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Lame Iron

Amir Temir; Lame Iron; Temirlan (Kaz. Temir bin-Taragay Barlas; own. Amir Temir ibn-Tarag'ay; par. Теймур линг; Mon. ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠷ; April 8, 1336, Khoja-Ilgyr village, modern Shahrisabz — February 18, 1405, Otyrar) — the ruler of the famous Turkic peoples, the founder of the Empire of the Iron Dynasty. The "conqueror of the world" who captured Mauerennakhr in 1370 and ruled for 35 years until 1405, subjugated 27 states. In one of the battles, two of Temir's fingers were cut off and one of his legs was crushed. His leg has been limping all his life. He is called Temirlan (or rather Temirleng, "leng" is Persian-lame) Lame Iron. ## Origin Amir came from the Barlas clan, the founder of the Temur (Temurid) empire, and was the son of Taragai Bek, a dance of the Barlas tribe. The Barlas clan belonged to the Turkic-speaking tribes, and now its descendants are part of the Uzbek people. During the conquest of Genghis Khan, the Barlas moved from the lands of modern Mongolia to Central Asia. Tumbenai Chechen is the ancestor of Genghis Khan and Amir Temir. Tumbenai had two sons - Kabyl and Kajul. Kajul is the 9th ancestor of Amir Temir. Amir Temir's great-grandfather Karashar Noyan, his son Yezhil Noyan, his son Elengir Noyan, his son Berkul, his son Muhammed Taragai, his son Amir Temir. Temir was the beg and leader of a part of the barlas. Later, he turned to other begs, the khans of the Shagatai dynasty - who started a rebellion against the rulers of Mongolia. It is said that the men who controlled the iron attacked his caravans, and finally he became a publisher at his age. He became the beg of the Beks and established an independent state from the descendants of Chagatai. But since Genghis Khan was not a direct descendant, his position was not "khan" but "emir". ## Youth and personality development Amir Temir was born on April 8, 1336 in the town of Kesh in Mauerennahr, located in modern Shahrisabz, in the south of Samarkand, according to some studies, Temir was born on April 7, 1333 was born in May. And Granovsky in his work says that Temir was born in Samarkand on April 9, 1336 in the possession of Genghis Khan's son, Shagatai, and that he was born with blood on his hands and white hair. His mother was from the Genghis Khan dynasty, and his father was one of the princes of the Chagatai dynasty, but did not leave him a large inheritance. The birth year of Temir is written as 1333 in Mongolian and Chinese sources, 1336 in Arabic and Persian sources, and 1337 in some European sources. However, taking into account the 660-year celebration of Amir Temir in Uzbekistan in 1996 by the decision of UNESCO, on the basis of various data and researches about his birth, it can be concluded that Temir was born on April 9, 1336 in the village of Khoja-Ilgyr in the southwest of Shakhrisabz. Historians of the Iron Age wanted to show him as a person close to the Genghis Khan family, that is, they tried to establish his kinship with the Genghis Khan dynasty. Claviho's "Diary" also mentions that Temir's father was a well-known middle-class man from the Chagatai family. And Barthold shows that Temir's father was Taragai "noyan" or emir, who came from the Barlas clan, followed the Muslim religion, and his mother was Tekene-khatun, but he does not reveal his life before 1360. Sources related to Amir Temir indicate that Temir was from the Mongolian Barlas tribe. If we turn to the line of the Mongolian "Secret Chronicle", the origin of Temir is described as follows: "The Barlas descend from Hachi Khuleg, who was born from Bodanchar's illegitimate wife. Hachi Hüleg's son was called Baruludai. He is called Barulas because of his strong body and insatiable appetite. One of Khachulan's sons was called Barulas the elder because he ate the food that was placed in front of him, and Barulas the younger because he could not finish the food in front of him. Later, educated Barulas and Barulas from Todoy emerged from among them, and all of them were called Barulas. In Rashid al-Din's collection of genealogies, the Barulas are identified as the sons of Khachulan, the third generation of Tumbinai Chechen. Researchers attribute the Barlas to the Nirunic group of Mongolian tribes. When Genghis Khan founded the Great Mongol state in 1206, Barlas was given to Kublai, a graduate of this tribe, who contributed to his country. During Genghis Khan's attack on Central Asia in 1219-1224, the male umbilical cords of Barlas entered the ranks of the Mongol army and came to Mauerennakhr under the rule of Shagatai. The given information about Temir's youth is similar to Claviho's information, only new things were mentioned about the fact that he was engaged in "blacksmithing and trade". And in Ibn Arabshah's report, it is said that Temir's father was a poor carpenter, and while he was stealing sheep, he was wounded by an arrow from a bow. At the same time, Ibn Arabshah also tells about the increase in the number of servants who follow him for any robbery. It is difficult to distinguish the real truth of the data, since there are many legends about Timur in the data, and the chronicles are written with exaggeration. However, according to the researchers' scientific data, Temir was born in 1336 in the family of Taragai beg in the village of Khoja Yilgyr near Kesh (now Shahrisabz city) in the west of Bukhara region. His father is one of the nobles of Barlas with the position of bek. It was built in the 14th century. At first he came to Kashkandaria region and settled. This winter, Temir spends his childhood practicing military games among his sons. M.M. According to the results of the examination of the body of Gerasimov Temir, it was shown that he was about 172 cm tall and was a very strong person with physical maturity. His hair was much lighter than his peers. Looking at Gerasimov's restored face and white skin, some Russian researchers want to say: "Amir Temir was of European descent." This may be due to the fact that Temir saved Russia from the oppression of the Golden Horde. In addition to Turkish and Tajik, Temir was well versed in Farsi, liked to listen to the historical works of scholars, and used to amaze Muslim historians with his stories. Academician V.V. Bartold Temir himself was fluent in Persian and Tajik languages in addition to Turkish. According to Ali Yezdi, scientists wrote and consulted in Turkish and Tajik languages. In addition to nomadism, he also knew the city life well thanks to his frequent visits to Shahrisabz, which at that time was in the hands of Barlas Beg Haji Barlas. Amir Temir's book "Amir Temir Amanat" contains information about his youth: . In 1348, at the age of 12, Emir Balyk was included in the military of Kazagan. While performing his simple military duties, he begins to gather intelligence around him. The famous historian Arabshah named Temir as a tyrant and a villain, his opponent says about him as follows: . Shows his reputation among his contemporaries and shows leadership skills early. That's why when Temir was young, young barlas like him aspired to become his servants. When he was young, he had only three or four servants like his father. According to Clavijo's writing: he began to take away the livestock of his neighbors through his four or five puppets. Little by little, the young Temir gathered a small army of well-armed cavalry and sent them to raid merchant caravans and neighboring lands to collect booty. When the expedition was successful “he celebrated with his men; because he was strong and benevolent, he distributed a part of the booty to his people, that's why about 300 horsemen were formed around him. Since then, he has been traveling around, stealing and robbing for himself and those around him. Temir's heroism, dignity, ability to recognize people and choose his assistants, and special ability to command brought great prestige among scouts and nomadic military youth. ## Establishment of the personal power of Amir-Temir (1370-1405) (establishment of the Empire of the Iron Dynasty). Amir Temir was at first the ruler of Kashkadaria province (1361). Since then, he fought for power with Togluq Temir, his son Ilyas Khoja, and Husein, the emir of Balkh and Samarkand, and in 1370 took Mauerennahr into his hands. In his youth, he was injured in a battle near Turkestan. In the 70s of the 14th century, his leadership talent was fully revealed, and his fame spread throughout the world. In the Ottoman Empire and the Central Asian region, he was known as "Aksak Timur" (Lame Iron), to Iranians Timurleng, to Europeans Tamerlane. Thanks to the repeated attacks of Amir Temir's troops, the state of Khorezm (1372-88), East Turkestan (1376), Herat (1381), Khorasan (1381), Kandahar (1383), Sultania (Southern Azerbaijan, 1384), Tabriz (1384), Iran and Afghanistan were completely conquered. After several devastating campaigns, he destroyed the Golden Horde. In 1370-90, Amir Temir made more than 10 destructive campaigns against Deshti Kypchak, White Horde and Mogulstan, skillfully using the discord between Tokhtamys Khan and Edige Amir. Amir Temir's defeat of the Golden Horde created positive conditions for Russia's independence. In the 90s, Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Georgia (Georgia), Iraq became part of the Amir Temir state. In 1398, India was conquered. The Mamluks of Syria and Lebanon (Palestine) were conquered. Other Asian states also recognized the rule of Amir Temir. In the summer of 1402, Amir Temir defeated the main military force of the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Ankara and captured the Turkish Sultan Yildirim Bayazid (Bayazid). As a result of continuous wars of Amir Temir, a huge empire - the Iron State was created. Its total area reached 14 million km². Amir Temir died in Otyrar in 1405 when he went on a campaign to China. He lived 68 years, 10 months, 9 days. Temir's body was taken out of the city at night, after a 6-month journey, his remains were buried in the Gur-Amir mausoleum in Samarkand according to Muslim tradition. Although he showed special interest in Temir's descendants and paid special attention to their future and education, Amir Temir's children were not very happy compared to Genghis Khan's children. There was disobedience of his children, rebellion of princes, and even betrayal of his grandson Sultan Hussein. According to the calculation of the American researcher, Professor John Woods of the University of Chicago, the total number of direct descendants of Iron was about a hundred by the end of his life. Amir Temir had 4 sons: Jihhanger (1356 — 1376), Amir Sheyi (1356 — 1394), Miranshah (1366 — 1408), Shahrukh (1377 — 1447). Famous people such as the great scientist Ulykbek (1394 - 1449) and Babur (1483 - 1530), the founder of the Mughal Empire, came from the Temir dynasty. After the death of Amir Temir, the Temir State disintegrated due to the power struggle of his heirs. He remained in the history of the world as a talented commander, a brilliant politician. The appearance of a number of architectural buildings in Central Asia, the development of cities, the construction of irrigation facilities in the desert, the development of handicrafts and trade are closely connected with the name of Amir Temir. Historical data confirm that representatives of Turkish, Persian, Arab culture and art, scientists and thinkers in the regions under his control received great support from Amir Temir. Amir Temir built an eternal and indelible monument on the Kazakh land - the mausoleum of the holy Khoja Ahmet Yasawi. At the same time, Amir Temir's extreme cruelty in the conquered countries makes him a complex historical figure. ## Development of culture during the time of Amir-Temir If Temir is recognized as the most evil conqueror of his time, the leader who instills fear in the world, destroying countries and cities, he was also a very elegant architect. During this period, under the leadership of Amir Temir, palaces and cities, settlements, and bridges were built. He did not allow the land to lie empty. Cities, madrasahs, mosques, and even Europeans admired Temir's works of art (Claviho). He did not repeat the Persian or Arab constructions like the leaders before him, but built unique worlds that had not been created before in the history of Muslim architecture. Temir was a naturalist, mathematician, astronomer, historian, poet, linguist, and theologist in his own state, including the Golden Horde, the White Horde, Khorasan, India, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and the Western Maghreb, in addition to Mauerennahr and Khorezm. discussed issues. Ali Yezdi gives another interesting information: in the recently founded city of Bailkan in 806 AD. Temir, the famous theologian, gathered the scientists and said: "Scientists and religious experts were helping the kings by giving various advices in their actions, you do not perform this service. My goal is to help make a fair decision, create conditions for my subjects to live in peace, and improve the conditions for the development of the state." Abdujappar Khorezmi, Shamsutdin Munshi, Abdullah Leeson, Badriddin Ahmed, Nigmaniddin Khorezmi, Khoja Afzal, Alautdin Kashi, Jalal Khaki and other scientists worked in the Iron Palace. Temir pays special attention to the development of mathematics - ryeznet, geometry - khandas, architecture - monuments, astronomy - khanate, literature, poetry, history, music - musical sciences. He used to chat with sahib hunars (scholars) with great interest. Historical data confirm that he received great support from the representatives of Turkish, Persian, Arab culture and art, scientists and thinkers in the regions under his control, Amir Temir. Palace and mosque in Temir Samarkand, Bibi-khanym madrasa; Shahi-Zind built madrasa, and around the city he built gardens and palaces: Shinar-Bag, Shamal-Bag, Dilkush-Bag, Behisht-Bag. The construction of Lady Bibi is mentioned in Claviho's "Diary": "On Monday, Temir went to Samarkand and stopped at a house at the entrance to the city. He will build that house in honor of his mother-in-law (Mrs. Bibi). Roads and bridges will be built across Kuhak and Zaravshan rivers, and then a bridge will be built across Amu Darya and Syrdarya, and a canal will be built across Syrdarya and Akhangaran. Irrigation systems and caravans are being built in Bukhara, Lakhrisabz, Fergana, Turkestan. Cities, villages, baths, madrasahs and mausoleums will be built on a very large scale. Local architects and artisans, as well as architects and builders of the states conquered by Iron, were brought to the construction works (Yakubovsky). About 150,000 artisans from the occupied countries were brought to his capital Samarkand, under his orders many magnificent palaces were built in the city and outside the city. The palaces depicted Temirlan's victorious campaigns. He insisted that the construction being built in Samarkand was much larger than the buildings built before him. Claviho's "Diary" contains interesting facts about the construction works of the city of Samarkand: "On Friday, we were taken to visit a large palace under construction by the order of the king, where craftsmen have been working day and night for 20 years. The palace has a very wide corridor and a large gate with two arches decorated with different reliefs on either side. Under these arches are small rooms... in the middle of the palace there is a suat three hundred paces wide, behind which is the largest door, specially decorated with gold and azure. In the center of the door, in the center of the image of the sun, a lion is depicted, and its sides are covered in the same way. This was the coat of arms of the ruler of Samarkand. Although the palace was built by the order of Temir, I think that the palace was started by the former ruler, because the lion on the coat of arms is the symbol of the former ruler of Samarkand, and the symbol of Temir is three wheels. According to Claviho's data, the construction of the city of Samarkand began even before that. And Temir, who chose it as the capital of his state, probably means that he continued the construction of the city. There are several opinions about Temir choosing the city of Samarkand as his capital: one says that Samarkand was the largest of the cities first conquered by Temir, another says that he liked its nature very much, and others believe that this region was interested in this region since the early period because the famous Afrasib ruled Turan. All of these are true, but the objective reason is that it is located in the center of Mauerennahr and has a favorable geographical position. The city is connected to three cities on all sides by a rich water system, where mountains, rivers and forests coexist. In addition, Samarkand has concentrated a large stock of rare non-ferrous metals and building materials. Undoubtedly, all this influenced the choice of Samarkand, the capital of the Iron State. The peculiarity of iron-built cities is that they are not surrounded by a thick wall. For example, in the Blue Palace in Samarkand, Temir was not often present, it worked as a place of treasure. Emir Temir enjoyed spending time outside the city in his palace surrounded by beautiful gardens, and when he was away, the area was a promenade for the city's rich and poor alike. V.V. As noted by Barthold, Samarkand, the main city of Muslims, was supposed to become the first city in the world, according to Temir. Temir, in turn, paid special attention to agriculture, plowing and cattle breeding, and the development of trade. Ali-Yezdi in "Zarfarname" says that Temir "exempted Mauerennahr from taxes for three years", thereby easing the economic situation of businessmen and farmers. The victories of Temir and his descendants depicted in Samarkand were created using thematic painting. Wall paintings from the period of Temir and his descendants (XII-XIX centuries) exceeded the "Great French Chronicle" (XII century) in terms of size and series of miniatures. During this period, schools of architect and decorators from local and foreign regions were also opened in Central Asia. The best work of Temir in the territory of Kazakhstan is the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi. He created the conditions for the widespread and successful spread of Sufism among the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. Ahmet Yasawi was not only a propagandist, but a philosopher who lived in the 12th century, a great scholar, a kind, humble, thoughtful poet who was known to the Turks. Ahmet Yasawi is a spiritual archer of our people, a holy saint who will inspire future generations. His shame is the anniversary of our culture, the pride of our nation. The reason for the construction of this building is that in the bloody battles of 1390-95, Temir destroyed the authority of the Golden Horde and burned the capital - Saray Berke. In honor of this victory, Ahmet Yasawi decided to erect a new large memorial monument instead of the old tomb. In this context, it is difficult to say that the pro-Muslim Temir had only religious interests. This was necessary to raise his reputation, to show that his supremacy is unshakable, and to make the outside world more reliable. At the same time, this mausoleum is becoming the pride of not only the Kazakh people, but the entire Turko-Muslim world. The mausoleum was built as a symbol of the victory of Temir, the southern part of the Kazakh state of the White Horde, the cities of Syr Bay. The main written data about the construction of the mausoleum are described in the book "Zafarnama-iy Temiri" ("Iron Victories") of Sherif al-Din from Yezdi. In this book, it is written that in 1397, Temir left for his lover Taukel, the daughter of Kyzyr Khoja Khan. On the way from Samarkand to Tashkent, Khoja Ahmet Yasawi in Yasi winters turns to visit. Here he ordered to build a huge mausoleum instead of the old tomb. The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi in Turkestan is a wonderful work of medieval architectural monuments. In 1396-1399, by the order of Amir Temir, it was built at the head of the grave of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi. According to many written data, it seems that Amir Temir directly participated in the design of the future construction and determined the dimensions himself. The mausoleum is a large portal-domed memorial building. The project of Persian masters, well-versed in the local architectural tradition, was used as the basis for the construction. The mausoleum was built by Abd al-Aziz, the son of Sharaf ad-din Terbez from Terbez. About the construction of the mausoleum, Sherif al-Din writes: "Azerbaijan, Persia, India, etc. About 200 stone masons imported from other countries worked and 500 people produced stone in the mountain. 95 elephants imported from India were used to transport the stone. Temir, who often participated in the construction process, severely punished the culprits if he was not satisfied with the quality of the work. In the Iron Age, there were almost no buildings like the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi. Each brick of the mausoleum was handmade and of very high quality. The mausoleum stretches from the southeast to the northwest. Width 46.5 m, length 65 m. Built of burnt square bricks. The peculiarity of the mausoleum project is the use of roofing methods that have never been seen before in the architecture of Central Asia. The monument has many arched elements. Master architects used various methods for the arched dome system itself. The mausoleum has a very large portal (width - about 50 meters, length of the portal arch - 18.2 meters), several domes, 35 rooms. The height of the building is 37.5 m. The thickness of the outer wall is 3 m. The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi served as a mosque and a madrasa. Surahs and verses of the Holy Qur'an are written on the epigraphic frieze along the upper side of the three walls of the mausoleum. The meaning navel of the whole building is the tombstone of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi in the middle of the cemetery. The door of the cemetery is covered with thin iron and has gold inscriptions. The mausoleum-mosque has 16 windows, a two-story dome. A 3.5-2.5 meter mosaic mihrab similar to the Kaaba in Mecca is installed on the western wall of the mosque. The underground temples dedicated to worshiping God on the southwest side of the mausoleum were built during Yasawi's lifetime and later reconstructed. Temir believed that "the more cultured people there are in the cities, the faster their growth and development will take place, the cities of Mauerennahr and Turkestan will be more beautiful." The art of landscape art spread widely in the new buildings that arose in Mauerennahr and Samarkand. Such beautiful paintings are depicted on the walls of Shirin-bika-aga (1385), Bibi-khanym (1404), Tuman-aka (1405). All of them are covered in blue paint, white stripes and gold colors. In the landscape works, in the 15th-15th centuries, the artistic metaform of "firdaus" - paradise gardens, which do not exist in the world, were depicted [19]. Applied art is widespread in Mauerennahr. It is especially well distributed in Yasi, Samarkand and Bukhara. At the same time, it is known from the data that Amir Temir is a Muslim and has been praying since the age of twelve, he especially followed Muslim traditions and created conditions for the spread of the Muslim religion in his country. Temir himself recognized that one of the main pillars of the state was religion from the moment he took the throne and took the power of the state in his hands. He says about religion in the work "Iron Rulers" ("Ulozhenie Timura"): "Experience showed me. A state that does not obey religion and law will never be able to maintain its strength and power... A state without a roof, without a door, without a fence, without a roof, without a door, without a fence, and any evil can be compared to a house without a rampart. I have therefore based my building on the majesty of the Islamic religion. This shows that Amir Temir relied on religion and religious representatives in managing the state. Also, in this work, the written thoughts of Amir Temirge Pir regarding the formation of the state management system are given. It says: "My old man wrote to me: Temir, may God protect him, remember these things. Governing the state is similar to the governing of the world by the Great Creator. There are various positions in this administration: spies, servants, servants, and each of them has duties assigned to them according to their duties. They work only within the framework of their duties and they do not go beyond their boundaries and strictly observe the laws of the Creator. At the same time, Temir said: "My first principle for the state and its administration is the religion of Allah and I not only obeyed the sharia of Muhammad Mustafa (pbuh), but also gave him the field I wanted. I have supported the religion of Islam in every place and at every time." You keep the descendants of the prophets above other people under your control. Show them great respect. Don't consider your gift to them a waste of money. The money you spend on the path of God is not wasted. Divide the people under your command into 12 groups. It will be the architecture and support of your state." Amir Temir divides the society into twelve stages with this statement. At the first stage of that twelve-step system are the descendants of the Prophet, the nobles, and the legislators. This also shows the attitude of Amir Temir towards religion, religious workers, especially the descendants of the Prophet. As an iron politician, based on the religion of Islam, he used the authority of Muslim believers to strengthen his state, and for this purpose he rationally used other religious beliefs. He spent his free time playing chess and playing chess, improving it. In his time, Temir was distinguished not only by the art of war, but also by the art of creativity: he created the conditions for the flourishing of architecture in his state, the development of new mosques and madrasahs, gardens and irrigation systems, and the development of agriculture. In addition, one of the most developed periods of Muslim architecture in history is closely associated with the name of Temir. It can be seen that he is a person who created the conditions for the development of science and the Muslim religion. Temir died in 1405 in the city of Otyrar. According to Persian sources, it is said that "he died of a cold in his lungs", and according to Chinese sources, "he died of typhoid fever". This is well explained in the work of Sharif ad-din Yazdi. "Temir, who left the banks of Seyhun (January 14, 1405), stopped at the palace of Berdi Bey in Otyrar, and gave separate rooms to his princes, emirs and relatives..." After this story, "Zafarname" has a special section dedicated to Temir's death, where: "After a seven-year campaign to conquer almost all of Asia, Temir devotes his present game to the issue of establishing justice in the world. In order to wash away his past mistakes, he came to Samarkand, spent about 5 months there, and prepared for a campaign against China, which worships idols. In 1405, he came to Otyrar, caught a cold on the way and overheated. Although Maulian Fazl-Allah Tabrezi was an excellent doctor, his healing medicines did not help. It is recorded that doctors could not intervene in the fateful death." In the work, the period of Temir's death is indicated as February 14, 1405. The department informs that Temir was 71 years old at the time of his death and he ruled for 36 years. And in the "Diary" of Claviho, Temir was very old before going on a campaign to China, and when he was received by the emir, "Temir said that he asked the ambassadors to come closer because he did not like him from afar." Historians Hafiz-Abru and Ibn-Arabshah mention in their works that Temir drank too much wine. In addition, Hafiz-Abru said, "When Temir is sick, his emirs gather around him, he first raises one finger, then the other." "What do I want to say?" he asked. The amirs answer: "Amirshi means that there are one or two lines to be written," and Temir says without hesitation, "It means that I will not be among you in a day or two." Ibn Arabshah also mentions that doctors treated Timur by applying ice to his stomach and forehead. Here we must admit that the Chinese data are close to the truth. Iron played a significant role in the growth of the Kazakh state. Gypsy, Sauran, destroyed Sarayshik, occupied Zhetisu, weakened the state of the White Horde. In the Kipchak-Kazakh steppe, he made raids and raids. Temir built memorial towers and grand mosques in Mauerannakhr and Samarkand to enhance his fame. It is known that Amir Temir reached his country by the power of the sword and by killing. During that period, the White Horde and Mongolia, whose culture and economy began to stabilize, and economic types began to mature, became the battlefield of Temir. He ruthlessly slaughtered the people and destroyed all those who did not obey. Thus, although Temir was preserved as a world-class great commander, his campaigns in the history of Kazakhstan had a negative impact on the development of society and ethnic unity. Social inequality was strengthened, and its consequences were preserved in the lessons of history as irreparable acts of aggression. ## Sources ## See also * Amir Temir's expeditions * Amir Temir's expeditions to Mongolia * Amir Temir's expeditions to China embassy ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7048

Then sprinkle soil

Sprinkling soil from behind (tradition). "Scattering a handful of dirt behind a good person is to ward off calamity" (from the newspaper Ana Tili). People have a habit of throwing dirt after the criminals and traitors who are hated by the country, cursed people or those who blame the country and cut off the horse's tail even though they are guilty. This is both a punishment and a heavy lesson of the curse "let it be dark" and the severe warning "don't be seen anymore". The country of such people did not mention their name, did not remember their name. Nowadays, it is used in the sense of defaming someone (especially a deceased person) from the outside. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5047

Kulyash Jasynovna Baiseyitova

Kulyash Zhasynkyna Baiseyitova (1912-1957) is a famous Kazakh singer (lyric-coloratura soprano), one of the founders of the Kazakh opera art, public figure. People's Artist of the USSR (1936). Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1948-1949). ## Biography The Argyn tribe came from the Dadan branch of the Tobykty clan. Place of birth - Aktogai district of Karaganda region. The place where the soil is ordered is the city of Almaty. However, the historian-local historian Kulyash Sardarbaek says that "the birthplace of Kulyash is now called Narmanbet village of Aktogay district of Karaganda region. At the beginning of the 20th century, this region was called Kotanbulak bolys, Karkara district, Semipalatinsk province. There is also the following information about Kulyash Bayseyitova's birthday. On the eve of the 100th anniversary of the great singer, his daughters Karlygash and Raushan Bayseyitova denied the data in official documents in an interview with the press. They said: "The main birthday is January 12. At that time, he did not receive the document immediately. And since that day was the birthday of Dimash Akhmetovich Konaev, our mother changed his birthday to May 2. ### The path to art Gulbahram's inclination towards singing and natural musical talent were noticed from a young age. The fact that his father was a very good singer in his youth and traveled around the country was probably the main reason for this. About this, Kanabek Bayseyitov wrote in his book: "Father Jasyn was a great singer, a kind man. At one time, he traveled with the famous Aset, the wrestler Sholak. One brother Manarbek (identified by M.A. Erzhanov) was a singer, and other brothers were not without talent either, they just did not have a profession. Aitbek (his brother) used to sing beautifully, and he would make your period bleed when he joined the trumpet. "Kulyash, who grew up and was educated in such an environment, should not be close to art," he says. A smart girl who grew up listening to the songs sung by her father and listening to the stories he sang with interest, grew up with an excellent musical memory and an impressive mind. Although Kulyash was known for his outstanding singing skills in his childhood, he studied at a seven-year school, and after entering the Kazakh Pedagogical Institute, he regularly participated in the circle of budding artists. At first, Kulyash appeared on the stage with small supporting roles in many performances, but within a year or two, he appeared as a singer-artist and became one of the famous artists of the theater. Kulyash had a desire to achieve rapid creative success in the theater, and to perform central roles in existing and newly performed works in the repertoire. He did not give up all the work of the theater at that time, but by "entering with the fire of the theater and leaving with its ashes" he worked hard to learn the secrets of the new profession. Previous generation brothers like S. Kozhamkulov, K. Kuanyshbaev, K. Zhandarbekov and others. does not get tired of learning from performing arts experience. At the same time, when it was his turn, he did not get tired of performing on the stage and creative search. In his memoirs about Kulyash, K. Bayseyitov focuses on his special passion for the stage. "He loved to go on stage so much - if his role was over and his hand was a little loose, he would ask himself to go on stage with the crowd... Kulyash knew how to stand out from others even when he was involved in public scenes, he would dress according to the content of the performance. Often he pretended to be a boy and dressed like one. Sometimes he pretended to be a lazy child, sometimes he put on a cap and pretended to be a thief, sometimes bullies would vomit and squint their eyes. "There were times when he deliberately tripped and fell down, trying to impress the audience even at the slightest moment," he says. Then in 1930 he was accepted into the troupe of the first Kazakh drama theater. Kulyash pays attention to the intricacies of stage art and soon begins to appear among the famous actors of the theater. Roles performed on stage: * Zeynep in Zh. Shanin's play "Shakhta"; * In the drama "Revenge" by I. Zhansugirov, the rich man is Karys; * Pulish in the play "Maidan" by B. Mailin; "In Shuga" - the image of Shuga; * One of the khan's daughters in the play "Isatai-Mahambet": * Kalmak's daughter in "Arkalyk batyr"; * Enlik is the protagonist of M. Auezov's tragedy "Enlik - Kebek"; * A. Zhubanov and L. Hamidi's opera "Abai" - image of Azhar; * M. Tolebaev's opera "Birzhan - Sara" - the image of Sara. In addition, K. Baiseyitova is one of the art masters who made a great contribution to this field both with her performance skills and her artistic work. He sang the parts of Butterfly in G. Puccini's opera "Chio-Chio-san" and Tatiana in P. I. Tchaikovsky's "Eugene Onegin" for the first time in Kazakh. Kulyash was admitted to the newly opened music studio in 1933. When the curtain of the Kazakh Music Theater opened for the first time in 1934 with the musical comedy "Aiman-Sholpan" (M. [Auezov, I.V. Kotsykh), Kulyash played the main role with great skill, and through the image of Ayman, he personified with inspiration the reasonable nature of Kazakh girls, born of honor. Further, Kulyash's amazing ability and talent shines brightly during the performance of Shuga in "Shugas" by B. Mailin and I.V. Kotsykh, and Silk in E. Brusilovsky's opera "Girl Silk". Through these roles, the wonderful possibilities of her singing and artistic abilities are fully manifested, and she receives the attention of the public as a great success of Kazakh stage art. He has become a real pillar of Kazakh stage art. Within a short period of time, E. Brusilovsky's "Zhalbyr", "Er Targyn", "Altyn astyk", "Gvardia alga", A.A. Zilber's "Beket", I.N. "Teren Kol" by Nadirov, "Abai" by A. Zhubanov and L. Hamidi, M. He played the main roles and performed the main vocal parts in operas such as "Birzhan-Sara" by Tolebaev, "Chio-Chio-San" by D. J. Puccini, "Eugene Onegin" by P. I. Tchaikovsky, "Demon" by A. Rubinstein, with unique skill. recognized. Due to Kulyash's multi-faceted and mysterious talent, the unique contrasting images and various vocal parts shine like a diamond, and a gallery of images with aesthetic and emotional power has been created. ## Singing art Kulyash Bayseyitova is a widely recognized master performer as a concert singer. As part of various official delegations, he is recognized for his performance on various stages in a private concert program accompanied by the Kurmangazy National Instrument Orchestra. His songs captivate the audience with their simplicity, clarity, and warmth from the heart. His repertoire included many folk songs, various works of other nations and contemporary composers. The singer's concert program includes songs from popular Kazakh folk songs, romances, arias from well-known operas, etc. introduced abundantly. In addition to the main repertoire in the theater, the singer paid special attention to the work of creating programs in the chamber plan on concert stages. At the same time, he is one of the best singers who performed the songs of the peoples of the Soviet Union, songs of Kazakh composers. ## Songs There are 30-40 songs-romances in the singer's regular repertoire, which are popular with many viewers and listeners. "Sarah's Aria", "Azhar's Aria", "Ugly Moon", "Gakku", "Double Swallow", "Nightingale", "Kazakh Waltz", "Swallow", "Shla Devitsa", "Kolokolchik" performed by Kulyash. Thin mountain ash", etc. The songs of many peoples reached their listeners with a special feeling and touching the heart. The folk singer, carrying a heavy burden of responsibility, fulfilled his duties at a level that was pleasing to the people, lived up to the name of the nightingale melodious singer of the masses, and was always able to be found among the people. Kulyash Baiseyitova was able to become the owner of a unique talent that was recognized around the world as a concert singer. ## Sources ## References * Asafyev B. Three articles about Kazakh music. //Musical culture of Kazakhstan. - Alma-Ata, 1955, Kazgosizdat, p. 5-10. * Akhmetova M., Erzakovich B.G., Zhubanova A. Soviet Kazakh music. - Almaty: Science. 1975, 318 p. * Akhmetova M.M. Songwriting and time. - Almaty: Art, 1993, 110 p. * Auezova M.O. Like different years. - Alma-Ata. : Kazgoshudlit, 1961, 544 p. * Bayseyitov K. Happy mood. - Almaty: Writer, 1977. - 224 * Brusilovsky E.G. Buttons are deaf. - Almaty: Ana tili, 1995. * Mukan A., Latieva S., Begimbetova G. KULASH: - Almaty: "World of Literature", 2014, - 364+16 pages. ISBN 978-601-7414-49-8 ## Links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160305082007/http://www.zhasalash.kz /ruhaniyat/6779.html Archived March 5, 2016. "In January 1912, two giants were born: one of them - Kulyash, the other - Dimash"]

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7099

Valikhanov

The word Valikhan or Valikhanov can have the following meanings: Personalities: * Vali Khan - Khan of the Middle Hundred * Shokan Chingisuly Valikhanov - scout, scientist * Shot-Aman Idrisvily Valikhan — architect, author of the coat of arms of Kazakhstan Settlements: * Ualikhanov - a village in Zharkayin district of Akmola region. * Ualikhanov is a village in Birzhan sal district of Akmola region. * Ualikhanov is a village in Zhelezin district of Pavlodar region.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5076

Mukhametzhan Tynyshbayuly

Mukhametzhan Tynyshbayuly (1879-1937) is an outstanding Kazakh political and public figure, one of the founders of the Alash movement, member of the government of the Alash Horde and its deputy chairman, historian-scientist, engineer of the first Kazakh railway relations. ## Biography He came from the Sadyr clan of the Naiman tribe. Mukhamedzhan Tynyshbaev, a major social and statesman of Alash, historian, educator, first railway engineer, was born on May 12, 1879 in Makanshi-Sadyr boly, Lepsi district, Zhetysu region (now Kabanbay district, Almaty region). After receiving a letter from the village mullah, in 1890, he was admitted to the preparatory class of the Verny men's gymnasium. The fate of Mukhamedzhan Tynyshbaev is the same as the fate of the Kazakh people who strive for education and enlightenment, national equality and civilization. M. Tynyshbayev, who studied at the said gymnasium for 10 years, including the preparatory class, graduated with honors (gold medalist). In 1900, the director of the gymnasium M.V. Thanks to the fact that Vakhrushev gave a scholarship to the governor of Zhetysu (at that time, the study of state accounting was conducted only in this way), Mukhamedzhan was accepted to the Peterbor Institute of Railway Transport named after Emperor Alexander I. He graduated from this institute in 1906. ## Years in Russia At the beginning of the 20th century, the influence of Western democracy barely reached Russia. This awakened the intellectuals in this empire. For example, in 1905, Russia, as Alikhan Bokeikhan said, "first and last time became Europe." That is, on October 17 of that year, the king's manifesto was published, and the country was given some freedom of speech and thought. In 1906, the first State Duma was convened in Russia. Mukhamedzhan Tynyshbaev, who was in the midst of such historical events, began to learn the alphabet of political struggle. The young actor quickly learned this. There is a lot of data that confirms his political maturity. For example, in 1905, he sent a reasoned letter to the chairman of the Committee of Ministers, suggesting that the government should get rid of the military rule and take a civil path in ruling foreign nationalities such as the Kazakhs. Also, in November of the same year, he participated in the first meeting of the autonomists and made a report entitled "Kazakhs' movement for freedom" ("Russian Turkestan", No. 1, 1906). In his report, M. Tynyshbaev says: "It is known what the government intends to do: firstly, it will russify the language, customs, religion and spirituality with brutal and brutal repressions; secondly, with various administrative measures, governors, rules, Kazakhs will be made lawless and outlawed; thirdly, we will deprive them of their blood-soaked land, where their bones are buried, drive them to the desert, and hand them over to the arms of death. Here, instead of the former independence and freedom of the Kazakhs, it was falsely paid for the bloodless entry into the Russian empire. One of the sharp articles of the artist in this spirit is called "General description of the current situation of Kazakhs and their needs for life". This is M. Tynyshbaev's 1993 collection. In the article, the author suggests the reason why people are in a difficult situation and how to get rid of it. After such an open opinion, the king's spies started following Muhamedjan. ## Working on the railway M. Tynyshbaev came to the country in 1906 and for some time participated in the design of the Zhetisu railway. Aware of the expulsion of the 1st State Duma, he shows himself with persistent social and political work necessary for the country's rights. As a result, in 1907, at the age of 28, he was elected a deputy to the II State Duma on behalf of Zhetysu region. So, now he will rise to high politics. However, the II Duma was also expelled by the king. By the decree of June 3, 1907, the empire deprived foreign nationalities such as Kazakhs (nations without official land ownership) of the right to be elected to the Duma. It is known from history that this situation caused the anger of Kazakh intellectuals (works in the spirit of awakening the country began to be published later). After the dissolution of the Duma, M. Tynyshbaev resumes his professional duties. Now he participates as an engineer in the railway construction of the region under the Turkestan Governorate. In the years 1907-1914, he took part in the construction of the bridge over the Amu Darya, as a leading specialist and chief engineer in the construction of the Ursat (Ursatyevsk) - Andijan railway. M. Tynyshbaev is a railway engineer worthy of attention in Navel Asia, even if he has completed his work only in the field of railways. In 1914, the figure returned to Zhetysu railway construction. This time he served as the head and chief engineer of the Arys - Aulie Ata section. At that time, T. Ryskulov, who was struggling with money to study at the Tashkent Institute of Teachers, met the engineer Mukhamedzhan. It was 1915. M. Tynyshbaev remembers that he once suffered in this way, and offers Turar a considerable amount of money and says that he will deposit such necessary funds to his address later. This selfless feeling of two citizens leads to loyal brotherhood. ## Articles written by Tynyshbayuly Elshil Mukhamedzhan, who published in Orynbor in the 10s of the 20th century, interacts and communicates with people around the "Kazakh" newspaper. In this newspaper, the publicist's "Army of Warring Kings", "Submarine", "Railway and European War", "Warships and Mines", "Barlybek Syrtanov", "Saduakas Shalymbekov", etc. articles are published. 1916-1917 was the time when M. Tynyshbaev was very active in the political arena. During the events of 1916, he was in the "Kazakh" group. That's why he was in the thick of the work of repatriating his relatives who had to go to China. Muhamedjan found out the following data that cannot help but shake a person: there were 47 thousand 759 smokes in 44 countries related to Zhetysu, of which 40 thousand 250 smokes escaped, and the number of dead people was 95200. This was also a massacre. In April 1917, the Provisional Government appointed M. Tynyshbaev and O.A. Shkapsky is appointed as commissar in Zhetysu region. When the autonomy of Turkestan was announced in the city of Kokan at the end of November 1917, the figure was elected as the chairman (prime minister) of the government of this autonomy. However, the Turkestan autonomy established in Kokand lasted only a few months and was mercilessly crushed by the Bolsheviks. The Alash party represented the Zhetysu region in the first all-Kazakh sieze, which was to be created, and the second all-Kazakh sieze, in which the Alash autonomy was declared. In the latter, he became part of the National Council (Alash Horde). The contribution to the nation of the figure who did various responsible work in different political and state systems during the difficult period was not in vain. Muhamedzhan's great work can be summarized as follows: * as a political figure, he consistently worked for the equality of his oppressed nation; as a specialist railway engineer, both before and after the revolution, he put the interests of the nation first in the construction of the railway; * as a publicist, in his articles published in Russian, he conveyed to the intelligentsia of St. Petersburg the injustice of the tsarist shensuns, and in his articles in Kazakh, he showed the manners of obtaining equality for his relatives; * as a historian, he practically determined the bold directions of creating the true history of the Kazakh country from ancient times to the present day. ## Activities in Turkestan-Siberia In 1921-1922, he managed water management in the Land and Water Commissariat of the Turkestan Soviet Autonomy. In 1925-1932, he was the chief engineer of the construction of the new capital (Kyzylorda) in the Soviet autonomy of Kazakhstan. Worked as a leading specialist in the construction of Turkestan-Siberia. In 1922, he was elected as a member of the board of the cultural and educational organization "Talap", founded in Tashkent. During this time, he wrote several historical works. His significant contribution to the country was his involvement as a specialist in the construction of the Turkestan-Siberian railway. was arrested in April 1932 and sent to work on the construction of the Moscow-Donbass railway. After returning to the country, he was arrested again in November 1937 and sentenced to death. He was born on May 12, 1879 in Makanshi-Sadyr Boly (now Kabanbay District), Lepsi District, Zhetisu Oblast. In 1889-1900, he studied at the Verny men's gymnasium and graduated with honors. He graduated from Verny gymnasium with a gold medal. Every year, he moves from class to class with the 1st degree award, and with his best example and moral behavior, he is admired by his teachers. After graduating from gymnasium, by the decision of the pedagogic council, he was awarded a gold medal for his excellent achievements in science, especially in mathematics. It paves the way for twenty-year-old Mukhametzhan to be employed as an interpreter in the office of the military governor of Zhetysu. But the young man, eager to learn, aspires to higher education and wishes to enter the St. Petersburg Institute of Railway Transport named after Emperor Alexander I. This time too, fate is smiling at him. With the help of his teacher, gymnasium director MV Vakhrushev, he received an annual scholarship of 360 soms from the treasury and left for St. Petersburg. In 1900-1906, he studied at the Alexander I Institute of Road Traffic Engineers in St. Petersburg, where he impressed his teachers with his outstanding ability and graduated with honors. While in the last year of the institute, he participated in the revolution of 1905. In the same year, he participated in the congress of autonomists, made a speech on the topic "Kazakhs and social movement", conveyed the grief of his people and sent a request to the Committee of Ministers. It tries to scientifically justify the fact that the main principles of governing Kazakhs are not in accordance with the interests of Kazakhs and demands the transition from the military system of governance to the civilian system. The fact that this demand of the young politician is in harmony with the demand of the famous "Karkaraly Petition" clearly shows that Kazakh citizens, who are my people, went everywhere and served the same purpose. Participates in the work of the congress of delegates of five regions of Kazakhstan held in Ural at the end of 1905. At this congress, it was intended to create the outline of the future "Alash" party. Even while studying at the institute, he published poisonous articles in the press lamenting the loss of his native people and spoke at various gatherings. At one such gathering, he made a speech at the 1st Congress of the Union of Autonomists held on November 19, 1905. There he spoke sharply: the land issue of the Kazakhs is undoubtedly very important... It is clear what the government intends: first, ... to destroy the Kazakhs as an independent nation and Russify the entire country; secondly, to turn Kazakhs into a powerless mob; thirdly, what kind of bloodthirsty, vile goal is it to deprive ... of the ancient ancestors? In 1905-1907, M. Tynyshbaev began to actively participate in the social and political life of the Russian Empire. In 1907, he was elected as a deputy to the II State Duma of Russia from Zhetysu region. Voices of Kazakh deputies criticizing Stolypin's agrarian policy could be heard from the tribune of the Duma, especially the report made by Bakytzhan Karataev caused a great uproar. This ended with the dissolution of the "libertarian" Duma according to the law of June 3, 1907, and Kazakhs losing the right to elect their representatives to the State Duma. After graduating from the university, he works as an engineer in the construction of the Central Asian region and Zhetysu railway. In the version of the explanation given to the governor-general of Turkestan about the uprising of 1916, he elaborated on it extensively and gave a brief overview of the violent actions of the colonialists. is a great scientific work. Before the February revolution, Mukhametzhan worked as a railway engineer for several years in Central Asia, in Zhetysu region. He, like other Kazakh intellectuals, had high hopes for the February Revolution of 1917. That's why at that time he served with determination and quickly became recognized as a social and political figure. In the spring of the same year, he was appointed a member of the Turkestan Committee of the Provisional Government, as well as a commissar of this government in the Zhetysu region. He participated in the All-Siberian Congress held in Tom in October 1917 together with other Alash figures and was included in the Siberian Council. M. together with the representatives of the national-democratic intelligentsia gathered around Alikhan Bukeikhanov, the prince of Alash. Tynyshbaev is also directly involved in the creation of the national "Alash" party. In 1911-1918, he worked as a chief and chief engineer in the Ursatiev-Andijan railway department. After that, he managed the construction of the Arys-Aulieata branch of Zhetysu railway. At the All-Kazakh Congress held in July 1917, he was nominated as a deputy to the All-Russian Constituent Assembly from Zhetysu region. will be one of the fifteen members of the government of Alash Autonomy, announced in December 1917, participates in the adoption of the draft "Regulations on temporary land use in the territory of Alash Autonomy". In 1918, he participated in the 4th All-Turkistan Muslim Congress and was elected as the prime minister of Turkestan ("Kokan") autonomy announced there. In 1919, after the All-Union Executive Committee announced amnesty to the former Alashordans, he held responsible positions in the Semey People's Enlightenment Commissariat of the Turkestan Region. After the Turkestan autonomy was forcibly destroyed by the Soviet authorities, M. Tynyshbaev and his Alashorda officials conducted negotiations and corresponded with many different governments that were being created one after another at that time (such as the Provisional Government of Siberia, the Ufa Directorate, the Kolchak governments), and fought against the Reds during the years of the civil war. But after seeing that it would not bring the expected results, since 1920 he sided with the Soviet government and worked as a "bourgeois specialist" in Tashkent, Kyzylorda, and Almaty in various economic institutions. Since 1924, he has been a teacher at the current KazUPU named after Abai. In 1925-1926, when he was the chief engineer of the beautification system of the new capital Kyzylorda, he proposed a way to supply the city with water and build many new facilities. Since 1926, with the support of Turar Ryskulov, he participates in the construction of the Turkestan-Siberia road. In 1926, at the suggestion of Turar Ryskulov, he participated in the project and construction of the Turksib railway. One time he got hands on the work of A.P. Chuloshnikov on the history of the Kazakh people. He writes a criticism against the opinions in this book that harm the honor of the nation and sends it to academician V. V. Bartold. The scientist is very pleased with this and advises to study and write the history of the Kazakh people, at least to write down historical data and materials for future researchers. Along this line, Mukhametzhan Tynyshbayul's works written in 1926-1927: "Materials on the history of the Kyrgyz-Kazakh people", "Kyrgyz-Kazakh in the XVII-XVIII centuries", "Aktaban Shubyrundy" and others. In Stalin's camp, he was arrested on August 3, 1930, sentenced to five years and exiled to Voronezh for five years. In 1933-1937, he worked on the construction of the Moscow-Donbas railway while driving. Although he got sick there and returned, he was arrested again in November 1937, and shot in Tashkent prison in 1937 under the guise of "Enemy of the People". On September 29, 1959, Mukhametzhan Tynyshbaev was acquitted by the decision of the Supreme Court of the Kazakh SSR, and in 1970 by the Prosecutor's Office of the USSR and the Prosecutor of the Turkestan Military District. ## Sources ## Links * Muhammadzhan Tynyshbai. Jas Alash newspaper Archived June 29, 2011.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3605

Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan

The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the main law of Kazakhstan. The current Constitution was adopted on the basis of a national referendum on August 30, 1995 and entered into force on September 5. The Constitution consists of 9 chapters and 99 articles. The Constitution is a document forming the legal basis of the state structure. He established the basic principles of functioning as a mechanism of statehood, social and political institutions, established the constitutional status of a person and a citizen, defined the foundations of economic construction. This is the second constitution adopted by independent Kazakhstan. The previous constitution was adopted on January 28, 1993. ## History ### Constitution of the Kazakh SSR, 1926 The first Constitution of Kazakhstan, after the establishment of the USSR on February 18, 1926, the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1925 was taken into account meeting of the Central Executive Committee of the Kazakh SSR was adopted in its final version, because at that time Kazakhstan was a part of the RSFSR. This Basic Law approved the form of government, state structure, political regime, structure of state authorities, executive and decision-making bodies. The basic principles of the right to vote and the right to budget have been established. According to this Constitution, Kazakhstan was recognized as a full-fledged republic within the RSFSR. ### Constitution of the Kazakh SSR 1937 The Constitution of the Kazakh SSR adopted on March 26, 1937 at the All-Kazakhstan X Congress of Soviets consisted of 11 parts and 125 articles. There it is said that "the Kazakh SSR exercises state power independently, fully preserving its sovereign rights, outside of Article 14 of the Constitution of the USSR." In the Constitution of 1937, in order to implement mutual cooperation in the fields of economic and political defense, the right to freely form alliances with other equal republics (Article 13), the prohibition of changing the territory without the consent of the Kazakh SSR (Article 16), the supreme republican and local bodies of state power formed , implementation of legislation, state and public order and citizens' rights, taxation, etc. the rights to carry out the republican policy on the protection of issues are established (Article 19). In addition, the court and prosecutor's office system is included. People's courts were elected by district citizens through secret elections on the basis of general, direct and equal suffrage, and court proceedings were to be conducted in the Kazakh language, and in districts where representatives of other nationalities are concentrated in their native languages (Articles 83-90). Basic rights of citizens in the Constitution of 1937 and obligations are defined: the right to work (Article 96), the right to rest (Article 97), the right to material support in cases of old age, illness and incapacity for work (Article 98), health care, speech, press, assembly, the guarantee of freedom of rally, street marches and demonstrations, personal rights to the person, housing, personal correspondence of citizens through correspondence, the right to grant political asylum to foreign citizens. ### Constitution of the Kazakh SSR 1978 The Constitution of the Kazakh SSR adopted on April 20, 1978 at the extraordinary VII session of the Supreme Council of the IX convened from the introduction, part 10, chapter 19 and article 173 lives. According to the constitution, all the power of the government was in the hands of the people belonging to the classes of workers, peasants and labor intelligentsia. ### Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan 1993 The first Constitution of independent Kazakhstan was adopted on January 28, 1993 at the 10th session of the 12th convened Supreme Council of Kazakhstan. It consists of introduction, 4 parts, 21 chapters and 131 articles. The Constitution includes many legal norms from the moment Kazakhstan gained state sovereignty: * people's sovereignty * state independence * the principle of power sharing * recognition of the Kazakh language as the state * the President as the head of state recognition included judicial bodies — Supreme, Constitutional and High Arbitration Courts and others. The 1993 Constitution was based on the parliamentary republic model. ### Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan 1995 The Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan was adopted on August 30, 1995. On August 30, 1995, a nationwide referendum was held in the republic, as a result of which the new Constitution of Kazakhstan was adopted. Voting took place in 10,253 polling stations in cities and villages of the country. This Constitution differed from the 1993 Constitution in the quality of its content. For the first time in the new Constitution, norms related not only to the rights of the citizen, but also to the rights that are inalienable from the moment of birth. According to it, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the main person of the political system, he is above the branches of power. This is suitable for a country with a presidential system of government. The constitutional section on the Parliament has undergone changes. In December 1995, elections were held for the two-chamber Parliament (upper chamber — Senate, lower chamber — Mazhilis). Structure of the Constitution * Part I. General rules * Part II. Man and citizen * Part III. President * Part IV. Parliament * Part V. Government * Part VI. Constitutional Court * Part VII. Courts and justice. Prosecutor's office. Human Rights Commissioner * Section VIII. Local government and self-government * Section IX. Final and Transitional Provisions Amendments and Amendments 1998 Article 19 of the Constitution was amended. The age limit of a presidential candidate has been raised to 40, and the age limit up to 65 has been removed. There is a change that the president is elected for seven years instead of five years. The number of Majilis deputies increased from 67 to 77. 2007 The capital of Kazakhstan was corrected to Astana. The death penalty has been established by law as the most severe punishment for committing terrorist crimes involving the death of people, as well as for committing particularly serious crimes during wartime. The president was to be elected for five years instead of seven years. It was also determined that the head of state should live in Kazakhstan for the last 15 years, not at least 15 years. It was written that one person cannot be elected president more than twice in a row, but this restriction does not apply to the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The point that the President of the Republic suspends his activities in a political party during the exercise of his authority was removed. 2011 Article 41 was supplemented with the clause "The extraordinary election of the President shall be appointed by the decision of the President and shall be held in the manner and within the time limit established by the constitutional law." 2017 A number of powers of the President were transferred to other branches of government. Deprivation of citizenship is allowed only by a court decision for committing terrorist crimes, as well as for causing other serious damage to vital interests of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 2019 On March 19, Nursultan Nazarbayev announced that he would terminate his presidential powers ahead of schedule. On March 20, the chairman of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Kassym-Jomart Tokayev, took an oath to the people of Kazakhstan and became the temporary president. On the same day, he proposed to name the capital of the country after Nursultan Nazarbayev, and the parliament quickly adopted a draft law on changing the name of Astana to Nur-Sultan. June 8, 2022 As a result of the nationwide referendum held on June 5, 56 changes were made to Article 33 of the Constitution. Among them: * It was noted that the land and its subsoil, water sources, flora and fauna, and other natural resources belong to the people * Close relatives of the President are allowed to hold positions as political civil servants, heads of quasi-state sector entities and The President was prohibited from being a member of a political party during the exercise of his powers * The position of State Secretary was abolished and replaced by the position of State Counselor * The Constitutional Court was re-established * The Accounts Committee for Monitoring the Implementation of the Republican Budget was established as the Supreme Audit Chamber \ <> * The death penalty has been banned * The deputies of the Majilis will be created according to the mixed election system * The deputies of the Majilis have been reduced from 107 to 98 * The presidential quota in the Senate has been reduced, the ANC quota in the Majlis has been abolished * Majoritarianism the system allows to recall the deputy at the will of the voters * Rules on the special role and privileges of the first president were removed September 17, 2022 Changes were made due to the return of the former name of Astana to the capital of Kazakhstan. ## External links * Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan — in the Wikibook project: Section 1, General Provisions Section 2, Man and Citizen Section 3, President Section 4, Parliament Section 5, Government Section 6, Constitutional Court 7 Department, Courts and Justice. Prosecutor's office. Human Rights Commissioner Section8, Local Government and Self-Government Section9, Final and Transitional Provisions * Section 1, General Provisions * Section 2, Man and Citizen * Section 3, President * Section 4, Parliament * Section 5, Government * Section 6, Constitutional Court * Section 7, Courts and Justice. Prosecutor's office. Human Rights Commissioner * Section 8, Local Government and Self-Government * Section 9, Final and Transitional Provisions * Amendments to the Constitution do not affect international agreements. The controversial Kyran language. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. * State Archived March 14, 2017. — Open Listing Project (ODP) ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2297

Paid by Mombekov

Tolegen Mombekov (1918, Sozak district, Syzgan village - 1997) was a farmer. Honored Worker of Culture of the KazKSR. He participated in the Second World War. One of the Middle Hundred and Six Lions is from the Konyrat tribe, the Sangil clan. ## Works Worked in the field of culture since 1943. His first teacher was his grandfather Bapish Kozhamzharovich. "Karatau", "Kara zhorga", "Ingay tokpe", etc. he learns the states from his grandfather. Later, he learned from the musician Sugir Aliul. Most of the tunes that Mombekov draws are click tunes that are widespread in Central Kazakhstan and South Kazakhstan. He performed tunes such as "Telkonur", "Boz ingen'n bulkilili", "Bes zhorga", "Shalkyma", and "Traveler's road brown", which he learned from Sugyr. His "Kosbasar", "Meshin", "Saltanat", "Kat-kabat", "Thousand Horses", "New Country", "Asu", "Mother", "Farewell", "Karatau Shertpesi" etc. the tunes were recorded on gramophone records. Mombekov's works were performed in the repertoire of the folk-ethnographic "Otyrar sazy" orchestra. ## Life He was born and raised in 1919 in the village of Kozmoldak on the slopes of Karatau. The origin of sacred art begins with our ancestors. Great-grandfathers Kozhamzhar and Nazar were eloquent speakers, grandfather Kaidau was a well-known poet in Orta-hundred, and grandfather Bapish was a man who hunted, hunted birds, and created friendships. Tolegen's brother named Janibek and sister named Kuntai were also great poets. The one who paid was treated with a dombra. Many poets and writers participated in the spread of Tolegen Mombekov's name in our nation, and the transformation of his native state into a national spiritual treasure. Sabit Mukanov, Askar Tokmagambetov, Taken Alimkulov, Tolegen Tokbergenov, Rakhmankul Berdybayev, Akseleu Seydimbekov made a special contribution in this regard. In 1965, Saben zholshibai, who traveled to Syr in connection with Askar Tokmagambetov's sixtieth anniversary, will also be in Sozak. Tolepbergen Nazarbekov, the first secretary of the aupartkom at that time, gathers kushis from different parts of Sozak district in honor of Sabeng. Among them will be Tolegen Mombekov, Faizolla Urmizov, Ergentai Borsabaev. Your baby will attract them in several ways. Among them, Tolegen was very interested in the click and decided: "It is necessary to introduce such a talent to the whole republic." So, Tolegen recorded his songs on a tape recorder and brought them to Almaty. Soon, the Sozak district leadership received a special letter from Almaty about sending Tolegen Mombekov on a business trip to the Institute of Literature and Art named after M. Auezov. At that time, he traveled with poets such as Kulzhabay Toleuov and Kopbay Omarov in the village of Tolegen, and worked as the manager of an auto club. During his visit to Almaty, Token recorded twelve tunes from his grandfather Bapish, Sugir and his own compositions on a gramophone record and performed some tunes on television. Nurgisa Tilendiev, who was watching TV at that time, asked: "Where did this trap come from? !" he says that he is shooting. He is the one who said that "talent is recognized only by talent". He fell in love with Nurgisa Tolegen, and every time he came to Almaty, he welcomed him, placed him in a hotel, and gave him a seat on the right side. On the very first visit of Tolegen to Almaty in 1969, articles about Tolegen's life and work were published in the newspapers "Socialist Kazakhstan", "Leninshil Jas", "Kazakh Literature". Tolegen's known states will be fully recorded in the fund of the Institute of Literature and Art. Yesterday's village drummer will become famous throughout the country within a week. Well-known musicians and art researchers: Wali Bekenov, Zharkyn Shakarim, Bilal Yskakov did not write about his pay. Tolegen's teacher, Sugir Aliuly, who was at the head of the Karatau music school, died in 1961. Unfortunately, none of Sugir's performances were recorded on tape. During his lifetime, his tunes were not recorded. Writer Mukhtar Auezov, Prime Minister Nurtas Ondasynov sought and invited him to Almaty, but he did not come. That time was the time of the Soviet "hurrah", the time when the state of the press was seen without exception. It's time to lose the dignity of both the state and the state. Due to Tolegen's performance, Sugir's tunes "Passenger's Road Bell", "Shalkyma", "Beszhorga", "Kertolgau" reached the people. According to old-timers who heard about Sugir's struggle, Sugir's "Degraded" state did not reach us in its original form. Tolugen also has the status of "Rebellion of the Corrupted". According to researchers, these two are two separate states. He improved the first version of the paid one in his own way, developed it in a different way. According to the famous musician Karshika Akhmediyarov, without dividing Sugir and Tolegen, the controversial tunes should be called "Sugir and Tolegen's" in one word. The late Professor Kerimbek Syzdykov, who saw Sugir and was a native of the same village, wrote: "...when he played music in public, on radio and television in Almaty, he would always respect the elder Sugir as his teacher and start by singing that person's music. For the first time, I was the reason for recording "Kosbasar" as Tattimbet's and "Bozingen's Rebellion" as Sugir's. Because in our concept at that time, no matter how many types of status "Kosbasar" existed, it was considered characteristic only of Tattimbet's name. And the state "Degraded" is named after the names of Ikhilas and Sugir. Tolegen did not object to it, saying that he was a fool, but he often told the story that "I don't know who drew and how, when I draw the moods that come to my right, I fantasize and draw them on my own"... ## The history of states The history of the state of Saltanat: In 1969, Tolegen Mombekov's noble wife Pernesh died, and she and her five daughters named Raikhan, Kyzzhan, Dana, Gulzhan, Saltanat, and one named Kairat Tokene, who is left with his son, is deeply affected by this loss. In this year full of stress, four states come to life one after the other. At that time, Tolegen, who was working as a manager of an auto club, came home one day tired from work, and Kairaty left his four-year-old daughter Saltanat crying. Then Saltanat, even though a few years have passed, does not forget his dead mother and cries, "I will tell my mother." The coachman, who heard these words, was in a terrible state and was very excited. While consoling her daughter, she cries together: "I'll be back, my dear." Then he continues to beat his tambourine, which is his support and consolation. A new state will appear tomorrow. Kui's name is "Saltanat" as a consolation to her daughter. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5226

Wealthy

Dauletkerey Shygayuly (1820, Orda district, Ural region - May 4, 1887) is a prominent Kazakh singer-composer. ## Biography Dauletkerey Shygayuly was born in the 1820s in the Orda district of the modern Ural region in a wealthy family. Both his father Shygay and the khan of the Bokei Horde, Jangir-Kerey Khan, raised him from childhood to rule the country and create judicial ceremonies. In the first period, he tried to rule individual clans in that country. But with a tender heart, he understands early that a person in power is cruel by necessity. Dauletkerey was also offended by the fact that his relative Jangir Khan took away the land of ordinary Kazakhs and gave the fertile, river-water pastures and winter pastures to the Russian colonists who were encroaching along our wide steppe. Although he did not participate directly, there is also evidence that he supported the Isatai-Mahambet uprising in the middle of the 19th century. This can be seen from its "Active" status. According to the famous music researcher, academician Ahmet Zhubanov, Dauletkerey's niece, Nausha Bukeikhanov, who lived under the Soviet government, composed about fifty tunes of the kushi. It is the same person who gave valuable information about the famous musician. As a child, Dauletkerey learned Muslim letters from a mullah. Khan Zhangir, who was educated in Russia and later reached the rank of general, created conditions for children to learn Russian in the Horde. Dauletkerey learned Russian, could read and write. He was a scholar from an early age. An excellent dombra player, he learned the skill from a musician named Musirali. Moreover, in the beginning of the forties, drama and pop artists were invited from Saratov to the Horde, which became the winter residence of the sultans. There is an assumption that Dauletkerey got acquainted with Russian and European music from an early age. He skillfully played the Russian balalaika. He could also play guitar and mandolin. In 1854, Cheredeev drew a sketch of the French traveler Pauli in a watercolor depicting Dauletkerey, who is in a mood, and performers on other instruments. The most interesting thing is that there is a figure of a man dancing in the middle. In 1855, Dauletkerey was among the representatives who took part in the coronation ceremony of Tsar Alexander the Second. The purpose of including him in the delegation was to gradually learn how to manage the country. But he did not come to get acquainted with the palace of the tsarist colonizers, but with advanced Russia, the country of Pushkin. He will see what he did not see and hear what he did not hear with his own ears. He listens to the works of European musicians played by the orchestra. Although he did not write poetry himself, the poet who understood poetry by heart was the first to contribute when the Bokei Horde collected funds to erect a monument to Pushkin near the lyceum where the poet studied. After Dauletkerey was appointed the ruler of Kyzylkurt in 1861, he met his grandfather Kurmangazy a year later. "Dauletkerey's conversation with Kurmangazy and seeing other drum players of the folk tradition greatly influenced his musical creativity," writes Academician Ahmet Zhubanov. The best musical compositions of Kurmangazy and his students are distinguished by their stormy accent, stone-like rhythm, ambitious courage, and wide breath. Dauletkerey's songs "Flood" and "Dzhiger", depicting the fate of the people and the country's desire for freedom, depict the serious and serious emotions of a brave man who has suffered fate. Zataevich wrote about "Dzhiger" as follows: Dauletkerey, who died in the seventies of the last century, is one of the great farmers who, although he did not live long, left behind an immortal and indelible legacy. ## Creativity One of his first works is "Akjelen". This mood is for an artistic and beautiful girl named Akbala. Dauletkerey's "Konyr", "Zeldirme", "Kerilme", "Iskirma", "Kosishek" moods depict various scenes in life. The history of the name "Zhumabike" is as follows: at that time, it was customary for girls to be married to someone they did not know. Later, when she becomes a girl, even if she doesn't love him, she should be married to that guy. Dissatisfied with this, energetic girls used to apply to institutions with authority called the Provisional Council. If the girl's word is confirmed and the truth is revealed, she will be freed. Dauletkerey expressed his gratitude to a girl named Zhumabike, who was a great singer and poet, who was recognized early in the tribal country, and who gained freedom on her own terms. In 1869, the meeting with the great Kazakh composer Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly was an unforgettable period in Dauletkerey's creative life, they learned the language of kuy and directly influenced each other with the art of music. Many states of Dauletkerey are widespread among people. His tunes in the household genre "Zeldirme", "Tartys", "Iskirma", "Kosalka"; There are works depicting women such as "Kyz Akjelen", "Akbala Kyz", "Beautiful Lady", "Karajan Lady", "Kudasha", "Mungy Kyz", "Zhumabike". Under the influence of Russian music, "Vashchenko", "Double gut", "Konyr", "Topan", etc. b. states, in 1871 his friend S. In honor of Babazhanov's death, he released a mourning song called "Salyk olgen". The state of "Nightingale" was also born in this period. Deep content and complex psychology prevail in Dauletkerey's states belonging to the last years of his life. Among them, there are tunes such as "Demalys", "Tondirme", "Kerilme", "Dzhiger", which are excellent examples of folk symphony. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6100

Болгария

Bulgaria, Bulgaria (Bolg. Български), officially the Republic of Bulgaria (Bolg. Република Български [rɛˈpublikɐ bɤ̞lˈɡarijɐ]) is a country in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula. The area is 110 thousand km². The population is 7.7 million. Man (2007). The main population is Bulgarians (85%), in addition, Turks, Gypsies, Armenians, Greeks, etc. representatives of nationalities live. The capital is the city of Sofia (1.5 million). Most of the population is Orthodox, 13% are Muslims. ## State structure Bulgaria is a parliamentary republic. The head of state is the president. The supreme legislative body is the unicameral People's Assembly. Executive power is headed by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers. At the head of the Bulgarian state was a monarch (he was called differently: at first - khan, in Slavic - knyaz, in Simeon's dream - caesar, later - emperor). The king was found to be the supreme legislator, supreme court and supreme commander. The basis of his power was the army. The royal power was limited to the Boyar council, which included the great boyars and the patriarch. High officials were directly appointed by the king himself. Among them, the following can be mentioned: the great logophet - the first minister and assistant to the king of the Second Kingdom; protovestiarii - minister of finance, keeper and manager of the treasury of the king and the state; great commander and protostrator - high military ranks. Local administration. The territory of Bulgaria was divided into regions, which were led by regional leaders - dukas, who were direct representatives of the royal power. ### Judicial system The judicial system of Bulgaria consists of state and church courts. From 1393 to 1878, Bulgaria was under the rule of Turkey. On February 19, 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano was signed between Russia and Turkey, according to which Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro were granted independence. ## History People began to settle in Bulgaria in the Paleolithic era. According to the Greek language data of the 8th - 6th centuries BC, these places were inhabited by Thracians. In the 1st century, the Thracians were conquered by the Roman Empire, and the provinces of Moesia and Thrace were formed here. 395 Bulgaria was part of the Byzantine Empire. In the 70s of the 7th century, the Bulgars (Turkish tribes) led by Asparukh (Isperikh) Khan moved from the region of the Sea of Azov and the North Caucasus, and in 680 AD. The Slavic-Bulgarian tribes founded the state in the Balkan mountains and the lower reaches of the Danube. In the 9th century, Serdica, Adrianople, etc. As a result of the annexation of regions, the borders of this state expanded. The first Bulgar kingdom (1018 - 1186) was subordinated to Byzantium. The Second Bulgar Kingdom of 1187-1396 initially paid taxes to Batu, but at the end of the 13th century and the beginning of the 14th century, it was dependent on the Nogai Horde. At the end of the 14th century, the fragmented Bulgarian lands were conquered by the Ottoman Sultanate. Since the 15th century, the cities have been beautified, the prosperity of the country has increased, and some of the Bulgarian citizens have converted to Islam. Industrial relations, trade have developed, and turnover at major fairs has increased. Russo-Turkish wars (18th-19th centuries) mobilized Bulgarians to fight for independence. 1908 On September 22, Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent country. During the First Balkan War (1912-13), Bulgaria annexed a part of Turkey, but lost it again in the Second Balkan War (1913). Bulgaria was on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary during World War I. Although Bulgaria followed a neutral policy on the eve of World War II, in 1941 joined the Triple Alliance between Germany, Italy and Japan in March. 1944 After the Soviet Army entered Bulgaria on September 9, the state monarchical structure was destroyed. 1946 From September 15 to 1989, Bulgaria was a member of the Warsaw Pact and the Council of Economic Mutual Assistance among the countries that chose the path of socialist development. Since 1989, political changes, democratic revival, transition to economic market relations began in the country. The Communist Party of Bulgaria, which ruled the government until 1991, left power. Bulgaria to the UN, the Council of Europe, etc. member of international organizations. 1992 Established diplomatic relations with Kazakhstan. Bulgaria was an agrarian country until 1947. 1947 - 90 years became an industrial-agrarian state. 1996 the average annual income per capita was 1160 US dollars. The basis of its economy consists of machine-building, food industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of chemical and petrochemical products, wood processing. Grain crops (wheat, corn), tobacco, vegetables, fruits are grown in agriculture. It takes the first place in the world in the export of basil oil. Machines, plastic products, tobacco, wine are exported. Tourism is developed on the coast of the Black Sea. ### Bulgaria during the temporary stabilization of capitalism After the defeat of the anti-fascist uprising in September 1923, the bourgeoisie won in Bulgaria. The reactionary groups organized terror against the leftist forces and succeeded in persecuting the BKP and BZNS parties. In November 1923, the elections to the "People's Assembly" were won by the bourgeois party Democratic Unity Party. They took 60% of the seats in the parliament. BKP held only 8 deputies. After the election, in January 1924, he issued the Law on "Defense of the State". Banned the work of BKP. Heads of BKP V. Komarov, G. Dimitrov went abroad. White terror against communists started in the country. Stability has begun in the field of economy. The Bulgarian lev has increased in value. A lot of attention was paid to production and construction. Manufacturing and financial sectors have opened new industrial sites, manufactured goods have been produced in large quantities. Tobacco monopoly is strengthened. The share of foreign capital has increased. The amount of crops in agriculture increased. Sugar beet and tobacco plantations were rich in harvest. In 1926, the head of the reactionary government A. Tsankov resigned. A. Lyanchev was appointed as the head of the new government. One of his first actions was to announce an amnesty for those convicted through the "state protection" law. The bourgeoisie began to abandon reactionary domestic politics. In 1928, he supported the industry of the domestic bourgeoisie and made many concessions. He created conditions for the development of national production through loans from foreign countries and distribution of loans. It helped the development of agriculture in a capitalist way. In 1929, the world economic crisis also started in Bulgaria. Agriculture was under considerable stress. The price of agricultural products has decreased by 2 times. The situation of small farmers was very difficult. Production of industrial products decreased by 40%. Unemployment is rampant in the country. Small and medium-sized enterprises went bankrupt. The economic crisis intensified the social conflict. The living conditions of the people decreased and the opposition against the government in the country grew. "People's Bloc" unit was created. In 1931, the opposition People's Bloc won the election to the People's Assembly. But the new government was little different from the policies of the previous Lyapchev. The economic crisis deepened, and a new coup d'état was being prepared in Bulgaria. ### Monarchy-fascist revolution In 1932, the pro-fascist "Zveno" party was formed in Bulgaria, organized a coup d'état in cooperation with the military and the monarchy. The coup took place on May 19, 1934. The "People's Bloc" government was overthrown, and a new military-fascist government headed by K. Georgiev was established in its place. One of the first actions of the government was to dissolve the parliament. The activity of political parties was banned. The monarchy, which relied on military men, made a monarchical coup in January 1935, the government of K. Georgiev resigned. Monarchy-fascist dictatorship is established in Bulgaria. A person close to the royal court, G. Kyuseyvanov, is appointed to the government. Relying on the support of the Bulgarian king Boris, he established friendly relations with the German state. In November 1936, Boris went to Germany and met with Hitler. An economic and trade agreement is signed between Bulgaria and Germany. German capital controls 2/3 of Bulgaria's economy. Agriculture will develop, the amount of crops and the number of livestock will increase. The volume of planting of tobacco and fruits has increased. Meat processing plants and large refrigerators are being built in Bulgaria, and 85% of the meat is transported to Germany. Tobacco factories processing Bulgarian tobacco were built, and 90% of tobacco products were sent to Germany. Bulgaria became a vassal (dependent) of Germany producing raw materials. In 1938, according to a secret agreement between the two countries, Germany provided weapons to Bulgaria and equipped its troops with German weapons. Germany supplied Bulgaria with 100% of railway wagons, 90% of trucks, 100% of fertilizers, and 80% of locomotives. In 1937, the Bulgarian government signed a treaty of "eternal friendship" with Yugoslavia. In July 1938, the Treaty of Samolnika on friendly relations with Greece was signed. During the first period of the Second World War, Bulgaria hid its pro-fascist policy and declared a policy of neutrality. In 1940, the People's Assembly was dissolved and the new government was headed by B. Filov. The law "Protection of the Nation" will be issued and the policy of terror will begin. Fascist youth organization is created. Workers are sent to Germany to help bring the war closer. The country's economy was fully prepared for war. On March 1, 1941, in Vienna, Bulgaria signs the agreement on joining the "Triple Union". Fascist German troops will enter Bulgaria and turn Yugoslavia and Greece into a bridgehead for conquest. Bulgaria and Germany unite and conquer Macedonia and France. The monarchical fascist Bulgarian government and Tsar Boris became allies of Germany, and when Germany declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941, Bulgaria continued its anti-Soviet policy. On September 5, 1944, the USSR declared war on Bulgaria, and the Soviet Army liberated Bulgaria. The state and law of Bulgaria ### Periods of the history of the Bulgarian state * Period 1 - "Union of Seven Tribes" (VII century), at that time a large part of the Balkan Peninsula was part of Byzantium - Mysia was conquered by the Slavs; * 2nd period - the First Bulgarian kingdom, during which the following events took place: - 667-668 AD. Mysia was invaded by the proto-Bulgarian army led by Asparukh Khan, they defeated Byzantium and in 681 Byzantine emperor Constantine IV made a peace agreement with Asparukh Khan, which meant recognition of the newly formed Slavic-Bulgarian state; - 893-927 AD. the Slavic-Bulgarian state became the dominant power in the Balkans under Prince Simeon; frequent internecine wars and conflicts in the ruling class led to the weakening of the military and economic power of the Bulgarian state, which Byzantium took advantage of and took Bulgaria under its control from 1018 to 1187; * 3rd period - the Second Bulgarian Kingdom (1187-1396) was established as a result of the liberation struggle of the Bulgarian people against Byzantine oppression. Social structure. The class base of the Slavic-Bulgarian state was made up of feudal lords and peasants. The feudal class included large feudal nobles - boyars and their vassals - small feudal lords. Peasants also consisted of several categories: wigs - directly dependent on feudal lords, tied to the land and had no right to leave it; otroks - the lowest category of dependent peasants; technicans are artisans who serve the needs of their master's household. Main characteristics of the right. In the VII-VIII centuries, custom was found as the main source of law in Bulgaria. Later, among the nomocanons, the Ecloga and the Law of the Land occupied a special place. One of the most important sources was the Judicial Code, which consisted of 32 chapters and was a collection of criminal, civil and procedural law. According to these sources, two types of land ownership were distinguished: bashtina - freely transferred property by inheritance and pronia - contractual lifetime ownership associated with compulsory military service. The property passed to the children of the deceased person, and upon the death of the owner of the pronia, the land share was returned to its superior owner. Inheritance of other properties was regulated by Ecloga. Violation of legal norms established by the royal authority and the church is understood as a crime in criminal law. Crimes against the king and the individual were regulated by the Ecloga, and crimes against property by the Judiciary Act, while civil offenses were reflected in the Land Act. In the Bulgarian state, the degree of responsibility and the severity of the punishment were determined depending on the class origin of the victim and the criminal. ## Economic and political development of Bulgaria In World War I, Bulgaria fought on the side of the Triple Alliance. Bulgaria, like its allies, lost this war. The war brought the country's economy into crisis. Bulgaria supplied Germany with food during the war years. The burden of the war fell on the shoulders of the people. 70% of the industry was shut down. Agriculture was under stress and the amount of crops was reduced by 25-30%. There was a rise in prices in the country and there was a shortage of food. 1915-1918 the price of bread increased 4 times, meat - 5 times, sugar - 3 times. Soldiers lacked weapons and food. The war-weary soldiers demanded to return home, and the anti-government movement began to spread on the war fronts. On September 26, 1918, Bulgarian soldiers in the village of Vladai rebelled and headed for the city of Sofia. On September 29, the Vladai uprising was defeated. On September 30, Bulgaria left the war. On October 3, the king of Bulgaria, Ferdinand, abdicated and handed over the power of the country to his son Boris. On October 17, 1918, a petty bourgeois government was established in Bulgaria. The government included socialists and BZNS (Bulgarian Land and People's Union) party. The political crisis intensified in the country, and the revolutionary mood intensified. The new government had to make some concessions. First, he announced an amnesty in the country, and secondly, he introduced an 8-hour working day. But these measures could not eliminate the political crisis in the country. In March 1919, the 22nd congress of the Bulgarian Social-Democratic (Tesniak) Party took place, and this congress changed the name of the party to the Bulgarian Communist Party. BKP leaders Vasil Kolarov and Georgii Dimitrov were elected to it. In the summer months of 1919, revolutionary movements became widespread. BKP was in charge and its reputation grew among the people. In August 1919, elections to the People's Assembly (Parliament) were held. The BZNS petty-bourgeois party won the election, while the BKP won the second place. He got 47 seats in the parliament. After the election, a one-party BZNS government was formed. Stamboliyski from the BZNS party was appointed as the head of the government. Bulgaria was a monarchical-bourgeois country. Bulgarian king Boris remained in place. The internal and external situation of the Stamboliyskyi government was very serious. On November 27, 1919, an agreement was signed between the Entente countries and Bulgaria in Neuilly-Sursen. According to the Treaty of Nei, Bulgaria returned Thrace to Greece. 2,500 square km of land, the cities of Kula, Tsaribrod, and Strulish were given to Yugoslavia. At the same time, Romania received the land of Dobrudz. Bulgaria agreed to pay 2250 million francs. 70,000 cattle and 50,000 tons of coal were to be given to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania. The Treaty of Neuilly hit Bulgaria very hard. In March 1920, parliamentary elections were held in Bulgaria. The BZNS party won, and A. Stamboliysky established a separate government. One-party rule was established in the country. Stamboliysky made a number of changes in the country. Economic development was observed in Bulgaria. The amount of crops increased, potatoes, sugar beets, and tobacco products began to be produced in abundance. Livestock increased. The number of industries increased, capital was concentrated, and enterprises processing agricultural products increased. French capital entered freely. Bulgaria remained an agrarian country. Being a peasant party, he carried out agrarian reform. He restrained the ownership of large land holdings and implemented the principle that "who works the land, the land belongs to him." In 1923, he introduced the majoritarian electoral system. In the parliamentary elections held in April, BZNS won 87% of the votes and sent many deputies to the parliament. The one-party system has become stronger. He proposed to amend the constitution through the parliament. In the country, against Stamboliysky, the bourgeoisie and military groups around the tsar were preparing a government coup. fascist party called "People's Unity" was created and supported the coup d'état. During the years of political crisis, the BZNS party remained alone and did not support the BKP. Military groups and fascists united and organized a revolution in June 1923. June revolution in Bulgaria. On the night of June 8-9, 1923, a coup d'état took place. A. Stamboliyskyi was arrested and his government offices were seized. The coup d'état was supported by the fascist "People's Unity" party, officer groups and Tsar Boris himself. Monarchy-fascist rule was established. A. Tsankov, head of the "People's Unity" party, was appointed to the new government. The groups that supported Stamboliyski were very weak. BKP and the people did not support Stamboliyski. BKP supported the government that came through the coup d'état and petty bourgeois groups. But these were reactionary bourgeois groups. A. Tsankov's government organized terror against its opponents in the country and banned the activities of the BKP. On August 5-7, 1923, at a meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, they admitted their tactical mistakes and decided to organize an armed uprising against fascism in the country. On September 12, mass terror spread across the country. 2.5 thousand communists were arrested. BKP called the people to revolt. On September 19-20, an anti-fascist armed uprising began in Starozaor district. A military-revolutionary headquarters was created to manage the armed uprising. The popular uprising was led by V. Kolarov, G. Demitrov and G. Genovter. On September 23, the uprising covered the entire Vrachan and Vidin districts of Bulgaria. The city of Ferdinand was the center of the rebellion. In southern Bulgaria, the popular uprising was widespread. But there was no unity among the peasants who took part in the uprising in the villages of the district. The workers in the city did not support the rebels. A. Tsankov's government was well prepared to suppress the uprising. Therefore, the small armed groups in the districts were suppressed one after another. On September 30, 1923, the anti-fascist uprising in Bulgaria was defeated. The BKP, which led the popular uprising against the post-Italian fascist dictatorship in Europe, still showed little experience. Inexperience in the fight against fascism in European countries in the 1930s, the inability to create a united workers' front led to their defeat. In the struggle against the fascist rebellion in France and Spain, they can win only by creating the "People's Front". In 1935, G. Dimitrov, who led the Communitarian International, made a report at the VII Congress of the Comintern and, learning from his mistakes, set the strategy and tactics of the Comintern to the anti-fascist forces. ## Geography The Danube plain occupies the north, the Dobruja plateau occupies the east, and the Stara Planina mountain (Balkan) occupies the south. The climate is mostly temperate continental, only in the south it is Mediterranean. Annual amount of precipitation: 450-600 mm in the plains, 850-1300 mm in the mountains. There are many rivers in Bulgaria. Main rivers: Danube, Iskir, Maritsa, Struma, etc. Most of the lakes are in the Rila and Pirin mountains. 30% of its land is forested. There are many resorts on the Black Sea coast. ## Population ## Religion ## Terminological dictionary * Great Logophet - the first Bulgarian king minister. * Duka is the head of the region. * Otroks are the lower category of respectable peasants. * Pariks are peasants personally dependent on feudal lords (in terms of status, they became similar to noble peasants). * Protovesiary - Minister of Finance. * Protostrator is one of the highest military ranks of the Bulgarian kingdom. * Technatarians are artisans. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4702

