not an atheist.” ~Notebooks 1951-1959.\n\n===Marriage===\nMadame Francine Camus.Albert Camus with his twins Jean and Catherine.\nIn 1934, Camus married Simone Hié, but the marriage ended as a consequence of infidelities on both sides. In 1935, he founded ''Théâtre du Travail'' (Worker's Theatre), renamed ''Théâtre de l'Equipe'' (Theatre of the Team) in 1937. It lasted until 1939. From 1937 to 1939 he wrote for a socialist paper, ''Alger-Républicain''. His work included a report on the poor conditions for peasants in Kabylie, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, ''Soir-Republicain''. He was rejected by the French army because of his tuberculosis.\n\nIn 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Although he loved her, he had argued passionately against the institution of marriage, dismissing it as unnatural. Even after Francine gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, on 5 September 1945, he continued to joke to friends that he was not cut out for marriage. Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares. In the same year, Camus began to work for ''Paris-Soir'' magazine. In the first stage of World War II, during the so-called Phoney War, Camus was a pacifist. While in Lyon during the Wehrmacht occupation, on 15 December 1941, Camus read about the Paris execution of Gabriel Péri; it crystallized his revolt against the Germans. He moved to Bordeaux with the rest of the staff of ''Paris-Soir''. In the same year he finished his first books, ''The Stranger'' and ''The Myth of Sisyphus''. He returned briefly to Oran, Algeria, in 1942.\n\n===Football===\nCamus was once asked by his friend Charles Poncet which he preferred, football or the theatre. Camus is said to have replied, \"Football, without hesitation.\"\n\nCamus played as goalkeeper for Racing Universitaire d'Alger (RUA won both the North African Champions Cup and the North African Cup twice each in the 1930s) junior team from 1928 to 1930. The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to Camus enormously. In match reports Camus would often attract positive comment for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis at the age of 17. The affliction, which was then incurable, caused Camus to be bedridden for long and painful periods.\n\nWhen Camus was asked in the 1950s by an alumni sports magazine for a few words regarding his time with the RUA, his response included the following: \"After many years during which I saw many things, what I know most surely about morality and the duty of man I owe to sport and learned it in the RUA.\" Camus was referring to a sort of simplistic morality he wrote about in his early essays, the principle of sticking up for your friends, of valuing bravery and fair-play. Camus's belief was that political and religious authorities try to confuse us with over-complicated moral systems to make things appear more complex than they really are, potentially to serve their own needs.\n\nA professional footballer appears as a character in ''The Plague'' and football is discussed in the dialogue.\n\n===Revolutionary Union Movement and Europe===\nAs he wrote in ''L'Homme révolté'' (''The Rebel''), in the chapter about \"The Thought on Midday\", Camus was a follower of the ancient Greek 'Solar Tradition' (la ''pensée solaire''). In 1947–48, he founded the Revolutionary Union Movement (''Groupes de liaison internationale'' – GLI) a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism (''Syndicalisme révolutionnaire''). According to Olivier Todd, in his biography ''Albert Camus, une vie'', it was a group opposed to some tendencies of the Surrealist movement of André Breton. For more, see the book ''Alfred Rosmer et le mouvement révolutionnaire international'' by Christian Gras.\n\nHis colleagues were Nicolas Lazarévitch, Louis Mercier, Roger Lapeyre, Paul Chauvet, Auguste Largentier, Jean de Boë (see the article: \"Nicolas Lazarévitch, Itinéraire d'un syndicaliste révolutionnaire\" by Sylvain Boulouque in the review ''Communisme'', n° 61, 2000). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton.\n\nFrom 1943, Albert Camus had correspondence with Altiero Spinelli who founded the European Federalist Movement in Milan—see Ventotene Manifesto and the book \"Unire l'Europa, superare gli stati\", Altiero Spinelli nel Partito d'Azione del Nord Italia e in Francia dal 1944 al 1945-annexed a letter by Altiero Spinelli to Albert Camus.\n\nIn 1944, Camus founded the \"French Committee for the European Federation\" (''Comité Français pour la Féderation Européenne'' – CFFE) declaring that Europe \"can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy and peace if the nation states become a federation.\"\n\nFrom 22 to 25 March 1945, the first conference of the European Federalist Movement was organised in Paris with the participation of Albert Camus, George Orwell, Emmanuel Mounier, Lewis Mumford, André Philip, Daniel Mayer, François Bondy and Altiero Spinelli. This specific branch of the European Federalist Movement disintegrated in 1957 after Winston Churchill's ideas about European integration rose to dominance.\n\n===Death===\nCamus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near Sens, in Le Grand Fossard in the small town of Villeblevin. In his coat pocket was an unused train ticket. He had planned to travel by train with his wife and children, but at the last minute he accepted his publisher's proposal to travel with him.\nAlbert Camus's gravestone\nThe driver of the Facel Vega HK500 car, , who was Camus's publisher and close friend, died five days after the accident. In August 2011, the Milan newspaper ''Corriere della Sera'' reported a theory that the writer had been the victim of a Soviet plot, but Camus's biographer, , did not consider it credible. Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Lourmarin, Vaucluse, France.\n\nHe was the second-youngest recipient, at the age of 44, of the Nobel Prize in Literature, after Rudyard Kipling, at the age of 42.\n\nHe was survived by his wife and twin son and daughter, Jean and Catherine, who hold the copyrights to his work.\n\nTwo of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first, entitled ''A Happy Death'' (1970), featured a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to ''The Stranger''s Meursault. There is scholarly debate as to the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, ''The First Man'' (1995), which Camus was writing before he died. The novel was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria.\n", "The first publication of Camus (co-written by Jeanne-Paule Sicard, Yves Bourgeois and Alfred Poignant, and edited by Edmond Charlot) was Revolte dans les Asturies in May 1936. This concerned a revolt by Spanish miners brutally suppressed by the Spanish government. In May 1937 he wrote his first book L’Envers et l’Endroit – dedicated to Jean Grenier and edited by Charlot.\n \nDuring the war Camus joined the French Resistance cell ''Combat'', which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the ''nom de guerre'' ''Beauchard''. Camus became the paper's editor in 1943. He first met Sartre at the dress rehearsal of Sartre's play, ''The Flies'', in June 1943.\n\nWhen the Allies liberated Paris in August 1944, Camus witnessed and reported the last of the fighting. Soon after the event on 6 August 1945, he was one of the few French editors to publicly express opposition and disgust to the United States' dropping the atomic bombs on Japan. He resigned from ''Combat'' in 1947 when it became a commercial paper. After the war, Camus began frequenting the Café de Flore on the Boulevard Saint-Germain in Paris with Sartre and others. He also toured the United States to lecture about French thought. Although he leaned left, politically, his strong criticisms of Communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the Communist parties and eventually alienated Sartre.\n\nIn 1949, his tuberculosis returned, whereupon he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951, he published ''The Rebel'', a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which expressed his rejection of communism. Upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France, the book brought about the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed Camus; he began to translate plays.\n\nCamus's first significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd. He saw it as the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he expressed in ''The Myth of Sisyphus'' and incorporated into many of his other works, such as ''The Stranger'' and ''The Plague''. Despite his split from his \"study partner\", Sartre, Camus was still categorized as an Existentialist. He specifically rejected that label in his essay \"Enigma\" and elsewhere. The current confusion arises, in part, because many recent applications of existentialism have much in common with many of Camus's ''practical'' ideas (see: ''Resistance, Rebellion, and Death''). But, his personal understanding of the world (e.g., \"a benign indifference\", in ''The Stranger''), and every vision he had for its progress (e.g., vanquishing the \"adolescent furies\" of history and society, in ''The Rebel'') undoubtedly set him apart.\n\nIn the 1950s, Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952, he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain as a member under the leadership of General Franco. In 1953, he criticized Soviet methods to crush a workers' strike in East Berlin. In 1956, he protested against similar methods in Poland (protests in Poznań) and the Soviet repression of the Hungarian revolution in October.\nLucia on December 13, 1957, three days after accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature\n\nCamus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world. He wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment. He was consistent in his call for non-aggression in Algeria (see below).\n\nFrom 1955 to 1956, Camus wrote for ''L'Express''. In 1957, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature \"for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times\".\n\n\nThe bronze plaque on the monument to Camus in the town of Villeblevin, France. It reads: \"From the General Council of the Yonne Department, in homage to the writer Albert Camus whose remains lay in vigil at the Villeblevin town hall on the night of 4 to 5 January 1960.\"\n\nCamus remained active and ambitious until the end of his life. Financed by the money he received with his Nobel Prize, he adapted and directed for the stage Dostoyesvsky's Demons. The play opened in January 1959 at the Antoine Theatre in Paris. It was a critical success as well as an artistic and technical tour de force: 33 actors, 4 hours long, 7 sets, 24 scenes. The walls could move sideways to reduce the size of each depicted location and the whole stage rotated to allow for immediate set transformations. Camus put the painter and set decorator Mayo, who had already illustrated several of Camus' novels (''The Stranger'' - 1948 Ed.), in charge of the demanding task of designing these multiple and complex theater sets.\n", "The monument to Camus built in Villeblevin, where he died in a car crash on 4 January 1960.\n\nCamus once confided that the troubles in Algeria \"affected him as others feel pain in their lungs. \"\n\nIn the 1930s, Camus was affiliated with Left-wing groups like the ''Maison de Culture'' in Algiers which were highly critical of the French colonial regime's treatment of Algeria's Arab and indigenous inhabitants, supporting the Blum-Viollette proposal to grant Algerians full French citizenship. His 1938 address on \"The New Mediterranean Culture\" represents Camus' most systematic statement on his views at this time. In 1939, Camus wrote a stinging series of articles for ''Alger Republicain'' on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the Kabylie highlands, advocating for economic, educational and political reforms as a matter of emergency.\n\nIn 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arab revolts against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony, again writing a series of article reports on conditions, and advocating for French concessions and reforms to the demands of the Algerian people.\n\nWhen the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the ''Pieds-Noirs'' such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued that the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States'. Although favoring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed that the ''Pieds-Noirs'' and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides, who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty.\n\nWhen he spoke to students at the University of Stockholm, he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question; he stated that he was worried about what might happen to his mother, who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals. At the time of his death, Camus was working on an incomplete novel with a strong biographical component titled ''The First Man.'' The publication of this book in 1994 has sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus' allegedly unrepentant colonialism in the work of figures such as David Carroll in the English-speaking world.\n", "\n===Absurdism===\nMany writers have addressed the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd is and what comprises its importance. For example, Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience, while Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of certain religious truths prevents us from reaching God rationally. Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a \"philosopher of the absurd\". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (''The Myth of Sisyphus''). To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to \"Camus' Absurd\".\n\nHis early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays, ''L'Envers et l'endroit'' (''Betwixt and Between)'' in 1937. Absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, ''Noces'' (''Nuptials''), in 1938. In these essays Camus reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an absurd life as ''L'Étranger'' (''The Stranger''). In the same year he released ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (''The Myth of Sisyphus''), a literary essay on the Absurd. He also wrote a play about Caligula, a Roman Emperor, pursuing an absurd logic. The play was not performed until 1945.\n\nThe turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the ''Revue Libre'' in 1943, the second in the ''Cahiers de Libération'' in 1944, and the third in the newspaper ''Libertés'', in 1945. The four letters were published as ''Lettres à un ami allemand'' (''Letters to a German Friend'') in 1945, and were included in the collection ''Resistance, Rebellion, and Death''.\n\n===Ideas on the absurd===\n\n\nCamus presents the reader with dualisms such as happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He emphasizes the fact that happiness is fleeting and that the human condition is one of mortality; for Camus, this is cause for a greater appreciation for life and happiness. In ''Le Mythe'', dualism becomes a paradox: we value our own lives in spite of our mortality and in spite of the universe's silence. While we can live with a dualism (''I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come''), we cannot live with the paradox (''I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless''). In ''Le Mythe'', Camus investigates our experience of the Absurd and asks how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves?\n\nIn ''Le Mythe'', Camus suggests that 'creation of meaning' would entail a logical leap or a kind of philosophical suicide in order to find psychological comfort. But Camus wants to know if he can live with what logic and lucidity have uncovered – if one can build a foundation on what one knows and nothing more. Creation of meaning is not a viable alternative but a logical leap and an evasion of the problem. He gives examples of how others would seem to make this kind of leap. The alternative option, namely suicide, would entail another kind of leap, where one attempts to kill absurdity by destroying one of its terms (the human being). Camus points out, however, that there is no more meaning in death than there is in life, and that it simply evades the problem yet again. Camus concludes that we must instead \"entertain\" both death and the absurd, while never agreeing to their terms.\n\nMeursault, the absurdist hero of ''L'Étranger,'' has killed a man and is scheduled to be executed. Caligula ends up admitting his absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, while Camus possibly suggests that Caligula's absurd reasoning is wrong, the play's anti-hero does get the last word, as the author similarly exalts Meursault's final moments.\n\nCamus made a significant contribution to a viewpoint of the Absurd, and always rejected nihilism as a valid response. If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning. — ''Second Letter to a German Friend'', December 1943.\n\nCamus's understanding of the Absurd promotes public debate; his various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus, though they are most likely sources of 'relative' versus 'absolute' meaning. In ''The Rebel,'' Camus identifies rebellion (or rather, the values indicated by rebellion) as a basis for human solidarity. When he rebels, a man identifies himself with other men and so surpasses himself, and from this point of view human solidarity is metaphysical. But for the moment we are only talking of the kind of solidarity that is born in chains. \n\n===''The Myth of Sisyphus''===\nDespite his opposition to the label, Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote, \"There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide. Deciding whether or not life is worth living is to answer the fundamental question in philosophy. All other questions follow from that.\" Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life. In ''The Myth of Sisyphus'', Camus seeks to identify the kinds of life that could be worth living despite their inherent meaninglessness.\n\n===Views on totalitarianism===\nThroughout his life, Camus spoke out against and actively opposed totalitarianism in its many forms. Early on, Camus was active within the French Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, even directing the famous Resistance journal, ''Combat''. On the French collaboration with Nazi occupiers he wrote: \"Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people.\" After liberation, Camus remarked, \"This country does not need a Talleyrand, but a Saint-Just.\" The reality of the bloody postwar tribunals soon changed his mind: Camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment.\n\nCamus's well-known falling out with Sartre is linked to his opposition to communism. Camus detected a reflexive totalitarianism in the mass politics espoused by Sartre in the name of radical Marxism. This was apparent in his work ''L'Homme Révolté'' (''The Rebel'') which not only was an assault on the Soviet police state, but also questioned the very nature of mass revolutionary politics. Camus continued to speak out against the atrocities of the Soviet Union, a sentiment captured in his 1957 speech, ''The Blood of the Hungarians'', commemorating the anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, an uprising crushed in a bloody assault by the Red Army.\n\n=== Philhellenism, debts to Greek classical thought ===\nOne further important, often neglected component of Camus' philosophical and literary persona was his love of classical Greek thought and literature, or philhellenism. This love looks back to his youthful encounters with Friedrich Nietzsche, his teacher Jean Grenier, and his own sense of a \"Mediterranean\" identity, based in a common experience of sunshine, beaches, and living in proximity to the near-Eastern world. Camus' ''Diplomes'' thesis (roughly like an MA thesis in most anglophone countries) was on the transition between classical Greek and Roman, and Christian culture, featuring chapters on the early Church, gnosticism, Plotinus and Saint Augustine's \"second revelation\", bringing Greek philosophical conceptuality to Christian revelation. Camus' early essay collection ''Noces (Nuptials)'' features essays set amidst classical Roman ruins; as the ''Myth of Sisyphus'' and ''The Rebel'' (which takes as its hero Prometheus) both are rooted in Camus' classical paideia. The culmination of the latter work defends a \"midday thought\" based in classical moderation or ''mesure'', in opposition to the tendency of modern political ideologies to exclusively valorise race or class, and to dream of a total redemptive revolution. Camus' conception of classical moderation also has deep roots in his lifelong love of Greek tragic theatre, about which he gave an intriguing address in Athens in 1956.\n", "\n===Novels===\n* ''The Stranger'' (''L'Étranger'', often translated as ''The Outsider'') (1942)\n* ''The Plague'' (''La Peste'') (1947)\n* ''The Fall'' (''La Chute'') (1956)\n* ''A Happy Death'' (''La Mort heureuse'') (written 1936–38, published posthumously 1971)\n* ''The First Man'' (''Le premier homme'') (incomplete, published posthumously 1995)\n\n===Short stories===\n* ''Exile and the Kingdom'' (''L'exil et le royaume'') (collection, 1957) containing the following short stories:\n The Adulterous Woman (''La Femme adultère'')\n The Renegade or a Confused Spirit (''Le Renégat ou un esprit confus'')\n The Silent Men (''Les Muets'')\n The Guest (''L'Hôte'')\n Jonas or the Artist at Work (''Jonas ou l’artiste au travail'')\n The Growing Stone (''La Pierre qui pousse'')\n\n===Non-fiction books===\n* ''Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism'' (1935)\n* ''Betwixt and Between'' (''L'envers et l'endroit'', also translated as ''The Wrong Side and the Right Side'') (collection, 1937)\n* ''Nuptials'' (''Noces'') (1938)\n* ''The Myth of Sisyphus'' (''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'') (1942)\n* ''The Rebel'' (''L'Homme révolté'') (1951)\n* ''Notebooks 1935–1942'' (''Carnets, mai 1935 —fevrier 1942'') (1962)\n* ''Notebooks 1943–1951'' (1965)\n* ''Notebooks 1951–1959'' (2008) Published as \"Carnets Tome III : Mars 1951 – December 1959\" (1989)\n* ''Algerian Chronicles'' (2013)\n\n===Plays===\n* ''Caligula'' (performed 1945, written 1938)\n* ''The Misunderstanding'' (''Le Malentendu'') (1944)\n* ''The State of Siege'' (''L'État de Siège'') (1948)\n* ''The Just Assassins'' (''Les Justes'') (1949)\n* ''Requiem for a Nun'' (''Requiem pour une nonne'', adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956)\n* ''The Possessed'' (''Les Possédés'', adapted from Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Demons) (1959)\n\n===Essays===\n* ''The Crisis of Man'' (''Lecture at Columbia University'') (1946)\n* ''Neither Victims Nor Executioners'' (''Series of essays in Combat'') (1946)\n* ''Why Spain?'' (''Essay for the theatrical play L' Etat de Siège'') (1948)\n* ''The Ancient Greek Tragedy'' (''Parnassos lecture in Greece'') (1956)\n* ''Reflections on the Guillotine'' (''Réflexions sur la guillotine'') (Extended essay, 1957)\n* ''Create Dangerously'' (''Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation, lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden'') (1957)\n\n===Collected essays===\n* ''Resistance, Rebellion, and Death'' (1961) – a collection of essays selected by the author, including the 1945 ''Lettres à un ami allemand'' (Letters to a German Friend) and ''A Defense of Intelligence'', a 1945 speech given at a meeting organized by Amitié Française\n* ''Lyrical and Critical Essays'' (1970)\n* ''Youthful Writings'' (1976)\n* ''Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper \"Combat\", 1944–1947'' (1991)\n* ''Camus at \"Combat\": Writing 1944–1947'' (2005)\n* ''Albert Camus Contre la Peine de Mort'' (2011)\n", "\n", "===Selected biographies===\n\n* Philip Malcolm Waller Thody, ''Albert Camus, A Study of His Work'' (1957) ()\n* Germaine Brée, ''Camus'' (1959) ()\n* Emmett Parker, ''Albert Camus, The Artist in the Arena'' (1965) ()\n* Adele King, ''Camus'' (1966) ()\n* Adele King, ''Camus's \"L'Étranger\": Fifty Years On'' (1992) ()\n* Vicente de Paulo Barretto, ''Camus: vida e obra'' (1970)\n* Herbert R. Lottman, ''Albert Camus: A Biography'' (1979) ()\n* David Sprintzen, \"Camus: A Critical Examination\" (1988) ()\n* Stephen Eric Bronner, \"Camus: Portrait of a Moralist\" (1999) ()\n* Howard E. Mumma, ''Albert Camus and the Minister'' (2000) ()\n* Olivier Todd, ''Albert Camus: A Life'' (2000) ()\n* Heiner Wittmann, ''Albert Camus: Kunst und Moral'' ()\n* \n* Patrick McCarthy, ''Camus: A Critical Study of His Life and Work'' (1982) ()\n* Elizabeth Hawes, ''Camus, A Romance'' (2009) ()\n* Catherine Camus, ''Albert Camus : solitaire et solidaire'' (2009) ()\n* Catherine Camus (avec la collaboration d'Alexandre Alajbegovic et de Béatrice Vaillant), ''Le monde en partage. Itinéraires d'Albert Camus'' (2013) ()\n* Alain Vircondelet / Photographies : collection Catherine et Jean Camus, ''Albert Camus, vérité et légendes'' (1998) ()\n* Robert Zaretsky, ''A Life Worth Living: Albert Camus and the Quest for Meaning'' ()\n* Robert Zaretsky, ''Albert Camus: Elements of a Life'' (2010) ()\n* Pierre-Louis Rey, ''Camus. L'homme révolté'' (2006) ()\n* Virgil Tănase, ''Camus'' (2010) ()\n* Neil Helms, Harold Bloom, ''Albert Camus'' - Bloom's BioCritiques (2003) ()\n* Jean-Claude Brisville, ''Camus'' (1959) ()\n* André Comte-Sponville, Laurent Bove, Patrick Renou, ''Camus : de l'absurde à l'amour : lettres inédites d'Albert Camus'' (1995) ()\n", "\n\nhttp://camusbibliography.boisestate.edu/ Albert Camus. Selective and Cumulative Bibliography\nhttp://www.etudes-camusiennes.fr/ Société des Études Camusiennes\nhttp://www.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/camus/Raymond Gay-Crosier Camus collection at University of Florida Library\n\n* Albert Camus Society UK\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Life", "Literary career", " Algeria ", "Philosophy", "Works", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albert Camus
[ "\n\n\n\n\n'''''The Plague''''' (French: '''''La Peste''''') is a novel by Albert Camus, published in 1947, that tells the story of a plague sweeping the French Algerian city of Oran. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace.\n\nThe novel is believed to be based on the cholera epidemic that killed a large percentage of Oran's population in 1849 following French colonization, but the novel is placed in the 1940s. Oran and its environs were struck by disease multiple times before Camus published this novel. According to a research report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Oran was decimated by the plague in 1556 and 1678, but all later outbreaks, in 1921 (185 cases), 1931 (76 cases), and 1944 (95 cases), were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.\n\n''The Plague'' is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus' objection to the label. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in ''The Trial'' whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings, the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition.\n\nCamus included a dim-witted character misreading ''The Trial'' as a mystery novel as an oblique homage. The novel has been read as a metaphorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II. Additionally, he further illustrates the human reaction towards the \"absurd\". ''The Plague'' represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the Absurd, a theory that Camus himself helped to define.\n", "\n'''The Narrator''': the narrator presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents, but does not identify himself with any character until the ending of the novel.\n'''Asthma Patient''': the asthma patient receives regular visits from Dr. Rieux. He is a seventy-five-year-old Spaniard with a rugged face, who comments on events in Oran that he hears about on the radio and in the newspapers.\n'''Dr. Castel''': Dr. Castel is one of Rieux's medical colleagues and is much older than Rieux. He realizes after the first few cases that the disease is bubonic plague and is aware of the seriousness of the situation. He works hard to make an antiplague serum, but as the epidemic continues, he shows increasing signs of wear and tear.\n'''Cottard''': Cottard lives in the same building as Grand. He does not appear to have a job and is described as having private means although he describes himself as \"a traveling salesman in wines and spirits.\" Cottard is an eccentric figure, silent and secretive, who tries to hang himself in his room. Afterwards, he does not want to be interviewed by the police since he has committed a crime by attempting suicide and fears arrest.Cottard's personality changes after the outbreak of plague. Whereas he was aloof and mistrustful before, he now becomes agreeable and tries hard to make friends. He appears to relish the coming of the plague, and Tarrou thinks it is because he finds it easier to live with his own fears now that everyone else is in a state of fear, too. Cottard takes advantage of the crisis to make money by selling contraband cigarettes and inferior liquor.As the epidemic wanes, Cottard's mood fluctuates. Sometimes he is sociable, but at other times, he shuts himself up in his room. Eventually, he loses his mental balance and shoots at random at people on the street, wounding some and killing a dog. The police arrest him.\n'''Garcia''': Garcia is a man who knows the group of smugglers in Oran. He introduces Rambert to Raoul.\n'''Gonzales''': Gonzales is the smuggler who makes the arrangements for Rambert's escape and bonds with him over football.\n'''Joseph Grand''': Joseph Grand is a fifty-year-old clerk for the city government. He is tall and thin. Poorly paid, he lives an austere life, but he is capable of deep affection. In his spare time, Grand polishes up his Latin, and he is also writing a book, but he is such a perfectionist that he continually rewrites the first sentence and can get no further. One of his problems in life is that he can rarely find the correct words to express what he means. Grand tells Rieux that he married while still in his teens, but overwork and poverty took their toll (Grand did not receive the career advancement that he had been promised), and his wife Jeanne left him. He tried but failed to write a letter to her, and he still grieves for his loss.Grand is a neighbor of Cottard, and it is he who calls Rieux for help, when Cottard tries to commit suicide. When the plague takes a grip on the town, Grand joins the team of volunteers, acting as general secretary, recording all the statistics. Rieux regards him as \"the true embodiment of the quiet courage that inspired the sanitary groups.\" Grand catches the plague himself and asks Rieux to burn his manuscript, but then makes an unexpected recovery. At the end of the novel, Grand says he is much happier; he has written to Jeanne and made a fresh start on his book.\n'''Louis''': Louis is one of the sentries who take part in the plan for Rambert to escape.\n'''Marcel''': Marcel, Louis's brother, is also a sentry who is part of the escape plan for Rambert.\n'''M. Michel''': M. Michel is the concierge of the building in which Rieux lives. An old man, he is the first victim of the plague.\n'''Jacques Othon''': Jacques Othon is M. Othon's young son. When he contracts the plague, he is the first to receive Dr. Castel's antiplague serum. But the serum is ineffective, and the boy dies after a long and painful struggle.\n'''M. Othon''': M. Othon is a magistrate in Oran. He is tall and thin and, as Tarrou observes in his journal, \"his small, beady eyes, narrow nose, and hard, straight mouth make him look like a well-brought-up owl.\" Othon treats his wife and children unkindly, but after his son dies of the plague, his character softens. After he finishes his time at the isolation camp, where he is sent because his son is infected, he wants to return there because it would make him feel closer to his lost son. However, before Othon can do this, he contracts the plague and dies.\n'''Father Paneloux''': Father Paneloux is a learned, well-respected Jesuit priest. He is well known for having given a series of lectures in which he championed a pure form of Christian doctrine and chastised his audience about their laxity. During the first stage of the plague outbreak, Paneloux preaches a sermon at the cathedral. He has a powerful way of speaking, and he insists to the congregation that the plague is a scourge sent by God to those who have hardened their hearts against him. However, Paneloux also claims that God is present to offer succor and hope. Later, Paneloux attends at the bedside of Othon's stricken son and prays that the boy may be spared. After the boy's death, Paneloux tells Rieux that although the death of an innocent child in a world ruled by a loving God cannot be rationally explained, it should nonetheless be accepted. Paneloux joins the team of volunteer workers and preaches another sermon saying that the death of the innocent child is a test of faith. Since God willed the child's death, so the Christian should will it, too. A few days after preaching this sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. He refuses to call for a doctor, trusting in God alone, and dies. Since his symptoms did not seem to resemble those of the plague, Rieux records his death as a \"doubtful case.\"\n'''The Prefect''': The Prefect believes at first that the talk of plague is a false alarm, but on the advice of his medical association, he authorises limited measures to combat it. When they do not work, he tries to avoid responsibility, saying he will ask the government for orders. Then, he takes responsibility for tightening up the regulations relating to the plague and issues the order to close the town.\n'''Raymond Rambert''': Raymond Rambert is a journalist who is visiting Oran to research a story on living conditions in the Arab quarter of the town. When the plague strikes, he finds himself trapped in a city with which he feels he has no connection. He misses his wife who is in Paris and uses all his ingenuity and resourcefulness to persuade the city bureaucracy to allow him to leave. When that fails, he contacts smugglers, who agree to help him escape for a fee of ten thousand francs. However, there is a hitch in the arrangements, and by the time another escape plan is arranged, Rambert has changed his mind. He decides to stay in the city and continue to help fight the plague, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he pursued a merely private happiness. He now feels that he belongs in Oran, and that the plague is everyone's business, including his.\n'''Raoul''': Raoul is the man who agrees, for a fee of ten thousand francs, to arrange for Rambert to escape. He introduces Rambert to Gonzales.\n'''Dr. Richard''': Dr. Richard is chairman of the Oran Medical Association. He is slow to recommend any action to combat the plague for fear of public alarm. He does not want even to admit that the disease is the plague, referring instead to a \"special type of fever.\"\n'''Dr. Bernard Rieux''': Dr. Bernard Rieux is described as a man about age 35, of moderate height, dark-skinned, with close-cropped black hair. At the beginning of the novel, Rieux's wife, who has been ill for a year, leaves for a sanatorium. It is Rieux who treats the first victim of plague and first uses the word plague to describe the disease. He urges the authorities to take action to stop the spread of the epidemic. However, at first, along with everyone else, the danger the town faces seems unreal to him. He feels uneasy but does not realise the gravity of the situation. Within a short while, he grasps what is at stake and warns the authorities that unless steps are taken immediately, the epidemic could kill off half the town's population of two hundred thousand within a couple of months.During the epidemic, Rieux heads an auxiliary hospital and works long hours treating the victims. He injects serum and lances the abscesses, but there is little more that he can do, and his duties weigh heavily upon him. He never gets home until late, and he has to distance himself from the natural pity that he feels for the victims; otherwise, he would not be able to go on. It is especially hard for him when he visits a victim in the person's home because he knows that he must immediately call for an ambulance and have the person removed from the house. Often, the relatives plead with him not to do so since they know they may never see the person again.Rieux works to combat the plague simply because he is a doctor and his job is to relieve human suffering. He does not do it for any grand, religious purpose, like Paneloux (Rieux does not believe in God), or as part of a high-minded moral code, like Tarrou. He is a practical man, doing what needs to be done without any fuss, but he knows that the struggle against death is something that he can never win.\n'''Mme. Rieux''': Mme. Rieux is Dr. Rieux's mother, who comes to stay with him when his sick wife goes to the sanatorium. She is a serene woman who, after taking care of the housework, sits quietly in a chair. She says that at her age, there is nothing much left to fear.\n'''Jean Tarrou''': Jean Tarrou arrived in Oran some weeks before the plague broke out for unknown reasons. He is not there on business since he appears to have private means. Tarrou is a good-natured man who smiles a lot. Before the plague came, he liked to associate with the Spanish dancers and musicians in the city. He also keeps a diary, full of his observations of life in Oran, which Rieux incorporates into the narrative.It is Tarrou who first comes up with the idea of organising teams of volunteers to fight the plague. He wants to do so before the authorities begin to conscript people, and he does not like the official plan to get prisoners to do the work. He takes action, prompted by his own code of morals; he feels that the plague is everybody's responsibility and that everyone should do his or her duty. What interests him, he tells Rieux, is how to become a saint even though he does not believe in God.Later in the novel, Tarrou tells Rieux, with whom he has become friends, the story of his life. His father, although a kind man in private, was also an aggressive prosecuting attorney who tried death penalty cases, arguing strongly for the death penalty to be imposed. As a young boy, Tarrou attended one day of a criminal proceeding in which a man was on trial for his life. However, the idea of capital punishment disgusted him. After he left home before 18, his main interest in life was his opposition to the death penalty, which he regarded as state-sponsored murder. However, years of activism, and fighting for the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War have left him disillusioned.When the plague epidemic is virtually over, Tarrou becomes one of its last victims but puts up a heroic struggle before dying.\n", "The text of ''The Plague'' is divided into five parts.\n\n===Part one===\n\"... Dr Rieux resolved to compile this chronicle ...\"\nIn the town of Oran, thousands of rats, initially unnoticed by the populace, begin to die in the streets. Hysteria develops soon afterward, causing the local newspapers to report the incident. Authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats, unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague.\n\nThe main character, Dr. Bernard Rieux, lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the building's concierge, M. Michel, a confidante, dies from a fever. Dr. Rieux consults his colleague, Dr. Castel, about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town. They both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death. However, as more and more deaths quickly ensue, it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic. Meanwhile, Rieux's wife has been sent to a sanatorium in another city, to be treated for an unrelated chronic illness.\n\nAuthorities, including the Prefect, are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take. Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation. A \"special ward\" is opened at the hospital, but its 80 beds are filled within three days. As the death toll begins to rise, more desperate measures are taken. Homes are quarantined; corpses and burials are strictly supervised. A supply of plague serum finally arrives, but there is enough to treat only existing cases, and the country's emergency reserves are depleted. When the daily number of deaths jumps to 30, the town is sealed, and an outbreak of plague is officially declared.\n\n===Part two===\nThe town is sealed off. The town gates are shut, rail travel is prohibited, and all mail service is suspended. The use of telephone lines is restricted only to \"urgent\" calls, leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town. The separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople, who begin to feel isolated and introverted, and the plague begins to affect various characters.\n\nOne character, Raymond Rambert, devises a plan to escape the city to join his wife in Paris after city officials refused his request to leave. He befriends some underground criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city. Another character, Father Paneloux, uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of God punishing the citizens' sinful nature. His diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town, who turned to religion in droves but would not have done so under normal circumstances. Cottard, a criminal remorseful enough to attempt suicide but fearful of being arrested, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Dr. Rieux; a vacationer, Jean Tarrou; and a civil servant, Joseph Grand, exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital.\n\nRambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan, but when Tarrou tells him that there are others in the city, including Dr. Rieux, who have loved ones outside the city whom they are not allowed to see, Rambert becomes sympathetic and changes his mind. He then decides to join Tarrou and Dr. Rieux to help fight the epidemic.\n\n===Part three===\nIn mid-August, the situation continues to worsen. People try to escape the town, but some are shot by armed sentries. Violence and looting break out on a small scale, and the authorities respond by declaring martial law and imposing a curfew. Funerals are conducted with more and more speed, no ceremony, and little concern for the feelings of the families of the deceased. The inhabitants passively endure their increasing feelings of exile and separation. Despondent, they waste away emotionally as well as physically.\n\n===Part four===\nIn September and October, the town remains at the mercy of the plague. Rieux hears from the sanatorium that his wife's condition is worsening. He also hardens his heart regarding the plague victims so that he can continue to do his work. Cottard, on the other hand, seems to flourish during the plague because it gives him a sense of being connected to others, since everybody faces the same danger. Cottard and Tarrou attend a performance of Gluck's opera ''Orpheus and Eurydice'', but the actor portraying Orpheus collapses with plague symptoms during the performance.\n\nAfter extended negotiations with guards, Rambert finally has a chance to escape, but he decides to stay, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left.\n\nTowards the end of October, Castel's new antiplague serum is tried for the first time, but it cannot save the life of Othon's young son, who suffers greatly, as Paneloux, Rieux, and Tarrou tend to his bedside in horror.\n\nPaneloux, who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague, gives a second sermon. He addresses the problem of an innocent child's suffering and says it is a test of a Christian's faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything. He urges the congregation not to give up the struggle but to do everything possible to fight the plague.\n\nA few days after the sermon, Paneloux is taken ill. His symptoms do not conform to those of the plague, but the disease still proves fatal.\n\nTarrou and Rambert visit one of the isolation camps, where they meet Othon. When Othon's period of quarantine ends, he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer because this will make him feel less separated from his dead son. Tarrou tells Rieux the story of his life and, to take their mind off the epidemic, the two men go swimming together in the sea. Grand catches the plague and instructs Rieux to burn all his papers. However, Grand makes an unexpected recovery, and deaths from the plague start to decline.\n\n===Part five===\nBy late January the plague is in full retreat, and the townspeople begin to celebrate the imminent opening of the town gates. Othon, however, does not escape death from the disease. Cottard is distressed by the ending of the epidemic from which he has profited by shady dealings. Two government employees approach him, and he flees. Despite the epidemic's ending, Tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle. Rieux is later informed via telegram that his wife has also died.\n\nIn February, the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones from other cities. Rambert is reunited with his wife. Cottard goes mad and shoots at people from his home. He is arrested. Grand begins working on his novel again. The narrator of the chronicle reveals his identity and states and that he tried to present an objective view of the events. The narrator reflects on the epidemic and reaches the conclusion that there is more to admire than to despise in humans.\n", "Germaine Brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as \"undramatic and stubborn\", and in contrast to the ideology of \"glorification of power\" in the novels of André Malraux, whereas Camus' characters \"are obscurely engaged in saving, not destroying, and this in the name of no ideology\". Lulu Haroutunian has discussed Camus' own medical history, including a bout with tuberculosis, and how it informs the novel. Marina Warner has noted the lack of female characters and the total absence of Arab characters in the novel, but also notes its larger philosophical themes of \"engagement\", \"paltriness and generosity\", \"small heroism and large cowardice\", and \"all kinds of profoundly humanist problems, such as love and goodness, happiness and mutual connection\".\n\nThomas L Hanna and John Loose have separately discussed themes related to Christianity in the novel, with particular respect to Father Paneloux and Dr Rieux. Louis R Rossi briefly discusses the role of Tarrou in the novel, and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character. Elwyn Sterling has analysed the role of Cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel.\n", "As early as April 1941, Camus had been working on the novel, as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on \"the redeeming plague\". On March 13, 1942, he informed André Malraux that he was writing \"a novel on the plague\", adding \"Said like that it might sound strange, … but this subject seems so natural to me.\"\n\n* 1947, ''La Peste'' (French), Paris: Gallimard\n* 1948, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Hamish Hamilton\n* 1960, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Penguin, \n* 2001, translated by Robin Buss, London: Allen Lane, \n* 2016, translated by Stephen R. Pastore, Cape Cod: Guilimard Productions\n", "* 1965: \"La Peste\", a cantata composed by Roberto Gerhard\n* 1992: \"La Peste\", a film directed by Luis Puenzo\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* ''La Peste'', Les Classiques des sciences sociales ; Word, PDF, RTF formats, public domain in Canada\n* ''La Peste'', ebooksgratuits.com ; HTML format, public domain in Canada\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Characters", "Plot summary", "Critical analysis", "Publication history", "Adaptations", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	The Plague
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Applied ethics''' is the branch of ethics concerned with the analysis of particular moral issues in private and public life. For example, the bioethics community is concerned with identifying the correct approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research. Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution. Business ethics includes questions regarding the duties or duty of 'whistleblowers' to the general public or to their loyalty to their employers. Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.\n\nAn emerging typology for applied ethics uses six domains to help improve organizations and social issues at the national and global level:\n\n* Decision ethics, or ethical theories and ethical decision processes\n* Professional ethics, or ethics to improve professionalism\n* Clinical ethics, or ethics to improve our basic health needs\n* Business ethics, or individual based morals to improve ethics in a business environment\n* Organizational ethics, or ethics among organizations\n* Social ethics, or ethics among nations and as one global unit\n", "Much of applied ethics is concerned with just three theories:\n\n# Utilitarianism, where the practical consequences of various policies are evaluated on the assumption that the right policy will be the one which results in the greatest happiness. This theories main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between an act and rule utilitarianist morality. Later developments have also adjusted the theory, most notably Henry Sidgwick who introduced the idea of motive or intent in morality, and Peter Singer who introduced the idea of preference in moral decision making. \n# Deontological ethics, notions based on 'rules' i.e. that there is an obligation to perform the 'right' action, regardless of actual consequences (epitomized by Immanuel Kant's notion of the Categorical Imperative which was the centre to Kant's ethical theory based on duty). Another key deontological theory is Natural Law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Roman Catholic Church's teaching on Morals. \n# Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius's notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent.\n\nOne modern approach which attempts to overcome the seemingly impossible divide between deontology and utilitarianism (of which the divide is caused by the opposite takings of an absolute and relativist moral view) is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (''The Abuse of Casuistry'' 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.\n", "Effective altruism\nEthical codes\nEthics\nOutline of ethics\nPhilosophy\n", "\n \n* (monograph)\n* \n* \n* \n* \n", "\n* Chris Young, How to teach an introduction to applied ethics\n* Australian Association for Professional and Applied Ethics\n* Berman Institute of Bioethics, Johns Hopkins Institute\n* Canadian Centre for Ethics in Public Affairs\n* Centre for Advanced Research in Management and Applied Ethics\n* Center for Practical Bioethics\n* Centre for Research Ethics and Bioethics\n* MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics\n* Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University\n* W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia\n* Nuffield Council on Bioethics\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Modern approach", "See also", "Bibliography", "External links" ]	Applied ethics
[ "\n\nThe absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero.\nIn mathematics, the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of a real number is the non-negative value of without regard to its sign. Namely, for a positive , for a negative (in which case is positive), and . For example, the absolute value of 3 is 3, and the absolute value of −3 is also 3. The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero.\n\nGeneralisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers, the quaternions, ordered rings, fields and vector spaces. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude, distance, and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts.\n", "In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand introduced the term ''module'', meaning ''unit of measure'' in French, specifically for the ''complex'' absolute value, and it was borrowed into English in 1866 as the Latin equivalent ''modulus''. The term ''absolute value'' has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French and 1857 in English. The notation , with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841. Other names for ''absolute value'' include ''numerical value'' and ''magnitude''. In programming languages and computational software packages, the absolute value of ''x'' is generally represented by abs(''x''), or a similar expression.\n\nThe vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts: for example, when applied to a set, it is used to denote its cardinality; when applied to a matrix, it is used to denote its determinant. Thus, care must be taken to interpret vertical bars as an absolute value sign only when the argument is an algebraic object for which the notion of an absolute value is defined (e.g., an element of a normed division algebra like a real number, complex number, quaternion, etc.). A closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the euclidean norm or sup norm of a vector in , although double vertical bars with subscripts ( and , respectively) are a more common and less ambiguous notation.\n", "\n===Real numbers===\nFor any real number the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of is denoted by (a vertical bar on each side of the quantity) and is defined as\n\n:\n\nAs can be seen from the above definition, the absolute value of is always either positive or zero, but never negative.\n\nFrom an analytic geometry point of view, the absolute value of a real number is that number's distance from zero along the real number line, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. Indeed, the notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see \"Distance\" below).\n\nSince the square root notation without sign represents the ''positive'' square root, it follows that\n\n:{\|\n\n \n ()\n\n\nfor real values of ''a'' (equation (1)). This identity is sometimes used as a definition of absolute value of real numbers.\n\nThe absolute value has the following four fundamental properties (''a'', ''b'' are real numbers):\n\n:{\|\n\n\n ()\n Non-negativity\n\n\n ()\nPositive-definiteness\n\n\n ()\nMultiplicativity\n\n\n ()\n The triangle inequality, equivalent to subadditivity\n\n\nThe properties given by equations (2)-(4) are readily apparent from the definition. To see that equation (5) holds, choose from so that . Since for real regardless of the value of chosen, (5) follows from the calculation . (For a generalization of this argument to complex numbers, see \"Proof of the triangle inequality for complex numbers\" below.)\n\nSome additional useful properties are given below. These properties are either implied by or equivalent to the properties given by equations (2)-(5).\n\n:{\|\n\n\n ()\nIdempotence (the absolute value of the absolute value is the absolute value)\n\n\n ()\nEvenness (reflection symmetry of the graph)\n\n\n ()\nIdentity of indiscernibles (equivalent to positive-definiteness)\n\n\n ()\nTriangle inequality#Example norms (equivalent to subadditivity)\n\n (if )\n ()\nPreservation of division (equivalent to multiplicativity)\n\n\n ()\nReverse triangle inequality (equivalent to subadditivity)\n\n\nTwo other useful properties concerning inequalities are:\n:\n: or \n\nThese relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values. For example:\n\n:{\|\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAbsolute value is used to define the absolute difference, the standard metric on the real numbers.\n\n===Complex numbers===\nThe absolute value of a complex number is the distance from to the origin. It is also seen in the picture that and its complex conjugate have the same absolute value.\n\nSince the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given above for the real absolute value cannot be directly generalised for a complex number. However the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised. The absolute value of a complex number is defined as its distance in the complex plane from the origin using the Pythagorean theorem. More generally the absolute value of the difference of two complex numbers is equal to the distance between those two complex numbers.\n\nIn the context of abstract algebra, since the positive real numbers form a subgroup of the complex numbers under multiplication, we may think of absolute value as an endomorphism of the multiplicative group of the complex numbers.\n\nFor any complex number\n\n:\n\nwhere and are real numbers, the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of is denoted and is given by\n\n:\n\nwhere Re(''z'') = ''x'' and Im(''z'') = ''y'' denote the real and imaginary parts of ''z'', respectively. When the imaginary part is zero this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the real number .\n\nWhen a complex number is expressed in polar form as\n\n:\n\nwith and θ = the phase of ''z'', its absolute value is\n\n:.\n\nThe absolute value of a complex number can be written in the complex analogue of equation (1) above as:\n\n:\n\nwhere is the complex conjugate of .\nNote that, equation (1) is not, in general, true for complex ''z'':\n:.\n\nThe complex absolute value shares all the properties of the real absolute value given in equations (2)–(11) above.\n\nImportantly, the property of subadditivity (\"triangle inequality\", equation (5)) extends to any finite collection of complex numbers :\n:\nThis inequality also applies to infinite series , provided is absolutely convergent. If (Lebesgue) integration is viewed as the continuous analog of summation, then this inequality is analogously obeyed by complex-valued, measurable functions when integrated over a measurable subset :\n:\n(This includes Riemann-integrable functions over a bounded interval as a special case.)\n\n==== Proof of the triangle inequality for complex numbers ====\nThe triangle inequality, as given by , can be demonstrated by applying a few easily verified properties of the complex numbers: Namely, for every complex number , (i): there exists such that , , and (ii): ; and also, if are complex numbers but is real, then .\n\n'''''Proof of''''' ''''':''''' Choose such that , (summed over ''k'' = 1, 2, ... , ''n''). The following computation then affords the desired inequality: \n: \nIt is clear from this proof that equality holds in if and only if the are non-negative real numbers for , which in turn occurs if and only if all nonzero have the same argument, i.e., for a complex constant and real constants .\n\nAfter arguing that is also measurable, the proof of the inequality proceeds via the same technique, by replacing with and with .\n", "graph of the absolute value function for real numbers\nComposition of absolute value with a cubic function in different orders\nThe real absolute value function is continuous everywhere. It is differentiable everywhere except for = 0. It is monotonically decreasing on the interval and monotonically increasing on the interval . Since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value, it is an even function, and is hence not invertible. The real absolute value function is a piecewise linear, convex function.\n\nBoth the real and complex functions are idempotent.\n\n===Relationship to the sign function===\nThe absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign, whereas the sign (or signum) function returns a number's sign irrespective of its value. The following equations show the relationship between these two functions:\n:\nor\n:\nand for ,\n:\n\n===Derivative===\nThe real absolute value function has a derivative for every , but is not differentiable at . Its derivative for is given by the step function:\n:\n\nThe subdifferential of at is the interval .\n\nThe complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable ''nowhere'' because it violates the Cauchy–Riemann equations.\n\nThe second derivative of with respect to is zero everywhere except zero, where it does not exist. As a generalised function, the second derivative may be taken as two times the Dirac delta function.\n\n===Antiderivative===\nThe antiderivative (indefinite integral) of the absolute value function is\n\n:\n\nwhere is an arbitrary constant of integration.\n", "\nThe absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them.\n\nThe standard Euclidean distance between two points\n\n:\n\nand\n\n:\n\nin Euclidean -space is defined as:\n:\n\nThis can be seen to be a generalisation of , since if and are real, then by equation (1),\n:\n\nWhile if\n\n:\n\nand\n\n:\n\nare complex numbers, then\n\n:{\|\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe above shows that the \"absolute value\" distance for the real numbers or the complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance they inherit as a result of considering them as the one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces respectively.\n\nThe properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows:\n\nA real valued function on a set is called a metric (or a ''distance function'') on , if it satisfies the following four axioms:\n:{\|\n\n \nNon-negativity\n\n\nIdentity of indiscernibles\n\n\nSymmetry\n\n\nTriangle inequality\n\n", "\n===Ordered rings===\nThe definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring. That is, if is an element of an ordered ring ''R'', then the '''absolute value''' of , denoted by , is defined to be:\n\n:\n\nwhere is the additive inverse of , and 0 is the additive identity element.\n\n===Fields===\n\nThe fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers given in (2)–(5) above, can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows.\n\nA real-valued function on a field is called an ''absolute value'' (also a ''modulus'', ''magnitude'', ''value'', or ''valuation'') if it satisfies the following four axioms:\n\n:{\| cellpadding=10\n\n\nNon-negativity\n\n\nPositive-definiteness\n\n\nMultiplicativity\n\n\nSubadditivity or the triangle inequality\n\n\nWhere '''0''' denotes the additive identity element of . It follows from positive-definiteness and multiplicativity that , where '''1''' denotes the multiplicative identity element of . The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field.\n\nIf is an absolute value on , then the function on , defined by , is a metric and the following are equivalent:\n\n* satisfies the ultrametric inequality for all , , in .\n* is bounded in '''R'''.\n* for every \n* for all \n* for all \n\nAn absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be '''non-Archimedean''', otherwise it is said to be Archimedean.\n\n===Vector spaces===\n\nAgain the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used, with a slight modification, to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space.\n\nA real-valued function on a vector space over a field , represented as , is called an '''absolute value''', but more usually a '''norm''', if it satisfies the following axioms:\n\nFor all in , and , in ,\n\n:{\| cellpadding=10\n\n\nNon-negativity\n\n\nPositive-definiteness\n\n\nPositive homogeneity or positive scalability\n\n\nSubadditivity or the triangle inequality\n\n\nThe norm of a vector is also called its ''length'' or ''magnitude''.\n\nIn the case of Euclidean space , the function defined by\n\n:\n\nis a norm called the Euclidean norm. When the real numbers are considered as the one-dimensional vector space , the absolute value is a norm, and is the -norm (see Lp space) for any . In fact the absolute value is the \"only\" norm on , in the sense that, for every norm on , . The complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space. It is identical to the Euclidean norm, if the complex plane is identified with the Euclidean plane .\n\n===Composition algebras===\n\nEvery composition algebra ''A'' has an involution ''x'' → ''x''* called its '''conjugation'''. The product in ''A'' of an element ''x'' and its conjugate ''x''* is written ''N''(''x'') = ''x x''* and called the '''norm of x'''.\n\nThe real numbers ℝ, complex numbers ℂ, and quaternions ℍ are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms. The absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm.\n\nIn general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors. However, as in the case of division algebras, when an element ''x'' has a non-zero norm, then ''x'' has a multiplicative inverse given by ''x''/''N''(''x'').\n", "\n", " Bartle; Sherbert; ''Introduction to real analysis'' (4th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 2011 .\n* Nahin, Paul J.; ''An Imaginary Tale''; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). .\n* Mac Lane, Saunders, Garrett Birkhoff, ''Algebra'', American Mathematical Soc., 1999. .\n* Mendelson, Elliott, ''Schaum's Outline of Beginning Calculus'', McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008. .\n* O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; \"Jean Robert Argand\".\n* Schechter, Eric; ''Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations'', pp. 259–263, \"Absolute Values\", Academic Press (1997) .\n", "* \n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Terminology and notation", "Definition and properties", "Absolute value function", "Distance", "Generalizations", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Absolute value
[ "\n\n\nAn '''analog signal''' is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., ''analogous'' to another time varying signal. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous voltage of the signal varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves. It differs from a digital signal, in which the continuous quantity is a representation of a sequence of discrete values which can only take on one of a finite number of values. The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, human speech, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.\n \nAn analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.\n \nAny information may be conveyed by an analog signal; often such a signal is a measured response to changes in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, in sound recording, fluctuations in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone, or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an \"analog\" of the sound.\n \nAn analog signal has a theoretically infinite resolution. In practice an analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In contrast, digital signals have a finite resolution. Converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a constant low-level noise called quantization noise into the signal which determines the noise floor, but once in digital form the signal can in general be processed or transmitted without introducing additional noise or distortion. In analog systems, it is difficult to detect when such degradation occurs. However, in digital systems, degradation can not only be detected but corrected as well.\n", "The primary disadvantage of analog signals is that any system has noise – i.e., unwanted variation. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, or electronically processed, the unavoidable noise introduced by each step in the signal path is additive, progressively degrading the signal-to-noise ratio, until in extreme cases the signal can be overwhelmed. This is called generation loss. Noise can show up as \"hiss\" and intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or \"snow\" in video signals. This degradation is impossible to recover, since there is no sure way to distinguish the noise from the signal; amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise (distortion/interference) as well. Digital signals can often be transmitted, stored and processed without introducing noise. Electrically, analog noise can be diminished by shielding, good connections and several cable types such as coaxial or twisted pair.\n", "* Ampex\n* Analog audio\n* Analog device\n* Analog signal processing\n* Analog sound vs. digital sound\n* Analog video\n* Analog-to-digital converter\n* Digital audio\n* Digital video\n* Magnetic tape\n* Magnetic recording\n* Video tape\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Advantages and disadvantages", "See also", "References" ]	Analog signal
[ "\n\n'''Arecales''' is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes.\n", "\nThe Cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass Arecidae in the class Liliopsida (= monocotyledons).\n\nThe Thorne system (1992) and the Dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder Areciflorae, also called Arecanae in the subclass Liliidae (= monocotyledons), with the single family Arecaceae.\n\nThe APG II system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription:\n\n* order Arecales\n: family Arecaceae, alternative name Palmae\n\nThis was unchanged from the APG system of 1998, although it used the spelling \"commelinoids\" instead of commelinids.\n\nThe APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogonaceae in this order, after studies shown Dasypogonaceae as sister to Arecaceae.\n", "\n", "\n* NCBI Taxonomy Browser\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Taxonomy", "References", "External links" ]	Arecales
[ "\n'''Jane Marple''', usually referred to as '''Miss Marple''', is a fictional character appearing in 12 of Agatha Christie's crime novels and in 20 short stories. Miss Marple is an elderly spinster who lives in the village of St. Mary Mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective. Alongside Hercule Poirot, she is one of the most loved and famous of Christie's characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. Her first appearance was in a short story published in ''The Royal Magazine'' in December 1927, \"The Tuesday Night Club\", which later became the first chapter of ''The Thirteen Problems'' (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in ''The Murder at the Vicarage'' in 1930.\n", "The character of Miss Marple is based on Christie's step grandmother, or her aunt (Margaret West), and her cronies. Agatha Christie attributed the inspiration for the character of Miss Marple to a number of sources, stating that Miss Marple was \"the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl\". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in ''The Murder of Roger Ackroyd''. When Michael Morton adapted the novel for the stage, he replaced the character of Caroline with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice: Miss Marple was born.\n\nThere is no definitive source for the derivation of the name 'Marple'. The most common explanation is that the name was taken from Marple railway station in Stockport, through which Christie passed. Alternatively, Christie may have taken the name from a family named Marple, who lived at Marple Hall near her sister Madge's home at Abney Hall.\n", "The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, ''The Murder at the Vicarage'', is markedly different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The citizens of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired by her nosy nature and how she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books she becomes more modern and a kinder person.\n\nMiss Marple solves difficult crimes because of her shrewd intelligence, and St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. Crimes always remind her of a parallel incident, although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realization about the true nature of a crime. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. In several stories, she is able to rely on her acquaintance with Sir Henry Clithering, a retired commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, for official information when required.\n\nMiss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Her nephew, the \"well-known author\" Raymond West appears in some stories including ''Sleeping Murder'' and ''Ingots of Gold'', which also feature his wife Joan, a modern artist (though prior to their marriage she is referred to as \"Joyce Lemprière\", in ''The Thirteen Problems'' stories). Raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunt's mental acuity. Miss Marple employs young women (Clara, Emily, Alice, Esther, Gwenda and Amy) from a nearby orphanage, whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her long-time maid-housekeeper faithful Florence. She was briefly looked after by her irritating maid, Miss Knight. In her later years, companion Cherry Baker, first introduced in ''The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side'', lives in.\n\nMiss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of Raymond West, her nephew (''A Caribbean Mystery'', 1964). She is not herself from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home among them and would probably have been happy to describe herself as \"genteel\"; indeed, a ''gentlewoman''. Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of that staple of British detective fiction, the gentleman detective. She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved study of human anatomy through the study of human cadavers. In ''They Do It with Mirrors'' (1952), it is revealed that Miss Marple grew up in a cathedral close, and that she studied at an Italian finishing school with Americans Ruth Van Rydock and Caroline \"Carrie\" Louise Serrocold.\n\nWhile Miss Marple is described as 'an old lady' in many of the stories, her age is mentioned in \"At Bertram's Hotel\", where it is said she visited the hotel when she was fourteen and almost sixty years have passed since then. Excluding \"Sleeping Murder\", 41 years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's nephew: in ''The Murder at the Vicarage'', the Reverend Clement's nephew Dennis is a teenager; in ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'', it is mentioned that the nephew is now grown and successful and has a career. The effects of ageing are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing a holiday after illness in ''A Caribbean Mystery''.\n\nLittle is known about Marple's background, except that she has two younger sisters. One of them is the mother of Raymond, and the other is mother to Mabel Denham, a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband Geoffrey (''The Thumb Mark of St. Peter'').\n", "# ''The Murder at the Vicarage'' (1930)\n# ''The Body in the Library'' (1942)\n# ''The Moving Finger'' (1943)\n# ''A Murder is Announced'' (1950)\n# ''They Do It with Mirrors'', or ''Murder with Mirrors'' (1952)\n# ''A Pocket Full of Rye'' (1953)\n# ''4.50 from Paddington'', or ''What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!'' (1957)\n# ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'', or ''The Mirror Crack'd'' (1962)\n# ''A Caribbean Mystery'' (1964)\n# ''At Bertram's Hotel'' (1965)\n# ''Nemesis'' (1971)\n# ''Sleeping Murder'' (written around 1940, published 1976)\n", "* ''The Thirteen Problems'' (1932 short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as ''The Tuesday Club Murders'')\n* ''Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories'' (short stories collected posthumously, also published as ''Miss Marple's Final Cases'', but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979)\n* ''Miss Marple: The Complete Short Stories'', published 1985, includes 20 from 4 sets: ''The Tuesday Club Murders'', ''The Regatta Mystery'', ''Three Blind Mice and Other Stories'', and ''Double Sin and Other Stories''.\n\nMiss Marple also appears in \"Greenshaw's Folly\", a short story traditionally included as part of the Poirot collection ''The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding'' (1960). Four stories in the ''Three Blind Mice'' collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: \"Strange Jest\", \"Tape-Measure Murder\", \"The Case of the Caretaker\", and \"The Case of the Perfect Maid\".\n\nThe Autograph edition of ''Miss Marple's Final Cases'' includes the eight in the original plus \"Greenshaw's Folly\".\n", "* ''The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple'' – a biography by Anne Hart\n", "\n===Margaret Rutherford===\nAlthough popular from her first appearance in 1930, Jane Marple had to wait thirty-two years for her first big-screen appearance, starring Margaret Rutherford. These were popular and successful light comedies, but were disappointing to Christie herself. Nevertheless, Agatha Christie dedicated the novel ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'' to Rutherford.\n\nRutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. As penned by Christie, Miss Marple has never worked for a living, but the character as portrayed by Margaret Rutherford briefly works as a cook, a stage actress, a sailor and is offered the chance to run a riding establishment-cum-hotel. Her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship, fencing and equestrianism (although these hints are played for comedic value).\n\n''Murder, She Said'' (1961, directed by George Pollock) was the first of four British MGM productions starring Rutherford. This first film was based on the 1957 novel ''4:50 from Paddington'' (U.S. title, ''What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!''), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy is cut from the plot. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Likewise, it is Miss Marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case, not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it.\n\nThe other Rutherford films, all directed by Pollock, were ''Murder at the Gallop'' (1963), based on the 1953 Hercule Poirot novel ''After the Funeral'' (in this film, she is identified as Miss JTV Marple, though there was no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for); ''Murder Most Foul'' (1964), based on the 1952 Poirot novel ''Mrs McGinty's Dead''; and ''Murder Ahoy!'' (1964). The last film is not based on any Christie work but displays a few plot elements from ''They Do It With Mirrors'' (viz., the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force), and there is a kind of salute to ''The Mousetrap''. Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the spoof Hercule Poirot adventure ''The Alphabet Murders'' (1965).\n\nThe music to all four films was composed and conducted by Ron Goodwin and is still played on radio today. The same theme is used on all four films with slight variations on each. The main theme has a distinct 1960s feel to it and is known to be a highly complex piece of music due to the quick playing of the violin. The score was written within a couple of weeks by Goodwin who was approached by Pollock after Pollock had heard about him from Stanley Black. Black had worked with Pollock on \"Stranger in Town\" in 1957 and had previously used Goodwin as his orchestrator.\n\nRutherford, who was 70 years old when the first film was made, insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her real-life husband, Stringer Davis, appear alongside her as the character 'Mr Stringer'. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal.\n\n===Angela Lansbury===\nIn 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'' (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. The film featured an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes.\n\nLansbury later starred in the TV series ''Murder, She Wrote'' as Jessica Fletcher, a mystery novelist who also solves crimes. The character of Jessica Fletcher is thought to be based on a combination of Miss Marple, Agatha Christie herself, and another Christie character, Ariadne Oliver, who often appears in the Hercule Poirot mysteries.\n\n===Helen Hayes===\nHelen Hayes starred in two Miss Marple films for television: ''A Caribbean Mystery'' (1983) and ''Murder with Mirrors'' (1985), near the end of her decades long acting career. She had earlier appeared in a TV movie adaptation of the non-Marple Christie story ''Murder Is Easy'', playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to Miss Marple.\n\n===Ita Ever===\nIn 1983, Estonian stage and film actress Ita Ever starred in the Russian language film adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel ''A Pocket Full of Rye'' (using the Russian edition's translated title, ''The Secret of the Blackbirds'') as the character of Miss Marple.\n", "American TV was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of Miss Marple with Gracie Fields, the legendary British actress, playing her in a 1956 episode of ''Goodyear TV Playhouse'' based on ''A Murder Is Announced'', the 1950 Christie novel.\n\nIn 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by Inge Langen in a West German television adaptation of ''The Murder at the Vicarage '' (''Mord im Pfarrhaus'').\n\nAmerican stage and screen actress Helen Hayes portrayed Miss Marple in two American made-for-TV movies, both for CBS: ''A Caribbean Mystery'' (1983) and ''Murder with Mirrors'' (1985). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy.\n\nIn 2015, CBS planned a \"much younger\" version of the character, a granddaughter who takes over a California bookstore.\n\n===Joan Hickson===\n\n\nFrom 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled ''Miss Marple''. Joan Hickson played the lead role. In the 1940s, Joan appeared on-stage in an Agatha Christie play, ''Appointment with Death'', which was seen by Christie who wrote in a note to her, \"I hope one day you will play my dear Miss Marple\". (Coincidentally, Hickson had played a housekeeper in ''Murder, She Said'', the first film in which Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple.) In addition she portrayed a maid in the 1937 film, ''Love from a Stranger'', which starred Ann Harding and Basil Rathbone, another Agatha Christie play adaptation. As well as portraying Miss Marple on television, Hickson also narrated a number of Miss Marple stories on audio books. In the \"Binge!\" article of ''Entertainment Weekly'' Issue #1343-44 (26 December 2014–3 January 2015), the writers picked Hickson as \"Best Marple\" in the \"Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple\" timeline.\n\nListing of the TV series featuring Joan Hickson:\n* ''The Body in the Library'' (1984)\n* ''A Murder is Announced'' (1985)\n* ''A Pocket Full of Rye'' (1985)\n* ''The Moving Finger'' (1985)\n* ''The Murder at the Vicarage'' (1986) – BAFTA nomination\n* ''Sleeping Murder'' (1987)\n* ''At Bertram's Hotel'' (1987)\n* ''Nemesis'' (1987) – BAFTA nomination\n* ''4.50 from Paddington'' (1987)\n* ''A Caribbean Mystery'' (1989)\n* ''They Do It With Mirrors'' (1991)\n* ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'' (1992)\n\n===Geraldine McEwan (2004-2008) / Julia McKenzie (2009-2013)===\n\nBeginning in 2004, ITV broadcast a series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title ''Agatha Christie's Marple'', usually referred to as ''Marple.'' Geraldine McEwan starred in the first three series. Julia McKenzie took over the role in the fourth season.\n\nThe adaptations are notable for changing the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing the identities of some killers, renaming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books in which Miss Marple did not originally feature). In the Geraldine McEwan series it is revealed that when she was young, Miss Marple had an affair with a married soldier, Captain Ainsworth, who was killed in action in World War I, in December 1915. It is also said (in ''A Murder Is Announced'') that she served as a nurse during World War II.\n\nListing of the TV series featuring Geraldine McEwan and Julia McKenzie:\n* ''The Body in the Library'' (2004)\n* ''The Murder at the Vicarage'' (2004)\n* ''4.50 from Paddington'' (2004)\n* ''A Murder is Announced'' (2005)\n* ''Sleeping Murder'' (2005)\n* ''The Moving Finger'' (2006)\n* ''By the Pricking of My Thumbs'' (2006)\n* ''The Sittaford Mystery'' (2006)\n* ''At Bertram's Hotel'' (2007)\n* ''Ordeal by Innocence'' (2007)\n* ''Towards Zero'' (2008)\n* ''Nemesis'' (2008)\n* ''A Pocket Full of Rye'' (2009)\n* ''Murder is Easy'' (2009)\n* ''They Do It with Mirrors'' (2009)\n* ''Why Didn't They Ask Evans?'' (2009)\n* ''The Pale Horse'' (2010)\n* ''The Secret of Chimneys'' (2010)\n* ''The Blue Geranium'' (2010)\n* ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side'' (2010)\n* ''A Caribbean Mystery'' (2013)\n* ''Greenshaw's Folly'' (2013)\n* ''Endless Night'' (2013)\n\n===Anime===\n\nFrom 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled ''Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple'', which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Episodes adapted both short stories and novels.\n\nThe anime series dramatised the following Miss Marple stories:\n* ''Strange Jest'' (EP 3)\n* ''The Case of the Perfect Maid'' (EP 4)\n* ''The Tape-Measure Murder'' (EP 13)\n* ''Ingots of Gold'' (EP 14)\n* ''The Blue Geranium'' (EP 15)\n* ''4.50 from Paddington'' (EP 21–24)\n* ''Motive versus Opportunity'' (EP 27)\n* ''Sleeping Murder'' (EP 30–33)\n", "In 1974, Barbara Mullen played Miss Marple in ''Murder at the Vicarage'' at the Savoy Theatre, London.\n\nIn September 1977, veteran actress and author Dulcie Gray played the Miss Marple character in a stage adaptation of ''A Murder Is Announced'' at the Vaudeville Theatre in London, England that also featured Dinah Sheridan, Eleanor Summerfield, Patricia Brake and Barbara Flynn.\n", "BBC Radio 4 dramatised all of the novels from 1993 to 2001 with June Whitfield as Miss Marple.\n\n\n\n Title\n Show\n Episodes\n Episode Frequency\n Original airdate\n\nMurder At the Vicarage\n\n5\nDaily\n26–30 December 1993\n\nA Pocket Full of Rye\nThe Saturday Playhouse\n1\n\n11 February 1995\n\nAt Bertram's Hotel\n\n5\nDaily\n25–29 December 1995\n\nThe 4:50 From Paddington\nThe Saturday Playhouse\n1\n\n29 March 1997\n\nA Caribbean Mystery\n\n5\nWeekly\n30 October – 27 November 1997\n\nThe Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side\nAgatha Christie Special\n1\n\n29 August 1998\n\nNemesis\n\n5\nWeekly\n9 November – 7 December 1998\n\nThe Body In the Library\nThe Saturday Play\n1\n\n22 May 1999\n\nA Murder Is Announced\n\n5\nWeekly\n9 August – 6 September 1999\n\nThe Moving Finger\nThe Saturday Play\n1\n\n5 May 2001\n\nThey Do It With Mirrors\n\n5\nWeekly\n23 July 2001 – 20 August 2001\n\nSleeping Murder\nThe Saturday Play\n1\n\n8 December 2001\n\nMiss Marple was also referred to several times in the episode \"Paris\" of the BBC Radio 4 comedy programme Cabin Pressure.\n", "Case Closed''\nMarple was highlighted in volume 20 of the ''Case Closed'' manga's edition of \"Gosho Aoyama's Mystery Library\", a section of the graphic novels (usually the last page) where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media.\n\nIn the 1976 Neil Simon spoof ''Murder By Death'', Miss Marple is parodied as \"Miss Marbles\" by Elsa Lanchester.\n", "\n* List of female detective characters\n", "\n", "* Miss Marple at the official Agatha Christie website\n* Biography of Miss Marple\n* \n* Yahoo Grouplist for Geraldine McEwan\n* \n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Origins", "Character", "Novels featuring Miss Marple", "Miss Marple short story collections", "Books about Miss Marple", "Films", "Television", "Stage", "Radio", "Other appearances", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Miss Marple