United Nations

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization aimed at maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations between nations, achieving international cooperation, and becoming a center for coordinating the actions of states. It is the largest, internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world. Headquartered in New York, USA. Currently, the UN includes 193 countries. The name "United Nations" was proposed by US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The Declaration was adopted in San Francisco on October 24, 1945. That day was declared UN Day. ## Historical overview The most important and basic document of the United Nations is its Charter. If we look at the historical data, the draft of the Charter of the Organization was created with the participation of the representatives of the USSR, USA, China and Great Britain. The document was prepared in five languages - Russian, English, Chinese, French and Spanish, and was signed by 51 countries at the San Francisco Conference on June 26, 1945. And the Charter was put into force on October 24 of the same year due to the ratification of the Charter by the countries participating in the said conference. Since then, October 24 is widely celebrated in the international community as the founding day of the United Nations. Well known to many, the General Assembly, which includes all member states of the Organization, is considered the main body of the United Nations. Each UN member state has one vote in decision-making. Commonly important issues, in particular, peace and security, new members of the Organization and the adoption of its budget, are decided by the participation and voting results of two thirds of the UN member states. Also, the General Assembly reviews and approves the budget of the Organization. Members of various bodies of the organization elect the UN Secretary General on the recommendation of the Security Council. Currently, Russia, USA, China, Great Britain and France are permanent members of the Security Council. Also, the question of increasing the number of members of the Security Council has been discussed for several years. But he hasn't decided yet. ## Goal According to the Charter, the UN aims for the following 4 goals in its activities: * maintaining peace and security throughout the world; * development of friendly relations between nations; * support for implementation of international cooperation in solving international problems and respect for human rights; * to be a hub for nations to work together to achieve these goals. The UN, including its multifaceted functions, covers almost all areas of the world community. Its relevance, especially its role in solving the conflicts of the modern age, which is characterized by the growing global dependence and the requirement to unite the efforts of states in ensuring international peace and security, is very great. The main importance for UN member states is the Organization's participation in solving urgent problems such as maintaining international peace and security, disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The organization also initiated international efforts to combat terrorism, drug trafficking and organized crime. Today, it has become a center for solving pressing problems of the international community: the UN carries out systematic work to support respect for human rights, protect the environment, fight against diseases, curb the scale of poverty, help refugees, defuse mines, and fight AIDS. One of the main goals of the UN is to maintain peace throughout the world. For many years, the organization has been playing an important role in preventing international crises and resolving protracted conflicts. He carried out complex operations on establishing and maintaining peace and providing humanitarian aid. At the same time, he took measures to prevent the escalating conflicts. In post-conflict situations, it often takes organized measures aimed at eliminating the root causes of violence and building a foundation for sustainable peace. ## Structure * The General Assembly is authorized to discuss any case and issue within the UN Charter, to develop recommendations to member states, to discuss the annual and special reports of the Security Council, and to hold meetings of the entire Organization. reviews and approves the budget. Appoints members to the Security and Economic and Social Councils. On the recommendation of the Security Council, the Secretary General is appointed for a 5-year term and the members of the International Court of Justice are appointed. The General Assembly meeting is held every year between September and December. * Security Council — international peace and security fight. All its decisions must be obeyed by UN members. Five permanent members (Russia, USA, Great Britain, France, China) have the right of veto. The remaining 10 non-resident members are elected in accordance with Article 23 of the UN Charter. * The Secretariat is an international staff engaged in various official work in all UN offices around the world. The main offices are in New York, Geneva and Vienna. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General. * Economic and Social Council — consists of 5 regional commissions: European Economic Commission, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Econ for Western Asia. and society. Com., for Africa, for Latin America and the Caribbean. * Council on care — the main tasks of the residents of the territory under care are political, economic, social. to progress, his progress in the field of education, to support his progressive development in the direction of self-reliance or independence. 1994 It temporarily stopped working on November 1. * The International Court of Justice is considered to be the most important organization that resolves disputed issues between states, as well as issues recommendations on legal issues of UN bodies and its specialized institutions. It consists of 15 independent courts. They are deprived of the right to engage in other activities and have diplomatic privileges and immunities. Only states can participate in the court, and individuals and natural persons cannot. * 16 special institutions: World Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, UNESCO, World Health Organization, UN Children's Fund, UN Industrial Development Agency, etc., and special commissions: International Law Commission , Commission on International Trade Law. Official languages: English, Arabic, Spanish, French, Chinese, Russian. The UN Charter is the main document of this organization. It describes all the duties of the member states and the principles of the organization. ## Kazakhstan and the United Nations In the history of independent Kazakhstan, March 2, 1992 is distinguished by Kazakhstan's admission to the United Nations. Our country became a member of the 46th session of the UN General Assembly not only as a new member of the Organization, but also as a state that takes an active position on the most urgent international problems of our time. At the 47th session of the UN General Assembly, the Head of State N. Nazarbayev spoke about Kazakhstan's international policy and put forward two important proposals. The first is to start creating a fund for UN peacekeeping efforts under the "one+one" formula with the goodwill of all governments. This formula means that each country allocates one percent of its defense budget to it, increasing it by one percent every year. If you do this, after ten years, the settlement amount will increase tenfold. The second proposal is the convening of the Council on Mutual Cooperation and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CCCBM). This initiative of the head of state was supported by many countries, as well as the UN, and played a significant role in determining the foreign policy of Kazakhstan. Since 1992, Kazakhstan was not only accepted as a member of the international community, but also managed to find its rightful place in it. Kazakhstan's participation in the work of the UN system is one of the main directions of multilateral diplomacy of the country, it contributes to the strengthening of the country's sovereignty and independence, socio-political, economic and society, etc. creates favorable international conditions in the fields. The main goal of this direction is to promote the strategic interests of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of global and regional security on the international stage, to create a fair world order and sustainable development environment in politics and economy, and to coordinate relations between members of the world community. The leadership of our country, supporting the activities of UN Secretary General K. Annan aimed at strengthening the role of the UN in important areas of international cooperation, is following a direction aimed at expanding the cooperation of the Republic of Kazakhstan with this prestigious organization, its specialized institutions, funds and programs. One of the main events in the history of Kazakhstan's cooperation with the UN was the official visit of UN Secretary General K. Annan to Kazakhstan on October 17-18, 2002, which confirmed the results of Kazakhstan's ten-year cooperation with the UN and determined the future of cooperation. There is great potential for cooperation with the UN Development Program, the Children's Fund, the World Health Organization, and the UN Environment Program in attracting experts, technical and financial assistance to Kazakhstan at the stage of state formation. Based on the full implementation of the UN Charter, Kazakhstan fully supports efforts to strengthen the Organization and create a world security system under the leadership of the UN. Recognizing the leading role of the UN in solving important issues today, Kazakhstan cannot stay out of the trends taking place in this organization. Since the day of independence, Kazakhstan has made a great contribution to maintaining world peace and security. Abandoning nuclear weapons, establishing confidence-building measures in Asia, strengthening integration processes in the Eurasian space, calling for a dialogue between civilizations and religions - all this is still an incomplete list of what our state has done in accordance with the principles and goals of the UN Charter. Kazakhstan positively evaluates measures to expand the mandate of the UN reserved treaty system, supporting the UN peacekeeping activities and efforts to strengthen its peacekeeping potential. The proof of Kazakhstan's active activity in this direction is the creation of the Kazakh Peacekeeping Battalion (Kazbat) and the service of the soldiers of this battalion among the stabilization forces in Iraq. In 2003, Kazakhstan signed the Memorandum of Understanding on contributing to the UN preparedness system, and now it is ready to allocate human, armored vehicles and transport resources of the Kazbat battalion for peacekeeping operations, as well as purchases for UN peacekeeping operations. expresses desire to participate more actively in the system. We support the expansion of cooperation between the UN and regional organizations, and the expansion of partnership ties between regional organizations themselves in the fight against organized crime, drug threats, illegal migration, religious extremism, poverty and the spread of HIV/AIDS. Kazakhstan intends to purposefully use the capabilities of the UN and its specialized institutions to reduce the economic and humanitarian consequences of man-made and environmental disasters such as the sinking of the Aral Sea, radioactive contamination of the Semipalatinsk test site, and contamination of drinking water sources. In this context, special attention should be paid to the active participation of Kazakhstan in the implementation of Millennium Development Goals and sustainable development positions. Since February 1992, representative offices of UN specialized institutions, funds and programs have been working in Kazakhstan. Their activities are aimed at providing technical, advisory and financial assistance. Currently, the following 15 UN organizations are working in Kazakhstan: United Nations Development Program (UNDP), UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), UN Population Fund (UNFPA), UN Office on Drugs and Crime ( UNHCR), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), UN Volunteers (UN), Women's Fund (UNIFEM), International Labor Organization (ILO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), World Health the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the United Nations Program on AIDS/HIV (UNAIDS) and the Department of Public Information (DIP). The United Nations (UN) is an open international, intergovernmental universal organization with general powers. The United Nations was founded in 1945 on the basis of an agreement between the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and China. The United Nations Charter was adopted on June 26, 1945 and entered into force on October 24, 1945. The goals and principles of the United Nations are established in Articles 1-2 of the Charter. Accordingly, the United Nations has the following goals: * ensuring international peace and security; * development of friendly relations between peoples on the basis of respect for the principle of equality of nations and self-government; * implementation of partnership in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature and in the development and support of human rights and basic freedoms; * to be a coordinating center for nations to achieve these goals. The United Nations operates based on the following principles: * sovereign equality of all its members; * their faithful fulfillment of all international obligations; * peaceful resolution of international disputes arising between them; not to use force or threaten to use force against other states; * they should provide comprehensive assistance to all activities conducted in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations; The United Nations requires all non-member states to adhere to these principles, as this is necessary to ensure international peace and security; The Charter of the United Nations does not under any circumstances give the right to interfere in the internal affairs of states. Any peace-loving state that recognizes the Charter of the United Nations and agrees to fulfill its obligations can become a member of the United Nations. The official languages of the United Nations are: Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish. In addition to these, Arabic was added as an official language in the General Assembly, the Security Council and the Economic and Social Council. The structure of the United Nations consists of six main bodies. It is: General Assembly (GA), Security Council (SC), Economic and Social Council, International Court of Justice, Trusteeship Council and Secretariat. ## Secretary-General The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the chief administrative officer of the UN and head of the UN Secretariat. ## Gallery * * * * * * * \ <> * ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5097

Beket Myrzaguly

Beket Myrzagyluly (Grandfather Beket) (1750, Kulsary — 1813, Ogylandy) is a famous Kazakh hero, educator, and architect. The people held a saint. He was buried in the Ogylandy Mosque, which he built. Originated from the Adai clan of the union of Bayuly clans descended from the Alshin tribe.. ## Biography The 18th largest Kazakh clan descended from the Adai clan of Alshin from the Koskulak section of the Zhauly region. received religious education. Beket was eager to learn from a young age and was distinguished by his intelligence. He was very brave when he started to know right and left. Even then, he got involved early in matters related to the country's concern and the destiny of the people, and he caught the attention of the people with his intelligence and bravery. In particular, he built madrasahs and mosques, and paid special attention to instilling faith, individuality, and unity in the people. At the age of 40, he acquired the status of a Sufi, taught children literacy, and began building underground structures. The mosques built by grandfather Beket have been well preserved to this day. In particular, the Ogylany mosque, carved into three rooms, in the Mangistau valley of Ustirt, where his bones were buried, is still standing. The body of Beket's grandson Muryn is also here. ## Activity During his lifetime, he had four special qualities that characterized his ability, activity and personality: * The first one was the fight against enemies for the independence of the people. an active hero. * The second is an educator who walked the difficult path of science and filled children with knowledge. * The third is an architect who built buildings for mosques and madrasahs in many settlements according to the ancient tradition. * The fourth is a soothsayer who has a special talent for healing the sick and the sick, and is able to predict important events. These qualities of Grandfather Beket became so legendary in the country during his lifetime that the word "Muhammed in Medina, Khoja Ahmet in Turkestan, Pir Beket in Mangistau" appeared at that time. That is why he had a high status in the eyes of the country, he was respected and respected as a fortuneteller. The people passed down their love and respect for such a noble citizen from generation to generation through legend. Of course, the legend cannot be considered as truth, however, the stories written in connection with the name of Grandfather Beket are taken from his life. Beket became a hero because of his heroism in fighting against a strong enemy. In the battles, Becket was loved by his love for peace, which arose from his loyal qualities such as kindness and justice. Grandfather Beket considered it God's command to help people, educate them, and do good. Grandfather Beket was buried in his own mosque in Mangistau, Ogyland. Many consider Ata Beket a saint and spend the night in his grave. Topographers E. Eversman, A. Dugamel, who studied the Plateau in the 19th century, wrote down the data collected by scientists based on those legends. During the council M. Mendikulov, A. Kekilbaev, E. Umirbaev, K. Sydiykov et al. b. written by researchers. ## Mosque Beket-Ata underground mosque is located in Ustirt in Ogylandy man. The mosque is located in the middle of a large rock facing down a deep well filled with bushes. There is a small square at the entrance of the underground mosque. In the first room, light pours in from a looped hole in the vaulted ceiling. From this room leads to the prayer hall with a mihrab on the south-east wall, as well as to two south-east rooms where Beket-Ata is buried in one of them. The mosque is one of the famous places of pilgrimage in Kazakhstan. Beket-ata springs and wells are near the mosque. - said. ## Family Grandfather Beket has four brothers: Beket, Aldabergen, Aldongar, Mendikul. He had five children: Baiteli, Zhailau, Togai, Bainiyaz, Kodar., ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6168

Словения

Slovenia (Slovenian: Slovenija), official name - Republic of Slovenia (Slovenian: Republika Slovenija) is an Alpine country located in the south of Central Europe. It borders Italy in the west, Austria in the north, Hungary in the northeast, Croatia in the east and south, and the Adriatic Sea in the southeast. The name of the state comes from the ethnonym of the Slovenian people. Slovenia is a member of the UN, the European Union, the Council of Europe, NATO and the Schengen Agreement. ## History Modern Slovenian people lived on the territory of their ancestral state in the 6th century BC. settled. In the 7th century, he founded Karantania, which was one of the first states of the Slovenian people. Carantania surrendered to the Franks in 745 for military assistance, which resulted in the 1180. that is, he was able to formally preserve his independence until his fall. The influence of the Franks influenced the conversion of the Slovenes to Christianity. The first written document in the Slovenian language, "Brižinski spomeniki", was written during the period of 1000 years. In the 14th century, the territory of Slovenia fell under the control of the Habsburgs, and later became part of Austria-Hungary. Slovenia is divided into three rural regions: Kransk, Gorishk and Staersk. The displacement of trade routes and the XVII Thirty Years' War had an impact on the decline of Slovenia's economic situation, but economic developments in the XVIII century were widespread: the output of various goods, agricultural products increased by 60%. National enlightenment movements were in full swing. This interval was called the Slovenian Revival. 1809-1813 Most of the territory of Slovenia was part of the Illyrian countryside. in the 19th century, especially in 1848-1849. During the revolution, the Slovene national movement was revived in Austria and later in the vicinity of the Austrian Lake. (the center is Krajina). In 1918, Austria-Hungary falls. Italy completely conquered Slovenian Primorye during the First World War and annexed it to the Venezia-Julia region. The rest of the Slovenian land belongs to the reconstituted Kingdom of Serbia, Croats and Slovenes. They changed their name to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. In 1941, when the superpowers attacked Yugoslavia, Italy occupied the land up to Ljubljana, and Germany occupied the remaining territories with the city of Maribor. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia fell in World War II, and Slovenia became part of the Socialist Federation of the Republic of Yugoslavia on November 29, 1945. In addition, the Italian lands of Obalna-Krashka and Goriska were added to Slovenia. In a referendum held on June 25, 1991, 88.2% of Slovenians wanted Slovenia to declare independence from the SFRY. The war in Slovenia (a military conflict in the fall of Yugoslavia) lasted ten days, resulting in 72 engagements, Yugoslav Army losses of 45 dead, 146 wounded, and the capture of 4,693 military personnel and 252 federal employees. Of the Slovenian defenders, 19 were killed (9 combatants, the rest were civilians) and 182 were wounded. In addition, citizens of 12 foreign countries were killed, mostly drivers of international transport companies. 31 tanks (broken, burned), 22 armored transport vehicles, 172 transport vehicles and 6 flying devices were disabled. On December 23, 1991, the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia was adopted. ## Administrative Division The country is divided into 212 communities (občina), 11 of which have the status of cities, and the capital is divided into district communities (Četrtna kommunost). Representative bodies of the city and community — the city council (mestni svet) elected by the people; Executive - Župan. The representative body of the district community is the district community council elected by the people (Svet Četrtne kommunsi); the executive body is the chairman of the district community council (predsednik sveta). ## Political structure The head of Slovenia is the president, who is elected every 5 years. Executive functions are performed by the president and the cabinet. Parliament is appointed last. Parliament consists of two chambers: the State Assembly (državni zbor) and the State Council (državni svet). 90 deputies will be elected to the State Assembly: 88 of them are on the proportional system, and 2 seats are on the majoritarian system for the Slovene-Italian and Hungarian communities. The State Council serves as the upper house. There will be 40 deputies elected for five years, representing the main ideas of economic, structural and national community groups. The main parties in the parliament are the Democratic Party of Slovenia and the Liberal Democratic Party of Slovenia. Results of political parties in the State Majlis in September 2008: * Social Democrats (Socialni demokrati, SD) - left-center, 29 deputies * Democratic Party of Slovenia (Slovenska demokratska stranka, SDS) — centrist, 28 deputies * For Truth (Zares) — left-wing, 9 deputies * Democratic Party of Pensioners of Slovenia (Demokratična stranka upokojencev Slovenije, DeSUS) — left-wing, 7 deputies * National Party of Slovenia (Slovenska nacionalna stranka, SNS) — left-nationalist, 5 deputies * People's Party of Slovenia (Slovenska ljudska stranka, SLS) — right-wing, 5 deputies * Youth Party of Slovenia (Stranka mladih Slovenije, SMS) — right-wing, together with the SLS team * Liberal Democrats of Slovenia (Liberalna demokratija Slovenije, LDS) — left-centrist, 5 deputies Parties not mentioned in the parliament: * New Slovenia - Christian People party (Nova Slovenija - Krščanska ljudska stranka, NSi) - centrist * Lipa - national * Slovenian "Greens" (Zeleni Slovenije) * Christian Democratic Party (Krščanska demokratska stranka, KDS) * The Party of the Slovenian People (Stranka slovenskega naroda, SSN) is a national * Our Slovenia (Slovenija je naša, SJN) ## Geography Slovenia is located in the Alpine-Danube region of Central Europe. 4 main geographical regions are defined: the Alps in the north-west (Yuliyski, Kamensko-Savinski, Karavan and Pohorje, occupying 42% of the territory), the Pannonian (Mid-Danube) (28%) in the north-east, the Dinaric highlands in the south (21%) , the karst plain, the karst relief is so named, in the west - the coast of the Mediterranean Sea (Adriatic Sea, 9%). The area is 20,273 km². The territory of the continent: 20 151 km². Water basin size: 122 km². The highest point is the peak of Mount Triglav (2864 m), the lowest is the coast of the Adriatic Sea - 0 m. Major rivers: Sava (221 km), Drava - the southern course of the Danube. Rivers originating in the mountains (Bled, Bohinj) and karstic (Cerknica, the largest dry river in the country, 26² km. maximum). About a thousand karst caves (Postojnska Yama, Shkotsian cave). Many waterfalls, the largest is Chedza (130 m). The climate in most parts of the north is temperate, the average temperature in January is 0...−2 °C, in June 19...21 °C. The amount of precipitation is 800-1200 mm, 3000 mm/year in the mountains. Some parts of the territory are covered with birch, oak and conifer forests, alpine meadows in the mountains, maquis in the water, steppe vegetation in the karst plain. ## Economy Priority: stability. Production facilities are competitive. Strong export. Trade success thanks to the EU. Auto plant Revoz has a lot of products (Renault Clio). Unior dd is the first and most important Slovenian importer, including in the German auto industry. A competitive port is in Koper. It is the country with the least debt among Eastern European countries. Signed a trade agreement with Bosnia in 2001. Weaknesses: the gradual liberalization of the economy caused the stabilization of foreign investors in the country. Privatization (including the banking sector) is moving slowly. The national currency of Slovenia is the euro (formerly the tolar). The average salary in Slovenia in September 2007 was 1,260 euros, the average net salary (including taxes and insurance contributions) was 820 euros. The minimum wage in 2007 was 522 euros. In June 2005, the Government of the Republic of Slovenia committed the following to the Development Strategy of Slovenia: to raise the economic average of the EU, as well as to provide employment for the next ten years of the Lisbon Strategy. By increasing the quality of life and improving the well-being of each person, it measures human development, health care, social risk and social organization. To increase the number of the population, it provides a stable position for comprehensive development. The comparison shows the country's position in the world as well as the image of its work. The large oil producing company Petrol is completely under the control of the state, due to a special decision of the government, it cannot become private. As for energy, Slovenia has only one nuclear power plant. It is NPP "Krshko". The unemployment rate is 7%, the average food per capita is 27,000 US dollars, the country has 950,000 workers. After the global economic crisis in 2009, export and production centers decreased by 6%, and the number of unemployed increased by 9%. and is a controlling member. Available in Joint Banks, which includes 30 commercial banks in Slovenia. ### Religion According to the 2002 census, Catholics make up 57.8% of the population, Muslims 2.4%, Orthodox 2.3%, Protestants 0.8% (Union of the Baptist Church of Slovenia, Union of the Pentecostal Church of Slovenia, Adventists). ## Population Ethnic composition: 1,964,036 people according to the 2002 census. * Slovenes 1,631,363 (83.1%) * Serbs 38,964 (2.0%) * Croats 35,642 (1.8%) * Bosniaks 21,542 (1.1%) * Hungarians 6,243 (0.3%) * Albanians 6,186 (0.3%) * Macedonians 3,972 (0.2%) * Montenegrins 2 667 (0.1 %) * Italians 2 258 (0.1 %) * Unregistered and unknown 174 913 (8.9 %) In June 2009, 2 005 692 inhabitants were registered in Slovenia. Slovenia ranks 145th in terms of population density. The average age of the population is 41.7 years. (men - 40, women - 43). The average population density is about 99 people per km². More than half of the population lives in cities, and the rest in rural areas. The official language is Slovenian. Hungarian and Italian languages have status only in official places. For example, between the guards of Hungary and Italy. Religion: according to the 2002 census, Catholics make up 57.8% of the population, Orthodox - 2.3%, Protestants - 0.8%, Muslims - 2.4%. ## Armed Forces The personnel of the ground troops is 9550 people. Combat strength (as of 2002): - 7 infantry brigades with 3 infantry battalions each: 1 fully equipped and 2 personnel battalions; - 1 special purpose brigade; - 1 amphibious brigade; - 1 anti-tank battalion; - 2 individual mechanized battalions; - 1 engineering company; - 1 material and technical support regiment; - 1 anti-aircraft missile brigade. ## Culture The Slovenian language is based on the South Slovenian Latin alphabet. It takes its roots from the Croatian and Serbian languages, although there are differences. Sloven is one of the languages that has preserved the binary number of the Slovenian languages. Currently, 49 dialects of the Slovenian language have been preserved. The famous Slovenian writer Franze Prešern (1800-49) awakened the national values of the Slovenian people through his lyrical poems. After the Second World War, the folklore traditions of the Slovenian people were lost, although efforts are being made to revive them. For example, the trio "Trutamora Slovenika" sang the song of the Slovenian people in 90. Alessandra Minaccia won the international contest of storytellers held at the beginning of the year. In the 1970s, a new musical industrial direction came to the country, which conquered all of Slovenia in the 1980s (for example, the Laibach group from Ljubljana. Laibach is the German name for the capital of Slovenia). Postmodernism in painting and sculpture includes the group "Neue Slowenische Kunst" founded in the 1980s and the paintings of 5 anonymous artists, nicknamed "IRWIN". Jože Plečnik (1872-1957) is an architect who is the author of important and artistic cultural places of Slovenia. Slovenian cuisine uses a lot of fish and venison, and also the food of neighboring countries has become a national dish. From Austria - sausage, zavitek (strudel) and Danube meat slices (Viennese schnitzel). Gnocchi (potato dumplings), risotto (risotto), and gircrof, similar to ravioli, are similar to Italian dishes. Goulash (goulash) and paprikash (stewed beef and chicken) are taken from the Hungarian menu. Among the main Balkan dishes, burek (cheese and meat pies), pies with meat and apples have been part of the traditional dishes since ancient times. Here, among several types of dumplings, the most popular type is shtrukli (cheese dumplings). Traditional dishes should be taken from hotels in the form of restaurants. One of the Slovenian national dishes is "Goveja juha" (rezanci), a thin noodle-length beef soup (rezanci), sometimes with parmesan cheese) and "Gobova juha" (soup with white mushrooms). In Slovenia, excellent types of white and red wine are produced, bitter drinks - schnops, brandy, etc. are also found in the so-called "žganje". In Slovenia, there are well-known beer brands "Laško" and "Union". The Law on Public Holidays of the Republic of Slovenia provides for the following holidays: * January 1-2 — New Year * February 8 — Prešer Day, a cultural holiday of Slovenia * 12-13 April — Sunday and Monday Easter Day * April 27 — Day of Uprising against invaders * May 1-2 — Labor Day * June 25 — National Day * August 15 — Feast of the Assumption \< > * October 31 — Reformation Day * November 1 — Remembrance Day * December 25 — Christmas * December 26 — Independence Day ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2654

Anthem of Kazakhstan

The National Anthem of the Republic of Kazakhstan is one of the state symbols of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The current national anthem of the Republic was adopted on January 6, 2006. "My Kazakhstan" was performed as an anthem for the first time during the inauguration ceremony of Nursultan Nazarbayev. ## Text The text of the song "My Kazakhstan" by Shamshi Kaldayakov, which became the unofficial anthem of Kazakhstan, has been slightly changed. As the author of the text, N. Nazarbayev introduced his suggestions. It was performed for the first time during the inauguration ceremony of Nursultan Nazarbayev. ## History ### Anthem of the Kazakh SSR In 1943, the contest to create the first National Anthem of the Kazakh SSR was published. As the last version, it was written by A. Tazhibayev, K. Mukamedkhanov, G. Musirepov's text was accepted. According to some sources, the full author of the text of the hymn is K. It is Muhamedkhanov, and the contribution of other authors is limited to the change from "er Kazakh" to "biz Kazakh" at the beginning of the text. The motto was approved in 1945. The words of the anthem of the Soviet era were written in a falsely optimistic spirit, according to the requirements of the communist ideology. There was a need to develop a new national anthem that represents freedom and secularism, the centuries-old dream of several generations of Kazakhs. Therefore, in 1992, a contest was announced for the text and song of the national anthem. A total of 750 projects were submitted to the commission selection. The text written jointly by four poets: Muzafar Alimbaev, Kadyr Myrza Ali, Tumanbay Moldagaliyev and poet Zhadyra Darbaeva won the contest. The anthem was left as it was, the first authors were Mukan Tolebaev, Yevgeny Brusilovsky and Latif Hamidi. In 2006, a new National Anthem was adopted. ## See more * Coat of arms of Kazakhstan * Flag of Kazakhstan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1030