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'''April''' is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, the fifth in the early Julian and the first month to have the length of 30 days.\n\nApril is commonly associated with the season of spring in parts of the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in parts of the Southern Hemisphere, where it is the seasonal equivalent to October in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa.\n", "\n\nThe Romans gave this month the Latin name ''Aprilis'' but the derivation of this name is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the verb ''aperire'', \"to open\", in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to \"open\", which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of άνοιξη (''ánixi'') (opening) for spring. Since some of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to the goddess Venus, her Veneralia being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month '''Aphrilis''', from her equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite (''Aphros''), or from the Etruscan name ''Apru''. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, ''Aper'' or ''Aprus''.\n\nApril was the second month of the earliest Roman calendar, before ''Ianuarius'' and ''Februarius'' were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450 BC, when it also was given 29 days. The 30th day was added during the reform of the calendar undertaken by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s BC, which produced the Julian calendar.\n\nThe Anglo-Saxons called April ''ēastre-monaþ''. The Venerable Bede says in ''The Reckoning of Time'' that this month ''ēastre'' is the root of the word Easter. He further states that the month was named after a goddess ''Eostre'' whose feast was in that month. It is also attested by Einhard in his work, Vita Karoli Magni.\n\nSt George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth.\n\nIn China the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to April. In Finnish April is ''huhtikuu'', meaning ''slash-and-burn moon'', when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled.\n\nIn Slovene, the most established traditional name is ''mali traven'', meaning the month when plants start growing. It was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.'\n\nThe month Aprilis had 30 days; Numa Pompilius made it 29 days long; finally Julius Caesar’s calendar reform made it again 30 days long, which was not changed in the calendar revision of Augustus Caesar in 8 BC.\n\nIn Ancient Rome, the festival of Cerealia was held for seven days from mid-to-late April, but exact dates are uncertain. Feriae Latinae was also held in April, with the date varying. Other ancient Roman observances include Veneralia (April 1), Megalesia (April 10–16), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), Vinalia Urbana, Robigalia, and Serapia were celebrated on (April 25). Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.\n\nThe Lyrids meteor shower appears on April 16 – April 26 each year, with the peak generally occurring on April 22. Eta Aquariids meteor shower also appears in April. It is visible from about April 21 to about May 20 each year with peak activity on or around May 6. The Pi Puppids appear on April 23, but only in years around the parent comet's perihelion date. The Virginids also shower at various dates in April.\n\nThe \"Days of April\" (''journées d'avril'') is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the ''procès d'avril''.\n", "* April's birthstone is the diamond.\n* The birth flower is typically listed as either the Daisy ''(Bellis perennis)'' or the Sweet Pea.\n* The zodiac signs for the month of April are Aries (until April 19) and Taurus (April 20 onwards).\n", "''This list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance.''\n\n===Month-long observances===\nBuddha's Birthday is celebrated in April (here is pictured the Tian Tan Buddha in Hong Kong)\nIn Catholic tradition, April is the Month of the Resurrection of the Lord.\nNational Pet Month (United Kingdom)\n\n====United States====\nArab American Heritage Month\nAutism Awareness Month \nCancer Control Month \nConfederate History Month (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia)\nDonate Life Month \nFinancial Literacy Month \nJazz Appreciation Month\nMathematics and Statistics Awareness Month\nNational Poetry Month \nNational Poetry Writing Month \nNational Prevent Child Abuse Month \nNational Volunteer Month\nParkinson's Disease Awareness Month\nSexual Assault Awareness Month\n\n=====United States Food months=====\nFresh Florida Tomato Month\nNational Food Month\nNational Grilled Cheese Month\nNational Pecan Month\nNational Soft Pretzel Month\nNational Soyfoods Month\n\n===Non-Gregorian observances, 2017===\nSizdah Be-dar (Iranian calendars) – April 2\nQingming Festival (Chinese calendar) – April 4\nRama Navami (Hinduism) – April 4 or 5, depending on state in India.\nCold Food Festival (Chinese calendar) – April 5–7\nMopin (Galo people) – April 5\nFast of Miriam – April 6 (Hebrew calendar, fast is optional and is generally only observed by Chevra kadisha)\nYom HaAliyah – April 6 (Hebrew calendar, State of Israel) \nEducation and Sharing Day (United States)/11 Nissan Chabad sect only) – April 7\nCheti Chand (Sindhi people) – April 8\nGudi Padwa (Hinduism) – April 8\nHekate's Deipnon (Attic calendar, Hellenism) – April 8\nFeast of Glory – (Bahai calendar) – April 8\nSajibu Cheiraoba (Meitei people) – April 8\nShabbat HaGadol – April 8 (Hebrew calendar) \nUgadi (Hinduism) – April 8\nBedikas Chametz – sundown of April 9 (Hebrew calendar) \nFast of the Firstborn – April 10 (Hebrew calendar) \nGangaur (Hinduism) – April 10\nPongtu (Tutsa Naga) – April 11 \nCounting the Omer – April 11 – May 30 (Hebrew calendar) \nPassover – April 11–18 (April 17 in Israel) (Hebrew calendar) \nChol HaMoed Pesach – April 13 – April 16 (Hebrew calendar) \n*Shabbat Chol Hamoed Pesach – April 15 (Hebrew calendar) \nMimouna – April 18 (April 17 in Israel) Observed by Maghrebi Jews. Seharane is celebrated by Kurdish Jews outside of Israel on this date. (Hebrew calendar) \nCambodian New Year – April 13–15\nWater-Sprinkling Festival (Dai people) – April 13–15\nMesha Sankranti/Pana Sankranti (Hinduism) – April 13\nSongkran (Lao) – April 13–15\nVishu (Hinduism, Indian National Calendar) – April 13–14\nBohag Bihu (Assamese people) – April 14 \nDelphinia (Attic calendar, Hellenism) – April 14\nMaithili New Year – April 14 (Nepali calendar) – April 14\nPuthandu (Tamil calendar) – April 14\nSangken (certain Buddhist communities in India) – April 14\nSinhalese New Year (Sri Lanka) – April 14\nHùng Kings' Festival (Vietnamese calendar) – April 16\nShabdrung Kurchoe (Bhutanese calendar) – April 16\nKamada Ekadashi (Hinduism) – April 17\nMahavir Jayanti (Jainism) (April 19Karnataka and Rajasthan only, April 20 in other locations)\nGaria puja (Tripura, India) – April 21\nBirthday of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (Islamic calendar – April 20\nMahavir Jayanti (Jainism) – April 20 (April 19 in Karnataka and Rajasthan)\nRidván (Bahai) April 20 – May 1\nBak Full Moon Poya (Sri Lanka) – April 21\nFather's Day (Islamic calendar) – April 21\nHanuman Jayanti (Hinduism) – April 21\nShabbat Mevorchim – April 22 (Hebrew calendar) \nDays of Remembrance of the Victims of the Holocaust (United States) – April 23 – April 30 (Hebrew calendar) \nYom HaShoah – April 24 (Hebrew calendar) \nRosh Chodesh of Iyar – April 27\nAmavasya – (Hinduism) – April 26\nFeast of Beauty – (Bahai calendar) – April 27\nAkshaya Tritiya – (Hinduism, Jainism, Indian national calendar) – April 29\n\n===Movable observances, 2017 dates===\nCrime Victims' Rights Week (United States): April 2–8\nOral, Head and Neck Cancer Awareness Week (United States: April 2–9 \nEqual Pay Day (United States): April 4\nYouth Homelessness Matters Day: April 5 (Australia)\nNational Health Day (Kiribati): April 7\nNational Park Week (United States): April 15–23\nDay of Silence (United States): April 21\nGlobal Youth Service Day: April 21–23\nVaccination Week In The Americas: April 22–29\nNational Volunteer Week: April 23–29 (Canada, United States)\nEuropean Immunization Week: April 24–30 \nDenim Day (International observance): April 26 \nDay of Dialogue (United States): April 28\nPay It Forward Day (International observance: April 28\nAstronomy Day (United States): April 29\n\n====First Saturday: April 1====\nUlcinj Municipality Day (Ulcinj, Montenegro)\n\n====First full week: April 2–8====\nNational Library Week (United States)\nNational Library Workers Day (United States) (Tuesday of National Library week, April 4)\nNational Bookmobile Day (Wednesday of National Library week, April 5) \nNational Public Health Week (United States)\nNational Public Safety Telecommunicators Week (United States)\n\n=====First Sunday: April 2=====\nA Drop of Water Is a Grain of Gold (Turkmenistan)\nGeologists Day (former Soviet Union countries) \nKanamara Matsuri (Kawasaki, Japan)\nOpening Day (United States)\n\n=====First Wednesday: April 5=====\nNational Day of Hope (United States)\n\n====Second Sunday: April 9====\nChildren's Day (Peru)\n\n====Week of April 14: April 9–15====\nPan-American Week (United States)\n\n=====Second Wednesday: April 12=====\nInternational Day of Pink\n\n=====Second Thursday: April 13=====\nNational D.A.R.E. Day (United States)\n\n=====Second Friday of April: April 14=====\nFast and Prayer Day (Liberia) \nAir Force Day (Russia)\nKamakura Matsuri at Tsurugaoka Hachiman (Kamakura, Japan), lasts until third Sunday.\n\n====Third Saturday: April 15====\nRecord Store Day (International observance)\n\n====Third Monday: April 17====\nPatriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, United States)\nQueen's Official Birthday (Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha)\nSechseläuten (Zürich, Switzerland)\n\n====Third Wednesday: April 19====\nAdministrative Professionals' Day (New Zealand)\n\n====First Thursday after April 18: April 20====\nFirst Day of Summer (Iceland)\n\n====Third Thursday: April 20====\nNational High Five Day (United States)\n\n====Week of April 23: April 23–29====\nCanada Book Week (Canada)\n\n====Week of the New Moon: April 23–29====\nNational Dark-Sky Week (United States)\n\n====Last full week of April: April 23–29====\nAdministrative Professionals Week (Malaysia, North America)\nWorld Immunization Week\n\n=====Last Monday: April 24=====\nConfederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Georgia (U.S. state), and Mississippi, United States)\n\n=====Wednesday of last full week of April: April 26=====\nAdministrative Professionals' Day (Hong Kong, North America)\n\n=====Last Wednesday: April 26=====\nInternational Noise Awareness Day\n\n=====April 27 (moves to April 26 if April 27 is on a Sunday): April 27=====\nKoningsdag (Netherlands)\n\n=====Fourth Thursday: April 27=====\nTake Our Daughters And Sons To Work Day (United States)\n\n=====Last Friday: April 28=====\nArbor Day (United States)\nDía de la Chupina (Rosario, Argentina)\n\n====Last Friday in April to first Sunday in May: April 28 – May 7====\nArbor Week in Ontario\n\n=====Last Saturday: April 29=====\nChildren's Day (Colombia)\nNational Rebuilding Day (United States)\nNational Sense of Smell Day (United States)\nWorld Tai Chi and Qigong Day\n\n=====Last Sunday: April 30=====\nFlag Day – (Åland Islands, Finland)\nTurkmen Racing Horse Festival (Turkmenistan)\n\n====Movable Western Christian observances – 2017====\nPassion Sunday (5th Sunday of Lent): April 2 (no longer officially celebrated by Roman Catholic church, still celebrated by other denominations)\n\n=====Holy Week=====\n* Palm Sunday: April 9\n*World Youth Day (Roman Catholic), celebrated on Palm Sunday\nHoly Monday: April 10\nHoly Tuesday: April 11\nHoly Wednesday: April 12\nMaundy Thursday: April 13\nGood Friday: April 14\nHoly Saturday: April 15\n\n=====Easter Week=====\nEarth Day Sunday – April 16 (some Protestant denominations, Sunday before Earth Day) \n* Easter: April 16 (Eastertide begins)\nAberri Eguna (Basque)\nLieldienas (Latvia)\n* Easter Monday: April 17\nFamily Day (South Africa)\nŚmigus-Dyngus, regional variant of Easter Monday (Poland, Ukraine)\n* Easter Tuesday: April 18 Public holiday in Tasmania.\n* Easter Wednesday: April 19\n*Saint Gregory's Day (Żejtun, Malta)\n Easter Thursday: April 20\n* Easter Friday: April 21\n* Easter Saturday: April 22\n\n=====Post Easter=====\nDivine Mercy Sunday: April 23 (Sunday after Easter)\nJubilate Sunday: April 30 (Sunday after Divine Mercy Sunday)\n\n====Movable Eastern Christian observances – 2017====\nSaturday of the Akathist: April 1\nSunday of St. Mary of Egypt: April 2 \nNabi Musa: April 7\nLazarus Saturday: April 8\nPalm Sunday: April 9\nFlower's Day (Bulgaria)\nGreat and Holy Monday: April 10 \nGreat and Holy Tuesday: April 11 \nGreat and Holy Wednesday: April 12 \nGreat and Holy Thursday: April 13, \nGreat and Holy Friday: April 14 \nGreat and Holy Saturday:April 15\n Pascha: April 16\n*Fasika (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)\n Bright Monday: April 17\n*Sham el-Nessim (Egypt)\n Bright Tuesday: April 18\n* Bright Wednesday: April 19\n* Bright Thursday: April 20\n* Bright Friday: April 21\n* Bright Saturday: April 22\n* Thomas Sunday: April 23\n* Radonitsa (Russian Orthodox): April 24 or 25 (depends on region)\n* Sunday of the Myrrhbearers: April 30\n\n===Fixed observances===\nApril 1\nApril Fools' Day\nArbor Day (Tanzania)\nCivil Service Day (Thailand)\nCyprus National Day (Cyprus) \nEdible Book Day\nFossil Fools Day\nKha b-Nisan (Assyrian people)\nNational Civil Service Day (Thailand) \nStart of Testicular Cancer Awareness week (United States), April 1–7\nSeason for Nonviolence January 30 – April 4\nApril 2 \nInternational Children's Book Day (International observance)\nMalvinas Day (Argentina)\nNational Peanut Butter and Jelly Day (United States)\nOdisha Day (Odisha, India)\nThai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand)\nUnity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus)\n*World Autism Awareness Day (International observance) \nApril 3\nApril 4\nChildren's Day (Hong Kong, Taiwan)\nIndependence Day (Senegal)\nInternational Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action\nPeace Day (Angola)\nApril 5\nChildren's Day (Palestinian territories)\nNational Caramel Day (United States)\n*Sikmogil (South Korea)\nApril 6\nChakri Day (Thailand)\nNational Beer Day (United Kingdom)\nNew Beer's Eve (United States)\nTartan Day (United States & Canada)\nApril 7\nFlag Day (Slovenia)\nGenocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance:\nInternational Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations)\nMotherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia)\nNational Beer Day (United States) \nNo Housework Day\nSheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania)\nWomen's Day (Mozambique)\n*World Health Day (International observance)\nApril 8\nBuddha's Birthday (Japan only, other countries follow different calendars)\nFeast of the First Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)\nInternational Romani Day (International observance)\nTrading Cards for Grown-ups Day\nApril 9\nAnniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark)\nBaghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)\nBataan Day or ''Araw ng Kagitingan'' (Philippines)\nConstitution Day (Kosovo)\nDay of National Unity (Georgia)\nDay of the Finnish Language (Finland)\nFeast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)\nInternational Banshtai Tsai Day\nMartyr's Day (Tunisia)\nNational Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States) \nRemembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth)\nVimy Ridge Day (Canada)\nApril 10\nDay of the Builder (Azerbaijan)\nFeast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)\n*Siblings Day (International observance)\nApril 11\nJuan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica)\nInternational Louie Louie Day\nNational Cheese Fondue Day (United States)\nWorld Parkinson's Day\nApril 12\nChildren's Day (Bolivia and Haiti)\nCommemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:\nCosmonautics Day (Russia)\nInternational Day of Human Space Flight \nYuri's Night (International observance)\nHalifax Day (North Carolina)\nNational Grilled Cheese Sandwich Day (United States)\nNational Redemption Day (Liberia)\n*Walk on Your Wild Side Day\nApril 13\nJefferson's Birthday (United States)\nKatyn Memorial Day (Poland)\nTeacher's Day (Ecuador) \nFirst day of Thingyan (Burma) (April 13–16) \n*Unfairly Prosecuted Persons Day (Slovakia)\nApril 14\nʔabusibaree (Okinawa Islands, Japan)\nAmbedkar Jayanti (India)\nBlack Day (South Korea)\nCommemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan) \nDhivehi Language Day (Maldives)\nDay of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia)\nDay of the Georgian language (Georgia (country))\nSeason of Emancipation (April 14 to August 23) (Barbados)\nN'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers)\nPohela Boishakh (Bangladesh)\nPana Sankranti (Odisha, India)\nPuthandu (Tamils) (India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka)\nSecond day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand)\nPan American Day (several countries in the Americas)\nThe first day of Takayama Spring Festival (Takayama, Gifu, Japan)\nVaisakh (Punjab (region)), (India and Pakistan)\n*Youth Day (Angola)\nApril 15\nDay of the Sun (North Korea).\nHillsborough Disaster Memorial(Liverpool, England)\nJackie Robinson Day (United States)\nNational Banana Day (United States)\nPohela Boishakh (West Bengal, India) (Note: celebrated on April 14 in Bangladesh)\nLast day of Songkran (Thailand) (Thailand)\nTax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)\nUniversal Day of Culture \n*World Art Day\nApril 16\nBirthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States)\nBirthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark)\nEmancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)\nFoursquare Day (International observance) \nMemorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)\nNational Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)\nRemembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)\nWorld Voice Day\nApril 17\nBlah Blah Blah Day\nEvacuation Day (Syria)\nFAO Day (Iraq)\nFlag Day (American Samoa)\nMalbec World Day \nNational Cheeseball Day (United States)\nNational Espresso Day (Italy)\nWomen's Day (Gabon)\nWorld Hemophilia Day \nApril 18\nAnniversary of the Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice, 1242 (Russia)\nArmy Day (Iran)\nComa Patients' Day (Poland)\nFriend's Day (Brazil)\nIndependence Day (Zimbabwe)\nInternational Day For Monuments and Sites \nInvention Day (Japan)\nPet Owner's Independence Day\nApril 19\nArmy Day (Brazil)\nBeginning of the Independence Movement (Venezuela)\nBicycle Day\nDutch-American Friendship Day (United States)\nHolocaust Remembrance Day (Poland)\nIndian Day (Brazil)\nKing Mswati III's birthday (Swaziland)\nLanding of the 33 Patriots Day (Uruguay)\nNational Garlic Day (United States)\nNational Rice Ball Day (United States)\nPrimrose Day (United Kingdom)\nApril 20\n420 (cannabis culture) (International)\nUN Chinese Language Day (United Nations)\nApril 21\nA&M Day (Texas A&M University)\nCivil Service Day (India)\nDay of Local Self-Government (Russia)\nGrounation Day (Rastafari movement)\nHeroic Defense of Veracruz (Mexico)\nKang Pan-sok’s Birthday (North Korea)\nKartini Day (Indonesia)\nLocal Self Government Day (Russia)\nNational Tree Planting Day (Kenya)\nSan Jacinto Day (Texas)\nQueen's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands)\nTiradentes' Day (Brazil)\nVietnam Book Day (Vietnam)\nApril 22\nDiscovery Day (Brazil)\nEarth Day (International observance) and its related observance:\n*International Mother Earth Day \nHolocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia)\n*National Jelly Bean Day (United States)\nApril 23\nCastile and León Day (Castile and León, Spain)\nGerman Beer Day (Germany)\nIndependence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida)\nInternational Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day\nKhongjom Day (Manipur, India)\nNational Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus)\nNavy Day (China)\nSt George's Day (England) and its related observances:\n*Canada Book Day (Canada)\nLa Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain)\nWorld Book Day \nUN English Language Day (United Nations)\nApril 24\nArmenian Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenia)\nConcord Day (Niger)\nChildren's Day (Zambia)\nDemocracy Day (Nepal)\nFashion Revolution Day \nFlag Day (Ireland)\nInternational Sculpture Day\nKapyong Day (Australia)\nLabour Safety Day (Bangladesh)\nNational Panchayati Raj Day (India)\nNational Pigs in a Blanket Day (United States)\nRepublic Day (The Gambia)\nSt Mark's Eve (Western Christianity)\nWorld Day for Laboratory Animals\nApril 25\nAnniversary of the First Cabinet of Kurdish Government (Iraqi Kurdistan) \nAnzac Day (Australia, New Zealand)\nArbor Day (Germany)\nDNA Day\nFeast of Saint Mark (Western Christianity)\nFlag Day (Faroe Islands)\nFlag Day (Swaziland)\nFreedom Day (Portugal)\nLiberation Day (Italy)\nMajor Rogation (Western Christianity)\nMilitary Foundation Day (North Korea)\nNational Zucchini Bread Day (United States)\nParental Alienation Awareness Day\nRed Hat Society Day\nSinai Liberation Day (Egypt)\nWorld Malaria Day\nApril 26\nChernobyl disaster related observances:\nMemorial Day of Radiation Accidents and Catastrophes (Russia)\nDay of Remembrance of the Chernobyl tragedy (Belarus) \nConfederate Memorial Day (Florida, United States)\nHug A Friend Day\nHug an Australian Day\nLesbian Visibility Day\nNational Pretzel Day (United States)\nOld Permic Alphabet Day\nUnion Day (Tanzania)\nWorld Intellectual Property Day\nApril 27\nDay of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia)\nDay of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia)\nFlag Day (Moldova)\nFreedom Day (South Africa)\n*UnFreedom Day \nIndependence Day (Sierra Leone)\nIndependence Day (Togo)\nNational Day (Mayotte)\nNational Day (Sierra Leone)\nNational Prime Rib Day (United States)\n*National Veterans' Day (Finland)\nApril 28\nLawyers' Day (Orissa, India)\nMujahideen Victory Day (Afghanistan)\nNational Day (Sardinia, Italy)\nNational Heroes Day (Barbados)\nRestoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan)\nWorkers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international)\n**National Day of Mourning (Canada)\nApril 29 \nDay of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations)\nInternational Dance Day (UNESCO)\nPrincess Bedike's Birthday (Denmark)\nNational Shrimp Scampi Day (United States)\n*Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan)\nApril 30\nArmed Forces Day (Georgia (country))\nBirthday of the King (Sweden)\nCamarón Day (French Foreign Legion)\nChildren's Day (Mexico)\nConsumer Protection Day (Thailand)\nHonesty Day (United States)\nInternational Jazz Day (UNESCO)\nMartyr's Day (Pakistan)\nMay Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere ''(see May 1)'':\nBeltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)\nCarodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)\nWalpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)\nNational Persian Gulf Day (Iran)\nReunification Day (Vietnam)\nRussian State Fire Service Day (Russia)\nTax Day (Canada)\nTeachers' Day (Paraguay)\n", " Germanic calendar\n* List of historical anniversaries\n* Sinking of the RMS Titanic\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n* National Arbor Day Foundation\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "April symbols", "April observances", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	April
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Aaron''' (; or ) is a prophet, high priest, and the brother of Moses in the Abrahamic religions (elder brother in the case of Judaism).\n\nKnowledge of Aaron, along with his brother Moses, comes exclusively from religious texts, such as the Bible and Qur’an. The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron and his elder sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of Egypt (Goshen). When Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the Israelites, Aaron served as his brother's spokesman (\"prophet\") to the Pharaoh. Part of the Law (Torah) that Moses received from God at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, and he became the first High Priest of the Israelites. Aaron died before the Israelites crossed the North Jordan river and he was buried on Mount Hor (Numbers 33:39; Deuteronomy 10:6 says he died and was buried at Moserah). Aaron is also mentioned in the New Testament of the Bible.\n", "\nAccording to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses' assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses' \"prophet\" (Exodus 4:10-17; 7:1). At the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake. Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues. After that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself.\n\nDuring the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active. At the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the \"rod of God\". When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. While Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people. From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses' assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest.\n\n===High Priest===\nThe books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants (Exodus 28:1). The family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to the God of Israel. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary (Numbers 3). Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office (Leviticus 8; cf. Exodus 28-29). He also related to them God's detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened (Leviticus 1-7, 11-27). Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined (Exodus 28:30). God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, and to teach the divine laws (the Torah) to the Israelites (Leviticus 10:10-11). The priests were also commissioned to bless the people (Numbers 6:22-27). When Aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and, with Moses, \"blessed the people: and the glory of the appeared unto all the people: And there came a fire out from before the , and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat which when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces\" (Leviticus 9:23-24). In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established.\n\nIn later books of the Old Testament, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian Exile and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, but do not mention the Aaronides in particular. The book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King David's priests. It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position. A two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many historians think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel. What is clear is that high priests claiming Aaronide descent dominated the Second Temple period. Most scholars think the Pentateuch reached its final form early in this period, which may account for Aaron's prominence in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers.\n\n===Leadership conflicts===\nAaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts over leadership during Israel's wilderness wanderings. During the prolonged absence of Moses on Mount Sinai, the people provoked Aaron to make a Golden Calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from Egypt (Exodus 32:1-6). This incident nearly caused God to destroy the Israelites for their unfaithfulness to the covenant (Exodus 32:10). Moses successfully intervened, but then led the loyal Levites in executing many of the culprits; a plague afflicted those who were left (Exodus 32:25-35). Aaron, however, escaped punishment for his role in the affair, because of the intercession of Moses according to Deuteronomy 9:20. Later retellings of this story almost always excuse Aaron for his role. For example, in rabbinic sources and in the Qur'an, Aaron was not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the Israelites (Quran 7:142-152).\n\nOn the day of Aaron's consecration, his oldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were burned up by divine fire because they offered \"strange\" incense (Leviticus 10:1-3). Most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in Israel's past. Others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow God's instructions given through Moses.\n\nThe Pentateuch generally depicts the siblings, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus, a view also reflected in the biblical book of Micah. Numbers 12, however, reports that on one occasion, Aaron and Miriam complained about Moses' exclusive claim to be the 's prophet. Their presumption was rebuffed by God who affirmed Moses' uniqueness as the one with whom the spoke face to face. Miriam was punished with skin disease (''leprous''), that turned her skin white. Aaron pleaded with Moses to intercede for her, and Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed. Aaron once again escaped any retribution.\n\nAccording to Numbers 16-17, a Levite named Korah led many in challenging Aaron's exclusive claim to the priesthood. When the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth, (Numbers 16:25-35), Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague abated (Numbers 17:1-15, 16:36-50).The Blossoming of Aaron's Rod, etching by Augustin Hirschvogel\n \nTo emphasize the validity of the Levites' claim to the offerings and tithes of the Israelites, Moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in Israel and laid the twelve rods over night in the tent of meeting. The next morning, Aaron's rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds (Numbers 17:8). The following chapter then details the distinction between Aaron's family and the rest of the Levites: while all the Levites (and only Levites) were devoted to the care of the sanctuary, charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone (Numbers 18:1-7).\n\n===Death===\nAaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the Israelites because the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage (Numbers 20:12-13), when Moses brought water out of a rock to quench the people's thirst. Though they had been commanded to speak to the rock, Moses struck it with the staff twice, which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the (Numbers 20:7-11).\n\nThere are two accounts of the death of Aaron in the Pentateuch. Numbers says that soon after the incident at Meribah, Aaron with his son Eleazar and Moses ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days (Numbers 20:22-29; compare 33:38-39). The other account is found in Deuteronomy 10:6, where Aaron died at Moserah and was buried. There is a significant amount of travel between these two points, as the itinerary in Numbers 33:31–37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor. Aaron was 123 at the time of his death.\n\n====Family tree====\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", "Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon (Exodus 6:23) of the tribe of Judah. The sons of Aaron were Eleazar, Ithamar, and Nadab and Abihu. A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest. Any non-Aaronic Levite—i.e., descended from Levi but not from Aaron—assisted the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle; later of the temple.\n\nThe Gospel of Luke records that both Zechariah and Elizabeth and therefore their son John the Baptist were descendants of Aaron.\n", "\n===Jewish rabbinic literature===\nThe older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is pointed out that it is said fifteen times in the Pentateuch that \"the Lord spoke to Moses ''and'' Aaron.\" Under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, according to Malachi 2:4–7, and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses. \"At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,\" says Mekilta,(12) who strongly implies this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's ministration.\n\nIn fulfilment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head (Leviticus Rabbah x., Midrash Teh. cxxxiii. 1), Aaron's death, as described in the Haggadah, was of a wonderful tranquility. Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. \"Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar!\" said Moses; \"and then follow me.\" Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. \"Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother,\" Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: \"Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!\" When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, \"Where is Aaron?\" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: \"The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin\" (Malachi 2:6). He died, according to Seder Olam Rabbah ix., R. H. 2, 3a, on the first of Ab.\" The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death (see Seder 'Olam, ix. and R. H. 2b-3a). The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deuteronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: \"There at Mosera died Aaron.\"\n\nThe rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and Moses. When the latter was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: \"O my Lord, send, I pray thee, by the hand of him whom thou wilt send\" (Exodus 4:13), he was unwilling to deprive Aaron, his brother, of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: \"Behold, when he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart\" (). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Shimon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to \"be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord\" (Canticles Rabbah i. 10). Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers (Exodus 4:27; compare Song of Songs 8:1), and of them it is written: \"Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity!\" (Psalms 133:1). Of them it is said: \"Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed each other\" (Psalms 85:10); for Moses stood for righteousness, according to Deuteronomy 33:21, and Aaron for peace, according to . Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy 33:8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers 12:7 .\n\nWhen Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: \"Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office.\" Then the Shekhinah spoke the words: \"Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon\" () .\n\nAccording to Tanhuma, Aaron's activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses. Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: \"Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!\" This is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in Abot de-Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere, according to which Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron's death was greater, therefore, than at that of Moses; for whereas, when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women, (Numbers 20:29) Moses was bewailed by \"the sons of Israel\" only (Deuteronomy 34:8). Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron. His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction. Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: \"Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever.\"\n\n===Christianity===\nRussian icon of Aaron (18th century, Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).\nIn the Eastern Orthodox and Maronite churches, Aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother Moses and celebrated on September 4. (Those churches that follow the traditional Julian Calendar celebrate this day on September 17 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). Aaron is also commemorated with other Old Testament saints on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, the Sunday before Christmas.\n\nAaron is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar.\n\nIn The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Aaronic order is the lesser order of priesthood, comprising the grades (from lowest to highest) of deacon, teacher, and priest. The chief office of the Aaronic priesthood is the presiding bishopric; the head of the priesthood is the bishop. Each ward includes a quorum of one or more of each office of the Aaronic priesthood.\n\nIn the Community of Christ, the Aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the Melchisedec order, and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon, teacher, and priest. While differing in responsibilities, these offices, along with those of the Melchisidec order, are regarded as equal before God.\n\n===Islam===\n\nAaron (Arabic: هارون, ''Hārūn'') is also mentioned in the Qur’an as a prophet of God. The Qur’an praises Aaron repeatedly, calling him a \"believing servant\" as well as one who was \"guided\" and one of the \"victors\". Aaron is important in Islam for his role in the events of the Exodus, in which, according to the Qur’an and Muslim tradition, he preached with his elder brother, Moses, to the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Aaron's significance in Islam, however, is not limited to his role as the helper of Moses. Islamic tradition also accords Aaron the role of a patriarch, as tradition records that the priestly descent came through Aaron's lineage, which included the entire House of Amran.\n\n====Aaron in the Qur’an====\n\nThe Qur’an contains numerous references to Aaron, both by name and without name. It says that he was a descendant of Abraham (Qur'an 4: 163) and makes it clear that both he and Moses were sent together to warn the Pharaoh about God's punishment (Qur'an 10: 75). It further adds that Moses had earlier prayed to God to strengthen his own ministry with Aaron (Qur'an 20: 29-30) and that Aaron helped Moses as he too was a prophet (Qur'an 19: 53), and very eloquent in matters of speech and discourse (Qur'an 28: 34). The Qur'an adds that both Moses and Aaron were entrusted to establish places of dwelling for the Israelites in Egypt, and to convert those houses into places of worship for God (Qur'an 10: 87).\n\nThe incident of the Golden Calf as it is narrated in the Qur'an paints Aaron in a positive light. The Qur'an says that Aaron was entrusted the leadership of Israel while Moses was up on ''Tur Sina’'' (, Mount Sinai) for a period of forty days (Qur'an 7: 142). It adds that Aaron tried his best to stop the worship of the Golden Calf, which was built not by Aaron but by a wicked man by the name of 'As-Samiri' (Qur'an 19: 50). When Moses returned from Mount Sinai, he rebuked Aaron for allowing the worship of the idol, to which Aaron pleaded with Moses to not blame him when he had no role in its construction (Qur'an 7: 150). The Qur'an then adds that Moses here lamented the sins of Israel, and said that he only had power over himself and Aaron (Qur'an 5: 25).\n\nAaron is later commemorated in the Qur'an as one who had a \"clear authority\" (Qur'an 23: 45) and one who was \"guided to the Right Path\" (Qur'an 37: 118). It further adds that Aaron's memory was left for people who came after him (Qur'an 37: 119) and he is blessed by God along with his brother (Qur'an 37: 120). The Qur'an also says that people called ‘Isa's mother Maryam (, Mary) a \"sister of Harun\" (Qur'an 19: 28). Muslim scholars debated as to who exactly this \"Harun\" was in terms of his historical persona, with some saying that it was a reference to Aaron of the Exodus, and the term \"sister\" designating only a metaphorical or spiritual link between the two figures, all the more evident when Mary was a descendant of the priestly lineage of Aaron, while others held it to be another righteous man living at the time of Christ by the name of \"Aaron\". Most scholars have agreed to the former perspective, and have linked Mary spiritually with the actual sister of Aaron, her namesake Miryam (, ), whom she resembled in many ways. The Qur'an also narrates that, centuries later, when the ''Tabut'' (, Ark of the Covenant) returned to Israel, it contained \"relics from the family of Moses and relics from the family of Aaron\" (Qur'an 2: 248).\n\n====Aaron in Muhammad's time====\nMuhammad, in many of his sayings, speaks of Aaron. In the event of the Mi'raj, his miraculous ascension through the Heavens, Muhammad is said to have encountered Aaron in the fifth heaven. According to old scholars, including Ibn Hisham, Muhammad, in particular, mentioned the beauty of Aaron when he encountered him in Heaven. Martin Lings, in his biographical ''Muhammad'', speaks of Muhammad's wonderment at seeing fellow prophets in their heavenly glory:\n\n\nAaron was also mentioned by Muhammad in likeness to ‘Ali. Muhammad had left ‘Ali to look after his family, but the hypocrites of the time begun to spread the rumor that the prophet found ‘Ali a burden and was relieved to be rid of his presence. ‘Ali, grieved at hearing this wicked taunt, told Muhammad what the local people were saying. In reply, the Prophet said: \"They lie, I bade thee remain for the sake of what I had left behind me. So return and represent me in my family and in thine. Art thou not content, O ‘Ali, that thou should be unto me as Aaron was unto Moses, save that after me there is no prophet.\"\n\n====Tomb of Aaron====\n\nA 14th-century shrine built on top of the supposed grave of Aaron on Jabal Hārūn in Petra, Jordan.\nAccording to Islamic tradition, the tomb of Aaron is located on ''Jabal Harun'' (, Mountain of Aaron), near Petra in Jordan. At above sea-level, it is the highest peak in the area; and it is a place of great sanctity to the local people for here. A 14th-century Mamluk mosque stands here with its white dome visible from most areas in and around Petra.\n\n===Baha'i===\nAlthough his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet, Aaron is merely described as a prophet. The Kitab-I-Iqan describes Imran as being his father.\n", "Aaron appears paired with Moses frequently in Jewish and Christian art, especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed Bibles. He can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments, especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate. He frequently holds a censor or, sometimes, his flowering rod. (See the \"Aaron\" category at Wikimedia Commons.) Aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness Tabernacle and its altar, as already in the third-century frescos in the synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria. An eleventh-century portable silver altar from Fulda, Germany depicts Aaron with his censor, and is located in the Musée National de l’Age Médiévale in Paris. This is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed Passover Haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures. Aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits, such as those by Anton Kern 1710–1747 and by Pier Francesco Mola c. 1650. Christian artists sometimes portray Aaron as a prophet (Exod. 7:1) holding a scroll, as in a twelfth-century sculpture from the Cathedral of Noyon in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York and often in Eastern Orthodox icons. Illustrations of the Golden Calf story usually include him as well—most notably in Nicolas Poussin's \"The Adoration of the Golden Calf\" (ca. 1633–34, National Gallery London). Finally, some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8). Harry Anderson's realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the Latter Day Saints.\n", "* Harun\n* Kohen\n* Moses in rabbinic literature\n* Y-chromosomal Aaron\n", "\n", "\n", "\n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n \n* \n\n \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* ''which cites''\n ''Numbers Rabbah'' 9\n ''Leviticus Rabbah'' 10\n ''Midrash Peṭirat Aharon'' in Jellinek's ''Bet ha-Midrash'', 1:91–95\n ''Yalḳuṭ Numbers'' 764\n \n \n** \n* \n* \n* \n\n===References in the Qur'an===\n* Aaron's prophecy: , ,\n* Aaron is made helper of Moses: , , , , \n* Aaron and Moses sent to Pharaoh: , , , \n* Praise for Aaron: , , , , , \n* The Golden Calf: , \n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n* English-Ingles.com - Etymology of Aaron\n* MFnames.com - Origin and Meaning of Aaron\n* \"Aaron\" at the Christian Iconography website\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Account in the Hebrew Bible", "Historicity", "Descendants", "Aaron in religious traditions", "Art history", "See also", "Notes", "Footnotes", "References", "Further reading", " External links " ]	Aaron
[ "\n\n\n\n\n ", "46 BC – Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) in the battle of Thapsus.\n 402 – Stilicho stymies the Visigoths under Alaric in the Battle of Pollentia.\n1199 – King Richard I of England dies from an infection following the removal of an arrow from his shoulder.\n1250 – Seventh Crusade: Ayyubids of Egypt capture King Louis IX of France in the Battle of Fariskur.\n1320 – The Scots reaffirm their independence by signing the Declaration of Arbroath.\n1327 – The poet Petrarch first sees his idealized love, Laura, in the church of Saint Clare in Avignon.\n1385 – John, Master of the Order of Aviz, is made king John I of Portugal.\n1453 – Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (Istanbul), which falls on May 29.\n1580 – One of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of England, Flanders, or Northern France, takes place.\n1652 – At the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes Cape Town.\n1712 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712 begins near Broadway.\n1776 – American Revolutionary War: Ships of the Continental Navy fail in their attempt to capture a Royal Navy dispatch boat.\n1782 – King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) of Siam (modern day Thailand) founds the Chakri dynasty.\n1793 – During the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety becomes the executive organ of the republic.\n1808 – John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company, that would eventually make him America's first millionaire.\n1812 – British forces under the command of the Duke of Wellington assault the fortress of Badajoz. This would be the turning point in the Peninsular War against Napoleon-led France.\n1814 – Nominal beginning of the Bourbon Restoration; anniversary date that Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba.\n1830 – Church of Christ, the original church of the Latter Day Saint movement, is organized by Joseph Smith and others at either Fayette or Manchester, New York.\n1841 – U.S. President John Tyler is sworn in, two days after having become President upon William Henry Harrison's death.\n1860 – The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, later renamed Community of Christ, is organized by Joseph Smith III and others at Amboy, Illinois.\n1861 – First performance of Arthur Sullivan's debut success, his suite of incidental music for ''The Tempest'', leading to a career that included the famous Gilbert and Sullivan operas.\n1862 – American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh begins: In Tennessee, forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant meet Confederate troops led by General Albert Sidney Johnston.\n1865 – American Civil War: The Battle of Sailor's Creek: Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fights and loses its last major battle while in retreat from Richmond, Virginia during the Appomattox Campaign.\n1866 – The Grand Army of the Republic, an American patriotic organization composed of Union veterans of the American Civil War, is founded. It lasts until 1956.\n1869 – Celluloid is patented.\n1888 – Thomas Green Clemson dies, bequeathing his estate to the State of South Carolina to establish Clemson Agricultural College.\n1893 – Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is dedicated by Wilford Woodruff.\n1895 – Oscar Wilde is arrested in the Cadogan Hotel, London, after losing a libel case against the Marquess of Queensberry.\n1896 – In Athens, the opening of the first modern Olympic Games is celebrated, 1,500 years after the original games are banned by Roman emperor Theodosius I.\n1909 – Robert Peary and Matthew Henson reach the North Pole.\n1911 – During the Battle of Deçiq, Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, leader of the Malësori Albanians, raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro, for the first time after George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg).\n1917 – World War I: The United States declares war on Germany (see President Woodrow Wilson's address to Congress).\n1919 – Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi orders a general strike.\n1926 – Varney Airlines makes its first commercial flight (Varney is the root company of United Airlines).\n1929 – Huey P. Long, Governor of Louisiana, is impeached by the Louisiana House of Representatives.\n1930 – Gandhi raises a lump of mud and salt and declares, \"With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire,\" beginning the Salt Satyagraha.\n1936 – Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits Gainesville, Georgia, killing 203.\n1941 – World War II: Nazi Germany launches Operation 25 (the invasion of Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and Operation Marita (the invasion of Greece).\n1945 – World War II: Sarajevo is liberated from German and Croatian forces by the Yugoslav Partisans.\n 1945 – World War II: The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville comes to an end.\n1947 – The first Tony Awards are presented for theatrical achievement.\n1957 – Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis buys the Hellenic National Airlines (TAE) and founds Olympic Airlines.\n1965 – Launch of Early Bird, the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.\n1968 – In Richmond, Indiana's downtown district, a double explosion kills 41 and injures 150.\n* 1968 – Pierre Elliott Trudeau wins the Liberal Leadership Election, and becomes Prime Minister of Canada soon after.\n1970 – Newhall massacre: Four California Highway Patrol officers are killed in a shootout.\n1972 – Vietnam War: Easter Offensive: American forces begin sustained air strikes and naval bombardments.\n1973 – Launch of ''Pioneer 11'' spacecraft.\n 1973 – The American League of Major League Baseball begins using the designated hitter.\n1974 – The Swedish pop band ABBA wins the Eurovision Song Contest with the song \"Waterloo\", launching their international career.\n1979 – Student protests break out in Nepal.\n1984 – Members of Cameroon's Republican Guard unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow the government headed by Paul Biya.\n1992 – The Bosnian War begins.\n1994 – The Rwandan Genocide begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian president Cyprien Ntaryamira is shot down.\n1998 – Pakistan tests medium-range missiles capable of reaching India.\n* 1998 – Travelers Group announces an agreement to undertake the $76 billion merger between Travelers and Citicorp, and the merger is completed on October 8, of that year, forming Citibank.\n2004 – Rolandas Paksas becomes the first president of Lithuania to be peacefully removed from office by impeachment.\n2005 – Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani becomes Iraqi president; Shiite Arab Ibrahim al-Jaafari is named premier the next day.\n2008 – The 2008 Egyptian general strike starts led by Egyptian workers later to be adopted by April 6 Youth Movement and Egyptian activists.\n2009 – A 6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes near L'Aquila, Italy, killing 307.\n2010 – Maoist rebels kill 76 CRPF officers in Dantewada district, India.\n2011 – In San Fernando, Tamaulipas, Mexico, over 193 victims of Los Zetas were exhumed from several mass graves.\n2012 – Azawad declares itself independent from the Republic of Mali.\n", "1135 – Maimonides, (March 30 also proposed, d. 1204)\n1342 – Infanta Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa\n1483 – Raphael, Italian painter and architect (d. 1520)\n1573 – Margaret of Brunswick-Lüneburg, German noble (d. 1643)\n1632 – Maria Leopoldine of Austria (d. 1649)\n1651 – André Dacier, French scholar and academic (d. 1722)\n1660 – Johann Kuhnau, German organist and composer (d. 1722)\n1664 – Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician, Governor of Västerbotten County (d. 1742)\n1671 – Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet and playwright (d. 1741)\n1672 – André Cardinal Destouches, French composer (d. 1749)\n1706 – Louis de Cahusac, French playwright and composer (d. 1759)\n1708 – Johann Georg Reutter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1772)\n1725 – Pasquale Paoli, French soldier and politician (d. 1807)\n1726 – Gerard Majella, Italian saint (d. 1755)\n1741 – Nicolas Chamfort, French author and playwright (d. 1794)\n1766 – Wilhelm von Kobell, German painter and educator (d. 1853)\n1773 – James Mill, Scottish historian, economist, and philosopher (d. 1836)\n1810 – Philip Henry Gosse, English biologist and academic (d. 1888)\n1812 – Alexander Herzen, Russian philosopher and author (d. 1870)\n1815 – Robert Volkmann, German organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1883)\n1818 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian journalist and poet (d. 1870)\n1820 – Nadar, French photographer, journalist, and author (d. 1910)\n1823 – Joseph Medill, Canadian-American publisher and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1899)\n1824 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1906)\n1826 – Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (d. 1898)\n1844 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1913)\n1851 – Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (d. 1932)\n1852 – Will Crooks, English trade unionist and politician (d. 1921)\n1855 – Charles Huot, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1930)\n1857 – Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (d. 1922)\n1860 – René Lalique, French sculptor and jewellery designer (d. 1945)\n1861 – Stanislas de Guaita, French poet and author (d. 1897)\n1864 – William Bate Hardy, English biologist and academic (d. 1934)\n1866 – Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (d. 1931)\n1869 – Levon Shant, Armenian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1951)\n1878 – Erich Mühsam, Jewish-German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1934)\n1881 – Karl Staaf, Swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower (d. 1953)\n1884 – J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (d. 1927)\n1886 – Athenagoras I of Constantinople (d. 1972)\n* 1886 – Walter Dandy, American physician and neurosurgeon (d. 1946)\n* 1886 – Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, Indian ruler (d. 1967)\n1888 – Hans Richter, Swiss painter, illustrator, and director (d. 1976)\n 1888 – Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (d. 1967)\n1890 – Anthony Fokker, Dutch engineer and businessman, founded Fokker Aircraft Manufacturer (d. 1939)\n1892 – Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (d. 1981)\n* 1892 – Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 1981)\n1894 – Gertrude Baines, African-American super-centenarian (d. 2009)\n1895 – Dudley Nichols, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1960)\n1898 – Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter and author (d. 1920)\n1900 – Leo Robin, American composer and songwriter (d. 1984)\n1901 – Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian activist (d. 1925)\n1902 – Julien Torma, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933)\n1903 – Mickey Cochrane, American baseball player and manager (d. 1962)\n 1903 – Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (d. 1990)\n1904 – Kurt Georg Kiesinger, German lawyer and politician, 3rd Chancellor of Germany (d. 1988)\n 1904 – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (d. 1966)\n1908 – Marcel-Marie Desmarais, Canadian preacher, missionary, and author (d. 1994)\n1909 – William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (d. 1965)\n* 1909 – Hermann Lang, German race car driver (d. 1987)\n1910 – Barys Kit, Belarusian-American rocket scientist\n1911 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)\n1913 – Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune, American geographer and academic (d. 1993)\n1915 – Tadeusz Kantor, Polish director, painter, and set designer (d. 1990)\n1916 – Phil Leeds, American actor (d. 1998)\n 1916 – Vincent Ellis McKelvey, American geologist and author (d. 1987)\n1917 – Leonora Carrington, English-Mexican painter and author (d. 2011)\n1918 – Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (d. 1982)\n1919 – Georgios Mylonas, Greek politician, 11th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1998)\n1920 – Jack Cover, American pilot and physicist, invented the Taser gun (d. 2009)\n* 1920 – Edmond H. Fischer, Chinese-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n1921 – Wilbur Thompson, American shot putter (d. 2013)\n1922 – Gordon Chater, English-Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999)\n1923 – Herb Thomas, American race car driver (d. 2000)\n1926 – Sergio Franchi, Italian-American singer and actor (d. 1990)\n* 1926 – Gil Kane, Latvian-American author and illustrator (d. 2000)\n* 1926 – Ian Paisley, Northern Irish evangelical minister and politician, 2nd First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2014)\n* 1926 – Randy Weston, American jazz pianist and composer\n1927 – Gerry Mulligan, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1996)\n 1928 – James Watson, American biologist, geneticist, and zoologist, Nobel Prize laureate\n1929 – Willis Hall, English playwright and author (d. 2005)\n 1929 – Joi Lansing, American model, actress and nightclub singer (d. 1972)\n* 1929 – André Previn, American pianist, composer, and conductor\n1931 – Ram Dass, American author and educator\n 1931 – Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008)\n1932 – Connie Broden, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013)\n 1932 – Helmut Griem, German actor and director (d. 2004)\n1933 – Roy Goode, English lawyer and academic\n 1933 – Tom C. Korologos, American journalist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Belgium\n* 1933 – Eduardo Malapit, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of Kauai (d. 2007)\n1934 – Enrique Álvarez Félix, Mexican actor (d. 1996)\n 1934 – Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist and wrestler (d. 2010)\n* 1934 – Guy Peellaert, Belgian painter, illustrator, and photographer (d. 2008)\n1935 – Douglas Hill, Canadian author and critic (d. 2007)\n1936 – Helen Berman, Dutch-Israeli painter and illustrator\n* 1936 – Jean-Pierre Changeux, French neuroscientist, biologist, and academic\n1937 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)\n 1937 – Tom Veivers, Australian cricketer and politician\n* 1937 – Billy Dee Williams, American actor, singer, and writer\n1938 – Paul Daniels, English magician and television host (d. 2016)\n1939 – André Ouellet, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs\n* 1939 – John Sculley, American businessman, co-founded Zeta Interactive\n1940 – Homero Aridjis, Mexican journalist, author, and poet\n 1940 – Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (d. 2011)\n1941 – Christopher Allsopp, English economist and academic\n 1941 – Phil Austin, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2015)\n* 1941 – Hans W. Geißendörfer, German director and producer\n* 1941 – Don Prudhomme, American race car driver and manager\n* 1941 – Gheorghe Zamfir, Romanian flute player and composer\n1942 – Barry Levinson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1943 – Max Clifford, English journalist and publicist\n* 1943 – Roger Cook, New Zealand-English journalist and academic\n* 1943 – Ian MacRae, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1943 – Mitchell Melton, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)\n1944 – Anita Pallenberg, Italian-English model, actress, and fashion designer\n 1944 – Felicity Palmer, English operatic soprano \n1945 – Rodney Bickerstaffe, English trade union leader\n 1945 – Peter Hill, English journalist\n1946 – Paul Beresford, New Zealand-English dentist and politician\n1947 – John Ratzenberger, American actor and director\n* 1947 – André Weinfeld, French-American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1947 – Mike Worboys, English mathematician and computer scientist\n1949 – Alyson Bailes, English academic and diplomat (d. 2016)\n 1949 – Patrick Hernandez, French singer-songwriter\n* 1949 – Ng Ser Miang, Singaporean athlete, entrepreneur and diplomat\n* 1949 – Horst Ludwig Störmer, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n1950 – Claire Morissette, Canadian cycling activist (d. 2007)\n 1950 – Cleo Odzer, Jewish-American anthropologist and author (d. 2001)\n1951 – Bert Blyleven, Dutch-American baseball player and sportscaster\n 1951 – Jean-Marc Boivin, French skier, mountaineer, and pilot (d. 1990)\n* 1951 – Pascal Rogé, French pianist\n* 1951 – Phil Schaap, American jazz disc jockey and historian\n1952 – Udo Dirkschneider, German singer-songwriter \n 1952 – Marilu Henner, Greek-Polish American actress and author\n* 1952 – Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 1992)\n1953 – Patrick Doyle, Scottish actor and composer\n 1953 – Christopher Franke, German-American drummer and songwriter \n1955 – Rob Epstein, American director and producer\n 1955 – Michael Rooker, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1955 – Cathy Jones, Canadian actress, comedian, and writer\n1956 – Michele Bachmann, American lawyer and politician\n 1956 – Normand Corbeil, Canadian composer (d. 2013)\n* 1956 – Mudassar Nazar, Pakistani cricketer\n* 1956 – Lee Scott, Jewish-English politician\n* 1956 – Sebastian Spreng, Argentinian-American painter and journalist\n* 1956 – Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer and coach\n1957 – Giorgio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach\n 1957 – Maurizio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach\n* 1957 – Jaroslava Maxová, Czech soprano and educator\n* 1957 – Paolo Nespoli, Italian soldier, engineer, and astronaut\n1958 – Graeme Base, Australian author and illustrator\n 1958 – Sophie Muller, English music video director\n1959 – Gail Shea, Canadian politician\n1960 – Warren Haynes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1960 – Richard Loe, New Zealand rugby player \n* 1960 – John Pizzarelli, American singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1961 – Rory Bremner, Scottish actor and screenwriter\n 1961 – Peter Jackson, English footballer and manager\n1962 – Iris Häussler, German sculptor and academic\n 1962 – Marco Schällibaum, Swiss footballer, coach, and manager\n1963 – Rafael Correa, Ecuadorian economist and politician, 54th President of Ecuador\n 1963 – Derrick May, American electronic musician\n1964 – Phil Gayle, English journalist\n1965 – Black Francis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1965 – Sterling Sharpe, American football player and sportscaster\n1966 – Vince Flynn, American author (d. 2013)\n 1966 – Young Man Kang, South Korean-American director and producer\n1967 – Julian Anderson, English composer and educator\n 1967 – Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress and singer\n* 1967 – Tanya Byron, English psychologist and academic\n* 1967 – Jonathan Firth, English actor\n1968 – Archon Fung, American political scientist, author, and academic\n 1968 – Affonso Giaffone, Brazilian race car driver\n1969 – Bret Boone, American baseball player and manager\n 1969 – Bison Dele, American basketball player (d. 2002)\n* 1969 – Philipp Peter, Austrian race car driver\n* 1969 – Paul Rudd, American actor\n* 1969 – Spencer Wells, American geneticist and anthropologist\n1970 – Olaf Kölzig, South African-German ice hockey player and coach\n 1970 – Roy Mayorga, American drummer, songwriter, and producer \n* 1970 – Huang Xiaomin, Chinese swimmer\n1972 – Anders Thomas Jensen, Danish director and screenwriter\n 1972 – Dickey Simpkins, American basketball player and sportscaster\n1973 – Donnie Edwards, American football player\n 1973 – Randall Godfrey, American football player\n* 1973 – Rie Miyazawa, Japanese model and actress\n* 1973 – Sun Wen, Chinese footballer\n1975 – Zach Braff, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n 1975 – Hal Gill, American ice hockey player\n1976 – Candace Cameron Bure, American actress and talk show panelist\n 1976 – James Fox, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor\n* 1976 – Chris Hoke, American football player\n* 1976 – Georg Hólm, Icelandic bass player \n* 1976 – Hirotada Ototake, Japanese author and educator\n1977 – Ville Nieminen, Finnish ice hockey player\n 1977 – Andy Phillips, American baseball player and coach\n1978 – Imani Coppola, Italian/African-American singer-songwriter and violinist \n 1978 – Tim Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1978 – Myleene Klass, Austrian/Filipino-English singer, pianist, and model \n* 1978 – Martín Méndez, Uruguayan bass player and songwriter \n* 1978 – Blaine Neal, American baseball player\n* 1978 – Igor Semshov, Russian footballer\n1979 – Lord Frederick Windsor, English journalist and financier\n1980 – Tommi Evilä, Finnish long jumper\n* 1980 – Antonio Thomas, American wrestler\n1981 – Robert Earnshaw, Welsh footballer\n 1981 – Jeff Faine, American football player\n* 1981 – Alex Suarez, American bass player \n1982 – Travis Moen, Canadian ice hockey player\n1983 – Mehdi Ballouchy, Moroccan footballer\n* 1983 – Jerome Kaino, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1983 – Mitsuru Nagata, Japanese footballer\n* 1983 – Remi Nicole, English singer-songwriter and actress\n* 1983 – James Wade, English darts player\n* 1983 – Katie Weatherston, Canadian ice hockey player\n1984 – Max Bemis, American singer-songwriter \n 1984 – Michaël Ciani, French footballer\n* 1984 – Siboniso Gaxa, South African footballer\n1985 – Clarke MacArthur, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1985 – Frank Ongfiang, Cameroonian footballer\n* 1985 – Sinqua Walls, French/Native American/Jamaican-American basketball player and actor\n1986 – Nikolas Asprogenis, Cypriot footballer\n 1986 – Aaron Curry, American football player\n* 1986 – Goeido Gotaro, Japanese sumo wrestler\n* 1986 – Ryota Moriwaki, Japanese footballer\n1987 – Benjamin Corgnet, French footballer\n 1987 – Heidi Mount, American model\n* 1987 – Juan Adriel Ochoa, Mexican footballer\n* 1987 – Levi Porter, English footballer\n* 1987 – Hilary Rhoda, American model\n1988 – Jucilei, Brazilian footballer\n 1988 – Leigh Adams, Australian footballer\n* 1988 – Daniele Gasparetto, Italian footballer\n* 1988 – Carlton Mitchell, American football player\n* 1988 – Fabrice Muamba, Congolese-English footballer\n* 1988 – Ivonne Orsini, Puerto Rican-American model and television host, Miss World Puerto Rico 2008\n1989 – Rigard van Klooster, Dutch cyclist and speed skater\n1990 – Lachlan Coote, Australian rugby league player\n* 1990 – Charlie McDermott, American actor\n* 1990 – Andrei Veis, Estonian footballer\n1992 – Ken (singer), South Korean singer\n1994 – Adrián Alonso, Mexican actor\n1995 – Darya Lebesheva, Belarusian tennis player\n\n", " 861 – Prudentius, bishop of Troyes \n* 885 – Saint Methodius, Byzantine missionary and saint (b. 815)\n* 887 – Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty\n* 943 – Liu Churang, Chinese general and chief of staff (b. 881)\n* 943 – Nasr II, ruler (''amir'') of the Samanid Empire (b. 906)\n1147 – Frederick II, duke of Swabia (b. 1090)\n1199 – Richard I, king of England (b. 1157)\n1231 – William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke\n1250 – Guillaume de Sonnac, Grand Master of the Knights Templar\n1252 – Peter of Verona, Italian priest and saint (b. 1206)\n1340 – Basil, emperor of Trebizond (Turkey)\n1362 – James I, count of La Marche (b. 1319)\n1490 – Matthias Corvinus, Romanian-Hungarian husband of Beatrice of Naples (b. 1443)\n1520 – Raphael, Italian painter and architect (b. 1483)\n1523 – Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1479)\n1528 – Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (b. 1471)\n1551 – Joachim Vadian, Swiss scholar and politician (b. 1484)\n1571 – John Hamilton, Scottish archbishop and academic (b. 1512)\n1590 – Francis Walsingham, English politician and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1532)\n1605 – John Stow, English historian and author (b. 1525)\n1621 – Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (b. 1539)\n1641 – Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino), Italian painter (b. 1581)\n1655 – David Blondel, French minister, historian, and scholar (b. 1591)\n1676 – John Winthrop the Younger, English politician, 1st Governor of Connecticut (b. 1606)\n1686 – Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, Irish-English politician (b. 1614)\n1707 – Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch-English painter (b. 1633)\n1755 – Richard Rawlinson, English minister and historian (b. 1690)\n1790 – Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1719)\n1825 – Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter and educator (b. 1757)\n1829 – Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (b. 1802)\n1833 – Adamantios Korais, Greek philosopher and scholar (b. 1748)\n1838 – José Bonifácio de Andrada, Brazilian poet, academic, and politician (b. 1763)\n1860 – James Kirke Paulding, American author and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1778)\n1862 – Albert Sidney Johnston, American general (b. 1803)\n1883 – Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (b. 1801)\n1886 – William Edward Forster, English businessman, philanthropist, and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b. 1818)\n1899 – Alvan Wentworth Chapman, American physician and botanist (b. 1809)\n1906 – Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician, 6th County Governor of Møre og Romsdal (b. 1849)\n1913 – Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (b. 1835)\n1927 – Florence Earle Coates, American poet (b. 1850)\n1935 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (b. 1869)\n1944 – Rose O'Neill''',''' American cartoonist, illustrator, artist, and writer (b. 1874)\n1947 – Herbert Backe, German agronomist and politician (b. 1896)\n1950 – Louis Wilkins, American pole vaulter (b. 1882)\n1953 – Idris Davies, Welsh poet and author (b. 1905)\n1959 – Leo Aryeh Mayer, Polish-Israeli scholar and academic (b. 1895)\n1961 – Jules Bordet, Belgian microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)\n1963 – Otto Struve, Ukrainian-American astronomer and academic (b. 1897)\n1970 – Maurice Stokes, American basketball player (b. 1933)\n1971 – Igor Stravinsky, Russian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1882)\n1974 – Willem Marinus Dudok, Dutch architect (b. 1884)\n* 1974 – Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (b. 1895)\n1977 – Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (b. 1889)\n1979 – Ivan Vasilyov, Bulgarian architect, designed the SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library (b. 1893)\n1983 – Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Indian General who served as the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army from 1962 to 1966 and the Military Governor of Hyderabad State from 1948 to 1949. (b. 1908)\n1992 – Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer (b. 1920)\n1994 – Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwandan banker and politician, 3rd President of Rwanda (b. 1937)\n 1994 – Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (b. 1955)\n1995 – Ioannis Alevras, Greek banker and politician, President of Greece (b. 1912)\n1996 – Greer Garson, English-American actress (b. 1904)\n1998 – Norbert Schmitz, German footballer (b. 1958)\n 1998 – Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)\n1999 – Red Norvo, American vibraphone player and composer (b. 1908)\n2000 – Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903)\n2001 – Charles Pettigrew, American singer-songwriter (Charles & Eddie) (b. 1963)\n2003 – David Bloom, American journalist (b. 1963)\n* 2003 – Anita Borg, American computer scientist and educator; founded Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (b. 1949)\n* 2003 – Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (b. 1912)\n* 2003 – Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator, and activist (b. 1927)\n2004 – Lou Berberet, American baseball player (b. 1929)\n 2004 – Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (b. 1929)\n2005 – Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (b. 1923)\n2006 – Maggie Dixon, American basketball player and coach (b. 1977)\n* 2006 – Francis L. Kellogg, American soldier and diplomat (b. 1917)\n* 2006 – Stefanos Stratigos, Greek actor and director (b. 1926)\n2007 – Luigi Comencini, Italian director and producer (b. 1916)\n2009 – J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (b. 1919)\n* 2009 – Shawn Mackay, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1982)\n2010 – Wilma Mankiller, American tribal leader (b. 1945)\n 2010 – Corin Redgrave, English actor (b. 1939)\n2011 – Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (b. 1931)\n2012 – Roland Guilbault, American admiral (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – Thomas Kinkade, American painter and illustrator (b. 1958)\n* 2012 – Fang Lizhi, Chinese astrophysicist and academic (b. 1936)\n* 2012 – Sheila Scotter, Australian fashion designer and journalist (b. 1920)\n* 2012 – Reed Whittemore, American poet and critic (b. 1919)\n2013 – Hilda Bynoe, Grenadian physician and politician, 2nd Governor of Grenada (b. 1921)\n 2013 – Bill Guttridge, English footballer and manager (b. 1931)\n* 2013 – Bigas Luna, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1946)\n* 2013 – Ottmar Schreiner, German lawyer and politician (b. 1946)\n2014 – Mary Anderson, American actress (b. 1918)\n 2014 – Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (b. 1926)\n* 2014 – Liv Dommersnes, Norwegian actress (b. 1922)\n* 2014 – Mickey Rooney, American soldier, actor, and dancer (b. 1920)\n* 2014 – Chuck Stone, American soldier, journalist, and academic (b. 1924)\n* 2014 – Massimo Tamburini, Italian motorcycle designer, co-founded Bimota (b. 1943)\n2015 – Giovanni Berlinguer, Italian lawyer and politician (b. 1924)\n 2015 – James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n* 2015 – Ray Charles, American singer-songwriter and conductor (b. 1918)\n* 2015 – Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929)\n2016 – Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)\n2017 – Don Rickles, American actor and comedian (b. 1926)\n\n", "Chakri Day, commemorating the reign of the Chakri dynasty. (Thailand)\nChristian feast day:\nAlbrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach (Lutheran Church).\nBrychan\nEutychius of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)\nMarcellinus of Carthage\nPope Celestine I (Roman Catholic Church)\nPope Sixtus I\n*April 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nInternational Day of Sport for Development and Peace\nNational Fisherman Day (Indonesia)\nNew Beer's Eve (United States)\nTartan Day (United States & Canada)\n", "\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada (archived from the original on December 8, 2012)\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "References", "External links" ]	April 6