Қазақстан

Kazakhstan ( Казахстан [qɑzɑqˈstɑn]), full name Republic of Kazakhstan ( Republic of Kazakhstan) is a country located in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It stretches for 3,000 km from the lower reaches of the Volga River in the west, to the Altai Mountains in the east, from the West Siberian plain in the north, to the Kyzylkum desert and the Tien-Shan mountain system in the south for 1,600 km. Kazakhstan has access to the countries of Azerbaijan and Iran through the Caspian Lake, to the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea through the Volga River and the Volga-Don Canal. Kazakhstan is the largest among the states that do not have direct access to the ocean. Kazakhstan shares borders with five countries, including the world's longest land border with Russia in the north and west — 7,591 km. To the south: Turkmenistan — 426 km, Uzbekistan — 2354 km and Kyrgyzstan — 1241 km, and to the east: China — 1782 km. The total length of the land border is 13394 km. It is washed by the Caspian Lake (2000 km) in the west, and the Aral Sea in the southwest. The population of the country on March 1, 2024 is 20,075,271, which is the 64th place in the world. In terms of land area, it ranks 9th among the countries of the world (2,724,902 km²). The capital of the country is the city of Astana. The state language is Kazakh. The official language is Russian. The national composition of Kazakhstan is diverse. The majority of the population consists of resident Kazakhs, percentage share — 70.18%, Russians — 18.42%, Uzbeks — 3.29%, Ukrainians — 1.36%, Uighurs — 1.48%, Tatars — 1.06%. , other nations 5.38%. More than 75% of the population are Muslims, 21% are Orthodox Christians, and the rest are representatives of other religions. It is considered as a developing economy according to its economic indicators. Gross domestic product of the country GDP (nominal) = $205.539 billion (2018). The main direction of the economy is production of raw materials in the field of fuel and energy, agriculture (farming). The main currency of the country is tenge. on December 16, 1991, due to the collapse of the USSR, it declared its independence and was recognized as an independent state by the international community. Full member of the UN since March 2, 1992. It is also a member of several other international organizations such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, and the Eurasian Economic Community. ## Etymology The word Kazakhstan is composed of the words Kazakh and Stan, meaning Kazakh country. Recently, the names Kazakh country, Great Steppe country and Kazakhiya have been used among the people. ## History ### Ancient Kazakhstan The land of modern Kazakhstan was inhabited by the ancient human race about 1 million years ago. In the Bronze Age, the vast steppes of Siberia, the Zhaiyk region, Kazakhstan and Central Asia were inhabited by tribes related in terms of origin and historical destinies. These tribes have left a bright culture of their own. In science, this is called the Andron culture. During the Early Iron Age (the middle of the 1st millennium BC), tribal unions were formed in Kazakhstan. The tribes living in the southern, eastern and central regions of Kazakhstan are united in the Saka tribal union, and the tribes in the western and northern regions are united in the Sauromatian tribal union. In the 3rd century before our era, some tribes established their own state on the territory of Kazakhstan and entered into political relations with far and near countries. The first of them were Xiongnu (Huns). Researchers believe that the Huns are the ancestors of the Turks. When this union was led by Müde, the Huns became known to the whole world. The march of the Huns to the west triggered the "Great Migration of Peoples". Usuns (houses) who inherited the land of Sakas in ancient Tigrahauda in Zhetysu in 160 BC. created his own state in the Ile Valley. They bordered the state of Kanly. The states formed by these tribes established political, economic and cultural ties with countries such as China, Parthia, Rome and the Kushan Empire. ### Early Middle Ages Kazakhstan (Turkic era) Early Middle Ages states on the territory of Kazakhstan (VI-IX centuries) At the beginning of the VI century in today's Kazakh land There were very difficult turns. In the lands of Altai-Siberia, Mongolia, representatives of the dominant class of Turkic tribes united and formed an early feudal state called the Turkic Khaganate, which relied on military power. Their territory includes the territory of Central Asia, starting from East Korea. Kazakhstan was also part of this khanate. Written information about this state is known from the inscriptions of the Turkic tribes written in their own language on the tombstones of "Ulken kültegin", "Tonykok". Many valuable data can be obtained from the historical writings of Mahmud Kashkari and Rashid al-Din. Byzantine and Chinese historians also provide a lot of information. In the history of Kazakhstan, this period is known as the "Turkish era" (VI-XIII centuries). Several feudal states exercised their political-administrative power in the Kazakh territory during the specified period. Feudal relations began to be established in Kazakhstan from the 5th century after the first communal structure (German word feod- "land", al- "owner", i.e. gives the concept of the owner of the land). Among the medieval tribes, two main classes were formed: the feudal class and the peasant class. Feudals are the main owners of cattle and land. The establishment of feudal relations was faster in the south of Kazakhstan than in other regions. One of the main features of the history of Kazakhstan in the Middle Ages was the establishment of these feudal-patriarchal relations. See also: Turkic Khaganate, West Turkic Khaganate, Turgesh Khaganate and Karluk Khaganate ### Kazakhstan in the Middle Ages (Oghiz Era) Modern Kazakhstan in the Middle Ages Karakhan, Karakytai, Oghiz, and Kimak states lived on its land. ### Kazakhstan within the Russian Empire Russian colonization of Kazakhstan began in 1731 with the accession of Abulkhair the Younger Khan to Russia. This process lasted more than 130 years and was fully implemented by the middle of the 60s of the 19th century. In 1731-1860, Kazakhstan was subject to Russia, mostly verbally, but in practice, clan and tribal rulers conducted an independent policy. Although the tsarist government ruthlessly suppressed popular uprisings, it did not interfere in the country's internal affairs (judiciary system, inter-tribal issues). He strengthened his power by appointing salaries and various titles to influential people in the country, clan heads, and on the other hand, he made administrative reforms and punished those who did not obey. * 1822 "Charter about Siberian Kazakhs", 1824. The procedure for managing the Kazakh land was established by the documents "Charter on Orynbor Kazakhs". According to these laws, the Middle Hundred and Small Hundred Khanates were abolished. Instead of the khanate, a system of administrative management, like in Russia, was formed in the small hundred. And in Orta Hundred, the administrative position of "elder sultan" was introduced. Internal districts were created. Districts were divided into bolys, bolys into villages. * At the beginning of the 19th century, Khiva and Kokan khans established their control over South Kazakhstan. Kazakhs often rebelled against the rulers of Kokan and Khiva. The intensification of colonial oppression, seizing desirable lands and building fortresses led to the national liberation movement of the Kazakh people (1837–47) led by Kenesary Kasymuli. * In the 60s of the 19th century, the period of Kazakhstan's accession to Russia ended. * 1914 Russia's involvement in the First World War on August 1 was a severe blow to the people of Kazakhstan. * As a result of mass protests, there was an uprising in 1916. The beginning of the uprising was prompted by the Tsar's decree of June 25, 1916, to call men of the Kazakh and Turkestan regions, and partly of Siberia, between the ages of 19 and 43, to work at the front. The major foci of the uprising were in Zhetysu and Torgai. * 1917 The events of the February revolution, which overthrew the tsar, soon reached Kazakhstan. * 1917 On July 21-28, the 1st All-Kazakh Congress was held in Orinbor. Delegates are interested in national autonomy, land and water, etc. b. focused on solving problems, preparing for the Constituent Assembly and creating a Kazakh political party. Alikhan Bukeikhanov, Mukhamedzhan Tynyshbaev, Mirzhakip Dulatov, Akhmet Baitursynuly, Zhansha Dosmukhameduly, Khalel Dosmukhameduly, Magzhan Zhumabaev, etc. b. the figures created the Alash party against colonialism. They gathered around the slogan of liberating the Kazakh people from colonial oppression and began to create an independent, independent Kazakh democratic state in Alashorda. But soon Soviet power was established in the Kazakh lands as well as in the whole of Russia. ### Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic In 1917, Soviet power was established in Kazakhstan after the Bolshevik revolution. The First World War and the Civil War destroyed the entire country's economy. 1920-1921 almost half of the cattle were killed due to winter frostbite. In 1921, the summer was barren and famine broke out. Kazakhstan recovered only by the end of the 20s. Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic in 1920, and a union republic within the USSR in 1936. Taking into account the economic weakness of the region, the union government put forward the intensive development of Kazakhstan's economy, and in 1941, the volume of industrial production increased eight times compared to 1913. Thanks to the capabilities of the planned system of grouping resources for the implementation of large economic projects, Kazakhstan turned from a nomadic region into a large and industrial, agricultural and animal husbandry developed region with a high cultural level in the 1930s. Thousands of large industrial enterprises were established on the territory of Kazakhstan, tens of thousands of kilometers of railroads and highways were built. Kazakhstan was a major producer of various non-ferrous and ferrous metals, coal, oil, wheat, livestock products. In 1991, Kazakhstan accounted for 70 percent of the Union production of lead, zinc, titanium, magnesium, and tin, 90 percent of the production of phosphorus and chromium, and more than 60 percent of silver and molybdenum. Kazakhstan was a major producer of cereals. However, the Kazakh people will pay the price for the achievements in economic development. The method of "socialist industrialization" led to a tragic situation. As a result, the collectivization movement led to famine in the 1930s. A group of Kazakhs left for China and neighboring Central Asian countries. In 1931-1934, one and a half million people died from hunger and disease, which was 40 percent of the ethnic group. Kazakhstan was a unique republic with the smallest share of the main population on the territory of the former USSR; such a situation was not due to the loss of a large part of the population in the 30s, but hundreds of thousands of people from other regions of the USSR to the territory of Kazakhstan during the ineffective Bolshevik regime in 1937-1938. It was caused by resettlement by organization of concentration camps for victims of terror. In the period from 1935 to 1940, there was a lot of deportation of Poles from Western Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania (about 120 thousand people). During the Second World War, Volga Germans, Chechens, Ingush and other nationalities from the Caucasus were forcibly relocated to Kazakhstan, and in the 50-60s. Millions of people from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus immigrated to our country due to development. As a result, in 1926, the share of all citizens in the republic was 57.1%, in 1939, this indicator decreased to 38%, and in 1959, it was equal to only 30%. Only in recent years, the specific weight of Kazakhs has reached 50%. On the eve of the 70-80s, the crisis in the economic and social-political life of the USSR also affected Kazakhstan. The strict planning system has stalled the country's economic development and social sphere. That is why the reconstruction policy received wide support from the people of Kazakhstan, who believe in transparency and democracy. However, the suppression of the democratic uprising of the youth in Almaty, which took place on December 17, 1986, once again showed the invalidity of the "social" system. ### Republic of Kazakhstan In the 1990s, on December 8, 1991, the heads of the RKFSR, Ukraine, and Belarus met in Minsk (Belovezh Agreement). The main issues discussed are the cancellation of the 1922 treaty on the creation of the USSR, the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Documents on these issues were signed at the meeting. The President of Kazakhstan N. A. Neither Nazarbayev nor the heads of other Central Asian republics were invited. On December 13, 1991, the leaders of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan met in Ashgabat. The leaders of the Central Asian states expressed their support for the decision of Minsk (Belovezh Agreement). On December 20, 1991, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, RKFSR, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, and Moldova met in Almaty. Georgia participated in it only in the observer report. On December 21, 1991, the leaders of these 11 republics signed an agreement on the dissolution of the USSR and the creation of the CIS. The republics freed from the grip of the Soviet system began to abandon the names "Soviet", "socialist". On December 10, 1991, at the session of the Supreme Council of the Republic, the name of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic was changed to the Republic of Kazakhstan. One of the most important issues agreed upon during the Almaty meeting was the negotiation on joint measures related to nuclear weapons. It was signed by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation and the Republic of Ukraine in the report of the state with nuclear weapons. According to the agreement of the states, the participants were supposed to jointly develop a policy on the nuclear issue and ensure the collective security of all republics that are part of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The August 1991 uprising, which accelerated the process of disintegration of the USSR, contributed to the declaration of independence by many republics by October 1991. On December 16, 1991, at the seventh session of the Supreme Council of the Republic, the Law "On State Independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" was adopted. Kazakhstan declared its independence on this day. So, December 16, 1991 is the day of independence of the Republic. In the second millennium In the 10 years of the second millennium ## Geography The land area of the Republic of Kazakhstan is 2.7 million square kilometers. It is one of the largest states in the world in terms of land area. According to this indicator, it ranks 9th after Russia, Canada, China, USA, Brazil, Australia, India and Argentina. The republic is located in the center of the Eurasian continent, equidistant from all oceans. The republic stretches up to 3,000 km from the Volga River basin in the west to the peaks of the Altai Mountains in the east, and from the West Siberian plain (Northern Kazakhstan plain) in the north to the Kyzylkum desert and the Tien-Shan mountain system in the south, up to 1,600 km. The far northern point (55 26 N) corresponds to the central part of the Eastern European plain and the south of the British Isles, and the southern point (40 56 N) corresponds to the latitude of the countries outside the Caucasus and the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe. Kazakhstan is located in the middle and southern latitudes of the temperate zone. Depending on the geographical location, forest steppe, steppe, desert and desert zones are formed. The western edge of the country (46 27 latitude) is near the Yelton and Baskyngchak lakes, and the eastern point (87 20 latitude) is close to the source of the Buktyrma River. 10% of its territory is high mountain regions, the rest is lowlands, plains, plateaus, plateaus. The highest place in Kazakhstan is the Khantangiri peak (6995 m, 7010 m including the snow ring). It is located in the Tien-Shan mountain system. On the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the lowest place in the country, the Karakiya depression, is located 132 m below sea level. ## Administrative division The Republic of Kazakhstan is a unitary state. According to the administrative structure, it includes 17 regions, 89 cities, including 3 cities of republican importance (Astana, Almaty, Shymkent), 186 districts, 174 rural districts. ### Major cities * Cities of Kazakhstan * Districts of Kazakhstan ## Population ## State structure According to the Constitution adopted in the republican referendum on August 30, 1995, Kazakhstan established itself as a democratic, secular, legal and social state. The Republic of Kazakhstan is a unitary state with a presidential form of government. The highest representative body of the republic is the Parliament. He exercises the legislative power of the republic. The Parliament consists of two permanent Chambers: the Senate and the Mazhilis. To the Senate from each region and resp. two people are elected from 2 important cities. 15 deputies of the Senate are appointed by the President of the Republic for the term of office of the Parliament. Mazhilis consists of sixty-seven deputies elected by one-mandate territorial constituencies with an approximately equal number of voters, and 10 deputies elected by party lists, created taking into account the administrative-territorial division of the republic. The President forms the Government in accordance with the procedure established by the Constitution. Within ten days after the appointment, the Prime Minister submits a proposal to the President of the Republic on the structure and composition of the Government. The Constitutional Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan consists of seven members, whose mandate lasts for six years. The chairman of the Constitutional Council is appointed by the President of the Republic. In the Republic of Kazakhstan, justice is exercised only by the court. It is established by law of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Court and local courts of the republic. Local state management is carried out by local representation (maslikhat) and executive bodies (akimtik) responsible for the state of affairs in the respective territory. ## Nature ### The modern topography of Kazakhstan is formed after many long periods of paleogeographical development, due to the alternation of marine and continental conditions, constant changes in climate changes and tectonics. formed as a result of movements. Average of the Republic. There are no Varian (Hercynian) mountain systems in the part. As a result of intense continental deformation since the Paleozoic, the residual ridge turned into denudation plains and low mountains. Only Torgai Kolat and the south-eastern part of the republic were occupied by individual bays of Cenozoic moraine basins, and the entire southwestern part was occupied by the Cretaceous and Neogene sea. Mangistau Peninsula only in the Quaternary period Archived September 8, 2013. and the areas adjacent to it, the climate has turned into a dry plain. The formation process of the high mountain region formed in the Neogene-Quaternary period in the south-east of Kazakhstan continues to this day. It is evidenced by the movements and tremors of the earth's crust in this region. The mountainous region has been covered by ice 3 times in its natural history, as a result of which snow, glacial valleys and moraine rocks are exposed here. ### Kazakhstan occupies the south-eastern edge of the East European platform (Caspian Syneclise) and the western part of the Ural-Mongolian folded belt. The layered belt continues to the south-west of the Turan basin (plateau). * Paleozoic structures of Mughalzhar and Karatau (Mangistau) are exposed under the Mesocenezoic outcrop of the plate. In the mountainous part of Kazakhstan to the east of them, Ort. Paleozoic Massif of Kazakhstan — Saryarka, several fold systems and regions (Kazakhstan parts of Chinggis — Tarbagatai, Ob — Zaisan and Altai — Sayan fold regions), Solt. It is possible to distinguish the alpine belts of Tien-Shan and Zhetysu Alatau near the latitudinal direction. The Caspian Syneclise (basin) consists of sediments classified into three parts. Low. part is thick. Up to 13 km of ridges and valleys. and avg. from Paleozoic sandy-slate, clayey, carbonate-terrigenous layers, avg. part is from the salt series of the Kungur layer (about 5 km thick), there is no surface. It is composed of Permian-Mesozoic marine, continental sediments (4-6 km)... ### The climate of Kazakhstan is very continental. The continentality of the climate is reflected in its peculiarities. They include: a large difference between winter and summer temperatures, dryness of the air, uneven rainfall in many parts of the republic, long and frosty winter in the north, and short and mild winter in the south. According to the geographic latitude where Kazakhstan is located, the climate corresponds to the humid subtropical Mediterranean countries and the temperate continental central Europe. But because our country is located in the middle of the huge Eurasian continent, its climate is unique. Because they are thousands of kilometers away from the world's oceans, their climate mitigation effect is very small. Kazakhstan is located in the south of the temperate climate zone, so four seasons (summer, autumn, winter, spring) are clearly defined. Siberia gets very cold in winter. In summer, the effect of the warm and even hot air of Central Asia is noticeable. Temperature differences between seasons increase the continentality of the climate. Due to its geographical location (that is, its location too far from the oceans, the main source of atmospheric moisture) and topography, a dry continental climate has developed in the vast territory of Kazakhstan. Like any other territorial regions, the climate of the republic is influenced by a complex of radiation and circulation factors. Radiation Archived February 4, 2017. Over the territory of Kazakhstan, a high-pressure air circulation system (anticyclone) dominates throughout the winter, and a low-pressure (cyclone) atmospheric circulation system often forms in the summer. Anticyclonic weather prevails in most parts of the territory of the republic. Therefore, the duration of sunlight increases from 2000 to 3000 hours a year from north to south. 120 days a year in the north and 260 days in the south are continuously cloudless, and the number of cloudy days decreases from 60 days to 10 days (Balkash region). As a result of these, the amount of total radiation gradually increases from 4200 to 5500 MJ/m2 from left to right. In the same way, the amount of radiation absorbed due to the reflectivity of the surface (surface of the earth) increases steadily towards the south. In winter, when a permanent snow cover forms, the maximum level of reflectivity reaches 70-80%, and in summer it decreases to 20-30% in many places. The annual effective value of radiation varies from 1500 in the north to 2100 MJ/m2 in the south. Seasonal duration of negative radiation balance. 3.5 — 4.5 months in the south (November — March), 1 month in the south. ### The average annual volume of surface water resources of Kazakhstan is 100.5 km³; of which only 56.5 km³ is formed on the territory of the republic, the remaining volume consists of river waters coming from Central Asian states, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. In terms of river water flow, Kazakhstan is one of the countries with the least amount of water on the planet. Necessary water consumption lake. It is 54.5 km³, the possibility of using it for agriculture at the average annual rate of water content does not exceed 46.0 km3. In the years of water scarcity, the lake is a source of water resources. Up to 58 km³, and the used water decreases to 26 km³, respectively. Fresh underground water reserves are 15.1 km³, with a utilization rate of 11.3% or 1.7 km³. A lake of returning waters. 4 km³, water returned to water sources does not exceed 2 km³, the rest of the flow content is dissipated or seeps into the ground. Runoff is the main source of pollution of natural waters and environment. ### Soil is one of the components of nature. The first soil in the earth's geological history. According to paleogeographical research, the first thin soil layer appeared 500 million years ago in the Cambrian era. At this time, vegetation has not yet formed. The science of soil science, which studies the soil cover, is a young science. It was founded in the 80s of the XIX century by the Russian scientist V. V. Dokuchaev - determined that the soil is a natural and historical body. Almost all soil types found in other countries are spread in Kazakhstan. There are taiga and tundra soil here, but there is no soil characteristic of the humid subtropical belt. ### Vegetation There are approximately 6,025 plant species in Kazakhstan, excluding introduced, cultivated and accidentally introduced species. 18 species of wild plants are cosmopolitan (grows on continents other than Antarctica), 285 are holarctic (grows in Eurasia and North America). Among them, 535 (about 11%) are found only in Kazakhstan (endemics). There are several botanical zones here. Mountain plants form their own altitude zones. Rivers, lakes, swamps, floodplains, meadows, ponds do not belong to any zone. Species of aquatic plants are few (63 hydrophilic species). They include half of all cosmopolitans (9 species, including grasses and rupias), 24 holarctic species (salvinia, tupunk, etc.). These are 52% of aquatic plants, that is, the oldest plants. It is the same from the paleobotanical point of view; The sedge family (with 21 species) existed 70-100 million years ago (in the Cretaceous period), salvinia, gerbera, and telorez 40-70 million years ago. Aquatic plants, belonging to the group of tropical, hydrophilic plants, flourished in Kazakhstan 25-40 million years ago (in the Oligocene). There are more than 450 types of swamp, river flood and pond plants. In meadows and sometimes swampy areas, there are more forage grasses such as wheatgrass, sedge, yarrow, meadow horsetail, meadow clover, meadow chickpea, common beechmania, reed, sedge, sedge. From their grouping, a meadow with different productivity is formed. Plant of the desert zone * Tree-shrubs occupying gray soil flat lands (South Kazakhstan) include pistachio and (the fruit is ordinary pistachio) Regel pear, mountain, tobyl, Karatau lepidolofa, prickly pear There are almonds (most of which are rare). The slopes of Talas Alatau, Karzhantau and Karatau are densely forested, dominated by yellow hawthorn and juniper. The barren thickets of sexeuil mainly consist of low (2-8m) leafless "undergrowth" - black sexeuil. Other edible plants (wort, sedge, ysen, sedge) are not few. * White wormwood, black wormwood, Turan wormwood are more common among the undergrown shrub plants in the desert with brown and gray-brown soil, and bayalish is more common in gypsum brown soil. There are also various ephemeroids (especially cypress and thick-stemmed sedge) and ephemerals. * Among the shrub plants in the sandy soil desert, there is a predominance of sedge, sand sedge, sedge, brush species, leafless sedge and hairy sedge. There are a lot of low shrub-like plants (wort, ysen) and perennial grasses (kaumerka). * In the desert where the undergrowth grows on brown soil, sarsazan, or b. vegetation dominates. * Field zone In the field zone, quail grass, red sedge, gray, fescue, Kyrgyz fescue, sedge fescue, sedge, and sedge grow. Relict plants are Siberian fescue, shiitake and many-rooted sedge. * Mountain vegetation The vegetation of Southern Altai, Sauyr, Dzhungar Alatau, Northern and Western Tien-Shan is divided into steppe, forest and alpine zones. The steppe belt in Southern Altai and Tarbagatai continues with the steppe zone, but the vegetation here is mixed with almond, larch, and alder. In the Dzungar Alatau and Tien-Shan (desert zone) fescue, gray meadow, wheat (hairy wheat), barley (barley with stubble) are grown here, rose hips, red cherry, etc. b. there are many plants. There are several types of forests in the mountains of Kazakhstan * spruce and pine forests (in Altai); * leafy (February); * larch (Altai and Dzungar Alatau); * spruce (Siberian spruce in Altai, Shrenk spruce in Dzungar Alatau and Tien-Shan); * apple tree (Dzungar Alatau and Tien-Shan); * apricot (North Tien-Shan); * foreign (Tian-Shan); * white birch (Tian-Shan). Due to the location of mountain forests in such a wide area, the presence of oak and elm forests in the west of the republic, and birch and pine forests in the north, the vegetation of forests and forest meadows exceeds 40% of all vegetation in Kazakhstan. Among them, there is 1 cosmopolitan (common oleander), more than 30 holarctic species - forest fern, feather fern, bearded fern, hops, sedge, and sedge. They are relics from the forests of ancient times. Such forest plants are characterized by rare relicts such as walnut, Semenov maple, Lepsi tape, Tien-Shan cycerbita, Semenov heather, as well as endemic species such as Kyrgyz birch, Bekara poplar, Musketov camel, thousand-horse razor-eared sedge, included in the "Red Book of Kazakhstan". . Alpine belts * Alpine meadows and small grass meadows are characteristic. The first of these is spread from the hairy hogweed, and in Altai from the Bellardi hogweed. The small grassy meadow contains krylov's fescue, Mongolian ptilagrostis, and alpine maralot, taran, yellow sedge, etc. among other grasses. b. there is * Subalpine meadows are formed in border areas with mountain ranges. In Tien-Shan, these are meadows made up of sedge, rock sedge, common sedge. There are also meadows consisting only of cat's tail. Usually, all these are fertile summer pastures, meadows. ### Animal world There are 172 species of mammals, 485 birds, 52 reptiles, 12 amphibians, and about 150 fish species in the vast land of Kazakhstan. There are even more invertebrates (insects, crustaceans, snails, worms, etc.). There are more than 30,000 species of insects alone. Such a large number of animal species depends on the geographical location of the republic, the development of the terrain and the long and complex history of the formation of animal species. Habitat of animals according to natural zones * Forest steppe zone. Elk, roe deer, white hare, gray mouse, water rat, wood vole, ptarmigan, white partridge, lake waterfowl - swan, goose, duck, seagull, starling, grebe inhabited the forest steppe zone in the north of Kazakhstan. From the Volga coast to the Altai mountain slopes, which stretches to the south, there are grasses and wormwood of the grain family, fescue-grown field shrew, field shrew, gray mouse, common gray mouse, field mouse, sarshunak (large, small, shrew), and birds - duadak, bezgeldek , kestrel, falcon, field trikushka, gray sparrows, eagle owls, field owls and meadow owls live here. Herds of antelope graze in these areas from spring to autumn, and they move to the desert region in winter. * Field zone. The eastern part of the forest in the valley of the Zhayik river is occupied by the western part of the steppe zone, moose and roe deer graze, European black mink, vole, and forest marten are also found here. Zhayik t. from amphibians. b. In the valleys of the rivers, there are frogs and wood frogs. There are a lot of buzzards, gray partridges, cranes, and gray grouse. In the middle part of the steppe zone with mountain ridges (Kokshe kryat) with dense pine trees, there are forest dwellers such as moose, roe deer, lynx, red woodpecker, white woodpecker, white woodpecker (in the thick forest along the Irtysh), ruffed grouse, black woodpecker, common woodpecker. In the east of the steppe zone, along with marmot, field mouse, and other animals such as field shrews, lynx, roe deer, and deer lived. * Desert zone. In the desert zone with different vegetation, there are several species of shrews (small, medium, yellow) and bipeds, gerbils and hares. White antelope and gazelle can be found here in abundance. In this zone, there are birds such as bower, shrike, ruffed grouse, grouse, etc. b. there is * Desert zone. In the desert zone, which covers the south of the republic up to the mountain slopes, there are several species of animals that live only here, and they go beyond the borders of the republic in the south. The plateau mouflon, which is found between Ustirt and Mangychilak rocks, where snow stops in winter and snow water collects in spring, feeds on succulent plants and is satisfied with brackish water. On the plateau there is a porcupine with a long needle, a lynx, a desert lynx - a karakal. Among the animals of the clay and gravel deserts, a representative of a special family, which is not found anywhere else in Kazakhstan, lives. It was found only in Betpakdala, in some areas on the northern shore of Lake Balkash, in Alakol and Zaisan potholes. The five-headed dwarf bison, found only in a few places near Northern Balkhash, is a unique animal. Among large animals, white antelope and gazelle winter in this desert. Among the birds, there are wagtails, wagtails, cranes, and plovers. Bare-footed raccoon, three-headed dwarf raccoon, sand mouse, thin-headed sardine, spotted ground squirrel, sand cat, etc. b. Adapted to live in sand. In the sands of Southern Balkhash, the typical species of this bee, the sparrow sparrow, the desert warbler live. In the Kumayt Desert, a number of species of lizards (white-headed, goats), snakes (bullet snakes, dragons, black rattlesnakes, etc.) and field turtles are distributed. Roe deer, wild boar, hare, pheasant etc. b. occurs. Balkhash, Sasykkol and others. Among the thick reeds on the shores of the lakes there are terns, plovers, egrets, coots, black herons, and seagulls. A very rare relic seagull, included in the "Kazakhstan Red Book", lives in the Alakol basin. * The animal world of the mountains surrounding the east and south of Kazakhstan is diverse. In the coniferous Altai forests, moose, deer, kudir, Siberian ptarmigan, arkar, Altai skunk, brown bear, sable, skunk, mink, leopard, squirrel, borscht, Altai marmot, black grouse, tundra partridge, white partridge, Altai elk, There are sparrows and sparrows. In the mountains extending south from the Zaisan pothole (Sauyr, Tarbagatai, Dzungar Alatauy) deer, roe deer, arka, Siberian ptarmigan, brown bear, lynx, leopard, long-tailed deer live. In Dzungar, Ile Alatau and Talas Alatau, instead of the blue marten, the red marten and the very rare Menabir marten have been introduced. In the south-eastern mountains of Kazakhstan, among the birds of prey, the osprey, tazkara, and eagle live. These places are also characterized by the Himalayan woodpecker, partridge, long-legged crow, common crow, red-tailed sparrow, juniper woodpecker, mountain sparrow, and bluebird. In the small rivers of Dzungar Alatau, the newt lives. ### Specially protected natural territories Specially protected natural territory is the land, water bodies and airspace sections above them with natural complexes and objects of the state nature reserve fund, which have a special protection regime. Specially protected territory - areas with valuable natural or man-made (valuable ecosystems, geysers, park monuments, engineering structures, etc.) territories, water areas. Such areas are protected not only by law, but also by special control and people. ### Natural resources Kazakhstan is one of the richest regions in the world in terms of mineral wealth reserves and diversity. Mineral reserves are an important guarantee of stable development and security of the national economy of Kazakhstan. The current state of the powerful mineral raw material base completely frees the republic from dependence on mineral resources of foreign countries, and it is the world of Kazakhstan. allowed the market to produce mineral resources and its processed products. Mineral resources are one of the main factors that determine the country's development strategy. In terms of importance, they are divided into three groups. The first group includes strategic mineral resources that provide the main financial income and have economic and political significance: oil, gas, coal, uranium, chromite deposits. The second group consists of important mineral resources that provide financial income and are the basis of Kazakhstan's industrial image: iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc, aluminum and gold deposits. The third group includes deposits of tin, silver, phosphorus, barite, which are in high demand in domestic and foreign markets. Dozens of oil-gas and ore-producing enterprises operate on the basis of the explored reserves of mineral resources, which produce and process more than 70 different types of mineral raw materials. ## Political situation Kazakhstan - according to the Constitution adopted in the republican referendum on August 30, 1995 - establishes itself as a democratic, secular, legal and social state. The Republic of Kazakhstan is a unitary state with a presidential form of government. The highest representative body of the republic is the Parliament. It carries out the legislative activity of the republic. The Parliament consists of two permanent Chambers: the Senate and the Mazhilis. The Senate consists of two people from each region, city of republican significance and the capital of the Republic of Kazakhstan, deputies elected at the joint meeting of the region, city of republican significance and the capital of the Republic, respectively. 15 deputies of the Senate are appointed by the President of the Republic for the term of office of the Parliament. Mazhilis consists of 98 deputies elected on the basis of the party list on the basis of the degree of authority and the territory of a unified nationwide electoral district, and 9 deputies are elected by the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan. The President forms the Government with the proposal of the party that received the majority in the Majlis. Within ten days after the appointment of the Prime Minister of the Republic, the Prime Minister submits a proposal to the President of the Republic on the structure and composition of the Government. The Prime Minister issues orders that are binding on the entire territory of the Republic. The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Kazakhstan consists of eleven members, whose mandate lasts for eight years. The Chairman of the Constitutional Council is appointed by the President of the Republic. In the Republic of Kazakhstan, justice is exercised only by the court. The Supreme Court of the Republic and the local courts of the Republic established by law are the courts of the Republic. ### Local state administration and self-administration Local state administration is carried out by the local representation (maslikhat) and executive bodies (akimtik) responsible for the state of affairs in the respective territory. ### Foreign policy The foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan is distinguished by its activity, striving to maintain balance, pragmatism, efforts to conduct constructive dialogue and orientation to multilateral cooperation. In the international arena, our country, due to its historical, geopolitical and economic factors, has been conducting its foreign policy for many centuries based on the principle of international cooperation, reconciliation with neighboring states and respect for their regional unity. The fact that Kazakhstan is eager to establish equal and mutually beneficial relations with other countries is proven by the large number of foreign countries with which it has established diplomatic relations today. Since gaining independence in 1991, our republic has established diplomatic relations with 130 countries of the world. ### Concept of foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2020-2030 On March 6, 2020, the concept of foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan for 2020-2030 was published. The document is based on the following priorities: - an open, predictable and consistent foreign policy of the country, which is progressive and maintains its continuity with the continuation of the foreign policy of the First President - the Head of State in the new stage of the country's development; - protection of human rights, development of humanitarian diplomacy and protection of the environment; - international promotion of economic interests in the arena, including implementation of state policy on attracting investments; - maintenance of international peace and security; - first of all, the main partners are Russia, China, the USA, Central Asian states and the countries of the European Union, and in terms of multilateral structures - the United Nations Development of regional and multilateral diplomacy, which means strengthening mutually beneficial relations with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the Commonwealth of Independent States and other organizations. ### Political reforms in Kazakhstan In June 2019, the National Council of Public Trust was established at the initiative of the President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev. Its main purpose is to develop proposals and recommendations on current issues of state policy based on discussions with the participation of the public, political parties, and representatives of civil society. In July 2019, the President of Kazakhstan announced the concept of "A state that listens to the voice of the people", which responds promptly and effectively to the constructive requests of citizens. At the same time, Kazakhstan will pass a law that will allow representatives of other parties to chair some parliamentary committees in order to encourage alternative views and opinions. The registration barrier for creating political parties will be reduced from 40 thousand to 20 thousand people. A new law on peaceful assemblies was adopted in Kazakhstan. The law provides for the introduction of a conceptual apparatus that allows for the formation of basic concepts and forms of peaceful assembly, such as a picket, demonstration, march, rally. The law regulates the status, rights and duties of organizers, participants of peaceful assemblies and journalists. In order to strengthen public security, President KK Tokayev also increased the punishment for crimes committed against a person. ### Society Kazakh technical specialists united in the Kazakh Engineers Association. ## Holidays and weekends ## Economy During the period of independence, 330 billion dollars of foreign investment was attracted to Kazakhstan from more than 120 countries of the world. In the World Bank's "Doing business in 2020" report, Kazakhstan took the 25th place in the world and was named the best country in the world for protecting the rights of minority investors. The GDP of Kazakhstan is 179.332 billion. is USD and the annual growth rate is equal to 4.5%. Kazakhstan's GDP per capita is 9,686 US dollars. After China and Qatar, Kazakhstan ranks third among the 25 most dynamic economies of the first decade of the 21st century. Kazakhstan's role in world trade and its central location on the new Silk Road allowed the country to open its markets to billions of people. Kazakhstan became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2015. The main indicator for determining the share of Kazakhstan's economy in the world economy is the country's share in international trade. Kazakhstan's foreign trade turnover is increasing year by year: in 1995 it was $9 billion, and in 2008 it was $109 billion. The main growth belongs to the oil production and metallurgy industry. Export is connected with the increase in the volume of manufactured products and the increase in prices. And the growth of imports increased as a result of the purchase of machines and equipment necessary for the production of products. In 2009, foreign trade turnover decreased by 34%, the main cause of which was the drop in oil and metal prices. However, since 2010, a rapid development was observed due to the re-increase in prices, as a result, the volume of export-import transactions reached $137 billion. formed. Export ($92 billion) was twice as much as import ($45 billion). 75% of exports are mineral resources, the largest part of which belongs to minerals such as oil, gas, coal, and uranium. The remaining 13% are metals and 3.4% are agricultural products (mainly wheat), 4.2% are products of the chemical industry. The main product is unprocessed natural minerals. Kazakhstan serves as a provider of natural resources in the world trade market. Kazakhstan joined the World Trade Organization in 2015. Became a member on June 22. * * ### External economy of Kazakhstan External economy of Kazakhstan includes economic, trade, currency, scientific-technical, cultural and other relations with the countries of the world sit down Subjects of this industry are legal entities or individuals of Kazakhstan or foreign countries registered in an independent country by type of ownership related to foreign economic activities. The main and important place in the field of foreign economy is trade. In recent years, the share of goods exported from Kazakhstan has tripled. It is caused by several factors. Favorable investment conditions have led to the direct inflow of significant foreign investments, the main part of which is spent on the country's oil production sector. Firstly, this, in turn, rapidly developed the production of oil and gas condensate. Secondly, the favorable conditions for the sale of hydrocarbon raw materials in the global commodity market created conditions for the growth of export potential. In the same way, the mining and metallurgy industry is connected with the increase in the share of Kazakhstan's total exports and services in the last positive year, its rapid development and volume compared to the development of world trade. The increase in the level of the dynamics of export of goods from Kazakhstan indicates its high and rapid development. On average, during ten years, the export of goods increased by four times, while the import increased by three and a half times. Compared to the world level, the macroeconomic size of our country is not high. Despite this, there is a huge potential for the future development of Kazakhstan's foreign economic sector. In particular, more than 500 deposits have been explored and all 1220 types of mineral raw materials have been identified. Of most of these, our country is in the first place in the world. Thus, Kazakhstan ranks first in the world in zinc, tungsten and barite reserves, second in silver lead and chromite reserves, third in copper, manganese, fluorite reserves, fourth in molybdenum reserves, and among the top ten countries in terms of gold reserves. In our country, iron ore is 8 percent of the world reserves, and uranium is 25 percent by design. Kazakhstan is among the ten countries in the world in terms of exploration of oil reserves. The global financial and economic stagnation had a negative impact on the foreign economic sphere of our republic. ## Energy ### Culture and society ### Education system \< > ### Mass media ### Social sphere ### Armed forces The military structure of the Republic of Kazakhstan includes military management bodies, Armed Types of forces, special forces, rear, military educational institutions and gil. includes institutions. During the war, in addition to the types of troops belonging to the Ministry of Defense, the internal troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the border service of the National Security Agency and other troops, respectively. It includes "Ulan", civil and territorial defense management and creation bodies. The main goal of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan is to protect the country's sovereignty, territorial integrity, economy, state. to protect citizens and citizens from the threat of war, to prevent hostilities or military conflicts, to create favorable conditions for the stable development of Kazakhstan. The Armed Forces of the Republic are entrusted with the following main tasks in peacetime * providing military strength, combat training, control of governing bodies and troops in conflicts within the country, * Meml. of the Republic of Kazakhstan. to keep at a level capable of suppressing and repelling any illegal armed force within its borders or borders; * airspace security, as well as, meml. operative-strategist of the border. closure of important regions; * guarding important military facilities; * readiness for bold action to stabilize the situation in any region of the country; * participation in peacekeeping and other operations in accordance with international obligations. The Armed Forces carry out these tasks in close cooperation with other armies and military structures of the Republic of Kazakhstan. At the same time, the border service of the National Security Service of the Republic of Kazakhstan on land, sea, lakes and other water bodies. border guarding and protection, as well as participation in the fight against terrorism (terror), arms and drug trafficking. 2000 of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In accordance with the resolution of November 23, 1579, the country's Eastern, Western, Eastern, Middle. military districts were established. Ont. The territory protected by the military district includes: Almaty, Zhambyl, South Kazakhstan, Kyzylorda regions. Average of the district. headquarters in Taraz. To the territory protected by the Eastern Military District: East. Includes Kazakhstan, Pavlodar regions. Average of the district. Headquarters in Semipalatinsk. Protected territory of the Western Military District: Aktobe, Atyrau, Bat. Includes Kazakhstan, Mangistau regions. Average of the district. headquarters in Aktobe. Other regions of Kazakhstan Avg. looks after the military district. Avg. The headquarters is in Karaganda. The geopolitical situation of Kazakhstan is undergoing major changes (extremism, escalation of military conflicts near the border, emergence of new nuclear states, etc.). In this regard, the military doctrine of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Kazakhstan, designed for the medium-term period (1999-2005), has only a defensive character. It is a comprehensive assessment of the military-political situation in the world and the region, the economy of the state. based on the possibilities of existence and material resources. The doctrine clarifies the main provisions of Kazakhstan's national security strategy and is aimed at organizing the country's defense in case of an attack, coordinating joint efforts with allied states to ensure collective military security. ## Interesting facts * More than 19 million people, approximately more than 130 ethnic groups, live in Kazakhstan. 48.71% of them are men, 51.29% are women. Kazakhstan ranks 64th in the world in terms of population. * The territory of Kazakhstan is located in Asia and Europe. The land area is 2.7 million square kilometers. It ranks 9th in the world. 3 Turkey, 5 France or 7 Japan would urinate on the territory of Kazakhstan. * Kazakhstan has two time zones, the climate is sharply continental. Air temperature ranges from -45 to +45 degrees. * Kazakhstan is one of the countries rich in natural resources. 99 out of 105 elements in Mendeleev's table were found in Kazakhstan. In terms of oil reserves, Kazakhstan is among the 20 leading countries in the world. It ranks 30th in terms of gas reserves, 15th in the world in terms of gold reserves, second after uranium. * Kazakhstan voluntarily gave up the world's fourth most powerful weapon and closed the world's largest nuclear test site. On August 29, 1991, the Semey nuclear test site was closed. * Astana is considered to be the youngest capital of the world. In 1998, UNESCO recognized the capital city as "City of Peace" and awarded it with a medal. At the world competition held in Brazil, Astana won the highest honor among 12 young cities around the world. And in 2012, the capital was awarded the status of "Cultural Capital of the CIS and the Turkic World". Since March 2019, the name of the city has been changed to Astana in honor of the First President. * The tallest chimney in the world is located in Kazakhstan (in the city of Ekibastuz). Its height is 420 meters. It is 100 meters higher than the Eiffel Tower. * Baikonur is the first and largest spaceport in the world. "Baikonur" cosmodrome was the first man to fly into space. It is located in the territory of Kazakhstan near the village of Toretam. Its size is 6717 square kilometers. * Medeu is the highest artificial ice rink in the world. 170 world records are set here. The name "Medeu" was given in honor of Medeu Pusyrmanuly, a public figure who lived at the end of the 19th century. * 3.8 million passenger cars are registered in Kazakhstan (as of October 1, 2021). * The largest theater in Central Asia is located in Kazakhstan. "Astana Opera" theater was built by experts from 33 countries in three years. * Kazakhstan is the homeland of tulips and apples. And the horse was domesticated for the first time (in the 4th millennium BC) in Kazakhstan. The native currency of Kazakhstan was recognized as the best paper money in the world three times in a row in 2011, 2012 and 2013. The first Kazakhstan coins were issued in London. * Since independence, more than 120 countries of the world have invested more than 370 billion dollars in Kazakhstan (according to 2022 data). * The longest land border in the world is the border between Kazakhstan and Russia (7591 kilometers). * Two monuments of Kazakhstan are among the world cultural heritage of UNESCO. They are Khoja Ahmet Yasawi mausoleum and Tambaly petroglyphs. ## Sources ## External links * Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan Archived September 29, 2011. * Official website of the President * Official website of the Parliament Archived June 1, 2019. * Electronic Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Official website of the Government Archived on August 7, 2019. * Kazakhstan Archived March 9, 2017. Open Directory Project (ODP) * Online legislation of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Official statistics of Kazakhstan Archived 13 November 2013. * The first information portal of Kazakhstan

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3875

Сөйлем

sentence is a group of words, words expressing a somewhat complete thought. It is possible to express an elaborated idea both orally and in writing. In oral speech, there is a pause (pause) between sentences. In writing, one sentence is separated from another by a period, interrogative, or exclamation mark. Sentences are divided into four types: informative, interrogative, exclamatory, imperative, depending on the purpose of utterance and tone of voice. ## Declarative sentence Declarative sentence is a type of sentence. It is said for the purpose of narrating news and information. The main grammatical features of the reporting sentence: * Narratives are mainly made from verbs in the open mood form (or from nouns used in this form); * It has its own intonation. Informative sentences are spoken with a slow melody. If simple sentences are gradually inflected, in extended sentences the voice is lowered at the end of the sentence. For example, Night is silent. There is no wind. But there is a slight chill. since the content of the conversation is different, their content depends on the semantic and personality characteristics of the words and members, especially the narrators, involved in the sentence. According to the personal characteristics of the narrators of the reporting sentence, positive (It rained), negative (It is not raining), desirable (Let's go to the threshing floor now), predictive (Marzhan will probably come tomorrow), and depending on the word class of the narrators, the verb (The inside of the house is warm), the noun (The sun) in. The sky is open). An informative sentence consists of two bases and one base. If the sentence consists of two main members, the primary and the narrator, and is built on their basis, then it is two-based. For example, Now, here are three children walking side by side. (S.M.) Sentences with the same base are of two types in terms of their grammatical character: * They are built on the basis of a narrative member with a special structure. For example, He cannot be broken; * The beginning is formed on the basis of a component called a supporting member, which cannot be recognized as a narrator. For example, Midai dala. Bright moon. A declarative sentence is a sentence that informs about someone or something. At the end of the sentence, the voice is lowered. In writing, a full stop is placed at the end of the informative sentence. Informative sentence is used to directly express the speaker's statement about the truth, exchange of opinions. For example, when saying "This is a tree", the speaker expresses his understanding about a certain object to another person. The logical form of such a thought is reasoning, because the content of the main sentence is presented as a positive, negative quality, according to the speaker's intellectual point of view (logical formulation). A declarative sentence directly expresses the speaker's description of an object, phenomenon, positive and negative actions, various information about quality, and a certain relationship. Informative sentences are also used as rule-definition, topic, description, and answer. In speech, a sentence is separated by a voice delay (pause) depending on its semantic-structural independence. Each informative sentence is spoken with a slow intonation. In general, it starts simply in the first step of the sentence, gradually increases and gradually stops in the last step. ## Interrogative sentence An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks about someone or something. A question mark is placed at the end of an interrogative sentence. ### Formation of an interrogative sentence Formation of an interrogative sentence: * interrogative sentences are expressed with the participation of an interrogative pronoun; * interrogative meaning is also expressed by the participation of interrogative interjections ma (me), ba (be), pa (pe) and che; * the interrogative meaning is sometimes given by the interjections -au and the auxiliary words "maybe", "maybe", and "back" and the singular "а"; * interrogative meaning is also conveyed by the interrogative intonation itself. Interrogative sentences represent the main question, leading question, defining question Types of interrogative sentences The content of questions asked in interrogative sentences is different and highlights their main ones: 1. Open question. In interrogative sentences with the purpose of finding out someone's thoughts or the situation of someone or something, the question is open: - What is your name - said an adult child. - Kyyrgali... What is your name? - Shegen... (G. Musirepov). 2. Counter question. A number of interrogative sentences are answered openly, the question is answered in the form of a question, and a counter question is asked. Bogdanov: If so, where are you going to find land for so many animals? Zhanar: Isn't our land about to increase? (A. Abishev). 3. Doubtful question. A number of interrogative sentences are not only used to find out about something, but also mean that the speaker has doubts about something: the narrators of such interrogative and doubtful sentences contain the words ma, me.. - Shall I go there too? - Will these thousand Bulgarians not give up? (G. Slanov). 4. Amazing question. Interrogative sentences with the construction of the narrator in doubtful question forms or with the word "do you say" are sometimes also expressed in the sense of surprise or amazement at something. Since such sentences are both interrogative and exclamatory, a question mark and an exclamation mark are placed after them in writing: - Do you have a dream too?! (A. Abishev). - Does a thin person have sharp eyes?! (G. Musirepov). If among the highly interrogative sentences there are simple words that express a person's state of mind, another emotional tone is added to the content of the interrogative sentences. Apyray, what happened to our quarrel?! (A. Abishev). 5. Rhetorical question. Some interrogative sentences are not spoken with the purpose of waiting for an answer, but also with the purpose of reporting something. Such sentences have a rhetorical meaning (rhetoric is derived from the Greek word rhilos - orator). Rhetorical interrogative sentences are often used in fiction. 1. Will it be good every day, for someone who does something wrong? Is the tone full? To sell honor? Think about it, Maysym, Whose flower does not fade? (Caution). 2. What will the people find if they lose their teacher? Country or country? Country with the best. Is there a country without a leader? (M. Auezov) . ## Exclamatory sentence An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses a thought related to a special state of mind and feeling (joy, sadness, surprise, pity, order, etc.). All the words in an exclamatory sentence (especially the narrator) are spoken in a raised voice. An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclamation mark. ## Exclamatory sentence In the process of speaking, in the case of communication, not only the thoughts and will of a person are given, but also the state of mind and feelings are defined. It is intended to influence the mind, will, and feelings of other people even when expressing feelings through language means related to human thought and will. Therefore, one important factor in the process of general truth recognition of a person is his emotion. A person's feeling, state of mind is expressed in terms of emotional relation to the content of thoughts in speech. - My mistake. - No, it's wrong! The preceding sentence represents the narration (information, assessment) of the truth by one narrator. In the second sentence, as before, the narrator's information-value is presented in terms of a certain emotional relationship. Therefore, it will be a sentence with both meaningful message and expressive-emotional meaning (message). In this emotional sense, not only informative sentences, but also interrogative and imperative sentences are spoken. Therefore, depending on the speech situation, purposeful sentence types are sometimes used in their direct content, and sometimes they are used to express feelings and emotions. It is related to this that the goal in an exclamatory sentence is not a meaningful type. The use of purposeful sentences in an emotional sense is based on the fluctuating pronunciation of intonation, which is why sentences are called exclamatory. These exclamatory sentences mean a message, request, command - the main function, and the emotional expressive meaning - an additional function. Exclamatory sentences are formed not only by intonation, but also by other syntactic, lexical-grammatical methods. So, we call exclamatory sentences that express the speaker's emotional relationship, feeling, state of mind about a reality phenomenon, about a certain subject. ### Types of adverbial sentences in terms of creation In terms of the procedure for creating adverbial sentences: 1) Special adverbial intonation sentences; 2) Individual sentences are divided into two groups. 1) Exclamatory sentences, when they are formed by special intonation, express a certain emotional relationship and state of mind of the narrator in addition to the narration in the form of message, request, command. In such exclamatory sentences, the emotional relation of the speaker is expressed in different shades of meaning (joy, approval, admiration, stuttering, annoyance, regret, surprise, sadness). Usually, the meaning of such sentences can be distinguished depending on the speaking situation, context, and author's words. 2) One group of individual adverbial sentences gives an additional emotional meaning, while the other group expresses only a purely emotional relationship. * Through the conditional mood. If Botagoz and I sing! * -th/-th addition by adding conditional mood: I wish there was such a guy! Through adverbs and modal words (goy, au, da, ay, ma, edi). * Using specific nouns and verbs (wonderful, wonderful, wonderful). What, how, how much, what interrogative pronouns, here is a relative pronoun, what is the phrase, the verbs look, see, say, notice are used in the narrative structure (What a wonderful sight!) * As a noun phrase (emotional, Fire! ) . * Exclamatory phrases that are spoken due to customs (Kesch khryt! Happy birthday! ). * By using special adjectives and adverbs in meaningful sentences (This is, of course, correct! ). * Through the Mood Unions (Alakai!) . ## Literature * S. Amanzholov, "Kazakh Language Grammar", 1966. * "Kazakhstan": National encyclopedia / Chief editor A. Nysanbayev - Almaty "Kazakh Encyclopedia" General Editor, 1998 ISBN 5-89800-123-9, Volume IX

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5248

Togim Khan

Togym Khan was the Kazakh Khan during the 1st Civil War in the Kazakh Khanate. His year of birth is unknown, he was killed in the battle on July 27, 1537. Grandson of Togym Khan al-Zhanibek, son of Jadik Sultan. Togym Khan is trying to restore the power in the Kazakh horde, which has lost its prosperity. He strives to increase the military power of his country by conducting defensive wars with its hostile neighbors. During the reign of Taiyr Khan, Uzbek Khan Ubaydolla and Mughal Khan Rashid went on a campaign against the Kazakh horde. On July 27, 1537, a great war took place between the Turks, the Uzbek-Mongols, and the Kazakh-Kyrgyz in the San-Tash area on the eastern side of Issykkol. The entire Kazakh-Kyrgyz army was killed in this fierce battle. 37 sultans led by Togym Khan and his brave nine sons also died in this war. The war in San-Tash is one of the darkest events in the military history of the Kazakh Horde. Esim Khan, the son of Togym Khan's half-brother Shygay Khan, a tall man named Esim Khan, gave a feast for many generations and built a high burial ground in the San-Tash valley, where so many brave Kazakh-Kyrgyz soldiers were martyred. Togym Khan ruled the Kazakh Horde from 1533 to 1537.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4788

Districts of Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan has a total of 193 districts, including: * 170 districts in 17 regions; * 23 districts in 5 cities. The largest district in Kazakhstan in terms of territory is Ulytau district of Ulytau region (122.9 thousand km²), and the smallest district is Maktaaral district of Turkestan region (0.8 thousand km²); the most populated district is Karasai district of Almaty region (323,151 people), and the least populated district is Egindikol district of Akmola region (5,351 people); the most populated district center is Kaskeleng city of Karasai district (81,850 people), and the least populated district center is Obagan village of Altynsarin district (530 people). According to the data of 2024, Abay, Esil, Zhambyl districts will meet 3 times in Kazakhstan, and Aktogai, Almaty, Nura districts will meet 2 times. ## Abay region There are 10 districts in Abay region: * Abay district — Karaul village * Aksuat district — Aksuat village * Ayagoz district — Ayagoz city * Beskaragay district — Beskaragay village * Borodulikha district — Borodulikha village * Zhanasemey district — Semey city (not part of the district) * Zharma district — Kalbatau village * Kokpekti district — Kokpekti village * Makanshi district — Makanshi village * Urzhar district — Urzhar village ## Akmola region Akmola region has 17 districts: \< > * Akkol district - Akkol city * Arshaly district - Arshaly village * Astrakhan district - Astrakhanka village * Atbasar district - Atbasar city * Burabay district - Shchuchinsk * Bulandy district - Makinsk city * Birzhan sal district - Stepnyak city * Egindikol district - Egindikol village * Ereimentau district - Ereimentau city * Esil district - Esil city * Zhaksy district - Zhaksy village \< > * Zharkayin district - Derzhavinsk city * Zerendi district - Zerendi village * Korgalzhyn district - Korgalzhyn village * Sandyktau district - Balkashino village * Tselinograd district - Akmol village * Shortandy district - Shortandy village ## Aktobe region There are 12 districts in Aktobe region: * Alga district - Alga city * Aiteke bi district - Temirbek Zhurgenov village * Baiganin district - Karaulkeldi village * Kargaly district - Badamsha village * Kobda district - Kobda village * Martok district - Martok village * Mugalzhar district - Kandyagash city * Oyil district - Oyil village * Temir district - Shubarkudyk village * Khromtau district - Khromtau city * Shalkar district - Shalkar city * Yrgyz district - Yrgyz village ## Almaty region There are 9 districts in Almaty region: * Balkash district - Bakanas village * Enbekshikazak district - Esik city * Zhambyl district - Uzynagash village * Kegen district - Kegen village \< > * Karasai district - Kaskeleng city * Rayymbek district - Narynkol village * Talgar district - Talgar city * Uygur district - Shonzhi village * Ile district - Otegen batyr village ## Atyrau region There are 7 districts in Atyrau region: Zhylyoi district - Kulsary city * Inder district - Inderbor village * Isatai district - Akkystau village * Kurmangazy district - Kurmangazy village * Kyzylkoga district - Miyaly village * Makat district - Makat village * Makhambet district - Makhambet village ## West Kazakhstan region There are 12 districts in West Kazakhstan region: * Akzhayik district - Chapaev village * Bayterek district - Peremyotnoye village * Bokei Ordasy district - Saikyn village * Burli district - Aksai city * Zhanakala district - Zhanakala village * Zhanibek district - Zhanibek village * Kaztalov district - Kaztalovka village * Karatobe district - Karatobe village * Syrym district - Zympity village * Taskala district - Taskala village * Terekti district - Terekti village * Shingyrlau district - Shingyrlau village \ <> ## Zhambyl region There are 10 districts in Zhambyl region: * Baizak district - Sarykemer village * Zhambyl district - Asa village * Zhualy district - Bauyrzhan Momyshuly village \ <> * Kordai district - Kordai village * Merki district - Merki village * Moyinkum district - Moyinkum village * Sarysu district - Zhanatas city * Talas district - Karatau city * Turar Ryskulov district - Kulan village * Shu district - Tole bi village ## Zhetysu region There are 8 districts in Zhetysu region: * Aksu district - Zhansugirov village \< > * Alakol district - Usharal city * Eskeldi district - Karabulak village * Kerbulak district - Saryozek village * Koksu district - Balpyk bi village * Karatal district - Ushtobe city * Panfilov district - Zharkent city * Sarkan district - Sarkan city ## Karaganda region There are 7 districts in Karaganda region: * Abai district - Abai city * Aktogai district - Aktogai village * Bukar Zhyrau district - Botakara village * Karkaraly district - Karkaraly city * Nura district - Nura village * Osakarov district - Osakarovka village * Shet district - Aksu - Ayuly village ## Kostanay region There are 16 districts in Kostanay region: * Altynsarin district — Obagan village * Amangeldi district — Amangeldi village * Auliekol district — Auliekol village * Beimbet Mailin district — Ayot village * Denisov district — Denisovka village * Zhangeldi district — Torgai village * Zhitikara district — Zhitikara city * Kamysty district — Kamysty village * Karabalik district — Karabalik village * Karasu district — Karasu village * Kostanay district — Tobyl city * Mendikara district — Borovskoy village * Nauyrzym district — Karamendi village * Sarykol district — Sarykol village * Uzynkol district — Uzynkol village * Fyodorov district — Fyodorovka village ## Kyzylorda region There are 7 districts in Kyzylorda region: \< > * Aral district - Aral city * Zhalagash district - Zhalagash village * Zhanakorgan district - Zhanakorgan village * Kazaly district - Aiteke bi village * Karmakshi district - Khosaly village * Syrdaria district - Terengozek village * Shieli district - Shieli village ## Mangistau region There are 5 districts in Mangistau region: * Beineu district - Beineu village * Karakiya district — Kuryk village * Mangistau district — Shetpe village Munaily district — Mangistau village * Tupkaragan district — Fort-Shevchenko city ## Pavlodar region There are 10 districts in Pavlodar region: * Akkuly district — Akkuly village * Aktogai district — Aktogai village * Bayanaul district — Bayanaul village * Irtys district — Irtys village * Zhelezin district — Zhelezinka village * May district — Koktobe village * Pavlodar district — Pavlodar city (not part of the district) * Terengkol district — Terengkol village * Uspen district — Uspenka village * Sharbakti district — Sharbakti village ## North Kazakhstan region \< > North Kazakhstan region has 13 districts: * Ayrtau district — Saumalkol village * Akzhar district — Talshik village * Akkayin district — Smirnovo village * Gabit Musirepov district — Novoishim village * Yesil district — Yavlenka village * Zhambyl district — Presnovka village * Kyzylzhar district — Beskol village * Magzhan Zhumabaev district — Bulaev city * Mamlyut district — Mamlyut city * Tayinsha district — Tayinsha city * Timiryazev district — Timiryazevo village * Ualikhanov district — Kishkenekol village * Shal Akin district — Sergeev city ## Turkestan region There are 14 districts in Turkestan region: * Baidibek district — Shayan village * Zhetysai district — Zhetysai city * Keles district — Abay village * Kazygurt district — Kazigurt village * Maktaaral district — Myrzakent village * Ordabasy district — Temirlan village * Otyrar district — Shauldir village * Sayram district — Aksukent village * Saryagash district — Saryagash city * Sauran district — Shornak village \ <> * Sozak district — Sholakkorgan village * Tole bi district — Lengir city * Tulkibas district — Turar Ryskulov village * Shardara district — Shardara city ## Ulytau region There are 2 districts in Ulytau region: * Zhanaarka district - Zhanaarka village * Ulytau district - Ulytau village ## East Kazakhstan region In East Kazakhstan region There are 11 districts: * Altai district — Altai city * Glubokoe district — Glubokoe village * Zaisan district — Zaisan city * Katonkaragai district — Katonkaragai village * Kurchum district — Kurchim village * Markakol district — Markakol village * Samar district — Samar village * Tarbagatai district — Akzhar village * Ulan district — Kasym Kaysenov village * Bolshoi Naryn district — Bolshoi Naryn village * Shemonaikha district — Shemonaikha city ## Astana city Astana city has 6 districts: * Almaty district * Baikonur district * Esil district * Nura district * Saraishik district * Saryarka district ## Almaty city Almaty city has 8 districts: * Alatau district * Almaly district * Auezov district * Bostanyk district * Zhetisu district * Medeu district * Nauryzbai district * Turksib district # # Shymkent city Shymkent city has 5 districts: * Abay district * Al-Farabi district * Enbekshi district * Karatau district * Turan district ## Aktobe city There are 2 districts in Aktobe city: * Almaty district * Astana district ## Karaganda city There are 2 districts in the city of Karaganda: * Alikhan Bokeikhan district * Kazybek bi district ## See also * Administrative units of Kazakhstan * Distributed districts of Kazakhstan * List of cadastral numbers of Kazakhstan * Settlements of Kazakhstan * Rural districts of Kazakhstan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6569

Anthem of the Kazakh SSR

The national anthem of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic is the national anthem of Kazakhstan approved in 1945. The speech was written in a spirit of false optimism, according to the requirements of communist ideology. ## History In 1943, a competition was announced to create the first National Anthem of the Kazakh SSR. As the last version, it was written by A. Tazhibayev, K. Mukamedkhanov, G. Musirepov's text was accepted. According to some sources, the full author of the text of the hymn is K. is Mukhamedkhanov, and the contribution of other authors is limited to the change from "er Kazakh" to "we Kazakh" at the beginning of the text. ## Text ## See also * Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic * National Anthem of the Republic of Kazakhstan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1701

Семипалатинск

Semey is officially the administrative center of Abay region from June 8, 2022. It is located on both banks of the Irtys River. Its territory is 27.5 thousand square kilometers, including rural districts. From 1782 to 1997 it was the center of Semey (Semipalatinsk) region. 40 km west of the city of Semipalatinsk at the intersection of 500 latitude and 800 longitude lines from Greenwich. The geographical center of the Eurasian supercontinent is defined in Mount Degelen. In Kazakhstan, the city is considered the cultural capital, because many of its residents are the founders of Kazakh culture and creativity. Semipalatinsk has the special status of "Historical Center of Kazakhstan". The climate of the region is distinguished by its special geographical location, it is located on the land, as far as possible from the oceans. The territory is open to the arctic basin, but the highest mountain peaks of Asia isolate it from the influence of the Indian Ocean. The extreme continentality of the climate is due to the high amplitude of annual and daily temperatures. It reaches -45 degrees in winter and up to +45 degrees in summer. The population of the city is 323,721 people (2019). Semey, located on both banks of the Irtysh, is one of the largest and most beautiful cities of the country, not only local residents, but also guests of the "spiritual capital" of Kazakhstan. ## History The foundation of Semipalatinsk was laid in 1718, Peter I issued a decree on the construction of fortifications in the eastern region and forts in the Irtys region, the construction lasted from 1714 to 1720. In 1718, the Semipalatin fortress was "completely armed and fortified" under the supervision of lieutenant colonel P. Stupin. The word "Semei" means "holy place" in the language of the Yellow Uyghur tribe belonging to the ancient Turkic people, while the word "Alash" means brother, blood relative, relative in the Turkish language. That is, the name of Semipalatinsk, Alash is one of the oldest names formed in the entire Turkic era. The fortress of Semipalat played a special role in the development of the main trade centers between Russia and Kazakhstan. Since the first establishment of Semipalatinsk, Dzungar Kalmyks, Bukhara, Tashkent, and Kokan people began to come here to trade. A customs institution was established in 1728 in order to control the trade operations of Asian countries. In the first years, the Semipalatinese Customs was subject to the Siberian decree, located in the main office of the State Chamber of Commerce in Moscow. In 1776, the Governor-General of Western Siberia sent Captain I. G. Andreev to create a new project for the fortress. A talented engineer, he rebuilt the fortifications, built roads and bridges, drew plans and maps of roads and fences, fortifications. Residents of the old fortress, Cossacks, military personnel, and part of the merchant people began to move to the new fortress. On October 1, 1854, the solemn opening of Semey region took place. The small city of Semipalatinsk immediately became a regional one. The reconstructed region was the largest in the Russian Empire. The City Duma and the City Court are approved. In 1858, there were 261,487 people in the Semey region, which was established in 1854. In 1873, there was a telegraph in Semey, and in 1910 a telephone and the first water supply in Kazakhstan. In 1906, the upper Irtysh was officially opened by water. At the end of the 19th century and the 20th century, the first product processing industry was established in the Semipalatinsk region. At the beginning of the 20th century, leather was prepared in large Russian companies and leather factories. In 1863, 2 educational institutions worked in the city. Among them were one district school, 2 church-parish schools, 14 Kazakh and 9 private Tatar schools. In 1864, the women's school was reorganized into a second-class school. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, male and female classical gymnasiums, teachers' seminaries worked in the city. Alimkhan Yermekov graduated from Semey Men's Gymnasium with a gold medal, then Tomsk Institute of Technology. Mukhtar Auezov and Kanysh Satpaev studied at the teachers' seminary. The great Russian writer Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky lived in Semey for more than 5 years (1854-1859) and wrote his eternal works here: "Zapiski iz mertvogo doma", "Dyadyushkin son", "Selo Stepanchikovo and its inhabitants". Here F.M. Dostoevsky P.P. Semenov met with Tien-Shanskyi and Shokan Ualikhanov, G. Potanin. E. P. Michaelis, a student of St. Petersburg University in political exile, N. Dolgopolov, S. Gross, P. Lobanovsky, A. Leontiev, N. Konshin and others came to Semey. They carried out great scientific, cultural and educational work in Semipalatinsk. Citizens like E.P. Michaelis, N. Dolgopolov and S. Gross had friendly relations with the great Kazakh educator Abay (Ibraћim) Kunanbayev. With their help, Abai got acquainted with classical literature and the political life of society. In turn, Abai helped his friends to study the history, culture and lifestyle of the Kazakh people. Abai Kunanbayev knew the culture and life of the Kazakh people very well and gained a great national reputation for Kazakh traditions, ancient laws, genealogy, legends and ethnographic terminology. In 1878, the Regional Statistical Committee was established in the city of Semipalatinsk. The first secretary of the Statistical Committee of Semipalatinsk is E. P. Mihaelis, a political exile. He was also one of the guardians of the public library and local history museum in Semipalatinsk in 1883. The West-Siberian branch of the Semipalatinsk Geographical Society was established as a branch of the Russian Geographical Society, but it carried out its work independently. Brothers VN Beloslyudov and A.N. Beloslyudov were active figures of the Semipalatinsk branch. The first one was an artist-ethnographer and drew many pictures. They are now kept in the form of manuscripts in the library of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan. And the second collected works of Kazakh folklore. Kazakh fairy tales collected by A.N. Beloslyudov were published in "Jazbakhat" of the department, as well as other folklore data. GD Grebenshikov's career and literary activity began in Semipalatinsk. G. N. Potanin, V. A. Obruchev and other prominent scientists worked in Semipalatinsk. Since June 1917, "Sary-arka" newspaper, which was published weekly in the same direction as "Aykap" magazine, began to be published in Semey city. The editors of the "Sary-arka" newspaper were R. Marsekov and K. Gabbasov. Articles by A. Bokeikhanov, M. Dulatov, A. Ermekov, M. Moldibaev, Zh. Akpaev and other prominent figures of the Alash movement were published on its pages. On September 23, 1903, the Semipalatinsk Teachers' Seminary was opened. Until 1928, Semipalatinsk was a gubernatorial city, then a district city; In 1932, the republic was divided into regions, at first Semey became the center of East Kazakhstan region, and from 1939 it became the center of Semey region. In the years before the war, large production facilities were built in the city. Turksib railway, whose northern part starts from the city of Semey, was one of the most important constructions of the country. The largest construction of the first 5 years in Semipalatinsk was the meat canning factory, which was one of the most powerful industries in the country's food industry. The city was the center of a large cattle farming region with a rich production base. At the same time as the meat factory, a large flour factory, a new leather factory with new equipment was built, and in 1938, the construction of a sheepskin factory with a special laboratory began. The construction of the sudorem plant, equipped with the newest equipment of that time, also began to develop. In October 1920, the "Es-Aymak" theater troupe with 15 members was established in the city. Among them were outstanding figures of the Kazakh scene - Isa Baizakov, Amire Kashaubaev, Zhumat Shanin, Zhusipbek Elebekov. In 1934, a Kazakh clay-drama theater was organized in Semey. The theater was opened on July 6, 1934 with the play "Revenge" by I. Zhansugirov. Semipalatinsk is considered a cultural and historical center not only in East Kazakhstan, but also in the republic. There are Abai and FM Dostoyevsky museums, Kazakhstan and West-Siberian local history museum, Nevzorov family museum of fine arts, libraries. There are Kazakh clay-drama theaters named after Abai and Russian drama theaters named after FM Dostoevsky. ### Semipalatinsk during the Great Patriotic War In 1941, 238 and 8 rifle divisions were created on the territory of the region. For heroic deeds, the 238th Infantry Division was awarded the Order of the Combat Red Banner by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on May 3, 1942, and on May 24, by the order of the People's Commissar, it was formed into the 30th Guards. On November 3, 1944, the 30th Guards Division was awarded the honorary title "Rijsk". On May 6, 1946, the division was disbanded. More than 13,000 soldiers of the division received government awards for their bravery. Division commanders: Colonel Gennady Petrovich Korotkov (March 14, 1941 - May 10, 1942); colonel (October 27, 1942, major general) Andrey Danilovich Kuleshov (May 16, 1942 - January 17, 1944); Colonel (June 3, 1944 - Major General) Mikhail Alexandrovich Isaev (January 18 - November 5, 1944, February 17 - May 9, 1945); Colonel Fadeykin Ivan Anisimovich (November 6, 1944 - February 16, 1945). The path of the 8th Infantry Division was also glorious. From December 1941 to March 1942, he was trained in the cities of Semey and Ayagoz. The battle that began at the bottom of Voronezh continued into the Battle of Kursk. On March 5, 1944, the division was given the honorary title "Yampolsk". Division commanders: Colonel Zverev Grigoriy Alexandrovich (December 25, 1941 - February 1, 1942); lieutenant colonel (October 1, 1942, major general) Ivanov Ivan Ivanovich (February 2, 1942 - June 2, 1943); lieutenant colonel Gudz Porfiriy Martynovich (June 15 - October 26, 1943); Major General Ivanov Nikolay Ivanovich (October 27 - December 12, 1943); general - major Smirnov Andrey Semenovich (December 13, 1943 - September 26, 1944); Colonel Ugrumov Mykola Stepanovich (September 27, 1944 - May 9, 1945). 56 families were awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union (M. Abeulov, V. V. Butorin, Z. Belibaev, V. A. Zasyadko, M. K. Merkulov, N. N. Silin, etc.). 13 people were awarded the 3rd degree Order of Glory (F. Adilbayev, M. Aubyekirov, P.P. Borkov, M.F. Kruzhelev, F.E. Maslin, V.N. Kondratiev, V.A. Osipov, S. .Rubayev, B. Khaidarov, etc.) ## Geography ### Climate ## Population \ <> Population of Semey city ## Cultural life Semey city is famous as the "cultural capital" of Kazakhstan. In the city, Abay's Literary-Memorial Museum in Semipalatinsk, Fyodor Dostoevsky's Literary-Memorial Museum, F. There are cultural centers such as Dostoevsky State Russian Drama Theater named after Semey. ## Sights of the city * One-tower mosque - Master Gabullah Efendi, XIX century. 2nd half. - urban planning and architectural monument. The mosque is working. * Twin-pillar mosque - architect Bolbatov, engineer lieutenant Manashev, 1856 - 1862. - construction and architectural monument. 19th century example of Muslim architecture. The mosque was built by a Turkish project at the expense of a Tatar merchant. The mosque is working. * Tynybai Mosque - Tynybai Kaukenov, 30-40s of the XIX century. - urban planning and architectural monument. The mosque is working. * Yamysh gate - the western Yamysh gate preserved from the three gates of the fortress, 1773. the gate and its walls were built under the direction of engineer captain I.G. Andreev. Yamish gate - XVIII century. (1776). Urban planning and architectural monument. * Museum named after the Nevzorov family - Urban construction and architectural monument (former house of merchant Stepanov), 1827. After the revolution, private state institutions were located in the building. * The building of the Museum of History and Local History (the former governor's house) - 1856. urban planning and architectural monument. The name of the architect is unknown. Before the revolution, the military governor lived in the building. * The building of Dostoevsky's literary memorial museum-house (former postman Lipukhin's house, where the writer FM Dostoevsky lived in 1857-1859) 1838. urban planning and architectural monument. The museum complex consists of a 1.5-story wooden house. It was built in the style of a meschan. One of the houses typical of old Semipalatinsk. 3 rooms in the semi-basement, 4 rooms on the upper floor, XIX century. according to the typical model: it consists of a dining room, a living room, an office and a bedroom. The rooms are low - 2.45 m. the first floor windows are covered with shutters. * The house of Aniyar Moldabayev (Lions of Alash) who is careful. The end of the 19th century. Urban planning and architectural monument. Square, made of wood. The lower floor is smaller than the upper one, the windows are closed. The windows of both floors are carved. 2 memorial plaques in Russian and Kazakh languages are hung on the wall of the house: "In this house 1878-1904 Abai Kunanbayev, the great enlightener poet, lived there." * "Stronger than death" memorial - on August 29, 1991, the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan N. A. Nazarbayev signed the Decree on closing the Semey nuclear test site. 2001 On August 29, a "stronger than death" monument dedicated to the victims of the Semey nuclear test site was erected on the "Polkovnichy" island of Semey. The author of the monument project is Shota Ualikhanov. * The suspension bridge over the Irtys River was built in 2000. Opened on October 17. The Japanese company Isakawajima Harima Heavy Industries Company LTD and the Office of the Governor of SKO presented the project of construction of the suspension bridge over the Irtysh River. * The building of the Republican Literary-Memorial Abai Museum - 1860. State Literary and Memorial Abay Museum in Semipalatinsk in 1940. It was built for the 95th anniversary of Abai's birth. * Victory memorial - on May 9, 1985, on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the defeat of Nazi Germany by the Soviet people, a memorial monument was erected in the Central Park of our city dedicated to the families who died during the Great Patriotic War. Authors of the monumental monument: Klyushkin O.S., Semchenko A.V., Tikhomolov V.F. ## Famous people * Dulat Babatayuly is an outstanding poet, poet, satirist, public figure, historian, Abai's teacher. * Abay Kunanbayev is a poet, educator, founder of written Kazakh literature, Kazakh literary language, philosopher. * Amire Kashaubaev is a famous singer, actor and musician. * Shakarim Kudaiberdiuly - poet, writer, philosopher, historian, composer, contemporary and younger brother of Abay * Arip Tanirbergenov - teacher, poet, educator, one of the founders of written Kazakh literature, Kazakh literary language, philosopher, musician, translator , a political figure. * Mukhtar Auezov - great writer, public figure, learned scientist, academician of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences (1946), doctor of philological sciences, professor (1946), Honored Scientist of the Kazakh SSR (1957) * Kokbay Zhanatayuly - poet, educator, Abay's student, friend, and brother. * Bibigul Tolegenova - Kazakh singer (lyric-coloratura soprano), People's Artist of the USSR (1967). * Roza Rymbaeva - Soviet and Kazakh pop singer (soprano), professor, actress. People's Artist of Kazakhstan (1986), laureate of international competitions. Honor and Parasat orders and award winner. Honored Artist of Kyrgyzstan (2000) and Uzbekistan (1984). * Seyit Askaruly Kaskabasov - literary critic, folklore scholar. Academician of the National Academy of Sciences of Kazakhstan, doctor of philological sciences, professor. Winner of the State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Honored Worker of Kazakhstan. Head of the Department of Kazakh Literature of the Eurasian National University named after L.N. Gumilev. * Taupyk Rymzhanov - writer * Amantai Isin - Historian-scientist (1988). Author of several monographs and about a hundred scientific articles. * Kayim Mukamedkhanov - Scientist, naturalist, member of the Union of Writers of the USSR since 1940, public figure, writer, poet, dramatist, translator, teacher. Founder of the Abay Museum in Semey (1940). The author of the text of the National Anthem of the Kazakh SSR. * Alikhan Nurmuhameduly Bukeikhan is a Kazakh state, political and public figure, leader of the National Liberation and Alash Party, chairman of the Alashorda Autonomous Government, publicist, scientist, translator. ## Socio-economic development of the city Industry. 49.3 bln. in January-June 2011 with production enterprises of the city. goods produced in the amount of tenge, which is 15.3% more than in the same period of 2010. The total production volume in the agricultural sector is 4,499.1 mln. tenge or 101.7% to the level of 2010. Meat production - 6.9%, milk production - 2.0% increased. The volume of retail turnover is 39.8 bln. made tenge and increased by 15.3% compared to the same period of 2010, physical volume index - 107%. The number of active small business enterprises increased to 969 enterprises or by 10.8% compared to the same period of 2010. Investment in the fixed capital in the amount of 11,316 million tenge or 116.1% of the level of 2010 has been utilized. 16 thousand square meters. private housing was introduced, which is 182% more than the level of 2010. The city budget for personal income sources is 4,466.7 mln. 4,518 million tenge during the plan. per tenge or 101.1% fulfilled. In order to consider the additional fund, a joint action plan of the mayor's office and the city tax department was approved, as a result of which 378.5 mln. 338.7 mln. tenge were determined for the budget. received tenge. The expenditure part of the budget is 10,458.3 mln. 10,265 million tenge during the plan. in the amount of tenge or 98.2% were used. Situation in the labor market. In order to increase the employment of the population, in 2011, the activities of the development program of the city of Semipalatinsk for 2012-2015, Employment 2020 and Roadmap programs were provided. In January-June 2011, the share of those who applied for employment was 72.4%, which is an increase of 8.8 percentage points compared to the same period of 2010. As of July 1, 2011, the registered number of unemployed was 1,518 people and remained at the level of last year. In the first half of the current year, the number of low-income citizens decreased by 8.4% to 4,581 people. The average monthly nominal wage payment of employees employed in large and medium-sized enterprises in January-June 2011 amounted to 59,153 tenge and increased by 13.5% compared to the same period of 2010. ## Twin Cities * Ypres, Belgium ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1036

Өзбекстан

Uzbekistan (Uzb. O'zbekiston; Uzbek), official name — Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzb. O'zbekiston Respublika; Uzbek Republiky), is an independent country located in Central Asia. According to the constitution adopted on December 8, 1992, it is a secular state with a presidential form of government. The president is elected for 5 years. The supreme legislative body (Oliy Majilis) is bicameral and is divided into the Legislative Chamber (lower chamber) and the Senate (upper chamber). The executive body is the Cabinet of Ministers. Administratively, it is divided into one autonomous republic (Karakalpakstan) and 14 regions. ## History ### Ancient history People began to inhabit the land of Uzbekistan from the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic). They were engaged in hunting and gathering. During the New Stone Age (Neolithic), agriculture and pastoralism appeared. At the end of the Bronze Age, the first state unions - Sogdy and Khorezm tribal unions - began to be formed. BC In the 5th - 4th centuries, the territory of the country was subordinated to the Persian kingdom ruled by the Achaemenid dynasty (also known as the First Persian Empire). In this period, the peoples who inhabited the Uzbek land and their history are mentioned in the writings of Herodotus and the Behistun cuneiform inscription. BC Alexander the Great invaded the region in 330-328. After the collapse of the Greek-Macedonian Empire, Bactria, the Kushan Kingdom, and the Kanly states lived on the territory of the country at different times. On the basis of the White Hun (Ephthalite) state, which was created in the middle of the 5th century and disintegrated under the pressure of the Turks, the territory of the country began to unite into one center. In the middle of the 6th century, it was part of the Turkic Khaganate established in Altai and Zhetysu. In the 7th century, the territory of the country was subordinated to the Western Turkic Khaganate. During this period, the Great Silk Road developed, Samarkand, Bukhara, etc. cities have become large trade centers. At the end of the 7th century, the Khaganate disintegrated and the Arabs began to conquer the region. People began to embrace Islam en masse. Under the influence of Arab culture, Mauerennahr region became the largest cultural center of the Islamic world. At the beginning of the 9th century, the Arab caliphate began to disintegrate, and the Samani state was established on the territory of the country. Mauerannahr and Zerafshan regions have developed to the maximum. In the 10th - 12th centuries, the Karakhan state, the Ghaznavid dynasty, and the Saljuk state came to power one after the other. In the second half of the 12th century, the Khorezmshah state became stronger and conquered Bukhara and Samarkand. In the 13th century, the Uzbek land became part of the Mongol Empire, and the Shagatai Khaganate was established on the territory of the country. In the second half of the 14th century, Amir Temir established a powerful empire in the land of Mauerannahr. Its capital, Samarkand, has become a major trade center. Direct trade between India, China and Eastern Europe has influenced the country's economic and cultural development. The historical foundations of the Uzbek state were laid and great successes were achieved in the fields of politics, economy, culture, science and art. After the death of Amir Temir, the powerful empire was divided into two. Mauerannahr was ruled by Amir Temir's grandson Ulykbek. Ulykbek supported the development of crafts and trade, paid close attention to science and culture, and was recognized as an outstanding educator-scientist. At the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century, Central Asia was occupied by the nomadic Uzbek tribes of Muhammad Shaibani Khan. As a result of assimilation of nomads with the local population, the ethnonym "Uzbek" began to take root. The Shaibani family tried to strengthen the country's economy, improve the irrigation system, and carry out monetary reform. But continuous wars against the Kazakh Khanate for the cities along the Syr, as well as the state associations established on the territory of present-day Iran and Afghanistan, led to the disintegration of the Shaibani state. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Khanate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Khanate of Kokan at the beginning of the 18th century were established. Despite the constant wars between the khanates, which depressed the population, the economic and cultural life of the region continued to develop, irrigation facilities were improved, agriculture improved, and new cities were built. ### The time of Tsarist Russia In the 19th century, the British Empire and Russia set their sights on Central Asia, including Uzbekistan, and sought to acquire mineral resources. Russia, firmly located in the Kazakh territory, tried to establish diplomatic relations with the khanates of Bukhara, Khiva and Kokan. Russian invaders invaded Central Asia and in 1876 established the General Governorate of Turkestan (center - Tashkent city). The Kokan Khanate was abolished, and its territory was transferred to the Turkestan Governor General. The territories of the Khanates of Bukhara and Khiva were reduced and they themselves became Russian bodans. Cotton fields were increased, cotton gins and oil extraction plants were built. Central Asia has become Russia's colony, its agrarian raw material base, and industrial products sales area. At the beginning of the 20th century, the migration of Russian peasants to Central Asia began. Russia, aiming at economic and military strategic goals, began to build the Central Asian, Orinbor-Tashkent railway. ### The era of the Soviet Union The revolution in Russia in 1917 brought changes to the social and political life of the country. "Shura-I Islam", "Shura-I Ulema" organizations, "Young Bukharan" movement appeared. Religious and Turkic movements grew stronger. The Turkestan autonomy, founded on November 28, 1917 in the city of Kokan, led by Mustafa Shokai, was soon dissolved by the Bolsheviks. in Tashkent, etc. Bolsheviks, etc., who took local garrison soldiers and mostly Slavic workers to their side in big cities. etc. established the Soviet government and in 1918 Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was announced as part of the RKFSR. But in all the places where there are no large cities and military units, the basmash movement, which relied on the support of the local population, has grown dramatically. After the end of the Civil War in Inner Russia in 1920, Red Army units suppressed the press movement by force. Soon, the Soviet government was established by force in Khiva and Bukhara khanates, and popular uprisings were brutally crushed by the Red Army. In 1924-25, national demarcation was carried out in the countries of Central Asia, and the Uzbek SSR was established within the USSR. The Constitution of the Uzbek SSR adopted in 1937 was in force until the dissolution of the USSR. The Uzbek people also actively participated in the Second World War. ### Independence The session of the Supreme Council of the Uzbek SSR held on August 31, 1991 changed the name of the country to the Republic of Uzbekistan and on September 1 adopted the declaration of the country's independence. Islam Karimov, who previously headed the Uzbek SSR, was elected the country's first president. The authoritarian leader of Uzbekistan, Islam Karimov, died in 2016. He was replaced by Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who became the prime minister. ## Population By the middle of 2021, the population of the republic will reach 33 million people. Uzbekistan is characterized by the traditional type of continuous population growth, that is, the population increases due to natural growth. Natural growth is about 1.7% per year, which is the second indicator among the CIS countries. The birth rate is 24 per 1000 people, and the death rate is 7 people. The life expectancy of the country's inhabitants is 64 years. Uzbekistan is a multinational country, where representatives of 120 nationalities and ethnic groups live. The Uzbek population is increasing due to high natural growth and migration of other nationalities (especially Russians) to places outside the territory of the republic. Currently, Uzbeks make up 3/4 of the country's population. Apart from them, the share of Russians is 7.4%, Tajiks 4.7%, Kazakhs 4.1%. Already in 2001, 15,861 people immigrated from Uzbekistan to Kazakhstan, the main part of them are representatives of the Kazakh people who returned to their historical homeland. In general, although the average population density is high (56 people per 1 km² of land), population settlement is uneven in the territory of the country. Most of the population settled in areas suitable for agriculture, where the density is 350-380 people per 1 km² of land. In the territory of Karakalpakstan, where the ecological situation has worsened, in the desert Bukhara and Navoi regions, the population rarely lives, in some areas there is no resident population at all. As in all countries of Central Asia, the share of urban population in Uzbekistan is 38%, low. Large cities — Tashkent 2.3 million people, Samarkand 395 thousand, Namangan 310 thousand people. 44% of the economically active population works in agriculture, 20% in industry, and 36% in the service sector. ### Ethnic groups Population of Uzbekistan by ethnic groups in 1926-2021. ### Religion ## Economy Uzbekistan is an industrial-agrarian state. * In 1913, 85% of the total output of all factories and plants was accounted for by cotton ginning and oil extraction, and the production of heavy industry was about 2%. During the years of the Soviet government, new industries were created and the share of heavy industry increased. * In 1990, it made up 44.4% of the entire industrial production volume. "Il-76", "Il-114", "Il-114" in the Tashkent aviation-production association. planes are released. * In 1996, a factory with a production capacity of 200,000 cars per year was launched in cooperation with the South Korean Daewoo company. At the same time, enterprises producing products for the equipment of automobiles were created, and factories for the production of trucks and buses were built. Light industries produce more than 20% of the industrial output of the republic. The land is rich in natural resources. Uzbekistan accounts for 74% of gas condensate in all of Central Asia. It ranks 4th in the world in terms of gold reserves, 11th in terms of copper reserves, and 7-8th in terms of uranium reserves. It ranks 5th in the world in terms of cotton cultivation, and 2nd in terms of its export. 9 large gas pipelines with a total length of 4,000 km pass through the territory of the country. The most important are: Central Asia-Central and Bukhara-Ural pipelines. We export raw silk, wool, karakol wool, fruits, gold, natural gas, food, raw materials, etc. products are imported. Political-economic, military, cultural ties have been established between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance between the two countries in 1992, the United Economic Space in 1994, the Treaty of Eternal Friendship in 1998 and the Econ. an agreement on expansion of relations was signed. In 2004, the border between the two countries was completely delimited. ## Administrative-territorial division The Republic of Uzbekistan consists of the Republic of Karakalpakstan, oblasts, village-type districts, urban-type districts, regional subordinate cities, district subordinate cities, villages and winter camps. Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, has the status of a central subordinate city. Regions of Uzbekistan: * Andijan region (2); * Bukhara region (3); * Zhizak region (5); * Kashkadarya region (8); * Navai region (7); * Namangan region (6); * Samarkand region (9); * Surkandaria region (11); * Syrdarya region (10); * Tashkent region (12); * Fergana region (4); * Khorezm region (13); * Republic of Karakalpakstan (14). ## Culture and art Ancient architectural monuments in Uzbekistan BC. It was built in the 4th century. They are well preserved in Bactria, Khorezm, Sogdiana, Ferghana region. The art of city building began in ancient times (3rd century BC) and flourished in the Middle Ages. Bukhara, Samarkand, Tashkent, Khiva, etc. Architectural elements of cities (shahristan, rabad, etc.) are classics of that period. belongs to the model. In the culture of local city-building, mainly, the method of patterning and epigraphy was formed, and a portal-domed composition appeared. The history of visual arts begins with the Stone Age. At this time, the art of gazing appeared and was perfected in the Bronze Age. BC Making art products from metal in the 1st millennium BC. 3rd century BC During the 3rd century, the art of embossing, monumental sculpture, and clay colored sculpture developed. Since the introduction of Islam, fashion and applied arts flourished. In the 15th - 17th centuries, book miniature flourished in Samarkand and Bukhara. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Uzbek artists formed a national painting, a professional school of traditional craftsmanship. In particular, the national artist of Uzbekistan, of Kazakh origin, Oral Tansykbaev, influenced the formation of modern Uzbek painting and landscape. in Tashkent resp. art museum and several exhibition halls. In 1929, the first Uzbek drama theater was established in Samarkand on the basis of various troupes. Currently, there are about ten drama theaters, 2 opera and ballet theaters, 2 children's and youth theaters, and puppet theaters in Uzbekistan. Cinematography is also well developed. In 1924, the "Bukhkino" company was established, and in 1925, the "Uzbek Memlkino" trust and the "Shark Yulduzi" film factory were opened. In 1937, the first sound film "Act" was shot. ## Literature The development of Uzbek literature was greatly influenced by oral literature and the literature of eastern peoples. In the national folklore, which is rich in genres, poems and epics that tell the history of the people have a special place. They include "Kuntugymish", "Alpamysh", "Gorogly", "Yusuf and Ahmad", "Tahir and Zuhra", "Arzigul", etc. songs are included. The works of Alisher Navai contributed to the worldwide recognition of the Turkic peoples, including the Uzbeks. Turdy, Kulkhani, M. Khorezmi, Agahi, etc. in the Uzbek literature of the XVIII-XIX centuries. His works took a significant place. The works of Hamza Hakimzada Niyazi (1889–1929), Sadriddin Aini (1878–1954), Abdullah Qadiri (1894–1940) are considered the beginning of the democratic-enlightenment current. Classics of Uzbek literature of the 20th century Gafur Ghulam (1903-1966), Musa Tashmuhamedov (1905-1068), Kamil Yashen, Uygin, etc. Writers depicted socio-political changes in the life of the country in their works. In the 1950s and 1990s, Uzbek literature rose to a professional and creative level, and the process of translating the works of poets and writers into foreign languages revived. Mirmukhsin, Zulfia, Askad Mukhtar, Vohid Abdullayev, etc. Writers worked productively. Quddus Muhammadi, Hakim Nazir became famous through his works for children. ## Nature The region of Uzbekistan is divided into north-western plain and south-eastern mountainous parts. The plain side is occupied by the Kyzylkum desert, the plateau, the Turan basin, and the Amu Darya delta. Mountainous region Shatkal, Kumanada, Fergana, Alai, Zerafshan, Turkestan, etc. consists of ridges, between them are Fergana, Zeravshan, Shyrshik-Angrek, Kashkadaria, Surkhandaria, etc. valleys are located. The subsoil is rich in minerals. Rare metal, iron ore, polymetal, lead-zinc, Beltau-Kurama copper (Kalmakyr, Sarychek deposits), Turkestan-Alay graphite-nickel-cobalt (Taskazgan) deposits have been discovered in the Karatau-Naryn belt. O. Its territory is considered the largest oil and gas region in Central Asia. Sulfur and ozokerite (Shorsu) were found in South Fergana, carnollite, sylvinite, rock salt in Hissar ridge, phosphorite in Sultanuizdat mountain. The climate is too continental and dry. Summer is hot, the average July temperature is 33–38°С in the northwestern part, 25–30°С in the south. The winter is warm and the snow is thin. In January, it will be 6.3°С, in the south it will be 3С. The amount of annual precipitation is different, in some desert regions it is 100 mm, in some places it is 200-400 mm, in the mountains it is 900 mm. Most of its rivers belong to the basin of the Aral Sea. Major rivers are Amu Darya, Syrdarya, Zeravshan, Kashkadarya. The land irrigation and watering system is very well developed. The land is mostly yellow and yellow-brown soil; the western and northern sides are sandy and gravelly. Drought-resistant plants and animals live in most parts of the republic. ## Industry In the period after the country's independence, a lot of attention was paid to the development of the fuel and energy sector in particular. Electricity generation is based on lignite in Angren, CHP chain in Shryshik and natural gas. Currently, compared to 1991, oil production (including gas condensate) has tripled, and natural gas production has increased by 10 billion m3. The country also supplies Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan with natural gas. A gas refinery has been built in Mubarek, where sulfur is introduced along with gas. In addition to gas production, oil production is developing rapidly in the republic. The Altaryk and Fergana oil refineries will be based on oil produced from the Fergana valley, and the Bukhara plant under construction will be based on oil and gas condensate from the Kokdumalak field. On the basis of oil and gas production, the chemical industry is developing at a special pace. This industry, first of all, aims to meet the demand for fertilizers in agriculture. Nitrogen fertilizers are produced in Shyrshik, Navoi and Fergana, factories in Fergana, Kokan, Samarkand, Almalyk operate on the basis of phosphorite raw materials imported from Kazakhstan. In addition to fertilizers, substances necessary to protect plants from pests, and household chemical products are also produced in these enterprises. There are also enterprises that produce rubber and plastic products, as well as medicines. Non-ferrous metallurgy, based on local raw materials, enters a special period. Copper-molybdenum ores are mined and processed near Almalyk. And the factories in Tashkent region work on the basis of local tungsten, molybdenum ores and lead-zinc concentrates from Tajikistan. Gold production is concentrated in the Muryntau gold smelting plant in Kyzylkum, up to 70 cents of pure gold is extracted per year. Silver is mined in the Ferghana Valley. There are agricultural machinery manufacturing enterprises in the city of Tashkent and its surroundings. Machines for picking and cleaning cotton, equipment necessary for the textile industry and irrigation are produced here. In the densely populated eastern part of the country, the production of electrical equipment, appliances and tools has a significant share. There are also enterprises that manufacture forklift trucks and equipment necessary for the chemical industry, as well as cables. Since 1996, a joint car factory with "Deu" company has been operating in Andijan region. Up to 200,000 Daewoo-Nexia passenger cars are assembled at this enterprise. ## See also * Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan relations * Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan border ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3780