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 238 – Gordian II loses the Battle of Carthage against the Numidian forces loyal to Maximinus Thrax and is killed. Gordian I, his father, commits suicide.\n* 467 – Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.\n* 627 – King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York.\n1167 – King Karl Sverkersson of Sweden is murdered on Visingsö.\n1204 – The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day.\n1606 – The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships.\n1776 – American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain.\n1807 – The Froberg mutiny ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli.\n1820 – Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece.\n1831 – Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England cause it to collapse.\n1861 – American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. The war begins with Confederate forces firing on Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.\n1862 – American Civil War: The Andrews Raid (the Great Locomotive Chase) occurs, starting from Big Shanty, Georgia (now Kennesaw).\n1864 – American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Pillow: Confederate forces kill most of the African American soldiers that surrendered at Fort Pillow, Tennessee.\n1865 – American Civil War: Mobile, Alabama, falls to the Union Army.\n1877 – The United Kingdom annexes the Transvaal.\n1910 – , one of the last pre-dreadnought battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, is launched.\n1917 – World War I: Canadian forces successfully complete the taking of Vimy Ridge from the Germans.\n1927 – Shanghai massacre of 1927: Chiang Kai-shek orders the Communist Party of China members executed in Shanghai, ending the First United Front.\n 1927 – Rocksprings, Texas was hit by an F5 tornado that destroyed 235 of the 247 buildings in the town and killed 72 townspeople and injured 205; third deadliest tornado in Texas history.\n1928 – The ''Bremen'', a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west.\n1934 – The strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231 mph, is measured on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. It has since been surpassed.\n* 1934 – The U.S. Auto-Lite strike begins, culminating in a five-day melee between Ohio National Guard troops and 6,000 strikers and picketers.\n1937 – Sir Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England.\n1945 – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death.\n* 1945 – The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg, and reached Tangermünde—only 50 miles from Berlin.\n1955 – The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective.\n1961 – The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first manned orbital flight, Vostok 1.\n1963 – The Soviet nuclear-powered submarine K-33 collides with the Finnish merchant vessel M/S ''Finnclipper'' in the Danish straits.\n1970 – Soviet submarine K-8, carrying four nuclear torpedoes, sinks in the Bay of Biscay four days after a fire on board.\n1980 – Samuel Doe takes control of Liberia in a coup d'état, ending over 130 years of minority Americo-Liberian rule over the country.\n1981 – The first launch of a Space Shuttle (''Columbia'') takes place: The STS-1 mission.\n1990 – Jim Gary's \"Twentieth Century Dinosaurs\" exhibition opens at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there. \n1992 – The ''Euro Disney Resort'' officially opens with its theme park ''Euro Disneyland''; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Paris.\n1999 – United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving \"intentionally false statements\" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred.\n2002 – A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people and wounding 104.\n2007 – A suicide bomber penetrates the Green Zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building, killing Iraqi MP Mohammed Awad and wounding more than twenty other people.\n2009 – Zimbabwe officially abandons the Zimbabwean dollar as its official currency.\n2013 – Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali.\n2014 – The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes.\n2017 – Zuma Must Fall protests resume in South Africa, with Julius Malema addressing large crowds in Pretoria.\n", " 959 – En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991)\n1116 – Richeza of Poland, queen of Sweden and Grand Princess of Minsk (d. 1156)\n1432 – Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia (d. 1462)\n1484 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace and St. Peter's Basilica (d. 1546)\n 1484 – Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar (d. 1527)\n1500 – Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (d. 1574)\n1526 – Muretus, French philosopher and author (d. 1585)\n1550 – Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, English courtier and politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1604)\n1577 – Christian IV of Denmark (d. 1648)\n1612 – Simone Cantarini, Italian painter and engraver (d. 1648)\n1639 – Martin Lister, English naturalist and physician (d. 1712)\n1656 – Benoît de Maillet, French diplomat and natural historian (d. 1738)\n1705 – William Cookworthy, English minister and pharmacist (d. 1780)\n1710 – Caffarelli, Italian actor and singer (d. 1783)\n1713 – Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French historian and author (d. 1796)\n1716 – Felice Giardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1796)\n1722 – Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1793)\n1724 – Lyman Hall, American physician, clergyman, and politician, 16th Governor of Georgia (d. 1790)\n1748 – Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, French botanist and author (d. 1836)\n1777 – Henry Clay, American lawyer and politician, 9th United States Secretary of State (d. 1852)\n1792 – John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, English soldier and politician, Lord Privy Seal (d. 1840)\n1794 – Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician and engineer (d. 1847)\n1796 – George N. Briggs, American lawyer and politician, 19th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1861)\n1799 – Henri Druey, Swiss lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1855)\n1801 – Joseph Lanner, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1843)\n1816 – Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Victoria (d. 1903)\n1823 – Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian playwright and translator (d. 1886)\n1839 – Nikolay Przhevalsky, Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1888)\n1845 – Gustaf Cederström, Swedish painter (d. 1933)\n1848 – José Gautier Benítez, Puerto Rican soldier and poet (d. 1880)\n1851 – Edward Walter Maunder, English astronomer and author (d. 1928)\n1852 – Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician and academic (d. 1939)\n1856 – Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English mountaineer, cartographer, and politician (d. 1937)\n1863 – Raul Pompeia, Brazilian writer (d. 1895)\n1868 – Akiyama Saneyuki, Japanese admiral (d. 1918)\n1869 – Henri Désiré Landru, French serial killer (d. 1922) \n1871 – Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941)\n1874 – William B. Bankhead, American lawyer and politician, 47th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1940)\n1880 – Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (d. 1911)\n1883 – Imogen Cunningham, American photographer and educator (d. 1976)\n1883 – Dally Messenger, Australian rugby player, cricketer, and sailor (d. 1959)\n1884 – Tenby Davies, Welsh runner (d. 1932)\n 1884 – Otto Meyerhof, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)\n1885 – Robert Delaunay, French painter (d. 1941)\n1887 – Harold Lockwood, American actor and director (d. 1918)\n1888 – Dan Ahearn, Irish-American long jumper and police officer (d. 1942)\n 1888 – Cecil Kimber, English automobile engineer (d. 1945)\n1892 – Henry Darger, American writer and artist (d. 1973)\n1894 – Dorothy Cumming, Australian-American actress (d. 1983)\n* 1894 – Francisco Craveiro Lopes, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 13th President of Portugal (d. 1964)\n1898 – Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (d. 1976)\n1901 – Lowell Stockman, American farmer and politician (d. 1962)\n1902 – Louis Beel, Dutch academic and politician, 36th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977)\n1903 – Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)\n1907 – Zawgyi, Burmese poet, author, literary historian, critic, scholar and academic (d. 1990)\n 1907 – Felix de Weldon, Austrian-American sculptor, designed the Marine Corps War Memorial (d. 2003)\n1908 – Ida Pollock, English author and painter (d. 2013)\n 1908 – Robert Lee Scott, Jr., American pilot and general (d. 2006)\n1910 – Gillo Dorfles, Italian art critic, painter and philosopher\n 1910 – Irma Rapuzzi, French politician\n1911 – Mahmoud Younis, Egyptian engineer (d. 1976)\n1912 – Frank Dilio, Canadian businessman (d. 1997)\n* 1912 – Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, 2nd Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1988)\n* 1912 – Hound Dog Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)\n1913 – Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist (d. 2013)\n1914 – Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (d. 2013)\n1916 – Beverly Cleary, American author\n 1916 – Russell Garcia, American-New Zealand composer and conductor (d. 2011)\n* 1916 – Benjamin Libet, American neuropsychologist and academic (d. 2007)\n1917 – Helen Forrest, American singer and actress (d. 1999)\n 1917 – Vinoo Mankad, Indian cricketer (d. 1978)\n* 1917 – Robert Manzon, French racing driver (d. 2015)\n1919 – István Anhalt, Hungarian-Canadian composer and educator (d. 2012)\n 1919 – Billy Vaughn, American musician and bandleader (d. 1991)\n1921 – Robert Cliche, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1978)\n1922 – Simon Kapwepwe, Zambian politician, 2nd Vice President of Zambia (d. 1980)\n1923 – Ann Miller, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2004)\n1924 – Raymond Barre, French economist and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 2007)\n* 1924 – Peter Safar, Austrian physician and academic (d. 2003)\n* 1924 – Curtis Turner, American race car driver (d. 1970)\n1925 – Evelyn Berezin, American computer scientist and engineer\n 1925 – Ned Miller, American country music singer and songwriter (d. 2016)\n* 1925 – Oliver Postgate, English animator, puppeteer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)\n1926 – Jane Withers, American actress \n1927 – Thomas Hemsley, English baritone (d. 2013)\n1928 – Hardy Krüger, German actor\n 1928 – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (d. 2013)\n1929 – Elspet Gray, Scottish actress (d. 2013)\n 1929 – Mukhran Machavariani, Georgian poet and educator (d. 2010)\n1930 – John Landy, Australian runner and politician, 26th Governor of Victoria\n 1930 – Bryan Magee, English philosopher and politician\n* 1930 – Manuel Neri, American sculptor and painter\n* 1930 – Michał Życzkowski, Polish technician and educator (d. 2006)\n1931 – Leonid Derbenyov, Russian poet and songwriter (d. 1995)\n1932 – Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 5th Sri Lankan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2005)\n* 1932 – Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor\n* 1932 – Tiny Tim, American singer and ukulele player (d. 1996)\n1933 – Montserrat Caballé, Spanish soprano and actress\n1934 – Heinz Schneiter, Swiss footballer and manager\n1936 – Charles Napier, American actor (d. 2011)\n 1936 – Kennedy Simmonds, Kittitian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis\n1937 – Dennis Banks, American author and activist\n 1937 – Igor Volk, Ukrainian-Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut\n1939 – Alan Ayckbourn, English director and playwright\n 1939 – Johnny Raper, Australian rugby league player and coach\n1940 – Woodie Fryman, American baseball player (d. 2011)\n 1940 – Herbie Hancock, American pianist, composer, and bandleader \n1941 – Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (d. 1993)\n1942 – Bill Bryden, Scottish actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1942 – Carlos Reutemann, Argentinian race car driver and politician, Governor of Santa Fe\n* 1942 – Jacob Zuma, South African politician, 4th President of South Africa\n1943 – Sumitra Mahajan, Indian politician, 16th Speaker of the Lok Sabha\n1944 – Lisa Jardine, English historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)\n* 1944 – John Kay, German-Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n1945 – Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (d. 2006)\n1946 – Ed O'Neill, American actor and comedian\n* 1946 – George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen, Scottish politician and diplomat, 10th Secretary General of NATO\n1947 – Roy M. Anderson, English epidemiologist, zoologist, and academic\n 1947 – Martin Brasier, English palaeontologist, biologist, and academic (d. 2014)\n* 1947 – Alex Briley, American disco singer (Village People)\n* 1947 – Tom Clancy, American historian and author (d. 2013)\n* 1947 – Woody Johnson, American businessman and philanthropist\n* 1947 – Dan Lauria, American actor\n* 1947 – David Letterman, American comedian and talk show host\n1948 – Jeremy Beadle, English television host and producer (d. 2008)\n 1948 – Joschka Fischer, German academic and politician, Vice Chancellor of Germany\n* 1948 – Marcello Lippi, Italian footballer, manager, and coach\n1949 – Scott Turow, American lawyer and author\n1950 – Flavio Briatore, Italian businessman\n* 1950 – David Cassidy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1950 – Nick Sackman, English composer and educator\n1951 – Tom Noonan, American actor\n1952 – Reuben Gant, American football player\n* 1952 – Leicester Rutledge, New Zealand rugby player\n* 1952 – Gary Soto, American poet, novelist, and memoirist\n* 1952 – Ralph Wiley, American journalist (d. 2004)\n1953 – Tanino Liberatore, Italian author and illustrator\n1954 – John Faulkner, Australian educator and politician, 52nd Australian Minister for Defence\n* 1954 – Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician, Governor of Limburg (d. 2015)\n* 1954 – Pat Travers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n1955 – Fabian Hamilton, English graphic designer, engineer, and politician\n1956 – Andy Garcia, Cuban-American actor, director, and producer\n* 1956 – Herbert Grönemeyer, German singer-songwriter and actor\n1957 – Greg Child, Australian mountaineer and author\n 1957 – Vince Gill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1957 – Tama Janowitz, American novelist and short story writer\n1958 – Will Sergeant, English guitarist \n 1958 – Klaus Tafelmeier, German javelin thrower\n* 1958 – Ginka Zagorcheva, Bulgarian hurdler\n1959 – Howard Stableford, English radio and television host\n1961 – Corrado Fabi, Italian race car driver\n* 1961 – Charles Mann, American football player and sportscaster\n* 1961 – Magda Szubanski, English-Australian actress, comedian and writer\n1962 – Art Alexakis, American singer-songwriter and musician (Everclear)\n 1962 – Carlos Sainz, Spanish race car driver\n* 1962 – Nobuhiko Takada, Japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler, founded Hustle\n1963 – Lydia Cacho, Mexican journalist and author\n1964 – Amy Ray, American folk-rock singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer \n1965 – Kim Bodnia, Danish actor and director\n 1965 – Chi Onwurah, English politician\n* 1965 – Gervais Rufyikiri, Burundian politician \n* 1965 – Mihai Stoica, Romanian footballer and manager\n1966 – Nils-Olav Johansen, Norwegian guitarist and singer \n 1966 – Lorenzo White, American football player\n1967 – Sarah Cracknell, English singer-songwriter \n1968 – Alicia Coppola, American actress\n* 1968 – Toby Gad, German songwriter and producer\n* 1968 – Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player\n1969 – Jörn Lenz, German footballer and manager\n 1969 – Lucas Radebe, South African footballer and sportscaster\n* 1969 – Michael Jackson, American football player and politician (d. 2017)\n1970 – Sylvain Bouchard, Canadian speed skater\n1971 – Nicholas Brendon, American actor \n* 1971 – Shannen Doherty, American actress, director, and producer\n1972 – Paul Lo Duca, American baseball player and sportscaster\n1973 – J. Scott Campbell, American author and illustrator\n* 1973 – Ryan Kisor, American trumpet player and composer\n* 1973 – Antonio Osuna, Mexican-American baseball player\n1974 – Belinda Emmett, Australian actress (d. 2006)\n 1974 – Bryan Fletcher, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster\n* 1974 – Roman Hamrlík, Czech ice hockey player\n* 1974 – Marley Shelton, American actress\n1974 – Sylvinho, Brazilian footballer and manager\n1976 – Olga Kotlyarova, Russian runner\n* 1976 – Brad Miller, American basketball player\n1977 – Giovanny Espinoza, Ecuadorian footballer\n 1977 – Sarah Monahan, Australian actress\n* 1977 – Jason Price, Welsh footballer\n* 1977 – Glenn Rogers, Australian-Scottish cricketer\n1978 – Guy Berryman, Scottish bass player and producer \n 1978 – Scott Crary, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1978 – Svetlana Lapina, Russian high jumper\n* 1978 – Robin Walker, English businessman and politician\n1979 – Claire Danes, American actress \n 1979 – Elena Grosheva, Russian gymnast\n* 1979 – Mateja Kežman, Serbian footballer\n* 1979 – Jennifer Morrison, American actress \n* 1979 – Cristian Ranalli, Italian footballer\n* 1979 – Lee Soo-young, South Korean singer\n1980 – Sara Head, Welsh Paralympic table tennis champion\n 1980 – Brian McFadden, Irish singer-songwriter \n1981 – Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Russian runner\n 1981 – Nicolás Burdisso, Argentinian footballer\n* 1981 – Grant Holt, English footballer\n* 1981 – Hisashi Iwakuma, Japanese baseball pitcher\n* 1981 – Brian Vandborg, Danish cyclist\n1983 – Jelena Dokic, Serbian-Australian tennis player\n 1983 – Luke Kibet, Kenyan runner\n1984 – Aleksey Dmitrik, Russian high jumper\n1985 – Brennan Boesch, American baseball player\n* 1985 – Hitomi Yoshizawa, Japanese singer \n1986 – Brad Brach, American baseball pitcher \n 1986 – Blerim Džemaili, Swiss footballer\n* 1986 – Marcel Granollers, Spanish tennis player\n* 1986 – Jonathan Pitroipa, Burkinabé footballer\n1987 – Brooklyn Decker, American model and actress\n 1987 – Shawn Gore, Canadian football player\n* 1987 – Josh McCrone, Australian rugby league player\n* 1987 – Luiz Adriano, Brazilian professional footballer\n* 1987 – Brendon Urie, American singer, songwriter, musician and multi-instrumentalist\n1988 – Ricardo Gabriel Álvarez, Argentinian footballer\n 1988 – Stephen Brogan, English footballer\n* 1988 – Amedeo Calliari, Italian footballer\n* 1988 – Jessie James Decker, American singer-songwriter\n1989 – Bethan Dainton, Welsh rugby union player\n 1989 – Miguel Ángel Ponce, American-Mexican footballer\n* 1989 – Ádám Hanga, Hungarian basketball player\n* 1989 – Kaitlyn Weaver, Canadian-American ice dancer\n* 1989 – Valentin Stocker, Swiss footballer\n1990 – Francesca Halsall, English swimmer\n1990 – Hiroki Sakai, Japanese footballer\n1991 – Torey Krug, American ice hockey player\n 1991 – Oliver Norwood, English footballer\n* 1991 – Magnus Pääjärvi, Swedish ice hockey player\n* 1991 – Jazz Richards, Welsh footballer\n* 1991 – Lionel Carole, French professional footballer \n1992 – Chad le Clos, South African swimmer\n1993 – Jordan Archer, English-Scottish footballer\n* 1993 – Dorial Green-Beckham, American football player\n* 1993 – Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, Canadian ice hockey player\n1994 – Isabelle Drummond, Brazilian actress and singer\n 1994 – Saoirse Ronan, American-born Irish actress\n* 1994 – Oh Sehun, South Korean musician\n* 1994 – Eric Bailly, Ivorian professional footballer\n* 1994 – Guido Rodríguez, Argentine footballer \n1995 – Brenda Villa, Mexican Lawyer\n 1995 – Pedro Cachín, Argentine tennis player\n1996 – Elizaveta Kulichkova, Russian tennis player\n\n", "45 BC – Gnaeus Pompeius, Roman general and politician (b. 75 BC)\n* 238 – Gordian I, Roman emperor (b. 159)\n* 238 – Gordian II, Roman emperor (b. 192)\n* 352 – Julius I, pope of the Catholic Church\n* 434 – Maximianus, archbishop of Constantinople\n* 901 – Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI\n1125 – Vladislaus I, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1065)\n1167 – Charles VII, king of Sweden (b. c. 1130)\n1212 – Vsevolod the Big Nest, Grand Prince of Vladimir (b. 1154)\n1256 – Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre, regent of Navarre (b. c. 1217)\n1443 – Henry Chichele, English archbishop (b. 1364)\n1500 – Leonhard of Gorizia, Count of Gorz (b. 1440)\n1530 – Joanna La Beltraneja, Princess of Castile (b. 1462)\n1550 – Claude, Duke of Guise (b. 1496)\n1555 – Joanna of Castile (b. 1479)\n1675 – Richard Bennett, English politician, colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1609)\n1684 – Nicola Amati, Italian instrument maker (b. 1596)\n1687 – Ambrose Dixon, English-American soldier (b. 1619)\n1704 – Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, French bishop and theologian (b. 1627)\n1748 – William Kent, English architect, designed Holkham Hall and Chiswick House (b. 1685)\n1782 – Metastasio, Italian-Austrian poet and composer (b. 1698)\n1788 – Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-Italian composer (b. 1719)\n1795 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710)\n1814 – Charles Burney, English composer and historian (b. 1726)\n1817 – Charles Messier, French astronomer and academic (b. 1730)\n1850 – Adoniram Judson, American lexicographer and missionary (b. 1788)\n1866 – Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded Fleetwood (b. 1801)\n1872 – Nikolaos Mantzaros, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1795)\n1878 – William M. Tweed, American lawyer and politician (b. 1823)\n1879 – Richard Taylor, American general (b. 1826)\n1898 – Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1820)\n1902 – Marie Alfred Cornu, French physicist and academic (b. 1842)\n1906 – Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar, academic, and philanthropist (b. 1836)\n1912 – Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founded the American Red Cross (b. 1821)\n1933 – Adelbert Ames, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1835)\n1937 – Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Turkish playwright and poet (b. 1852)\n1938 – Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (b. 1873)\n1943 – Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (b. 1889)\n1945 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, American lawyer and politician, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882)\n1953 – Lionel Logue, Australian actor and therapist (b. 1880)\n1962 – Ron Flockhart, Scottish race car driver (b. 1923)\n1966 – Sydney Allard, English racing driver and founder of the Allard car company (b. 1910)\n1968 – Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (b. 1899)\n1971 – Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and dentist (b. 1886)\n1973 – Arthur Freed, American songwriter and producer (b. 1894)\n1975 – Josephine Baker, French actress, activist, and humanitarian (b. 1906)\n1977 – Philip K. Wrigley, American businessman, co-founded Lincoln Park Gun Club (b. 1894)\n1980 – William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (b. 1913)\n1981 – Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (b. 1887)\n 1981 – Joe Louis, American boxer and wrestler (b. 1914)\n1983 – Carl Morton, American baseball player (b. 1944)\n1984 – Edwin T. Layton, American admiral and cryptanalyst (b. 1903)\n1986 – Valentin Kataev, Russian author and playwright (b. 1897)\n1988 – Colette Deréal, French singer and actress (b. 1927)\n* 1988 – Alan Paton, South African historian and author (b. 1903)\n1989 – Abbie Hoffman, American activist, co-founded Youth International Party (b. 1936)\n 1989 – Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (b. 1921)\n1992 – Ilario Bandini, Italian race car driver and businessman (b. 1911)\n1997 – George Wald, American neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)\n1998 – Robert Ford, Canadian poet and diplomat (b. 1915)\n1999 – Boxcar Willie, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)\n2001 – Harvey Ball, American illustrator, created the smiley (b. 1921)\n2002 – George Shevelov, Ukrainian-American linguist and philologist (b. 1908)\n2004 – Moran Campbell, Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (b. 1925)\n2006 – William Sloane Coffin, American minister and activist (b. 1924)\n2007 – Kevin Crease, Australian journalist (b. 1936)\n2008 – Cecilia Colledge, English-American figure skater and coach (b. 1920)\n* 2008 – Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (b. 1923)\n* 2008 – Jerry Zucker, Israeli-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1949)\n2010 – Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader (b. 1916)\n 2010 – Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (b. 1945)\n2011 – Karim Fakhrawi, Bahraini journalist, co-founded ''Al-Wasat'' (b. 1962)\n2012 – Mohit Chattopadhyay, Indian poet and playwright (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – Rodgers Grant, American pianist and composer (b. 1935)\n2013 – Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (b. 1928)\n 2013 – Johnny du Plooy, South African boxer (b. 1964)\n* 2013 – Michael France, American screenwriter (b. 1962)\n* 2013 – Brennan Manning, American priest and author (b. 1934)\n* 2013 – Annamária Szalai, Hungarian journalist and politician (b. 1961)\n* 2013 – William Y. Thompson, American historian and author (b. 1922)\n* 2013 – Ya'akov Yosef, Israeli rabbi and politician (b. 1946)\n2014 – Pierre Autin-Grenier, French author and poet (b. 1947)\n 2014 – Pierre-Henri Menthéour, French cyclist (b. 1960)\n* 2014 – Maurício Alves Peruchi, Brazilian footballer (b. 1990)\n* 2014 – Hal Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1931)\n* 2014 – Billy Standridge, American race car driver (b. 1953)\n2015 – Paulo Brossard, Brazilian jurist and politician (b. 1924)\n 2015 – Patrice Dominguez, Algerian-French tennis player and trainer (b. 1950)\n* 2015 – Alfred Eick, German commander (b. 1916)\n* 2015 – André Mba Obame, Gabonese politician (b. 1957)\n2016 – Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925)\n2017 – Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (b. 1959)\n\n", "* Children's Day (Bolivia)\n* Christian feast day:\n Adoniram Judson (Episcopal Church)\n Alferius\n Blessed Angelo Carletti di Chivasso\n Erkembode\n Pope Julius I\n Zeno of Verona\n** April 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:\n Cosmonautics Day (Russia)\n International Day of Human Space Flight \n** Yuri's Night (International observance)\n* Halifax Day (North Carolina)\n* National Redemption Day (Liberia)\n", "\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "References", "External links" ]	April 12
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 769 – The Lateran Council condemned the Council of Hieria and anathematized its iconoclastic rulings.\n1071 – Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy, is surrendered to Robert Guiscard.\n1395 – Timur defeats Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde at the Battle of the Terek River. The Golden Horde capital city, Sarai, is razed to the ground and Timur installs a puppet ruler on the throne.\n1450 – Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English forces, ending English domination in Northern France.\n1632 – Battle of Rain: Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.\n1642 – Irish Confederate Wars: A Confederate Irish militia is routed in the Battle of Kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a Royalist Army.\n1715 – The Pocotaligo Massacre triggers the start of the Yamasee War in colonial South Carolina.\n1736 – Foundation of the Kingdom of Corsica\n1738 – ''Serse'', an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel receives its premiere performance in London, England.\n1755 – Samuel Johnson's ''A Dictionary of the English Language'' is published in London.\n1783 – Preliminary articles of peace ending the American Revolutionary War (or American War of Independence) are ratified.\n1817 – Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc founded the American School for the Deaf, the first American school for deaf students, in Hartford, Connecticut.\n1861 – President Abraham Lincoln calls for 75,000 Volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War.\n1865 – President Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor John Wilkes Booth. Vice President Andrew Johnson becomes President upon Lincoln's death.\n1892 – The General Electric Company is formed.\n1896 – Closing ceremony of the Games of the I Olympiad in Athens, Greece.\n1900 – Philippine–American War: Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on U.S. infantry and begin a four-day siege of Catubig, Philippines.\n1907 – Triangle Fraternity is founded at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\n1912 – The British passenger liner sinks in the North Atlantic at 2:20 a.m., two hours and forty minutes after hitting an iceberg. Only 710 of 2,227 passengers and crew on board survive.\n1920 – Two security guards are murdered during a robbery in South Braintree, Massachusetts. Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti would be convicted of and executed for the crime, amid much controversy.\n1922 – U.S. Senator John B. Kendrick of Wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal, which leads to the discovery of the Teapot Dome scandal.\n1923 – Insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes.\n1924 – Rand McNally publishes its first road atlas.\n1936 – First day of the Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine.\n1941 – In the Belfast Blitz, two-hundred bombers of the German Luftwaffe attack Belfast, killing around one thousand people.\n1942 – The George Cross is awarded \"to the island fortress of Malta: Its people and defenders\" by King George VI.\n1945 – Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated.\n1947 – Jackie Robinson debuts for the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking baseball's color line.\n1955 – McDonald's restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois\n1960 – At Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, Ella Baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, one of the principal organizations of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.\n1969 – The EC-121 shootdown incident: North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 on board.\n1970 – During the Cambodian Civil War, massacres of the Vietnamese minority results in 800 bodies flowing down the Mekong river into South Vietnam.\n1986 – The United States launches Operation El Dorado Canyon, its bombing raids against Libyan targets in response to a bombing in West Germany that killed two U.S. servicemen.\n1989 – Hillsborough disaster: A human crush occurs at Hillsborough Stadium, home of Sheffield Wednesday, in the FA Cup Semi-final, resulting in the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans.\n 1989 – Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in China.\n2013 – Two bombs explode near the finish line at the Boston Marathon in Boston, Massachusetts, killing three people and injuring 264 others.\n2014 – In the worst massacre of the South Sudanese Civil War, at least 200 civilians were gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals.\n", "68 BC – Gaius Maecenas, Roman politician (d. 8 BC)\n1282 – Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329)\n1367 – Henry IV of England (d. 1413)\n1442 – John Paston, English noble (d. 1479)\n1452 – Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1519)\n1469 – Guru Nanak, the first Sikh guru (d. 1539)\n1552 – Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1626)\n1563 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (d. 1606)\n1588 – Claudius Salmasius, French author and scholar (d. 1653)\n1592 – Francesco Maria Brancaccio, Catholic cardinal (d. 1675)\n1641 – Robert Sibbald, Scottish physician and geographer (d. 1722)\n1642 – Suleiman II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1691)\n1646 – Christian V of Denmark (d. 1699)\n1684 – Catherine I of Russia (d. 1727)\n1688 – Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (d. 1758)\n1707 – Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)\n1710 – William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1790)\n1741 – Charles Willson Peale, American painter and soldier (d. 1827)\n1771 – Nicolas Chopin, French-Polish educator (d. 1844)\n1772 – Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French biologist and zoologist (d. 1844)\n1793 – Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer and academic (d. 1864)\n1800 – James Clark Ross, English captain and explorer (d. 1862)\n1808 – William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1892)\n1809 – Hermann Grassmann, German linguist and mathematician (d. 1877)\n1817 – William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1885)\n1828 – Jean Danjou, French captain (d. 1863)\n1832 – Wilhelm Busch, German poet, painter, and illustrator (d. 1908)\n1841 – Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company Ltd (d. 1919)\n1843 – Henry James, American novelist, short writer, and critic (d. 1916)\n1856 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (d. 1910)\n1858 – Émile Durkheim, French sociologist, psychologist, and philosopher (d. 1917)\n1861 – Bliss Carman, Canadian-British poet and playwright (d. 1929)\n1874 – George Harrison Shull, American botanist and geneticist (d. 1954)\n 1874 – Johannes Stark, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)\n1875 – James J. Jeffries, American boxer and promoter (d. 1953)\n1877 – Georg Kolbe, German sculptor (d. 1947)\n1878 – Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (d. 1956)\n1879 – Melville Henry Cane, American lawyer and poet (d. 1980)\n1883 – Stanley Bruce, Australian captain and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)\n1885 – Tadeusz Kutrzeba, Polish general (d. 1947)\n1886 – Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1921)\n1887 – William Forgan Smith, Scottish-Australian politician, 24th Premier of Queensland (d. 1953)\n1888 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (d. 1904)\n1889 – Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (d. 1975)\n* 1889 – A. Philip Randolph, American activist (d. 1979)\n1890 – Percy Shaw, English businessman, invented the cat's eye (d. 1976)\n1892 – Theo Osterkamp, German general and pilot (d. 1975)\n* 1892 – Corrie ten Boom, Dutch-American clocksmith Nazi resister, and author (d. 1983)\n1894 – Nikita Khrushchev, Russian general and politician, 7th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1971)\n 1894 – Bessie Smith, African-American singer and actress (d. 1937)\n1895 – Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker player (d. 1980)\n1896 – Nikolay Semyonov, Russian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)\n1898 – Harry Edward, Guyanese-English sprinter (d. 1973)\n1901 – Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978)\n* 1901 – Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986)\n* 1901 – René Pleven, French businessman and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993)\n1902 – Fernando Pessa, Portuguese journalist (d. 2002)\n1903 – John Williams, English-American actor (d. 1983)\n1904 – Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1948)\n1907 – Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)\n1908 – eden ahbez, Scottish-American songwriter and recording artist (d. 1995)\n 1908 – Lita Grey, American actress (d. 1995)\n1910 – Sulo Bärlund, Finnish shot putter (d. 1986)\n 1910 – Miguel Najdorf, Polish-Argentinian chess player and theoretician (d. 1997)\n1912 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1998)\n 1912 – Kim Il-sung, North Korean general and politician, 1st Supreme Leader of North Korea (d. 1994)\n1915 – Elizabeth Catlett, African-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2012)\n1916 – Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American businessman (d. 1982)\n* 1916 – Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997)\n1917 – Hans Conried, American actor (d. 1982)\n 1917 – James Kee, American lawyer and politician (d. 1989)\n1918 – Hans Billian, German film director, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2007)\n1919 – Alberto Breccia, Uruguayan-Argentinian author and illustrator (d. 1993)\n1920 – Godfrey Stafford, English-South African physicist and academic (d. 2013)\n 1920 – Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2012)\n* 1920 – Richard von Weizsäcker, German soldier and politician, 6th President of Germany (d. 2015)\n1921 – Georgy Beregovoy, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1995)\n 1921 – Angelo DiGeorge, American physician and endocrinologist (d. 2009)\n1922 – Michael Ansara, Syrian-American actor (d. 2013)\n 1922 – Hasrat Jaipuri, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1999)\n* 1922 – Harold Washington, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1987)\n* 1922 – Graham Whitehead, English racing driver (d. 1981)\n1923 – Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (d. 1966)\n 1923 – Robert DePugh, American activist, founded the Minutemen (an anti-Communist organization) (d. 2009)\n1924 – M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (d. 1980)\n 1924 – Neville Marriner, English violinist and conductor (d. 2016)\n1925 – George Shuffler, American guitarist (d. 2014)\n1927 – Robert Mills, American physicist and academic (d. 1999)\n1929 – Gérald Beaudoin, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2008)\n 1929 – Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015)\n1930 – Georges Descrières, French actor (d. 2013)\n 1930 – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic educator and politician, 4th President of Iceland\n1931 – Kenneth Bloomfield, Northern Irish civil servant\n 1931 – Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)\n1933 – Roy Clark, American musician and television personality\n 1933 – David Hamilton, English-French photographer and director (d. 2016)\n* 1933 – Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress and producer (d. 1995)\n1935 – Stavros Paravas, Greek actor and producer (d. 2008)\n1936 – Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist\n1937 – Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978)\n1938 – Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress\n* 1938 – Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician (d. 2016)\n1939 – Marty Wilde, English singer-songwriter and actor\n1940 – Jeffrey Archer, English author, playwright, and politician\n* 1940 – Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model, beauty queen and 1958 Miss World\n* 1940 – Willie Davis, American baseball player and actor (d. 2010)\n* 1940 – Robert Lacroix, Canadian economist and academic\n1941 – Howard Berman, American lawyer and politician\n1942 – Francis X. DiLorenzo, American bishop\n* 1942 – Walt Hazzard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011)\n* 1942 – Kenneth Lay, American businessman (d. 2006)\n* 1942 – Tim Lankester, English economist and academic\n1943 – Pınar Kür, Turkish author, playwright, and academic\n 1943 – Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1943 – Veronica Linklater, Baroness Linklater, English politician\n* 1943 – Hugh Thompson, Jr., American soldier and pilot (d. 2006)\n1944 – Dzhokhar Dudayev, Russian-Chechen general and politician, 1st President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (d. 1996)\n 1944 – Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer, guitarist, and producer \n1946 – John Lloyd, Scottish journalist and author\n 1946 – Pete Rouse, American politician, White House Chief of Staff\n1947 – Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American screenwriter and producer\n 1947 – Martin Broughton, English businessman\n* 1947 – Lois Chiles, American model and actress\n* 1947 – Jeffrey DeMunn, American actor\n* 1947 – David Omand, English civil servant and academic\n* 1947 – Cristina Husmark Pehrsson, Swedish nurse and politician, Swedish Minister for Social Security\n* 1947 – Woolly Wolstenholme, English singer and keyboard player (d. 2010)\n1948 – Christopher Brown, English historian, curator, and academic\n 1948 – Michael Kamen, American composer and conductor (d. 2003)\n1949 – Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer-songwriter and actress\n 1949 – Craig Zadan, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n1950 – Josiane Balasko, French actress, director, and screenwriter\n 1950 – Amy Wright, American actress\n* 1950 – Karel Kroupa, Czech football player\n1951 – Heloise, American journalist and author\n 1951 – John L. Phillips, American captain and astronaut\n* 1951 – Stuart Prebble, English journalist and producer\n* 1951 – Marsha Ivins, American engineer and astronaut\n1952 – Kym Gyngell, Australian actor, comedian, and screenwriter\n 1952 – Brian Muir, English sculptor and set designer\n* 1952 – Avital Ronell, Czech-American philosopher and academic\n1955 – Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (d. 1997) \n1956 – Michael Cooper, American basketball player and coach\n1957 – Evelyn Ashford, American runner and coach\n1958 – Keith Acton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1958 – John Bracewell, New Zealand cricketer\n* 1958 – Memos Ioannou, Greek basketball player and coach\n* 1958 – Benjamin Zephaniah, English actor, author, poet, and playwright\n1959 – Fruit Chan, Chinese director, producer, and screenwriter\n 1959 – Kevin Lowe, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager\n* 1959 – Emma Thompson, English actress, comedian, author, activist and screenwriter\n1960 – Pierre Aubry, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1960 – Susanne Bier, Danish director and screenwriter\n* 1960 – Pedro Delgado, Spanish cyclist and sportscaster\n* 1960 – Tony Jones, English snooker player\n1961 – Neil Carmichael, English academic and politician\n 1961 – Carol W. Greider, American molecular biologist\n* 1961 – Dawn Wright, American geographer and oceanographer\n1962 – Nawal El Moutawakel, Moroccan athlete and politician\n 1962 – Tom Kane, American voice actor\n1963 – Alex Crawford, Nigerian-South African journalist\n 1963 – Manzoor Elahi, Pakistani cricketer\n* 1963 – Bobby Pepper, American journalist\n* 1963 – Manoj Prabhakar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster\n1964 – Andre Joubert, South African rugby player\n1965 – Kevin Stevens, American ice hockey player\n1966 – Samantha Fox, English singer-songwriter and actress\n 1966 – Mott Green, American businessman (d. 2013)\n1967 – Frankie Poullain, Scottish bass player and songwriter \n 1967 – Dara Torres, American swimmer and journalist\n1968 – Ben Clarke, English rugby player and coach\n 1968 – Brahim Lahlafi, Moroccan-French runner\n* 1968 – Ed O'Brien, English guitarist \n1969 – Jeromy Burnitz, American baseball player\n 1969 – Kaisa Roose, Estonian pianist and conductor\n* 1969 – Jimmy Waite, Canadian-German ice hockey player and coach\n1970 – Chris Huffins, American decathlete and coach\n1971 – Philippe Carbonneau, French rugby player\n* 1971 – Jason Sehorn, American football player \n* 1971 – Josia Thugwane, South African runner\n* 1971 – Karl Turner, English lawyer and politician\n1972 – Arturo Gatti, Italian-Canadian boxer (d. 2009)\n 1972 – Lou Romano, American animator and voice actor\n1974 – Kim Min-kyo, South Korean actor and director\n 1974 – Danny Pino, American actor and screenwriter\n* 1974 – Mike Quinn, American football player\n* 1974 – Douglas Spain, American actor, director, and producer\n* 1974 – Tim Thomas, American ice hockey player\n1975 – Sarah Teichmann, German-American biophysicist and immunologist\n1976 – Jason Bonsignore, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1976 – Darius Regelskis, Lithuanian footballer\n* 1976 – Kęstutis Šeštokas, Lithuanian basketball player\n* 1976 – Steve Williams, English rower\n1977 – Sudarsan Pattnaik, Indian sculptor\n 1977 – Brian Pothier, American ice hockey player\n* 1977 – Jamie Wall, English racing driver\n1978 – Milton Bradley, American baseball player\n 1978 – Tim Corcoran, American baseball player\n* 1978 – Luis Fonsi, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter and dancer\n1979 – David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1912)\n1980 – James Foster, English cricketer\n* 1980 – Raül López, Spanish basketball player\n* 1980 – Willie Mason, New Zealand-Australian rugby league player\n* 1980 – Aida Mollenkamp, American chef and author\n* 1980 – Billy Yates, American football player\n1981 – Andrés D'Alessandro, Argentinian footballer\n1982 – Michael Aubrey, American baseball player\n* 1982 – Anthony Green, American singer-songwriter \n* 1982 – Seth Rogen, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1983 – Alice Braga, Brazilian actress\n 1983 – Matt Cardle, English singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1983 – Dudu Cearense, Brazilian footballer\n* 1983 – Andreas Fransson, Swedish skier (d. 2014)\n* 1983 – Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player\n* 1983 – Martin Pedersen, Danish cyclist\n1984 – Antonio Cromartie, American football player\n 1984 – Cam Janssen, American ice hockey player\n* 1984 – Daniel Paille, Canadian ice hockey player\n1985 – Ryan Hamilton, Canadian ice hockey player\n1986 – Tom Heaton, English footballer\n* 1986 – Sylvain Marveaux, French footballer\n1988 – Blake Ayshford, Australian rugby league player\n 1988 – Steven Defour, Belgian footballer\n* 1988 – Chris Tillman, American baseball pitcher\n1990 – Emma Watson, English actress\n1991 – Daiki Arioka, Japanese idol, singer, and actor\n* 1991 – Javier Fernández López, Spanish figure skater\n1993 – Maisie Williams, English actress\n1999 – Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player\n\n", "* 628 – Suiko, emperor of Japan (b. 554)\n* 943 – Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920)\n* 956 – Lin Yanyu, Chinese court official and eunuch\n1053 – Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. 1001)\n1136 – Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare (b. 1094)\n1220 – Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157)\n1237 – Richard Poore, English ecclesiastic\n1415 – Manuel Chrysoloras, Greek philosopher and translator (b. 1355)\n1446 – Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1377)\n1502 – John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Prince of Orange (b. 1443)\n1558 – Roxelana, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. c. 1500)\n1610 – Robert Persons, English Jesuit priest, insurrectionist, and author (b. 1546)\n1632 – George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1580)\n1652 – Patriarch Joseph of Moscow, Russian patriarch\n1659 – Simon Dach, German poet and hymnwriter (b. 1605)\n1719 – Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, French wife of Louis XIV of France (b. 1635)\n1754 – Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1676)\n1761 – Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord President of the Court of Session (b. 1682)\n 1761 – William Oldys, English historian and author (b. 1696)\n1764 – Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1679)\n1765 – Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian chemist and physicist (b. 1711)\n1788 – Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (b. 1711)\n1793 – Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian priest, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1718)\n1854 – Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (b. 1773)\n1861 – Sylvester Jordan, Austrian-German lawyer and politician (b. 1792)\n1865 – Abraham Lincoln, American captain, lawyer, and politician, 16th President of the United States (b. 1809)\n1888 – Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (b. 1822)\n1889 – Father Damien, Belgian priest and saint (b. 1840)\n1898 – Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui, New Zealand commander and politician\n1912 – Victims of the RMS Titanic disaster\n* Thomas Andrews, Irish businessman and shipbuilder (b. 1873)\n John Jacob Astor IV, American colonel, businessman, and author (b. 1864)\n Archibald Butt, American general and journalist (b. 1865)\n Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (b. 1875)\n Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865)\n Henry B. Harris, American producer and manager (b. 1866)\n Wallace Hartley, English violinist and bandleader (b. 1878)\n James Paul Moody, English sailor and sixth officer (b. 1887)\n William McMaster Murdoch, Scottish sailor and first officer (b. 1873)\n Jack Phillips, English telegraphist (b. 1887)\n Edward Smith, English captain (b. 1850)\n William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849)\n Ida Straus, German-American businesswoman (b. 1849)\n Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (b. 1845)\n John Thayer, American cricketer (b. 1862)\n** Henry Tingle Wilde, English chief officer (b. 1872)\n1917 – János Murkovics, Slovene author, poet, and educator (b. 1839)\n1927 – Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (b. 1868)\n1938 – César Vallejo, Peruvian journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1892)\n1942 – Robert Musil, Austrian-Swiss author and playwright (b. 1880)\n1943 – Aristarkh Lentulov, Russian painter and set designer (b. 1882)\n1944 – Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Russian general (b. 1901)\n1945 – Hermann Florstedt, German SS officer (b. 1895)\n1948 – Radola Gajda, Montenegrin-Czech general and politician (b. 1892)\n1949 – Wallace Beery, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885)\n1962 – Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880)\n* 1962 – Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912)\n1963 – Edward Greeves, Jr., Australian footballer (b. 1903)\n1966 – Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury, Bengali politician, writer, journalist, first health minister of East Pakistan\n1967 – Totò, Italian comedian (b. 1898)\n1971 – Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915)\n* 1971 – Friedebert Tuglas, Estonian author and critic (b. 1886)\n1980 – Raymond Bailey, American actor and soldier (b. 1904)\n 1980 – Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)\n1984 – Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedian and magician (b. 1921)\n1986 – Jean Genet, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1910)\n1988 – Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n1989 – Hu Yaobang, Chinese soldier and politician (b. 1915)\n1990 – Greta Garbo, Swedish-American actress (b. 1905)\n1993 – Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (b. 1907)\n* 1993 – John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and geologist (b. 1908)\n1998 – William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1912)\n 1998 – Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1925)\n1999 – Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (b. 1944)\n2000 – Edward Gorey, American poet and illustrator (b. 1925)\n2001 – Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (b. 1951)\n2002 – Damon Knight, American author and critic (b. 1922)\n* 2002 – Byron White, American football player, lawyer, and jurist, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1917)\n2004 – Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese illustrator (b. 1934)\n2007 – Brant Parker, American illustrator (b. 1920)\n2008 – Krister Stendahl, Swedish bishop, theologian, and scholar (b. 1921)\n2009 – Clement Freud, German-English journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1924)\n* 2009 – László Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (b. 1907)\n* 2009 – Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (b. 1947)\n2010 – Jack Herer, American author and activist (b. 1939)\n 2010 – Michael Pataki, American actor and director (b. 1938)\n2011 – Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1975)\n2012 – Paul Bogart, American director and producer (b. 1919)\n* 2012 – Dwayne Schintzius, American basketball player (b. 1968)\n2013 – Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1930)\n 2013 – Richard LeParmentier, American-English actor and screenwriter (b. 1946)\n* 2013 – Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (b. 1928)\n2014 – John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (b. 1919)\n 2014 – Eliseo Verón, Argentinian sociologist and academic (b. 1935)\n2015 – Jonathan Crombie, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1966)\n 2015 – Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928)\n2017 – Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920)\n 2017 – Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last person verified born in the 19th century (b. 1899)\n\n", "* Christian feast day:\n Abbo II of Metz\n Father Damien (The Episcopal Church)\n Hunna\n Paternus of Avranches\n** April 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\n* Day of the Sun (North Korea)\n* Earliest day on which Sechseläuten can fall, while April 21 is the latest; celebrated on the third Monday in April. (Zürich)\n* Father Damien Day (Hawaii)\n* Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)\n* Jackie Robinson Day (United States)\n* Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)\n* Universal Day of Culture \n* World Art Day\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	April 15
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 311 – The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.\n* 313 – Battle of Tzirallum: Emperor Licinius defeats Maximinus II and unifies the Eastern Roman Empire.\n* 642 – Chindasuinth is proclaimed king by the Visigothic nobility and bishops.\n1315 – Enguerrand de Marigny is hanged at the instigation of Charles, Count of Valois.\n1492 – Spain gives Christopher Columbus his commission of exploration.\n1513 – Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII.\n1557 – Mapuche leader Lautaro is killed by Spanish forces at the Battle of Mataquito in Chile.\n1598 – Juan de Oñate makes a formal declaration of his Conquest of New Mexico.\n1598 – Henry IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes, allowing freedom of religion to the Huguenots.\n1636 – Eighty Years' War: Dutch Republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from Spain after a nine-month siege.\n1671 – Petar Zrinski, the Croatian Ban from the Zrinski family, is executed.\n1789 – On the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City, George Washington takes the oath of office to become the first elected President of the United States.\n1803 – Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, more than doubling the size of the young nation.\n1812 – The Territory of Orleans becomes the 18th U.S. state under the name Louisiana.\n1838 – Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation.\n1863 – A 65-man French Foreign Legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 Mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in Hacienda Camarón, Mexico.\n1871 – The Camp Grant massacre takes place in Arizona Territory.\n1885 – Governor of New York David B. Hill signs legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park, ensuring that Niagara Falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use.\n1897 – J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London.\n1900 – Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States, with Sanford B. Dole as governor.\n1904 – The Louisiana Purchase Exposition World's Fair opens in St. Louis, Missouri.\n* 1905 – Albert Einstein writes his thesis ''Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen'' (\"A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions\").\n1907 – Honolulu, Hawaii becomes an independent city.\n1925 – Automaker Dodge Brothers, Inc is sold to Dillon, Read & Co. for US$146 million plus $50 million for charity.\n1927 – The Federal Industrial Institute for Women opens in Alderson, West Virginia, as the first women's federal prison in the United States.\n 1927 – Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in concrete at Grauman's Chinese Theater in Hollywood.\n1937 – The Commonwealth of the Philippines holds a plebiscite for Filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage; over 90% would vote in the affirmative.\n1938 – The animated cartoon short ''Porky's Hare Hunt'' debuts in movie theaters, introducing Happy Rabbit (a prototype of Bugs Bunny).\n1939 – The 1939-40 New York World's Fair opens.\n 1939 – NBC inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in New York City, broadcasting President Franklin D. Roosevelt's N.Y. World's Fair opening day ceremonial address.\n1943 – World War II: The British submarine surfaces near Huelva to cast adrift a dead man dressed as a courier and carrying false invasion plans.\n1945 – World War II: ''Führerbunker'': Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide after being married for less than 40 hours. Soviet soldiers raise the Victory Banner over the Reichstag building.\n1945 – World War II: Stalag Luft I prisoner-of-war camp near Barth, Germany is liberated by Soviet soldiers, freeing nearly 9000 American and British airmen.\n1947 – In Nevada, Boulder Dam is renamed Hoover Dam for the second time.\n1948 – In Bogotá, Colombia, the Organization of American States is established.\n1956 – Former Vice President and Democratic Senator Alben Barkley dies during a speech in Virginia.\n1957 – Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force.\n1961 – ''K-19'', the first Soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles, is commissioned.\n1963 – The Bristol Bus Boycott is held in Bristol to protest the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to employ Black or Asian bus crews, drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the United Kingdom.\n1973 – Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon announces that White House Counsel John Dean has been fired and that other top aides, most notably H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, have resigned.\n1975 – Fall of Saigon: Communist forces gain control of Saigon. The Vietnam War formally ends with the unconditional surrender of South Vietnamese president Dương Văn Minh.\n1980 – The Iranian Embassy siege begins in London.\n1982 – The Bijon Setu massacre occurs in Calcutta.\n1992 – Nickelodeon Studios in Orlando, Florida bury a time capsule to be opened in 2042; 50 years after its burial.\n1993 – CERN announces World Wide Web protocols will be free.\n1994 – Formula One racing driver Roland Ratzenberger is killed in a crash during the qualifying session of the San Marino Grand Prix run at Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari outside Imola, Italy.\n1997 – Ellen DeGeneres came out as gay. Her sitcom, ''Ellen'', became one of first major television shows featuring an openly gay main character.\n2000 – Canonization of Faustina Kowalska in the presence of 200,000 people and the first Divine Mercy Sunday celebrated worldwide.\n2004 – U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers abusing and sexually humiliating Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.\n2008 – Two skeletal remains found near Yekaterinburg, Russia are confirmed by Russian scientists to be the remains of Alexei and Anastasia, two of the children of the last Tsar of Russia, whose entire family was executed at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks. \n2009 – Chrysler files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.\n 2009 – Seven civilians and the perpetrator are killed and another ten injured at a Queen's Day parade in Apeldoorn, Netherlands in an attempted assassination on Queen Beatrix.\n2012 – An overloaded ferry capsizes on the Brahmaputra River in India killing at least 103 people.\n2014 – A bomb blast in Ürümqi kills three people and injures 79 others.\n", "1245 – Philip III of France (d. 1285)\n1310 – King Casimir III of Poland (d. 1368)\n1331 – Gaston III, Count of Foix (d. 1391)\n1425 – William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1482)\n1504 – Francesco Primaticcio, Italian painter (d. 1570)\n1553 – Louise of Lorraine (d. 1601)\n1623 – François de Laval, French-Canadian bishop and saint (d. 1708)\n1651 – Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint (d. 1719)\n1662 – Mary II of England (d. 1694)\n1664 – François Louis, Prince of Conti (d. 1709)\n1710 – Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (d. 1795)\n1723 – Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French zoologist and philosopher (d. 1806)\n1758 – Emmanuel Vitale, Maltese commander and politician (d. 1802)\n1770 – David Thompson, English-Canadian cartographer and explorer (d. 1857)\n1777 – Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1855)\n1803 – Albrecht von Roon, Prussian soldier and politician, 10th Minister President of Prussia (d. 1879)\n1829 – Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Austrian geologist and academic (d. 1884)\n1857 – Eugen Bleuler, Swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist (d. 1940)\n* 1857 – Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (d. 1920)\n1865 – Max Nettlau, German historian and academic (d. 1944)\n1869 – Hans Poelzig, German architect, designed the IG Farben Building and Großes Schauspielhaus (d. 1936)\n1870 – Franz Lehár, Slovak-Austrian composer (d. 1948)\n 1870 – Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1944)\n1874 – Cyriel Verschaeve, Flemish priest and author (d. 1949)\n1876 – Orso Mario Corbino, Italian physicist and politician (d. 1937)\n1877 – Léon Flameng, French cyclist (d. 1917)\n 1877 – Alice B. Toklas, American memoirist (d. 1967)\n1880 – Charles Exeter Devereux Crombie, Scottish cartoonist (d. 1967)\n1883 – Jaroslav Hašek, Czech soldier and author (d. 1923)\n* 1883 – Luigi Russolo, Italian painter and composer (d. 1947)\n1884 – Olof Sandborg, Swedish actor (d. 1965)\n1888 – John Crowe Ransom, American poet, critic, and academic (d. 1974)\n1893 – Harold Breen, Australian public servant (d. 1966)\n 1893 – Joachim von Ribbentrop, German soldier and politician, 14th German Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1946)\n1895 – Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (d. 1960)\n1896 – Reverend Gary Davis, American singer and guitarist (d. 1972)\n* 1896 – Hans List, Austrian scientist and businessman, founded the AVL Engineering Company (d. 1996)\n1897 – Humberto Mauro, Brazilian director and screenwriter (d. 1983)\n1900 – Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (d. 1984)\n1901 – Simon Kuznets, Belarusian-American economist, statistician, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)\n1902 – Theodore Schultz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)\n1905 – Sergey Nikolsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2012)\n1908 – Eve Arden, American actress (d. 1990)\n* 1908 – Bjarni Benediktsson, Icelandic journalist and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1970)\n* 1908 – Frank Robert Miller, Canadian air marshal and politician (d. 1997)\n1909 – F. E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor and educator (d. 1992)\n 1909 – Juliana of the Netherlands (d. 2004)\n1910 – Levi Celerio, Filipino pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 2002)\n1914 – Charles Beetham, American middle-distance runner (d. 1997)\n* 1914 – Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter, actor, and painter (d. 2008)\n1916 – Claude Shannon, American mathematician and engineer (d. 2001)\n 1916 – Paul Kuusberg, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2003)\n* 1916 – Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)\n1917 – Bea Wain, American singer (d. 2017)\n1920 – Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver and pilot (d. 1994)\n1921 – Roger L. Easton, American scientist, co-invented the GPS (d. 2014)\n1922 – Anton Murray, South African cricketer (d. 1995)\n1923 – Percy Heath, American bassist (d. 2005)\n 1923 – Kagamisato Kiyoji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 42nd Yokozuna (d. 2004)\n1924 – Uno Laht, Estonian KGB officer and author (d. 2008)\n1925 – Corinne Calvet, French actress (d. 2001)\n* 1925 – Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1960)\n1926 – Shrinivas Khale, Indian composer (d. 2011)\n 1926 – Cloris Leachman, American actress and comedian\n1928 – Hugh Hood, Canadian author and academic (d. 2000)\n 1928 – Orlando Sirola, Italian tennis player (d. 1995)\n1930 – Félix Guattari, French psychotherapist and philosopher (d. 1992)\n1933 – Charles Sanderson, Baron Sanderson of Bowden, English politician\n1934 – Jerry Lordan, English singer-songwriter (d. 1995)\n 1934 – Don McKenney, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n1937 – Tony Harrison, English poet and playwright\n1938 – Gary Collins, American actor and talk show host (d. 2012)\n* 1938 – Juraj Jakubisko, Slovak director and screenwriter\n* 1938 – Larry Niven, American author and screenwriter\n1940 – Jeroen Brouwers, Dutch journalist and writer\n 1940 – Michael Cleary, Australian rugby player and politician\n1941 – Stavros Dimas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs\n1942 – Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sultan of Kedah\n1943 – Frederick Chiluba, Zambian politician, 2nd President of Zambia (d. 2011)\n 1943 – Bobby Vee, American pop singer-songwriter (d. 2016)\n1944 – Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (d. 2014)\n 1944 – Jill Clayburgh, American actress (d. 2010)\n1945 – J. Michael Brady, British radiologist\n 1945 – Annie Dillard, American novelist, essayist, and poet\n* 1945 – Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2001)\n* 1945 – Michael J. Smith, American captain, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986)\n1946 – King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden\n 1946 – Bill Plympton, American animator, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1946 – Don Schollander, American swimmer\n1947 – Paul Fiddes, English theologian and academic\n 1947 – Finn Kalvik, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n* 1947 – Tom Køhlert, Danish footballer and manager\n* 1947 – Mats Odell, Swedish economist and politician, Swedish Minister for Financial Markets\n1948 – Wayne Kramer, American guitarist and singer-songwriter\n 1948 – Pierre Pagé, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1948 – Margit Papp, Hungarian athlete\n1949 – Phil Garner, American baseball player and manager\n 1949 – António Guterres, Portuguese academic and politician, 114th Prime Minister of Portugal\n* 1949 – Karl Meiler, German tennis player (d. 2014)\n1952 – Jacques Audiard, French director and screenwriter\n 1952 – Jack Middelburg, Dutch professional Grand Prix motorcycle road racer (d. 1984)\n1953 – Merrill Osmond, American singer and bass player\n1954 – Jane Campion, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1954 – Kim Darroch, English diplomat, UK Permanent Representative to the European Union\n* 1954 – Frank-Michael Marczewski, German footballer\n1955 – Nicolas Hulot, French journalist and environmentalist\n 1955 – David Kitchin, English lawyer and judge\n* 1955 – Zlatko Topčić, Bosnian writer and screenwriter\n1956 – Lars von Trier, Danish director and screenwriter\n1958 – Charles Berling, French actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1958 – Wonder Mike, American rapper and songwriter \n1959 – Stephen Harper, Canadian economist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Canada\n1960 – Geoffrey Cox, English lawyer and politician\n* 1960 – Kerry Healey, American academic and politician, 70th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts\n1961 – Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster\n1963 – Andrew Carwood, English tenor and conductor\n* 1963 – Michael Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster\n1964 – Tony Fernandes, Malaysian-Indian businessman, co-founded Tune Group\n 1964 – Ian Healy, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster\n* 1964 – Lorenzo Staelens, Belgian footballer and manager\n1965 – Daniela Costian, Romanian-Australian discus thrower\n1966 – Jeff Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1966 – Dave Meggett, American football player and coach\n1969 – Warren Defever, American bass player and producer \n 1969 – Justine Greening, English accountant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development\n1974 – Christian Tamminga, Dutch athlete \n1975 – Johnny Galecki, American actor\n1976 – Davian Clarke, Jamaican sprinter\n 1976 – Amanda Palmer, American singer-songwriter and pianist \n* 1976 – Daniel Wagon, Australian rugby league player\n1977 – Jeannie Haddaway, American politician\n 1977 – Meredith L. Patterson, American technologist, journalist, and author\n1979 – Gerardo Torrado, Mexican footballer\n1980 – Luis Scola, Argentinian basketball player\n* 1980 – Jeroen Verhoeven, Dutch footballer\n1981 – Nicole Kaczmarski, American basketball player\n 1981 – John O'Shea, Irish footballer\n* 1981 – Kunal Nayyar, British-Indian actor\n* 1981 – Justin Vernon, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer \n1982 – Kirsten Dunst, American actress\n 1982 – Drew Seeley, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor\n1983 – Chris Carr, American football player\n 1983 – Tatjana Hüfner, German luger\n* 1983 – Marina Tomić, Slovenian hurdler\n* 1983 – Troy Williamson, American football player\n1984 – Shawn Daivari, American wrestler and manager\n 1984 – Risto Mätas, Estonian javelin thrower\n* 1984 – Lee Roache, English footballer\n1985 – Brandon Bass, American basketball player\n 1985 – Gal Gadot, Israeli actress and model\n1986 – Dianna Agron, American actress and singer\n 1986 – Martten Kaldvee, Estonian biathlete\n1987 – Alipate Carlile, Australian footballer\n 1987 – Chris Morris, South African cricketer\n* 1987 – Rohit Sharma, Indian cricketer\n1988 – Andy Allen, Australian chef\n 1988 – Sander Baart, Dutch field hockey player \n* 1988 – Oh Hye-ri, South Korean taekwondo athlete\n1990 – Jonny Brownlee, English triathlete\n 1990 – Mac DeMarco, Canadian singer-songwriter\n* 1990 – Kaarel Kiidron, Estonian footballer\n1991 – Chris Kreider, American ice hockey player\n1992 – Travis Scott, American rapper and producer\n* 1992 – Marc-André ter Stegen, German footballer\n1993 – Dion Dreesens, Dutch swimmer\n1994 – Wang Yafan, Chinese tennis player\n1996 – Luke Friend, English singer\n1997 – Adam Ryczkowski, Polish footballer\n\n", "* AD 65 – Lucan, Roman poet (b. 39)\n* 125 – Emperor An of Han of the Chinese Han Dynasty (b. 94)\n* 535 – Amalasuntha, Italian daughter of Theoderic the Great (b. 495)\n* 783 – Hildegard of the Vinzgau (b. 758)\n1002 – Eckard I, Margrave of Meissen\n1030 – Mahmud of Ghazni (b. 971)\n1063 – Emperor Renzong of Song (b. 1010)\n1131 – Adjutor, French knight and saint\n1305 – Roger de Flor, Italian military adventurer\n1341 – John III, Duke of Brittany (b. 1285)\n1439 – Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English commander (b. 1382)\n1524 – Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French soldier (b. 1473)\n1544 – Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1488)\n1550 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (b. 1516)\n1632 – Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559)\n 1632 – Sigismund III Vasa, Swedish-Polish son of John III of Sweden (b. 1566)\n1637 – Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyo (b. 1571)\n1655 – Eustache Le Sueur, French painter (b. 1617)\n1660 – Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (b. 1576)\n1672 – Marie of the Incarnation, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Ursulines of Quebec (b. 1599)\n1696 – Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (b. 1640)\n1712 – Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian and author (b. 1633)\n1736 – Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and author (b. 1668)\n1758 – François d'Agincourt, French organist and composer (b. 1684)\n1792 – John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1718)\n1795 – Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and author (b. 1716)\n1806 – Onogawa Kisaburō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 5th Yokozuna (b. 1758)\n1841 – Peter Andreas Heiberg, Danish philologist and author (b. 1758)\n1847 – Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen (b. 1771)\n1863 – Jean Danjou, French captain (b. 1828)\n1865 – Robert FitzRoy, English admiral, meteorologist, and politician, 2nd Governor of New Zealand (b. 1805)\n1870 – Thomas Cooke, Canadian bishop and missionary (b. 1792)\n1875 – Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. 1766)\n1879 – Emma Smith, American religious leader (b. 1804)\n1883 – Édouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832)\n1891 – Joseph Leidy, American paleontologist and author (b. 1823)\n1900 – Casey Jones, American engineer (b. 1863)\n1903 – Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (b. 1831)\n1910 – Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (b. 1856)\n1936 – A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (b. 1859)\n1939 – Frank Haller, American boxer (b. 1883)\n1943 – Otto Jespersen, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1860)\n* 1943 – Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (b. 1858)\n \n1953 – Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist and author (b. 1874)\n1956 – Alben W. Barkley, American lawyer and politician, 35th Vice President of the United States (b. 1877)\n1970 – Jacques Presser, Dutch historian, writer and poet (b. 1899)\n 1970 – Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (b. 1934)\n1972 – Gia Scala, English-American model and actress (b. 1934)\n1973 – Václav Renč, Czech poet and playwright (b. 1911)\n1974 – Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900)\n1980 – Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican journalist and politician, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1898)\n1982 – Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (b. 1949)\n1983 – George Balanchine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1904)\n* 1983 – Muddy Waters, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bandleader (b. 1913)\n* 1983 – Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (b. 1897)\n1986 – Robert Stevenson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905)\n1989 – Sergio Leone, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n1993 – Tommy Caton, English footballer (b. 1962)\n1994 – Roland Ratzenberger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1960)\n* 1994 – Richard Scarry, American author and illustrator (b. 1919)\n1995 – Maung Maung Kha, Burmese colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1920)\n1998 – Nizar Qabbani, Syrian-English poet, publisher, and diplomat (b. 1926)\n2000 – Poul Hartling, Danish politician, 36th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1914)\n2002 – Charlotte von Mahlsdorf, German philanthropist, founded the Gründerzeit Museum (b. 1928)\n2003 – Mark Berger, American economist and academic (b. 1955)\n 2003 – Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (b. 1956)\n2005 – Phil Rasmussen, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1918)\n2006 – Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (b. 1924)\n* 2006 – Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesian author and academic (b. 1925)\n2007 – Kevin Mitchell, American football player (b. 1971)\n 2007 – Tom Poston, American actor, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1921)\n2008 – John Cargher, English-Australian journalist and author (b. 1919)\n 2008 – Juancho Evertsz, Dutch Antillean politician (b. 1923)\n2009 – Henk Nijdam, Dutch cyclist (b. 1935)\n2011 – Dorjee Khandu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1955)\n* 2011 – Evald Okas, Estonian painter (b. 1915)\n* 2011 – Ernesto Sabato, Argentinian physicist, author, and painter (b. 1911)\n2012 – Tomás Borge, Nicaraguan poet and politician, co-founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (b. 1930)\n 2012 – Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (b. 1985)\n* 2012 – Giannis Gravanis, Greek footballer (b. 1958)\n* 2012 – Benzion Netanyahu, Russian-Israeli historian and academic (b. 1910)\n* 2012 – Sicelo Shiceka, South African politician (b. 1966)\n2013 – Roberto Chabet, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1937)\n 2013 – Shirley Firth, Canadian skier (b. 1953)\n* 2013 – Viviane Forrester, French author and critic (b. 1925)\n* 2013 – Mike Gray, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1935)\n2014 – Khaled Choudhury, Indian painter and set designer (b. 1919)\n 2014 – Julian Lewis, English biologist and academic (b. 1946)\n* 2014 – Carl E. Moses, American businessman and politician (b. 1929)\n* 2014 – Ian Ross, Australian journalist (b. 1940)\n2015 – Lennart Bodström, Swedish politician (b. 1928)\n 2015 – Steven Goldmann, Canadian director and producer (b. 1961)\n2016 – Daniel Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1921)\n 2016 – Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)\n\n", "Armed Forces Day (Georgia)\nBirthday of the King Carl XVI Gustaf, one of the official flag days of Sweden.\nCamarón Day (French Foreign Legion)\nChildren's Day (Mexico)\nChristian feast day:\nAdjutor\nAimo\nAmator, Peter and Louis\nDonatus of Evorea\nEutropius of Saintes\nMarie Guyart (Anglican Church of Canada)\nMarie of the Incarnation (Ursuline)\nMaximus of Rome\nBlessed Miles Gerard\nPomponius of Naples\nPope Saint Pius V\nQuirinus of Neuss\nSarah Josepha Hale (Episcopal Church)\nSuitbert the Younger \nApril 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nConsumer Protection Day (Thailand)\nEarliest day on which Ascension Day can fall, while June 3 is the latest; celebrated 40 days after Easter (Christianity), and its related observances:\nFather's Day (Germany)\nFesta della Sensa (Venice)\nGlobal Day of Prayer (Western Christianity)\nSheep Festival (Cameroon)\nHonesty Day (United States)\nInternational Jazz Day (UNESCO)\nMartyr's Day (Pakistan)\nMay Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere ''(see May 1)'':\nBeltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)\nCarodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)\nWalpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)\nNational Persian Gulf Day (Iran)\nReunification Day (Vietnam)\nRussian State Fire Service Day (Russia)\nTeachers' Day (Paraguay)\n", "\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n\n On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "References", "External links" ]	April 30