Беларусь

Belarus (Belar. Belarus bʲɛlaˈrusʲ), official name — Republic of Belarus (Belar. Respublika Belarus, abbreviated — BR) is a country in Eastern Europe. The land area is 207.6 thousand km2. The population is 9 million 451 thousand people. The main population is Belarusians (80%), in addition, Russians (13.6%), Poles (4.1%). The capital is Minsk (1.6 million). The largest cities are Brest, Vitebsk, Gomel. From the point of view of administration, it is divided into 6 regions. The official languages are Belarusian and Russian. Religion is Orthodoxy (70%). The currency is the Belarusian ruble. National holiday — Republic Day on July 3. The head of state is the president. The supreme legislative body is the bicameral parliament (National Assembly). It consists of lower (Council of Representatives) and upper (Council of the Republic) chambers. ## Administrative division ## History People settled in the territory of modern Belarus since the Bronze Age. * In the 2nd-5th centuries, Slavs began to come to the region from the Dnieper River. * In the 9th century, local tribes assimilated into them. During these times, 3 large Slavic tribes were formed: Dragovichs settled in the Polesie and Central regions, Radimichs settled in the Sozh river basin, Krivichs settled along the Western Dvina and in the upper reaches of the Dnieper. Due to the creation of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, Belarus gradually became part of it. * In the 9th-11th centuries, agriculture spread widely, animal husbandry developed, and crafts flourished. As a result of the disintegration of Kievan Rus, several small principalities appeared. In the 2nd half of the 13th century, they were completely annexed by the Great Lithuanian Principality. * Since the beginning of the 14th century, some cities (Brest, Grodno, Minsk, Mogilev) have the right to self-rule. Belarusian merchants began to conduct large-scale intermediary trade between Russia and Western Europe. At the end of the 14th century, due to the increasing attack of the Teutonic Order, in 1385, the Union of Krewo was created between Poland and Lithuania. After the defeat of the Order's army (the Black Battle of Grunwald), in 1413, a new union (Horodelsk) was created between Poles and Lithuanians. According to this agreement, the independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania will be preserved, but the Polish king will look over it. The defeat of the Principality of Lithuania in the Livonian War (1558-1583) by Russia forced it to unite with Poland. * In 1569, according to the Union of Lublin, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland merged to form the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Since then, the Polish language replaced the Belarusian language in schools and churches, and the Catholic religion began to be introduced. * The national liberation movement in Ukraine, which began in 1648, also included Belarus. * From the 18th century, the national liberation movement against the Poles continues to grow stronger. As a result of dividing the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth three times (1772, 1793, 1795), Belarusian lands were transferred to Russia. Economic development of Belarus has accelerated since the 19th century. Railways were built, factories and plants increased. During World War I (1914-18), Belarus was devastated by hostilities. After the February Revolution in 1917, the Belarusian Rada, established in July 1917, is fighting to become an independent state. On the night of February 19-20, 1918, they united with the corps of Polish legions, captured the city of Minsk and formed the People's Republic of Belarus. In January 1919, this government was overthrown by the troops of the Red Army. Instead, on January 1, 1919, the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) was established, and on December 30, 1922, it became part of the USSR. According to the Molotov-Ribbentrop agreement, in November 1939, the BCSR joined Western Belarus and its territory increased. During the Second World War, the territory of Belarus was once again under the control of the German troops and suffered great hardships. After the war, reconstruction of the destroyed economy is carried out, new branches of industry (car, ship, tractor manufacturing, etc.) are created. The economy will develop. Agricultural products also increased. Woodworking and papermaking enterprises were opened. * In 1990, the Supreme Council of Belarus declared the country's independence. * After the Belovezh Agreement on December 8, 1991, the Soviet Union was dissolved and Belarus gained full independence. * On July 10, 1994, A.G. became the first president. Lukashenko will be elected. Belarus recognized the independence of Kazakhstan in 1991. Economic, customs and cultural agreements have been concluded between the two countries and friendly relations have been established. Belarus is a member of the Customs Union, the UN, and the CIS. According to the treaty signed between the Russian Federation and Belarus (1999, December), a new union agreement was concluded. In Belarus, the chemical industry, automobile and tractor manufacturing, defense industrial complexes, production of electrical products, meat and milk, agriculture, etc. production industries are developed. The republic has deposits of potassium, salt, coal, oil, iron, phosphorite. * In the 90s of the 20th century, the country's economy was in crisis, and the gross domestic product decreased by 12% within 10 years. The share of non-state sectors in the economic structure of the economy is 34% (1998), and the amount of foreign investment is 6.5% (1997). Mainly cargo cars, tractors, refrigerators, washing machines, etc. to the countries of the Customs Union (Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan). exports electrical products, chemicals and meat and dairy products. Due to the lack of heat and electricity resources (oil, natural gas, hard coal) in the country, fuel raw materials have to be imported from abroad, including more than 60% from Russia. In addition, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, consumer goods, wood products, and cement are imported. The breakdown of economic ties, the increase in the price of heat and electricity resources left the country's economy in a very difficult situation. However, 900 foreign and more than 2,000 joint ventures (mainly Polish, German, and American companies) operate in small manufacturing industries. Main trading partners: Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany. ## Geography The Republic of Belarus borders Lithuania and Latvia in the northwest, Russia in the east, Ukraine in the south, and Poland in the west. Belarus occupies the valleys of the Dnieper, Western Dvina and Neman rivers in the Eastern European Plain. Most of its land is only 100-200 m above sea level. The climate is temperate continental. Winter is not very cold, but wet; summer is cold and rainy. The annual amount of precipitation is 600 — 700 mm. Swamps are common. Main rivers: Dnieper (tributaries Pripyat, Sozh, Berezina), Western Dvina, Neman (tributary — Vilia). 33% of its land is forest. Deforested areas - meadows, pastures. Animals include bison, deer, squirrel, fox, rabbit, etc. lives. Berezina Nature Reserve and Belovezh River contribute to the increase of rare animals. ## Politics Officially, Belarus is an independent state in the presidential republic system. The president since 1994 is Alexander Lukashenko and the prime minister since 2020 is Roman Golovchenko. The parliament of the country, the National Assembly of Belarus, is divided into two chambers: the upper Council of the Republic and the lower House of Representatives. The political party with the majority of mandates in both houses of parliament is the pro-presidential Belaya Rus party. Lukashenka received the title of "the last dictator of Europe" because of his authoritarian rule, cult of personality, pressure on the opposition. Elections in the country are not considered democratic. ## Nature and natural resources The territory of Belarus is occupied by plains formed on the basis of the Ancient Russian platform. The largest of the swampy lowlands is located in the south - the Belarusian Polesie. The system of relatively high ridges and ridges crossing the territory of the country from west to east is commonly called the Belarusian ridge. The Minsk plateau (345m), which is the highest part of the country, is located from north to west. Although the flat topography increases the possibility of using the territory of Belarus for agricultural purposes, the abundance of marshes requires additional melioration measures. The fact that it lies within the limits of the ancient platform also affected the mineral raw materials content. Near Soligorsk is located one of the world's largest deposits of potassium salts (explored reserves of 42 billion tonnes). Mozyr and Davydov deposits have a large amount of table salt. There is also a lot of construction materials (clay and sand, gravel, building stones, cement and glass raw materials) on the territory of the country. Belarus is characterized by a temperate continental climate. Climate indicators do not make a big difference in the territory of the country. Sudden weather changes are often observed during winter. The average temperature in January varies from -5 to -8 degrees. Summer is cold and rainy, usually the average July temperature is above +15 degrees. Cloudy, cloudy, the number of days prevails, the annual amount of precipitation is about 500-700 mm. Although the amount of moisture is sufficient for agriculture, there is not enough heat to grow some crops. Dnieper and its tributaries: Pripyat, Berezina and Neman, Western Dvina, Western Bug rivers flow through Belarus. These rivers, which flow slowly because they flow from the plains, come with that water. There are more than 4,000 large and small lakes in the country. Lakes are especially abundant in the north, this part of the country is called Poozerje. The largest lake in the country is Lake Naroch, its area is 80 sq. km., its depth is 25 m. Internal waters mainly supply water to settlements. Swamps cover 20 percent of the land of Belarus. In the north of the country, spruce forests grow on the soddy purple soil, and pine trees grow on the sandy soil in the central part of the country. In general, forests occupy one third of the country's territory. Belovezh river stretches along the country's border with Poland. Giant pines over a hundred years old grow here and many animals of the forest zone live here. Belovezh National Park, Berezin, Pripyat and Polesye Nature Reserves were organized in order to preserve the unique nature of Belarus. The Polesye Radiation Ecological Reserve was created after the devastating accident at the Chernobyl NPP in neighboring Ukraine, specifically for the purpose of studying how radioactive contamination affects the natural environment. In general, thousands of hectares of agricultural land in Belarus are radiologically dangerous areas. ## Foreign economic relations Due to its geographical location, European countries and Russia occupy the main place in the foreign economic relations of the Republic of Belarus. Especially in recent years, the establishment of an alliance with Russia and the removal of customs barriers have strengthened relations between the two countries. Belarus buys artificial rubber, oil and gas, coal-fired power, ferrous metallurgy products, and vegetable oil from Russia. Germany and Poland also have a large share in Belarusian exports. Belarus exports machinery and chemical industry products, transport equipment, light and food industry products. The share of export in foreign trade in 2008 was 33 billion, and the share of import was 39.2 billion US dollars. There are about 1.5 thousand joint ventures, about 500 foreign enterprises working in the country. Companies from Poland, Germany, Italy and the USA were especially active in this business. The economy of Belarus attracts investments from 66 countries of the world, the USA and Germany are in the leading position in terms of financial volume. In 2012, the trade turnover between Kazakhstan and Belarus reached 760 million US dollars. ## Population By the end of 2004, the population of Belarus reached 9.8 million people. The Republic of Belarus is one of the countries of the CIS whose population is growing very slowly. Natural growth in 2000 was 0.5%, that is, the average birth rate for the country was 9‰, and the death rate was about 14‰. Currently, there is a big difference between rural and urban demographics. In the city, the birth rate is 12‰, while in rural areas, this indicator is 8‰. Mortality was 9‰ and 18‰, respectively. The life expectancy of Belarusians is 68 years. Migration also has a significant impact on population change. In general, the number of emigrants from Belarus is much higher than the number of emigrants. ### Literature The history of Belarusian written literature begins with the period of Kievan Rus. * In the 14th - 16th centuries, when Belarus was part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Belarusian language was the state language, used in diplomatic relations, in court and administrative offices, and in Belarusian were written records such as "Litvanmetrikasy" (Statute of the Duchy of Great Lithuania) copied. * In the 16th century, the humanist and educator Francisk Skorina started publishing books for the first time in Belarus. 1696 The Polish Sejm banned the use of the Belarusian language in institutions and schools, and the publication of books in this language was stopped. After that, authorless poems, interludes, and dramas for school theaters, longing for the freedom of the people of Belarus, began to appear, but they were dominated by folklore. * The annexation of Belarus to Russia at the end of the 18th century created favorable conditions for the development of new literature. * In the first half of the 19th century, works such as "The Secret of the Aeneid" and "Taras Rising to Parnassus" were published. However, the colonial policy of the Russian tsar significantly hindered the development of Belarusian culture. People who spoke Belarusian and wrote works were persecuted, so poets and writers had to distribute their works in manuscript form. Most of these have disappeared. Only P. Bagrim's only poem "Play, play, youth" (1829) has been preserved. * At the end of the 19th century, works in the direction of critical realism began to appear. Development of Belarusian literature in these periods V.I. Dunin-Martsinkevich (1807 — 1884) made a significant contribution. Later F. Bogushevich (1840 — 1900), Ya. Luchina (I. Neslukhovsky, 1851 — 1897), A. Gurinovich (1869 — 1894), A. Abukhovich's (1840-1905) poems were published and played a major role in the development of literature. * The democratic movement of 1905 created favorable conditions for the development of Belarusian literature at a new pace. People's aspiration for freedom, growth of consciousness was evident in the works of Yanka Kupala, Yakub Kolas, Tetka (A. Pashkevich, 1876 — 1916). In particular, Pashkevich's collections "March to Freedom" and "Belarusian Violin" (1906) are works in the spirit of freedom. Yanka Kupala and Kolas, as real folk poets, described the people's sadness and desire for freedom in their many poems and books. After the October Revolution, Belarusian literature developed rapidly despite ideological pressure. * 1939 M. as a result of joining the western and eastern parts of the country. Tank, F. Pestrak, A. Kuleshov, P. Panchenko, E. Such talents as Ognetsvet and A. Rusak became major representatives of national literature. In the era after the Great Patriotic War, Belarusian literature developed at a new pace. I. Shamyakin, I. Melezh, Ya. Bryl, V. Bykov, R. Borodulin, etc. novels and short stories, poems and poems of many poets-writers raised Belarusian literature to new heights. A. from the field of literary studies and literary criticism. Adamovich, S. Aleksandrovich, V. Borysenko, etc. his works became popular. B. the works of writers and poets were translated into the languages of the peoples of the former USSR and foreign languages, and took a firm place in the world literature fund. Kazakh readers are familiar with the works of such talented poets and writers as Kupala, Kolas, Brovka, Tank, Shamyakin, Melezh, Bryl, Bykov. ### Art Monuments of Belarusian architecture from the period of Kievan Rus - Sophia Cathedral, Spass-Evfrosinyevskaya Church in Polotsk, Blagoveshchensk in Vitebsk and Kolozhsk Church in Grodno. In the 17th century, the method of Belarusian artists known as "Belarusian pattern" became widespread in Russia. Belarusian fine art developed in a single religious character until the 18th century. The first work based on real-life material in this field is the work "Portrait of Prince Olelkovich of Slutsk" by an unknown author (end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century). Since joining Russia (18th century). Belarusian art and culture developed in a new direction. Belarusian artists who studied at St. Petersburg Academy of Fine Arts and Moscow Art School I.T. Khrutskyi, S.K. Zaryanko, sculptor A.A. Vasyutinsky, etc. Belarus has raised the visual arts to new heights. After the October Revolution, the culture and art of Belarus underwent radical changes, and the way for the rapid development of professional art and folk creativity was laid. * 1918 Vitebsk art school was opened in 1923. It was reorganized as a technical school of art. * 1925 after the first art exhibition, the Association of Belarusian Artists was organized. 1935 Union of Architects, * 1938. Union of artists was established. * 1939 The State Art Gallery was opened. The genre of portrait bust developed. During this period, artists I.O. Ahremchin, K.M. Kosmachev, M.A. Kerzin, etc. worked fruitfully. During the Soviet Union, painter V.K. Tsvirno, A.P. Sukhoverhov, A.D. Shibnev; graphs S.I. Selikhanov, L.N. Gumilevsky; theater artists E.G. Chemodurov, P.V. Maslenikov, etc. names became popular. The traditional songs of Belarusians also have a lyrical melody. Revolutionary and partisan songs are widely used in the musical folklore of the people. Funny songs and dance tunes ("Lyavonikha", "Yurogka", "Bulba", "Kryzhachok") are distinguished by their sharp sarcasm. Folk clay instruments: cymbals, jhaleika, tambourine, violin, dudna, etc. Puppet theater games and folk dramas are performed with musical accompaniment. Belarusian professional music was born and formed during the Soviet Union. * 1924 Music technical school in Minsk, * 1932. conservatory, * 1933 Belarusian Opera and Ballet Theater, * 1937 Belarus Philharmonic opened. * 1940 G.R. A Belarusian song and dance ensemble was organized under the leadership of Shirma. Based on this ensemble, in 1955 A state choir chapel was established. Composers who created the national opera repertoire: N.I. Aladov, E.K. Tykotskyi, A.V. Bogatyrev, etc. Singers who made a great contribution to the development of Belarusian opera art — L.P. Aleksandrovskaya, T.N. Nizhnikovka, L.F. Alekseevka, etc. The ancient customs and entertainments of the people of Belarus had a positive effect on the development and growth of the folk drama and the birth of the theater. Since the 16th century, folk puppet theater - batleyka has gained wide popularity. In the 17th century, school theaters were organized near religious educational institutions, and entertainment was shown. By the end of the 18th century, privately owned theaters, amateur theaters began to be created in the middle of the 19th century. One such amateur theater was led by Dunin-Martsinkevich, the first playwright of the Belarusian people. 1905 actor and director I.P. Under the leadership of Buynitsky, a professional traveling theater was created. Plays of Kupala and Kolas played a major role in the formation and growth of the national theater of Belarus. Drama Theater named after Ya. Kupala (1920, Minsk), Ya. Drama Theater named after Kolas (1926, Vitebsk), 3rd Belarusian Drama Theater (1932), etc. After the establishment of theaters, G.P. Glebov, P.S. Molchanov, etc. E.A., written by well-known actors and directors based on historical themes and national folklore. Mirovich, E.S. He staged the plays of Romanov, etc. From the 40s and 50s of the 20th century, classical works were performed on their stages. Modern Belarus is a country with a highly developed cinematography and national television, science and education system. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7449

Magic realism

The definition of magical realism as an art genre that incorporates magical elements into the character of the real world is more descriptive than specific. The term "magnetic realism" was originally used by the German critic Franz Roch to describe a painting that alters reality, but later Arturo Uslar-Petri used the term widely to describe some of the works of Latin American writers. Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier (a friend of Uslar-Petri) wrote in the preface to his story "The Kingdom of this World" (1949) "Lo real maravilloso" (literally "wonderful, used the term "amazing" meaning "truth". Carpentier's works had a great impact on the revival of this genre, which began in Europe in the 60s of the 20th century. Elements of Magical Realism: * Fantastical elements may be internally consistent, but never explained; * The characters accept the logic of the magic element unconditionally; * There are many parts that are only perceived by the senses; * Symbols and images are often used; * Human feelings and passions are described comprehensively (to the details); * The flow of time is distorted so it appears to be looped or not. Another method is collapsing, that is, the present repeats or recalls the past; * Cause and effect change places, for example, the character is tormented and depressed before a tragic event; * There are elements of folklore or legendary stories; * The situation is presented in terms of alternative points of view, i.e. the narrator's voice switches from the third person to the first, there is frequent interchanging of different characters' opinions and internal monologue about the general relationship and memories; * The past with the present, with the astral physicality, the characters are in conflict with each other; * The open finale of the work allows the reader to independently determine what is true and conforms to the pattern of the world. ## Writers who wrote in the genre of magical realism * George Amadou * Luis de Bernier * Jorge Luis Borges * Mikhail Bulgakov * Janet Winterson \< > * Gabriel García Márquez * Gunther Grass * Isaac Bashevis Singer * Franz Kafka * Italo Calvino * Angela Carter * Julio Cortázar * Milan Kundera \< > * Haruki Murakami * Ben Okri * Salman Rushdie * Carlos Fuentes

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2887

GnuHoo

Open Directory Project (eng. Open Directory Project). Other names: ODP, DMoz (D — English directory, Moz — Mozilla) is an open directory of multilingual Internet links owned by Netscape. The founders and supporters are considered to be an association of voluntary processors. List of 1998. started working. Current 2006 As of June 1, more than 4,769,732 sites were described in more than 708,584 sub-sections of the public part of the inventory, 78 language sections were created and supplemented, another 99 are in the preparation phase, 72,729 editors participated during the entire period of the project's existence, including 7,495 editors engaged in active editing. stand 2006 June 12, 2007, in the public part of the inventory, the Kazakh site section. Archived from the original on January 15, 2007. placed. ## External links * Open List Project Archived 14 May 2016. * Public Board Archived June 21, 2008. — Open List Project Public Board Kazakh section Archived February 7, 2007. — Open List Project * Kazakh section of the Public Board Archived February 7, 2007. — Open Enumeration Project * Census(link unavailable) — Open Enumeration Project * Paper Archived 19 January 2007. — Open List Project

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5277

Сарматтар

Sarmatians - 8th century BC - BC. 8th century Conventional name of the tribes inhabiting the western regions of Kazakhstan, the southern Ural valleys, a large group of them crossed the Volga to the west and inhabited the northern Black Sea regions. Names such as "Sarmats", "Sarmatia" come from the written data of the ancient era and are a general concept imposed on many tribes and their alliances. ## General information There is very little information about the Sarmatians. The name of this tribe is p. h. b. III century has entered history since. Sapmat tribes lived in the West Kazakhstan region. B. h. p. III - p. h. Tribes living between Tobyl and the Danube in the IV century. At first they b. h. b. It was called "sauromattap" in the VIII century. B. h. b. Since the 2nd century, they settled in Southern Urals, along the Volga River, and in the western region of Kazakhstan. B. 4th century defeated the Huns and migrated to the west. The warrior samat tribe Dai (dah) - Massaget, was allied with the Issedons. Sarmattaps include roksolandap, squares, aors, lights, etc. b. there were tribes. Culture. Sarmatian culture includes 3 periods: * early Sarmatian culture (Prokhor) * middle Sarmatian culture (Suslov) * late Sarmatian culture. Sarmatians made pottery, jewelry, and bracelets. B. h. II-IV centuries. The largest archeological monument of Sarmattap - burial places (in Shingyrlau district of West Kazakhtan region) was found. They belong to the later Sarmatian culture. A woman with various ornaments was buried next to the coffin. III-V centuries. Among the non-ferrous metals, gold was used a lot in jewelry. At present, among the tribes inhabiting the land of Kazakhstan, the "polykhom style" in jewelry art is widespread. In Kazakhstan b. h. VII - V centuries. two types of this style have developed: decoration, decoration methods. That is why "polychrome style" p. h. It is assumed that it was born at the beginning of the 1st millennium. Farming. He lived a nomadic life and was engaged in agriculture. The Sarmatian tribes were part of the unions and states that played a significant role in the political, economic and cultural life of Eurasia. BC It is found from the 4th century, that is, from the time when they began to move westward from West Kazakhstan and South Ural regions. At this time, i.e. B.C. 339 Atey, the famous king of the Black Sea Scythians, dies, and after that, a great political and economic crisis develops in Scythia. Scientific concepts show that various groups of Sarmatians who moved from the east, taking advantage of this difficulty in the Scythian state, finally defeated the Scythians, constantly fighting. BC By the 2nd century, Sarmatian rule was established in the territory of the kingdom of the Black Sea Scythians. The Sarmatians, who had mastered the art of war, were engaged in military conflicts with Rome. The 9th out of 24 regions on the map of the Roman world created during the reign of Emperor Augustus was called "Sarmatia". In Strabo's "Jagyrapia" (65 - 25 BC) the names of Sarmatian tribes such as Yazig, Roxolan, Aors, Sirak are given. Modern scientists attribute the first two to European, and the last two to Asian Sarmatia. The subsequent history of the Sarmatians is full of fierce wars and campaigns. BC At the end of the 1st century, first in the vicinity of the Don, and later in the Black Sea regions, the "Alan" tribal union was formed, and soon it absorbed other groups of Sarmatians. The kingdom of the Sarmatian-Alans in Europe then developed in direct contact with the Germanic Goths and the Turkic-speaking Huns. It is known that at the end of the 4th century, the Huns defeated the Alans and annexed them. Ancient Greek and Roman data are used to analyze the history of the Sarmatians and various events related to them, while modern archaeological data play a significant role in further clarifying this, especially in creating the cultural and economic characteristics of the tribes. The opinion that the Sarmatians belong to Iranian-speaking groups was formed in European and Russian science at the end of the 19th century. A large part of modern scientists supports this idea, but now a group connects them with the indigenous Turks. It has been used since the 3rd century. From that time, the Sarmatian conquest of Scythia began. These Sarmatians were related to the tribes in the south of the island. Also, their ethnic kinship with the Sauromats is not in doubt. A tribe of Sarmatians - the Roksolans. 1st century He reached the borders of Media and fought with Rome. The Sarmatians were deeply involved in the political life of the country they occupied. For example, BC 2nd century in the end, the Roxolans joined the Scythians in the war with Diaphantus, the general of Mithridates, king of Pontia. BC 1st century When Mithridates fought against Rome, the Sarmatians were on his side. BC 49th the Romans and the Sarmatians unite and defeat the Siraks (a Sarmatian tribe), allies of the Bosporus king. Alans (from the southern region of the Urals, tribes related to the Sarmatians) reach the northern region of the Black Sea. Later, he joined the Huns and left Spain alone. ## Information of Greek and Roman historians Sarmatians were first called Sauromatians in the 8th century BC in historical records. According to the Greek and Roman historians Diador, Pliny the Great, and Polybius, the Sauromat-Sarmatian tribes connected the cultures of Central Asia and the Black Sea region. The Sarmatian tribes established contact with the neighboring Bosphorus state and made conquest campaigns to the North Caucasus and Parthia. According to the information left by the Greek historian Herodotus: * Sauromatians spoke a language very close to the Scythian language; * Men and women in the community were considered equal; * Sauromata were related to dah, massagetes, issedons; ## Archaeological monuments B.C. 4th century in the beginning sauromatians occupied the territory from Don to Emby. At this time, their two cultures were formed. They are: West Bulgarian-Don culture and East-Ural culture. Sarmatian tribes (early Prokhorov culture) covered the grave of a dead person with clay or trampled it, and laid the dead person on his back with his head facing south. In the second period (middle - Suslov culture) B.C. 2nd century from the end 1st century From the beginning, the types of construction of the tomb do not change. But the number of buried graves is decreasing. Artificial caves will disappear. Anthropomorphic - human-shaped statues, made of limestone and placed on the wall under the altars, belong to the objects of worship. The Bayit cult complex on the plateau is known. It is three groups of monuments consisting of plaques and sculpture fragments. The statues here are carved from limestone. Their images and weapons are carved. Later Sarmatians spread over the Urals, Volga, Don region, from the steppe outside the Urals to the Bug River. This is a c. 2-4 centuries. Dead people were buried in narrow graves. ## Farming Mainly engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. Raised horses and sheep. He was an Iranian speaker. Breeds of breeds trained to ride a horse and to ride a horse. The Sarmatians, who lived along the Volga region and the Black Sea coast, mastered agriculture as well as animal husbandry. ## Lifestyle During the winter, Sarmatians wore short coats, wore a belt, wore short boots on their feet, and put the ends of their wide pants on the boots. Women are also dressed like men, but their clothes are decorated with different ornaments. Sarmatian vessels were made of clay and metal. Clay made the bottom of the pots deep and flat. Cooking pots were made of cast iron. Glass vessels were also found in Oba, but they were not made by themselves, they were imported from eastern countries. Sarmatians used some vessels made of leather, such as torsik, saba, vunik, mes. ## Jewelry art 3-5 centuries. "polychrome art" developed. Only gold was used. Various decoration techniques are characteristic of polychrome art. The most common are decoration with colored stones (inlay), jewelry, engraving, plating, etc. This art is connected with the arrival of Huns from Mongolia, Central Asia. These ornaments were found in the mounds of the Upper Irtysh (Shilki), Central (Zhyland), Western Kazakhstan (Besoba).

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6665

Elton John

Elton Hercules John (English. Elton Hercules John, real name Reginald Kenneth Dwight (English. Reginald Kenneth Dwight); March 25, 1947) is a famous British singer and composer. sold 650 million discs. ## Sources ## External links * Official site * Elton John on Facebook

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6117

Mori Kazakh Autonomous District

Mori Kazakh Autonomous Region (Uyg. مورى قازاق عمونوم كويسان / Mori Qazaq Aptonom nahiyisi; Chinese: 木飞哈萨克自池, pinyin: Mùlěi Hāsàkè Zìzhìxiàn) was established in 1955 in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. The center is the city of Mori (Mulay) with a land area of 13515 km2. The number of Kazakhs is 19,846 people (1995). Mori Kazakh Autonomous District is bordered by Barkol Kazakh Autonomous Region and Hami-u in the east, Pichan (Shanshan) in the south, Qitai in the west, Jinghe in the north, and Mongolia in the northeast. The topography is complex, surrounded by mountains, and the north-west is bordered by plains. The climate is harsh, continental, the average annual precipitation is 120-200 mm. The region is rich in natural resources: copper, chromium, pearls, coal, salt, etc. The inhabitants are mainly engaged in livestock and agriculture. According to Chinese sources, during the Han period, there was a small kingdom of Pulei here. In the Tang Dynasty, it was called "Pulei" and was under Beiting administration. In the 13th century, the land of Mori became a pasture for Mongolian tribes. In 1732, the city of Mori was founded. In 1754, Mori became a part of Citai district, and in 1930 it was officially established as an independent district of Mori. In 1913-14, mass settlement of Kazakhs began here. On July 14, 1954, Mori received the name Kazakh Autonomous District. In 1955, it became part of Urimshzhi district, and in 1958, it became part of Sanzhi-Dungen autonomous region. According to the 1995 census, 87,706 people live in the district. Ethnic composition: Khans - 61534 people (70.16%), Kazakhs - 19846 people (22.63%), Uighurs - 4213 (4.7%), Uzbeks - 1196 (1.36%), etc. Kazakhs here have preserved their religion and national traditions. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4938

Medal for bravery

Medal "For Courage" is a state award of the Republic of Kazakhstan established on the basis of the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated December 12, 1995 No. 2676 "On State Awards of the Republic of Kazakhstan". ## Rules about the medal The medal is awarded to citizens for their bravery and courage in the fight against crime in emergency situations related to saving human life (water, fire, natural disasters). The main shape of the medal is an open pentagon, inside it is embossed the inscription "For bravery" and covered with an oak leaf. The medal was produced at the Kazakhstan Mint in Ust-Kamenogorsk. ## Gallery * * ## See more * State awards of Kazakhstan # # Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7491

Bakhyt Turlykhanuly Sultanov

Bakhyt Turlykhanuly Sultanov (November 29, 1971, USSR, Kazakh SSR, Almaty) is a statesman of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Mayor of Astana (2018–2019), Minister of Finance (2013–2018), Minister of Economy and Budget Planning (2007–2010), Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Minister of Trade and Integration of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2019–2022), Prime Minister was the holder of the position of deputy (2022). ## Short biography Born from the Shapyrasht clan. * 1971 He was born on November 29 in Almaty. * 1994 He graduated from the Kazakh National Technical University with honors in the specialty "Robotic complexes and systems". * 1995 He graduated from the Kazakh Academy of State Management with the specialty "Business and Management". * 1994-2002 He is doing management work in the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2002 from September 2003 until June served as director of the Budget Policy and Planning Department of the Ministry of Economy and Budget Planning of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2003 since June 2006 until February, he was appointed to the post of Vice Minister of the Ministry of Economy and Budget Planning. * 2006 from February 2007 served as the chairman of the Statistics Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan until January. * 2007 since January - Vice Minister of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2007 Minister of Economy and Budget Planning of the Republic of Kazakhstan since August. * From March 13, 2010 - Assistant to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * From January 21, 2012 to November 6, 2013 - Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * From November 6, 2013 to September 11, 2018 - Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan - Minister of Finance of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * September 11, 2018 - June 13, 2019, Akim of the city of Astana by the Decree of the Head of State. * June 17, 2019 - August 15, 2022 Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan - Minister of Trade and Integration ## Achievements * Letter of thanks from the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2001) * Letter of thanks from the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2005) ## Family Younger brother Arman Sultanov worked as the president of JSC "Kaztransservice" from 2012 to 2014. Since 2014 - Managing Director of Logistics, Advisor to the President, and since December 2016 - Vice President of "KTZ" NC "JSC, ## Awards * Order of Wisdom ( 2006); * "Order of Honor" (2006); * "10 years to the Constitution of Kazakhstan" (2005) medal * "10 years of Astana" (2008) medal * "10 years to the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan" medal (2011) * to the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan 20th anniversary medal (2011) medal * "20th anniversary of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan" medal (2015) medal * "20th anniversary of Astana" medal (2018) medal ## Sources Model: Askar Mamin's cabinet