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 392 – Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.\n* 851 – Battle of Jengland: Erispoe defeats Charles the Bald near the Breton town of Jengland.\n1138 – Battle of the Standard between Scotland and England.\n1485 – The Battle of Bosworth Field, the death of Richard III and the end of the House of Plantagenet.\n1559 – Bartolomé Carranza, Spanish archbishop, is arrested for heresy.\n1639 – Madras (now Chennai), India, is founded by the British East India Company on a sliver of land bought from local Nayak rulers.\n1642 – Charles I raises his standard in Nottingham, which marks the beginning of the English Civil War.\n1654 – Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. He is the first known Jewish immigrant to America.\n1711 – Britain's Quebec Expedition loses eight ships and almost nine hundred soldiers, sailors and women to rocks at Pointe-aux-Anglais.\n1717 – Spanish troops land on Sardinia.\n1770 – James Cook names and lands on Possession Island, and claims the east coast of Australia for Britain as New South Wales.\n1777 – British forces abandon the Siege of Fort Stanwix after hearing rumors of Continental Army reinforcements.\n1780 – James Cook's ship returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage).\n1791 – Beginning of the Haitian Slave Revolution in Saint-Domingue, Haiti.\n1798 – French troops land at Kilcummin, County Mayo, Ireland to aid the rebellion.\n1827 – José de la Mar becomes President of Peru.\n1831 – Nat Turner's slave rebellion commences just after midnight in Southampton County, Virginia, leading to the deaths of about 60 whites and approximately 250 blacks.\n1846 – The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established.\n1849 – The first air raid in history. Austria launches pilotless balloons against the city of Venice.\n1851 – The first America's Cup is won by the yacht ''America''.\n1864 – Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention.\n1875 – The Treaty of Saint Petersburg between Japan and Russia is ratified, providing for the exchange of Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands.\n1894 – Mahatma Gandhi forms the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in order to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal.\n1902 – Cadillac Motor Company is founded.\n* 1902 – Theodore Roosevelt becomes the first President of the United States to make a public appearance in an automobile.\n1910 – Korea is annexed by Japan with the signing of the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, beginning a period of Japanese rule of Korea that lasted until the end of World War II.\n1914 – German troops execute 384 inhabitants of Tamines, Belgium.\n1922 – Michael Collins, Commander-in-chief of the Irish Free State Army, is shot dead in an ambush during the Irish Civil War.\n1934 – Bill Woodfull of Australia becomes the only cricket captain to twice regain The Ashes.\n1941 – World War II: German troops begin the Siege of Leningrad.\n1942 – Brazil declares war on Germany, Japan & Italy.\n1944 – World War II: Holocaust of Kedros in Crete by German forces\n1949 – The Queen Charlotte earthquake is Canada's strongest since the 1700 Cascadia earthquake\n1950 – Althea Gibson becomes the first black competitor in international tennis.\n1953 – The penal colony on Devil's Island is permanently closed.\n1962 – The OAS attempts to assassinate French president Charles de Gaulle.\n1963 – X-15 Flight 91 reaches the highest altitude of the X-15 program ( (354,200 feet)).\n1966 – Labor movements NFWA and AWOC merge to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), predecessor of the United Farm Workers.\n1968 – Pope Paul VI arrives in Bogotá, Colombia. It is the first visit of a pope to Latin America.\n1971 – J. Edgar Hoover and John Mitchell announce the arrest of 20 of the Camden 28.\n1972 – Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies.\n1973 – The Congress of Chile votes in favour of a resolution condemning President Salvador Allende's government and demands that he resign or else be unseated through force and new elections.\n1978 – The ''Sandinista National Liberation Front'' (FLSN) occupies national palace in Nicaragua.\n* 1978 – The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment is passed by the U.S. Congress. The proposed amendment would have provided the District of Columbia with full voting representation in the Congress, the Electoral College, and regarding amending the U.S. Constitution. The proposed amendment failed to be ratified by enough states (ratified by 16, needed 38) and so did not become part of the Constitution.\n1985 – British Airtours Flight 28M suffers an engine fire during takeoff at Manchester Airport. The pilots abort but due to inefficient evacuation procedures 55 people are killed, mostly from smoke inhalation.\n1989 – Nolan Ryan strikes out Rickey Henderson to become the first Major League Baseball pitcher to record 5,000 strikeouts.\n1992 – FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.\n2003 – Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the Ten Commandments from the lobby of the Alabama Supreme Court building.\n2004 – Versions of ''The Scream'' and ''Madonna'', two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.\n2006 – Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612 crashes near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine, killing all 170 people on board.\n* 2006 – Grigori Perelman is awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal.\n2007 – The Texas Rangers defeat the Baltimore Orioles 30–3, the most runs scored by a team in modern Major League Baseball history.\n2012 – Ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in Kenya's Tana River District result in more than 52 deaths.\n", "\n1412 – Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1464)\n1570 – Franz von Dietrichstein, Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (d. 1636)\n1599 – Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636)\n1601 – Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667)\n1624 – Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701)\n1647 – Denis Papin, French physicist and mathematician, developed pressure cooking (d. 1712)\n1679 – Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)\n1760 – Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)\n1764 – Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838)\n1771 – Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831)\n1773 – Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)\n1778 – James Kirke Paulding, American poet, playwright, and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1860)\n1788 – Thomas Tredgold, English engineer and author (d. 1829)\n1800 – William S. Harney, American general (d. 1889)\n* 1800 – Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865)\n1827 – Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906)\n1834 – Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906)\n1836 – Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918)\n1844 – George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)\n1845 – William Lewis Douglas, American businessman and politician, 42nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1924)\n1847 – John Forrest, Australian politician, 1st Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918)\n1848 – Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the ''Chicago Daily News'' (d. 1929)\n1854 – Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)\n1857 – Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937)\n1860 – Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, Polish-German technician and inventor, created the Nipkow disk (d. 1940)\n* 1860 – Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)\n1862 – Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918)\n1867 – Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)\n* 1867 – Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934)\n1868 – Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958)\n1873 – Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)\n1874 – Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928)\n1880 – Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916)\n* 1880 – George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)\n1882 – Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919)\n1887 – Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1977)\n1890 – Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973)\n1891 – Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983)\n* 1891 – Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973)\n1893 – Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1977)\n 1893 – Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967)\n* 1893 – Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992)\n1895 – László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951)\n 1895 – Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966)\n1896 – Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995)\n1897 – Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965)\n1898 – Alexander Calder, American artist (d. 1976)\n1902 – Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973)\n* 1902 – Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003)\n* 1902 – Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982)\n1903 – Jerry Iger, American cartoonist, co-founded Eisner & Iger (d. 1990)\n1904 – Deng Xiaoping, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997)\n1908 – Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004)\n 1908 – Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993)\n1909 – Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)\n 1909 – Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992)\n1913 – Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008)\n 1913 – Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993)\n1914 – Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992)\n 1914 – Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989)\n1915 – David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004)\n 1915 – James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007)\n* 1915 – Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005)\n1917 – John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)\n1918 – Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004)\n1920 – Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012)\n 1920 – Denton Cooley, American soldier and surgeon (d. 2016)\n1921 – Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003)\n 1921 – Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012)\n1922 – Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996)\n 1922 – Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011)\n1924 – James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989)\n1924 - Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995)\n1925 – Honor Blackman, English actress and republican\n1926 – Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (The Four Freshmen) (d. 2011)\n1928 – Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat\n 1928 – Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (d. 2007)\n1929 – Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)\n 1929 – Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general\n1930 – Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)\n1932 – Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut\n1933 – Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)\n1934 – Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)\n1935 – Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist\n1936 – Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)\n* 1936 – John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)\n* 1936 – Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)\n* 1936 – Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the maverick roller coaster\n1938 – Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)\n1939 – Valerie Harper, American actress \n* 1939 – Fred Milano, American doo-wop singer (Dion and the Belmonts) (d. 2012)\n* 1939 – Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player\n1940 – Bill McCartney, American football player and coach, founded Promise Keepers\n1941 – Bill Parcells, American football player and coach\n1942 – Uğur Mumcu, Turkish journalist and author (d. 1993)\n1943 – Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales\n* 1943 – Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004\n1944 – Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic\n1945 – David Chase, American director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1945 – Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer \n1947 – Donna Jean Godchaux, American singer-songwriter (The Grateful Dead)\n 1947 – Cindy Williams, American actress and producer\n1948 – David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1949 – Doug Bair, American baseball player and coach\n* 1949 – Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author\n1950 – Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach\n 1950 – Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States\n1952 – Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)\n1953 – Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager\n1956 – Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach\n 1956 – Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer\n1957 – Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author\n 1957 – Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)\n1958 – Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor\n1958 – Stevie Ray, American semi-retired wrestler\n* 1958 – Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter (Living Colour) \n1959 – Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer \n 1959 – Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance\n* 1959 – Mark Williams, English actor\n1960 – Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager\n 1960 – Collin Raye, American country music singer \n1961 – Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer \n 1961 – Iain Coucher, English businessman\n* 1961 – Roland Orzabal, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer\n* 1961 – Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer\n1963 – Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer \n 1963 – James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer\n* 1963 – Terry Catledge, American basketball player\n1964 – Diane Setterfield, English author and educator\n 1964 – Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach\n1965 – Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer\n1966 – GZA, American rapper and producer\n* 1966 – Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager\n1967 – Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian\n 1967 – Alfred Gough, American screenwriter and producer\n* 1967 – Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002)\n1968 – Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter\n 1968 – Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist \n* 1968 – Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer\n* 1968 – Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman\n* 1968 – Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008)\n1970 – Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author\n1970 – Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster\n1971 – Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n1972 – Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter\n* 1972 – Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer \n* 1972 – Steve Kline, American baseball player and coach\n* 1972 – Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver\n1973 – Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer\n 1973 – Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter\n* 1973 – Eurelijus Žukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player\n1974 – Cory Gardner, American politician\n 1974 – Agustín Pichot, Argentinian rugby player\n1975 – Clint Bolton, Australian footballer\n 1975 – Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor\n1976 – Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer\n 1976 – Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist\n* 1976 – Laurent Hernu, French decathlete\n* 1976 – Randy Wolf, American baseball player\n1977 – Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer\n1978 – James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter \n* 1978 – Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player\n1979 – Matt Walters, American football player\n1980 – Roland Benschneider, German footballer\n* 1980 – Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter\n* 1980 – Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler\n1981 – Alex Holmes, American football player\n 1981 – Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)\n* 1981 – Christina Obergföll, German athlete\n1983 – Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist\n 1983 – Jahri Evans, American football player\n1984 – Lee Camp, English footballer\n 1984 – Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer\n1985 – Luke Russert, American journalist\n 1985 – Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler\n* 1985 – Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler \n1986 – Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer\n 1986 – Adrian Neville, English wrestler\n* 1986 – Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler\n1987 – Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer\n 1987 – Apollo Crews, American wrestler\n1989 – Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer\n1990 – Randall Cobb, American football player\n* 1990 – Drew Hutchison, American baseball player\n* 1990 – Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player\n1991 – Federico Macheda, Italian footballer\n 1991 – Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player\n1992 – Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player\n1994 – Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player\n1995 – Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter\n\n", "\n 408 – Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)\n1155 – Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)\n1241 – Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143)\n1280 – Pope Nicholas III (b. 1216)\n1304 – John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247)\n1338 – William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312)\n1350 – Philip VI of France (b. 1293)\n1358 – Isabella of France (b. 1295)\n1456 – Vladislav II of Wallachia\n1485 – Richard III of England (b. 1452)\n 1485 – James Harrington, Yorkist knight\n* 1485 – John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)\n* 1485 – Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III\n* 1485 – William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)\n1532 – William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450)\n1545 – Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484)\n1553 – John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504)\n1572 – Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528)\n1584 – Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)\n1599 – Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)\n1607 – Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572)\n1652 – Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583)\n1664 – Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)\n1680 – John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)\n1681 – Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)\n1701 – John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628)\n1711 – Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)\n1752 – William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)\n1793 – Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)\n1797 – Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)\n1806 – Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)\n1818 – Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732)\n1828 – Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758)\n1850 – Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)\n1861 – Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)\n1888 – Ágoston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817)\n1891 – Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)\n1903 – Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)\n1904 – Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)\n1909 – Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)\n1914 – Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)\n1918 – Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)\n1920 – Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)\n1922 – Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890)\n1926 – Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)\n1933 – Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)\n1940 – Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)\n 1940 – Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)\n1942 – Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)\n1946 – Döme Sztójay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883)\n1950 – Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)\n1951 – Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)\n1953 – Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)\n1958 – Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)\n1960 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897)\n1963 – William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877)\n1967 – Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903)\n1970 – Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)\n1974 – Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)\n1976 – Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)\n* 1976 – Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)\n1977 – Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918)\n 1977 – Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891)\n1978 – Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan journalist and politician, 1st President of Kenya (b. 1894)\n1979 – James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904)\n1980 – James Smith McDonnell, American pilot, engineer, and businessman, founded McDonnell Aircraft (b. 1899)\n1981 – Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910)\n1985 – Charles Gibson (historian), Historian of Mexico and its Indians, President of the American Historical Association (b. 1920)\n1986 – Celâl Bayar, Turkish lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Turkey (b. 1883)\n1987 – Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909)\n1989 – Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933)\n* 1989 – Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942)\n1991 – Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924)\n 1991 – Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937)\n1994 – Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931)\n 1994 – Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914)\n1995 – Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919)\n1996 – Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904)\n2003 – Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914)\n2004 – Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960)\n* 2004 – Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908)\n* 2004 – Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920)\n2005 – Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929)\n 2005 – Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914)\n2007 – Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922)\n2008 – Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899)\n2009 – Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926)\n2010 – Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923)\n2011 – Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)\n 2011 – Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950)\n* 2011 – Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922)\n2012 – Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925)\n 2012 – Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923)\n* 2012 – Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)\n2013 – Paul Poberezny, American pilot and businessman, founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (b. 1921)\n 2013 – Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984)\n2014 – U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)\n 2014 – Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906)\n* 2014 – Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928)\n* 2014 – Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933)\n* 2014 – John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921)\n* 2014 – John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929)\n2015 – Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922)\n 2015 – Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932)\n* 2015 – Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919)\n2016 – S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924)\n2016 – Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922)\n2017 – Michael J. C. Gordon, British Computer scientist (b. 1948)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nImmaculate Heart of Mary (Roman Catholic calendar of 1960)\nQueenship of Mary\nSymphorian and Timotheus\nAugust 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nEarliest day on which National Heroes' Day (Philippines) can fall, while August 28 is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Monday in August.\nFlag Day (Russia)\nMadras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)\n", "\n BBC: On This Day\n* \n* On This Day in Canada\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 22
[ "\n\n\n\nBall-and-stick model of the hydroxyl (-OH) functional group in an alcohol molecule (R3COH). The three \"R's\" stand for carbon substituents or hydrogen atoms.\nThe hydroxyl (-OH) functional group with bond angle\n\nIn chemistry, an '''alcohol''' is any organic compound in which the hydroxyl functional group (–OH) is bound to a saturated carbon atom. The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic beverages.\n\nThe suffix ''-ol'' appears in the IUPAC chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority; in substances where a higher priority group is present the prefix ''hydroxy-'' will appear in the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) name. The suffix ''-ol'' in non-systematic names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance includes a hydroxyl functional group and, so, can be termed an alcohol. But many substances, particularly sugars (examples glucose and sucrose) contain hydroxyl functional groups without using the suffix. An important class of alcohols, of which methanol and ethanol are the simplest members is the saturated straight chain alcohols, the general formula for which is CnH2n+1OH.\n\n", "Rhazes (854 CE – 925 CE), was a Persian polymath, physician, alchemist, and philosopher who discovered numerous compounds and chemicals including \"alcohol\" by developing several chemical instruments and methods of distillation.\n", "\n===Etymology===\nThe word \"alcohol\" is from the Arabic ''kohl'' (), a powder used as an eyeliner. Al- is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to ''the'' in English. ''Alcohol'' was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide , hence the essence or \"spirit\" of this substance. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. The meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol, when \"spirits\" as a synonym for hard liquor.\n\nBartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by \"barbarous\" (Moorish) authors for \"fine powder.\" Vigo wrote: \"the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre.\"\n\nThe 1657 ''Lexicon Chymicum'', by William Johnson glosses the word as \"antimonium sive stibium.\" By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including \"alcohol of wine,\" the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in ''Alchymia'' (1594) refers to \"vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum\". Johnson (1657) glosses ''alcohol vini'' as \"quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat.\" The word's meaning became restricted to \"spirit of wine\" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as \"alcohols\" in modern chemistry after 1850.\n\nThe term ''ethanol'' was invented 1892, based on combining the word ethane with \"ol\" the last part of \"alcohol\".\n\n===Systematic names===\nIUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important, especially in cases where the relative complexity of the molecule does not make such a systematic name unwieldy. In the IUPAC system, in naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal \"e\" and adds \"ol\", ''e.g.'', as in \"methanol\" and \"ethanol\". When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the \"ol\": propan-1-ol for , propan-2-ol for . If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix \"hydroxy\" is used, e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone ().\n\n+ Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them\n\n CH3–CH2–CH2–OH\n 85px\n 110px\n 100px\n 100px\n\n 100px\n 60px\n 100px\n 110px\n 100px\n\n ''n''-propyl alcohol,propan-1-ol, or1-propanol\n isopropyl alcohol,propan-2-ol, or2-propanol\n cyclohexanol\n isobutyl alcohol,2-methylpropan-1-ol, or2-methyl-1-propanol\n ''tert''-amyl alcohol,2-methylbutan-2-ol, or2-methyl-2-butanol\n\n A primary alcohol\n A secondary alcohol\n A secondary alcohol\n A primary alcohol\n A tertiary alcohol\n\n\n===Common names===\nIn other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word \"alcohol\", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be ''n''-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the \"hydroxy-\" prefix.\n\n\nAlcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (''sec-'', ''s-''), and tertiary (''tert-'', ''t-''), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. (The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are also sometimes used in informal settings.) The primary alcohols have general formulas RCH2OH. The simplest primary alcohol is methanol (CH3OH), for which R=H, and the next is ethanol, for which R=CH3, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol (R=R'=CH3). For the tertiary alcohols the general form is RR'R\"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R\" is CH3. In these shorthands, R, R', and R\" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.\n\n\n ! Chemical formula \n ! IUPAC Name \n ! Common name \n\n''Monohydric alcohols''\n\nCH3OH\nmethanol\nwood alcohol\n\nC2H5OH\nethanol\nalcohol\n\nC3H7OH\npropan-2-ol\nisopropyl alcohol, rubbing alcohol\n\nC4H9OH\nbutan-1-ol \nbutanol, butyl alcohol\n\nC5H11OH\npentan-1-ol\npentanol, amyl alcohol\n\nC16H33OH\nhexadecan-1-ol\ncetyl alcohol\n\n''Polyhydric alcohols\n\nC2H4(OH)2\nethane-1,2-diol\nethylene glycol\n\nC3H6(OH)2\npropane-1,2-diol\npropylene glycol\n\nC3H5(OH)3\npropane-1,2,3-triol\nglycerol\n\nC4H6(OH)4\nbutane-1,2,3,4-tetraol\nerythritol, threitol\n\nC5H7(OH)5\npentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol\nxylitol\n\nC6H8(OH)6\nhexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol\nmannitol, sorbitol\n\nC7H9(OH)7\nheptane-1,2,3,4,5,6,7-heptol\nvolemitol\n\n''Unsaturated aliphatic alcohols''\n\nC3H5OH\nProp-2-ene-1-ol\nallyl alcohol\n\nC10H17OH\n3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-1-ol\ngeraniol\n\nC3H3OH\nProp-2-yn-1-ol\npropargyl alcohol\n\n''Alicyclic alcohols''\n\nC6H6(OH)6\ncyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol\ninositol\n\nC10H19OH\n2 - (2-propyl)-5-methyl-cyclohexane-1-ol\nmenthol\n\n\n====Alkyl chain variations in alcohols====\nShort-chain alcohols have alkyl chains of 1–3 carbons. Medium-chain alcohols have alkyl chains of 4–7 carbons. Long-chain alcohols (also known as fatty alcohols) have alkyl chains of 8–21 carbons, and very long-chain alcohols have alkyl chains of 22 carbons or longer.\n\n====Simple alcohols====\n\"Simple alcohols\" appears to be a completely undefined term. However, simple alcohols are often referred to by common names derived by adding the word \"alcohol\" to the name of the appropriate alkyl group. For instance, a chain consisting of one carbon (a methyl group, CH3) with an OH group attached to the carbon is called \"methyl alcohol\" while a chain of two carbons (an ethyl group, CH2CH3) with an OH group connected to the CH2 is called \"ethyl alcohol.\" For more complex alcohols, the IUPAC nomenclature must be used.\n\nSimple alcohols, in particular ethanol and methanol, possess denaturing and inert rendering properties, leading to their use as anti-microbial agents in medicine, pharmacy, and industry.\n\n====Higher alcohols====\nEncyclopædia Britannica states, \"The higher alcohols—those containing 4 to 10 carbon atoms—are somewhat viscous, or oily, and they have heavier fruity odours. Some of the highly branched alcohols and many alcohols containing more than 12 carbon atoms are solids at room temperature.\"\n\nLike ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above . The bacterium ''Clostridium acetobutylicum'' can feed on cellulose to produce butanol on an industrial scale.\n", "alcohol per capita consumption (15+), in litres of pure ethanol\n\nAlcohol has a long history of several uses worldwide. It is found in alcoholic beverages sold to adults, as fuel, and also has many scientific, medical, and industrial uses. The term '''alcohol-free''' is often used to describe a product that does not contain alcohol.\n\n* '''Alcoholic beverages''', typically containing 3–40% alcohol by volume, have been produced and consumed by humans since pre-historic times. Natural fermentation also produces trace amounts of other alcohols such as 2-methyl-2-butanol and γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), which have psychoactive effects similar to alcohol when used as a drug.\n* '''Antifreeze''' commonly includes a 50% v/v (by volume) solution of ethylene glycol in water.\n* '''Medical''': Ethanol can be used as an antiseptic to disinfect the skin before injections are given, often along with iodine. Ethanol-based soaps are becoming common in restaurants and are convenient because they do not require drying due to the volatility of the compound. Alcohol based gels have become common as hand sanitizers.\n* '''Alcohol fuel''': Some alcohols, mainly ethanol and methanol, can be used as fuel. Fuel performance can be increased in forced induction internal combustion engines by injecting alcohol into the air intake after the turbocharger or supercharger has pressurized the air. This cools the pressurized air, providing a denser air charge, which allows for more fuel, and therefore more power.\n* '''Preservative''': Alcohol is often used as a preservative for biological specimens in the fields of science and medicine.\n* '''Solvent''': Hydroxyl groups (-OH), found in alcohols, are polar and therefore hydrophilic (water loving) but their carbon chain portion is non-polar which make them hydrophobic. The molecule increasingly becomes overall more nonpolar and therefore less soluble in the polar water as the carbon chain becomes longer. Methanol has the shortest carbon chain of all alcohols (one carbon atom) followed by ethanol (two carbon atoms.) Alcohols have applications in industry and science as reagents or solvents. Because of its relatively low toxicity compared with other alcohols and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol can be used as a solvent in medical drugs, perfumes, and vegetable essences such as vanilla. In organic synthesis, alcohols serve as versatile intermediates.\n", "\n''tert''-Amyl alcohol, which is 20 times more intoxicating than ethanol and like all tertiary alcohols, cannot be metabolised to toxic aldehydes. Ethanol is thought to cause harm partly as a result of direct damage to DNA caused by its metabolites.\nMost significant of the possible long-term effects of ethanol. In addition, in pregnant women it may cause fetal alcohol syndrome.\n\nEthanol's toxicity is largely caused by its primary metabolite, acetaldehyde (systematically ethanal) and secondary metabolite, acetic acid. Many primary alcohols are metabolized into aldehydes then to carboxylic acids whose toxicities are similar to acetaldehyde and acetic acid. Metabolite toxicity is reduced in rats fed ''N''-acetylcysteine and thiamine.\n\nAlthough the mechanism is unclear, a meta-analysis of 572 studies have shown increased cancer risk from consumption of ethanol.\n\nTertiary alcohols cannot be metabolized into aldehydes and as a result they cause no hangover or toxicity through this mechanism.\n\nSome secondary and tertiary alcohols are less poisonous than ethanol, because the liver is unable to metabolize them into toxic by-products. This makes them more suitable for pharmaceutical use as the chronic harms are lower. Ethchlorvynol and ''tert''-amyl alcohol are tertiary alcohols which have seen both medicinal and recreational use.\n\nOther alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized and partly because their metabolism produces substances that are even more toxic. Methanol (wood alcohol), for instance, is oxidized to formaldehyde and then to the poisonous formic acid in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenase and formaldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes, respectively; accumulation of formic acid can lead to blindness or death. Likewise, poisoning due to other alcohols such as ethylene glycol or diethylene glycol are due to their metabolites, which are also produced by alcohol dehydrogenase.\n\nMethanol itself, while poisonous (LD50 5628 mg/kg, oral, rat), has a much weaker sedative effect than ethanol.\n\nIsopropyl alcohol is oxidized to form acetone by alcohol dehydrogenase in the liver, but has occasionally been abused by alcoholics, leading to a range of adverse health effects.\n\n===Treatment===\nAn effective treatment to prevent toxicity after methanol or ethylene glycol ingestion is to administer ethanol. Alcohol dehydrogenase has a higher affinity for ethanol, thus preventing methanol from binding and acting as a substrate. Any remaining methanol will then have time to be excreted through the kidneys.\n", "Alcohols have an odor that is often described as \"biting\" and as \"hanging\" in the nasal passages. Ethanol has a slightly sweeter (or more fruit-like) odor than the other alcohols.\n\nIn general, the hydroxyl group makes the alcohol molecule polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to other compounds (except in certain large molecules where the hydroxyl is protected by steric hindrance of adjacent groups). This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as protic solvents. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and the tendency of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends. Alcohols of five or more carbons such as pentanol and higher are effectively insoluble in water because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents.\n\nBecause of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29 °C, compared to 69 °C for the hydrocarbon hexane (a common constituent of gasoline), and 34.6 °C for diethyl ether.\n\nAlcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the -OH group. With a pKa of around 16-19, they are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water, but they are still able to react with strong bases such as sodium hydride or reactive metals such as sodium. The salts that result are called '''alkoxides''', with the general formula RO− M+.\n\nMeanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:\n\nAcidity & basicity of methanol\n\nAlcohols can be oxidised to give aldehydes, ketones or carboxylic acids, or they can be dehydrated to alkenes. They can react with carboxylic acids to form ester compounds, and they can (if activated first) undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles. For more details, see the reactions of alcohols section below.\n\nAs one moves from primary to secondary to tertiary alcohols with the same backbone, the hydrogen bond strength, the boiling point, and the acidity typically decrease.\n", "Ethanol occurs naturally as a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit.\n\nMethanol is produced naturally in the anaerobic metabolism of many varieties of bacteria, and is commonly present in small amounts in the environment.\n\nAlcohols have been found outside the Solar System at low densities in star-forming regions of interstellar space.\n", "\n===Ziegler and oxo processes===\nIn the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis. An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:\n\n:Al(C2H5)3 + 9 C2H4 → Al(C8H17)3\n:Al(C8H17)3 + 3 O + 3 H2O → 3 HOC8H17 + Al(OH)3\n\nThe process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation.\n\nMany higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol:\n\n:RCH=CH2 + H2 + CO → RCH2CH2CHO\n:RCH2CH2CHO + 3 H2 → RCH2CH2CH2OH\n\nSuch processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.\n\n===Hydration reactions===\nLow molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration using ethylene (ethylene hydration) or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.\n\nHydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide.\n\n===Biological routes===\nEthanol is obtained by fermentation using glucose produced from sugar from the hydrolysis of starch, in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37 °C to produce ethanol. For instance, such a process might proceed by the conversion of sucrose by the enzyme invertase into glucose and fructose, then the conversion of glucose by the enzyme complex zymase into ethanol (and carbon dioxide).\n\nSeveral of the benign bacteria in the intestine use fermentation as a form of anaerobic metabolism. This metabolic reaction produces ethanol as a waste product, just like aerobic respiration produces carbon dioxide and water. Thus, human bodies contain some quantity of alcohol endogenously produced by these bacteria. In rare cases, this can be sufficient to cause \"auto-brewery syndrome\" in which intoxicating quantities of alcohol are produced.\n\n====Substitution====\nPrimary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH mainly to primary alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead). Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki-Hiyama reaction.\n\n====Reduction====\nAldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.\n\n====Hydrolysis====\nAlkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with NBS and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed.\n\nThe formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydration is shown:\n\n:Preparation of a secondary alcohol\n\n==Reactions==\n\n===Deprotonation===\nAlcohols behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation, but strong bases are required. The deprotonation reaction to produce an alkoxide salt is performed with a strong base such as sodium hydride or sodium metal.\n: 2 R-OH + 2 NaH → 2 R-O−Na+ + 2 H2\n\n: 2 R-OH + 2 Na → 2 R-O−Na+ + H2\n\nWater is similar in pKa to many alcohols, so with sodium hydroxide an equilibrium exists, which usually lies to the left:\n: R-OH + NaOH ⇌ R-O−Na+ + H2O (equilibrium to the left)\n\nThe acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than is water.\n\n===Nucleophilic substitution===\nThe OH group is not a good leaving group in nucleophilic substitution reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions. However, if the oxygen is first protonated to give R−OH2+, the leaving group (water) is much more stable, and the nucleophilic substitution can take place. For instance, tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl halides, where the hydroxyl group is replaced by a chlorine atom by unimolecular nucleophilic substitution. If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with hydrochloric acid, an activator such as zinc chloride is needed. In alternative fashion, the conversion may be performed directly using thionyl chloride.1\n\nSome simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides\n\nAlcohols may, likewise, be converted to alkyl bromides using hydrobromic acid or phosphorus tribromide, for example:\n\n: 3 R-OH + PBr3 → 3 RBr + H3PO3\n\nIn the Barton-McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction.\n\n===Dehydration===\nAlcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R−OH2+ can react with ROH to produce ethers and water in a dehydration reaction, although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of diethyl ether.\n\nMore useful is the E1 elimination reaction of alcohols to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaitsev's Rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature.\n\nThis is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethene:\n\n550px\n\nA more controlled elimination reaction is the Chugaev elimination with carbon disulfide and iodomethane.\n\n===Esterification===\nTo form an ester from an alcohol and a carboxylic acid the reaction, known as Fischer esterification, is usually performed at reflux with a catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid:\n\n: R-OH + R'-COOH → R'-COOR + H2O\n\nIn order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good yield of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H2SO4 or by using a Dean-Stark apparatus. Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an acid chloride in the presence of a base such as pyridine.\n\nOther types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine.\n\n===Oxidation===\n\nPrimary alcohols (R-CH2-OH) can be oxidized either to aldehydes (R-CHO) or to carboxylic acids (R-CO2H), while the oxidation of secondary alcohols (R1R2CH-OH) normally terminates at the ketone (R1R2C=O) stage. Tertiary alcohols (R1R2R3C-OH) are resistant to oxidation.\n\nThe direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an ''aldehyde hydrate'' (R-CH(OH)2) by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.\n\nMechanism of oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids via aldehydes and aldehyde hydrates\n\nReagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess-Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent.\n", "\n* Enol\n* Ethanol fuel\n* Fatty alcohol\n* Polyol\n* Rubbing alcohol\n* Sugar alcohol\n* Transesterification\n\n", "\n", "* \n", "\n* Alcohol (Ethanol) at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Nomenclature", "Applications", "Toxicity", "Physical and chemical properties", "Occurrence in nature", "Production", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Alcohol
[ "\n\n\n\n'''Achill Island''' (; ) in County Mayo is the largest island off the coast of Ireland, and is situated off the west coast. It has a population of 2,700. Its area is . Achill is attached to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Gob an Choire (Achill Sound) and Poll Raithní (Polranny). A bridge was first completed here in 1887, replaced by another structure in 1949, and subsequently replaced with the current bridge which was completed in 2008. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dumha Éige (Dooega), Dún Ibhir (Dooniver), The Valley and Dugort. The parish's main Gaelic football pitch and secondary school are on the mainland at Poll Raithní. Early human settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BC. A paddle dating from this period was found at the crannóg near Dookinella.\nThe island is 87% peat bog. The parish of Achill also includes the Curraun peninsula. Some of the people of Curraun consider themselves Achill people, and most natives of Achill refer to this area as being \"in Achill\". There are between 500-600 native Irish speakers in Achill parish. In the summer of 1996, the RNLI decided to station a lifeboat at Kildownet.\n", "It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BC), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. Megalithic tombs (see picture, right) and forts can be seen at Slievemore, along the Atlantic Drive and on Achillbeg.\n\n===Overlords===\nAchill Island lies in the Barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the County Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head.\n\nThe hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O'Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the Vikings in Clew Bay. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll & Owyll.\n\n===Immigration===\nIn the 17th and 18th centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of Ulster Irish.\n\n===Specific historical sites and events===\n\n====Grace O'Malley's Castle====\nCarrickkildavnet Castle is a 15th-century tower house associated with the O'Malley Clan, who were once a ruling family of Achill. Grace O' Malley, or Granuaile, the most famous of the O'Malleys, was born on Clare Island around 1530. Her father was the chieftain of the barony of Murrisk. The O'Malleys were a powerful seafaring family, who traded widely. Grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate. She is reputed to have met with Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. She died around 1603 and is buried in the O'Malley family tomb on Clare Island.\n\n====Achill Mission====\nView of the \"Colony\", prior to 1900.\nOne of Achill's most famous historical sites is that of the Achill Mission or 'the Colony' at Dugort. In 1831 the Church of Ireland Reverend Edward Nangle founded a proselytising mission at Dugort. The Mission included schools, cottages, an orphanage, an infirmary and a guesthouse. The Colony was very successful for a time and regularly produced a newspaper called the ''Achill Herald and Western Witness''. Nangle expanded his mission into Mweelin, where a school was built. The Achill Mission began to decline slowly after Nangle was moved from Achill and was finally closed in the 1880s. Nangle died in 1883.\n\n====Railway====\nIn 1894, the Westport - Newport railway line was extended to Achill Sound. The train station is now a hostel. The train provided a great service to Achill, but it also fulfilled an ancient prophecy. Brian Rua O' Cearbhain had prophesied that 'carts on iron wheels' would carry bodies into Achill on their first and last journey. In 1894, the first train on the Achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the Clew Bay Drowning. This tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in Clew Bay, drowning thirty-two young people. They had been going to meet the steamer which would take them to Scotland for potato picking.\n\n=====Kirkintilloch Fire=====\nThe Kirkintilloch Fire in 1937 fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to Achill. These people had died in a fire in a bothy in Kirkintilloch. This term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to Scotland to pick potatoes, a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century.\n\nMemorial for the victims of the Clew Bay Drowning on 15 June 1894 at Kildavenet Graveyard\n\n====Kildamhnait====\nKildamhnait on the south-east coast of Achill is named after St. Damhnait, or Dymphna, who founded a church there in the 16th century. There is also a holy well just outside the graveyard. The present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of Achill's greatest tragedies, the Kirchintilloch Fire (1937) and the Clew Bay Drowning (1894).\n\n====The Monastery====\nIn 1852, John McHale, Archbishop of Tuam set aside land in Bunnacurry for the building of a monastery. A Franciscan Monastery was built which, for many years provided an education for local children. The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in Bunnacurry today.\n\n====The Valley House====\nThe historic Valley House is located in The Valley, near Dugort in the north-east of Achill Island. The present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the Earl of Cavan in the 19th century. Its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner, an English landlady named Agnes McDonnell, was savagely beaten and the house set alight, allegedly by a local man, James Lynchehaun. Lynchehaun had been employed by McDonnell as her land agent, but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate. A lengthy legal battle ensued, with Lynchehaun refusing to leave. At the time, in the 1890s, the issue of land ownership in Ireland was politically charged, and after the events at the Valley House in 1894 Lynchehaun was to claim that his actions were motivated by politics. He escaped custody and fled to the United States, where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the British authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the Valley House. Agnes McDonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years, dying in 1923. Lynchehaun is said to have returned to Achill on two occasions, once in disguise as an American tourist, and eventually died in Girvan, Scotland, in 1937. The Valley House is now a Hostel and Bar.\nView of the deserted village from beside the ruins of the one of the houses\nInside the ruins of one of the houses at the deserted village\n\n====The Deserted Village====\nClose by Dugort, at the base of Slievemore mountain lies the Deserted Village. There are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village.\n\nThe houses were built of unmortared stone, which means that no cement or mortar was used to hold the stones together. Each house consisted of just one room and this room was used as a kitchen, living room, bedroom and even a stable.\n\nIf one looks at the fields around the Deserted Village and right up the mountain, one can see the tracks in the fields of 'lazy beds', which is the way crops like potatoes were grown. In Achill, as in many areas of Ireland, a system called 'Rundale' was used for farming. This meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord. This land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep. Each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village, which they used to grow crops.\n\nFor many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 Famine struck in Achill as it did in the rest of Ireland. Most of the families moved to the nearby village of Dooagh, which is beside the sea, while some others emigrated. Living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food. The village was completely abandoned which is where the name 'Deserted Village' came from.\n\nNo one has lived in these houses since the time of the Famine, however, the families that moved to Dooagh and their descendants, continued to use the village as a 'booley village'. This means that during the summer season, the younger members of the family, teenage boys and girls, would take the cattle to graze on the hillside and they would stay in the houses of the Deserted Village. This custom continued until the 1940s. Boolying was also carried out in other areas of Achill, including Annagh on Croaghaun mountain and in Curraun.\n\nAt Ailt, Kildownet, you can see the remains of a similar deserted village. This village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing, the tenants were forced to rent holdings in Currane, Dooega and Slievemore. Others emigrated to America.\n\n===Archaeology===\nKeem BayAchill Archaeological Field School is based at the Achill Archaeology Centre in Dooagh, which has served as a catalyst for a wide array of archaeological investigations on the island. It was founded in 1991 and is a training school for students of archaeology and anthropology. Since 1991, several thousand students from 21 countries have come to Achill to study and participate in ongoing excavations. The school is involved in a study of the prehistoric and historic landscape at Slievemore, incorporating a research excavation at a number of sites within the deserted village of Slievemore. Slievemore is rich in archaeological monuments that span a 5,000 year period from the Neolithic to the Post Medieval. Recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied year-round at least as early as the 19th century, though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied booley village by the first half of the 20th century. A booley village (a number of which exist in a ruined state on the island) is a village occupied only during part of the year, such as a resort community, a lake community, or (as the case on Achill) a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing. Specifically, some of the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore and then go back to Dooagh in the autumn. The summer 2009 field school excavated Round House 2 on Slievemore Mountain under the direction of archaeologist Stuart Rathbone. Only the outside north wall, entrance way and inside of the Round House were completely excavated.\n\nFrom 2004 to 2006, the Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project directed by Chuck Meide was sponsored by the College of William and Mary, the Institute of Maritime History, the Achill Folklife Centre (now the Achill Archaeology Centre), and the Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP). This project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to Achill's rich maritime heritage. Maritime archaeologists recorded 19th century fishing station, ice house, and boat house ruins, a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea, 19th century and more recent currach pens, a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100-year-old Achill yawl, and the remains of four historic shipwrecks.\n", "Croaghaun, the third highest sea cliff in Europe\nSlievemore mountain dominates the centre of the island\nCaisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle\nDespite some development, the island retains a striking natural beauty. The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location. South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, is still standing on Moytoge. During the Second World War this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a Look Out Post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945.\n\nThe mountain Slievemore (672 m) rises dramatically in the north of the island and the Atlantic Drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatically beautiful views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village (the \"Deserted Village\") The Deserted Village is traditionally thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger of 1845-1849).\n\nJust west of the deserted village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year-old Neolithic tomb.\n\nAchillbeg ('''', ''Little Achill'') is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s. A plaque to Johnny Kilbane is situated on Achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win.\n\nThe villages of Dooniver and Askill have very picturesque scenery and the cycle route is popular with tourists.\n\nCaisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle, is a small tower house built in the early 1400s. It is located in Cloughmore, on the south of Achill Island. It is noted for its associations with Grace O'Malley, along with the larger Rockfleet Castle in Newport.\n\nAchill Island also has a coast road along the south of the Island with some beautiful cliff views.\n\nPanoramic shot of the south coast of Achill Island including viewing point\n", "While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in the United Kingdom, the United States and Africa allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of Ireland's \"Celtic Tiger\" economy fewer Achill people were forced to look for work abroad. Agriculture plays a small role and the fact that the island is mostly bog means that its potential for agriculture is limited largely to sheep farming. In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island. Despite healthy visitor numbers each year, the common perception is that tourism in Achill has been slowly declining since its heyday. Currently, the largest employers on Achill are two hotels. In late 2009 Ireland's only Turbot farm opened in the Bunnacurry Business Park.\n", "Most people on Achill are either Roman Catholic or Anglican (Church of Ireland). There are three priests on Achill and eight churches in total.\n\n* Catholic:\n Bunnacurry Church (Saint Josephs)\n The Valley Church; Only open for certain events.\n Dookinella Church\n Currane Church\n Pollagh Church\n Derreens Church\n Dooega Church\n Belfarsed Church\n** Achill Sound Church\n* Church of Ireland:\n Dugort Church (St.Thomas's church)\n Innisbiggle Island church\n", "Hedge schools existed in most villages of Achill in various periods of history. A university was started by the missions to Achill in Mweelin. In the modern age, there used to be two secondary schools in Achill, Mc Hale College and Scoil Damhnait. However, in August 2011, the two schools amalgamated to form Coláiste Pobail Acla. For primary education, there are nine National Schools including Bullsmouth NS, Valley NS, Bunnacurry NS, Dookinella NS, Dooagh NS, Saulia NS, Achill Sound NS, Tonragee NS and Curanne NS. National schools closed down include Dooega NS, Crumpaun NS, Ashleam NS.\n", "* Achill railway station opened on 13 May 1895, but finally closed on 1 October 1937.\n* The Great Western Greenway is a greenway rail trail that follows the line of the former Midland Great Western Railway branch line from Westport to Achill via Newport and Mulranny. This has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors Achill and the surrounding areas.\n* Bus Éireann 440 daily commutes to Westport and beyond from the island's scattered villages.\n* Bus Éireann provide transport for the areas secondary school children\n* There are taxi and Hackney carriage services on the Island\n", "As a popular tourist destination, Achill has many bars, cafes and restaurants which serve a full range of food. However, with the island's Atlantic location seafood is a speciality on Achill with common foods including lobster, mussels, salmon, trout and winkles. With a large sheep population, Achill lamb is a very popular meal on the island too. Furthermore, Achill has a big population of cows which produces excellent beef.\n", "Achill has a Gaelic football club which competes in the intermediate championship and division 1C of the Mayo League. There are also Achill Rovers which play in the Mayo Association Football League. and Achill Golf Club. Card games are also popular on Achill.\nThe island's primary recreational outdoor centre is Achill Outdoor Education Centre. Achill Island's rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers locations for outdoor adventure activities, such as surfing, kite-surfing and sea kayaking. Fishing and watersports are popular. Sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type, the Achill Yawl, have been popular since the 19th century, though most present-day yawls, unlike their traditional working boat ancestors, have been structurally modified to promote greater speed under sail. The island's waters and striking underwater sites are occasionally visited by scuba divers, although Achill's unpredictable weather generally has precluded a commercially successful recreational diving industry.\n", "In 2011, the population was 2,569. The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Hunger.\n\n=== Demographics ===\nThe table below reports data on Achill Island's population taken from ''Discover the Islands of Ireland'' (Alex Ritsema, Collins Press, 1999) and the census of Ireland. \n", "\nBecause of the inhospitable climate, few inhabited houses date from before the 20th century, though there are many examples of abandoned stone structures dating to the 19th century.\nThe \"Deserted Village\" at the foot of Slievemore was a booley village; see Transhumance\nThe location of the village is relatively sheltered\n\nThe best known of these earlier can be seen in the \"Deserted Village\" ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore. Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used \"Beehive\" style houses (small circular single-roomed dwellings with a hole in the ceiling to let out smoke).\n\nMany of the oldest and most picturesque inhabited cottages date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns. Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages.\n\nSome of the recent building development (1980 and onwards) on the island does fit as nicely in the landscape as the earlier style of whitewashed raised gable cottages. Many holiday homes have been built but many of these houses have been built in prominent scenic areas and have damaged traditional views of the island while lying empty for most of the year.\n", "* Charles Boycott (1832–1897) - Unpopular landowner from whom the term ''Boycott'' arose\n* Darren Fletcher, footballer\n* The artist Paul Henry stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s\n* Singer James Kilbane lives on the island\n* Johnny Kilbane, boxer\n* Danny McNamara, musician\n* Richard McNamara, musician\n* Thomas Patten from Dooega died during the Siege of Madrid in December 1936\n* English writer Honor Tracy lived there until her death in 1989\n", "Heinrich Böll: ''Irisches Tagebuch'', Berlin 1957\nKingston, Bob: ''The Deserted Village at Slievemore'', Castlebar 1990\nMcDonald, Theresa: ''Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D. Archeology History Folklore'', I.A.S. Publications 1992\nMeehan, Rosa: ''The Story of Mayo'', Castlebar 2003\nCarney, James: ''The Playboy & the Yellow lady'', 1986 POOLBEG\nHugo Hamilton: The Island of Talking, 2007\nKevin Barry: ''Beatlebone'', 2015\n", "* Achillbeg\n* Achill-henge\n* Achill oysters\n* Achill Sound\n* Askill\n* Bunnacurry\n* Connacht Irish\n* Darren Fletcher\n* Dooagh\n* Dooniver\n* Gallowglass\n* Innisbiggle\n* James Kilbane\n* Kevin Kilbane\n* List of RNLI stations\n* Mid West Radio\n* Nevin (surname)\n* Potato Labour Scandal 1971\n* Saula\n* Wild Atlantic Way\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* Colaiste Pobail Acla students project on the Achill area\n* Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project\n* VisitAchill multilingual visitor's site\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Other places of interest", "Economy", "Religion", "Education", "Transport", "Cuisine", "Sport", "Population", "Architecture", "Notable people", "Literature", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Achill Island
[ "\n\n\n'''Irwin Allen Ginsberg''' (; June 3, 1926 – April 5, 1997) was an American poet. He is considered to be one of the leading figures of both the Beat Generation during the 1950s and the counterculture that soon followed. He vigorously opposed militarism, economic materialism and sexual repression and was known as embodying various aspects of this counterculture, such as his views on drugs, hostility to bureaucracy and openness to Eastern religions. He was one of many influential American writers of his time known as the Beat Generation, which included famous writers such as Jack Kerouac and William S. Burroughs.\n\nGinsberg is best known for his poem \"Howl\", in which he denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the United States. In 1956, \"Howl\" was seized by San Francisco police and US Customs. In 1957, it attracted widespread publicity when it became the subject of an obscenity trial, as it described heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made homosexual acts a crime in every U.S. state. \"Howl\" reflected Ginsberg's own homosexuality and his relationships with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong partner. Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that \"Howl\" was not obscene, adding, \"Would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms?\"\n\nGinsberg was a practicing Buddhist who studied Eastern religious disciplines extensively. He lived modestly, buying his clothing in second-hand stores and residing in downscale apartments in New York’s East Village. One of his most influential teachers was the Tibetan Buddhist the Venerable Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado. At Trungpa's urging, Ginsberg and poet Anne Waldman started The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics there in 1974.\n\nGinsberg took part in decades of non-violent political protest against everything from the Vietnam War to the War on Drugs. His poem \"September on Jessore Road,\" calling attention to the plight of Bangladeshi refugees, exemplifies what the literary critic Helen Vendler described as Ginsberg's tireless persistence in protesting against \"imperial politics, and persecution of the powerless.\"\n\nHis collection ''The Fall of America'' shared the annual U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974. In 1979 he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters. Ginsberg was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book ''Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992''.\n", "\n===Early life and family===\nGinsberg was born into a Jewish family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson.\n\nAs a young teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to ''The New York Times'' about political issues, such as World War II and workers' rights. While in high school, Ginsberg began reading Walt Whitman, inspired by his teacher's passionate reading.\n\nIn 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson. In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marines to earn money to continue his education at Columbia. While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the ''Columbia Review'' literary journal, the ''Jester'' humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize, served as president of the Philolexian Society (literary and debate group), and joined Boar's Head Society (poetry society).\nGinsberg has stated that he considered the required freshman seminar to be his favorite course while at Columbia University. Its subject was The Great Books and was taught by Lionel Trilling.\n\nAccording to The Poetry Foundation, Ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing. He was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room. It was noted that the stolen property was not his, but belonged to an acquaintance.\n\n===Relationship with his parents===\nGinsberg referred to his parents, in a 1985 interview, as \"old-fashioned delicatessen philosophers\".\nHis father Louis Ginsberg was a published poet and a high school teacher. Ginsberg's mother, Naomi Livergant Ginsberg, was affected by a psychological illness that was never properly diagnosed. She was also an active member of the Communist Party and took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother \"made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'\" Of his father Ginsberg said \"My father would go around the house either reciting Emily Dickinson and Longfellow under his breath or attacking T. S. Eliot for ruining poetry with his 'obscurantism.' I grew suspicious of both sides.\"\n\nNaomi Ginsberg's mental illness often manifested as paranoid delusions. She would claim, for example, that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her mother-in-law was trying to kill her. Her suspicion of those around her caused Naomi to draw closer to young Allen, \"her little pet,\" as Bill Morgan says in his biography of Ginsberg, titled, ''I Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg''. She also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to Greystone, a mental hospital; she would spend much of Ginsberg's youth in mental hospitals. His experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works, \"Howl\" and his long autobiographical poem \"Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956)\".\n\nWhen he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip deeply disturbed Ginsberg – he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in \"Kaddish\". His experiences with his mother's mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in \"Howl\". For example, \"Pilgrim State, Rockland, and Grey Stone's foetid halls\" is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and Carl Solomon, ostensibly the subject of the poem: Pilgrim State Hospital and Rockland State Hospital in New York and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in New Jersey. This is followed soon by the line \"with mother finally ****.\" Ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive \"fucked.\" He also says of Solomon in section three, \"I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother,\" once again showing the association between Solomon and his mother.\n\nGinsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of \"Howl\" he had sent her. It admonished Ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs; she says, \"The key is in the window, the key is in the sunlight at the window – I have the key – Get married Allen don't take drugs – the key is in the bars, in the sunlight in the window\". In a letter she wrote to Ginsberg's brother Eugene, she said, \"God's informers come to my bed, and God himself I saw in the sky. The sunshine showed too, a key on the side of the window for me to get out. The yellow of the sunshine, also showed the key on the side of the window.\" These letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired Ginsberg to write \"Kaddish\" which makes references to many details from Naomi's life, Ginsberg's experiences with her, and the letter, including the lines \"the key is in the light\" and \"the key is in the window\".\n\n===New York Beats===\nIn Ginsberg's freshman year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers, including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of American youth, a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of post–World War II, McCarthy-era America. Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a \"New Vision\" (a phrase adapted from Yeats' \"A Vision\"), for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation. In the first chapter of his 1957 novel ''On the Road'' Kerouac described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady. Kerouac saw them as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their \"New Vision\", a perception stemming partly from Ginsberg's association with communism, of which Kerouac had become increasingly distrustful. Though Ginsberg was never a member of the Communist Party, Kerouac named him \"Carlo Marx\" in ''On the Road''. This was a source of strain in their relationship.\n\nAlso, in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight, but understanding of homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was \"spiritually gifted.\" Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg took Corso over to their apartment. There the woman proposed sex with Corso, who was still very young and fled in fear. Ginsberg introduced Corso to Kerouac and Burroughs and they began to travel together. Ginsberg and Corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators.\n\nShortly after this period in Ginsberg's life, he became romantically involved with Elise Nada Cowen after meeting her through Alex Greer, a philosophy professor at Barnard College whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning Beat generation's period of development. As a Barnard student, Elise Cowen extensively read the poetry of Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot, when she met Joyce Johnson and Leo Skir, among other Beat players. As Cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time, Beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona. While at Barnard, Cowen earned the nickname \"Beat Alice\" as she had joined a small group of anti-establishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks, and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet Joyce Johnson who later portrayed Cowen in her books, including \"Minor Characters\" and ''Come and Join the Dance'', which expressed the two women's experiences in the Barnard and Columbia Beat community. Through his association with Elise Cowen, Ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend, Carl Solomon, to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem \"Howl\". This poem is considered an autobiography of Ginsberg up to 1955, and a brief history of the Beat Generation through its references to his relationship to other Beat artists of that time.\n\n===\"Blake vision\"===\nIn 1948 in an apartment in Harlem, Ginsberg had an auditory hallucination while reading the poetry of William Blake (later referred to as his \"Blake vision\"). At first, Ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of God, but later interpreted the voice as that of Blake himself reading ''Ah, Sunflower'', ''The Sick Rose'', and ''Little Girl Lost'', also described by Ginsberg as \"voice of the ancient of days\". The experience lasted several days. Ginsberg believed that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe. He looked at lattice-work on the fire escape and realized some hand had crafted that; he then looked at the sky and intuited that some hand had crafted that also, or rather, that the sky was the hand that crafted itself. He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use, but said he sought to recapture that feeling later with various drugs. Ginsberg stated: \"living blue hand itself. Or that God was in front of my eyes - existence itself was God\" and \"And it was a sudden awakening into a totally deeper real universe than I'd been existing in.\" \n\n===San Francisco Renaissance===\nGinsberg moved to San Francisco during the 1950s. Before ''Howl and Other Poems'' was published in 1956 by City Lights Bookshop, he worked as a market researcher.\n\nIn 1954, in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner. Selections from their correspondence have been published.\n\nAlso in San Francisco, Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance (James Broughton, Robert Duncan, Madeline Gleason and Kenneth Rexroth) and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene. There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who had become friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the ''Beatitude'' poetry magazine.\n\nWally Hedrick — a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery – approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he had written a rough draft of \"Howl\", he changed his \"fucking mind\", as he put it. Ginsberg advertised the event as \"Six Poets at the Six Gallery\". One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as \"The Six Gallery reading\" took place on October 7, 1955. The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg, the reading that night included the first public presentation of \"Howl\", a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel ''The Dharma Bums'', describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched.\n\nGinsberg's principal work, \"Howl\", is well known for its opening line: \"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked....\" \"Howl\" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted, after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value. Ginsberg and Shig Murao, the City Lights manager who was jailed for selling \"Howl,\" became lifelong friends.\n\n====Biographical references in \"Howl\"====\nGinsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's ''Duluoz Legend''). \"Howl\" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but also a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of \"Howl\" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though \"Kaddish\" deals more explicitly with his mother, \"Howl\" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. \"Howl\" chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout Ginsberg’s life. He begins the poem with “I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness”, which sets the stage for Ginsberg to describe Cassady and Solomon, immortalizing them into American literature. This madness was the “angry fix” that society needed to function—madness was its disease. In the poem, Ginsberg focused on “Carl Solomon! I’m with you in Rockland”, and, thus, turned Solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his “straightjacket”. Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, \"Howl\", his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start.\n\n===To Paris and the \"Beat Hotel\", Tangier and India ===\nIn 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Coeur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem \"Kaddish\", Corso composed ''Bomb'' and ''Marriage'', and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together ''Naked Lunch'' from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the \"hotel\" until it closed in 1963. During 1962–3, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled extensively across India, living half a year at a time in Calcutta (Kolkata) and Benares (Varanasi). Also during this time, he formed friendships with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg had several political connections in India; most notably Pupul Jayakar who helped him extend his stay in India when the authorities were eager to expel him.\n\n===England and the International Poetry Incarnation===\nIn May 1965, Ginsberg arrived in London, and offered to read anywhere for free. Shortly after his arrival, he gave a reading at Better Books, which was described by Jeff Nuttall as \"the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind\". Tom McGrath wrote: \"This could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of England – or at least in the history of English Poetry\".\n\nSoon after the bookshop reading, plans were hatched for the International Poetry Incarnation, which was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 11, 1965. The event attracted an audience of 7,000, who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures, including Ginsberg, Adrian Mitchell, Alexander Trocchi, Harry Fainlight, Anselm Hollo, Christopher Logue, George Macbeth, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, Simon Vinkenoog, Spike Hawkins and Tom McGrath. The event was organized by Ginsberg's friend, the filmmaker Barbara Rubin.\n\nPeter Whitehead documented the event on film and released it as ''Wholly Communion''. A book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by Lorrimer in the UK and Grove Press in US.\n\n===Continuing literary activity===\nGinsberg with his partner, poet Peter Orlovsky. Photo taken in 1978\nThough the term \"Beat\" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term \"Beat Generation\" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name \"Beat Generation.\" Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: David Amram, Bob Kaufman; LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading \"Howl\", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper; Diane DiPrima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Robert Creeley and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch.\nPortrait with Bob Dylan, taken in 1975\nLater in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last public reading at Booksmith, a bookstore in the Haight Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death.\n\n===Buddhism and Krishnaism===\n\nIn 1950, Kerouac began studying Buddhism and shared what he learned from Dwight Goddard’s ''Buddhist Bible'' with Ginsberg. Ginsberg first heard about the Four Noble Truths and such sutras as the Diamond Sutra at this time.\n\nGinsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India with Gary Snyder. Snyder had previously spent time in Kyoto to study at the First Zen Institute at Daitoku-ji Monastery. At one point, Snyder chanted the Prajnaparamita which in Ginsberg's words \"blew my mind.\" His interest piqued, Ginsberg traveled to meet the Dalai Lama as well as the Karmapa at Rumtek Monastery. Continuing on his journey, Ginsberg met Dudjom Rinpoche in Kalimpong who taught him \"If you see something horrible, don’t cling to it, and if you see something beautiful, don’t cling to it.\"\n\nAfter returning to the United States, a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab), a Kagyu and Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist master, led to Trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher. Ginsberg helped Trungpa (and New York poet Anne Waldman) in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado.\n\nGinsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He had started incorporating chanting the Hare Krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid sixties. After learning that A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world had rented a store front in New York, he befriended him, visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books, and a fruitful relationship began. This relationship is documented by Satsvarupa Das Goswami in his biographical account ''Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta''. Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause.\nAllen Ginsberg's greeting Bhaktivedanta Swami at the San Francisco Airport. January 17, 1967Despite disagreeing with many of Bhaktivedanta Swami's required prohibitions, Ginsberg often sang the Hare Krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy. He was glad that Bhaktivedanta Swami, an authentic swami from India, was now trying to spread the chanting in America. Along with other counterculture ideologists like Timothy Leary, Gary Snyder, and Alan Watts, Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Bhaktivedanta Swami and his chanting into the hippie movement, and agreed to take part in the Mantra-Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight-Ashbury hippie community.\nGinsberg: So what do you think of Swami Bhaktivedanta pleading for the acceptance of Krishna in every direction?\nSnyder: Why, it's a lovely positive thing to say Krishna. It's a beautiful mythology and it's a beautiful practice.\nLeary: Should be encouraged.\nGinsberg: He feels it's the one uniting thing. He feels a monopolistic unitary thing about it.\nWatts: I'll tell you why I think he feels it. The mantras, the images of Krishna have in this culture no foul association.... When somebody comes in from the Orient with a new religion which hasn't got any of horrible associations in our minds, all the words are new, all the rites are new, and yet, somehow it has feeling in it, and we can get with that, you see, and we can dig that!\n\nOn January 17, 1967, Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Bhaktivedanta Swami at the San Francisco Airport, where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the Swami, chanting Hare Krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands. To further support and promote Bhaktivendata Swami's message and chanting in San Francisco, Allen Ginsberg agreed to attend the Mantra-Rock Dance—a musical event 1967 held at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. It featured some leading rock bands of the time: Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, The Grateful Dead, and Moby Grape, who performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami and donated proceeds to the Krishna temple. Ginsberg introduced Bhaktivedanta Swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra.\n\nThe Mantra-Rock Dance promotional poster featuring Allen Ginsberg along with leading rock bands.Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. It is believed that the Hindi and Buddhist poet Nagarjuna had introduced Ginsberg to the harmonium in Banaras. According to Malay Roy Choudhury, Ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives, including his cousin sister Savitri Banerjee. When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show ''Firing Line'' on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was \"the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard.\"\n\nAt the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, and the 1970 Black Panther rally at Yale campus Allen chanted \"Om\" repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end.\n\nGinsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the Heart Sutra in the song \"Ghetto Defendant\". The song appears on the 1982 album Combat Rock by British first wave punk band The Clash.\n\nGinsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fishes with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fishes symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy and religion.\n\nIn spite of Ginsberg's attraction to Eastern religions, the journalist Jane Kramer argues that he, like Whitman, adhered to an \"American brand of mysticism\" that was \"rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men.\"\n\n===Illness and death===\nIn 1960, he was treated for a tropical disease, and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor, which played a role in his death 37 years later.\nGinsberg was a lifelong smoker, and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons, his busy schedule in later life made it difficult, and he always returned to smoking.\n\nIn the 1970s, Ginsberg suffered two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as Bell's Palsy, which gave him significant paralysis and stroke-like drooping of the muscles in one side of his face.\n\nLater in life, he also suffered constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure. Many of these symptoms were related to stress, but he never slowed down his schedule.\nAllen Ginsberg, 1979\n\nIn 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W.H. Auden. At Struga, he met with the other Golden Wreath winners Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky. Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for ''The Fall of America'' (split with Adrienne Rich, ''Diving into the Wreck'').(With acceptance speech by Ginsberg and essay by John Murillo from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog.)\nIn 1993, the French Minister of Culture made him a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres.\n\nGinsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could, going so far as to give money to Herbert Huncke out of his own pocket, and housing a broke and drug addicted Harry Smith.\n\nWith the exception of a special guest appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco on December 16, 1996.\n\nAfter returning home from the hospital for the last time, where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure, Ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his addressbook. Some of the phone calls, including one with Johnny Depp, were sad and interrupted by crying, and other were joyous and optimistic. Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, \"Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)\", written on March 30.\n\nHe died surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in New York City, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis. He was 70 years old.\n\nGregory Corso, Roy Lichtenstein, Patti Smith and others came by to pay their respects.\n\nOne third of Ginsberg's ashes were buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery in Newark, NJ. He was survived by Orlovsky. When Orlovsky died, as per Ginsberg's wishes, another third of his ashes were buried alongside Orlovsky at Shambhala Mountain Center in Colorado. The remaining third of the ashes are buried at Jewel Heart, Gelek Rimpoche’s sangha, in India.\n\nIn 1998, various writers, including Catfish McDaris read at a gathering at Ginsberg's farm to honor Allen and the beatniks.\n\n\n", "\n===Free speech===\nGinsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s, and a significant figure in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing \"Howl\". At the time, such \"sex talk\" employed in \"Howl\" was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography, and could be prosecuted under law. Ginsberg used phrases such as \"cocksucker\", \"fucked in the ass\", and \"cunt\" as part of the poem's depiction of different aspects of American culture. Numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time, including ''Lady Chatterley’s Lover''. The sex that Ginsberg painted did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples, or even long time lovers. Instead, Ginsberg portrayed casual sex. For example, in \"Howl\", Ginsberg praises the man \"who sweetened the snatches of a million girls\". Ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language, pointing out the man \"who lounged hungry and lonesome through Houston seeking jazz or sex or soup.\" In his poetry, Ginsberg also discussed the then-taboo topic of homosexuality. The explicit sexual language that filled \"Howl\" eventually led to an important trial on First Amendment issues. Ginsberg's publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography, and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges because the poem carried \"redeeming social importance\", thus setting an important legal precedent. Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. From 1970–1996, Ginsberg had a long-term affiliation with PEN American Center with efforts to defend free expression. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help.\n\n===Role in Vietnam War protests===\nProtesting at the 1972 Republican National Convention\nGinsberg was a signer of the anti-war manifesto \"A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority,\" circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective RESIST. Other signers and RESIST members included Mitchell Goodman, Henry Braun, Denise Levertov, Noam Chomsky, William Sloane Coffin, Dwight Macdonald, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer. \nIn 1968, Ginsberg signed the \"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest\" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.\n\nHe was present the night of the Tompkins Square Park Police Riot in 1988 and provided an eyewitness account to ''The New York Times''.\n\n===Bangladeshi war victims===\nAllen Ginsberg called attention to the suffering of victims during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. He wrote his legendary 152-line poem, ''September on Jessore Road'', after visiting refugee camps and witnessing the plight of millions fleeing the violence.\n\nMillions of daughters walk in the mud\nMillions of children wash in the flood\nA Million girls vomit & groan\nMillions of families hopeless alone\n\nGinsberg's poem also serves as an indictment of the United States:\n\nWhere are the helicopters of U.S. AID?\nSmuggling dope in Bangkok's green shade.\nWhere is America's Air Force of Light?\nBombing North Laos all day and all night?\n\nOut of the poem, he made a song that was performed by Bob Dylan, other musicians and Ginsberg himself.\n\nThe last few lines of the poem read: \n\n\n===Relationship to communism===\nGinsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were still raging. He admired Fidel Castro and many other quasi-Marxist figures from the 20th century. In \"America\" (1956), Ginsberg writes: \"America, I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry\". Biographer Jonah Raskin has claimed that, despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, Ginsberg held \"his own idiosyncratic version of communism\". On the other hand, when Donald Manes, a New York City politician, publicly accused Ginsberg of being a member of the Communist Party, Ginsberg objected: \"I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of the U.S. government or any government by violence. ... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed\".\n\nGinsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed that communist countries, such as China, welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism, but often turned against him when they saw him as a trouble maker. For example, in 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals and referring to Che Guevara as \"cute\". The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the ''Král majálesu'' (\"King of May\" – a students' festivity, celebrating spring and student life), Ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness, and the security agency StB confiscated several of his writings, which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous. Ginsberg was then deported from Czechoslovakia on May 7, 1965 by order of the StB. Václav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration.\n\n===Gay rights===\nOne contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people. In 1943, he discovered within himself \"mountains of homosexuality.\" He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry. He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his Who's Who entry. Subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor.\n\nIn writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent, he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws. He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example).\n\n===Association with NAMBLA===\n\nGinsberg was a supporter and member of North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA) which is a pedophile and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children, saying that \"Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance… I'm a member of NAMBLA because I love boys too—everybody does, who has a little humanity.\" In \"Thoughts on NAMBLA\", a 1994 essay published in the collection ''Deliberate Prose'', Ginsberg stated, \"NAMBLA's a forum for reform of those laws on youthful sexuality which members deem oppressive, a discussion society not a sex club. I joined NAMBLA in defense of free speech.\" In 1994, Ginsberg appeared in a documentary on NAMBLA called ''Chicken Hawk: Men Who Love Boys'' (playing on the gay male slang term \"Chickenhawk\"), in which he read a \"graphic ode to youth\".\n\n===Demystification of drugs===\nGinsberg also talked often about drug use. He organized the New York City chapter of LeMar (Legalize Marijuana). Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD, and, with Timothy Leary, worked to promote its common use. He remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and, at the same time, warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his ''Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke):'' \"Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope.\"\n\n=== CIA drug trafficking===\n\n on the latter's book ''The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia'', which claimed that the CIA was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the Golden Triangle of Burma, Thailand, and Laos. In addition to working with McCoy, Ginsberg personally confronted Richard Helms, the director of the CIA in the 1970s, about the matter, but Helms denied that the CIA had anything to do with selling illegal drugs. Allen wrote many essays and articles, researching and compiling evidence of the CIA's alleged involvement in drug trafficking, but it would take 10 years, and the publication of McCoy's book in 1972, before anyone took him seriously. In 1978 Ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of the ''New York Times'', apologizing for not taking his allegations seriously so many years previous. The political subject is dealt with in his song/poem \"CIA Dope calypso\". The United States Department of State responded to McCoy's initial allegations stating that they were \"unable to find any evidence to substantiate them, much less proof.\" Subsequent investigations by the Inspector General of the CIA, United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs, and United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (i.e. the Church Committee) also found the charges to be unsubstantiated.\n", "Most of Ginsberg's very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father and his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. In 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry. Soon after, he wrote \"Howl\", the poem that brought him and his Beat Generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death.\n\n===Inspiration from friends===\n\nGinsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of \"spontaneous prose\". He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of \"Howl\" he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing \"negro\" and \"angry\" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of Spontaneous Prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry.\n\nThe inspiration for \"Howl\" was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon, and \"Howl\" is dedicated to him. Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who suffered bouts of clinical depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of \"Howl\" is a description of this.\n\nGinsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of \"Moloch\". Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem \"Thou Shalt Not Kill\", a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are frequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities). Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film ''Metropolis'' (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward. Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post–World War II America, focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms.\n\nHe also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects, in that the decision to ''defy'' socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in \"Howl\", such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of \"Howl\" are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a \"best mind\" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line \"with mother finally **** (fucked)\" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says: \"I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother.\" Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write \"Howl\" was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's \"Kaddish\", which had its first public reading at a Catholic Worker Friday Night meeting, possibly due to its associations with Thomas Merton.\n\n===Inspiration from mentors and idols===\nGinsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (most importantly the American style of Modernism pioneered by William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically William Blake and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, the American poet Walt Whitman and the Spanish poet Federico Garcia Lorca. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed.\n\nHe corresponded with William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem Paterson about the industrial city near his home. After attending a reading by Williams, Ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like \"thee.\" Williams disliked the poems and told Ginsberg, \"In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect.\"\n\nThough he disliked these early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of ''Paterson''. He encouraged Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters, but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. From Williams, Ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto \"No ideas but in things.\" Studying Williams' style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include ''Bricklayer's Lunch Hour'' and ''Dream Record''.\n\nCarl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud (''To Have Done with the Judgement of God'' and ''Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society''), and Jean Genet (''Our Lady of the Flowers''). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of \"Kaddish\" were inspired by André Breton's ''Free Union''). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of \"Howl\" and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as ''Jubilate Agno''. Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and even Emily Dickinson.\n\nGinsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the ''Eyeball Kick''. He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or \"kick.\" Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was \"hydrogen jukebox\" (which later became the title of a song cycle composed by Philip Glass with lyrics drawn from Ginsberg's poems). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fuelled by a cocktail of amphetamines, opiates, alcohol, and psychedelics, as a ''Dexedrine Clown''. The phrases \"eyeball kick\" and \"hydrogen jukebox\" both show up in \"Howl\", as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: \"Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus\".\n\n===Inspiration from music===\n\nAllen Ginsberg also found inspiration in music. He frequently included music in his poetry. He wrote and recorded music to accompany William Blake’s ''Songs of Innocence'' and ''Songs of Experience''. He also recorded a handful of other albums. To create music for ''Howl'' and ''Wichita Vortex Sutra'' he worked with the minimalist composer, Philip Glass.\n\nGinsberg worked with, drew inspiration from, and inspired artists such as, Bob Dylan, The Clash, Patti Smith, Phil Ochs, and The Fugs. He worked with Bob Dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship over many years.\n\n===Style and technique===\nFrom the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian. \"Howl\" came out during a potentially hostile literary environment, less welcoming to non-traditional, free verse poetry; there was a renewed focus on form and structure among academic poets and critics partly inspired by New Criticism. Consequently, Ginsberg often had to defend his choice to employ long, free verse lines, often citing Whitman's free verse used in ''Leaves of Grass'' as a precursor. Ginsberg claimed Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further, and Whitman is also often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form.\n\nGinsberg believed strongly that traditional formalist considerations were archaic and did not apply to reality. Though some critics, like Diana Trilling, have pointed to Ginsberg's occasional use of meter (for example the anapest of \"who came back to Denver and waited in vain\"), Ginsberg denied any intention toward meter and claimed instead that his idea of meter followed the \"natural\" poetic voice. \n\nGinsberg said that he learned from William Carlos Williams that natural speech is occasionally dactylic so poetry that imitates natural speech will sometimes fall into a dactylic structure but only accidentally. Like Williams, Ginsberg's line breaks were often determined by breath: one line in \"Howl\", for example, should be read in one breath. Ginsberg claimed he developed such a long line because he had long breaths.\n\nMany of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora, repetition of a \"fixed base\" (for example \"who\" in \"Howl\", \"America\" in ''America'') and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style. He said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence; he did not yet trust \"free flight\". In the 1960s, after employing it in some sections of \"Kaddish\" (\"caw\" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric form.\n\nSeveral of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of \"Howl\", each line is in a \"stepped triadic\" format reminiscent of William Carlos Williams. But he abandoned the \"stepped triadic\" when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of ''The Fall of America.'' \"Howl\" and \"Kaddish\", arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In ''America'', he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines.\n\nIn \"Howl\" and in his other poetry, Ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic, free verse style of the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman. Both wrote passionately about the promise (and betrayal) of American democracy, the central importance of erotic experience, and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence. J. D. McClatchy, editor of the ''Yale Review'', called Ginsberg \"the best-known American poet of his generation, as much a social force as a literary phenomenon.\" McClatchy added that Ginsberg, like Whitman, \"was a bard in the old manner – outsized, darkly prophetic, part exuberance, part prayer, part rant. His work is finally a history of our era's psyche, with all its contradictory urges.\" McClatchy's barbed eulogies define the essential difference between Ginsberg (\"a beat poet whose writing was ... journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimic-empathy, to strike audience-accessible chords; always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic\") and Kerouac (\"a poet of singular brilliance, the brightest luminary of a 'beat generation' he came to symbolise in popular culture... though in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries.... Kerouac is an originating genius, exploring then answering - like Rimbaud a century earlier, by necessity more than by choice - the demands of authentic self-expression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of America's only literary virtuoso...\"):\n", "* ''Howl and Other Poems'' (1956) \n* ''Kaddish and Other Poems'' (1961) \n* ''Empty Mirror: Early Poems'' (1961) \n* ''Reality Sandwiches'' (1963) \n* ''The Yage Letters'' (1963) – with William S. Burroughs\n* ''Planet News'' (1968) \n* ''Indian Journals'' (1970) \n* ''First Blues: Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs 1971 - 1974'' (1975), \n* ''The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems 1948–1951'' (1972) \n* ''The Fall of America: Poems of These States'' (1973) \n* ''Iron Horse'' (1973)\n* ''Sad Dust Glories: poems during work summer in woods'' (1975)\n* ''Mind Breaths'' (1978) \n* ''Plutonian Ode: Poems 1977–1980'' (1981) \n* ''Collected Poems 1947–1980'' (1984) . Republished with later material added as ''Collected Poems 1947-1997'', New York, Harper Collins, 2006\n* ''White Shroud Poems: 1980–1985'' (1986) \n* ''Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986–1993'' (1994)\n* ''Howl Annotated'' (1995)\n* ''Illuminated Poems'' (1996)\n* ''Selected Poems: 1947–1995'' (1996)\n* ''Death and Fame: Poems 1993–1997'' (1999)\n* ''Deliberate Prose 1952–1995'' (2000)\n* ''Howl & Other Poems'' 50th Anniversary Edition (2006) \n* ''The Book of Martyrdom and Artifice: First Journals and Poems 1937-1952'' (Da Capo Press, 2006)\n* ''The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder'' (Counterpoint, 2009)\n* ''I Greet You At The Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955-1997'' (City Lights, 2015)\n* \"The Best Minds of My Generation: A Literary History of the Beats\" (Grove Press, 2017)\n", "\n* ''The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg'' (film)\n* :Category:Works by Allen Ginsberg\n* ''Allen Ginsberg Live in London''\n* Hungry generation\n* ''Howl'' (2010 film)\n* Central Park Be-In\n* Trevor Carolan\n* Counterculture of the 1960s\n* ''Burroughs: the Movie'' by Howard Brookner\n* List of peace activists\n* ''Kill Your Darlings''\n* Jewish Buddhist\n", "\n", "\n", "* '' The Allen Ginsberg Papers, 1937–1994'' (1,330 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries\n* \n", "* Bullough, Vern L. \"Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context.\" Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304–311.\n* Charters, Ann (ed.). ''The Portable Beat Reader''. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. (hc); (pbk)\n* Clark, Thomas. \"Allen Ginsberg.\" ''Writers at Work—The Paris Review Interviews.'' 3.1 (1968) pp. 279–320.\n* Collins, Ronald & Skover, David. ''Mania: The Story of the Outraged & Outrageous Lives that Launched a Cultural Revolution'' (Top-Five books, March 2013)\n* Gifford, Barry (ed.). ''As Ever: The Collected Letters of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady''. Berkeley: Creative Arts Books (1977).\n* Ginsberg, Allen. ''Travels with Ginsberg: A Postcard Book''. San Francisco: City Lights (2002). \n* Hrebeniak, Michael. ''Action Writing: Jack Kerouac's Wild Form'', Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.\n* Podhoretz, Norman. \"At War with Allen Ginsberg\", in ''Ex-Friends'' (Free Press, 1999), 22–56. .\n* McBride, Dick: ''Cometh With Clouds (Memory: Allen Ginsberg)'' Cherry Valley Editions, 1982 \n* \n* \n* Morgan, Bill (ed.), ''I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955-1997.'' San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2015.\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* Schumacher, Michael (ed.). ''Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son.'' Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, \n* Schumacher, Michael. ''Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.\n* Trigilio, Tony. ''Allen Ginsberg's Buddhist Poetics.'' Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. \n* Trigilio, Tony. ''\"Strange Prophecies Anew\": Rereading Apocalypse in Blake, H.D., and Ginsberg.'' Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000. .\n* Tytell, John. ''Naked Angels: Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs''. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1976. \n* Warner, Simon (ed.). ''Howl for Now: A 50th anniversary celebration of Allen Ginsberg's epic protest poem''. West Yorkshire, UK: Route (2005), paperback, 144 pages, \n* Warner, Simon. \"Raising the Consciousness? Re-visiting Allen Ginsberg's 1965 trip to Liverpool\", chapter in ''Centre of the Creative Universe: Liverpool and the Avant Garde'', edited by Christoph Grunenberg and Robert Knifton. Liverpool & Chicago: Liverpool University Press & Chicago University Press, 2007, (pbk); (hc)\n* Young, Allen ''Gay Sunshine interview with Allen Ginsberg''. Grey Fox Press, 1974. \n", "\n\n* The Allen Ginsberg Trust\n* \n* \n* \n* Case Histories: Allen Ginsberg at PEN.org honoring Ginsberg's work, from PEN American Center\n* Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets\n* Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University\n=allen%20ginsberg Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg, from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive\n \"After 50 Years, Ginsberg's ''Howl'' Still Resonates\" NPR October 27, 2006\n* Allen Ginsberg photographs with hand-written captions at ''LensCulture''\n* Autobiographical Article in ''Shambhala Sun'' Magazine\n* Modern American Poetry, interview\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Social and political activism", "Work", "Bibliography", "See also", " Notes ", "References", "Resources", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Allen Ginsberg
[ "\nIn abstract algebra, an '''algebraically closed field''' ''F'' contains a root for every non-constant polynomial in ''F''''x'', the ring of polynomials in the variable ''x'' with coefficients in ''F''.\n", "As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation ''x''2 + 1 = 0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. Also, no finite field ''F'' is algebraically closed, because if ''a''1, ''a''2, …, ''an'' are the elements of ''F'', then the polynomial (''x'' − ''a''1)(''x'' − ''a''2) ··· (''x'' − ''a''''n'') + 1\nhas no zero in ''F''. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.\n", "Given a field ''F'', the assertion \"''F'' is algebraically closed\" is equivalent to other assertions:\n\n===The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring ''F''''x'' are those of degree one.\n\nThe assertion \"the polynomials of degree one are irreducible\" is trivially true for any field. If ''F'' is algebraically closed and ''p''(''x'') is an irreducible polynomial of ''F''''x'', then it has some root ''a'' and therefore ''p''(''x'') is a multiple of ''x'' − ''a''. Since ''p''(''x'') is irreducible, this means that ''p''(''x'') = ''k''(''x'' − ''a''), for some ''k'' ∈ ''F'' \\ {0}. On the other hand, if ''F'' is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial ''p''(''x'') in ''F''''x'' without roots in ''F''. Let ''q''(''x'') be some irreducible factor of ''p''(''x''). Since ''p''(''x'') has no roots in ''F'', ''q''(''x'') also has no roots in ''F''. Therefore, ''q''(''x'') has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in ''F''.\n\n===Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial ''p''(''x'') of degree ''n'' ≥ 1, with coefficients in ''F'', splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements ''k'', ''x''1, ''x''2, …, ''xn'' of the field ''F'' such that ''p''(''x'') = ''k''(''x'' − ''x''1)(''x'' − ''x''2) ··· (''x'' − ''xn'').\n\nIf ''F'' has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in ''F''''x'' has some root in ''F''; in other words, ''F'' is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for ''F'' if ''F'' is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field ''K'', any polynomial in ''K''''x'' can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.\n\n===Polynomials of prime degree have roots===\nJ. Shipman showed in 2007 that if every polynomial over ''F'' of prime degree has a root in ''F'', then every non-constant polynomial has a root in ''F'', thus ''F'' is algebraically closed.\n\n===The field has no proper algebraic extension===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.\n\nIf ''F'' has no proper algebraic extension, let ''p''(''x'') be some irreducible polynomial in ''F''''x''. Then the quotient of ''F''''x'' modulo the ideal generated by ''p''(''x'') is an algebraic extension of ''F'' whose degree is equal to the degree of ''p''(''x''). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of ''p''(''x'') is 1.\n\nOn the other hand, if ''F'' has some proper algebraic extension ''K'', then the minimal polynomial of an element in ''K'' \\ ''F'' is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1.\n\n===The field has no proper finite extension===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if it has no finite algebraic extension because if, within the previous proof, the word \"algebraic\" is replaced by the word \"finite\", then the proof is still valid.\n\n===Every endomorphism of ''Fn'' has some eigenvector===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number ''n'', every linear map from ''Fn'' into itself has some eigenvector.\n\nAn endomorphism of ''Fn'' has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when ''F'' is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of ''Fn'' has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of ''Fn'' has an eigenvector, let ''p''(''x'') be an element of ''F''''x''. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial ''q''(''x'') which has roots if and only if ''p''(''x'') has roots. But if ''q''(''x'') = ''xn'' + ''a''''n'' − 1''x''''n'' − 1+ ··· + ''a''0, then ''q''(''x'') is the characteristic polynomial of the ''n×n'' companion matrix\n:\n\n===Decomposition of rational expressions===\nThe field ''F'' is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable ''x'', with coefficients in ''F'', can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form ''a''/(''x'' − ''b'')n, where ''n'' is a natural number, and ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of ''F''.\n\nIf ''F'' is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in ''F''''x'' are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.\n\nOn the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field ''F''. Let ''p''(''x'') be an irreducible element in ''F''''x''. Then the rational function 1/''p'' can be written as the sum of a polynomial function ''q'' with rational functions of the form ''a''/(''x'' − ''b'')n. Therefore, the rational expression\n:\ncan be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since ''p''(''x'') is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.\n\n===Relatively prime polynomials and roots===\nFor any field ''F'', if two polynomials ''p''(''x''),''q''(''x'') ∈ ''F''''x'' are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if ''a'' ∈ ''F'' was a common root, then ''p''(''x'') and ''q''(''x'') would both be multiples of ''x'' − ''a'' and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.\n\nIf the field ''F'' is algebraically closed, let ''p''(''x'') and ''q''(''x'') be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let ''r''(''x'') be their greatest common divisor. Then, since ''r''(''x'') is not constant, it will have some root ''a'', which will be then a common root of ''p''(''x'') and ''q''(''x'').\n\nIf ''F'' is not algebraically closed, let ''p''(''x'') be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then ''p''(''x'') and ''p''(''x'') are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).\n", "If ''F'' is an algebraically closed field and ''n'' is a natural number, then ''F'' contains all ''n''th roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the ''n'' (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial ''xn'' − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a ''cyclotomic extension'', and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its ''cyclotomic closure''. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form ''xn'' − ''a'' splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.\n\nIf a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number ''N'' such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic ''p'' when ''p'' > ''N''.\n\nEvery field ''F'' has some extension which is algebraically closed. Among all such extensions there is one and (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) only one which is an algebraic extension of ''F''; it is called the algebraic closure of ''F''.\n\nThe theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination.\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* \n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Examples", "Equivalent properties", "Other properties", "Notes", "References" ]	Algebraically closed field
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "* 135 – The Roman Empire lays siege to Betar, effectively ending the Bar Kokhba revolt.\n1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean.\n1506 – The Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeated the Crimean Khanate in the Battle of Kletsk\n1538 – Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.\n1661 – The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic.\n1777 – American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix.\n1787 – Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\n1806 – Francis II, the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, ending the Holy Roman Empire.\n1819 – Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States.\n1824 – Battle of Junín Peru.\n1825 – Bolivia gains independence from Spain.\n1861 – The United Kingdom annexes Lagos, Nigeria.\n1862 – American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana.\n1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a Prussian victory.\n 1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive Prussian victory.\n1890 – At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair.\n1901 – Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation.\n1912 – The Bull Moose Party meets at the Chicago Coliseum.\n1914 – World War I: First Battle of the Atlantic: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea.\n* 1914 – World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia.\n1915 – World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay.\n1917 – World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins.\n1926 – Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.\n 1926 – In New York City, the Warner Bros.' Vitaphone system premieres with the movie ''Don Juan'' starring John Barrymore.\n1930 – Judge Joseph Force Crater steps into a taxi in New York and disappears never to be seen again.\n1940 – Estonia was illegally annexed by the Soviet Union.\n1942 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress.\n1944 – The Warsaw Uprising occurs on August 1. It is brutally suppressed and all able-bodied men in Kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising, the Kraków Uprising, that was planned but never carried out.\n1945 – World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb \"Little Boy\" is dropped by the United States B-29 ''Enola Gay''. Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning.\n1956 – After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the ''Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena'' series.\n1960 – Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.\n1962 – Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.\n1965 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law.\n1986 – A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13 inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.\n1990 – Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.\n1991 – Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW debuts as a publicly available service on the Internet.\n* 1991 – Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives.\n1996 – The Ramones played their farewell concert at The Palace, Los Angeles, CA. \n 1996 – NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms.\n1997 – Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam killing 228 of 254 people on board.\n2001 – Erwadi fire incident, 28 mentally ill persons tied to a chain were burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu.\n2008 – A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.\n2010 – Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people.\n* 2011 – War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, 7 Afghan soldiers, and 1 Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan.\n2012 – NASA's ''Curiosity'' rover lands on the surface of Mars.\n2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.\n", "1180 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (d. 1239)\n1504 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop (d. 1575)\n1572 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Ottoman prince (d. 1635)\n1605 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (d. 1675)\n1609 – Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1675)\n1619 – Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (d. 1677) \n1622 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (d. 1666)\n1638 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (d. 1715)\n1644 – Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1710)\n1651 – François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (d. 1715)\n1656 – Claude de Forbin, French general (d. 1733)\n1666 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg (d. 1699)\n1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1748)\n1697 – Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1745)\n1715 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (d. 1747)\n1765 – Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1848)\n1766 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (d. 1828)\n1768 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (d. 1813)\n1775 – Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (d. 1847)\n1809 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (d. 1892)\n1826 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (d. 1915)\n1835 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (d. 1900)\n1844 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)\n 1844 – James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (d. 1896)\n1846 – Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (d. 1888)\n1868 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (d. 1955)\n1874 – Charles Fort, American author (d. 1932)\n1877 – Wallace H. White, Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1952)\n1880 – Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (d. 1964)\n1881 – Leo Carrillo, American actor (d. 1961)\n* 1881 – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)\n* 1881 – Louella Parsons, American journalist (d. 1972)\n1883 – Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (d. 1983)\n1886 – Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (d. 1971)\n1887 – Dudley Benjafield, English race car driver (d. 1957)\n1889 – George Kenney, Canadian-American general (d. 1977)\n* 1889 – John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (d. 1957)\n1890 – Wentworth Beaumont, 2nd Viscount Allendale, English captain and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Northumberland (d. 1956)\n1891 – William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1970)\n1892 – Hoot Gibson, American actor, director, and producer (d. 1962)\n1893 – Wright Patman, American lieutenant and politician (d. 1976)\n1895 – Ernesto Lecuona, Cuban pianist and composer (d. 1963)\n 1895 – Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (d. 1978)\n1900 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (d. 2003)\n1902 – Dutch Schultz, American gangster (d. 1935)\n1904 – Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (d. 1970)\n 1904 – Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)\n1906 – Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (d. 1984)\n1908 – Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (d. 1997)\n* 1908 – Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (d. 1941)\n1909 – Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (d. 2013)\n1910 – Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (d. 1982)\n* 1910 – Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1999)\n1911 – Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (d. 1989)\n 1911 – Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (d. 2014) \n* 1911 – Constance Heaven, English author and actress (d. 1995)\n1912 – Richard C. Miller, American photographer (d. 2010)\n1914 – Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2001) \n1916 – Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (d. 1970)\n 1916 – Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012)\n1917 – Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (d. 2000)\n 1917 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (d. 1997)\n1918 – Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (d. 2001)\n1919 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (d. 2011)\n1920 – Selma Diamond, Canadian-American actress and screenwriter (d. 1985)\n 1920 – John Graves, American author (d. 2013)\n* 1920 – Ella Raines, American actress (d. 1988)\n1922 – Freddie Laker, English businessman, founded Laker Airways (d. 2006)\n 1922 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (d. 2015)\n1923 – Jess Collins, American painter (d. 2004)\n 1923 – Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Defence\n1924 – Samuel Bowers, American activist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (d. 2006)\n1926 – Elisabeth Beresford, French-English journalist and author (d. 2010)\n* 1926 – Frank Finlay, English actor (d. 2016)\n* 1926 – Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)\n* 1926 – János Rózsás, Hungarian author (d. 2012)\n* 1926 – Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (d. 1999) \n1928 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (d. 2005)\n 1928 – Andy Warhol, American painter and photographer (d. 1987)\n1929 – Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist \n 1929 – Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 2007)\n1930 – Abbey Lincoln, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2010)\n1931 – Chalmers Johnson, American scholar and author (d. 2010)\n1932 – Michael Deeley, English screenwriter and producer\n 1932 – Howard Hodgkin, English painter (d. 2017)\n* 1932 – Charles Wood, English playwright and screenwriter\n1933 – A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (d. 1987)\n1934 – Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author\n* 1934 – Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author\n* 1934 – Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier\n1935 – Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (d. 2012)\n 1935 – Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2012)\n1937 – Baden Powell de Aquino, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 2000)\n 1937 – Charlie Haden, American bassist and composer (d. 2014)\n* 1937 – Barbara Windsor, English actress \n1938 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2000) \n 1938 – Peter Bonerz, American actor and director\n* 1938 – Bert Yancey, American golfer (d. 1994)\n1940 – Mukhu Aliyev, Russian philologist and politician, 2nd President of Dagestan\n 1940 – Egil Kapstad, Norwegian pianist and composer\n* 1940 – Louise Sorel, American actress\n1941 – Ray Culp, American baseball player\n 1941 – Andrew Green, Baron Green of Deddington, English diplomat\n1942 – Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 2012)\n1943 – Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (d. 1998)\n1944 – Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (d. 2003)\n 1944 – Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic\n* 1944 – Martin Wharton, English bishop\n1945 – Ron Jones, English director and production manager (d. 1993)\n1946 – Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2017)\n1947 – Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic\n 1947 – Tony Dell, English-Australian cricketer and soldier\n1948 – William McCrea, Northern Irish politician\n1949 – Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (d. 1993) \n* 1949 – Richard Prince, American painter and photographer\n* 1949 – Clarence Richard Silva, American bishop \n1950 – Dorian Harewood, American actor \n1951 – Catherine Hicks, American actress\n* 1951 – Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer\n1952 – Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist \n 1952 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2013)\n* 1952 – Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer \n1954 – Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player\n1956 – Bill Emmott, English journalist and author\n1957 – Bob Horner, American baseball player\n 1957 – Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey\n* 1958 – Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player \n1959 – Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist \n1960 – Dale Ellis, American basketball player\n1961 – Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host\n1962 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer\n1963 – Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant\n 1963 – Kevin Mitnick, American computer hacker and author\n1964 – Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist\n1965 – Vishal Bhardwaj, Indian film director, screenwriter, producer, music composer and playback singer\n* 1965 – Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer \n* 1965 – David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant\n* 1965 – Vince Wells, English cricketer \n1967 – Lorna Fitzsimons, English businesswoman and politician\n 1967 – Mike Greenberg, American journalist and sportscaster\n* 1967 – Julie Snyder, Canadian talk show host and producer\n1968 – Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer\n1969 – Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster\n* 1969 – Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)\n1970 – M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter \n1972 – Paolo Bacigalupi, American author\n* 1972 – Darren Eales, English footballer and lawyer\n* 1972 – Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress \n* 1972 – Ray Lucas, American football player and sportscaster\n1973 – Vera Farmiga, American actress\n 1973 – Max Kellerman, American sportscaster and radio host\n* 1973 – Iain Morris, English screenwriter and producer\n* 1973 – Stuart O'Grady, Australian cyclist \n1974 – Bobby Petta, Dutch footballer\n 1974 – Luis Vizcaíno, Dominican baseball player\n* 1974 – Alvin Williams, American basketball player and coach\n1975 – Jason Crump, English-Australian motorcycle racer\n 1975 – Renate Götschl, Austrian skier\n* 1975 – Víctor Zambrano, Venezuelan baseball player\n1976 – Soleil Moon Frye, American actress and producer\n 1976 – Melissa George, Australian-American actress\n* 1976 – Adam Ritson, Australian rugby league player\n* 1976 – Shaun Timmins, Australian rugby league player\n1977 – Leandro Amaral, Brazilian footballer\n 1977 – Rebecca Maddern, Australian journalist and television host\n* 1977 – Jimmy Nielsen, Danish footballer and manager\n* 1977 – Luciano Zavagno, Argentinian footballer\n1978 – Marvel Smith, American football player\n1979 – Francesco Bellotti, Italian cyclist\n* 1979 – Jaime Correa, Mexican footballer \n* 1979 – Travis Reed, American basketball player\n1980 – Danny Collins, English-Welsh footballer\n 1980 – Seneca Wallace, American football player\n* 1980 – Roman Weidenfeller, German footballer\n1981 – Vitantonio Liuzzi, Italian race car driver\n 1981 – Diána Póth, Hungarian figure skater\n1983 – Neil Harvey, English-Barbadian footballer\n 1983 – C. J. Mosley, American football player\n* 1983 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer\n1984 – Vedad Ibišević, Bosnian footballer\n 1984 – Jesse Ryder, New Zealand cricketer\n1985 – Viktoria Baškite, Estonian chess player\n 1985 – Mickaël Delage, French cyclist\n* 1985 – Bafétimbi Gomis, French footballer\n* 1985 – Garrett Weber-Gale, American swimmer\n1986 – Mehmet Akgün, Turkish footballer\n 1986 – Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player\n1991 – Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer\n1992 – Tara Moore, British tennis player\n1995 – Rebecca Peterson, Swedish tennis player\n\n", " 258 – Pope Sixtus II \n* 523 – Pope Hormisdas (b. 450)\n* 750 – Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (b. 688)\n1027 – Richard III, Duke of Normandy\n1162 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (b. 1113)\n1195 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)\n1221 – Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (b. 1170)\n1272 – Stephen V of Hungary (b. 1239)\n1384 – Francesco I of Lesbos\n1414 – Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377)\n1458 – Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378)\n1530 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (b. 1458)\n1553 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (b. 1478)\n1628 – Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (b. 1573)\n1637 – Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (b. 1572)\n1645 – Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (b. 1575)\n1657 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (b. 1595)\n1660 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1599)\n1666 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (b. 1622)\n1679 – John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (b. 1629)\n1694 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (b. 1612)\n1695 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (b. 1625)\n1753 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1711)\n1757 – Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (b. 1673)\n1794 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)\n1815 – James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (b. 1767)\n1828 – Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (b. 1785)\n1850 – Edward Walsh, Irish poet and songwriter (b. 1805)\n1866 – John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (b. 1818)\n1881 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (b. 1821)\n1884 – Robert Spear Hudson, English businessman and philanthropist (b. 1812)\n1893 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1811)\n1904 – Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (b. 1825)\n1906 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824)\n1920 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (b. 1890)\n1925 – Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (b. 1848)\n 1925 – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (b. 1853)\n1931 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (b. 1903)\n1945 – Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1920)\n* 1945 – Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (b. 1866)\n1946 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (b. 1903)\n1959 – Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (b. 1898)\n1964 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (b. 1893)\n1969 – Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1903)\n1970 – Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1912)\n1973 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (b. 1901)\n1976 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (b. 1903)\n1978 – Pope Paul VI (b. 1897)\n* 1978 – Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center (b. 1902)\n1979 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)\n1983 – Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1944)\n1985 – William Anstruther-Gray, Baron Kilmany, Scottish soldier and politician (b. 1905)\n 1985 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (b. 1923)\n1986 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1904)\n1987 – Ira C. Eaker, American general (b. 1896)\n1990 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (b. 1912)\n1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1915)\n* 1991 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (b. 1900)\n* 1991 – Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created ''60 Minutes'' (b. 1923)\n1992 – Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (b. 1949)\n1993 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (b. 1916)\n1994 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1928)\n1997 – Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (b. 1941)\n1998 – André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (b. 1906)\n2001 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (b. 1912)\n* 2001 – Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Chief of the Naval Staff of the Indian Navy from 1966 until 1970. (b. 1914)\n* 2001 – Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (b. 1911)\n* 2001 – Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (b. 1928)\n* 2001 – Dorothy Tutin, English actress (b. 1930)\n2002 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1930)\n2003 – Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (b. 1915)\n2004 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948)\n 2004 – Donald Justice, American poet and academic (b. 1925)\n2005 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1946)\n2007 – Heinz Barth, German lieutenant (b. 1920)\n* 2007 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (b. 1969)\n2008 – Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (b. 1934)\n2009 – Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (b. 1909)\n* 2009 – Willy DeVille, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950)\n* 2009 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1950)\n2011 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (b. 1911)\n2012 – Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1944)\n* 2012 – Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1944)\n* 2012 – Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (b. 1938)\n* 2012 – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (b. 1913)\n* 2012 – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (b. 1954)\n* 2012 – Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (b. 1918)\n* 2012 – Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (b. 1953)\n2013 – Jeremy Geidt, English-American actor and educator (b. 1930)\n 2013 – Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (b. 1931)\n* 2013 – Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (b. 1929)\n* 2013 – Jerry Wolman, American businessman (b. 1927)\n2014 – Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (b. 1941)\n 2014 – Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (b. 1928)\n* 2014 – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (b. 1927)\n2015 – Ray Hill, American football player (b. 1975)\n 2015 – Frederick R. Payne, Jr., American general and pilot (b. 1911)\n* 2015 – Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (b. 1924)\n2017 – Darren Daulton, American baseball player (b. 1962)\n 2017 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (b. 1938)\n\n", "Blessed Anna Maria Rubatto\nFeast of the Transfiguration\nHormisdas\nJustus and Pastor\n*August 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nH.H. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)\nIndependence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825.\nIndependence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962.\nHiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)\nRussian Railway Troops Day (Russia)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n\n Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 6
[ "\n\n\n'''Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov''' (; born May 23, 1951) is a Russian chess grandmaster and former World Champion. He was the official world champion from 1975 to 1985 when he was defeated by Garry Kasparov. He played three matches against Kasparov for the title from 1986 to 1990, before becoming FIDE World Champion once again after Kasparov broke away from FIDE in 1993. He held the title until 1999, when he resigned his title in protest against FIDE's new world championship rules. For his decades-long standing among the world's elite, Karpov is considered by many to be one of the greatest players of all time.\n\nHis tournament successes include over 160 first-place finishes. He had a peak Elo rating of 2780, and his 90 total months at world number one is the second longest of all-time, behind only Garry Kasparov, since the inception of the FIDE ranking list in 1970.\n", "Karpov was born on May 23, 1951 at Zlatoust in the Urals region of the former Soviet Union, and learned to play chess at the age of 4. His early rise in chess was swift, as he became a Candidate Master by age 11. At 12, he was accepted into Mikhail Botvinnik's prestigious chess school, though Botvinnik made the following remark about the young Karpov: \"The boy does not have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession.\" Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and wrote later that the homework which Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently. Karpov improved so quickly under Botvinnik's tutelage that he became the youngest Soviet National Master in history at fifteen in 1966; this tied the record established by Boris Spassky in 1952.\n", "\n===Young master===\nKarpov in 1967\nKarpov finished first in his first international tournament in Třinec several months later, ahead of Viktor Kupreichik. In 1967, he won the annual European Junior Championship at Groningen. Karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school, and entered Moscow State University in 1968 to study mathematics. He later transferred to Leningrad State University, eventually graduating from there in economics. One reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach, grandmaster Semyon Furman, who lived in Leningrad. In his writings, Karpov credits Furman as a major influence on his development as a world-class player.\n\nIn 1969, Karpov became the first Soviet player since Spassky (1955) to win the World Junior Chess Championship, scoring an undefeated 10/11 in the finals at Stockholm. In 1970, he tied for fourth place at an international tournament in Caracas, Venezuela, and was awarded the grandmaster title.\n\n===Top-Class Grandmaster===\nHe won the 1971 Alekhine Memorial in Moscow (equal with Leonid Stein), ahead of a star-studded field, for his first significant adult victory. His Elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, when he shared second in the USSR Chess Championship, and finished equal first with Viktor Korchnoi in the Leningrad Interzonal Tournament. The latter success qualified him for the 1974 Candidates Matches, which would determine the challenger to the reigning world champion, Bobby Fischer.\n\n===Candidate===\nKarpov defeated Lev Polugaevsky by the score of +3=5 in the first Candidates' match, earning the right to face former champion Boris Spassky in the semifinal round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates' cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates' cycle in 1977.\nSpassky won the first game as Black in good style, but tenacious, aggressive play from Karpov secured him overall victory by +4−1=6.\nThe Candidates' final was played in Moscow with Korchnoi. Karpov took an early lead, winning the second game against the Sicilian Dragon, then scoring another victory in the sixth game. Following ten consecutive draws, Korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give Karpov a 3–0 lead. In game 19, Korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame, then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by Karpov two games later. Three more draws, the last agreed by Karpov in a clearly better position, closed the match, as he thus prevailed +3−2=19, moving on to challenge Fischer for the world title.\n\n===Match with Fischer in 1975===\nThough a world championship match between Karpov and Fischer was highly anticipated, those hopes were never realised. Fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins (draws not counting), but also that the champion would retain the crown if the score was tied 9–9. FIDE, the International Chess Federation, refused to allow this proviso, and after Fischer's resignation of the championship on June 27, 1975, FIDE declared that Fischer forfeited his crown. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but all the negotiations fell through. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without having faced the reigning champion.\nGarry Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had good chances, because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years. Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975 but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978.\n\n===World champion===\nDetermined to prove himself a legitimate champion, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He convincingly won the very strong Milan tournament in 1975, and captured his first of three Soviet titles in 1976. He created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world. Karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (nine) until it was shattered by Garry Kasparov (14). As a result, most chess professionals eventually agreed that Karpov is a legitimate world champion.\n\nIn 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Korchnoi, the opponent he had defeated in the 1973–75 Candidates' cycle; the match was played at Baguio, Philippines, with the winner needing six victories.\nAs in 1974, Karpov took an early lead, winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match, but Korchnoi staged a comeback late in the match, as, after the score was +5−2=20 in Karpov's favour, he won three of the next four games to draw level with Karpov. Karpov then won the next game to retain the title (+6−5=21).\n\nThree years later Korchnoi re-emerged as the Candidates' winner against German finalist Dr. Robert Hübner to challenge Karpov in Merano, Italy. This match, however, was won handily by Karpov, the score being (11–7, +6−2=10) in what is remembered as the \"Massacre in Merano\".\n\nKarpov's tournament career reached a peak at the Montreal \"Tournament of Stars\" tournament in 1979, where he finished joint first (+7−1=10) with Mikhail Tal, ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by Jan Timman, Ljubomir Ljubojević, Boris Spassky, Vlastimil Hort, Lajos Portisch, Robert Hübner, Bent Larsen and Lubomir Kavalek. He dominated Las Palmas 1977 with 13½/15. He also won the prestigious Bugojno tournament in 1978 (shared) and 1980, the Linares tournament in 1981 (shared with Larry Christiansen) and 1994, the Tilburg tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the Soviet Championship in 1976, 1983, and 1988.\n\nKarpov represented the Soviet Union at six Chess Olympiads, in all of which the USSR won the team gold medal. He played first reserve at Skopje 1972, winning the board prize with 13/15. At Nice 1974, he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 12/14. At La Valletta 1980, he was again board one and scored 9/12. At Lucerne 1982, he scored 6½/8 on board one. At Dubai 1986, he scored 6/9 on board two. His last was Thessaloniki 1988, where on board two he scored 8/10. In Olympiad play, Karpov lost only two games out of 68 played.\n\nTo illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +11−2=20 versus Spassky, +5=12 versus Robert Hübner, +6−1=16 versus Ulf Andersson, +3−1=10 versus Vasily Smyslov, +1=16 versus Mikhail Tal, +10−2=13 versus Ljubojević.\n\nKarpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion by the time Garry Kasparov arrived on the scene. In their first match, the World Chess Championship 1984, held in Moscow, with the victor again being the first to win six games outright, Karpov built a 4–0 lead after nine games. The next seventeen games were drawn, setting the record for world title matches, and it took Karpov until game 27 to gain his fifth win. In game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, after which fourteen more draws ensued. In particular, Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov won games 47 and 48, FIDE President Florencio Campomanes unilaterally terminated the match, citing the health of the players. The match had lasted an unprecedented five months, with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and forty draws.\n\nA rematch was set for later in 1985, also in Moscow. The events of the so-called Marathon Match forced FIDE to return to the previous format, a match limited to 24 games (with Karpov remaining champion if the match should finish 12–12). Karpov needed to win the final game to draw the match and retain his title, but wound up losing, thus surrendering the title to his opponent. The final score was 13–11 (+3−5=16), in favour of Kasparov.\n\n===Rivalry with Kasparov===\nKarpov remained a formidable opponent (and the world No. 2) until the early 1990s. He fought Kasparov in three more world championship matches in 1986 (held in London and Leningrad), 1987 (held in Seville), and 1990 (held in New York City and Lyon). All three matches were extremely close: the scores were 11½ to 12½ (+4−5=15), 12 to 12 (+4−4=16), and 11½ to 12½ (+3−4=17). In all three matches, Karpov had winning chances up to the very last games. In particular, the 1987 Seville match featured an astonishing blunder by Kasparov in the 23rd game. In the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov cracked under pressure from the clock at the end of the first session of play, missed a variation leading to an almost forced draw, and allowed Kasparov to adjourn the game with an extra pawn. After a further mistake in the second session, Karpov was slowly ground down and resigned on move 64, ending the match and allowing Kasparov to keep the title.\n\nIn their five world championship matches, Karpov scored 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games.\n\nKarpov is on record saying that if he had had the opportunity to play Fischer for the crown in his twenties, he could have been a much better player as a result.\n\n===FIDE champion again (1993–1999)===\nKarpov in 1996\nIn 1992, Karpov lost a Candidates Match against Nigel Short. But in 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov defeated Timman – the loser of the Candidates' final against Short.\n\nThe next major meeting of Kasparov and Karpov was the 1994 Linares chess tournament. The field, in eventual finishing order, was Karpov, Kasparov, Shirov, Bareev, Kramnik, Lautier, Anand, Kamsky, Topalov, Ivanchuk, Gelfand, Illescas, Judit Polgár, and Beliavsky; with an average Elo rating of 2685, the highest ever at that time, making it the first Category XVIII tournament ever held. Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the best tournament of his life. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 possible (the best world-class tournament winning percentage since Alekhine won San Remo in 1930), finishing 2½ points ahead of second-place Kasparov and Shirov. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his Elo rating tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009, when Magnus Carlsen won the category XXI Pearl Spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002. However, chess statistician Jeff Sonas considered Karpov's Linares performance to be the best tournament result in history.\n\nKarpov defended his FIDE title against Gata Kamsky (+6−3=9) in 1996. However, in 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidates' Matches, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, the FIDE World Chess Championship 1998, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating Viswanathan Anand (+2−2=2, rapid tiebreak 2:0). In the subsequent cycle, the format was changed, with the champion having to qualify. Karpov refused to defend his title, and ceased to be FIDE World Champion after the FIDE World Chess Championship 1999.\n\n===Towards retirement===\nKarpov's outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997, since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of Russia. He had been a member of the Supreme Soviet Commission for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union dissolved. In addition, he had been involved in several disputes with FIDE and became increasingly disillusioned with chess. In the September 2009 FIDE rating list, he dropped out of the world's Top 100 for the first time.\n\nKarpov usually limits his play to exhibition events, and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess. In 2002 he won a match against Kasparov, defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½–1½. In 2006, he tied for first with Kasparov in a blitz tournament, ahead of Korchnoi and Judit Polgár.\n\nKarpov and Kasparov played a mixed 12-game match from September 21–24, 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi rapid) and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at World Chess Championship 1984. Kasparov won the match 9–3.\n\nKarpov played a match against Yasser Seirawan in 2012 in St. Louis, Missouri, an important center of the North American chess scene, with Karpov winning the match 8–6 (+5−3=6) .\n\nIn November 2012, he won the Cap d'Agde rapid tournament which bears his name (Anatoly Karpov Trophy) by beating Vassily Ivanchuk (ranked 9th in the October 2012 FIDE world rankings) in the final.\n", "Since 2005, he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia. He has recently involved himself in several humanitarian causes, such as advocating the use of iodised salt. On December 17, 2012, Karpov supported the law in the Russian Parliament banning adoption of Russian orphans by citizens of the US.\n\nKarpov expressed support of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and accused Europe of trying to demonise Putin.\n", "In March 2010 Karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of FIDE. The election took place in September 2010 at the 39th Chess Olympiad. In May a fund-raising event took place in New York with the participation of his former rival Garry Kasparov and of Magnus Carlsen, both of whom supported his bid and campaigned for him. Also Nigel Short announced he supported Karpov's candidacy. However, on September 29, 2010, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was reelected as President of FIDE, winning the election by 95 votes to 55.\n", "Karpov's \"boa constrictor\" playing style is solidly positional, taking no risks but reacting mercilessly to any tiny errors made by his opponents. As a result, he is often compared to his idol, the famous José Raúl Capablanca, the third World Champion. Karpov himself describes his style as follows:Let us say the game may be continued in two ways: one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that don't yield to precise calculations; the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory.... I would choose the latter without thinking twice. If the opponent offers keen play I don't object; but in such cases I get less satisfaction, even if I win, than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic.\n", "* Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, Moscow 1973 Karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and queenside attack.\n* Anatoly Karpov vs. Gyula Sax, Linares 1983 Karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later, after another spectacular sacrifice from Karpov and counter-sacrifice from Sax. It won the tournament's first brilliancy prize. This was not the first time Karpov used the sharp Keres Attack (6.g4) – see his win in Anatoly Karpov vs. Vlastimil Hort, Alekhine Memorial Tournament, Moscow 1971\n* Anatoly Karpov vs. Veselin Topalov, Dos Hermanas 1994 features a sham sacrifice of two pieces, which he regains with a forcing variation culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame.\n", "\nKarpov's extensive stamp collection of Belgium philately and Belgian Congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by David Feldman's auction company between December 2011 and 2012. He is also known to have a large chess stamp and chess book collections. His private chess library consists of over 9000 books.\n", "* Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd class (2001) – for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes, the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples\n* Order of Friendship (2011) – for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities\n* Order of Lenin (1981)\n* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1978)\n* Order of Merit, 2nd class (Ukraine) (November 13, 2006) – for his contribution to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster\n* Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 2nd class (1996)\n* Order of St. Sergius of Radonezh, 2nd class (2001)\n* Medal \"For outstanding contribution to the Collector business in Russia\"\n* Honorary member of the Soviet Philately Society (1979)\n* Diploma of the State Duma of the Russian Federation № 1\n* Order \"For outstanding achievements in sport\" (Republic of Cuba)\n* Medal of Tsiolkovsky Cosmonautics Federation of Russia\n* Medal \"For Strengthening the penal system\", 1st and 2nd class\n* Breastplate of the 1st degree of the Interior Ministry\n* International Association of Chess Press, 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the \"Chess Oscar\"\n* Order of Saint Nestor the Chronicler, 1st class\n* Asteroid 90414 Karpov is named after Karpov\n* Karpov International Chess Tournament, an annual round-robin tournament held in his honour in Poikovsky, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia since 2000\n", "Karpov has authored or co-authored several books, most of which have been translated into English.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n (also a 1992 Simon & Schuster edition)\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n", " Fine, Rueben (1983). ''The World's Great Chess Games''. Dover. .\n* Hurst, Sarah (2002). ''Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld''. Russell Enterprises. .\n* \n\n\n* Karpov, Anatoly (2003). ''Anatoly Karpov's Best Games''. Batsford. .\n\n\n* Winter, Edward G., editor (1981).''World Chess Champions''. Pergamon Press. .\n", "\n\n* Karpov's official homepage in Russian.\n* \n* Edward Winter, List of Books About Karpov and Korchnoi\n* 25 minute video interview with Karpov, OnlineChessLessons.NET, June 19, 2012\n* Happy Birthday! Anatoly Karpov turns sixty, Chessbase News, May 23, 2011\n*, St Louis Chess Club. June 12, 2012\n\n\n\n \n \n\n \n \n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "International career", " Personal life after retirement ", "Candidate for FIDE Presidency", "Style", "Notable games", "Hobbies", "Honours and awards", "Books", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Anatoly Karpov
[ "\n\n\nThe '''aspect ratio''' of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter sidethe ratio of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a \"landscape\".\n\nThe aspect ratio is expressed as two numbers separated by a colon (x:y). The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, the relationship between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10 and 1.6:1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio.\n\nIn objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side.\n", "The term is most commonly used with reference to:\n* Graphic / image\n Image aspect ratio\n Display aspect ratio: the aspect ratio for computer displays.\n Paper size\n Standard photographic print sizes\n Motion picture film formats\n Standard ad size\n Pixel aspect ratio\n Photolithography: the aspect ratio of an etched, or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width.\n*** HARMST High Aspect Ratios allow the construction of tall structures without slant\n* Tire code\n* Tire sizing\n* Wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird\n* Astigmatism of an optical lens\n* Nanorod dimensions\n* Shape factor (image analysis and microscopy)\n", "\n===Rectangles===\n\nFor a rectangle, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle. A square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 1:1.\n\nExamples:\n* 4:3 = 1.: Some (not all) 20th century computer monitors (VGA, XGA, etc.), standard-definition television\n* √2:1 = 1.414…: International paper sizes (ISO 216)\n* 3:2 = 1.5: 35mm still camera film, iPhone (until iPhone 5) displays\n* 16:10 = 1.6 (not shown above): Commonly used widescreen computer displays (WXGA)\n* Φ:1 = 1.618…: Golden ratio, close to 16:10\n* 5:3 = 1.: Super 16 mm, a standard film gauge in many European countries\n* 16:9 = 1.: Widescreen TV\n* 2:1 = 2: dominoes\n\n===Ellipses===\nFor an ellipse, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis. An ellipse with an aspect ratio of 1:1 is a circle.\n500px\n", "\nIn geometry, there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a d-dimensional space:\n\n* The Diameter-Width Aspect Ratio (DWAR) of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1. A square has a DWAR of sqrt(2). \n* The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio (CVAR) of a compact set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube, to the set's own d-volume. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1. A circle has a CVAR of sqrt(2). An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt(W^2/WH) = sqrt(W/H).\n\nIf the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors.\n", "Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as ''x'':''y'' (pronounced \"x-to-y\").\n\nCinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the ''Display'' Aspect Ratio (the image as displayed) and the ''Storage'' Aspect Ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.\n", "* Ratio\n* Equidimensional ratios in 3D\n* List of film formats\n* Squeeze mapping\n* Vertical orientation\n", "\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Applications and uses", "Aspect ratios of simple shapes", "Aspect ratios of general shapes", "Notations", "See also", " References" ]	Aspect ratio
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Auto racing''' (also known as '''car racing''', '''motor racing''', or '''automobile racing''') is a sport involving the racing of automobiles for competition.\n\nAlmost as soon as automobiles had been invented, races of various sorts were organised, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for competing makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s specialist racing cars had developed.\n \nThere are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations.\n", "\n\nThe first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, a distance of eight miles. It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton.\n\nInternal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication ''Le Vélocipède'', Monsieur Fossier. It ran from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne.\n\nAlbert Lemaître classified first in his Peugeot Type 5 3hp in the Paris–Rouen.\n\nOn July 22, 1894, the Parisian magazine ''Le Petit Journal'' organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee.\n\nThe first American automobile race is generally held to be the Thanksgiving Day ''Chicago Times-Herald'' race of November 28, 1895. Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile.\n\nMors in Paris-Madrid 1903\n\nWith auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe.\n\nA remaining section of the Brooklands track in 2007\nBrooklands, in Surrey, was the first purpose-built motor racing venue, opening in June 1907. It featured a concrete track with high-speed banked corners.\n\nOne of the oldest existing purpose-built automobile racing circuits in the United States, still in use, is the 2.5-mile (4.02 km)-long Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators.\n\nNASCAR was founded by Bill France, Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers of the time. The first NASCAR \"Strictly Stock\" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida.\n\nFrom 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the FIA replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers.\n\nFrom 1972 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 48 to 31 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's \"modern era\".\n\nThe IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1999. The European races eventually became the closely related Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs.\n", "===Open-wheel racing===\n\nGiedo van der Garde driving the Caterham CT03 at Sepang International Circuit\n\nThe two most popular varieties of open wheel racing are Formula One and the IndyCar Series.\n\nFormula One is a European-based series that runs only street and road courses. These cars are very technologically advanced, and are very fast through turns. These cars can go 375 kph (233 mph). Some of the famous races they run are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors.\n\nIn single-seater (open-wheel), the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as \"Formula\", with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the \"Formula\" terminology is not followed (with the exception of F1). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as F1), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford).\n\nTony Kanaan during 2007 Indy 500 practice\n\nIn the Americas, the most popular series is the National Championship, more commonly known as the IndyCar Series and previously known as CART). The cars have traditionally been similar though less technologically sophisticated than F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, being able to average a lap at 388 kph (241 mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as \"The Greatest Spectacle in Racing\" due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+).\n\nFormula Three car racing at the Hockenheimring, 2008\n\nThe other major international single-seater racing series is GP2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and Formula Two). Regional series include Formula Nippon and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford.\n\nSingle-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (Formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters for a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3).\n\nThere are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer F1. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series.\n\n The full electric Formula Student/Formula SAE car of the Eindhoven University of Technology\n\nStudents at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering.\n\nThe world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca.\n\nRacing Drivers View.\nIn December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C.\n\nAfter 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship.\n\n\n\n===Touring car racing===\n\n\n\n2012 WTCC Race of Japan\nTouring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived race cars. It often features full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids.\n\nThe major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), and the World Touring Car Championship. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships.\n\nThe Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits.\n\n\n\n===Sports car racing===\n\n\n\nFIA GT1 at Silverstone in 2011\n\nIn sports car racing, production-derived versions of sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the FIA GT1 World Championship. There is also the FIA GT3 European Championship as well as the less powerful GT4 European Cup. Previously, an intermediate FIA GT2 European Championship existed, but the FIA dropped it to cut costs. Other major GT championships include the Japanese Super GT championship and the International GT Open for GT2 and GT3 cars. There are also national GT championships using mainly GT3 and GT4 cars featuring professional and amateur drivers alike.\n\nThe Audi R18, a Le Mans Prototype car, during an endurance race\nSports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight and more down force compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMP1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars.\n\nAnother prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014.\n\nThese races are often conducted over long distances, at least , and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for their own championship.\n\nFamous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the infamous Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers.\n\n\n\n===Production-car racing===\n\n\n\nProduction-car racing, otherwise known as \"showroom stock\" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars.\n\nMost series follow the Group N regulation with a few exceptions. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States.\n\n\n\n===One-make racing===\n\n\n\nOne-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which – such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC – have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as \"feeder\" series for \"senior\" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams).\n\n\n\n===Stock car racing===\n\n\nIn North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing. Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and also called Silhouette racing cars.\nNASCAR green flag start at Daytona International Speedway for the 2015 Daytona 500.\nThe largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the Monster Energy Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Camping World Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. The NASCAR Pinty's Series conducts races across Canada and the NASCAR PEAK Mexico Series conducts races across Mexico.\n\nNASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a \"manufacturer's\" logo and \"vehicle name\", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer.\nAn ASA Late Model Series stock car on an asphalt track.\nThere are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA).\n\nIn the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as \"Short Circuit Racing\". This takes place on shale or tarmac tracks – usually around 1/4 mile long. The governing bodies for the sport are the Oval Racing Council (ORC) and BriSCA. Both bodies are made up of individual stadium promoters. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions – distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship is the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars. Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers and Rookie Bangers – and racing features Demolitions Derbies, Figure of Eight racing and Oval Racing.\n\nSemi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2 and Superstox – where bumpers are used tactically.\n\nNon-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods and Lightning Rods.\n\nUK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s.\n\n\n\n===Rallying===\n\n\n\nAndreas Mikkelsen driving a VW Polo R WRC during the 2013 Rally de Portugal\n\nRallying at international and most national championship levels involves two classes of homologated road-legal production-based cars; Group N production cars and more modified Group A cars. Cars compete on closed public roads or off-road areas on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers \"rally\" to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of \"special stages\" on any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand at reduced speeds compiling detailed shorthand descriptions of the track or road as they go. These detailed descriptions are known as pace notes. During the actual rally, the co-driver reads the pace notes aloud (using an in-helmet intercom system) to the driver, enabling them to complete each stage as quickly as possible. Competition is based on lowest total elapsed time over the course of an event's special stages, including penalties.\n\nThe top series is the World Rally Championship (WRC), first contested in 1973, but there are also regional championships, and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the Monte Carlo Rally, Rally Argentina, Rally Finland and Rally GB. Another famous event (actually best described as a rally raid) is the Paris-Dakar Rally, conceived in 1978. There are also many smaller, club level, categories of rallies, which are popular with amateurs, making up the \"grass roots\" of motor sports. Cars at this level may not comply fully with the requirements of group A or group N homologation.\nOther major rally events include the British Rally Championship, Intercontinental Rally Challenge, African Rally Championship, Asia-Pacific Rally Championship and endurance rally events like the Dakar Rally.\n\n\"Der Panzerwagen\" at the 2010 Targa Tasmania\nThe Targa Tasmania, held on the Australian island state of Tasmania and run annually since 1992, takes its name from the Targa Florio, a former motoring event held on the island of Sicily. The competition concept is drawn directly from the best features of the Mille Miglia, the Coupe des Alpes and the Tour de Corse. Similarly named events around the world include the Targa Newfoundland based in Canada, Targa West based in Western Australia, Targa New Zealand and other smaller events.\n\n\n\n===Drag racing===\n\n\n\ndragster in Tarlton, South Africa\n\nIn drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally ¼ mile (400 m), though ⅛ mile (200 m) has become popular since the 1990s. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the ¼ mile in 12 to 16 seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5 seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to . Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the NHRA (National Hot Rod Association). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing.\n\nWhen launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33 m/s²), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g (39 m/s²), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale.\n\n\nDrag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index \"break out\" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in.\n\n\n\n===Off-road racing===\n\n\n\nRod Hall in a Hummer H3 during a Best in the Desert race\n\nIn off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Speed Energy Formula Off-Road series.\n\nIn Europe, \"offroad\" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European \"bajas\" are called \"cross-country rallies.\"\n\n\n\n===Kart racing===\nA sprint kart race in Atwater California hosted by the International Karting Federation\n\n\nThe modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the legendary Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100 lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.\n\nDespite their diminutive size, karting's most powerful class, superkart, can have a power-to-weight ratio of 440 hp/tonne.\n\n\n\n===Historical racing===\nMazda Raceway Laguna Seca, Monterey, 2008\n\n\nAs modern motor racing is centered on modern technology with a lots of corporate sponsors and politics involved, historical racing tends to be the opposite. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship and politics. Events are regulated to only allow cars of a certain era to participate. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines.\nNotably some of the most famous events of them all are the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from \"grass root\" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis.\n\nWhile there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach.\n\n===Other categories===\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\nIn many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted.\n\n\n\n Flag \n Displayed from start tower\n Displayed from observation post\n\nGreen flag\nThe session has started or resumed after a full course caution or stop.\nEnd of hazardous section of track.\n\nYellow flag\nFull course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' (Safety car) will be used as the field follows the pace/safety car on track and no cars may pass.\nLocal caution condition —no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed. When Stationary indicates hazard off-course, when Waving indicates hazard on-course.\n\nYellow flag with red stripes\nDebris, fluid, or other hazard on the track surface.\nDebris, fluid, or other hazard on the track surface.\n\nBlack flag\nThe car with the indicated number must pit for consultation.\nThe session is halted, all cars on course must return to pit lane. May also be seen combined with a green flag to indicate oil on track, typically referred to as a 'pickle' flag combination.\n\nMeatball flag\nThe car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble and must pit.\n\n\nBlack and white flag\nThe driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour.\n\n\nWhite cross flag\nThe driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits.\n\n\nBlue flag with yellow stripe\nThe car should give way to faster traffic. Depending on the series this may be a command or merely advisory.\nA car is being advised to give way to faster traffic approaching.\n\nRed flag\nThe session is stopped. All cars must halt on the track or return to pit lane.\n\n\nWhite flag\nDepending on the series, either one lap remains or a slow vehicle is on the track.\nA slow vehicle is on the track.\n\nChequered flag\nThe session has concluded.\n\n\n", "\nFor the worst accident in racing history see 1955 Le Mans disaster.\n", "\n\n\nIn auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others.\n\n===Aerodynamics===\nAerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a racecar. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car’s handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire. Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car. These “Rolling roads” produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles. When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted. Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicles handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed.\n\n===Suspension===\nSuspension plays a huge part in giving the racecar the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks.\n\n===Tires===\nTires called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most amount of traction. These types of tires do not have treads on them. Tire pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tire and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tire pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tires get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure. When the tires are not warmed up they will not perform as well.\n\n===Brakes===\nBrakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration. Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure. Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes.\n\n===Engine===\nThe race car’s engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing sanctioning bodies. Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer that is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled on an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most amount of horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle.\n", "\nRacing drivers at the highest levels are usually paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command very substantial salaries.\n\nContrary to what may be popularly assumed, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually good reflexes. During countless physiological (and psychological) evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings (the psychological aspect), and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information (physiological). In this, researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers' psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racers to members of the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between racers and the public. Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. Racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar, shoulder and neck regions.\n\nIn particular, racing cars such as formula cars and sports prototypes that generate a substantial amount of downforce are able to corner at speeds that impose extremely large g-forces on drivers. Formula 1 drivers routinely experience g-loadings in excess of 4.5 g.\n", "\n\n* Outline of auto racing\n* List of auto racing tracks\n* Motorcycle racing\n* Race track\n* Racing video game\n", "\n", "\n; Sanctioning bodies\n* Motor Sports Association (MSA UK)\n* American Le Mans Series (ALMS)\n* Indy Racing League (IRL)\n* World Rally Championship (WRC)\n* Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)\n* Grand American Road Racing Association\n* International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)\n* International Motor Sports Association (IMSA)\n* National Auto Sport Association\n* National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)\n* National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)\n* SCORE International Off-Road Racing\n* Sports Car Club of America (SCCA)\n* United States Auto Club (USAC)\n* Formula One (F1)\n* Confederation of Australian Motorsport (CAMS)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "History", "Categories", "Use of flags", "Accidents", "Racing-car setup", "Racing driver", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Auto racing
[ "\n\n\n\n\n", "48 BC – Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.\n 378 – Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army.\n1173 – Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete.\n1329 – Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop.\n1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.\n1610 – The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia.\n1810 – Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire.\n1814 – Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia.\n1830 – Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X. \n1842 – The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.\n1854 – Henry David Thoreau publishes ''Walden''.\n1862 – American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope.\n1877 – Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army\n1892 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph.\n1896 – Glider pioneer Otto Lilienthal dies in a fatal crash.\n1902 – Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.\n1907 – The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England.\n1914 – Start of the Battle of Mulhouse, part of a French attempt to recover the province of Alsace and the first French offensive of World War I.\n1925 – A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India\n1930 – Betty Boop makes her cartoon debut in ''Dizzy Dishes''.\n1936 – Summer Olympic Games: Games of the XI Olympiad: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games.\n1942 – World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force.\n1944 – The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time.\n 1944 – Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war.\n1945 – World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, ''Fat Man'', is dropped by the United States B-29 ''Bockscar''. Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200-28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.\n 1945 – The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria.\n1960 – South Kasai secedes from the Congo.\n1965 – Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly.\n1969 – Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent.\n1971 – The Troubles: The British Army in Northern Ireland launches Operation Demetrius. Hundreds of people are arrested and interned, thousands are displaced, and twenty are killed in the violence that followed.\n1973 – Mars 7 is launched from the USSR.\n1974 – As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. His Vice President, Gerald Ford, becomes president.\n1991 – The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government’s case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial.\n1993 – The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.\n1999 – Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.\n2006 – At least 21 suspected terrorists were arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests were made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation.\n2013 – Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30.\n2014 – Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, was shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city.\n", "1201 – Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274)\n1537 – Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604)\n1544 – Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606)\n1590 – John Webster, Colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661)\n1593 – Izaak Walton, English writer (d. 1683)\n1603 – Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669)\n1631 – John Dryden, English poet, playwright, and critic (d. 1700)\n1648 – Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694)\n1653 – John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683)\n1674 – František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect, designed the Veltrusy Mansion (d. 1766)\n1696 – Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772)\n1722 – Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758)\n1726 – Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778)\n1757 – Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854)\n* 1757 – Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834)\n1776 – Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856)\n1783 – Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801)\n1788 – Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850)\n1797 – Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855)\n1805 – Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860)\n1845 – André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937)\n1847 – Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876)\n1861 – Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942)\n1867 – Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920)\n1872 – Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962)\n1874 – Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947)\n1875 – Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959)\n1878 – Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976)\n1879 – John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956)\n1881 – Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918)\n1890 – Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958)\n1896 – Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980)\n 1896 – Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)\n1899 – P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996)\n1901 – Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990)\n1902 – Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991)\n 1902 – Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984)\n1909 – Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992)\n 1909 – Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944)\n1911 – William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996)\n 1911 – Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001)\n* 1911 – John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984)\n1913 – Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007) \n1914 – Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963)\n* 1914 – Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001)\n* 1914 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990)\n1915 – Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998)\n1918 – Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989)\n* 1918 – Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966)\n* 1918 – Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013)\n1919 – Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)\n 1919 – Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)\n1920 – Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007)\n1921 – Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author\n* 1921 – J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005)\n1922 – Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985)\n1924 – Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012)\n* 1924 – Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013)\n1925 – David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999)\n1926 – Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001)\n1927 – Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014)\n 1927 – Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978)\n1928 – Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach\n 1928 – Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator\n* 1928 – Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010)\n1929 – Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979)\n1930 – Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013)\n* 1930 – Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015)\n1931 – Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer\n 1931 – James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach\n1932 – Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017)\n 1932 – John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist\n1933 – Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author\n1935 – Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008)\n1936 – Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player\n 1936 – Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1938 – Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine\n 1938 – Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach\n* 1938 – Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager\n1939 – Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer\n 1939 – Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997)\n* 1939 – The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014)\n* 1939 – Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007)\n* 1939 – Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter\n* 1939 – Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy\n* 1939 – Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013)\n1940 – Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic\n1942 – Tommie Agee, American baseball player (d. 2001)\n* 1942 – Jack DeJohnette, American drummer, pianist, and composer\n* 1942 – David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n1943 – Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013)\n1944 – George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000)\n* 1944 – Patrick Depailler, French race car driver (d. 1980)\n* 1944 – Sam Elliott, American actor and producer\n* 1944 – Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author \n* 1944 – John Simpson, English journalist and author\n1945 – Barbara Delinsky, American author\n 1945 – Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012)\n* 1945 – Zurab Sakandelidze, Georgian basketball player (d. 2004)\n* 1945 – Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator\n1946 – Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player (Golden Earring) \n 1946 – Jim Kiick, American football player\n1947 – Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager\n 1947 – Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter\n* 1947 – John Varley, American author\n1948 – Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach\n1949 – Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author\n* 1949 – Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach\n1951 – James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host\n 1951 – Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager\n1952 – Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician\n1953 – Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater\n* 1953 – Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate\n* 1953 – Roberta Tovey, English actress and singer\n1954 – Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach\n 1954 – Pete Thomas, English drummer \n1955 – John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician\n1957 – Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer\n1958 – Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director\n 1958 – James Lileks, American journalist and blogger\n* 1958 – Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic\n1959 – Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor\n 1959 – Michael Kors, American fashion designer \n1961 – Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster\n 1961 – John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand\n1962 – Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host\n 1962 – Kevin Mack, American football player\n* 1962 – John \"Hot Rod\" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015)\n1963 – Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012)\n 1963 – Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n* 1963 – Barton Lynch, Australian surfer\n1964 – Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager\n 1964 – Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality \n1966 – Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach\n 1966 – Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author\n1967 – Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player\n1968 – Gillian Anderson, American actress and director\n* 1968 – Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1968 – Sam Fogarino, American drummer\n* 1968 – McG, American director and producer\n1969 – Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach\n1970 – Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n* 1970 – Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist\n1973 – Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager\n 1973 – Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director\n* 1973 – Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator \n1974 – Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach\n 1974 – Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter\n* 1974 – Matt Morris, American baseball player\n* 1974 – Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician\n* 1974 – Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete\n1975 – Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer\n 1975 – Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee\n* 1975 – Mike Lamb, American baseball player\n* 1975 – Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player\n1976 – Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer\n 1976 – Audrey Tautou, French model and actress\n* 1976 – Jessica Capshaw, American actress\n1977 – Jason Frasor, American baseball player\n 1977 – Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player\n* 1977 – Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee\n* 1977 – Adewale Ogunleye, American football player\n* 1977 – Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach\n* 1977 – Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer\n1978 – Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău\n 1978 – Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer\n1979 – Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player\n 1979 – Lisa Nandy, English lawyer and politician\n* 1979 – Tony Stewart, American football player\n1981 – Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player\n 1981 – Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player\n1982 – Joel Anthony, American basketball player\n 1982 – Tyson Gay, American sprinter\n* 1982 – Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist \n* 1982 – Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belorussian cyclist\n1983 – Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player\n 1983 – Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist\n1984 – Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer\n1985 – Luca Filippi, Italian race car driver\n* 1985 – Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer\n* 1985 – Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer\n* 1985 – JaMarcus Russell, American football player\n* 1985 – Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013)\n1986 – Michael Lerchl, German footballer\n 1986 – Daniel Preussner, German rugby player\n* 1986 – Tyler \"Telle\" Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player \n1987 – Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter\n1988 – Anthony Castonzo, American football player\n1988 – Willian, Brazilian footballer\n 1988 – Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer\n1989 – Jason Heyward, American baseball player\n 1989 – Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer\n* 1989 – Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model\n1990 – İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer\n 1990 – Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player \n* 1990 – Brice Roger, French skier\n* 1990 – Sarah McBride, American LGBT Activist\n1991 – Alice Barlow, English actress \n 1991 – Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler\n* 1991 – Young Thug, American rapper\n1999 – Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater\n\n", " 378 – Traianus, Roman general\n* 378 – Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328)\n* 803 – Irene of Athens (b. 752)\n* 833 – Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786)\n1048 – Pope Damasus II\n1107 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)\n1173 – Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician\n1211 – William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53)\n1260 – Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham\n1296 – Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader\n1341 – Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289)\n1354 – Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)\n1420 – Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)\n1492 – Beatrice of Silva, Dominican nun\n1516 – Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450)\n1534 – Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470)\n1580 – Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520)\n1601 – Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558)\n1634 – William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577)\n1720 – Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678)\n1744 – James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673)\n1816 – Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771)\n1861 – Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781)\n1886 – Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810)\n1910 – Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868)\n1919 – Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857)\n1920 – Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845)\n1932 – John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863)\n1942 – Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891)\n1943 – Chaim Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893)\n1945 – Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917)\n 1945 – Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881)\n1946 – Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876)\n1948 – Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885)\n1949 – Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874)\n1957 – Carl Clauberg, German physician (b. 1898)\n1962 – Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)\n1963 – Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963) \n1967 – Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933)\n1969 – Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936)\n* 1969 – Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943)\n* 1969 – C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)\n1972 – Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897)\n1974 – Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934)\n1975 – Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906)\n1978 – James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)\n1979 – Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903)\n 1979 – Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953)\n1980 – Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906)\n1981 – Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904)\n1985 – Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927)\n1988 – Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer and poet (b. 1905)\n1990 – Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914)\n1992 – Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938)\n1995 – Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942)\n1996 – Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907)\n1999 – Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910)\n2000 – John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)\n* 2000 – Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984)\n2002 – Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953)\n2003 – Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929)\n* 2003 – Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945)\n* 2003 – Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946)\n* 2003 – R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931)\n2004 – Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908)\n 2004 – Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918)\n* 2004 – David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912)\n2005 – Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935)\n2006 – Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914)\n* 2006 – James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914)\n2007 – Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922)\n2008 – Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957)\n* 2008 – Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941)\n2010 – Calvin \"Fuzz\" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926)\n 2010 – Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)\n2012 – Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934)\n 2012 – Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964)\n* 2012 – Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928)\n2013 – Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923)\n 2013 – Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923)\n* 2013 – William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947)\n2014 – J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929)\n 2014 – Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958)\n* 2014 – Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928)\n2015 – Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930)\n 2015 – John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929)\n* 2015 – Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977)\n* 2015 – David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935)\n* 2015 – Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915)\n* 2015 – Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926)\n\n", "Christian feast day:\nCandida Maria of Jesus\nEdith Stein\nFirmus and Rusticus\nHerman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA))\nJohn Vianney (1950s - currently August 4)\nMary Sumner (Church of England)\nNath Í of Achonry\nRomanus Ostiarius\nSecundian, Marcellian and Verian\nAugust 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)\nBattle of Gangut Day (Russia)\nInternational Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations)\nNational Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965.\nNational Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada)\nNational Women's Day (South Africa)\nRemembrance for Radbod, King of the Frisians (The Troth)\n National Book Lovers Day (United States)\n", "\n* BBC: On This Day\n* \n* Today in Canadian History\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Events", "Births", "Deaths", "Holidays and observances", "External links" ]	August 9
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Aristophanes''' ( or ; , ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Kydathenaion (), was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and are used to define it.\n\nAlso known as ''the Father of Comedy'' and ''the Prince of Ancient Comedy'', Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play ''The Clouds'' as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher.\n\nHis second play, ''The Babylonians'' (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially ''The Knights'', the first of many plays that he directed himself. \"In my opinion,\" he says through the Chorus in that play, \"the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all.\" ()\n", "Theatre of Dionysus, Athens — in Aristophanes' time, the audience probably sat on wooden benches with earth foundations.\nLess is known about Aristophanes than about his plays. In fact, his plays are the main source of information about him and his life. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the Chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the 'parabasis' and thus some biographical facts can be found there. However, these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic ''poet'' in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of 'teacher' (didaskalos), and though this specifically referred to his training of the Chorus in rehearsal, it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues.\n\nAristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience, yet he also declared that 'other times' would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays. He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once begrudgingly acknowledged), in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions.\n\nIt has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions. His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five in number. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences. The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10 000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a 'satyr' play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience.\n\nThe production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a ''choregus'', a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed in ''The Knights'' that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon. Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays.\n\nWhen Aristophanes' first play ''The Banqueters'' was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon) yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece. Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period — the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play, ''Wealth II'', it more closely resembles New Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations.\n\nAristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play ''The Banqueters'' (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, ''The Babylonians'' (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, and ''The Babylonians'' caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Delian League as slaves grinding at a mill. Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the ''polis'' and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play ''The Acharnians'' (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the ''polis'' and the real targets of his acerbic wit:\n\n\nAristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career — a few weeks after the performance of ''The Knights'' - a play full of anti-Cleon jokes - Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals. Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death.\n\nIn the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know however from a combination of these sources, and especially from comments in ''The Knights'' and ''The Clouds'', that Aristophanes' first three plays were not directed by him — they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides, an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed ''The Frogs'' and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing ''The Wasps''.) Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus for example a statement by the chorus in ''The Acharnians'' seems to indicate that the 'poet' had a close, personal association with the island of Aegina, yet the terms 'poet' (''poietes'') and 'director' (''didaskalos'') are often interchangeable as dramatic poets usually directed their own plays and therefore the reference in the play could be either to Aristophanes or Callistratus. Similarly, the hero in ''The Acharnians'' complains about Cleon \"dragging me into court\" over \"last year's play\" but here again it is not clear if this was said in reference to Aristophanes or Callistratus, either of whom might have been prosecuted by Cleon.\n\nComments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes in ''The Clouds'' have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play ''The Banqueters'' was produced. The second parabasis in ''Wasps'' appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over ''The Babylonians'' or a subsequent controversy over ''The Knights''. It has been inferred from statements in ''The Clouds'' and ''Peace'' that Aristophanes was prematurely bald.\n\nWe know that Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia (with ''Babylonians'' in 427) and at least three times at the Lenaia, with ''Acharnians'' in 425, ''Knights'' in 424, and ''Frogs'' in 405. ''Frogs'' in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. We know that a son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play ''Wealth II'' in 388. Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays ''Aeolosicon II'' and ''Cocalus'', and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387. It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia and he could have directed some of Eubulus’ comedies. A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus, and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s.\n\nPlato's ''The Symposium'' appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt. It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance of ''The Clouds'', the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests, Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, ''reputedly'' written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces). Plato was only a boy when the events in ''The Symposium'' are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccoughs and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous. This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in ''The Knights'' that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred.\n\nAristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics despite his highly political plays. He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens. Socrates, in the trial leading up to his own death, put the issue of a personal conscience in those troubled times quite succinctly:\n:\n:\"...he who will really fight for the right, if he would live even for a little while, must have a private station and not a public one.\n\n===Poetry===\nMuse reading, Louvre\nThe language of Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer. A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the 4th and 5th centuries AD, resulting in their survival today. In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities.\n\nFor Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire. Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus, but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g. ''The Frogs''. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics. He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties.\n\nA full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations. There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics:\n\n* '''Iambic dialogue''': Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the metre makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. ''The Acharnians'' opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters):\n\n::How many are the things that vex my heart!\n::Pleasures are few, so very few — just four -\n::But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps!\n\n:Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax. The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them (, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them (, literally 'sandhundredheaps', here paraphrased 'manysandthousandsandheaps'). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays.\n\n* '''Tetrameter catalectic verses''': These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in four ''dipodes'' or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as:\n formal debates or ''agons'' between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm);\n excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy);\n long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in parabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms);\n informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic).\n:Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic metre is suited to rapid delivery (the word 'trochee' is in fact derived from ''trechein'', 'to run', as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood) However, even though both these rhythms can seem to 'bowl along' Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted metres, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in ''The Frogs'', for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus:\n\n::'''AES.''':It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill,\n::And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination.\n::If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike\n::Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know,\n::Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. '''DIO.''': But no-one taught Pantocles — yesterday\n::He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off!\n\nThe rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke.\n\n* '''Lyrics''': Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the metre is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics. Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action In the example below, taken from ''The Wasps'', the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling.\n\nThough to myself I often seem\n:A bright chap and not awkward,\nNone comes close to Amynias,\n:Son of Sellos of the Bigwig\nClan, a man I once saw\n:Dine with rich Leogorus.\nNow as poor as Antiphon,\n:He lives on apples and pomegranates\nYet he got himself appointed\n:Ambassador to Pharsalus,\nWay up there in Thessaly,\n:Home of the poor Penestes:\nHappy to be where everyone\n:Is as penniless as he is!\n\n:The pun here in English translation (''Penestes''-''penniless'') is a weak version of the Greek pun , ''Penéstaisi-penéstĕs'', \"destitute\". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify. Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as in ''The Acharnians'' with the Megarian farmer and his pigs: the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except \"pig\" was ancient slang for \"vagina\". Since the embargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of \"three cunts\".\n\nIt can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions. In 'The Knights', for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close. In ''The Frogs'', Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit. Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in ''The Birds'' and the 'recreation' of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end of ''The Knights''.\n\n===Rhetoric===\nIt is widely believed that Aristophanes condemned rhetoric on both moral and political grounds. He states, “a speaker trained in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness”\n. He is speaking to the “art” of flattery, and evidence points towards the fact that many of Aristophanes’ plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of rhetoric. The most noticeable attack can be seen in his play Banqueters, in which two brothers from different educational backgrounds argue over which education is better. One brother comes from a background of “old-fashioned” education while the other brother appears to be a product of the sophistic education \n.\n \nThe chorus was mainly used by Aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings. In Aristophanes’ opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from the deception and to stand as a beacon of light for those who were more gullible than others. One of the main reasons why Aristophanes was so against the sophists came into existence from the requirements listed by the leaders of the organization. Money was essential, which meant that roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upper-class backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis. Aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination. He concludes that all politicians that study rhetoric must have \"doubtful citizenships, unspeakable morals, and too much arrogance”\n.\n", "Thalia, muse of comedy, gazing upon a comic mask (detail from ''Muses' Sarcophagus'')\nThe Greek word for comedy (''kōmōidía'') derives from the words for 'revel' and 'song' (''kōmos'' and ''ōdē'') and according to Aristotle comic drama actually developed from song. The first official comedy at the City Dionysia was not staged until 487/6 BC, by which time tragedy had already been long established there. The first comedy at the Lenaia was staged later still, only about 20 years before the performance there of ''The Acharnians'', the first of Aristophanes' surviving plays. According to Aristotle, comedy was slow to gain official acceptance because nobody took it seriously, yet only sixty years after comedy first appeared at the City Dionysia, Aristophanes observed that producing comedies was the most difficult work of all. Competition at the Dionysian festivals needed dramatic conventions for plays to be judged, but it also fuelled innovations. Developments were quite rapid and Aristotle could distinguish between 'old' and 'new' comedy by 330 BC.\n\nThe trend from Old Comedy to New Comedy saw a move away from highly topical concerns with real individuals and local issues towards generalized situations and stock characters. This was partly due to the internationalization of cultural perspectives during and after the Peloponnesian War. For ancient commentators such as Plutarch, New Comedy was a more sophisticated form of drama than Old Comedy. However, Old Comedy was in fact a complex and sophisticated dramatic form incorporating many approaches to humour and entertainment. In Aristophanes' early plays, the genre appears to have developed around a complex set of dramatic conventions, and these were only gradually simplified and abandoned.\n\nThe City Dionysia and the Lenaia were celebrated in honour of Dionysus, the god of wine and ecstasy. (Euripides' play ''The Bacchae'' offers the best insight into 5th century ideas about this god.) Old Comedy can be understood as a celebration of the exuberant sense of release inherent in his worship It was more interested in finding targets for satire than in any kind of advocacy. During the City Dionysia, a statue of the god was brought to the theatre from a temple outside the city, and it remained in the theatre throughout the festival, overseeing the plays like a privileged member of the audience. In ''The Frogs'', the god appears also as a dramatic character, and he enters the theatre ludicrously disguised as Hercules. He observes to the audience that every time he is on hand to hear a joke from a comic dramatist like Phrynichus (one of Aristophanes' rivals) he ages by more than a year. This scene opens the play, and it is a reminder to the audience that nobody is above mockery in Old Comedy — not even its patron god and its practitioners. Gods, artists, politicians and ordinary citizens were legitimate targets, comedy was a kind of licensed buffoonery, and there was no legal redress for anyone who was slandered in a play. There were certain limits to the scope of the satire, but they are not easily defined. Impiety could be punished in 5th century Athens, but the absurdities implicit in the traditional religion were open to ridicule. The polis was not allowed to be slandered, but as stated in the biography section of this article, that could depend on who was in the audience and which festival was involved.\n\nFor convenience, Old Comedy, as represented by Aristophanes' early plays, is analysed below in terms of three broad characteristics — topicality, festivity and complexity. Dramatic structure contributes to the complexity of Aristophanes' plays. However, it is associated with poetic rhythms and meters that have little relevance to English translations and it is therefore treated in a separate section.\n\n===Topicality===\n\nOld Comedy's emphasis on real personalities and local issues makes the plays difficult to appreciate today without the aid of scholarly commentaries — see for example articles on ''The Knights'', ''The Wasps'' and ''Peace'' for lists of topical references. The topicality of the plays had unique consequences for both the writing and the production of the plays in ancient Athens.\n\n* '''Individual masks''': All actors in classical Athens wore masks, but whereas in tragedy and New Comedy these identified stereotypical characters, in Old Comedy the masks were often caricatures of real people. Perhaps Socrates attracted a lot of attention in Old Comedy because his face lent itself easily to caricature by mask-makers. In ''The Knights'' we are told that the mask makers were too afraid to make a caricature of Cleon (there represented as a Paphlagonian slave) but we are assured that the audience is clever enough to identify him anyway.\n* '''The real scene of action''': Since Old Comedy makes numerous references to people in the audience, the theatre itself was the real scene of action and theatrical illusion was treated as something of a joke. In ''The Acharnians'', for example, The Pnyx is just a few steps from the hero's front door, and in ''Peace'' Olympus is separated from Athens by a few moments' supposed flight on a dung beetle. The audience is sometimes drawn or even dragged into the action. When the hero in ''Peace'' returns to Athens from his flight to Olympus, he tells the audience that they looked like rascals when seen from the heavens, and seen up close they look even worse. In ''The Acharnians'' the hero confronts the archon basileus, sitting in the front row, and demands to be awarded first prize for a drinking competition, which is a none too subtle way for Aristophanes to request first prize for the drama competition.\n* '''Self-mocking theatre''': Frequent parodying of tragedy is an aspect of Old Comedy that modern audiences find difficult to understand. But the Lenaia and City Dionysia included performances of both comedies and tragedies, and thus references to tragedy were highly topical and immediately relevant to the original audience. The comic dramatist also poked fun at comic poets and he even ridiculed himself. It is possible, as indicated earlier, that Aristophanes mocked his own baldness. In ''The Clouds'', the Chorus compares him to an unwed, young mother and in ''The Acharnians'' the Chorus mockingly depicts him as Athens' greatest weapon in the war against Sparta.\n* '''Political theatre''': The Lenaia and City Dionysia were state-sponsored, religious festivals, and though the latter was the more prestigious of the two, both were occasions for official pomp and circumstance. The ceremonies for the Lenaia were overseen by the archon basileus and by officials of the Eleusinian mysteries. The City Dionysia was overseen by the archon eponymous and the priest of Dionysus. Opening ceremonies for the City Dionysia featured, in addition to the ceremonial arrival of the god, a parade in full armour of the sons of warriors who died fighting for the polis and, until the end of the Peloponnesian War, a presentation of annual tribute from subject states. Religious and political issues were topics that could hardly be ignored in such a setting and the plays often treat them quite seriously. Even jokes can be serious when the topic is politics — especially in wartime. The butts of the most savage jokes are opportunists who prey on the gullibility of their fellow citizens, including oracle-mongers, the exponents of new religious practices, war-profiteers and political fanatics. In ''The Acharnians'', for example, Lamachus is represented as a crazed militarist whose preparations for war are hilariously compared to the hero's preparations for a dinner party. Cleon emerges from numerous similes and metaphors in ''The Knights'' as a protean form of comic evil, clinging to political power by every possible means for as long as he can, yet the play also includes simple hymns invoking Poseidon and Athena, and it ends with visions of a miraculously transformed Demos (i.e. the morally reformed citizenry of Athens). Imaginative visions of a return to peaceful activities resulting from peace with Sparta, and a plea for leniency for citizens suspected of complicity in an oligarchic revolt are other examples of a serious purpose behind the plays.\n* '''Teasing and taunting''': A festival audience presented the comic dramatist with a wide range of targets, not just political or religious ones — anyone known to the audience could be mocked for any reason, such as diseases, physical deformities, ugliness, family misfortunes, bad manners, perversions, dishonesty, cowardice in battle, and clumsiness. Foreigners, a conspicuous presence in imperial Athens, particularly at the City Dionysia, often appear in the plays comically mispronouncing Attic words — these include Spartans (''Lysistrata''), Scythians (''Thesmophoriazusae''), Persians, Boeotians and Megarians (''The Acharnians'').\n\n===Festivity===\n\nThe Lenaia and City Dionysia were religious festivals, but they resembled a gala rather than a church service.\n\n* '''Dirty jokes''': A relaxation in standards of behaviour was permitted and the holiday spirit included bawdy irreverence towards both men and gods. Old Comedy is rich in obscenities and the crude jokes are often very detailed and difficult to understand without expert commentary, as when the Chorus in ''The Acharnians'' places a curse on Antimachus, a choregus accused of niggardly conduct, wishing upon him a night-time mugging as he returns home from some drunken party and envisioning him, as he stoops down to pick up a rock in the darkness, accidentally picking up a fresh turd instead. He is then envisioned hurling the turd at his attacker, missing and accidentally hitting Cratinus, a lyric poet not admired by Aristophanes. This was particularly funny because the curse was sung (or chanted) in choreographed style by a Chorus of 24 grown men who were otherwise known to the audience as respectable citizens.\n* '''The musical extravaganza''': The Chorus was vital to the success of a play in Old Comedy long after it had lost its relevance for tragedy. Technically, the competition in the dramatic festivals was not between poets but between choruses. In fact eight of Aristophanes' eleven surviving plays are named after the Chorus. In Aristophanes' time, the Chorus in tragedy was relatively small (twelve members) and its role had been reduced to that of an awkwardly placed commentator, but in Old Comedy the Chorus was large (numbering 24), it was actively involved in the plot, its entry into the action was frequently spectacular, its movements were practised with military precision and sometimes it was involved in choreographed skirmishes with the actors. The expenditure on costumes, training and maintenance of a Chorus was considerable, and perhaps many people in the original audience enjoyed comedy mainly for the spectacle and music. The chorus gradually lost its significance as New Comedy began to develop.\n* '''Obvious costumes''': Consistent with the holiday spirit, much of the humour in Old Comedy is slapstick buffoonery and dirty jokes that do not require the audience's careful attention, often relying on visual cues. Actors playing male roles appear to have worn tights over grotesque padding, with a prodigious, leather phallus barely concealed by a short tunic. Female characters were played by men but were easily recognized in long, saffron tunics. Sometimes the visual cues are deliberately confused for comic effect, as in ''The Frogs'', where Dionysus arrives on stage in a saffron tunic, the buskin boots of a tragic actor and a lion skin cloak that usually characterized Heracles - an absurd outfit that provokes the character Heracles (as no doubt it provoked the audience) to guffaws of helpless mirth.\n* '''The farcical anti-climax''': The holiday spirit might also have been responsible for an aspect of the comic plot that can seem bewildering to modern audiences. The major confrontation (''agon'') between the 'good' and 'bad' characters in a play is often resolved decisively in favour of the former long before the end of the play. The rest of the play deals with farcical consequences in a succession of loosely connected scenes. The farcical anti-climax has been explained in a variety of ways, depending on the particular play. In ''The Wasps'', for instance, it has been thought to indicate a gradual change in the main character's perspective as the lessons of the agon are slowly absorbed. In ''The Acharnians'', it has been explained in terms of a unifying theme that underlies the episodes, demonstrating the practical benefits that come with wisdom. But the early release of dramatic tension is consistent with the holiday meanings in Old Comedy and it allows the audience to relax in uncomplicated enjoyment of the spectacle, the music, jokes and celebrations that characterize the remainder of the play. The celebration of the hero's victory often concludes in a sexual conquest and sometimes it takes the form of a wedding, thus providing the action with a joyous sense of closure.\n\n===Complexity===\n\nThe development of New Comedy involved a trend towards more realistic plots, a simpler dramatic structure and a softer tone. Old Comedy was the comedy of a vigorously democratic polis at the height of its power and it gave Aristophanes the freedom to explore the limits of humour, even to the point of undermining the humour itself.\n\n* '''Inclusive comedy''': Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure.\n* '''Fantasy and absurdity''': Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored. Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugène Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd). The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in ''The Frogs'' is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds — he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In ''The Knights'' for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote.\n* '''The resourceful hero''': In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's ''Works and Days'', subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation. Thus Dikaiopolis in ''The Acharnians'' contrives a ''private'' peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in ''The Wasps'' turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in ''Peace'' flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in ''Birds'' sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods.\n* '''The resourceful cast''': The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches). Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene.\n* '''Complex structure''': The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in English translations.\n\n===Dramatic structure===\n\nThe structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows:\n* '''prologue''' - an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play;\n* '''parodos''' - the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters;\n* '''symmetrical scenes''' - passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes:\n '''parabasis''' - verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below Parabasis);\n '''agon''' - a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments;\n* '''episodes''' - sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play;\n* '''songs''' ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') - often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action;\n* '''exodus''' - the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage.\nThe rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs. In ''The Acharnians'' and ''Peace'', for example, there is no formal agon whereas in ''The Clouds'' there are two agons.\n\n====Parabasis====\n\nThe parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal. The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (''The Acharnians'' to ''The Birds'') are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them.\n* '''kommation''': This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as (Go rejoicing!).\n* '''parabasis proper''': This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'.\n* '''pnigos''': Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in \"The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song\", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's ''Iolanthe'').\n* '''epirrhematic syzygies''': These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:\n ''strophe'' or ''ode'': These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.\n ''epirrhema'': These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character.\n ''antistrophe'' or ''antode'': These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function.\n ''antepirrhema''. This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function.\n\n''The Wasps'' is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows.\n\n::{\| class=\"wikitable\" style=\"margin: 1em auto 1em auto; background-color: #ffffff\"\n Elements in ''The Wasps''\n 1st parabasis\n 2nd parabasis\n\n kommation\n lines 1009-14\n ---\n\n parabasis proper\n lines 1015-50\n ---\n\n pnigos\n lines 1051-59\n ---\n\n strophe\n lines 1060-70\n lines 1265-74\n\n epirrhema\n lines 1071-90\n lines 1275-83\n\n antistrophe\n lines 1091-1101\n missing\n\n antepirrhema\n lines 1102-1121\n lines 1284-91\n\n\nTextual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis.\nHowever, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in ''The Clouds'' (lines 518-62) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (''The Clouds'' lines 1113-30). The second parabasis in ''The Acharnians'' lines 971-99 can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe) and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions.\n", "\nOld Comedy, and Menander, the master of New Comedy.\nThe tragic dramatists, Sophocles and Euripides, died near the end of the Peloponnesian War and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy did continue to evolve after the defeat of Athens and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age. Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, c.9th Century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, ''Aioliskon'', had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), while ''Kolakos'' anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene. Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in ''Clouds'' that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays. ''Clouds'' was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted. The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades), exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial. The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses — as indicated earlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government.\n\nLatin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew ''Les Plaideurs'' (1668) from ''The Wasps''. Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play ''Die Vögel'' from ''The Birds'' for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries — Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform. The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of ''The Birds'' under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes.\n\nThe plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas. The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as \"By words the mind is winged.\"\n\nListed below is a random and very tiny sample of works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes.\n\n===Drama===\n* 1909: ''Wasps'', original Greek, '''Cambridge University''' undergraduate production, music by Vaughan Williams;\n* 2004, July–October: ''The Frogs'' (musical), adapted by Nathan Lane, music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, performed at '''The Vivian Beaumont Theater''' Broadway;\n* 1962-2006: various plays by students and staff, '''Kings College London''', in the original Greek: ''Frogs'' 1962,1971,1988; ''Thesmophoriazusae'' 1965, 1974, 1985; ''Acharnians'' 1968, 1992, 2004; ''Clouds'' 1977, 1990; ''Birds'' 1982, 2000; ''Ecclesiazusae'' 2006; ''Peace'' 1970; ''Wasps'' 1981\n* 2002: ''Lysistrata'', adapted by Robert Brustein, music by Galt McDermot, performed by '''American Repertory Theatre''', Boston U.S.A.;\n* 2008, May–June: ''Frogs'', adapted by David Greenspan, music by Thomas Cabaniss, performed by '''Classic Stage Company''', New York, U.S.A.\n\n===Literature===\n* The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (''Swellfoot the Tyrrant'') in imitation of Aristophanes' play ''The Frogs'' after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy.\n* Aristophanes (particularly in reference to ''The Clouds'') is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H N Turteltaub.\n* A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by \"Agrotikes Ekdoseis\" during the 1990s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories.\n\n===Electronic media===\n* ''Acropolis Now'' is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula: ''One of Our'' e.g ''Slaves has an Enormous Knob'' (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors)\n* ''Aristophanes Against the World'' was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes.\n* ''The Wasps'', radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolten, in association with BBC, under Halle label;\n\n===Music===\n* ''Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes'' is a three-movement piece for concert band composed by Norman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of the American Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town of Concord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with the National Park Service.\n* Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote ''The Wasps'' for a 1909 Cambridge University production of the play.\n", "\n===Surviving plays===\nMost of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their ''Latin'' titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies.\n* ''The Acharnians'' ( ''Akharneis''; Attic ; '')'' 425 BC\n* ''The Knights'' ( ''Hippeis''; Attic ; Latin: '''') 424 BC\n* ''The Clouds'' ( ''Nephelai''; Latin: ''''); original 423 BC, uncompleted revised version from 419 BC – 416 BC survives\n* ''The Wasps'' ( ''Sphekes''; Latin: '''') 422 BC\n* ''Peace'' ( ''Eirene''; Latin: '''') first version, 421 BC\n* ''The Birds'' ( ''Ornithes''; Latin: '''') 414 BC\n* ''Lysistrata'' ( ''Lysistrate'') 411 BC\n* ''Thesmophoriazusae'' or ''The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria'' ( ''Thesmophoriazousai'') first version c.411 BC\n* ''The Frogs'' ( ''Batrakhoi''; Latin: '''') 405 BC\n* ''Ecclesiazusae'' or ''The Assemblywomen''; ( ''Ekklesiazousai'') c. 392 BC\n* ''Wealth'' ( ''Ploutos''; Latin ''Plutus'') second version, 388 BC\n\n===Datable non-surviving (lost) plays===\nThe standard modern edition of the fragments is Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2.\n\n\n* ''Banqueters'' (Δαιταλείς ''Daitaleis'', 427 BC)\n* ''Babylonians'' (Βαβυλώνιοι ''Babylonioi'', 426 BC)\n* ''Farmers'' (Γεωργοί ''Georgoi'', 424 BC)\n* ''Merchant Ships'' (Όλκάδες ''Holkades'', 423 BC)\n* ''Clouds'' (first version) (423 BC)\n* ''Proagon'' (Προάγων, 422 BC)\n* ''Amphiaraus'' (Αμφιάραος, 414 BC)\n* ''Plutus'' (''Wealth'', first version, 408 BC)\n* ''Gerytades'' (Γηρυτάδης, uncertain, probably 407 BC)\n* ''Cocalus'' (Κώκαλος, 387 BC)\n* ''Aiolosicon'' (Αιολοσίκων, second version, 386 BC)\n\n\n===Undated non-surviving (lost) plays===\n\n\n* ''Aiolosicon'' (first version)\n* ''Anagyrus'' (Ανάγυρος)\n* ''Frying-Pan Men'' (Ταγηνισταί ''Tagenistai'')\n* ''Daedalus'' (Δαίδαλος)\n* ''Danaids'' (Δαναίδες ''Danaides'')\n* ''Centaur'' (Κένταυρος ''Kentauros'')\n* ''Heroes'' (Ήρωες)\n* ''Lemnian Women'' (Λήμνιαι ''Lemniai'')\n* ''Old Age'' (Γήρας ''Geras'')\n* ''Peace'' (second version)\n* ''Phoenician Women'' (Φοίνισσαι ''Phoinissai'')\n* ''Polyidus'' (Πολύιδος)\n* ''Seasons'' (Ώραι ''Horai'')\n* ''Storks'' (Πελαργοί ''Pelargoi'')\n* ''Telemessians'' (Ίελμησσείς ''Telmesseis'')\n* ''Triphales'' (Τριφάλης)\n* ''Thesmophoriazusae'' (''Women at the Thesmophoria Festival'', second version)\n* ''Women in Tents'' (Σκηνάς Καταλαμβάνουσαι ''Skenas Katalambanousai'')\n\n\n===Attributed (doubtful, possibly by Archippus)===\n\n\n\n* ''Dionysus Shipwrecked'' (Διόνυσος Ναυαγός ''Dionysos Nauagos'')\n* ''Islands'' (Νήσοι ''Nesoi'')\n\n* ''Niobos'' (Νίοβος)\n* ''Poetry'' (Ποίησις ''Poiesis'')\n\n\n", "* Agathon\n* Ancient Greek comedy\n* Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes, named after the dramatist\n* Greek literature\n* Onomasti komodein, the witty personal attack made with total freedom against the most notable individuals\n* Hubert Parry wrote music for ''The Birds''\n* Theatre of ancient Greece\n", "\n", "* \n* \n* \n* Barrett, David (1964) ''The Frogs and Other Plays'' Penguin Books\n* Barrett, David and Sommerstein, Alan (eds)(2003) ''The Birds and Other plays'' Penguin Classics\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* MacDowell, Douglas (1971)(1978) ''Aristophanes Wasps'', Oxford University Press, n.32\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Anthony T. Edwards (1991) '' Aristophanes' comic poetics'' Transaction of the American Philological Association 121 (1991) 157-179\n* \n** reviewed by W.J. Slater, ''Phoenix'', Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp. 291–293 \n* Lee, Jae Num. \"Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais\" and \"English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope.\" Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7-22; 23-53.\n* \n* '' Aristophanes and the Comic Hero'' by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan., 1966), pp. 111–113\n* \n* \n* \n* G. M. Sifakis '' The Structure of Aristophanic Comedy'' The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 112, 1992 (1992), pp. 123–142 \n* \n* \n* Van Steen, Gonda. 2000 ''Venom in Verse: Aristophanes in Modern Greece.'' Princeton University Press.\n* Jstor.org, The American Journal of Philology, 1996.\n* Life, death and Aristophanes' concept of Eros in Saul Bellow's \"Ravelstein\".\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* The Eleven Comedies (in translation) at eBook at Adelaide\n* Aristophanes Texts Biography and texts of Aristophanes\n* List of films based on Aristophanes plays\n* Life of Aristophanes\n* SORGLL: Aristophanes, Birds 227-62; read by Stephen Daitz\n* '' Comoediae quae supersunt cum perditarum fragmentis'', Hubertus Holden LL.D., Cantabrigiae, apud Deighton Bell socios vendunt Londini Bell et Daldy, 1868.\n* '' Scholia graeca in Aristophanem'', F. Dübner (ed.), Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot, Instituti imperialis Franciae typographo, 1855 (another edition in 1883).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Biography", "Old Comedy", "Influence and legacy", "Works", "See also", "Notes", "References", "External links" ]	Aristophanes
[ "\n\n\n'''Albert Schweitzer''', OM (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a French-German theologian, organist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of “being in Christ” as primary and the doctrine of Justification by Faith as secondary.\n\nHe received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of “Reverence for Life”, expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa (then French Equatorial Africa). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement (''Orgelbewegung'').\n", "Schweitzer was born in the province of Alsace-Lorraine, which changed hands between France and Germany near and during his lifetime. Schweitzer considered himself French and wrote mostly in German. His mother-tongue was Alsatian.\n", "Albert Schweitzer's birthplace, Kaysersberg\nSchweitzer was born in Kaysersberg, Alsace-Lorraine, the son of Louis Schweitzer and Adèle Schillinger. He spent his childhood in the Alsatian village of Gunsbach, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music. The tiny village is home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS). The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of Faith and Purpose.\n\nSchweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect. At the Mulhouse Gymnasium he received his \"Abitur\" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his profound enthusiasm for the music of the German composer Richard Wagner. In 1893 he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began.\n\nFrom 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch (the brother of his former teacher), organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J.S. Bach's music. Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth to see Wagner's ''Der Ring des Nibelungen'' and ''Parsifal'', which deeply impressed him. In 1898 he went back to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on ''The Religious Philosophy of Kant'' at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll. He completed his theology degree in 1899 and published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899.\n", "Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899 he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.\n\nThe exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study ''J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète'', written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it. The result was two volumes (''J. S. Bach''), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911. During its preparation he became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf. Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried. He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst and the two became good friends.\nThe Choir Organ at St Thomas' Church, Strasbourg, designed in 1905 on principles defined by Albert Schweitzer\nHis pamphlet \"The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France\" (1906, republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century ''Orgelbewegung'', which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer himself had intended. In 1909 he addressed the ''Third Congress of the International Society of Music'' at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report. This provided the basis for the ''International Regulations for Organ Building''. He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing together in the same music.\n\nSchweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory.\n\nIn 1905 Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J.S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona and often travelled there for that purpose. He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa: but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought.\n\nOn departure for Lambaréné in 1913 he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments (to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard). Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice: but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically. It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946. And according to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962 and stories told that \"his fingers were still lively\" on the old instrument at 88 years of age.\n\nSir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's ''The Art of Fugue'' to Schweitzer.\n\nSchweitzer's recordings of organ-music, and his innovative recording technique, are described separately below.\n\nOne of his notable pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch.\n", "Saint-Nicolas, Strasbourg\nIn 1899 Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas (from which he had just graduated), and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent.\n\nIn 1906 he published ''Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung'' (\"History of Life-of-Jesus research\"). This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus''. Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: but this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. Later, in 1931, he published ''Mystik des Apostels Paulus'' (\"The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle\"). A second edition was published in 1953.\n\n===''The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906)''===\n\n\nIn ''The Quest'', Schweitzer reviewed all former work on the \"historical Jesus\" back to the late 18th century. He showed that the image of Jesus had changed with the times and outlooks of the various authors, and gave his own synopsis and interpretation of the previous century's findings. He maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology. Schweitzer writes:\n\n\nThe concept that Christianity started as a Jewish apocalyptic movement is evidenced by the teachings of the Historical Jesus concerning the end of days. Not only did he preach he would rise from the grave, but that he would also ascend to the Heaven and one day return to judge and rule over the world, saying that no one, including himself, knew the exact time of his return, but it would be before the end of his generation. Schweitzer verified the many New Testament references clearly explaining that 1st-century Christians believed in the imminent fulfillment of the promise of the World's ending, within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers. He noted that in the gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a \"tribulation\", with his coming in the clouds with great power and glory\" (St Mark), and states when it will happen: \"This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled\" (St Matthew, 24:34) (or, \"have taken place\" (Luke 21:32))\n\nIn The Quest of the Historical Jesus, Schweitzer observes the Bible contradicting the possibility of important events that never took place and never can take place as they are described; Jesus specifically states that we are to \"not seal up the words of the prophecy\" and promises that some of his listeners as well as the high priest at his trial would be alive to see him return to the Earth. \"Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy, and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near\" (Revelation 1:3). Saint Paul spoke of the \"last times\": \"Brethren, the time is short: it remaineth, that both they that have wives be as though they had none\" (1 Corinthians 7:29); \"God hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son\" (Hebrews 1:2); \"There be some standing here which shall not taste of death till they see the Son of man coming in his kingdom\" (Matthew 16:28) (or, \"until they see that the kingdom of God has come with power\" (Mark 9:1); or, \"till they see the kingdom of God\" (Luke 9:27).)\n\nSchweitzer continues writing in ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus'' that it is totally unreasonable to think that \"coming quickly\", \"near\", and \"soon\" could mean hundreds of years, much less, thousands of years in the future. \"Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy, and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near.\" (Revelation 1:3) \"And he said to me, 'These words are faithful and true'; and the Lord, the God of the spirits of the prophets, sent His angel to show to His bond-servants the things which must soon take place.\" \"And behold, I am coming quickly. Blessed is he who heeds the words of the prophecy of this book.\" And he said to me, \"Do not seal up the words of the prophecy of this book, for the time is near\" (Revelation 22:6, 7, 10, 12). \"All these things shall come upon this generation\" (Matthew 23:36). Schweitzer concludes that the 1st-century theology, originating in the lifetimes of those who first followed Jesus, is totally incompatible with modern Christian belief.\n\nIn ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus'', Schweitzer notes the passage \"Blessed is he who reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy, and heed the things which are written in it; for the time is near.\" (Revelation 1:3) Similarly in St Peter: \"Christ .. Who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world, but was manifest in these last times for you\" (1 Peter 1:20), and \"But the end of all things is at hand\" (1 Peter 4:7). \"Surely I come quickly\" (Revelation 22:20). Schweitzer felt that St. Paul clearly believed in the immediacy of the \"Second Coming of Jesus\", in stark contrast to modern organized Christianity.\n\nThe cover of Albert Schweitzer's ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle''\n\n===''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931)''===\nIn ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle'', Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed. Primitive mysticism \"has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal.\" Additionally, he argues that this view of a \"union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions.\"\n\nOn the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in 1st CE society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the \"conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself.\" Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found \"among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel.\"\n\nNext, Schweitzer poses the question: \"Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?\" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as \"mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ.\" He summarizes Pauline mysticism as \"being in Christ\" rather than \"being in God.\"\n\nPaul’s imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish Eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future. Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of \"being-in-God.\" Rather, Paul uses the phrase \"being-in-Christ\" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of \"being-in-Christ\" is not a \"static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again.\" The \"realistic\" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community.\n\nOne of Schweitzer's major arguments in ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle'' is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase \"being in Christ\", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by \"being in Christ.\" Jaroslav Pelikan, in his Forward to ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle,'' points out that:\n\n\n====Paul's \"Realism\" versus Hellenistic \"Symbolism\"====\nSchweitzer contrasts Paul’s \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ to the \"symbolism\" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ rather than the \"symbolic\" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification. After baptism, the Christian is continually renewed throughout his or her lifetime due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist \"lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation\" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience.\n\nAnother major difference between Paul's \"realism\" and Hellenistic \"symbolism\" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that \"Paul’s thought follows predestinarian lines.\" He explains, \"only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God.\" Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the \"realistic\" dying and rising with Christ.\n", "At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a medical doctor. However, the committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be \"incorrect\". He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching.\n\nEven in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, ''The Psychiatric Study of Jesus''. In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau.\n\nIn 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a medical doctor to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital. In spring 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (Albert Schweitzer Hospital) near an already existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné.\nThe catchment area of the Ogooé occupies most of Gabon. Lambaréné is marked.\nIn the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometers to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw sores, ''framboesia'' (yaws), tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin.\n\nSchweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, was an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in autumn 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with two 13-foot rooms (consulting room and operating theatre) and with a dispensary and sterilising room in spaces below the broad eaves. The waiting room and dormitory (42 by 20 feet) were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a 30-yard path leading from the hospital to the landing-place. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Galoa (Mpongwe) who first came as a patient.\n\nWhen World War I broke out in summer of 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony, were put under supervision at Lambaréné by the French military, where Schweitzer continued his work. In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on The Philosophy of Civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in Oxford University, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, ''The Decay and Restoration of Civilization'' and ''Civilization and Ethics''. The two remaining volumes, on ''The World-View of Reverence for Life '' and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed.\n\nIn 1924, he returned without his wife but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann, joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925-6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems. Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and tryparsamide. Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work.\n\nHe was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II.\n", "===Colonialism===\nSchweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become \"fishers of men\" but also as a small recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers:\n\n\nSchweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a doctor in Africa, he said:\n\n\n\n===Paternalism===\nSchweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic, colonialist and racist in his attitude towards Africans, and in some ways his views did differ from that of many liberals and other critics of colonialism. For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, \"No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow.\" Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children. He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying \"The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.\" Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word \"brother\" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans. Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that \"The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed\". Later in life he became more convinced that \"modern civilization\" was actually inferior to or the same as previous cultures in terms of morality.\n\nAmerican journalist John Gunther also visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers. By comparison, his contemporary Sir Albert Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda. After three decades in Africa Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses.\n", "The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people. Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé.\n\nThe poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel ''Heart of Darkness'': \"In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being.\"\n", "\nSchweitzer in 1955\nThe keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of ''Reverence for Life'' (\"''Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben''\"). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation.\n\nIn the Preface to ''Civilization and Ethics'' (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live.\n\nSchweitzer wrote, \"True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live.'\" In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible.\n\nThough we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.\n\nFor Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the world-view must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity.\n\nSuch was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence Albert Schweitzer has noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book ''Indian Thought and Its Development'':\n\n", "The Schweitzer house and Museum at Königsfeld in the Black Forest\nAfter the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné owing to her health. In 1923 the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum.\n\nAlbert Schweitzer's house at Gunsbach, now a museum and archive\nAlbert Schweitzer Memorial and Museum in Weimar (1984)\nFrom 1939–48 he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept traveling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to make use of the family house, which after his death became an Archive and Museum to his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY).\nWagga Wagga, Australia\nSchweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952, and his acceptance speech, \"The Problem of Peace\", is considered one of the best speeches ever given. From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo which were published in ''Peace or Atomic War''. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his \"Declaration of Conscience\" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, \"The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for.\"\n\nWeeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film ''The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer'', narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied.\n\nIn 1955 he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit by Queen Elizabeth II. He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem. Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself.\n\nHis cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.\n\nSchweitzer was a vegetarian.\n\nThe Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer, however, considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his Hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just \"my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné.\" Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create \"their own Lambaréné\" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other health-related field (including music, law, and divinity), helping launch them on lives of Schweitzer-spirited service. The peer-supporting lifelong network of \"Schweitzer Fellows for Life\" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school.\n", "The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum.\n", "Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on ''Religion in Modern Civilization'' at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for HMV on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower (London). Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936.\n\n===The Schweitzer Technique===\nSchweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as \"The Schweitzer Technique\", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is mult-ed, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments.\n\n===Columbia recordings===\nAltogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows:\n* '''Queen's Hall''': Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters Vol 3, 10); Herzlich thut mich verlangen (BWV 727); Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)).\n* '''All Hallows''': Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor.\n* '''Ste Aurélie''': Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: Schmücke dich, O liebe Seele (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde groß (Vol 5, 45); O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); Christus, der uns selig macht (Vol 5, 8); Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stand (Vol 5, 9); An Waßerflüßen Babylon (Vol 6, 12b); Christum wir wollen loben schon (Vol 5, 6); Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier (Vol 5, app 5); Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin (Vol 5, 4); Sei gegrüßet, Jesu gütig (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); Jesus Christus, unser Heiland (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15).\nGunsbach parish church, where the later recordings were made\n\nLater recordings were made at '''Parish church, Günsbach''': These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary \"Albert Schweitzer.\" Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia.\n* Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8).\n* Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6).\n* Chorale-Preludes: O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde groß (1st and 2nd vsns, Peters Vol 5, 45); Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein (Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit) (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ (Vol 5, 30); Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ (Vol 5, 17); Herzlich tut mich verlangen (Vol 5, 27); Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)).\nThe above were released in the United States of America as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175.\n\n===Philips recordings===\n* J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538.\n* J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565.\n* César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E Major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor.\n", "Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include:\n* The 1952 biographical film ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer\n* The 1957 biographical film ''Albert Schweitzer'' in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him\n* The 1962 TV remake of ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer\n* The 1990 biographical film ''The Light in the Jungle'', with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer\n* Two 1992 episodes of the television series ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (\"German East Africa, December 1916\" and \"Congo, January 1917\"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer\n* The 1995 biographical film ''Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné'', with André Wilms as Schweitzer\n* The 2006 TV biographical film ''Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa'', with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer\n* The 2009 biographical film ''Albert Schweitzer – Ein Leben für Afrika'', with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer\n", "List of peace activists\n:Category:Cultural depictions of Albert Schweitzer\n", "\n", "\n\n===Bibliography===\n* .\n", "===Writings by Schweitzer===\n* .\n* \n* . English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911.\n* ''J. S. Bach''. Transl. in Russian by Ya. S. Druskin, Ed. by M. S. Druskin; L. G. Kovnatskaya. 2nd ed., enlarged. Moscow: Klassika – XXI, 2002. 816 pp.\n''Deutsche und französische Orgelbaukunst und Orgelkunst'' (German and French organbuilding and organ art)(Breitkopf & Härtel, Leipzig 1906) (first printed in ''Musik'', vols 13 and 14 (5th year)). \n''The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism''. (1911), Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith Publisher. 1948. \n''Paul and His Interpreters, A Critical History''. (English translation by W. Montgomery, B.A., B.D.)(1912), London, Adam & Charles Black.\n''The Mystery of the Kingdom of God: The Secret of Jesus' Messiahship and Passion''. (1914), Prometheus Books. 1985. \n''On the Edge of the Primeval Forest'' (\"Zwischen Wasser und Urwald\"), Translated by C. T. Campion. A. & C. Black, London 1922.\n''The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization'' and ''Civilization and Ethics'' (''The Philosophy of Civilization'', Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, ''The Philosophy of Civilization'' (Prometheus Books, 1987), \n* .\n* ''More from the Primeval Forest'' (''Mitteilungen aus Lambaréné''). Tr. C. T. Campion. London: A. & C. Black, 1931.\n''Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography''. \"Aus Meinem Leben und Denken\", Felix Meiner Verlag, Leipzig, 1931, English translation 1933, George Allen & Unwin, Woking; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998 edition with foreword by Jimmy Carter: \n''Indian Thought and Its Development''. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press. 1935. \n''Afrikanische Geschichten'' (Felix Meiner, Leipzig u. Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as ''From My African Notebook'' (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with Foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).\n \n''Peace or Atomic War?'' New York: Henry Holt. 1958. \n''The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity'', with Ulrich Neuenschwander. New York: Seabury Press. 1968. \n* \n\n===Writings about Schweitzer===\n* Erica Anderson/Eugene Exman ''The World of Albert Schweitzer'' Harper & Brothers New York 1955\n* .\n* \n* \nCousins, Norman \"Albert Schweitzer's Mission Healing and Peace\" W.W. Norton & Company 1985\n \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Rud, A. G. ''Albert Schweitzer's Legacy for Education: Reverence for Life'' (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 173 pp.\n", "\n\n* Albert Schweitzer info\n* \n* \n* \n* Albert Schweitzer Papers at Syracuse University\n* John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer\n* The Helfferich Collection, collected by Reginald H. Helfferich on Albert Schweitzer, is at the Andover-Harvard Theological Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.\n* What Jesus was thinking An interpretation and restatement of Schweitzer's last book, The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Nationality", "Education", "Music", "Theology", "Medicine", "Schweitzer's views", "Hospital conditions", "Reverence for life", "Later life", "International Albert Schweitzer Prize", "Sound recordings", "Portrayals", "See also", "Notes", "References", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Albert Schweitzer