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5293

Oghuz state

Oghuz State or Oghuz Jabgu State (766 - 1055) is a political union of Oghuz tribes established in the middle and lower reaches of the Syr Darya, as well as on the territory of Western Kazakhstan, in the middle of the 9th century. The etymology of the term "Oğuz" has not yet been determined. However, there are different opinions about the origin of the word "Oguz". Some scientists say that it came from the word "uyz", others say that it came from the word "bow arrow". And the third one scientists try to prove that it originated from the totemic word "ox". Mahmud Kashkari, in the works of al-Marwazi, mentioned the clans belonging to the Oghuz: Kynyk, Bayat, Yazgyr, Imur, Karabulak, Tutyrka, etc. Ogyz are formed from 2 exogamous factions. These are gray bullets and three bullets (uchuk). In the middle of the 8th century, during the struggle with the Karluks for the inheritance of the Turgesh, a significant part of the Oghuz left Zhetysu and moved to the Shu Valley. Here they had a horde called "Old Guzia". At the beginning of the 9th century, the leader of the Oghuz made an alliance with the Karluks and Kimaks, destroyed the Kangar-Pecheneg alliance, and thus occupied the lower part of the Syrdarya and the Aral region and steppe. At the end of the 9th century, they formed an alliance with the Khazars, defeated the Pechenegs, and subjugated the Urals and the Volga. The war with the Pechenegs strengthened their political unity and made it possible to create the Oghz union of tribes. The Oghys included ancient Indo-European, Finno-Ugric components of the Syr Darya valley and the Aral-Caspian steppes, and the Khalajs, Jagars, Charuks, Karluks, Imurs, and Bayandur tribes of Zhetysu and Siberia. The formation of the ethnic community of Oghys was a long process. At the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 11th century, the Oghuz tribes inhabited a huge territory from the lower reaches of the Syrdarya to the lower reaches of the Volga. The first information about the Ogzhs is mentioned in Arabic sources (for example, in the work of al-Yakubi (IX century)) at the beginning of the 9th-10th centuries. The city of Yangikent, located at the intersection of the caravan routes to Central Asia and Eastern Europe and Central Asia, became the capital of the Oghuz state in the 10th century. The people of Oghuz state spoke Turkic and Iranian languages. The supreme ruler with the title "Zhabgu" was the head of the Oghiz state. Deputies of the Oghiz zabghus were called Kul-erkin. The authority of the supreme rulers was transferred to the heir - "inal". The commander-in-chief of the Oghuz army called "syubashi" played an important role in the Jabgu state. Oghuz were engaged in cattle breeding. Sedentary also developed at the same time. There were the cities of Jent, Sauran, Karnak, Sutkent, Farab, Syganak. The slave trade developed. The Oghys became Magjus and worshiped witches-Balgers. Gradually, the religion of Islam began to enter. The state of Oghuz took an important place in the political and military history of Eurasia. In 965, they allied with Kievan Rus and defeated the Khazar Khaganate. In 985, the Oghuz army, together with the Russians, destroyed the Volga Bulgaria. All this influenced the growth of the political power of the Oghuz state. 10th-11th centuries The state of Oghuz faces a serious crisis. It was caused by the rebellion of the Oguz tribes who opposed the tribute. Unable to endure the wars with the Saljuks and the Kipchaks, the Oguz state fell forever in the middle of the 11th century. Half of them went to Eastern Europe and Asia Minor due to the pressure of the Kipchaks, half to the Karakhans of Mauerennahr, the Saljuks of Khorasan, and the rest to the Deshti-Kipchak tribes. The Oghiz state played an important role in the political and military history of Eurasia. In 965, a military alliance against the Khazars was formed between the Oghuz and Prince Svyatoslav of Kiev. As a result, the Khazar Khaganate was destroyed. The military-political union of Kievan Rus with the Oghuzs arose from the unity of their political and trade-economic interests. The ancient Russian state, competing with Khazaria, needed an ally; on the other hand, the feudalizing nomadic Oghuz Shonjars desperately needed pasture for their cattle, steppes near the Don and the Black Sea, and Khazaria blocked their access. The Oghys were most interested in the most important roads passing through Volga, Mangystau, Ustirt and connecting Europe with Asia. The early Russian state was also interested in keeping these trade routes under its control. The destruction of Khazaria opened the way for Russian merchants to the rich market of Eastern countries. All this prompted the Oghuz tribes to take the direction of forming an alliance with the Russian princes in the direction of foreign policy. Until the defeat of Khazaria in 965, the Oghiz fought against the Khazar khans for a long time. The bloody battles of the Oghys with the Khazars probably took place in the fields adjacent to Mangystau from the west. In the middle of the 10th century, the border of the Khazar power, which reached the north-eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, began here. At the end of the 10th century, the Oghuz vassals united with the Russian princes and defeated the Volga Bulgaria. Russian chroniclers say that in 985 Prince Vladimir made a campaign against the Bulgars in alliance with the Turks (Oghuz). The prince's troops sailed along the Volga or Kama in boats, and the Torks marched along the coast on their horses to attack the enemy. The Oghuz state began to decline in the 10th - 11th centuries. Rebellions of the Oguz tribes, who are dissatisfied with the predatory collection of tributes, become more frequent. According to the historical legends of the Oguz people, these uprisings are against the rule of Ali Khan, who came to power in the middle of the 10th century or the beginning of the second half of it. This is explained, on the one hand, by the increase of the people's protest against the increase in taxes during the reign of Ali Khan, and on the other hand, by the constant attacks of the Saljuk tribes from the East. Under the successor of Ali Khan, Shah Malik, the state of Oghiz became stronger again. He even captured Khorezm in 1041. Internal disputes and external attacks against the Saljuks weakened the Oghuz state. At this point, the attacks of Kypchak tribes in the northeast intensified. This led to the cessation of existence of the Oghuz state. In Arabic sources, it is said that the Oghzdar steppe, called "Mafazat al-Ghuz", was part of Deshti Kipchak. ## Creation of the Oghiz state The original territory of the Oghiz tribe was the west of Zhetysu. As a result of the struggle between the Karluk and Oghz tribes for the Turkesh heritage, the Karluks came to power in Zhetysu (in 756), and the Oghz tribes migrated west to the Syrdarya. At that time, between the middle and lower reaches of the Syrdarya and the Aral Sea, the Kangar tribes, named after the name Kangar of the Syrdarya in Arabic sources, lived. In the 8th century, a new name Pecheneg was formed instead of the name Kangar. At the beginning of the 8th century, the Syrdarya valley entered a united political confederation under the leadership of the Pecheneg-Kangar tribes. The political center was the city of Otyrar. In the 2nd half of the 8th century, the Pecheneg-Kangar met with the Oghuz tribes displaced from Zhetysu, and the struggle for the Syrdarya Valley began. As a result, the Oghuz tribes defeated the Pechenegs and Kangars and occupied the middle and lower reaches of the Syrdarya and the Aral region as a whole. At the end of the 9th century, the Oguz Shonjars took power in the northern region of the Aral Sea and settled along the Zhayik and Volga rivers. Karatau foothills, Shu Bai, near Balkhash, Ural, Yrgyz, Embi, Oyil, rivers became the habitat of Oghys. These events led to the political grouping of the Oghuz. According to Arabic sources, a state was formed in Oghuz at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. The Kangar Pechenegs, the Aral, and the tribes of the northern region of the Caspian entered the Oghuz confederation. The Khalaj and Karluk tribes, who moved to the Syrdarya River along with the Oghids, and the Jagr and Sharuk tribes inhabiting the Shu and Talas valleys also entered. There were also some groups of Eastern Turkic tribes. Among them there are Imek Kimek tribes, Bayandurs, Imurs, Kai tribes. Mahmud Kashgari in "Diwani Lugat - At Turk" says that there were 22 tribes in the Oghuz in the 11th century and lists them. Al-Marwazi believes that there were 12 tribes. Another source "Jami at-Tawarikh" states that the Oghys consist of two large tribal groups - the Buzuks and the Ushuks. Oghuz state occupied a vast territory. In the west, they lived in the vicinity of Yrgyz, Zhayik, Zhem, Oyil, Aral, in the east, in the south of Lake Balkash, in the Syrdarya valley, in the Karatau slopes, in the Shu region. It bordered Khorezm, Mauerennahr, Khorasan in the south. The capital of Oghuz state was the city of Yangikent or New Guzia. Yangikent was a city located in a very convenient location. The city borders Khorezm, Mauerennakhr, and is located on the important caravan route that goes through the Kimekter steppe to Sarysu, Kengir, Esil, Nura. The ruler of Oghuz state received the position of "jabgu". The power of the Khbhu was based on the hereditary system. The heirs of Zhabgu had the title "Inal". Deputies of Zhabgu with the position of "Kul-erkin" and military commanders named "Syubashi" played a big role in the life of the palace. In addition, one of the features of the Oghuz state was that the wife of the zabgu - "khatun" intervened in power. Property inequality was based on private ownership of livestock. Ibn Fadlan says that "a rich man is a man with ten thousand head of horses." In the data, such rich groups are called rich, strong, and emirs. The poor group is called men in "Diwani Lugat-at Turk" by M. Kashgari. They were engaged in domestic work such as taking care of animals, sewing clothes, and preparing food. Mahmud Kashgari writes that "the Yatuks, the poor people of Oghz, were not involved in the wars." If the poor fell ill, they were left in the fields like slaves. M. Kashgari calls them yoksul, dzhigan. The economic relations of the Oghiz with Khorezm and Khorasan were intensive, i.e. intensively, and their cattle were in great demand in Khorasan. A large trade center is the city of Sauran in the middle reaches of the Syrdarya. Malachite and azurite, similar to lapis lazuli, were brought from Khorasan to the Oghiz country. ## Ethnic and tribal composition The origin of the early Oguz group is connected with Western Zhetysu. The historical legends of the Oghys also support this opinion, in which it is said that one of the first ancestors of the Ogyhs lived near Issykkol. At the same time, the Yetsu (ancient Oguz) clan-tribal divisions are remembered, which were included in the union of Oguz tribes that was formed later. In the historical legends about the conquest of the lands from Talas to the Volga by the famous Oghiz Khan, it is said that there were several thousand families in his army who called themselves "Oktugra-Oghyzbyz"90. The term "bullet" in this name is noteworthy, it means "arrow", "tribe", "tribe". A significant fact is that, later on, the arrow sign became the emblem of the phratry belonging to the left wing of the Oghuz army. Mahmud Kashkari says that the Oghys originally consisted of 24 tribes. However, later authors mention only 12 tribes of Marvazi Oghuz. The differences in the sources can be explained by the division of the Oghuz into two exogamous phratries: Buzuks and Uzuks, who entered the right and left wings of their armies, respectively. Each group consisted of 24 tribes, which were divided equally into two. According to the historical legends of the Ogyz, the Buzuks belong to the right wing, the "senior" tribes, and the Ushuks belong to the "younger" tribes of the same wing. When "electing" the Supreme Khan, Buzuks had more advantages (than Ushuks). In general, the Oghuz state is not distinguished by its ethnic composition. ## Oghys on the territory of Kazakhstan Ogyh tribes inhabited a vast land. Oghuz settlements were in Yrgyz, Zhaiyk, Zhem, Oyil, on the right bank of Aralsor Lake, in the east, some groups of Oghuz went to the southern shore of Balkash Lake, where they had a fortress called Ghorguz. Ogyz also inhabited the vicinity of Aral, Syrdarya valley, Karatau slopes, Shu region; but they were not equally numerous in all these places. They settled together in the northern region of the Caspian Sea, in the lower reaches of the Syrdarya. The fortress of one of the rulers of the Ogyzdars was the city of Dakhlan. In the work "Nuzhat al-mushtak" it is written about the large army of the Oghuzs and their invasion of Taraz. After the wars, a truce was made and trade was conducted. Muslim merchants came here from Shash and bought cattle, mainly camels and horses. ## Farming * Semi-nomadic, semi-sedentary animal husbandry * Crop farming * Entrepreneurship and crafts Oghuz state has a significant role in the political and military history of Eurasia performed. In 965, a military alliance against the Khazars was formed between the Oghuz army and Prince Svyatoslav of Kiev, and the Khazar Khaganate was destroyed. This union arose from the goals, trade and economic interests of both sides. If the destruction of the Khazar state opened the way for Russian merchants to the rich markets of Eastern countries, the steppes and cattle pastures near the Don and the Black Sea were needed for the Oghys. In 985, he made an alliance with Prince Vladimir and took part in the defeat of the Volga Bulgars. At the end of the 10th - the beginning of the 11th century, the Oghuz state began to decline. This is explained, on the one hand, by the growing public protest against the increase in taxes during the reign of Alikhan, and on the other hand, by the incessant attacks of the Seljuk tribes from the East. During the reign of Alikhan's successor, Shah Malik, the Oghiz state became stronger again. He even captured Khorezm in 1041. Internal strife, external attacks against the Seljuks weakened the Oghuz state. At this point, the attacks of Kypchak tribes in the northeast intensified. This led to the cessation of existence of the Oghuz state. The Oghzdar steppe, called "Mafazat al-Ghuz" in Arabic sources, was included in Deshti Kipchak. ## References * Oghiz * Oghiz Khagan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4896

Gold necklace

"Altyn Alka" is an award given to mothers with many children, given to mothers with 7 or more children. was approved by the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 1993. It was approved by law in 1995. Since 2010, it has been given to mothers with 7 or more children. "Altyn Alka" is awarded to mothers who have given birth to and raised seven or more children. The award of the "Golden Necklace" badge is offered if the seventh child of this mother is one year old and the other children are alive. Children who died while protecting the interests of the Republic of Kazakhstan or performing other official duties are taken into account. The necklace, which is attached to a silk cord, has an image of a baby in the palm of a hand and a sun hat, and is covered with a bright pattern. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6245

North Macedonia

North Macedonia (Mac. Severna Makedonija, alb. Makedonia e Veriut), the official name is the Republic of North Macedonia (Mac. Republika Severna Makedonija, alb. Republika e Macedonie së Veriut) is a country located in southern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. The land area is 25.7 thousand km². The population exceeds 1.8 million (2021). The capital is the city of Skopje. The official language is Macedonian. Macedonians make up 65% of the population, Albanians, Turks, Gypsies, Serbs and Bosnians make up the rest. By religion, the majority of the population are Orthodox Christians, the rest are Muslims. Administratively, it is divided into 30 districts. According to the constitution, the country is headed by the president. The supreme legislative body is the unicameral parliament (Assembly). The supreme executive body is the government. North Macedonia has been a member of the UN since 1993, NATO and the European Union since 1995. The monetary unit is the denarius. ## Geography Geographically, Macedonia is located on the territory of three countries - its southern part - Aegean Macedonia, is part of Greece; the eastern parts - Pirin Macedonia - Bulgaria, the northern and western regions of the Republic of Macedonia lie along the Vardar River. High mountain systems of Skopska-Crn, Pind (highest point - Korab (2753 m)) and Pirin mountains occupy most of the territory of the republic. The Vardar and Strumica rivers cover the entire territory of the country. In the south-west there are large lakes Ohrid and Prespa, partially dependent on Macedonia, in the south-east - the large lake Doyranskoe. Mountain slopes up to 2000 m are covered with mixed forests and shrubs, and higher areas are covered with mountain meadows. Forest covers 1/3 of its territory. ## Climate The climate of Macedonia is Mediterranean. The average temperature in January is 5 — 7 °C, in July it is 24 — 26 °C. The amount of annual precipitation is about 450 — 500 mm. The plains between the mountains are suitable for growing various crops. ## History The territory of North Macedonia in different historical periods belonged to different states and empires - Paeonia, Ancient Macedonia (its name was inherited by the entire geographical area), Roman and Byzantine empires, First and to the Second Bulgarian Kingdom, the Kingdom of Serbia, S. Ottoman Empire. In 864, when the territory was part of the Bulgarian kingdom, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Modern Macedonians are ethnically close to Bulgarians. In the 14th century, these lands were conquered by the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, the national movement of the Bulgarians in Macedonia developed, which manifested itself in the struggle for the independence of the church and schools of the Bulgarians, which was successfully concluded in 1870 with the establishment of the Bulgarian Exarchate. In the mid-1870s, he was able to incorporate most of the ethnic Bulgarian lands of Macedonia into his diocese. As a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, the Russian Empire liberated Bulgaria and concluded the Peace of San Stefano with Turkey, according to which the Bulgarian state and part of the settled territories of the southern part of Ottoman Macedonia appeared. Slavs were part of Bulgaria. But almost all the great powers did not agree with this treaty, and the Treaty of Berlin, after the Treaty of San Stefano, divided Bulgaria into two parts - the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. The territory of Macedonia, with its South Slavic population, passed back to the Turks. In 1912, the First Balkan War began. Bulgarian and allied Balkan Christian armies defeated the Ottoman Empire. However, almost immediately, a war broke out between the allies - Bulgaria and the rest of the Balkan Christian nations, as a result of which Bulgaria lost Macedonia. As a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 and the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the territory of Ottoman Macedonia was divided between Serbia under the name "Újna Srbija" ("Southern Serbia"), Greece and Bulgaria (Pirina region). After World War I, Serbia joined the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, the kingdom received a new name - Yugoslavia and was divided into provinces - banovina. The territory of North Macedonia became the Vardar banovina. In 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by the Axis powers. The territory of the Vardar Banovina was divided between Bulgaria and Albania. Part of the Macedonian Slavs supported the resistance movement led by Josip Broz Tito, who later became the president of Yugoslavia. In 1944, the occupying Bulgarian authorities established the Independent State of Macedonia, which existed for a few months. At the end of the Second World War, the Socialist Union of the People of Yugoslavia was formed from six republics, including Macedonia. When the union was renamed the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1963, North Macedonia was also renamed the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. * 1991 - Referendum on the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, which led to a declaration of independence and peaceful separation from Yugoslavia. Kiro Gligorov (1991-1999), a native of the local nomenclature, was the first president of the Republic of Macedonia. * 1991 - Bulgaria is the first country in the world to recognize the independence of the Republic of Macedonia. * 1992 - the withdrawal of parts of the Yugoslav army after the signing of the treaty on the withdrawal of troops. On February 21, the president of the new state, Kiro Gligorov, and the High Command of the Yugoslav Army. * 1993 - The Republic of Macedonia was admitted to the UN as the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. * 1995 - after the assassination of Kiro Gligorov, Stoyan Andov served as the head of state for a short period of time. * As a result of the Kosovo War in 1999, about 360,000 Kosovar Albanians fled to the Republic of Macedonia. The refugees soon left the country, but after some time the local Albanians followed their example and demanded autonomy for the predominantly Albanian regions of the republic. * 1999 - Joint Declaration establishing the principles of friendly neighborly relations between Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia, confirmed by a joint memorandum in 2008. * 1999-2004 - Boris Traikovsky became the president. * 2001, March-August - the Albanian National Liberation Army (leader - Ali Ahmeti) started military guerrilla operations against the regular army of the Republic of Macedonia in the north and west of the country (especially in Tetovo region). Only NATO intervention ended the conflict, resulting in the signing of the Ohrid Agreement with Albanian separatists, which provided for limited legal and cultural autonomy (official status of the Albanian language, amnesty for rebels, Albanian police in Albanian areas). ). * 2002 - occasional recurrence of ethnic Albanian-Macedonian conflict. 2020 - North Macedonia became the 30th member of NATO. ## Macedonia is the center of the ancient Greek empire The landlocked former republic of Yugoslavia - Macedonia BC. It was the center of the powerful ancient Greek Empire in IV-III centuries. Macedonia borders Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia and Montenegro. Most of the country is covered by steep cliffs, deep valleys and mountains with extensive forests. Macedonia has 34 peaks over 2,000 m in height and four large lakes, the largest of which is Ohrid. Vardar, the longest river of the country, crosses the country for 301 km. The Vardar originates in the northwest and flows through Southern Greece before emptying into the Aegean Sea. This river is called Axios here. Skopje, the capital of the country, is located on the banks of the Vardar. Practically rebuilt after the catastrophic earthquake of 1963, this largest city in Macedonia is an important commercial center for the neighboring agricultural regions, as well as a major industrial area with key industries - ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, engineering, chemistry and light industry. . The main agricultural crops are cereals (rice, wheat, corn), tobacco, cotton, poppies, fruits, grapes. Breeding of sheep and chickens is predominant in animal husbandry. Beekeeping is developed - more than 80,000 beehives produce honey and wax. Formerly a part of Yugoslavia, Macedonia gained independence in 1991. Macedonian Slavs make up 2/3 of the population, Albanians make up 23%. There are small diasporas of Turks, Serbs and Gypsies. The country's most pressing problems are strained inter-ethnic relations and the growing influx of refugees from other Balkan states. ## Economy Macedonia is an agrarian-industrial country. The gross national product per capita is 4110 US dollars (1997). Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemistry, food industry, construction materials, wood processing enterprises are developed. In agriculture, plant growing, especially rice, corn, and wheat, dominates. Cotton, peanuts, sesame, anise, horticulture, vegetables, grape growing, and sheep farming are developed. The main trade partners are the countries of the European Union. In 1999, due to the escalation of the conflict in Kosovo, a large number of refugees fled to the Republic of Macedonia. By 2001, a crisis began in the country due to ethnic conflicts among the population. The events of 1999-2001 caused great damage to the economy. First of all, the environment suffered, and the level of foreign investment in the development of the Republic of Macedonia dropped sharply. As of 2014, the main foreign trade partner of the Republic of Macedonia was the European Union. The volume of foreign trade in 2014 is 12211 million dollars. Geographic distribution of foreign trade of the Republic of Macedonia (for 2014): EU countries - 69.0% (8404 million dollars). Russia - 1.5% ($182 million) China - 4.3% ($525 million) Turkey - 3.6% ($442 million) America - 3.3% ($405 million) Africa - 0.7% ($84 million) According to the 2019 report published on October 31, 2018, the Republic of Macedonia took the 10th place, thus getting the highest ranking among countries in the Europe and Central Asia region after Georgia (6 -place) ## Territory and name of Macedonia Formerly, the country was called Macedonia, which is the geographical region of Macedonia, the state of Ancient Macedonia, the historical province of Macedonia in neighboring Greece, and Pirin Macedonia in neighboring Bulgaria led to ambiguity. North Macedonia occupied about 35.8% of the territory of the Macedonian vilayets of the Ottoman Empire until 1912 (52.4% in present-day Greece and 9.6% in Bulgaria), and its population was about 40.9%. the people of the latter. The territory of the Republic of North Macedonia used to be the southernmost part of Yugoslavia. Its current borders were established shortly after World War II. In August 1947, the President of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Josip Tito, and the Prime Minister of Bulgaria, Giorgi Dimitrov, met in Bled, and all of Macedonia (or at least part of Greek and Bulgarian Macedonia) was finally agreed. Union with Yugoslav Macedonia if Bulgaria is part of the Federation of Balkan States. Thus, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia was established within the SFRY - thus Macedonians were recognized as an independent nation within the SFRY. After the deterioration of interstate relations between the USSR and the USSR, Bulgaria canceled the agreements reached in Bled. ### Macedonian name dispute During the breakup of Yugoslavia into separate states in 1991, the territory of North Macedonia did not change. At the same time, the emergence of this separate state led to political disputes with Greece over the use of the names "Macedonia" and "Macedonians". The official name used at the UN in 1993-2019 at the request of Greece is the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. On November 4, 2004, the United States officially recognized the country as the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name. Meanwhile, the European Union (EU) has announced that it will continue to use its former name, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; The European Union has guaranteed Greece that it can become a full member of this organization only after agreeing on the name of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. On November 4, 2004, the United States of America filed a complaint against the country in April 2011 at the International Court of Justice in The Hague. He accused Greece of creating obstacles to its entry into the EU and NATO. On December 5, 2011, the International Court of Justice ruled that Greece does not have the right to block the membership of the Republic of Macedonia in the EU, NATO and other international organizations. On June 12, 2018, the governments of Greece and the Republic of Macedonia reached a consensus on the name of the country (Prespa Agreement) after long disputes, as a result of which the Macedonian side decided to start the procedure. changing its name to the Republic of North Macedonia both in its legislation and in relations with all countries and organizations). At the same time, the names associated with the relevant Slavic ethnos (Macedonians), language (Macedonian) and culture will not be changed according to the agreement. On September 30 of the same year, a referendum was held where citizens could express their views on the agreement between Greece and the Republic of Macedonia. 91.46% of the citizens of the Republic of Macedonia who came to vote supported the Prespa agreement with Greece, but the results were not recognized as valid because the participation in the referendum did not reach 50%. At the same time, since the referendum was of a consultative nature, it did not impose any legal restrictions on the continuation of the ratification process of the Prespa Agreement. On January 11, 2019, the deputies of the Parliament of the Republic of Macedonia held a decisive vote on changing the name of the country. The relevant amendments to the Constitution were supported by 81 out of 120 deputies (a minimum of 80 is required). In order for the agreement to enter into force, it had to be ratified by a simple majority vote of the Greek parliament. On January 25, the Greek parliament ratified the agreement on changing the name of the Republic of Macedonia, 153 deputies voted for such an agreement (151 deputies are needed), 146 deputies opposed the agreement. On February 12, 2019, the agreement to change the name of the Republic of Macedonia to the Republic of North Macedonia officially entered into force. On February 14, 2019, the UN officially changed its adopted name from the "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" to the "Republic of North Macedonia". ## Armed forces The main goals of the armed forces are to protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the state, as well as to participate in operations under the auspices of the EU, NATO and the UN. On March 27, 2020, North Macedonia officially became the 30th member of NATO. That month, it adopted a new defense strategy aimed at developing capabilities and improving planning based on NATO and EU standards. The Defense Capability Development Plan for 2019-2028 has set long-term development goals aimed at developing collective defense, joint security and crisis management capabilities. Currently, the Ministry of Defense is being restructured. The armed forces are fully professional and the country strives to train all units, especially deployable units, to NATO standards. A number of units are intended to participate in NATO-led operations. The armed forces have increased their participation in NATO joint exercises since joining the alliance. Participation in international peacekeeping missions expanded the possibilities of material and technical support. The country has a modest navy and air force and relies on Soviet-era weapons and military equipment. Procurement priorities include indirect fire support, light armored vehicles, cyber defense and multi-role helicopters. Macedonia's defense industry has almost no capacity to design and manufacture modern equipment. ## Macedonia's accession to the European Union For several years, the country has been trying to join the European Union. After the Macedonian name change, the main objections of Greece were removed, and these actions were resumed with renewed vigor. However, not all EU member states support this option. Thus, in early November 2019, French President Emmanuel Macron opposed the country's entry into the European Union. Bulgaria, in turn, demands that the multi-ethnic North Macedonia include Bulgarians in the list of nationalities living in the country. 84% of Bulgarians are against supporting the accession of North Macedonia to the European Union, 45% of those polled are against recognizing the existence of the Macedonian language - according to the official position of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, the North Macedonian language is the Macedonian literary norm (Bulgarian) \< > ## Administrative division The territory of the Republic of North Macedonia is divided into the city of Skopje and communities, and the city of Skopje itself is divided into several communities. The representative body of the city and community of Skopje is the council, the executive body is "Gradonachalnik" ### The largest cities of Macedonia ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3462

Operating systems

Operating system (English operating system) is a program written in machine code, which often resides in a non-volatile storage device, that controls all the main functions of a computer (using the keyboard, screen, disk drives), as well as the operation of other programs that are launched under the control of the operating system. The first computers did not have an operating system, because the control programs were written only for a specific type of computer, but the emergence of standards for remote equipment made it possible to write uniform programs for interaction with such equipment for many computers. There are two ways to write an operating system — to write the entire system to a non-volatile storage device and to write only the boot programs of the rest of the operating system to the hard disk. Minicomputers used in the institution typically use MS-DOS or the latest OS/2 operating system. Compact machines use an operating system written on a non-volatile storage device to avoid the need for disk drives. Minicomputers use an operating system such as UNIX or less popular systems such as PICK or BOS (UK); there are also operating systems developed for a specific type of computer. ## Operating system (OS) Operating system (OS) is a set of programs that implements external devices and programs designed to perform operations with documents. The IS program system organizes the entire operation of the computer's data processing, the interaction with the user, manages the computer's devices and resources, ensures data protection, performs various services with the user at the request of programs, and much more. Access to the hardware and programs of modern computers is absolutely impossible without an operating system. All hardware and software are offered to the user only through the operating system. How a person communicates with a computer, how easy and attractive it is, is very important. The way of interaction is the appearance of the software environment for organizing a conversation with the user, also called the interface. On personal computers, you can see two types of communication: command and window. ## Introduction Modern general purpose computers, including personal computers, require an Operating System to run their programs. Examples of Operating Systems for personal computers include: Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS (Darwin), and Unix. One of the differences of the operating system: * Makes it possible to eat several programs at the same time. * Simplifies program writing because the program does not need to manage hardware. The interaction of all hardware and programs is managed by the Operating System. In addition, it provides high-level communication to the program to interact with hardware and other programs. ## Development history The history of the OS covers about half a century. It is often determined in connection with the development of computer hardware and element base. The first digital computers were made in 40 years. appeared at the beginning and worked without operating systems, all calculations in the computing process of organizations were done manually from the control panel with a programmer. 50 years monitoring systems appeared in the environment, which automated the work of operators in performing a set of tasks. 1965-1975 The transition to integrated circuits paved the way for the next generation of computers, represented by the IBM/360. During this period, all concepts related to modern operating systems: multi-programming, multi-processing, multi-terminal behavior, virtual memory, file systems, access restriction and network work were developed. At the end of the year, the ARPANET global network was created, which was the starting point of the Internet. 70s. by the middle of the century, mini-computers began to be widely distributed. The architecture of mini-computers was simpler compared to mainframes, which was reflected in their operating systems. 70s. Since the middle of the 20th century, the use of UNIX OS has been easily transferred to various types of computers. Although the Unix operating system was first created for mini-computers, its flexibility, elegance, powerful functionality and openness made it possible for it to be in a stable position in all classes of computers. The beginning was particularly significant in the history of the operating system with the advent of personal computers. In the 1980s, the main standards for communication technologies for local networks: in 1980 - Ethernet, in 1985 - Token Ring, in 1980. Finally, FDDI was adopted. This ensured low-level network OS compatibility as well as standardization of the OS interface with network adapter drivers. 90 years In the beginning, all OSes became network OSes with the ability to support work with various clients and servers. Specialized network OSes have appeared exclusively for the execution of communication tasks (Cisco Systems' IOS). During the last decades, special attention has been paid to corporate network OSes, for which a high degree of scalability, support for network operation, advanced security tools, heterogeneity in the center it is characterized by the ability to work, the presence of central administration and management tools. ## Services ### Process Management Every activity that takes place on the computer, whether it is a background service or a program, takes place as a process. If the computer is based on the von Neumann architecture, the processor can execute only one process at a time. Older systems like MS-DOS had no way around this barrier, so only one process could run at a time. And modern operating systems allow to perform several processes (several tasks) at the same time, even on a single processor. ## Operating system Operating system, winter. OS is the actual software that controls the computer and communicates with the application programs. An operating system is a system program that organizes the continuous operation of computer devices and facilitates the management of the machine by executing various commands. Its main function is to organize the interaction of programs with each other and with external devices, allocate RAM, detect various events such as errors during computer operation, prepare the disk for operation, set the operating modes of the monitor and printer, start the user's program and execute it. .b.. That is, the OS is a system that gives complete relief to the control of machine operation. It is recorded on a floppy or hard magnetic disk for this purpose. Therefore, the OS is also called a disk operating system (DOS, or DOS). Common operating systems for personal computers include MS (RS) DOS, Windows 95, Windows NT, OS/2, UNIX, All operating systems for personal computers are single-user only. Indeed, it is difficult to imagine two people working on the same computer at the same time. WINDOWS 95, WINDOWS NT, OS/2, UNIX are considered multipurpose systems. Multitasking is the ability to run multiple reports at the same time or perform multiple tasks concurrently on one computer. For example, you may be playing while the text is being copied, because different devices perform these tasks, or the operating speed of these devices is much higher than human speed. Many IBM-compatible computers use the disk-based MS DOS operating system and the multi-window WINDOWS graphical operating system. Operating loads perform many functions: read and write information to the disk, organize data storage, ensure the interaction of computer devices and the execution of all application programs. does. This system is the first bootloader from a floppy or hard drive after the computer starts up. Utilities are a group of programs that need to perform certain additional functions. Examples of them include anti-virus (anti-virus) programs, data archiving (compression) programs, programs (test programs) that check the computer's ability to work (diagnostics). ## Service programs Service programs are a group of programs that make it easier for everyone to work with the operating system. We make our reports through application programs. Such programs are also called "applications". There are many application programs, from simple programs to powerful specialized systems (text processors, graphic editors, printing systems, etc.) capable of producing complex calculations, complexes for scientific problems and general public service. ## Organization of a system break For example, if a division by zero occurs during the execution of the program, it informs that it is not possible and stops the machine; if a symbol is typed from the keyboard, it interrupts the current operation of the processor. BIOS contains drivers for controlling the operation of external devices. BIO.COM (IBMIO.COM) is a section that controls the operation of the BIOS system. It also performs all operations of external devices and information exchange. DOS.COM (IBMDOS.COM)'s job is to load user programs and various information to the disk or from it to the RAM, delete the program on the disk, etc. It is a memory. also controls the work performed with cells. The main task of COMMAND.COM is to store and process data supplied by the user's programs. COMMAND.COM is also called command processor. It also executes various commands called internal or resident (DIR, COPY, REN, DELETE, CD, MD, RD, DATE, TIME, VER, etc.) Computing networks work under the control of operating systems. Major network operating systems include NovellWare, Windows NT, OS/2, Warp Unix. Windows 95, 98 operating systems have built-in network tools. ## Drivers Drivers are intermediaries used to send and receive data between the operating system and computer devices. ## Network Operating System network operating system allows users to copy files from one computer to another on the network, edit data located on another computer on the network, and in some cases, run software located on another computer's memory. ### The use of computer networks makes it possible to realize the following: * independence of the information processing process from a specific computer; * elimination of the possibility of duplicating the same information due to storage on one PC of the network; * increased reliability of information storage; * improve protection against unauthorized access to information; * ability to quickly, paperless exchange of information between departments and employees of the organization. ## Windows object-oriented platform The current technology of processing software products works on the concepts of object-oriented programming based on the concept of objects. The ability to work in an interactive mode offers the user the use of visual graphic tools and various aids. ### Fundamental characteristics of object-oriented programming: * Works with objects in the computer world; * Calculation on a computer is carried out by exchanging data between objects. *Objects interact by sending and receiving messages. * Notification is a request to perform an action. Each object consists of unconnected memory composed of other objects; * Each object is considered a class that shows the properties of related objects; * The order of objects in the class is specified, so all objects belonging to this class perform the same actions; * All classes form a hierarchical structure. ### To perform a list of actions in the Windows system environment: * you need to highlight an object, that is, click the left mouse button on the symbol of this object on the screen; * select the desired one from the sequence of actions performed by the object using the menu. A file means a sequence of programs or an area with a specific name in the internal memory. ## Notes ## References Study on computer literacy education of the population under the program of reducing information inequality in the Republic of Kazakhstan - methodical tool 2007

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1877

Dina Kenjekovna Nurpeyisova

Dina Kenzhekyny Nurpeyisova (1861, Beketai kum, Zhanakala district, West Kazakhstan region - January 31, 1955, Almaty) is a famous Kazakh music composer, People's Artist of Kazakhstan. ## Biography Born from Tolengit tribe. At the age of 75, Dina took part in the republican competition of folk artists in 1937, at the first All-Union competition of artists playing folk instruments held in Moscow, and then in 1944, at the age of 83, at the ten-day festival in Tashkent, where artists from five Central Asian republics participated. Even when Dina grew up in her parents' house, she used to emulate the status of the musicians such as Ak Dauletkerey, Musirali, Alikey, Turkesh, Uzak, Eszhan, Baijuma, Balamaisang, and was called "drummer girl". The famous Kurmangazy came looking for her after hearing about the fame of Karshadayi girl. He admired Dina's drumming, had high hopes for her future, and blessed her. After that, without taking a look at Dina, he always goes round and round, joins the discussions and teaches the deep secrets of playing the dombra. From the age of nine to the age of nineteen, Dina will be under the care of Kurmangazy. It was not only Dina who was lucky to have such a fighting musician as Kurmangazy as her teacher, but it was also the happiness of Kazakh music. According to her granddaughter Balzhan Nurpeyisova, our sister Dina married Makat's son Nurpeyis at the age of 18-19. In those years, her last name was registered as Nurpeyisova in the documents. Nurpeyis Makatuly died early, and they left descendants named Jamal, Kairat, Zhurynbay. In 1885, widowed at a young age, Dina married her brother-in-law Nuraly. ## Works Dina's beautiful and lovely compositions were born in the years when she saw the love of her husband and was blessed with the happiness of a child. In the Uzatys, the tune "Karakaska at" composed for the Karakas horse that his father had ridden as his offspring, tunes such as "Bulbul", "Dzhiger", "Baijuma", which he composed in imitation of his famous musicians Dauletkerey and Turkesh, "Kerbez" dedicated to his smart and intelligent, beautiful and secretive brother. " state, "Sixteenth Year" ("Nabor"), which was drawn by the eldest son Zhurymbai when he was drafted into the army according to the "June decree" of 1916, "Kosalka" state born out of admiration for his esteemed contemporaries, "Asem konur" dedicated to his son Konyr, as sweet as honey and as close as liver meat. mood, these are the unique moods that clearly show Dina's own signature. Through these tunes, Dina extended the field of Kazakh tunes and raised the height, and she herself equalized her window with the great tunes. Even in Soviet times, Dina devoted her dreams and hopes to the path of her people. Despite his advanced age, he released tunes such as "Toibastar" on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of Kazakhstan, "Mother's Order" and "Victory" during the Patriotic War. It's true that the bad politics and flamboyant ideology caused by the repressive harshness of the society blocked Dina's talent. They tried to deprive him of his back (inspiration) and make him a slave of extreme sloganeering. He named the tunes "Enbek er", "Milkman", "Stalin", "Delegate", "Vegetable" and turned them into slogans of official celebrations. ## Last days Dina Kenzhekovna died on January 31, 1955 at the age of 94 in Almaty. Balzhan Nurpeyisova says about her grandmother's last days: "She was not mistaken in her words until her death. The holy black dombra was his companion from childhood and he had such a powerful habit that five to ten minutes before his death, he removed the dombra that was hanging by his bed, caressed it, tapped it gently, and played Kurmangazy's "Kairan Checham". Although his weak fingers could not bend, he passed away while reproducing the mood in his chest. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5187

Walihan

The word Valikhan or Valikhanov can have the following meanings: Personalities: * Vali Khan - Khan of the Middle Hundred * Shokan Chingisuly Valikhanov - scout, scientist * Shot-Aman Idrisvily Valikhan — architect, author of the coat of arms of Kazakhstan Settlements: * Ualikhanov - a village in Zharkayin district of Akmola region. * Ualikhanov is a village in Birzhan sal district of Akmola region. * Ualikhanov is a village in Zhelezin district of Pavlodar region.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5045

Shaken Kenzhetayuly Aymanov

Shaken Kenzhetayuly Aymanov (February 15, 1914 - December 23, 1970) is a famous Kazakh actor and director. People's Artist of the USSR since 1964. Place of birth is Bayanaul district of Pavlodar region. The place where the soil is ordered is the city of Almaty. ## Biography Shaken (Shakhkerim) Aymanov is an actor, director. The future actor was born in 1914. He was born on February 15 in the Bayanaul district of the present Pavlodar region. Argyn came from the Idabol section of the Suyindik clan of the Argyn tribe. He grew up listening to the songs of his brother-in-law Kali Baizhanov. He graduated from the village school and (1928) entered the pedagogical technical school in Semey. In 1932, while studying at the Semipalatinsk Teachers College. Invited to the Kazakh Drama Theater in Almaty. Aymanov was employed in the theater from the season of 1932-33. At first he played a number of roles. Soon, he caught the attention of the public with his skillful performance of the main roles in performances based on classical plays. Especially the roles of Akan Seri, Kobylany, Satin, Petruchio, Othello performed by him left an indelible mark in the history of the national theater. Along with acting, Aimanov is also engaged in directorial creativity and performs. 1947-51 He was the chief director of the modern Kazakh Academic Drama Theater. He played complex screen roles in the feature films "Songs of Abai" (1945), "Zhambyl" (1947). 1953 - 70 He managed the artistic side of the Kazakhfilm studio and made a great contribution to the development of the Kazakh film industry. His feature films are: "The Legend of Love" (1953), "Aldar Kose" (1965), "Atameken" (1966), "On the Slope of Naizatas" (1968). The films "Our Favorite Doctor" (1958) and "Takiyaly Perishte" (1969) from the imagination of the audience were distinguished by their efforts to develop the comedy genre in the national film industry. His last film "The End of Ataman" (1970) became the peak of director Aymanov's creativity. Aymanov took part in the organization of the Kazakhstan Cinematographers Union and served as the first secretary of the union board (1958-70). Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1952) and the State Prize of the Kazakh SSR (1968). 1970 On December 24, he tragically died in a car accident in Moscow; He was buried in Almaty. ## Theater Being interested in theater art, in 1933 It was included in the Kazakh drama theater. He worked on the stage of this theater for twenty years and improved his acting skills. He became the chief director of the theater (1951). On the stage of the State Drama Theater named after M. Auezov, he performed Akan Seri, Kobylandy, Kodar, Kerim ("Abay"), Aldar Kose, Isatai (Zhansugirov, "Isatai - Makhambet") from Kazakh drama, Cassio and Othello from world drama (Shakespeare, "Asauga presentation"), Valikhanuly and Tikhon (Ostrovsky, "Talents and Worshipers", "Lightning"), Satin (Gorky, "In the Deep"), Shadrin (Pogodin, "The Man with a Gun"), Kidd (Lavrenov, "Voice of America"), Bett (J. Gow and A. Dussault, "Deep Roots"), Khlestakov (Gogol, "The Inspector"), Krivenko (Chirskov, "The Winners"), Gelpak (F. Wolf, "Professor Mamlok") acted. Sh. 1952 to the play "Abai" directed by Aimanov. He was awarded the State Prize of the USSR. In 1968, he became the recipient of the State Prize of Kazakhstan. Sh. Aymanov as an actor is distinguished by his ability to first reveal the soul of his character and create appropriate rational actions, and as a director, he has a special importance to enrich the work with artistic and ideological content, to saturate the colors of national peculiarities, to create philosophical thoughts about the times and society. a talented artist who knows how to give. Shaken, as a very talented artist, actor, thinker director, has a special influence on the formation and strengthening of Kazakh stage art and film art, and has left an indelible mark. ## Movie 1953 From the beginning until the end of his life, he worked productively in the field of Kazakh cinematography. People's artist of the USSR and KazSSR. One of the founders of Kazakh film art. Aymanov directed "Our favorite doctor", "Atameken", "Aldar kose", "The end of Ataman" and other films. F. Pogodin's "Man with a gun", "Talents and devotees", M. Auezov's "Abay" performances were brought to the theater stage. As an actor, "Abay Ani", "Zhambyl" etc. b. acted in films. In the film "Abai's Song", he played the role of Sharip, the student of Abay, the rival of the young poet Aydar. He is a laureate of the State Prize of the USSR and KazSSR. Shaken skillfully used these positions in the field of cinema. His "The Legend of Love" (1953), "Field Girl" (1954), "Our Favorite Doctor" (1958), "Aldar Kose" (1965), "Homeland" (1967), "The End of Ataman" (1970) the films are viable works that have given artistic quality to the Kazakh cinematography. ## Filmography ### As an actor * 1940 - Raikhan - Sarsen * 1943 - White Rose - Zhakpan \< > * 1945 - Songs of Abay - Sharip * 1948 - Golden trumpet - Zhakan Dasanov * 1952 - Zhambyl - Zhambyl * 1956 - We live here - Beyisov * 1957 - Our favorite doctor - drama actor 1960 - In one district - Sabyr Bayanov * 1964 - Aldar kose - Aldarkose * 1968 - Turbaned angel - episode * 1969 - On the slopes of Naizatas - Beysembay ### As a sound engineer \ <> * 1968 - Lame donkey - text author ### As a director * 1954 - Field girl * 1954 - Legend of love * 1956 - We live here * 1957 - Our beloved doctor * 1960 - In one district * 1961 - Song is calling * 1962 - Junction * 1964 - Aldar kose * 1966 - Home of the Ancestors * 1968 - The Turbaned Angel * 1970 - The End of Ataman ### As a Screenwriter * 1960 - In One District * 1961 - Singing * 1964 - Aldar kose * 1968 - Turbaned angel * 1969 - On the slopes of Naizatas - Beysembai ## Awards * People's artist of Kazakhstan; * laureate of the State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1968); * People's Artist of the USSR (1964); * Laureate of the State Prize of the USSR (1952). ## Memory Almaty city street (1972) and "Kazakhfilm" studio (1984) are named after Aymanov. A memorial plaque was installed in the house where he lived and in the building of the film studio. ## Sources ## External links * Aymanov Shaken Kenzhetayuly Archived June 1, 2012.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4566