[ "\n\n\nAn '''abscess''' () is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body. Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling. The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed. The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling. Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.\n\n\nThey are usually caused by a bacterial infection. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In the United States and many other areas of the world the most common bacteria present is ''methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus''. Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world. Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like, and is confirmed by cutting it open. Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear. In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection.\n\n\nStandard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics for this type of abscess in most people who are otherwise healthy. A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage. Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning. Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient.\n\n\nSkin abscesses are common, and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use with rates reported as high as 65% in this population. In 2005 in the United States, 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition.\nVideo explanation\n\n", "An abscess\nAbscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules (boils) or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene).\n\nThe main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills.\n\nAn internal abscess is more difficult to identify, but signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell.\nInternal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected.\nAn abscess could potentially be fatal (although this is rare) if it compresses vital structures such as the trachea in the context of a deep neck abscess.\n\nIf superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated. This is a wave-like motion that is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess.\n", "Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use. Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality, though this has not been proven.\n\nAbscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances.\nBacterial infection is the most common cause. Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection. In the United States and many other areas of the world the most common bacteria present is ''methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus''. Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved.\n\nRarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world. Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis.\n\n===Perianal abscess===\n\nSurgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery. There is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage.\n\nPerianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease) or diabetes. Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration, hard stool or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication. This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess. This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time. Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or lancing.\n\n\n\n===Incisional abscess===\nAn ''incisional abscess'' is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it. If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture.\n", "An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.\n\nThe organisms or foreign materials kill the local cells, resulting in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow.\n\nThe final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object.\n\nFile:Blausen 0007 Abscess.png\|A diagram of an abscess\nfile:Pyemic abscesses of kidney.jpg\|Pyemic abscesses of kidney\n\n", "Ultrasound showing an abscess of the skin\n\nthumb\n\nAn abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by pyogenic membrane. Ultrasound imaging in the emergency department can help in diagnosis.\n\n===Classification===\nAbscesses may be classified as either ''skin abscesses'' or ''internal abscesses''. Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious. Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses.\n\n===IV drug use===\nFor those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present. In this population if there is also a fever present infectious endocarditis should be considered.\n\n===Differential===\nAbscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting rather than a newly formed anatomical cavity.\n\nOther conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst and necrotising fasciitis. Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage.\n", "The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is opening and draining. There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases. A small amount of evidence did not find benefit from packing the abscess with gauze.\n\n===Incision and drainage===\n\nAbscess five days after incision and drainage\nAbscess following curettage\nThe abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment.\n\nIn critical areas where surgery presents a high risk, it may be delayed or used as a last resort. The drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract. Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess.\n\n=== Antibiotics ===\nMost people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics. Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression. People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics. If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated.\n\nIn those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, ''Staphylococcus aureus'' bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective. Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment. If the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than abscess, consideration should be given to possibility of strep species as cause that are still sensitive to traditional anti-staphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin in patients able to tolerate penicillin. Antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low pH levels.\n\nCulturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage. Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment.\n\n===Packing===\nIn North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is often packed, perhaps with cloth, in an attempt to protect the healing wound. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, bring more rapid healing, or lead to fewer physician visits.\n\n===Loop drainage===\nMore recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030), while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among loop patients.\n\n===Primary closure===\nClosing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence. This may not apply to anorectal abscesses. While they heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open.\n", "Even without treatment they rarely result in death as they will naturally break through the skin.\n", "Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years. Risk factors include intravenous drug use with rates reported as high as 65% in this population. In 2005 in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess. In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease.\n", "The Latin medical aphorism \"''ubi pus, ibi evacua''\" expresses \"where there is pus, there evacuate it\" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine.\n\nNeedle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy.\n\n===Etymology===\nAn abscess is so called because there is an ''abscessus'' (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them.\n\nThe word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: ''carbunculus'', originally a small coal; diminutive of ''carbon-'', ''carbo'': charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, \"precious stones of a red or fiery colour\", usually garnets.\n", "The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary:\n\n", "\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Signs and symptoms", "Causes", "Pathophysiology", "Diagnosis", "Treatment", "Prognosis", "Epidemiology", "Society and culture", "Other types", "References", "External links" ]	Abscess
[ "\n\n'''Aalborg Municipality''' is a municipality (Danish, ''kommune'') in Region Nordjylland on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark. The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of 1,143.99 km², population 197,426 (2010) and belongs to Region Nordjylland (\"North Jutland Region\").\n\nIt is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport.\n\nThe municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as ''Aalborg'', although the new spelling ''Ålborg'' is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (''Ålborg Bugt''), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.\n", "As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of , with a total population of 192,353 (2005). Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats (''Socialdemokraterne'') political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County.\n", "\n===Surroundings===\nThe waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called ''Langerak'' to the east and ''Gjøl Bredning'' to the west. The island of Egholm is located in ''Gjøl Bredning'', and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.\n\nThe area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose (\"Greater Wild bog\"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose (\"Lesser Wild bog\"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark.\n\n===Urban areas in Aalborg Municipality===\nAalborg City has a total population at 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the Nørresundby urban area in Vendsyssel (21,120).\n\n\n '''The largest urban areas in Aalborg Municipality'''\n\n Nr !! Urban area !! Population (2011) \n\n 1 \n Aalborg \n 103,545\n\n 2 \n Nørresundby \n 21,376\n\n 3 \n Svenstrup \n 6,751\n\n 4 \n Nibe \n 4,987\n\n 5 \n Vodskov \n 4,399\n\n 6 \n Klarup \n 4,182\n\n 7 \n Gistrup \n 3,573\n\n 8 \n Storvorde \n 3,243\n\n 9 \n Vestbjerg \n 2,677\n\n 10 \n Frejlev \n 2,579\n\n", "North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in Nørresundby, Aalborg Municipality.\n", "Distribution of the 31 seats in the municipal council.\n\n Party !! Seats \n\n Social Democrats\n 12\n\n Venstre\n 9\n\n Red-Green Alliance\n 3\n\n Social Liberal Party\n 2\n\n Danish People's Party\n 2\n\n Conservative People's Party\n 1\n\n Social People's Party\n 1\n\n Liberal Alliance\n 1\n}", "\n* Municipal statistics: NetBorger Kommunefakta, delivered from KMD a.k.a. Kommunedata (Municipal Data)\n* Municipal mergers and neighbors: Eniro map with named municipalities\n* Aalborg in figures 2008, a publication from Aalborg Municipality.\n\n", "\n* About Aalborg from Nordjyske Medier\n* Aalborg Municipality's official website\n* VisitAalborg (Aalborg Tourist Office)\n* Website for Aalborg Municipality's former Municipality Reformation Board\n* Public Transport in Aalborg and surroundings\n* Searchable map\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Municipal reform of 2007", "Geography", "Economy", "Politics", "References", "External links" ]	Aalborg Municipality
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\n'''Aarhus''' (; officially spelled '''Århus''' from 1948 until 31 December 2010) is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus municipality. It is located on the east coast of the Jutland peninsula, in the geographical centre of Denmark, northwest of Copenhagen and north of Hamburg, Germany. The inner urban area contains 269,022 inhabitants () and the municipal population is 335,684 (). Aarhus is the central city in the East Jutland metropolitan area, which had a total population of 1.378 million in 2016.\n\nThe history of Aarhus began as a fortified Viking settlement founded in the 8th century and with the first written records stemming from the bishopric seated here from at least 948. The city was founded on the northern shores of a fjord at a natural harbour and the primary driver of growth was for centuries seaborne trade in agricultural products. Market town privileges were granted in 1441, but growth stagnated in the 17th century as the city suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish Wars. In the 19th century it was occupied twice by German troops during the Schleswig Wars but avoided destruction. As the industrial revolution took hold, the city grew to become the second-largest in the country by the 20th century.\n\nToday Aarhus is at the cultural and economic core of the region and the largest centre for trade, services and industry in Jutland. The city ranks as the 92nd largest city in the European Union, and as number 234 among world cities. It is also a top 100 conference city in the world. Aarhus is the principal industrial port of the country in terms of container handling and an important trade hub in Kattegat. Major Danish companies have based their headquarters here and people commute for work and leisure from a wide area in Region Midtjylland. It is a centre for research and education in the Nordic countries and home to Aarhus University, Scandinavia's largest university, including Aarhus University Hospital and INCUBA Science Park. Being the Danish city with the youngest demographics, with 48,482 inhabitants aged under 18, Aarhus is also the second fastest growing Danish city, with an average growth of 4,500 people per annum since 2008.\n\nAarhus is known for its musical history. In the 1950s many jazz clubs sprang up around the city, fuelled by the young population. By the 1960s, the music scene diversified into rock and other genres. In the 1970s and 1980s, Aarhus became the centre for Denmark's rock music fostering many iconic bands such as TV-2 and Gnags. Aarhus is home to the annual eight-day Aarhus International Jazz Festival, the SPoT Festival and the NorthSide Festival.\n\nIn 2017, Aarhus has been selected as European Capital of Culture along with Paphos in Cyprus. In August 2018, Aarhus will host the Hempel Sailing World Championships.\n", "In Valdemar's Census Book (1231) the city was called ''Arus'', and in Icelandic it was known as ''Aros'', later written as Aars. It is a compound of the two words ''ār'', genitive of ''ā'' (\"river\", Modern Danish ''å''), and ''ōss'' (\"mouth\", in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for \"river delta\"). The name originates from the city's location around the mouth of Aarhus Å (Aarhus River). The spelling \"Aarhus\" is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century.\n\n===Aarhus/Århus spelling===\nWith the Danish spelling reform of 1948, \"Aa\" was changed to \"Å\". Some Danish cities resisted the new spelling of their names, notably Aalborg and Aabenraa. Århus city council explicitly embraced the new spelling, as it was thought to enhance an image of progressiveness. In 2010, the city council voted to change the name from \"Århus\" to \"Aarhus\" in order to strengthen the international profile of the city. The renaming came into effect on 1 January 2011.\n\nCertain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city, such as the Aarhus River, changed from \"Århus Å\" to \"Aarhus Å\". It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative. Whichever spelling local authorities choose, most newspapers and public institutions will accept it. Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee, publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary, still retain \"Århus\" as the main name, providing \"Aarhus\" as a new, second option, in brackets.\n", "\n\n===Early history===\nModel of the early fortified Viking town Aros. North is up.\nFounded in the early Viking Age, Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, along with Ribe and Hedeby.\n\nArchaeological evidence under the Aros settlement's defences indicate the site was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century, considerably earlier than had been generally supposed. Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig unearthed half-buried longhouses, firepits, glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s. Archaeologists have conducted several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s revealing wells, streets, homes and workshops. In the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers, everyday utensils like combs, jewellery and basic multi-purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been found.\n\nThe centre of Aarhus was once a pagan burial site until Aarhus' first church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900. In the 900s an earth rampart for the defence of the early city was constructed, encircling the settlement, much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere. The rampart was later reinforced by Harald Bluetooth, and together with the town's geographical placement, this suggests that Aros was an important trade and military centre. There are strong indications of a former royal residence from the Viking Age in Viby, a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre.\n\nThe bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported the bishop Reginbrand attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany. The bishopric and the town's geographical location propelled prosperous growth and development of the early medieval town. The finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000, as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. The era was turbulent and violent with several naval attacks on the city, such as Harald Hardrada's assault around 1050, when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground.\n\n===Middle Ages===\nAarhus Cathedral (1300).\nThe growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus, with its bishopric, into a prosperous religious centre. Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the city; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen. In 1441, Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century. The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus' birth certificate.\n\nThe official and religious status spurred growth so in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts, ringing the town since the Viking age, were abandoned to accommodate expansion. Parts of the ramparts are still in existence today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city, including the streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat). Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century. In 1657, octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades. Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling, with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares, Mejlgade and Studsgade. The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built.\n\nIn the 17th century, Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state. It was not until the middle of the 18th century growth returned in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city; particularly grain proved to be a remunerative export. The first factories were established at this time as the industrial revolution reached the country and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade.\n\n===Industrialisation===\nView of Aarhus, 1850.\nFollowing the Napoleonic wars, Denmark lost Norway and was excluded from international trade for some years which caused a recession for Aarhus' trade-based economy that lasted until the 1830s. The economy turned around as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam-driven machinery became more productive.\n\nIn 1838, the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council. The rules were initially very strict allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run. In the 1844 elections only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7,000. The first city council, mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists, quickly looked to improve the harbour, situated along the Aarhus River. Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical. In 1840, the harbour was moved to the coast, north of the river where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years. From the outset, the new harbour was controlled by the city council, as it is to this day.\n\nPrussian soldiers herding cattle by Aarhus cathedral, 1864.\nDuring the First Schleswig War Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849. The city was spared any fighting, but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland. The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets, particularly in Frederiksbjerg, are named after Danish officers of the time. Fifteen years later, in 1864, the city was occupied again, this time for seven months, during the Second Schleswig War.\n\nIn spite of wars and occupation the city continued to develop. In 1851 octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade. Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun in 1830 and in 1862 Jutland's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers.\n\n''Toldkammeret'' (Custom House, 1898).\nIn the second half of the 19th century industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products, especially oil and butter. Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus. The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus' local brewery for more than 150 years, gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres-grunden (lit.: ''the Ceres-grounds''). In 1896 local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet (KFK), focused on grain and feedstuffs. KFK established departments all over the country, while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today. Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874, focusing on butter export to England, China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883, the first Danish margarine factory. The industry became an important employer, with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1,000 in 1931, effectively transforming the city from a regional trade hub into an industrial centre. Other new factories of note included the dockyard Aarhus Flydedok, the oil mill Århus Oliefabrik and the ironworks Frichs.\n\nAarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the \"Capital of Jutland\". The population increased from 15,000 in 1870 to 52,000 in 1901 and, in response, the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg, Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg. Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as Aarhus Theatre (1900), the State Library (1902), Aarhus University (1928) and several hospitals.\n\n===Second World War===\nBispetorv fighting with German soldiers, 5 May 1945\nOn 9 April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark, occupying Aarhus the following day and 5 years hence. The occupation was a destructive period with major disasters, loss of life and economic depression. The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany. Combined, these factors resulted in a strong German presence, especially in 1944–45. The first years were peaceful in conjunction with the policies of the Danish Protectorate Government, but following the enactment of the Communist Law in August 1941, the first armed resistance and sabotage commenced, gradually growing in intensity over the years with repression and terror in response.\n\nSmall, independent resistance groups first appeared in 1941–42 but the first to coordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group, responsible for most operations from early 1943. The Samsing group, along with others in and around Aarhus, was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe \"Thora\" Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities. In response, requests for assistance was sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation. The 5 Kolonne group was established with assistance from Holger Danske to restore a resistance movement in Aarhus along with the L-groups, tasked with assassinating collaborators. Resistance operations escalated from mid-1944 with most major sabotage operations and assassinations occurring in the period 1944–45. The growing resistance was countered with 19 Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter Group from August 1944, including large-scale fire bombings and murders. The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in 1944, destroying much of the harbor and damaging the inner city. On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out in Aarhus between the resistance and German soldiers resulting in 22 dead. Order was restored by the end of the day and on 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city.\n\n===Post-World War II years===\nIn the 1980s the city entered a period of rapid growth and the service sector overtook trade, industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time. Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected. The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education. The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively, and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2, Gnags, Thomas Helmig, Bamses Venner, Anne Dorte Michelsen, Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel.\n\n=== The 2000s ===\nUrban development in Aarhus city centre, 2013\nSince the turn of the millennium both skyline and land use has changed as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts. Starting in 2007, the former docklands are being converted to a new mixed use district dubbed \"Aarhus Ø\" (Aarhus Docklands). The site of the former Royal Unibrew Ceres breweries began redevelopment in 2012 into \"CeresByen\", a residential district with educational institutions. The former DSB repair facilities at Frederiks Plads have been demolished and are being developed into a new business district with high-rise buildings scheduled for completion in 2017. The main bus terminal is planned to be moved to the central railway station by 2018 and the current site will be made into a new residential district. Construction of the first light rail system in the city commenced in 2013, with the first increment to be finished in 2017. The light rail system is planned to eventually tie many of the suburbs closer to central Aarhus. The next phase will connect a large planned suburb west of Lisbjerg.\n\nAccelerating growth since the early 2000s brought the inner urban area to roughly 260,000 inhabitants by 2014. The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375,000 inhabitants.\n", "Aerial view of the bay and city\nAarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast. Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland. A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail, including Randers ( by road north), Grenå (northeast), Horsens ( south) and Silkeborg ( east).\n\n===Topography===\nAt Aarhus' location, the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of quite close to the shore. Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord, but the original fjord no longer exists, as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake, due to natural sedimentation. The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests, remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north. Several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of Søhøjlandet with heights exceeding at Himmelbjerget between Skanderborg and Silkeborg.\n\nThe hilly area around Aarhus consists of a moranial plateau from the last ice age, broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys. The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south, stretching inland east-west with the Aarhus River, Brabrand Lake, Årslev Lake and Tåstrup Lake and the Egå Valley to the north, with the stream of Egåen, the bog of Geding-Kasted Mose and Geding Lake. Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed, but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons. The valley system also includes the stream of Lyngbygård Å in the west and valleys to the south of the city, following erosion channels from the pre-quaternary. By contrast, the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys. The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene (57 to 24 million years ago).\n\n===Climate===\n\n\nAarhus is in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen: ''Dfb'') and the weather is influenced by low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, warmer summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months, often with snow and frost, from December to March. The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds, more fog, less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding, open land.\n\nWestern winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark. In addition, Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher, colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland. Combined these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country. Average temperature over the year is with February being the coldest month (0.1 °C) and August the warmest ( ). Temperatures in the sea can reach in June to August, but it is not uncommon for beaches to register locally.\n\nThe geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low-lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located. Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result the valley has a very mild, temperate climate. The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist-retaining boulder clay. These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1–2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides.\n\nBecause of the northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight. The difference in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes.\n\n\n", "Aarhus City Hall (1942) designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller\n\nAarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality and Aarhus City Council (''Aarhus Byråd'') is also the municipal government. The Mayor of Aarhus until 2017 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats. Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November. The city council consists of 31 members elected for four-year terms. When an election has determined the composition of the council, it elects a mayor, two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks. Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality.\n\nThe first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919. In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities. Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform, which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region (''Region Midtjylland''), seated in Viborg.\n\n===Subdivisions===\nAarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing (national Parliament). The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality. Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9. The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C, Aarhus N, Aarhus V, Viby J, Højbjerg and Brabrand.\n\n=== Environmental planning ===\n\nÅrslev Engsø. The lakes and wetlands of Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø was re-established in the 2000s to help manage the water cycle.\n\nAarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and, in accordance with national policy, aims to be CO2 neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030. The municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s. In 2015 the municipality took over 3 private straw-fired heating plants and the year after a new 77 MW combined heat and power biomass plant at Lisbjerg Power Station was completed while Studstrup Power Station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips. In conjunction with the development of the Docklands district there are plans for a utility scale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system.\n\n\nThe municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against or clean up previous pollution and encourage green growth and self-sufficiency. The main issues are excessive nutrients, adapting to increasing levels of precipitation brought on by climate change, and securing the water supply. These goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners. In the 2000s underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively. The number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025. The treatment plants in Marselisborg and Egå are planned to take over all waste treatment and have been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat. To aid the new systems, sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into different systems by 2085.\n \n\nAfforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution, secure drinking water, sequester CO2, increase biodiversity, create an attractive countryside, provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public. In 2000 the first project, the New Forests of Aarhus, was completed which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and in 2009 another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030. The afforestation plans were realized as a local project in collaboration with private landowners, under a larger national agenda. Other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in Geding-Kasted Bog and continuous monitoring of the four Natura 2000 areas in the municipality.\n", "{\| class=\"infobox\" style=\"float:right;\"\n'''Main immigrant groups, 2014'''\n\n Nationality \n Population\n\n \n 4,845\n\n \n 4,307\n\n \n 4,341\n\n \n 3,584\n\n \n 2,551\n\n \n 2,403\n\n \n 2,183\n\n \n 2,105\n\n \n 1,832\n\n \n 1,661\n\n\nAarhus has a population of 261,570 on for a density of 2,874/km2 (7,444/sq mi). Aarhus municipality has a population of 330,639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706/km2 (1,829/sq mi). Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area. The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions. More than 40% of the population have an academic degree while only some 14% have no secondary education or trade. The largest age group is 20- to 29-year-olds and the average age is 37.5, making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities. Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years.\n\nPopulation 1672–2014\n\nThe city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist and Hindu communities. Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small. The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church, Church of Denmark, which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole. Some 20% of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years.\n\nAarhus has the highest ratio of immigrants in Denmark, 14.8% of the population, outside the Copenhagen area. During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in recent years, there has been high growth in the overall immigrant community, from 27,783 people in 1999 to 40,431 in 2008. The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world, comprising some 25,000 people from 130 different nationalities, with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and north Africa. Some 15,000 have come from within Europe, with Poland, Germany, Romania and Norway being the largest contributors.\n\nMany immigrants have established themselves in Brabrand, Hasle and Viby, where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66% since the year 2000. This has resulted in several 'especially vulnerable residential areas' (a.k.a. ghettos), with Gellerup as the most notable neighbourhood. In Brabrand and Gellerup, two thirds of the population now have a non-Danish ethnic background. The international cultures present in the community are an obvious and visible part of the city's daily life and contribute many cultural flavours hitherto uncommon for the Nordic countries, including Bazar Vest, a market with shopkeepers predominantly of foreign descent.\n", "Bestseller\nThe economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge and service based, strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry. The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city is transitioning away from manufacturing. Trade and transportation remain important sectors benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network. Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture long has been a marginal employer within the municipality. The municipality is home to 175,000 jobs with some 100,000 in the private sector and the rest split between state, region and municipality. The region is a major agricultural producer, with many large farms in the outlying districts. People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers, Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities. Aarhus is a center for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries with expansive shopping centres, the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many specialty shops.\n\nThe job market is knowledge and service based and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services, trade, education, consulting, research, industry and telecommunications. The municipality has more high and middle income jobs, and fewer low income jobs, than the national average. Today the majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade, transport and media. The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus, and the larger region of Midtjylland, and nationally most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area. The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality making it a central component in the local economy. The biotech industry is well established in the city with many small and medium-sized companies mainly focused on research and development.\n\nSeveral major companies have their headquarters in Aarhus such as Arla Foods, one of the largest dairy groups in Europe, Dansk Supermarked, Denmark's largest retailer, Jysk, a worldwide retailer specializing in household goods, bedding, furniture and interior design, Vestas, one of the major wind turbine producers worldwide, and several leading retail companies. In total four of the 10 largest companies in the country are based in the municipality. Since the early 2000s the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula. Other large employers of note include Krifa (a trades union organisation) and 5R, a telemarketing company, while metallurgy and electronics remain important sectors.\n\n===Port of Aarhus===\n\nAarhus Container port\n\nThe Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark, processing more than 50% of Denmark's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world. It is a municipal self-governing port with independent finances. The facilities handle some 9.5 million tonnes of cargo a year (2012). Grain is the principal export, while feedstuffs, stone, cement and coal are among the chief imports. Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008.\n\nThe ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand. It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830. Currently Mols-Linien operates the route and annually transports some 2 million passengers and a million vehicles. Additional roll-on/roll-off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals. Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea.\n\n===Tourism===\nCosta Pacifica in the harbor\nThe ARoS Art Museum, the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark's top tourist attractions. With a combined total of almost 1.4 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular. The city's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists, as are festivals, especially NorthSide and SPOT. Many visitors arrive on cruise ships: in 2012, 18 vessels visited the port with over 38,000 passengers.\n\nIn the 2010s there has been a significant expansion of tourist facilities, culminating in the opening of the 240-room Comwell Hotel in July 2014, which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25%. Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750,000 a year, most of them Danes from other regions, the remainder coming mainly from Norway, Sweden, northern Germany and the United Kingdom. Overall, they spend about DKK 3 billion ($540 million) in the city each year. The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture, family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark. The average stay is little more than three days on average.\n\nThere are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city, some of them staffed, while others are on-line, publicly accessible touch screens. The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAaarhus, a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations.\n\n===Research parks===\nNavitas Park, a department of INCUBA Science Park.\nThe largest research park in Aarhus is INCUBA Science Park, focused on IT and biomedical research, It is based on Denmark's first research park, ''Forskerpark Aarhus'' (Research Park Aarhus), founded in 1986, which in 2007 merged with another research park to form INCUBA Science Park. The organization is owned partly by Aarhus University and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies. It is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in Navitas Park in 2015, which it will share with the Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and AU Engineering. Another major center for knowledge is Agro Food Park in Skejby, established to facilitate cooperation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture. In January 2017 Arla Foods will open the global innovation center ''Arla Nativa'' in Agro Food Park and in 2018 Aarhus University is moving the ''Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture'' there as well. In 2016 some 1000 people worked at Agro Food Park, spread across 50 companies and institutions and in August 2016 Agro Food Park management published plans to expand facilities from 92.000 m2 to .\n\nIn addition, Aarhus is home to the Aarhus School of Architecture, one of two Danish Ministry of Education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture, and some of the largest architecture firms in the Nordic Countries such as schmidt hammer lassen architects, Arkitema Architects and C. F. Møller Architects. Taken together these organizations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside Copenhagen which the ''Danish Ministry of Business and Growth'' refer to as ''arkitekturklyngen'' (the architecture cluster). To promote the \"cluster\" the School of Architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new Freight Station Neighborhood, planned for development in the 2020s. In the interim the city council supports a culture, business and education center in the area which may continue in the future neighborhood in some form. The future occupants of the neighborhood will be businesses and organizations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community and it is hoped the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design.\n", "\n\nAarhus has developed in stages, from the Viking age to modern times, all visible in the city today. Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, National Romantic, Nordic classicism, Neoclassical, Empire and Functionalism. The city has grown up around the main transport hubs, the harbour and later the railway station and as a result, the oldest parts of the city are also the most central and busiest today.\n\nThe streets Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat) testify to the defences of the initial Viking settlement and ''Allégaderingen'' in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement. The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow, curved streets and low, dense housing by the river and coast. ''Vesterport'' (Westward Gate) still bears the name of a medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways ''Posthussmøgen'' and ''Telefonsmøgen'' are remnants of toll stations from that time. The inner city has the oldest preserved houses, especially the Latin Quarter, with buildings dating back to the early 17th century in Mejlgade and Skolegade. Medieval merchants' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade, Studsgade and Skolegade.\n\n===Landmarks===\nÅboulevarden, 1945 and 2016, opening of the river\nBispetorv in the historic centre, November 2008\nAarhus Cathedral (''Århus Domkirke'') in the centre of Aarhus, is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at and in length and height respectively. Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th century, it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300, it took more than a century to build; the associated cathedral school of ''Aarhus Katedralskole'' was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world. Another important and historic church in the inner city, is the Church of our Lady (''Vor Frue Kirke'') also from the 13th century in Romanesque and Gothic style. It is smaller and less impressive, but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. Parts of this former church were excavated in the 1950s and can now be experienced as a crypt beneath the nave of ''Vor Frue Kirke''. Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989.\n\nMarselisborg Palace (''Marselisborg Slot''), designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles, was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898. The Aarhus Custom House (''Toldkammeret'') from 1898, is said to be Hack Kampmann's finest work.\n\nTivoli Friheden (Tivoli Freedom) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction. Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark. The early buildings of Aarhus University, especially the main building completed in 1932, designed by Kay Fisker, Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture. The City Hall (''Aarhus Rådhus'') from 1941 with an iconic tower clad in marble, was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style.\n\n\n", "Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals, museums, theatres, and sport events of both national and international importance, and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark. There is a long tradition here in music of all genres and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus. Libraries, cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in, engage in, or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds.\n\nSince 1938, Aarhus has marketed itself as ''Smilets by'' (City of smiles) which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan. In 2011, the city council opted to change the slogan to \"Aarhus. Danish for Progress\" but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years. Other slogans that have occasionally been used are ''Byen ved havet'' (City by the sea), ''Mellem bugt og bøgeskov'' (Between bay and beechwood) and ''Verdens mindste storby'' (World's smallest big city). Aarhus is featured in popular musical numbers such as ''Hjem til Aarhus'' by På Slaget 12, ''Lav sol over Aarhus'' by Gnags, ''8000 Aarhus C'' by Flemming Jørgensen, ''Pigen ud af Aarhus'' by Tina Dickow and ''Slingrer ned ad Vestergade'' by Gnags. In 1919, the number ''Sangen til Aarhus'' (Song to Aarhus) had become a popular hit for a time, but the oldest and perhaps best known \"national anthem\" for the city is the classical ''Aarhus Tappenstreg'' from 1872 by Carl Christian Møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras.\n\n===Museums===\nARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum\nAarhus has a range of museums, including two of the largest in the country measured by the number of visitors, ''Den Gamle By'' and ''ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum''.\n''Den Gamle By'' (The Old Town), officially ''Danmarks Købstadmuseum'' (Denmark's Market Town Museum), presents Danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods. 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right.\n\nThe Old Town Museum\nARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the city's main art museum is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings, installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world. The iconic glass structure on the roof, ''Your Rainbow Panorama'', was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city.\n\nThe Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark's prehistory, including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man. Kvindemuseet, the Women's Museum, from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history. The Occupation Museum (''Besættelsesmuseum'') presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War; the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5,000 species of animals, many in their natural surroundings; and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium. Kunsthal Aarhus (Aarhus Art Hall) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting, sculpture, photography, performance art, film and video. Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre, and one of the oldest in Europe, built and founded in 1917.\n\n===Libraries and community centres===\nDokk1 at the harbour front\nLibraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres. They play an active role in the cultural life and host many events, exhibitions, discussion groups, workshops, educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens. In June 2015, the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front. Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services, commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place. The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has ever undertaken. Apart from this large main library, some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities, but on a more local scale.\n\nThere are also several cultural and community centres scattered throughout the city. This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken, facilitating events for and by non-commercial associations, organisations and clubs, and activities for the elderly, the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard, with workshops, events and exhibitions, and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities. The State Library (''Statsbiblioteket'') at the university campus has status of a national library. The city is a member of the ICORN organisation (International Cities of Refuge Network) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin.\n\n===Performing arts===\nAarhus Theatre\nThe city enjoys strong musical traditions, both classical and alternative, underground and popular, with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset, the opera of Den Jyske Opera, Aarhus Symfoniorkester (Aarhus Symphony Orchestra) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg). Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia, with seating for more than 3,600 people. Other major music venues include VoxHall, rebuilt in 1999, the recently opened Atlas, Train nightclub at the harbourfront, and Godsbanen, a former rail freight station.\n\nSince the 1970s, the city has seen major developments on the pop and rock scene, with the arrival of many acclaimed bands such as Kliché, Under Byen, Gnags, TV-2, Michael Learns to Rock, Nephew, Carpark North, Spleen United, VETO, Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to popular individual performers like Thomas Helmig, Anne Linnet and Medina. Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS (''Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik'') has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA (''Dansk Rock Samråd''), which promotes Danish rock music in general.\n\nThe acting scene in Aarhus is diverse, with many groups and venues including Aarhus Teater, Svalegangen, EntréScenen, Katapult, Gruppe 38, Godsbanen, Helsingør Teater, Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as several dance venues like Bora Bora and Granhøj Dans. The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival, International Living Theatre (ILT), the next event being scheduled for 2017. The former goods station of Aarhus Godsbanegård has recently been thoroughly renovated, redeveloped and expanded with a new building. Now known as Godsbanen, it functions as a cultural centre, and offers numerous workshops for the artist community and local citizens.\n\n===Events and festivals===\nAarhus Pride march\nAarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals, concerts and events, with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide-ranging, along with large sports events. It is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia, always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September, transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds.\n\nThe annual boatrace at University campus\nThere are numerous music festivals; the eight-day Aarhus International Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city. It was founded in 1988 and takes place in either July, August or September every year. There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus. NorthSide Festival presents well known bands every year in mid June on large outdoor scenes. It is a new event, founded in 2010, but grew from a one-day event to a three-day festival in its first three years, now with 35,000 paying guests in 2015. Spot festival is aiming to showcase up-and-coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city. The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark, including Aarhus. Danmarks grimmeste festival (lit. Denmark's ugliest Festival) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen, Brabrand.\n\nAarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres. International Living theatre (ILT) is a bi-annual festival established in 2009, but with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale. The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world, by presenting the best stage art companies of the world, while at the same time attracting stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large. The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival while Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits, concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities.\n\nNotable events of a local scope include the university boat-race, held in the University Park since 1991, which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20,000 people. The boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the ''Gyldne Bækken'' (Golden Chamber Pot) trophy. The annual lighting of the Christmas lights on the Salling department store in Søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times, packing the pedestrianized city center with thousands of revellers. Significant dates such as Saint Lucy's Day, ''Sankt Hans'' (Saint John's Eve) and Fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city.\n\n===Parks, nature and recreation===\n\nBellevue Beach forms the entire coastline\nThe beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south, and apart from the city centre, sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality. There are two public seabaths, the northern ''Den Permanente'' below Riis Skov and close to the harbor area, and the southern Ballehage Beach in the Marselisborg Forests. As in most of Denmark, there are no private beaches in the municipality, but access to ''Den Permanente'' requires a membership, except in the summer.\n\nThe University Park; rolling lawns, ponds and large oak trees. \nBlooming cherry trees and Marselisborg Palace in Mindeparken\n\nThe relatively mild, temperate marine climate, allows for outdoor recreation year round, including walking, hiking, cycling and outdoor team sports. Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes. Watersports like sailing, kayaking, motor boating, etc. are also popular, and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter, they can also be practised most of the year. Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists, radiate from the city centre to the countryside, providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience. This includes the 30 kilometre long pathway of ''Brabrandstien'', encircling the Brabrand Lake. The long-range hiking route Aarhus-Silkeborg, starts off from Brabrandstien.\n\nAarhus has an unusually high number of parks, 134 of them, covering a total area of around . The central Botanical Gardens (''Botanisk Have'') from 1875 are a popular destination, as they include The Old Town open-air museum and host a number of events throughout the year. Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens, there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world, including a section devoted to native Danish plants. Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses, exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world. Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park, recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees. The Memorial Park (''Mindeparken'') at the coast below Marselisborg Palace, offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings, picnics or events. Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park (''Rådhusparken'') and Marienlyst Park (''Marienlystparken''). Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988, situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded, but it is the largest park in Aarhus, including woodlands, large open grasslands and soccer fields.\n\nMarselisborg Forests and Riis Skov, has a long history for recreational activities of all kinds, including several restaurants, hotels and opportunities for green exercise. There are marked routes here for jogging, running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly. This includes running events, cycle racing and orienteering, the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars and the biennial event Sculpture by the Sea, Aarhus, all attracting thousands of people. A new event will replace Sculpture by the Sea in 2017. Marselisborg Deer Park (''Marselisborg Dyrehave'') in Marselisborg Forests, comprises of fenced woodland pastures with free-roaming sika and roe deer. Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests, is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands, presenting different eras of Denmark's prehistory. Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present. Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves, buildings from the Iron Age, Viking Age and medieval times, with grazing goats, sheep and horses in between.\n\n===Food, drink and nightlife===\nAarhus presents a large variety of restaurants.\nAarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world, especially Mediterranean and Asian, but also international gourmet cuisine, traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine. Among the oldest restaurants are ''Rådhuscafeen'' (lit. The City Hall Café), opened in 1924, serving a menu of traditional Danish meals, and ''Peter Gift'' from 1906, a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes. In Aarhus, New Nordic can be experienced at ''Kähler Villa Dining'', ''Hærværk'' and ''Domestic'', but local produce can be had at many places, especially at the twice-weekly food markets in Frederiksbjerg. Arhus and the Central Denmark Region was selected as European Region of Gastronomy in 2017.\n\nAppraised high-end restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj, Restaurant Varna, Nordisk Spisehus, Det Glade Vanvid, La Pyramide, Restaurant ET and Dauphine, all considered among the best places to eat in Denmark. Restaurants in Aarhus were the first in Denmark outside Copenhagen to receive Michelin stars since 2015.\n\nAarhus Street Food, one of two new indoor food halls\nVendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre, often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as ''Pølsevogne'' (lit. sausage wagons), traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs, sausages and other fast food. There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi, kebab and currywurst.\nThe city centre is packed with cafés, especially along the river and the Latin quarter. Some of them also include an evening restaurant, such as ''Café Casablanca'', ''Café Carlton'', ''Café Cross'' and ''Gyngen''. Aarhus Street Food and Aarhus Central Food Market are two new indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre comprising a variety of street food restaurants, cafés and bars.\n\nCheese stand at the local food markets on Frederiksbjerg.\nAarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife. The action tends to concentrate in the inner city, with the pedestrianized riverside, Frederiksgade, the Latin Quarter and Jægergårdsgade on Frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night, but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too. The nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable night clubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars, dance floors and lounges. A short selection of well-established places where you can have a drink and socialise, include the fashionable lounge and night club of ''Kupé'' at the harbour front, the relaxed ''Ris Ras Filliongongong'' offering waterpipes and an award-winning beer selection, ''Fatter Eskild'' with a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock, the wine and book café of ''Løve's'' in Nørregade, ''Sherlock Holmes'', a British-style pub with live music and the brew pub of ''Sct. Clemens'' with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral. There are several clubs, discos and cafés aimed at gays and lesbians, including ''Danish D-lite'' (sports), ''Gbar'' (nightclub) and ''Gaia Vandreklub'' (hiking club).\n\nThe ''Århus Set'' (Danish: Århus Sæt) is a set of drinks often ordered together, named for the city and consisting of two beverages, one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter, both originally from Aarhus. Ordering \"a set\" suffices in most bars and pubs. Aarhus Bryghus is a local microbrewery with a sizeable production. The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there, in most larger well-assorted stores in the city, and in some bars and restaurants as well. They also export.\n\n===Local dialect===\n\nThe Aarhus dialect, commonly called ''Aarhusiansk'' (Lit.: ''Aarhusian''), is a Jutlandic dialect (Danish: Jysk) in the Mid-Eastern Jutland dialect area, traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus. Aarhusian, as most local dialects in Denmark, has diminished in use through the 20th century and most people today speak some version of Standard Danish with regional features although it still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants. Common or traditional Aarhusian words are: træls (tiresome), noller (silly or dumb) and dælme (Excl. damn me). The dialect is notable for single syllable words ending in \"d\" being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple syllable words is pronounced as \"j\", i.e.. Odder is pronounced \"Ojjer\". Like other dialects in East Jutland it has two grammatical genders, similar to Standard Danish, but different from West Jutlandic dialects which have only one. In 2009 the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures, who best exemplify the dialect, including Jacob Haugaard, Thomas Helmig, Steffen Brandt, Stig Tøfting, Flemming Jørgensen, Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin. In popular culture the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros' movie ''Aarhus By Night'' and 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard.\n", "Sailsports in the Aarhus Bay, 2014\n\n\nClub\nSport\nLeague\nVenue (capacity)\nFounded\nTitles\nAttendance\n\n Aarhus Gymnastik Forening\n Soccer\n Superliga\n Ceres Park (20,032)\n 1880\n 5\n 23,990\n\n Aarhus GF Håndbold\n Handball\n Danish Handball League\n NRGi Arena (4,700)\n 2001\n 9\n 4,700\n\n Bakken Bears\n Basketball\n Danish Basketball League\n Vejlby-Risskov Hallen (1,800)\n 1962\n 14\n 2,500\n\nCeres Park in Atletion\nAarhus has three major men's professional sports teams: the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastik Forening (AGF), Danish Handball League's Aarhus GF Håndbold, and Danish Basketball League's Bakken Bears. Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900, Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub. NRGi Park has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men's soccer team in 2006 and 2007. The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre. The Bakken Bears have most recently won the Danish basketball championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.\n\nThe municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city, providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports. The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one. Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Badminton.\n\nIn recent decades, many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city, such as street football, basketball, climbing walls, skateboarding and beach volley. Several natural sites also offer green exercise, with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking. The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example.\n\nAarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women's Handball Championship, the 2014 European Men's Handball Championship, the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championships, the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships, the Denmark Open in badminton, the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup, the 2006 World Orienteering Championships, the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup (women's handball). Aarhus is on average host to one or two international sailing competitions every year and hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships in 2008 and will in 2018 host the ISAF Sailing World Championships, the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines and an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics.\n", "\nAarhus University\n\nAarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region. It draws students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities. Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark, fully 12% of those living there attending short, medium or long courses of study. In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education, several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business. The city is home to more than 55,000 students.\n\nOn 1 January 2012, Aarhus University (AU) was the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled. It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings. The university has approximately 41,500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1,500 Ph.D. students. It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas, from the traditional spheres of natural science, humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry.\n\nAarhus Tech is one of the largest technical colleges in Denmark, teaching undergraduate study programmes in English, including vocational education and training (VET), continuing vocational training (CVT), and human resource development. Business Academy Aarhus is among the largest business academies in Denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees, in IT, business and technical fields. The academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with Aarhus Tech, Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and Aarhus Educational Centre for Agriculture. The Danish School of Media and Journalism (DMJX) is the oldest and largest of the colleges, offering journalism courses since 1946. In 2014 it had approximately 1,700 students. In 1974 it became an independent institution conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level. In 2004, the school collaborated with Aarhus University to establish the Centre for University studies in Journalism, offering master's courses in journalism, and granting degrees through the university.\n\nThe Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus (''Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium'') is a conservatoire, established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927. In 2010, it merged with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg, which was founded in 1930. Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik, it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching, and solo and professional musicianship. VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds, throughout the Central Denmark Region. It offers over 50 higher educations, taught in Danish or sometimes in English, with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects. Aarhus School of Architecture (''Arkitektskolen Aarhus'') was founded in 1965. Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen, it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark. With an enrolment of approximately 900 students, it teaches in five main departments: architecture and aesthetics, urban and landscape, architectonic heritage, design and architectural design. Also of note is KaosPilots and several other higher education centres.\n", "\n===Transport===\nHSC KatExpress 2 in Aarhus harbor\nThe main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre. DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and beyond. Two local railways provide commuter services to Grenaa and Odder. The Aarhus Letbane is a planned tram-train project that will link two railway lines with a new light rail route through the city. Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen (lit.: The Central Station Square) or both. Regional and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal, located north-west of Banegårdspladsen, in front of the Radisson SAS Scandinavia hotel at Margrethepladsen. The long-distance buses of ''linie888'' connect Aarhus to other cities in Jutland and Zealand.\n\nBike parking at the central station.\nFerries administered by Danish ferry company Mols-Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand. The ferries comprises ''HSC KatExpress 1'' and ''HSC KatExpress 2'', the world's largest diesel-powered catamarans, and ''HSC Max Mols''. Aarhus Airport, is located on Djursland, north-east of Aarhus near Tirstrup and provides transport to both Copenhagen and international destinations. The larger Billund Airport is situated south-west of Aarhus.\n\nRegarding air transport, Aarhus is served by the Aarhus Airport in Tirstrup about 35 km northeast of the city centre. There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years, but so far, no plans have been realised. In August 2014, the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport. A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour.\n\nAarhus has a free bike sharing system, Aarhus Bycykler (Aarhus City Bikes). The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in the release slot, like caddies in a supermarket. The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned. Bicycles can also be hired from many shops.\n\n\n\n===Healthcare===\nRisskov Psychiatric Hospital\nAarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital, one of six Danish \"Super Hospitals\" officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector. The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the former hospitals Skejby Sygehus, the Municipal Hospital, the County Hospital, Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital. It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10,000 and 1,150 patient beds, across five locations. In 2012 construction of ''Det Nye Universitetshospital'' (The New University Hospital) began which ending in 2019 will centralize all departments by expanding the former Skejby Sygehus to with an additional for a new psychiatric center. The hospital is divided in four clinical centers, a service center and one administrative unit along with twelve research centers. It was ranked the best hospital in Denmark in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.\n\nPrivate hospitals specialized in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well. ''Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital'' founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark. Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6,000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility. ''Aagaard Clinic'', established in 2004, is another private fertility and gynecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births. Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialized services in the areas of nutrition, exercise, sex, smoking and drinking, activities for the elderly, health courses and lifestyle.\n", "The headquarters of local newspaper Århus Stiftstidende at the central station.\nThe Aarhus Søsterhøj TV tower, height \nThe first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was ''Århus Stiftstidende'', established in 1794 as ''Aarhuus Stifts Adresse-Contoirs Tidender'', with a moderately conservative approach. Once one of Denmark's largest, it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time, but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from ''Demokraten'' (1884–1974) and ''Jyllands-Posten'', both published in Aarhus. In 1998, it merged with ''Randers Amtsavis'' and is now run by Midtjyske Medier, part of Berlingske Media. The daily newspaper of ''Jyllandsposten'' (today known as ''Jyllands-Posten'') was established in 1871 in Aarhus, and takes a generally right-wing editorial approach. With a reputation as a serious news publication, the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular, but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper (''Morgenavisen Jyllands-Posten'') in the 1960s. Today it is one of the three leading serious newspapers in Denmark, the others being ''Berlingske'' and ''Politiken''. Jyllands-Posten publishes ''JP Aarhus'', a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus, and the free cityguide website of ''Aarhusportalen'' (The Aarhus Portal). The Copenhagen-based media company of ''Politiken'', also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden. In Aarhus, they publish a total of five local newspapers; ''Aarhus Midt'', ''Aarhus Nord'', ''Aarhus Vest'', ''Aarhus Syd'' and ''Aarhus Weekend''.\n\nDanmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees. It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme, provides local contributions to DR P4, and produces local regional television programmes. In 1990, TV 2 established its Jutland headquarters in Randers but moved to Skejby in northern Aarhus in 1999. The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes. Since 2012, it has run its own TV channel, TV 2 Østjylland. Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus, transmitting since 1984. After an agreement on 1 July 2014, TVAarhus can be watched by 130,000 households in Aarhus, making it the largest cable-transmitted local TV channel in Denmark.\n\nWith over 1,700 students, the Danish School of Media and Journalism (''Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole'') is the country's largest and oldest school of journalism. The school works closely with Aarhus University where the first journalism course was established in 1946. In 2004, the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism, which offers master's courses.\n", "Aarhus is home to 32 consulates and the city is twinned with seven cities, all co-operating in the spheres of public schools, culture, welfare and commercial interests.\n\n;Twin towns / sister cities\n\n\n\n* Bergen, Norway (since 1946)\n* Gothenburg, Sweden (since 1946)\n* Turku, Finland (since 1946)\n* Kujalleq, Greenland (since 1962)\n* Harbin, China (since 1984)\n* St. Petersburg, Russia (since 1989)\n* Rostock, Germany (since 2006)\n\n\n;Consulates\n\n* Austria\n* Belgium\n* Burkina Faso\n* Chile\n* Croatia\n* Cyprus\n* Czech Republic\n* Estonia\n* Finland\n* France\n* Germany\n* Greece\n* Hungary\n* Iceland\n* Japan\n* Lithuania\n* Malta\n* Mexico\n* Netherlands\n* Norway\n* Oman\n* Poland\n* South Korea\n* Romania\n* Slovakia\n* Slovenia\n* Spain\n* Sweden\n* Turkey\n* Ukraine\n* United Kingdom\n\n", "\n", "\n;Publications\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n", "\n\n* ''Aarhus Kommune'' Official municipal and city portal \n* ''Visit Aarhus'' Official tourist site\n\n\n*\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Etymology", "History", "Geography", "Politics and administration", "Demographics", "Economy", "Cityscape", "Culture", "Sports", "Education", "Infrastructure", "Media", "Twin towns and consulates", "Notable people", "Notes and references", "Further reading", "External links" ]	Aarhus
[ "\n\nThe '''northern cavefish''' or '''northern blindfish''', ''Amblyopsis spelaea'', is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. It is listed as a threatened species in the United States and the IUCN lists the species as near threatened.\n\nDuring a 2013 study of ''Amblyopsis spelaea'', scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky. The southern population retained the name ''A. spelaea'' and the northern was re-designated ''Amblyopsis hoosieri'' in a 2014 paper published in the journal ''ZooKeys''. Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana.\n", "\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "References" ]	Northern cavefish
[ "\n\n\n'''Abatement''' refers generally to a lessening, diminution, reduction, or moderation; specifically, it may refer to:\n\n* Abatement of debts and legacies, a common law doctrine of wills\n* Abatement in pleading, a legal defense to civil and criminal actions based purely on procedural and technical issues involving the death of parties\n* Abatement (heraldry), a modification of the shield or coat of arms that supposedly can be imposed by authority (in England supposedly by the Court of Chivalry) for misconduct\n* Asbestos abatement\n* Bird abatement, driving or removing undesired birds from an area\n* Dust abatement, the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust, a pollutant that contributes to excess levels of particulate matter\n* Graffiti abatement\n* Nuisance abatement\n", "* Abate (disambiguation)\n* Noise mitigation, also known as noise abatement\n* Tax holiday (or ''tax abatement'') is used in the field of economic development to encourage businesses to relocate, expand, and more currently to retain facilities in a community\n* 421-a tax abatement, a specific tax abatement program for affordable housing in New York City\n* Marginal abatement cost, the marginal cost of reducing pollution\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Abatement
[ "\n\n\nAn '''amateur''' (French ''amateur'' \"lover of\", from Old French and ultimately from Latin ''amatorem'' nom. ''amator'', \"lover\") is generally considered a person attached to a particular pursuit, study, or science in a non-professional or unpaid manner.\n", "\n* \n* Amateur astronomy\n* Amateur chemistry\n* Amateur film\n* Amateur geology\n* Amateur journalism\n* Amateur radio\n* Amateur sports\n* Amateur theatre\n* Amateur pornography\n* Community organizing\n* Hobby\n* Home movies\n* List of amateur mathematicians\n* Prosumer\n* User-generated content\n* Volunteering\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "See also" ]	Amateur
[ "\nCarrel in 1912\n'''Alexis Carrel''' (; 28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles A. Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. Like many intellectuals of his time, he promoted eugenics. \nHe was a regent for the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems during Vichy France which implemented the eugenics policies there; his association with the Foundation and with Jacques Doriot's ultra-nationalist Parti Populaire Français led to investigations of collaborating with the Nazis, but he died before any trial could be held. He faced media attacks towards the end of his life over his alleged involvement with the Nazis.\n\nA Nobel Prize laureate in 1912, Alexis Carrel was also elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.\n", "Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student. He was a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery. Alexis Carrel was also a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy and Greece and received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown University and Columbia University.\n\nIn 1902, he was claimed to have witnessed the miraculous cure of Marie Bailly at Lourdes, made famous in part because she named Carrel as a witness of her cure. After the notoriety surrounding the event, Carrel could not obtain a hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the French university system at the time. In 1903 he emigrated to Montreal, Canada, but soon relocated to Chicago, Illinois to work for Hull Laboratory. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts.\n\nIn 1906 he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career. There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death.\n\nDue to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial.\n\nIn his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939 he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest, Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life. In 1942, he said \"I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches.\" He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.\n\nFor much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the Ile Saint-Gildas, which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s.\n", "\n=== Vascular suture ===\nCarrel was a young surgeon in 1894, when the French president Sadi Carnot was assassinated with a knife. Carnot bled to death due to severing of his portal vein, and surgeons who treated the president felt that the could not be successfully reconnected. This left a deep impression on Carrel, and he set about developing new techniques for suturing blood vessels. The technique of \"triangulation\", using three stay-sutures as traction points in order to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing, was inspired by sewing lessons he took from an embroideress and is still used today. Julius Comroe wrote: \"Between 1901 and 1910, Alexis Carrel, using experimental animals, performed every feat and developed every technique known to vascular surgery today.\" He had great success in reconnecting arteries and veins, and performing surgical grafts, and this led to his Nobel Prize in 1912.\n\n=== Wound antisepsis ===\n\nDuring World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds based on chlorine (Dakin's solution) which, preceding the development of antibiotics, was a major medical advance in the care of traumatic wounds. For this, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur.\n\n=== Organ transplants ===\nCarrel co-authored a book with famed pilot Charles A. Lindbergh, ''The Culture of Organs'', and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the \"perfusion pump,\" which allowed living organs to exist outside the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the artificial heart, which became a reality decades later. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention, but other sources say Lindbergh played an important role in developing the device. Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of ''Time'' magazine on June 13, 1938.\n\n=== Cellular senescence ===\nCarrel was also interested in the phenomenon of senescence, or aging. He claimed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, and this became a dominant view in the early 20th century. Carrel started an experiment on January 17, 1912, where he placed tissue cultured from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design. He maintained the living culture for over 20 years with regular supplies of nutrient. This was longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. The experiment, which was conducted at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, attracted considerable popular and scientific attention.\n\nCarrel's experiment by some was never successfully replicated, and in the 1960s Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed that differentiated cells can undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying. This is known as the Hayflick limit, and is now a pillar of biology.\n\nL. Hayflick has shown that a cell has a limited number of divisions, equal to the so called \"Hayflick’s Limit.\" However, L. Franks and others (Loo et al. 1987; Nooden and Tompson 1995; Frolkis 1988a), have shown that the number of cell divisions can be considerably greater than that stipulated by the \"Hayflick Limit\", having practically no limit at all.\n\nIt is not certain how Carrel obtained his anomalous results. Leonard Hayflick suggests that the daily feeding of nutrient was continually introducing new living cells to the alleged immortal culture. J. A. Witkowski has argued that, while \"immortal\" strains of visibly mutated cells have been obtained by other experimenters, a more likely explanation is deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge.\n\n=== Honors ===\nIn 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. In 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs.\n\nIn February 2002, as part of celebrations of the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize, given to major contributors to \"development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth\". Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists received the prize, a bronze statuette created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named \"Elisabeth\" after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, who died from heart disease. It was in fact Lindbergh's disappointment that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump which would allow for heart surgery on her that led to Lindbergh's first contact with Carrel.\n", "\nIn 1902 Alexis Carrel went from being a skeptic of the visions and miracles reported at Lourdes to being a believer in spiritual cures after experiencing a healing of Marie Bailly that he could not explain. The Catholic journal ''Le nouvelliste'' reported that she named him as the prime witness of her cure. Alexis Carrel refused to discount a supernatural explanation and steadfastly reiterated his beliefs, even writing a book describing his experience, though it was not published until four years after his death. This was a detriment to his career and reputation among his fellow doctors, and feeling he had no future in academic medicine in France, he emigrated to Canada with the intention of farming and raising cattle. After a brief period, he accepted an appointment at the University of Chicago and two years later at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research.\n", "\nIn 1935, Carrel published a book titled ''L'Homme, cet inconnu'' (''Man, The Unknown''), which became a best-seller. In the book, he attempted to outline a comprehensive account what is known and more importantly unknown of the human body and human life \"in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine\", to elucidate problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings.\n\nFor Carrel, the fundamental problem was that:\n\nMen cannot follow modern civilization along its present course, because they are degenerating. They have been fascinated by the beauty of the sciences of inert matter. They have not understood that their body and consciousness are subjected to natural laws, more obscure than, but as inexorable as, the laws of the sidereal world. Neither have they understood that they cannot transgress these laws without being punished. They must, therefore, learn the necessary relations of the cosmic universe, of their fellow men, and of their inner selves, and also those of their tissues and their mind. Indeed, man stands above all things. Should he degenerate, the beauty of civilization, and even the grandeur of the physical universe, would vanish. ... Humanity’s attention must turn from the machines of the world of inanimate matter to the body and the soul of man, to the organic and mental processes which have created the machines and the universe of Newton and Einstein.\n\nCarrell advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group of intellectuals, and by incorporating eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy springing from individuals of potential, writing:\n\nWe must single out the children who are endowed with high potentialities, and develop them as completely as possible. And in this manner give to the nation a non-hereditary aristocracy. Such children may be found in all classes of society, although distinguished men appear more frequently in distinguished families than in others. The descendants of the founders of American civilization may still possess the ancestral qualities. These qualities are generally hidden under the cloak of degeneration. But this degeneration is often superficial. It comes chiefly from education, idleness, lack of responsibility and moral discipline. The sons of very rich men, like those of criminals, should be removed while still infants from their natural surroundings. Thus separated from their family, they could manifest their hereditary strength. In the aristocratic families of Europe there are also individuals of great vitality. The issue of the Crusaders is by no means extinct. The laws of genetics indicate the probability that the legendary audacity and love of adventure can appear again in the lineage of the feudal lords. It is possible also that the offspring of the great criminals who had imagination, courage, and judgment, of the heroes of the French or Russian Revolutions, of the high-handed business men who live among us, might be excellent building stones for an enterprising minority. As we know, criminality is not hereditary if not united with feeble-mindedness or other mental or cerebral defects. High potentialities are rarely encountered in the sons of honest, intelligent, hard-working men who have had ill luck in their careers, who have failed in business or have muddled along all their lives in inferior positions. Or among peasants living on the same spot for centuries. However, from such people sometimes spring artists, poets, adventurers, saints. A brilliantly gifted and well-known New York family came from peasants who cultivated their farm in the south of France from the time of Charlemagne to that of Napoleon.\n\nCarrel advocated the use of gasses to rid humanity of \"defectives\", thus endorsing the scientific racism discourse. His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930s, prior to the Nazi implementation of such practices in Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publisher's request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages:\n \"(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.\"\n\nFor the insane and the criminal, he endorsed the use of gassing for euthanasia: \n\"(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.\".\n\nOtherwise he endorsed voluntary positive eugenics. He wrote:\nWe have mentioned that natural selection has not played its part for a long while. That many inferior individuals have been conserved through the efforts of hygiene and medicine. But we cannot prevent the reproduction of the weak when they are neither insane nor criminal. Or destroy sickly or defective children as we do the weaklings in a litter of puppies. The only way to obviate the disastrous predominance of the weak is to develop the strong. Our efforts to render normal the unfit are evidently useless. We should, then, turn our attention toward promoting the optimum growth of the fit. By making the strong still stronger, we could effectively help the weak; For the herd always profits by the ideas and inventions of the elite. Instead of leveling organic and mental inequalities, we should amplify them and construct greater men.\n\nHe continued:\nThe progress of the strong depends on the conditions of their development and the possibility left to parents of transmitting to their offspring the qualities which they have acquired in the course of their existence. Modern society must, therefore, allow to all a certain stability of life, a home, a garden, some friends. Children must be reared in contact with things which are the expression of the mind of their parents. It is imperative to stop the transformation of the farmer, the artisan, the artist, the professor, and the man of science into manual or intellectual proletarians, possessing nothing but their hands or their brains. The development of this proletariat will be the everlasting shame of industrial civilization. It has contributed to the disappearance of the family as a social unit, and to the weakening of intelligence and moral sense. It is destroying the remains of culture. All forms of the proletariat must be suppressed. Each individual should have the security and the stability required for the foundation of a family. Marriage must cease being only a temporary union. The union of man and woman, like that of the higher anthropoids, ought to last at least until the young have no further need of protection. The laws relating to education, and especially to that of girls, to marriage, and divorce should, above all, take into account the interest of children. Women should receive a higher education, not in order to become doctors, lawyers, or professors, but to rear their offspring to be valuable human beings.\n\nThe free practice of eugenics could lead not only to the development of stronger individuals, but also of strains endowed with more endurance, intelligence, and courage. These strains should constitute an aristocracy, from which great men would probably appear. Modern society must promote, by all possible means, the formation of better human stock. No financial or moral rewards should be too great for those who, through the wisdom of their marriage, would engender geniuses. The complexity of our civilization is immense. No one can master all its mechanisms. However, these mechanisms have to be mastered. There is need today of men of larger mental and moral size, capable of accomplishing such a task. The establishment of a hereditary biological aristocracy through voluntary eugenics would be an important step toward the solution of our present problems.\n", "In 1937, Carrel joined Jean Coutrot’s ''Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains'' - Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an \"economic humanism\" through \"collective thinking.\" In 1941, through connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of the ''Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains'' (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent'.\n\nThe foundation was at the origin of the October 11, 1946, law, enacted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which institutionalized the field of occupational medicine. It worked on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat), on economics, (François Perroux), on nutrition (Jean Sutter), on habitation (Jean Merlet) and on the first opinion polls (Jean Stoetzel). \"The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs.\"\n\nThe Foundation made many positive accomplishments during its time. Yet it was also behind the origin of the December 16, 1942 Act inventing the \"prenuptial certificate\", which had to precede any marriage and was supposed, after a biological examination, to insure the \"good health\" of the spouses, in particular in regard to sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and \"life hygiene\" (sic). The institute also conceived the \"scholar book\" (\"livret scolaire\"), which could be used to record students' grades in the French secondary schools, and thus classify and select them according to scholastic performance.\n\nAccording to Gwen Terrenoire, writing in ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'', \"The foundation was a pluridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was \"purged\", only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still active.\" Although Carrel himself was dead most members of his team did move to the INED, which was led by famous demographist Alfred Sauvy, who coined the expression \"Third World\". Others joined Robert Debré's \"Institut national d'hygiène\" (National Hygiene Institute), which later became the INSERM.\n", "Experiments with the Carrel-Dakin method were depicted in the 2014 BBC miniseries, ''The Crimson Field''.\n", "* HeLa\n", "\n", "* Carrel, Alexis. ''Man, The Unknown.'' New York and London: Harper and Brothers, 1939.\n* Szasz, Thomas. ''The Theology of Medicine''. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.\n* Feuerwerker, Elie. ''Alexis Carrel et l'eugénisme.'' Le Monde, 1er Juillet 1986.\n* Schneider, William. ''Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France'', Cambridge UP 1990.\n* Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' Editions Syllepse, 1996. \n* David Zane Mairowitz. \"''Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity''\", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997\n* Reggiani, Andrés Horacio. ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'' ''French Historical Studies, Spring 2002; 25: pp. 331 - 356.\n* Wallace, Max. ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich'' St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.\n* Berman, Paul. ''Terror and Liberalism'' W. W. Norton, 2003.\n* Walther, Rudolph. ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', ''DIE ZEIT'', 31.07.2003 Nr. 32\n* Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003 ( Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO)\n* Reggiani, Andrés Horacio. ''God's Eugenicist. Alexis Carrel and the Sociobiology of Decline.'' Berghahn Books, Oxford 2007.\n* Friedman, David M. ''The Immortalists: Charles Lindbergh, Dr. Alexis Carrel, and Their Daring Quest to Live Forever''. HarperCollins, NY 2007.\n", "\n\n\n* Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel\n* Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel\n* Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel\n* ''Time'', October 16, 1944\n* Death of Alexis Carrel, ''Time'', November 13, 1944\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Biography ", " Contributions to science ", " Alexis Carrel and Lourdes ", " ''Man, The Unknown'' (1935, 1939) ", "French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems ", "In popular culture", "See also", " References ", " Sources ", " External links " ]	Alexis Carrel
[ "\n\n\n\n\n\nIn Christianity, '''All Souls' Day''' commemorates '''All Souls''', the '''Holy Souls''', or the '''Faithful Departed'''; that is, the souls of Christians who have died. Observing Christians typically remember deceased relatives on the day. In Western Christianity the annual celebration is now held on 2 November and is associated with the three days of Allhallowtide, including All Saints' Day (1 November) and its vigil, Halloween (31 October). In the Catholic Church, \"the faithful\" refers specifically to baptized Catholics; \"all souls\" commemorates the church penitent of souls in Purgatory, whereas \"all saints\" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in Heaven. In the liturgical books of the western Catholic Church (the Latin Church) it is called the '''Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed''' (), and is celebrated annually on 2 November. In the ordinary form and Divine Worship form of the Roman Rite, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday; in the extraordinary form, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November. On this day in particular, Catholics pray for the dead. In Anglicanism it is called '''Commemoration of All Faithful Departed''' and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to \"remember those who have died\", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and the associated Eastern Catholic Churches, it is celebrated several times during the year and is not associated with the month of November.\n\nBeliefs and practices associated with All Souls' Day vary widely among Christian churches and denominations.\n\n==Byzantine (Greek) Catholic and the Eastern Orthodoxy==\n\nAmong Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine (Greek) Catholics, there are several All Souls' Days during the year. Most of these fall on Saturday, since Jesus lay in the Tomb on Holy Saturday. They occur on the following occasions:\nThe Saturday of Meatfare Week (the second Saturday before Great Lent)—the day before the Sunday of the Last Judgement\nThe second Saturday of Great Lent\nThe third Saturday of Great Lent\nThe fourth Saturday of Great Lent\nRadonitsa (Monday or Tuesday after Thomas Sunday)\nThe Saturday before Pentecost\nDemetrius Saturday (the Saturday before the feast of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki—26 October) (In all of the Orthodox Church there is a commemoration of the dead on the Saturday before the feast of Saint Michael the Archangel—8 November, instead of the Demetrius Soul Saturday)\n\nIn the Serbian Orthodox Church there is also a commemoration of the dead on the Saturday closest to the Conception of St. John the Baptist—23 September\n\nIn Slavic and Greek Churches, all of the Lenten Soul Saturdays are typically observed. In some of the Churches of the Eastern Mediterranean, Meatfare Saturday, Radonitsa and the Saturday before Pentecost are typically observed.\n\nIn addition to the Sundays mentioned above, Saturdays throughout the year are days for general commemoration of all saints, and special hymns to all saints are chanted from the Octoechos, unless some greater feast or saint's commemoration occurs.\n", "\nEast Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany(which means Friday just before start of Great Lent). The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. And on each Fridays of season of Epiphany the church remembers some important figures in the evangelism.\n\nApart from this In Syro Malabar Church Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful. Here the parish remembers the activities of forefathers who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed for the faithful celebration of parish festival.\n\nIn east Syriac liturgy the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Fridays throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.\n", "''All Souls' Day'', Painting by Jakub Schikaneder, 1888.\nPrayer for the dead is a documented practice in Judaism and Christianity. The setting aside of a particular day for praying not for certain named individuals but for whole classes of the departed or for the dead in general cannot be traced to the earliest Christian centuries, but was well established by the end of the first millennium. Prayers for the deceased members of Benedictine monasteries were offered in the week after Pentecost and the practice of praying for the dead at a date near Pentecost was also followed in Spain in the 7th century. Other dates chosen were Epiphany and the anniversary of the death of some well-known saint, as shown by evidence from the beginning of the 9th century. By about 980, 1 October was an established date in Germany. The 11th century saw the introduction of a liturgical commemoration in diocesan calendars. \nIn Milan the date was 16 October until changed in the second half of the 16th century to 2 November. This date, the day after All Saints' Day, was that which Saint Odilo of Cluny chose in the 11th century for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny. From these the 2 November custom spread to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general.\n\nThe official name of the celebration in the Roman Rite liturgy is \"The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed\". In some countries the celebration is known as the \"Day of the Dead\".\n\nIn the Roman Rite as revised in 1969, if 2 November falls on a Sunday, the Mass is of All Souls, but the Liturgy of the Hours is that of the Sunday. However, public celebration of Lauds and Vespers of the Dead with the people participating is permitted. While celebration of a Sunday, a solemnity or a feast of the Lord replacing a Sunday begins on the previous evening with Vespers and perhaps evening Mass, the general norms do not allow for anticipation on Saturday evening of the liturgy of All Souls' Day falling on a Sunday, and so they suggest that the formula of the Mass on that Saturday evening is that of the solemnity of All Saints, which outranks the Sunday of Ordinary Time whose Mass would be celebrated on that evening. However, in 2014, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops decided that for that year the Saturday evening (Sunday vigil) Mass in that country was to be that of All Souls; in countries such as Italy the situation was less clear.\n\nIn countries where All Saints' Day is not a holy day of obligation attendance at an evening Mass of All Saints on Saturday 1 November satisfies the Sunday obligation. In England and Wales, where holy days of obligation that fall on a Saturday are transferred to the following day, if 2 November is a Sunday, the solemnity of All Saints is transferred to that date, and All Souls Day is transferred to 3 November. In pre-1970 forms of the Roman Rite, still observed by some, if All Souls Day falls on a Sunday, it is always transferred to 3 November.\n\nFaithful departed may gain indulgence, either plenary or partial indulgence, if the living perform certain acts and meet the specified requirements.\n\nIn Divine Worship: The Missal the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.\n", "All Souls Anglican Church in the Diocese of Sydney, a parish dedicated to All Souls\nIn the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as \"an extension of All Saints' Day\", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide. Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has \"led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans\". Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:\n\nAs such, Anglican parishes \"now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration\", in keeping with this fresh perspective. Contributing to the revival was the need \"to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I\". Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, \"are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month\".\n\nAt the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England or, in the judgement of some, it was \"deservedly abrogated\". It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century and was officially restored in United States Anglicanism with the 1979 Book of Common Prayer and in the Church of England with the 1980 ''Alternative Service Book''. It features in ''Common Worship'' as a Lesser Festival called \"Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)\".\n", "graveyard outside a Lutheran church in the Swedish city of Röke during Allhallowtide.\|200px\|thumb\|left\nAmong continental Protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded; ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with, and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day. Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the ''jour des morts'', so German, Polish and Hungarian people stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights (see the picture). Among Czech people the custom of visiting and tidying graves of relatives on the day is quite common. In 1816, Prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the Dead among its Lutheran citizens: Totensonntag, the last Sunday before Advent. This custom was later also adopted by the non-Prussian Lutherans in Germany, but it has not spread much beyond the Protestant areas of Germany.\n\nIn the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saint's Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered. In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists \"remember our loved ones who had died\" in their observance of this feast.\n", "Some believe that the origins of All Souls' Day in European folklore and folk belief are related to customs of ancestor veneration practiced worldwide, through events such as, in India Pitru Paksha, the Chinese Ghost Festival, the Japanese Bon Festival. The Roman custom was that of the Lemuria.\n\nThe formal commemoration of the saints and martyrs (All Saints' Day) existed in the early Christian church since its legalization, and alongside that developed a day for commemoration of all the dead (All Souls' Day). The modern date of All Souls' Day was first popularized in the early eleventh century after Abbot Odilo established it as a day for the monks of Cluny and associated monasteries to pray for the souls in purgatory.\n\nMany of these European traditions reflect the dogma of purgatory. For example, ringing bells for the dead was believed to comfort them in their cleansing there, while the sharing of soul cakes with the poor helped to buy the dead a bit of respite from the suffering of purgatory. In the same way, lighting candles was meant to kindle a light for the dead souls languishing in the darkness. Out of this grew the traditions of \"going souling\" and the baking of special types of bread or cakes.\n\nIn Tirol, cakes are left for them on the table and the room kept warm for their comfort. In Brittany, people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones, and to anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, the supper is left on the table for the souls.\n\nIn Bolivia, many people believe that the dead eat the food that is left out for them.\nIn Brazil people attend a Mass or visit the cemetery taking flowers to decorate their relatives' grave, but no food is involved.\n\nIn Malta many people make pilgrimages to graveyards, not just to visit the graves of their dead relatives, but to experience the special day in all its significance. Visits are not restricted to this day alone. During the month of November, Malta's cemeteries are frequented by families of the departed. Mass is also said throughout the month, with certain Catholic parishes organising special events at cemetery chapels.\n\nIn Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Soul's Day and the evening before.\n", "Office of the Dead\nSaturday of Souls\nThursday of the Dead\nZaduszki\nFestival of the Dead\n", "\n", "\n* All Souls' Day at NetGlimse.com\n* American Catholic: Feast of All Souls\n* Notes on Russian Orthodox observance by N. Bulgakov\n* N. Bulgakov\n* Photos of All Souls' Day, Calcutta\n* Notes on the medieval history of All Saints and All Souls, and traditions like souling and the distribution of soul cakes in Europe\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "East Syriac Tradition", "Roman Catholicism", "Anglican Communion", "Protestant churches", "Origins, practices and purposes", "See also", "Notes", "External links" ]	All Souls' Day
[ "\n\n\n\n'''''' (; born '''''', ; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist. He was a successful novelist, with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters. He was a member of the '''', and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature \"in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament\". \nFrance is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol in 's ''In Search of Lost Time''.\n", "The son of a bookseller, France spent most of his life around books and was a bibliophile. His father's bookstore, called the '''', specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many notable writers and scholars of the day. France studied at the '''', a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore. After several years he secured the position of cataloguer at and at . In 1876 he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.\n", "Anatole France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, '''' published one of his poems, ''''. In 1875, he sat on the committee which was in charge of the third '''' compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became famous with the novel '''' (1881). Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the . France's home, 5 , 1894–1924\nIn '''' (1893) Anatole France ridiculed belief in the occult; and in '''' (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the ''''. France was elected to the '''' in 1896.\n\nAnatole France took an important part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed 's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage. France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel ''''.\n\nFrance's later works include '''' (1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the animals have been baptized by mistake by the nearsighted Abbot . It is a satirical history of France, starting in Medieval times, going on to the writer's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus Affair and concluding with a dystopian future. '''' (1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. '''' (1914) is often considered Anatole France's most profound novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of . Arcade falls in love, joins the revolutionary movement of angels, and towards the end realizes that the overthrow of God is meaningless unless \"in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth.\"\n\nHe was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died in 1924 and is buried in the community cemetery near Paris.\n\nOn 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the '''' (Prohibited Books Index) of the Roman Catholic Church. He regarded this as a \"distinction\". This Index was abolished in 1966.\n", "In 1877, Anatole France married , a granddaughter of a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI, with whom he had a daughter, Suzanne, in 1881 (dec. 1918). France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with , who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic; the affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910. After his divorce in 1893, he had many liaisons, notably with , who committed suicide in 1911. France married again in 1920, .\n\nPolitically, Anatole France was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party.\n\nHe was an atheist.\n", "After his death in 1924 France was the object of written attacks, including a particularly venomous one from the Nazi collaborator, , and detractors decided he was a vulgar and derivative writer. An admirer, the English writer George Orwell, defended him however and declared that he remained very readable, and that \"it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motive.\" Anatole France was also documented to have a brain size just three-quarters the average weight, and racial anthropologist Arthur Keith argued that this correlated well with the fact that his life had demonstrated that he was in many ways \"a primitive man\".\n\n", "\n===Poetry===\nVanity Fair'', 1909\n''Nos Enfants'', illustrations by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel (1900)\n* '''', poem published in 1867 in the ''''.\n* '''' (1873)\n* '''' (''The Bride of Corinth'') (1876)\n\n===Prose fiction===\n* '''' (''Jocasta and the Famished Cat'') (1879)\n* '''' (''The Crime of '') (1881)\n* '''' (''The Aspirations of '') (1882)\n* '''' (''Honey-Bee'') (1883)\n* '''' (1889)\n* '''' (1890)\n* '''' (''Mother of Pearl'') (1892)\n* '''' (''At the Sign of the '') (1892)\n* '''' (''The Opinions of Jerome Coignard'') (1893)\n* '''' (''The Red Lily'') (1894)\n* '''' (''The Well of Saint Clare'') (1895)\n* '''' (''A Chronicle of Our Own Times'')\n 1: '''' (''The Elm-Tree on the Mall'')(1897)\n 2: '''' (''The Wicker-Work Woman'') (1897)\n 3: '''' (''The Amethyst Ring'') (1899)\n 4: '''' ('' in Paris'') (1901)\n* '''' (1900)\n* '''' (''A Mummer's Tale'') (1903)\n* '''' (''The White Stone'') (1905)\n* '''' (1901)\n* '''' (''Penguin Island'') (1908)\n* '''' (''The Merrie Tales of '') (1908)\n* '''' (''The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvellous Tales'') (1909)\n* '''' (''The Gods Are Athirst'') (1912)\n* '''' (''The Revolt of the Angels'') (1914)\n\n===Memoirs===\n* '''' (''My Friend's Book'') (1885)\n* '''' (1899)\n* '''' (''Little '') (1918)\n* '''' (''The Bloom of Life'') (1922)\n\n===Plays===\n* '''' (1898)\n* '''' (1903)\n* '''' (''The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife'') (1908)\n* '''' (''The Wicker Woman'') (1928)\n\n===Historical biography===\n* '''' (''The Life of Joan of Arc'') (1908)\n\n===Literary criticism===\n* '''' (1869)\n* '''' (1888)\n* '''' (''The Latin Genius'') (1909)\n\n===Social criticism===\nAnatole France c. 1921\n* '''' (''The Garden of Epicurus'') (1895)\n* '''' (1902)\n* '''' (1904)\n* '''' (1906)\n* '''' (1915)\n* '''', in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* \n* \n* \n* \n* \n* Anatole France: A Brief Introduction\n* ''Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner'' by Herbert S. Gorman, ''The New York Times'', 20 November 1921\n* Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury at Syracuse University\n* \n* Anatole France, his work in audio version 20px\n* Dreyfus Rehabilitated\n* \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early years", "Literary career", "Private life", "Reputation", "Works", "References", "External links" ]	Anatole France
[ "\n\n\n\n'''André Paul Guillaume Gide''' (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French author and winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1947 \"for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight\". Gide's career ranged from its beginnings in the symbolist movement, to the advent of anticolonialism between the two World Wars.\n\nKnown for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straitlaced traducing of education and a narrow social moralism. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints, and centres on his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as indicated by his repudiation of communism after his 1936 voyage to the USSR.\n", "André Gide in 1893Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869, into a middle-class Protestant family. His father was a Paris University professor of law who died in 1880. His uncle was the political economist Charles Gide.\n\nGide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel, ''The Notebooks of André Walter'' (French: ''Les Cahiers d'André Walter''), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one.\n\nIn 1893 and 1894, Gide travelled in Northern Africa, and it was there that he came to accept his attraction to boys.\n\nHe befriended Oscar Wilde in Paris, and in 1895 Gide and Wilde met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but, in fact, Gide had already discovered this on his own.\n", "Gide photographed by Ottoline Morrell in 1924.\nAndré Gide by Paul Albert Laurens (1924)\nIn 1895, after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux, but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he became mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.\n\nIn 1901, Gide rented the property Maderia in St. Brélade's Bay and lived there while residing in Jersey. This period, 1901–07, is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him.\n\nIn 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine ''Nouvelle Revue Française'' (''The New French Review''). In 1916, Marc Allégret, only 15 years old, became his lover. Marc was the son – one of five children – of Elie Allégret, who years before had been hired by Gide's mother to tutor her son in light of his weak grades in school, after which he and Gide became fast friends; Allégret was best man at Gide's wedding. Gide and Marc fled to London, in retribution for which his wife burned all his correspondence – \"the best part of myself,\" he later commented. In 1918, he met Dorothy Bussy, who was his friend for over thirty years and translated many of his works into English.\n\nIn the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for writers such as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of ''Corydon'' (1924) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.\n\nIn 1923, he sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a woman who was much younger than he. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his closest female friend, Maria Monnom, the wife of his friend the Belgian neo-impressionist painter Théo van Rysselberghe. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide and damaged the relation with van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual liaison with a woman, and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine became his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth \"La Dame Blanche\" (\"The White Lady\"). Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built for each on the rue Vavin). She worshiped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship. Gide's legal wife, Madeleine, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in his memoir of Madeleine, ''Et Nunc Manet in Te''.\n\nIn 1924, he published an autobiography, ''If it Die...'' (French: ''Si le grain ne meurt'').\n\nIn the same year, he produced the first French language editions of Joseph Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'' and ''Lord Jim''.\n\nAfter 1925, he began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals.\n", "From July 1926 to May 1927, he travelled through the French Equatorial Africa colony with his lover Marc Allégret. Gide went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called ''Travels in the Congo'' (French: ''Voyage au Congo'') and ''Return from Chad'' (French: ''Retour du Tchad''). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the ''Large Concessions'' regime (French: ''régime des Grandes Concessions''), ''i.e.,'' a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all of the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related, for instance, how natives were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to slavery. The book had important influence on anti-colonialism movements in France and helped re-evaluate the impact of colonialism.\n", "During the 1930s, he briefly became a communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined the Communist Party). As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of communism, he was invited to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. The tour disillusioned him and he subsequently became quite critical of Soviet communism. This criticism of communism caused him to lose socialist friends, especially when he made a clean break with it in ''Retour de L'U.R.S.S.'' in 1936. He was also a contributor to ''The God That Failed''.\n\n:My faith in communism is like my faith in religion: it is a promise of salvation for mankind. If I have to lay my life down that it may succeed, I would do so without hesitation.—André Gide, ''The God That Failed''\n\n...and after his visit to the Soviet Union:\n\n:It is impermissible under any circumstances for morals to sink as low as communism has done. No one can begin to imagine the tragedy of humanity, of morality, of religion and of freedoms in the land of communism, where man has been debased beyond belief.—André Gide, quoted in ''Culture, Civilization, and Humanity''\n\n:In my opinion, in no country today, not even in Hitler’s Germany, is the spirit more suppressed, more timid, more servile than in the Soviet Union.—André Gide\n", "\nIn 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case called ''La Séquestrée de Poitiers'', changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.\n\nIn 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious ''Bibliothèque de la Pléiade''.\n\nHe left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis until the end of World War II. In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature. He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal. Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the ''Index of Forbidden Books'' in 1952.\n", "\nGide’s biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide’s life as a writer and an intellectual:\n\n:\"Gide was, by general consent, one of the dozen most important writers of the 20th century. Moreover, no writer of such stature had led such an interesting life, a life accessibly interesting to us as readers of his autobiographical writings, his journal, his voluminous correspondence and the testimony of others. It was the life of a man engaging not only in the business of artistic creation, but reflecting on that process in his journal, reading that work to his friends and discussing it with them; a man who knew and corresponded with all the major literary figures of his own country and with many in Germany and England; who found daily nourishment in the Latin, French, English and German classics, and, for much of his life, in the Bible; who enjoyed playing Chopin and other classic works on the piano; and who engaged in commenting on the moral, political and sexual questions of the day.\"\n\n“Gide’s fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it.” But his “capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself.”\n\n===Writings===\n\nAndré Gide’s writings spanned many genres – “As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters.”\n\nBut as Gide’s biographer Alan Sheridan points out, “It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide’s work.” \"Here, as in the ''oeuvre'' as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide’s curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the “comic, more inventive, even fantastic” pieces, to the later “serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives\"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, “with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences.”\n\nGide was also an avid letter writer, and his surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the ''Journal'' that Sheridan calls “the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression.” \"His first novel emerged from Gide’s own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In ''Les faux-monnayeurs'', Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's.” “In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive,” Gide replied, 'I think it would be my ''Journal.'''\" Beginning at the age of eighteen or nineteen, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to thirteen hundred pages.\n\n===Struggle for values===\n\n“Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his ''Cahiers de André Gide'' essay, is what makes Gide's work ‘essentially modern’: the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'\" Gide wrote in his ''Journal'' in 1930: “The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental.”\n\nAs a whole, “The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks.”\n", "In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted “sodomites” and boy-loving “pederasts”, categorizing himself as the latter.\n\n\nIn the company of Oscar Wilde, he had several sexual encounters with young boys abroad. \n\nGide’s novel ''Corydon'', which he considered his most important work, erects a defense of pederasty.\n", "\n", "* For a chronology of Gide's life, see pages 13–15 in Thomas Cordle, ''André Gide'' (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969.\n* For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pages 655-678 in Alan Sheridan, ''André Gide: A Life in the Present.'' Harvard, 1999.\n* Colonialism\n* LGBT culture in Paris\n", "'''Notes'''\n\n\n'''Sources'''\n* Alan Sheridan, ''André Gide: A Life in the Present.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.\n\n'''Further reading'''\n* Noel I. Garde Edgar H. Leoni, ''Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History''. New York:Vangard, 1964. '''OCLC''' 3149115\n", "\n\n\n* Website of the ''Catherine Gide Foundation'', held by Catherine Gide, his daughter.\n* Center for Gidian Studies\n* \n* \n* \n* Amis d'André Gide ''in French''\n* Period newspaper articles on Gide ''interface in French''\n* André Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature\n* André Gide: A Brief Introduction\n* Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–7\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Early life", "The middle years", "Africa", "Russia", "1930s and 1940s", "Gide’s life as a writer", "Sexuality", "Bibliography", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	André Gide
[ "'''Algorithms for calculating variance''' play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.\n", "A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size ''N'' is:\n\n:\n\nUsing Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of ''n'' observations, the formula is:\n\n:\n\nTherefore, a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following:\n\n\n\n* Let \n* For each datum :\n \n \n** \n* \n\n\n\nThis algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by ''N'' instead of ''n'' − 1 on the last line.\n\nBecause and can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice. This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean. However, the algorithm can be improved by adopting the method of the assumed mean.\n\n===Computing shifted data===\n\nWe can use a property of the variance to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula,\nnamely the variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter\n\n:\n\nwith any constant, which leads to the new formula\n\n:\n\nthe closer is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the\nsamples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.\n\nIf we take just the first sample as the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as\n\n\ndef shifted_data_variance(data):\n if not data:\n return 0\n K = data0\n n = Ex = Ex2 = 0\n for x in data:\n n = n + 1\n Ex += x - K\n Ex2 += (x - K) * (x - K)\n variance = (Ex2 - (Ex * Ex)/n)/(n - 1)\n # use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data\n # use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population\n return variance\n\nthis formula facilitates as well the incremental computation, that can be expressed as\n\nK = n = Ex = Ex2 = 0\n\ndef add_variable(x):\n if (n == 0):\n K = x\n n = n + 1\n Ex += x - K\n Ex2 += (x - K) * (x - K)\n\ndef remove_variable(x):\n n = n - 1\n Ex -= (x - K)\n Ex2 -= (x - K) * (x - K)\n\ndef get_meanvalue():\n return K + Ex / n\n\ndef get_variance():\n return (Ex2 - (ExEx)/n) / (n-1)\n\n", "An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean,\n:,\nand then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean,\n:,\nwhere s is the standard deviation. This is given by the following pseudocode:\n\n\ndef two_pass_variance(data):\n n = sum1 = sum2 = 0\n\n for x in data:\n n += 1\n sum1 += x\n\n mean = sum1 / n\n\n for x in data:\n sum2 += (x - mean)(x - mean)\n\n variance = sum2 / (n - 1)\n return variance\n\n\nThis algorithm is numerically stable if ''n'' is small. However, the results of both of these simple algorithms (\"Naïve\" and \"Two-pass\") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.\n", "It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value only once; for example, when the data are being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.\n\nThe following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element ''x''''n''. Here, ''n'' denotes the sample mean of the first ''n'' samples (''x''1, ..., ''xn''), ''s''2''n'' their sample variance, and ''σ''2''n'' their population variance.\n\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nThese formulas suffer from numerical instability. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, , here denoted :\n\n:\n:\n:\n\nA numerically stable algorithm for the sample variance is given below. It also computes the mean.\nThis algorithm was found by Welford, and it has been thoroughly analyzed. It is also common to denote and .\n\n\ndef online_variance(data):\n n = 0\n mean = M2 = 0.0\n\n for x in data:\n n += 1\n delta = x - mean\n mean += delta/n\n delta2 = x - mean\n M2 += deltadelta2\n\n if n \n\nThis algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals.\n\nThe parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.\n", "The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter ''n'' with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979) suggests this incremental algorithm:\n\n\ndef weighted_incremental_variance(dataWeightPairs):\n wSum = wSum2 = mean = S = 0\n\n for x, w in dataWeightPairs: # Alternatively \"for x, w in zip(data, weights):\"\n wSum = wSum + w\n wSum2 = wSum2 + ww\n meanOld = mean\n mean = meanOld + (w / wSum) * (x - meanOld)\n S = S + w * (x - meanOld) * (x - mean)\n\n population_variance = S / wSum\n # Bessel's correction for weighted samples\n # Frequency weights\n sample_frequency_variance = S / (wSum - 1)\n # Reliability weights\n sample_reliability_variance = S / (wSum - wSum2/wSum)\n\n\n\n", "Chan et al. note that the above \"On-line\" algorithm is a special case of an algorithm that works for any partition of the sample into sets , :\n:\n:\n:.\nThis may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input.\n\nChan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when and both are large, because the numerical error in is not scaled down in the way that it is in the case. In such cases, prefer .\ndef parallel_variance(avg_a, count_a, var_a, avg_b, count_b, var_b):\n delta = avg_b - avg_a\n m_a = var_a * (count_a - 1)\n m_b = var_b * (count_b - 1)\n M2 = m_a + m_b + delta ** 2 * count_a * count_b / (count_a + count_b)\n return M2 / (count_a + count_b - 1)\n\n", "Assume that all floating point operations use the standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both \"Naïve\" algorithm and \"Two-pass\" algorithm compute these values correctly. Next consider the sample (, , , ), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. \"Two-pass\" algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but \"Naïve\" algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30. While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of \"Naïve\" algorithm, it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm: Take the sample to be (, , , ). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by \"Two-pass\"\" algorithm, but \"Naïve\" algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with \"Naïve\" algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.\n", "Terriberry extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis:\n:\n:\n\nHere the are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean , giving\n:skewness: \n:kurtosis: \n\nFor the incremental case (i.e., ), this simplifies to:\n:\n:\n:\n\n:\n\n:\n\nBy preserving the value , only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost.\n\nAn example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is:\n\ndef online_kurtosis(data):\n n = mean = M2 = M3 = M4 = 0\n\n for x in data:\n n1 = n\n n = n + 1\n delta = x - mean\n delta_n = delta / n\n delta_n2 = delta_n * delta_n\n term1 = delta * delta_n * n1\n mean = mean + delta_n\n M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (nn - 3n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3\n M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2\n M2 = M2 + term1\n\n kurtosis = (nM4) / (M2M2) - 3\n return kurtosis\n\n\nPébaÿ\nfurther extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al.\nfor weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance.\n\nChoi and Sweetman\n\noffer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in\nthe conventional way: the range of potential values is\ndivided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are\ncounted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals\nthe portion of the sample values within that bin:\n\n: \n\nwhere and represent the frequency and\nthe relative frequency at bin and is the total area of the histogram. After this\nnormalization, the raw moments and central moments of \ncan be calculated from the relative histogram:\n\n: \n\n: \n\nwhere the superscript indicates the moments are\ncalculated from the histogram. For constant bin width these two expressions can be simplified using :\n\n: \n\n: \n\nThe second approach from Choi and Sweetman\n\nis an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times.\n\nIf sets of statistical moments are known:\n for , then each can\nbe expressed in terms of the equivalent raw moments:\n\n: \n\nwhere is generally taken to be the duration of the time-history, or the number of points if is constant.\n\nThe benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of is that the sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of .\n\n: \n\nwhere the subscript represents the concatenated time-history or combined . These combined values of can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history\n\n: \n\nKnown relationships between the raw moments () and the central moments ()\nare then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:\n\n: \n", "Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance. The naive algorithm is:\n:\n\nFor the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code:\n\ndef naive_covariance(data1, data2):\n n = len(data1)\n sum12 = 0\n sum1 = sum(data1)\n sum2 = sum(data2)\n\n for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2):\n sum12 += i1i2\n\n covariance = (sum12 - sum1sum2 / n) / n\n return covariance\n\n\nAs for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given that and are whatever two constant values it can be written:\n\n:\n\nand again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as:\n\n\ndef shifted_data_covariance(dataX, dataY):\n n = len(dataX)\n if (n \n\nThe two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance:\n:\n:\n:\n\nThe two-pass algorithm may be written as:\n\ndef two_pass_covariance(data1, data2):\n n = len(data1)\n\n mean1 = sum(data1) / n\n mean2 = sum(data2) / n\n\n covariance = 0\n\n for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2):\n a = i1 - mean1\n b = i2 - mean2\n covariance += ab / n\n return covariance\n\n\nA slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums and ''should'' be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.\n\nA slight modification of the online algorithm for computing the variance yields an online algorithm for the covariance:\n\n\ndef online_covariance(data1, data2):\n meanx = meany = C = n = 0\n for x, y in zip(data1, data2):\n n += 1\n dx = x - meanx\n meanx += dx / n\n meany += (y - meany) / n\n C += dx (y - meany)\n\n population_covar = C / n\n # Bessel's correction for sample variance\n sample_covar = C / (n - 1)\n\n\nWe can also make a small modification to compute the weighted covariance:\n\n\ndef online_weighted_covariance(data1, data2, data3):\n meanx = meany = 0\n wsum = wsum2 = 0\n C = 0\n for x, y, w in zip(data1, data2, data3):\n wsum += w\n wsum2 += ww\n dx = x - meanx\n meanx += (w / wsum) dx\n meany += (w / wsum) * (y - meany)\n C += w * dx * (y - meany)\n\n population_covar = C / wsum\n # Bessel's correction for sample variance\n # Frequency weights\n sample_frequency_covar = C / (wsum - 1)\n # Reliability weights\n sample_reliability_covar = C / (wsum - wsum2 / wsum)\n\n\nA stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the one above, that computes co-moment :\n:\n:\n:\nThe apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that , so both update terms are equal to . Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals.\n\nThus we can compute the covariance as\n:\n\nLikewise, there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation:\n:\n", "Algebraic formula for the variance\nKahan summation algorithm\nSquared deviations from the mean\n", "\n", " \n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", "Naïve algorithm", "Two-pass algorithm", "Online algorithm", "Weighted incremental algorithm", "Parallel algorithm", "Example", "Higher-order statistics", "Covariance", "See also", "References", "External links" ]	Algorithms for calculating variance
[ "\n\n\nThe '''almond''' (''Prunus dulcis'', syn. ''Prunus amygdalus'') is a species of tree native to the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent and North Africa.\n\n\"Almond\" is also the name of the edible and widely cultivated seed of this tree. Within the genus ''Prunus'', it is classified with the peach in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'', distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.\n\nThe fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut, inside. Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo.\n", "\n=== Tree ===\nThe almond is a deciduous tree, growing in height, with a trunk of up to in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 3–5 inches long, with a serrated margin and a petiole. The flowers are white to pale pink, diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring. Almond grows best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The optimal temperature for their growth is between and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 300 to 600 hours below to break dormancy.\n\nAlmonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.\n\n=== Drupe ===\nThe almond fruit measures long. In botanical terms, it is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering or exocarp, fleshy in other members of ''Prunus'' such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the endocarp. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut. Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur.\n\nFile:Green almonds.jpg\|Green almonds\nFile:Mandel Gr 99.jpg\| Almond in shell and shelled\nFile:Blanched_almonds.jpg\|Blanched almonds\nFile:Almond shelled-01.JPG\| Shelled Almond\n\n\n", "Persian miniature depiction of the almond harvest at Qand-i Badam, Fergana Valley (16th Century)\nThe almond is native to the Mediterranean climate region of the Middle East, eastward as far as the Yamuna River in India. It was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe, and more recently transported to other parts of the world, notably California, United States.\n\nThe wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the Levant. The fruit of the wild forms contains the glycoside amygdalin, \"which becomes transformed into deadly prussic acid (hydrogen cyanide) after crushing, chewing, or any other injury to the seed.\"\n\nSelection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication. It is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species. Ladizinsky suggests the taxon ''Amygdalus fenzliana'' (Fritsch) Lipsky is the most likely wild ancestor of the almond in part because it is native of Armenia and western Azerbaijan where it was apparently domesticated.\n\nWhile wild almond species are toxic, domesticated almonds are not; Jared Diamond argues that a common genetic mutation causes an absence of amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, \"at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards\". Zohary and Hopf believe that almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to \"the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed. Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting\". Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC) such as the archaeological sites of Numeria (Jordan), or possibly a little earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant. Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.\n\n=== Etymology and names ===\nThe word \"almond\" comes from Old French ''almande'' or ''alemande'', Late Latin ''amandula'', derived through a form ''amygdala'' from the Greek ἀμυγδαλή (''amygdalē'') (cf. amygdala), an almond. The ''al-'' in English, for the ''a-'' used in other languages may be due a confusion with the Arabic article ''al'', the word having first dropped the ''a-'' as in the Italian form ''mandorla''; the British pronunciation ''ah-mond'' and the modern Catalan ''ametlla'' and modern French ''amande'' show a form of the word closer to the original. Other related names of almond include ''Mandel'' or ''Knackmandel'' (German), ''mandorlo'' (Italian for the tree), ''mandorla'' (Italian for the fruit), ''amêndoa'' (Portuguese), and ''almendra'' (Spanish).\n\nThe adjective \"amygdaloid\" (literally \"like an almond\") is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. See, for example, the brain structure amygdala, which uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term ''amygdalē''.\n", "\n\n=== Pollination ===\n\nThe pollination of California's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business has been heavily affected by colony collapse disorder, causing nationwide shortages of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from the rising cost of insect pollination, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) have developed a new line of self-pollinating almond trees. Self-pollinating almond trees, such as the 'Tuono', have been around for a while, but their harvest is not as desirable as the insect-pollinated California 'Nonpareil' almond tree. The 'Nonpareil' tree produces large, smooth almonds and offers 60–65% edible kernel per nut. The 'Tuono' has thicker, hairier shells and offers only 32% of edible kernel per nut, but having a thick shell has advantages. The 'Tuono's' shell protects the nut from threatening pests such as the navel orangeworm. ARS researchers have managed to crossbreed the pest-resistant 'Tuono' tree with the 'Nonpareil', resulting in hybridized cultivars of almond trees that are self-pollinated and maintain a high nut quality. The new, self-pollinating hybrids possess quality skin color, flavor, and oil content, and reduce almond growers' dependency on insect pollination.\n\n\nFile:Almondtrees.jpg\|A grove of almond trees in central California\nFile:بادام و شکوفه بادام.JPG\|Almond blossoms in Iran\nFile:AlmondShakerbeforeafter.jpg\|An almond shaker before and during a harvest of a tree\n\n\n=== Diseases ===\n\nAlmond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging organisms, including insects, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.\n", "\nWorld production of almonds was 2.9 million tonnes in 2013, with United States as the largest producer of 1.8 million tonnes.\n\n\n\nTop 10 producers of almonds (with shell) in 2014\n\n \n Country \n Production(tonnes)\n\n 1 \n \n 1,545,500\n\n 2 \n \n 195,504\n\n 3 \n \n 160,000\n\n 4 \n \n 111,936\n\n 5 \n \n 101,026\n\n 6 \n \n 74,016\n\n 7 \n \n 73,230\n\n 8 \n \n 66,700\n\n 9 \n \n 64,827\n\n 10 \n \n 44,178\n\n \n '''World''' \n '''2,697,209'''\n\n\nIn the United States, production is concentrated in California, with almonds being California's third-leading agricultural product, its top agricultural export in 2008, and 100% of the U.S. commercial supply. The United States is the dominant supplier of almonds. Almonds are mostly exported as shelled almonds (70%), with the remainder being either unshelled or processed. In 2015, environmental problems in California affected the almond supply, contributing to higher almond prices worldwide. Rising demand for almonds has also contributed to higher prices worldwide and increased production in California.\n\nAustralia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere, and second largest producing country. In 2013, Australia produced 9% of the world almond supply (table). Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.\n\nSpain has one of the most diverse commercial cultivars of almonds. It is grown in Spain's Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions and the Balearic Islands. In Greece, most of the production comes from the region of Magnesia at the area of Almyros. The most cultivated types of almonds in Greece are 'Ferragnes' and 'Texas' ('Mission'), which are known for their sweet taste and premium quality. Because of its quality, it is used as a luxury nut. In Turkey, most of the production comes from the Aegean, Marmara, and Mediterranean regions.\n\n== Sweet and bitter almonds ==\nFlowering (sweet) almond tree\nBlossoming of bitter almond tree\n\nThe seeds of ''Prunus dulcis'' var. ''dulcis'' are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter. The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavour furthermore being recessive, both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from ''Prunus dulcis'' var. ''amara'' are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus ''Prunus'', such as peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent).\n\nThe bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on soluble glucosides, amygdalin, and prunasin, yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavor. Bitter almonds may yield from 4–9 mg of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds. The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin.\n\nExtract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption. The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be 0.5–3.5 mg/kg of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), whereas for children, consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal.\n\nAll commercially grown almonds sold as food in the United States are \"sweet\" cultivars. The US Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds. Eating such almonds could result in vertigo and other typical bitter almond (cyanide) poisoning effects.\n", "\nSmoked and salted almonds\n Roasted almonds in Cologne\nMarzipan foods artistically formed into festive designs\n\nWhile the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, sliced (flaked, slivered), and as flour. Almonds yield almond oil and can also be made into almond butter or almond milk. These products can be used in both sweet and savoury dishes.\n\nAlong with other nuts, almonds can be sprinkled over breakfasts and desserts, particularly ''muesli'' or ice cream-based dishes. Almonds are used in marzipan, nougat, many pastries (including ''jesuites''), cookies (including French'' macarons'', macaroons), and cakes (including financiers), ''noghl'', and other sweets and desserts. They are also used to make almond butter, a spread similar to peanut butter, popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its naturally sweeter taste. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (\"green almonds\") when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life.\n\nAlmond cookies, Chinese almond biscuits, and Italian ''ricciarelli'' are made with almonds.\n\nIn Greece, ground blanched almonds are used as the base material in a great variety of desserts, usually called ''amygdalota'' (αμυγδαλωτά). Because of their white colour, most are traditionally considered \"wedding sweets\" and are served at wedding banquets. In addition, a soft drink known as ''soumada'' is made from almonds in various regions.\nIn Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called ''chaqale bâdam''. Also sweet almonds are used to prepare a special food for babies, named ''harire badam''. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties.\nIn Italy, bitter almonds are the traditional base for ''amaretti'' (almond macaroons), a common dessert. Traditionally, a low percentage of bitter almonds (10–20%) is added to the ingredients, which gives the cookies their bitter taste (commercially, apricot kernels are used as a substitute for bitter almonds). Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in ''torrone''. In Apulia and Sicily, ''pasta di mandorle'' (almond paste) is used to make small soft cakes, often decorated with jam, pistachio, or chocolate. In Sicily, almond milk is a popular refreshing beverage in summer.\nIn Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet ''tajines'' such as lamb with prunes. A drink made from almonds mixed with milk is served in important ceremonies such as weddings and can also be ordered in some cafes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for ''amlou'', a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make ''sellou'' (also called ''zamita'' in Meknes or ''slilou'' in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value.\nIn Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of ''pasanda''-style and Mughlai curries. ''Badam halva'' is a sweet made from almonds with added coloring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as ''sohan barfi''), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or ''sherbet-e-badaam'', is a popular summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt.\nIn Israel almonds are topping tahini cookie or eaten as a snack.\n\nThe 'Marcona' almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds, and is marketed by name. The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. It has been grown in Spain for a long time and its origin is unknown; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is very hard. 'Marcona' almonds are traditionally served after being lightly fried in oil, and are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called ''turrón''.\n\nCertain natural food stores sell \"bitter almonds\" or \"apricot kernels\" labeled as such, requiring significant caution by consumers for how to prepare and eat these products.\n\n=== Almond milk ===\n\n\nAlmonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavour, and light colouring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soymilk and some of which use no heat, resulting in \"raw milk\" (see raw foodism).\n\n=== Almond flour and skins ===\n\nAlmond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.\n\nAlmonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fiber have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements.\n\n=== Almond syrup ===\nHistorically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavored with a synthetic aroma of almonds.\n\nDue to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.\n", "\n\nThe almond is a nutritionally dense food (see chart pictured right) and a 100 gram amount is a rich source (>20% of the Daily value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. The same amount is also a good source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B6, and folate; choline; and the essential mineral potassium. They are also rich in dietary fiber, monounsaturated fats, and polyunsaturated fats, fats which potentially may lower LDL cholesterol. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds also contain phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol, which have been associated with cholesterol-lowering properties.\n\n===Health effects===\n\nPreliminary research associates consumption of almonds with elevated blood levels of high density lipoproteins and lower low density lipoproteins.\n\nAlmonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).\n\nDuring the digestion process in humans, almond flour may be fermented into short-chain fatty acids, most notably butyrate which is a substrate for cells lining the large intestine.\n", "Almond oil\n\n\n\nAlmonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (table). Almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 5% saturated fatty acid (USDA link in table). Linolenic acid, an polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 ml (table).\n\n\"''Oleum amygdalae''\", the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds and is a glyceryl oleate, with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of sweet almonds.\n\nThe oil is good for application to the skin as an emollient, and has been traditionally used by massage therapists to lubricate the skin during a massage session.\n\nAlmond oil can also be used as a wood conditioner of certain woodwind instruments, such as the oboe and clarinet.\n", "Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing molds. Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as ''Aspergillus flavus'' and ''Aspergillus parasiticus''. The mold contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filament like growth. It is unsafe to eat mold infected tree nuts.\n\nSome countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.\n", "The USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurize almonds sold to the public, after tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds. The almond pasteurization program became mandatory for California companies in 2007. Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.\n\nCalifornia almonds labeled \"raw\" must be steam-pasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities. The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.\n\nThe Almond Board of California states: “PPO residue dissipates after treatment.” The U.S. EPA has reported: “Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure.” PPO is classified by the EPA as a “Group B2, probable human carcinogen.\"\n\nThe USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group. According to the Cornucopia Institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in the spring of 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.\n\n== Cultural aspects ==\n\nThe almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East, and is mentioned numerous times in the Bible.\n\nIn the Hebrew Bible, the almond was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering. In the Bible the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Book of Genesis 43:11, where it is described as \"among the best of fruits\". In Numbers 17 Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. According to tradition, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord, the sweet almonds would be ripe and edible, but if they were to forsake the path of the Lord, the bitter almonds would predominate. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, \"Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other...on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers\" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20).\n\nSimilarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the Virgin Birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word \"Luz\", which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as \"hazel\", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in some Bible versions such as the NIV.\nThe Arabic name for almond is \"laoz\". In some parts of the Levant and North Africa it is pronounced \"loz\", which is very close to its Aramaic origin.\n\nLa entrada de la flor is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.\n", "\n Fruit tree forms\n* Fruit tree propagation\n* Fruit tree pruning\n* List of almond dishes\n* List of edible seeds\n", "\n", "\n\n\n* University of California Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center\n* The Almond Doctor, University of California Cooperative Extension on almond production\n* Almond Production Manual, University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n" ]	[ "Introduction", " Description ", " Origin and history ", "Cultivation", " Production ", " Culinary uses ", " Nutrition ", " Oils ", " Aflatoxins ", " Mandatory pasteurization in California ", " See also ", " References ", " External links " ]	Almond

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