Gulzhan Zhanpeyisovna Karakusova

Gulzhan Zhanpeyisovna Karakusova (September 9, 1950, Almaty) is a Kazakhstani public figure, minister of labor and social protection of the population (2001-2007), doctor of economic sciences and professor. ## Short biography S.M. Graduated from the Faculty of Political Economy of Kirov Kazakh State University (1972), economist, political economy teacher. Candidate of Economic Sciences (1980), Doctor (1990). The topic of the doctoral thesis: "Economic mechanism of implementation of competition relations during socialism". S.M. Professor of the Department of Political Economy of Kirov Kazakh State University (1992). "The lively creativity of the masses" (1985), "Competition and reconstruction" (1988), "Taxes: meaning of use and practice" (1994), "What to know about securities" (1996), Author of books "Shadow economy: development trend" (2001); Co-author of the books "Public consumption funds" (1983), "New forms of competition in the system of economic mechanism" (1984), "Problems of combating economic crime in Kazakhstan" (1996). PDP "Nur Otan" (since 2007). Since 1972 - S.M. Assistant, senior lecturer, docent, professor of Kirov Kazakh State University. Since 1994 - adviser to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan on economic reform, head of the Council of Economic Advisers. since 1995 - chairwoman of the National Securities Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Since January 1997 - the president of Financial Market Institutes. Since May 1997 - a deputy of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the chairwoman of the Committee on Economy, Finance and Budget. Since 2001 - the Minister of Social Protection and Labor of the Republic of Kazakhstan. since 2007 - deputy of the 4th convocation of the Majilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the list of the "Nur Otan" People's Democratic Party, chairwoman of the Finance and Budget Committee. lectured at the Kazakh State University named after S.M. Kirov, assistant to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, head of the Council of Economic Consultants under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, chairwoman of the National Commission on Securities, Committee on Economy, Finance and Budget of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan was appointed as the chairman. Minister of Labor and Social Protection of the Republic of Kazakhstan since November 2001. In 2007, he was elected as a deputy of the 4th kilometer of the Majilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the list of the "Nur Otan" party. Chairman of Finance and Budget Committee. ## Awards * Order of "Parasat" (2005); * "Astana" (1998), * "10 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (2001), * "10 years of the Constitution of Kazakhstan" medal (2005). ## Family Sons - Farkhad Sergeevich Karakusov (1971), Romanov Roman Sergeevich (1976); daughter - Karakusova Dana Sergeevna (1984). ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4538

ҚХР

China (official - People's Republic of China, abbreviated - PRC; traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國, simplified: 中华人民和和国, pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó, Pall.: Zhonghua Renmin Gònghéguó) is a large socialist country located on the Asian continent. The 1st country in the world in terms of population (more than 1.4 billion, the majority of the population is ethnic Chinese); in terms of land area, it is in 3rd place after Russia and Canada. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the country has been ruled by the Chinese Communist Party. Although officially there are eight parties, the PRC is classified as a one-party, authoritarian country. borders 14 countries: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Myanmar, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, DPRK, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Vietnam. ## History Chinese history is distinguished by the abundance and diversity of written sources, which, in addition to archaeological data, allow the study of political life and social movements since ancient times. Canonized ancient Chinese texts with religious-philosophical and historical content, especially those written by Confucius, influenced the development of Chinese civilization and the outlook of the Chinese people. Since the time of Confucius, Chinese civilization has been characterized by high socio-political activity aimed at the happiness and well-being of every person in his life on earth - the fate of a person is not determined by God, but by his own work. This is the essence of the great social nomadism characteristic of China, the great popular movements in the history of China. Chinese civilization is one of the oldest in the world. According to Chinese scientists, it is almost five thousand years old, and written sources cover a period of 3500 years. The existence of the ancient administrative management, which went through different stages of development as the dynasties changed, and the existence of a developed economy in the field of agriculture was a clear advantage compared to the nomadic neighbors and mountain peoples who were left behind by other civilizations. Chinese civilization was further strengthened by Confucianism (1st century BC) and the introduction of a unique writing system. Politically, China has gone through cyclical periods of political unity and disunity for thousands of years. Chinese territory was often attacked by invaders, but most of the invaders sooner or later became Chinese and mingled with the Chinese ethnic group. The modern Chinese state and society is the result of many centuries of cultural and political interaction with the surrounding Asian peoples. It cannot be denied that the huge demographic potential of the Chinese ethnic group has an impact on the neighboring nations. ### Chronology of Chinese history Short chronological table adopted in Chinese history ### PRC (history and modern) 1949-1956 with the help of the USSR, the main branches of production were built, nationalization of production and collectivization of agriculture were carried out, mass socialist construction began. In 1956, at the 8th Congress of the CCP, a new direction was announced, which ended with the victory of Mao Zedong's ideas, the policy of "great strides", and "communization". After that, the "cultural revolution" was declared due to the confrontation between the two sides, the main slogan of which was the strengthening of the class struggle during the creation of socialism and China's "special way" of building the state and society (rejection of commodity-money relations, lack of non-state privatization, avoidance of foreign economic relations, dishonest politicians public trial, hongbeibing, etc.) This policy was later exposed by Deng Xiaoping, who came to power after overthrowing the "Four Gangs". The 3rd Plenum of the 11th Convocation of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (December 1978): planned distribution and introduction of all foreign investment, allowing the organization to engage in wider economic activities, introducing family order in villages, reducing the percentage of the public sector in the economy, opening an open economic area, fighting poverty A course towards a socialist market economy was declared through the integration of two market systems, such as the struggle, the development of science and technology. It was Deng Xiaoping who took China out of chaos, backwardness and poverty and put it on the path of normal socio-economic development. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, China completely solved the problem of feeding the population, the development of rapid increase in GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and production, and the problem of raising the standard of living of the people. These radical reforms were continued by his successors, Jiang Zemin and Hu Jingtao. In 2002-2005, Hu Jintao (Chinese: 胡锦涛) took high party, state and military positions (Supreme Chairman of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Chairman of the People's Republic of China, Commander-in-Chief of the Communist Party of China). The average GDP growth was 10.3% in 1990-1999, 10% in 1998-2001, and 9% in 2002-2005. In terms of GDP, China ranks second after the United States. Foreign exchange reserves grew rapidly. By 2004, the volume of foreign trade exceeded 850 billion dollars. But China's tremendous economic growth has been met with growing political and social instability. If the reforms have benefited only the eastern coastal provinces of the country, the population situation in other regions is very low, and the difference in the economic status of each region is increasing. The Chinese leadership was suspicious of the "color revolutions" that took place on the territory of the former USSR, and in order to prevent social anger from coming to China, they began to work hard to strengthen state control and limit foreign influence. In October 2005, a campaign for state control of the largest mobile operators was launched. Trials of party and state leaders have begun in Guangdong province, which is often on trial for massive corruption. In October 2005, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China adopted the 11th Five-Year Plan "Strategically Aiming to Build a Harmonious Society in China". On March 5, 2006, Wen Jiabao came out with a policy report at the regular meeting of the National People's Congress and proposed to slow down the country's economic growth, and to use the freed money to raise the standard of living of the peasants and increase the military expenses. The government plans to curb China's GDP by 7.5% from the current 10%. Freed funds will be used to close the gap in living standards between city dwellers and peasants (the number of peasants in the country is about 900 million, or 75% of the population). In order to prevent the "color revolution" in PRC, it is planned to spend about 340 billion yuan in the agricultural sector in 2006 (14 percent more than in 2005). Military expenses will also increase. Official military spending increased by 14.7% to 284 billion yuan ($35.5 billion) in 2006. Planned increases in spending on agriculture and the military benefit wealthy coastal provinces. Therefore, the implementation of this policy may face opposition from the Shanghai tribe from which former ruler Jiang Zemin hails. ### Muslim uprising in China ## Political situation In December 1949, four constitutions were adopted in the PRC (1954, 1975, 1978 and 1982). According to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China (December 1982), the PRC is a socialist state with the democratic rule of the people. The highest body of state power is the unicameral National People's Congress (NPC), consisting of 2,979 deputies elected by local assemblies for 5 years. The session of the PSCSC is convened annually. Due to the large number of deputies, the standing committee elected from the delegates (about 150 people) performs the functions of the Central Committee between the sessions. Only the Chinese Communist Party and eight democratic parties included in the People's Political Consultative Conference will take part in the election. Hong Kong and Macau have their own legislative systems. All deputies of the CPSU consist of communists and democrats. ### Relations between China and Kazakhstan ## Economy Economic relations between China and the countries of Asia, Africa, Latin America, foreign trade and aid is carried out depending on the fields. In those countries with Chinese influential minorities in economic relations (primarily Southeast Asian countries), Beijing seeks to politically support the expeditionary elements of these minorities and use their entrepreneurial capabilities to expand China's economic and political presence and its exploitative revenues in these countries. One of the results of special relations between the PRC and part of the foreign Chinese bourgeoisie was commodity and financial transfers, which have no economic base in China and do not compensate for the economy of developing countries. China's "theoretical" establishment of leadership in the field of economic relations with developing countries. The Chinese leadership allocates an important place to the economic subjugation of developing countries in its foreign policy plans. For these purposes, Beijing tries to connect them with its economic development and the concept of foreign economic relations. Despite this, the propaganda of the modified concept of "relying on one's neighbor" gives priority to China's attempts to play the role of a developing socialist country and its economic cooperation with developing countries arising from this special character. Maoism rejects the relevance of the goal of participation in the international division of labor embodied in the concept of "self-reliance" from national perspectives and relying on interpositional assistance from socialist countries for the Chinese economy. This concept will greatly harm China's economic development. The world economy is in a scientific and technical revolution. In the growth of the socialist economic potential and on the basis of socialist ideas, China is the world's 3rd economy. The slowdown in international efforts is an anachronism for developing countries. Countries with sufficient scientific and technical potential and careful to mobilize external resources for the needs of economic development can raise the national economic level according to the current requirements, first of all, under the condition of economic relations with socialist countries and foreign countries. The weakness of the Maoist doctrine comes from linking the theory of "self-reliance" to developing countries, and the Maoists themselves are excluded from its rules in the practice of China's foreign economic relations. China gradually opens its economic doors to the Western monopoly during the implementation of the "grid" modernization program. Now Beijing is proposing to launch joint ventures on Chinese territory, witnessing the bankruptcy of the Maoist doctrine of "relying on one's own strength". On April 1, 1974, the Chinese representative gave a slightly revised report on "self-reliance" at the Special Session of the UN General Assembly. He also said that "relying on one's own strength" does not mean a foreigner's sudden rejection or "stubbornness". I believe that economic and technological exchange based on complementarity, mutual benefit and respect for state sovereignty is useful and necessary for the development of the national economy of various countries. Beijing tries to present China's foreign economic relations with developing countries as a new model in relations, which has no principles and morals in the practice of international economic relations. Over the past 20-25 years, China's economy has developed at a high rate. Foreign trade accounts for more than 45% of the country's economy. The main trade partner is Japan, followed by the USA and South Korea. In attracting foreign investment, China is in 2nd place after the USA. On July 1, 1997, the island of Xianggan (Hong Kong), which was formerly a British colony, was returned to the PRC. It was given the status of a special administrative district. The annexation of Xiangyang accelerated the development of China's economy. This area is the largest trade and financial center in the world. There are branches of 85 of the 100 largest banks in the world. ## Administrative division ### Chinese regions ### PRC autonomous regions \< > ### Central Cities ### Special Administrative Regions ### Island and Republic of Taiwan See also: Taiwan (China Republic of) Taiwan is an island in the East China Sea. The land area is 35961 square kilometers. Population - 22 million (1998). The administrative center is Taipei (over 2.7 million). 97% of the population are Chinese. (like "Chinese" means "Kazakhstan", and such a nation does not exist, so "CHINESE" will be) In 1949, the Chiang Kai-shek government, defeated by the CCP, moved to the island of Taiwan. In 1950, by mutual agreement, the US 7th Fleet entered the island and an alliance treaty was signed. China considers the island of Taiwan to be part of it and proposes to unite with it on the principle of "one country, two systems". And Taiwan wants to unite on the principle of "one country, two governments". In general, most countries of the world (including Kazakhstan) consider Taiwan to be a part of China, not a separate state. And he does not establish diplomatic relations with him. Taiwan, as an independent state, lives only thanks to the military aid of the United States. Their union is supported by Japan. After the Second World War, Taiwan developed at a very high rate and became one of the most developed countries in East Asia, such as South Korea and Singapore. In 1997, according to the report, the domestic product of the country was more than 290 billion dollars, per capita - 13.3 thousand dollars. Computers, electronic household goods, clothes, and chemical products are imported in large quantities. ## Population ### Chinese ### Language and writing Chinese writing morpheme– is considered logographic writing. In ancient Chinese, words were written with one syllable, i.e. with only one hieroglyph, then the number of polysyllabic - several hieroglyphic words increased, and monosyllabic words became the root morphemes of polysyllabic words. Chinese writing begins with the first writing (writing on pottery) found in Dauinkou region, and has a history of five thousand years. Archaeological studies have shown that writing appeared in the Yin-Shang period of China (2140 - 1711 BC). During the Han period, hieroglyphs, which were written in different ways, became consistent. Chinese writing has experienced three different periods of development: * the era from armor-bone writing to bronze, Dachuan, and Shiau Zhuan writings; * From Shiau Zhuang to Lingshu model; * Jie shu, Sau shu, Xing shu period from Linshu script and the era since writing. The study of hieroglyphs began a long time ago, but until now it has not been determined exactly how many hieroglyphs there are in Chinese writing. B.C. "Shuo wyn jie zi" dictionary created by Shui-Xin in 100 - 121 AD contains 9353 hieroglyphs, "Kang Shi" dictionary compiled by Zhang Shu during the Qin Dynasty (1644 - 1911) contains 47035 hieroglyphs. There are 48,902 characters in the Chinese-Japanese dictionary, and 49,905 characters in the "Big Dictionary of the Chinese Language" (Taiwan, 1968). Scientists now estimate that the number of hieroglyphs is about 60,000. ## Culture BC In the 6th - 3rd centuries, Chinese philosophy emerged as a result of the formation of schools of Confucianism, Moism, and Legism. The Chinese people made a significant contribution to the development of natural and technical sciences. Many important scientific and technical innovations appeared in China several hundred years earlier than other countries (including European countries) (compass, seismoscope, speedometer, paper, ammunition production, book publishing, etc.). Mathematics began to develop in China during the Han Dynasty. The oldest star catalog (807 stars) is dated to 1000 BC. Built by Shi-Sheng in the 4th century. The earliest information about a solar eclipse dates back to China in BC. It was written in 720. BC Zhang Qian's travels to Central Asia in 138-126 AD allowed the Chinese to explore the peoples of the western side of the country and opened the way for caravans and trade along the Great Silk Road. During the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), China increased its sea trade with the Arab countries, Korea, Indo-China and the southern islands. Due to this, shipbuilding and maritime transport began to develop in China. The history of medicine in China stretches back 3000 years. Neijing, the oldest medical book, played a major role in the development of Chinese medicine. The first "pharmacology" book was written in China. The method of needle treatment is found in Chinese medical literature from the Song era. China was the first in the world to use saltpeter to make ammunition. In the 16th century, ammunition began to be produced in China. In the 3rd - 5th centuries, porcelain production was mastered. BC In the 6th century, the construction of the world's largest canal began, and in the 13th century it connected Beijing and Hangzhou by waterway. The second big building is the Chinese fortress. The greatest contribution of the Chinese people to world civilization is paper making (2nd century). The history of book publishing in China dates back to the 5th - 6th centuries. In China, 2-color slow printing of books was implemented in 1340. Until the beginning of the 20th century, the education system in China was classical. Confucianism was based on the teaching of religious books. In 1902-03, the first reform of the educational system was carried out and a European-style school system was formed. Since 1953, one of the main scientific directions has been research in the field of nuclear physics and energy. In October 1964, the first nuclear device was tested (on Earth) in China. And in June 1967, a thermonuclear device was tested for the first time. In 1966, during the next nuclear test, a guided missile was used, which flew several hundred kilometers away. In 1970, China launched its first artificial Earth satellite (ISS), and in 1971, the 2nd ISS. ### Literature The first major poetic work of Chinese literature with a history of 3 thousand years is "Shijing" ("Book of Songs", 11th - 6th centuries BC ) a collection of folk songs. From fiction prose "Goui" ("History of Kingdoms"), "Chunqiu" ("Chronicle"), from philosophical treatises "Zhuang-tzu", "Xun-tzu" and other works can be mentioned. Poetry and the novel developed during the Tang Dynasty. During the Yuan Dynasty (1289 - 1368), Chinese drama flourished. The founder of New Chinese literature was Lu Xin (1881-1936). Realist and romantic in 1921-22. literary groups were formed. A number of his works were translated into Kazakh and published as a separate book. (Lu Xin, "Stories", 1951, 1958; Guo Mojo "Stories", 1958; Lao Sheng "Rickshaw", 1960; "City of Cats", 1972, and others). ### Art Ancient monuments of Chinese art BC. It appeared in the 3rd millennium. Ceramic products made in the Neolithic period have been preserved. During the Yin state, walled cities appeared. During the Qin State (221 - 207 BC), the main parts of the Great Wall of China began to be built. During the period of the Tang (618 - 907) and Song (960 - 1279) states, Chinese culture flourished. Chinese music is considered one of the oldest cultural heritages in the world. BC The word "yue" (music) found in the writings of the 11th - 6th centuries also includes the concepts of poetry, dance, and visual arts. The ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius concluded that perfect music should have a special structural character because it has a good effect on the state structure. About 100 musical instruments are used in a traditional Chinese orchestra. The main ones are: finite - se, qin, pipa, hu (erhu, syhu, banhu); wind - xiao, paixiao, sheng; Percussion - drums, jingling bells, etc. Chinese theater art appeared in the form of "baisi" ("hundred entertainment"). BC The terms "chan-yu" ("singer-actor"), "pai-yu" ("comedian", "comedian") are found in written monuments of the 2nd - 1st millennium. In the Tang era (7th - 10th centuries), a new stage form of song and dance - datsui - appeared. In the middle of the 8th century, a theater school named "Pear Garden" ("Liyuan") was established near the palace of Emperor Xuanzun of Tang, where musicians, dancers, and singers were trained. In the 17th - 19th centuries, many local theaters were created: bantzu, qin-qiang, yueju, and others. in the middle of the 19th century, based on these theaters, Beijing music. drama (jingsi) theater was born. The main characteristics of Chinese theater are fully covered in this jingsi. ### Cultural Heritage * Chinese Fort * Gugun Museum ## Medicine ## More see * Sinology * Oriental Calendar * Xinhai Revolution * Chinese Philosophy ## Sources ## External links \ <> * PRC Central Government Site (Eng.) * China Information Center (Eng.) * Directory of Chinese Sites Archived 23 April 2012. * Chinese Art / Picture Gallery Archived 13 April 2011. * China map / Google Map

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7566

Battle of Anyrakay

The Battle of Anyrakay (1729, according to some sources, 1730) is the biggest turning point victory of the united Kazakh forces against the Dzungar invasion in the hundred-year liberation war. In 1728, three hundred units that achieved political and military unity moved towards Balkhash and Shu and began to prepare for battle. At that time, the Dzungars wanted to take over the entire Kazakh land. Sensing the actions of the Kazakhs, they also formed a large line in the south of Shu and Balkash. Before the decisive battle, three hundred troops gathered in Khantau, Sunkar mountain (later this place was called Abulkhair mountain). Kazakh and Kalmyk cemeteries, which are often found in these regions, prove that the battle took place in the areas between Balkash in the north, Otar steppe in the south, Shu in the west, and Kurti in the east. This region is also called Anyrakay. In this battle (40-45 days) the Kazakhs won a big victory. Commanders-in-chief Kabanbay Batyr and Bogenbay Batyr were chosen for the battle, Bekzhan Batyr led the middle line. Kazybek batyr performed the task of coordinating the movements of three hundred troops. Many Kazakh batyrs showed their mastery of the art of war. Zholbarys Khan and Tolebi, the Great Hundred Hands, Karakerey Kabanbai, Bogenbay Batyr, Bekzhan Batyr, Shakchak Zhanibek, Tama Eset, Shekti Tailak, etc., were the Middle Hundred Hands. batyrs led and showed great bravery. Buribay batyr, who was chosen as the commander of many tribes of Kazakhs, led a personal detachment of Kazakh archers, Sauryk batyr. Shapyrasht Nauryzbai, the future commander, also took part in the battle. At the very beginning of the battle, Bolek Batyr Karauly fights with the commander of the Dzungar troops, Andarykay, and kills him. That's how the spirit of the Kazakh hands was raised. Many heroes fought in this battle. Many famous heroes died in this war. The Kalmaks, who were unable to regain consciousness from the blow, were left in the desert in a waterless, salty place, unable to fight any further, and fled to Ayagoz and Shar. Kazakhs could not develop this war further. At the end of the battle, Bolat Khan was wounded and died in the struggle for the throne. The majority supported young Abilmambat, the son of Bolat Khan. Displeased with this, Abulkhair left the battlefield and took the hand of Kishi Yuz to the west through Yrgyz. After the death of Bolat Khan, Abulkhair, who believed that "the way to become the chief khan of Kazakhstan is mine", when he saw that the reins of power were in the hands of someone else, broke the contract, left the Kazakh army in the hands of the enemy, and left his country. Even when he leaves, he does not just go away, but also robs several villages on his way. It was a betrayal of Abulkhair that history and future generations will not forget. After that, the troops of the united Kazakh people began to disintegrate, and 1 part of the Dzungar army survived. This was the reason why he did not participate in the battle of Anyrakay, which took place in the month of Sumbile that year. Because the legal owner of the Kazakh Horde at that time, Abilmambet and the heroes led by Abylai, Tole, Kazybek biler and Kabanbai, unanimously elected Kanzhigaly Bogenbai as the commander-in-chief. He did not participate in the war of Abulkhair. Before that, he had lost his rank as a white commander and left for his country. In 1726, the khans and princes, who were chosen as commanders by all Kazakhs, did not forgive Abilkhair for leaving the Kazakhs in the hands of the enemy during the battle. Satay, who killed Anryak, who distinguished himself in Anryakai, in a fight, Bolek batylar, Shmyr Koigeldi, Oshakh Sangyryk, brothers Dulat Senkibay and Shoibek, Sykym Irysbek, Suan Bagai, Botbay Samen, Sirgeli Kara Tilek, Zhappar, Kaumen, Daulet, and many others - all great heroes of the hundred hands. The 35-year-old Albanian Kangeldi, the sniper hero of Kazybek Bek, fought in this battle and won. The commander of the Great Hundred Squad, Kazybek Tavasarovich Shapyrashty, and the commander of the Bolshak, Shapyrashty Nauryzbai, also took part in this battle. And the hero Argyn Olzhabai, Argyn Esterbek, Karabek, Tura (probably Nura), Agyndyk, Tarakhty Togai, Karaul Kasym and Kalabek and other heroes who defeated Jadamba were all heroes of Bogenbay's army. And from the small hundred, only the troops that followed heroes such as Tama Eset Batyr and Shekti Tailak Batyr participated. Abulkhair never came back after leaving. None of the facts that Abilkhair was in charge of the later Anyarakay are true. Attributing the bravery of the historical hero Bogenbay Batyr to Abilkhair and denying his historical work is an injustice to history. Future generations should know this truth. Even if you look at the names of the heroes who participated in the Anryakai battle, it is clear that only Bogenbay and Kazybek took part in this war. Kabanbay-armed Kalmaks are fighting on the Karkaraly side with the aim of preventing additional forces from being sent to the Anrykay side. This alone shows that the Kazakhs have communicated with each other and prepared extensively for this important battle. In the first fight, Bolek from Kazybek Bey will come out, and Olzhabay Batyr will come out from Bogenbay in the second fight. He defeats the Kalmyk hero Jadamba. And history does not mention a single hero who fought in this battle because of Abilkhair. There is a reason for this: he neither led nor participated in this war. If we take a look at the situation at that time, after the battle of Kalmak in 1726, where Abilkhair was the commander-in-chief, he fought chasing the enemy who fled to the flanks. And neither Abilkhair's hand nor the Kalmyks who fled from him went to the west: the Kalmyks fled to their own country and took refuge in the Khan mountain, but Abilkhair's hand stayed in the south, he did not go with Bogenbay, Kabanbay, or Kazybek Bey. And there is no evidence that in the three years before the battle of Anyrakay, Abilkhair joined forces with Bogenbay, Kabanbay, and Kazybek. However, the Kalmyk army, which was victorious in the war in which the Kalmyks were killed, was gathering strength again on the slope of the Khan mountain without any hindrance, and was once again becoming a dangerous enemy. Why? Because if Bogenbay, Kabanbay or Abilkhair didn't join hands, only the Great Hundred would not be able to fight him. And if they knew that they were uniting, Kalmaks would have gathered the village. What does this situation show? Abilkhair shows that although he was still in the southern region, he did not intervene in the situation, in fact, his service as commander-in-chief of the Three Hundred ended after the war in which Kalmak was killed. That's why, in my opinion, it is not useful for Abilkhair or for history to pretend that something that did not happen happened. If Abilkhair had continued to serve as commander-in-chief, he would have intervened in the Uzynbulak war in the early spring of 1729 in the southern region, in the area of the current Baydibek district of OKO. Because what kind of war should be fought without the approval of the commander-in-chief? This battle against Kalmak will be won only by a great hundred hands. The Kalmak arm is led by Donyk, and the Kazakh arm is led by Kazybek Bey. Dulat Muizdi Otegen Batyr, Kazybek Bek's childhood friend and main hero, appeared in the first fight and defeated Kalmak's main hero, Bothishar (Kazakh slang). This is "The war in which our ancestors won!" - a famous war that the whole of Dulat is proud of. That is why Zhambyl did not separate these two and said: "I'll go to Kazbek,... caring men of Kazakh" (1982, volume 1, page 81). Abalkhair, who did not take part in the Uzynbulak war and did not lead it, will lead the Andyrakay war that happened after that, and with what reason? Now he came to the hero who did not help in the previous war, who was not saddened by the resurrection of the dead, and who did not help: "You lead this war!" What kind of people are they? And if they don't ask, will Abilkhair come and say: "I will lead this war"? This does not make sense to both of them. And history does not find a way to rationalize the illogical by force. If he didn't participate in any war, if he didn't continue to serve as commander-in-chief, why didn't Abilkhair leave the south for three years? In the meantime, no matter how much you want to say, you can't leave without dwelling on Abilkhair's character and position. We believe that it is true that he was a very selfish, arrogant and fame-hungry person, as historians have written. In 1726, a joint assembly of khans and princes in Ordabasy elected Abilkayr as the commander-in-chief of the united arms of the three hundred, but did not elect him as the great khan of the three hundred. He agreed to return to the issue of the election of the Great Khan after defeating the enemy. When the Kalmaks were killed under the leadership of Abilkhair, the Kazakh army won a great victory, but the victory was not final, the Kalmyk army was not completely expelled from the Kazakh land. That is why, after his victory, the assembly was not called, and the question of the election of the great khan was not discussed. However, Abilkhair knew that Sameke was sick and that if he died, a khan should be elected in his place, he waited, so he did not leave the south. At that time, Bogenbay, Kabanbay, and Kazybek Bey continued the war with the Kalmyks without the participation of Abilkhair. Abelkhair was not the commander-in-chief at that time. Considering the fact that Abilkhair left the south only in 1730, many people assume that he may have participated in the Anryakai battle in 1729. And at that time, Zholbarys Khan was ruling the great hundred. Therefore, the fact that he was neither a great khan nor a commander in chief, of course, did not please Abilkayr. After Sameke died and Abilmambet the great khan was elected in his stead, in 1730 he went west through Yrgyz and ransacked some Kazakh villages like a Kyrgyz. While preparing for the battle of Andyrakay, the great Hundred Khan Zholbarys and Tole Bi asked Abilkhair to participate in the upcoming battle. Because they knew that the number of kalmak concentrated near Khan Mountain was increasing every day. The Great Hundred Hands were not enough to oppose them personally. However, there was no answer from Abilkhair. Why? Because before he was called, three of them, Zholbarys Khan, Tole Bi and Kazybek Bi, had already decided that Bogenbai would be the commander-in-chief of this war. Kazybek Bey wrote in his memoir "Tuptukyannan uzime shayin": "I now ask Zholbarys Khan: "Start your great hundred hands!" I received an official decree... Bogembai Batyr, who was assigned to the commander-in-chief before that, writes everything (Almaty, 2nd edition, 2008, p. 948). That's why Abilkhair, who was the commander-in-chief of the army of three hundred only yesterday, no longer wanted to fight under Bogenbay. And it is possible that he could understand coming to Zholbarys Khan's invitation as a slight. Historians write that he has such a character, for example, in the battle near Ayagoz in 1718, Kayip and Abilkhair could not get along, and because of that, the Kazakh side was defeated by the Kalmyks (Moiseev). He did not despise or like Zholbarys Khan, even though he was his brother. He also competed with Sameke. Abylai's first name appeared in the battle of Anyrakay. He fought under Dulat Senkibai batyr. Sharysh was killed in a war, not in a duel, as the legend of the country has it. In general, according to the order of war, it was not allowed to go out to fight on one's own without the prior agreement of the commander-in-chief. And in no legend or document, it is said that Abylai's name appeared first in the war led by Abilkhair. At the meeting of Ordabasy, at the same time, recognizing that no one could compare to Abilkhair in terms of bravery and heroism, why did Tole bi and Kazybek bi, who were chosen by the commander-in-chief, oppose the election of his great khan in 1730? The main reason for this: Abilkhair did not take part in the Anyarakay battle. He did not forgive Tole and Kazybek Abilkhair, who were together with Zholbarys Khan until the end of the Anyarakai battle. And if Abilkhair became the commander-in-chief and became famous again in the battle of Anyarkai, then, without a doubt, both princes would support his becoming the chief khan. Heeding my opinion that the historical work of Abilkhair was not appreciated, why should we tie the amazing feat of Bogenbay, the second son of Kazakh, to Abilkhair's dowry? So, if we say that Abilkhair led the battle of Anyrakay, is it true, and if we say that Bogenbai did it, is it false? In general, should we believe the person we see or the person who is strong? Is it true that the evil is not about him, but about us? In our opinion, some tribal historians are more comfortable with myth or "presumed truth" than reality. For example, I read and heard a lot of sayings: "Our ancestor Balen was a hero, Abylai's most reliable lieutenant." And if I read Kazybek Beg, who was next to Abylai, Abylai had three white commanders, all the rest of the heroes were either Bogenbai, Kabanbai, or Kazybek Bey and Nauryzbai, only thousands, hundreds, and tens. However, I have never heard anyone say: "My grandfather was a ten-year-old hero." They are the ones who don't want to acknowledge Kazybek Bek's book: those who like to say things in a shrill and exaggerated manner and not have any witnesses to it. Historical truth is not told to blame or encourage anyone. It is not only related to Anyarakay, we have lost a lot of truths that we could have identified and written down in our time. Many people who knew and heard about it ran away from the wretched argument and fight, and took a lot of things inside. And we still don't understand. Some historians said about Abilkhair: "..."He left an army of 70 thousand men under the command of his brother Bulkhair". According to that, Abilkhair must have left with one thousand men. And in the actual historical data, the Kazakh was defeated in the spring of 1723 in "Aktaban" The total number of Kalmyks who were subjected to "shubyrindy" exceeded 40,000. The total number of the Kazakh army did not exceed 44,000 We fought for 35 years without giving up? Is this a praise or a mockery? I think we should listen to the writings of Kazybek Bek, who participated in that battle and led the battle if we continue to destroy it on our own, it will never come down to the truth, it will remain a legend in the sky... AND THE FUTURE GENERATION IS RIGHT TO KNOW THAT THE ONE WHO LEADED THE ANDYARAKAI WAR WAS AN INDEMNIFIED HERO... The significance of the Andyrakay battle for our people is Boro dino Waterloo of the united hands of Europe on the field is the same as the victories of the people of the USSR at the foot of Stalingrad in the Great Patriotic War. ## Additional information * [1] — Freedom struggle of the Kazakh people against the Dzungar invasion. * [2] The Battle of Anyrakay is the biggest turning point victory of the united Kazakh forces against the Dzhongar invasion in the hundred-year war of liberation. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7630

Түркіменстан

Turkmenistan (Turkmen: Turkmenistan) is a landlocked country in Central Asia with a population of about 6 million people. It is the country with the smallest population in the Central Asian region. The largest city and capital is Ashgabat. It borders Kazakhstan in the northwest, Uzbekistan in the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan in the southeast, Iran in the south and southwest, and the Caspian Sea. The government of Turkmenistan is described as dictatorial and authoritarian, and according to several sources and OSCE observations, elections in the country are undemocratic. ## Geography More than 80% of its land is covered by hot desert (Karakum desert), sandslides, rocky mountains and bitter valleys. The largest river of Turkmenistan is Amu Darya. Its length is 1415 km, of which 1000 km is in the territory of this country. The Karakum canal, originating from this river, supplies drinking water to the largest cities of Turkmenistan, such as Ashkhabat, Mary, Buzmein, Balkanabat (Nebitdak), Turkmenbashi (Krasnovodsk). At the same time, the canal irrigates 1 million ha of land. Its length is 1100 km. ### Climate The average temperature of the country in the winter months is 26-32 °C, and the summer heat exceeds 70 °C. ## Administrative division Turkmenistan is divided into 5 administrative and economic territories. They are called walayat (province). Akhal, Balkan, Dashogiz, Lebap, Mary provinces and the city of Ashgabat are governed by governors appointed by the president. Provinces include 46 districts and 528 councils. ## Population ### Population According to the 1959 census, the actual population of the country was 1.516 million inhabitants; According to the 1979 census - 2,759 million; According to the 1989 census - 3.534 million; According to the 1995 census - 4,481 million. In 2006-2017, no official population data was published. The UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs estimated the population of Turkmenistan at 4,936 million in 2008, 5,268 million in 2012, and 5,758 million in 2017. According to the 2021 census, the birth rate in the country was equal to 2.04 children per mother. ### National composition In February 2015, publications appeared in opposition publications claiming to have learned the results of the 2012 census from unofficial sources. According to these publications, the population of the country would be 4,751,120 people; by national composition, 85.6% are Turkmen, 5.8% are Uzbeks, and 5.1% are Russians. All the rest are listed as representatives of other nationalities. Representatives of 58 nationalities live in the country. ### Religious composition The overwhelming majority of the population of Turkmenistan are Muslims (mainly Sunnis) — 89-90%. Christians make up about 9% of the population, other religions make up 2%. All permitted religious denominations are under the strict control of state authorities: in 1994, the "Gengesh" ("Council") for Religious Affairs, consisting of a mufti, a deputy mufti, an Orthodox dean and an official, was established to control them. Despite the state's secularism, the members of the Gengesh for Religious Affairs began to receive salaries from the budget, as did the members of the Velayat Councils for Religious Affairs (headed by local chief imams). The state strictly limits religious education. A law passed in 2016 completely banned the private teaching of religion, and the teaching of religious teachings to children is allowed only with the consent of a separate Commission. According to the results of a 2015 study by the international Christian charity "Open Doors", Turkmenistan ranks 20th in the list of countries where the rights of Christians are often oppressed. ## History ### Turkmens before the Russian conquest (VIII-XIX centuries) Written history of Turkmenistan, historically inhabited by Indo-Iranians began with its accession to the Achaemenid dynasty of Ancient Iran. Later, in the 8th century AD, Turkic-speaking Oguz tribes migrated from present-day Mongolia to present-day Central Asia. Part of a powerful confederation of tribes, these Oghs formed the ethnic basis of the modern Turkmen people. In the 10th century, the name "Turkmen" was used for the first time in relation to the Oghuz groups who accepted Islam and began to occupy modern Turkmenistan. There they were under the rule of the Seljuk dynasty, which consisted of Oghuz tribes living in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan. Oghuz groups that served the empire played an important role in the spread of Turkic culture during the migration of present-day Azerbaijan and eastern Turkey. In the 12th century, Turkmen and other tribes overthrew the Seljuk dynasty. In the next century, the Mongols occupied the north of the Turkmen settlement, scattered the Turkmen to the south, and contributed to the formation of new tribal groups. In the 16th and 18th centuries, there were several divisions and confederations among the nomadic Turkmen tribes, but they remained firmly independent. By the 16th century, most of these tribes were nominally under the control of two sedentary Uzbek khanates - Khiva and Bukhara. Turkmen warriors were an important element of the Uzbek army during this period. In the 19th century, as a result of the campaigns and rebellions of the Turkmen Yomud tribe, the Uzbek rulers dispersed this group. In the second half of the 19th century, the Northern Turkmens were the main military and political power in Khiva Khanate. Paul R. According to Spikeard, "Before the Russian conquest, the Turkmen were known for their involvement in the slave trade in Central Asia and were one of the most feared nations of that region." ### Russian Empire (1879–1917) Russian troops began to occupy Turkmen lands at the end of the XIX century. Crossed the Caspian Sea in Krasnovodsk (now Turkmenbashi) and won against the Uzbek khanates. In 1879, in the first attempt to conquer the Ahal region of Turkmenistan, the Russian troops were defeated against the Teke Turkmen. However, in 1881, the last significant resistance in the Turkmen lands was crushed in the Battle of Koktepe, and soon Turkmenistan, along with the neighboring Uzbek lands, was incorporated into the Russian Empire. In 1916, the Russian Empire's involvement in World War I caused a stir in Turkmenistan, as an anti-conscription revolt swept across much of Russian Central Asia. ### Soviet Turkmenistan (1917–1991) Although the Russian Revolution of 1917 had little direct impact, in the 1920s, Turkmen troops united with Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and Uzbeks and took control of the newly formed Soviet Union. launched an uprising called "Publishers' Movement". In 1921, the imperial Kungei Caspian region was renamed the Turkmen region, and in 1924 it became the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic. Soviet agricultural reconstruction in the late 1930s completely destroyed the nomadic way of life in Turkmenistan, and Moscow controlled all political life. The 1948 Ashgabat earthquake killed more than 110,000 people, two-thirds of the city's population. For the next half century, Turkmenistan played its designated economic role within the Soviet Union and was left out of the course of important world events. Even the great liberalization movement that swept Russia in the late 1980s had little effect. Although Turkmenistan's preparations for independence were poor and the communist leader at the time, Saparmurat Niyazov, preferred to retain the Soviet Union, in October 1991 the country had to hold a national referendum, which resulted in independence. On December 26, 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. In 1990, before the collapse of the USSR and before independence, as a result of Mikhail Gorbachev's "reconstruction" and "publicity" reforms, censorship in the USSR was completely abolished, and oppositionists in the country remember that year as "we lived without censorship for only one year." ### Niyazov Presidency (1991–2006) Niyazov continued as Turkmenistan's head of state, replacing communism with a unique brand of independent nationalism reinforced by a cult of personality. A 1994 referendum and 1999 legislation removed additional requirements for the president to run for re-election (he was the only candidate in the 1992 presidential election), a reform that made him president for life. Niyazov's rule has been described as dictatorial, totalitarian and authoritarian. During the years of his presidency, pensions, the Internet, opera, ballet, circus, gold teeth and make-up were banned, Niyazov himself received the title "Turkmenbashi" ("Head of the Turk"), and later, by the decree of the Majilis (parliament), Saparmurat Niyazov was officially given the title of "Great Turkmenbashi". The informal title of "Serdar" (chief, commander-in-chief) and many fancy epithets were also widely used. Oppositionists in Turkmenistan are repressed, there is no freedom of speech in the country, it is among the most "closed" countries in the world. The 2002 assassination attempt on Niyazov led to a new wave of security cuts, dismissals of government officials, and restrictions on the media. Niyazov accused Boris Shikhmuratov, the exiled former foreign minister, of planning the attack. Shakhmuradov was sentenced to life imprisonment. Between 2002 and 2004, bilateral disputes arose between Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The main reason was Niyazov's conclusion that Uzbekistan was involved in the 2002 conspiracy. In 2004, bilateral agreements restored friendly relations. Only Niyazov's party participated in the 2004 parliamentary elections, and none of the international observers participated. In 2005, Niyazov closed all hospitals and all rural libraries outside Ashgabat. China was one of the only countries to make significant advances towards Turkmenistan. ### Berdimuhamedov's presidency (since 2006) In 2006, Niyazov died suddenly. Deputy Prime Minister Kurbankuly Berdimuhamedov, who was appointed as the temporary head of the government, won the undemocratic extraordinary presidential election held in early February 2007. His appointment as interim president and subsequent presidential election were unconstitutional. The name of Turkmenbashi and his monument in Ashgabat were removed from the national anthem of Turkmenistan, but the Turkmen government did not stop its dictatorship and authoritarianism. Berdymukhamedov won two additional non-democratic elections, in 2012 and 2017 with around 97% of the vote. Kurbankuly was also given the personal title "Arkadag" ("Protector"), monuments were built for his family members, place names were changed, and awards were made. In 2022, Berdimuhamedov suddenly resigned. However, he did not lose the position of Chairman of the People's Council of the Upper House of the Parliament and "Arkadag". Instead, his son Serdar Berdimuhamedov became the interim president. In the undemocratic 2022 election, the son won according to official data and began his presidency. According to some assumptions, all power in the country is still in the hands of Kurbankuly Berdimuhamedov. As soon as Serdar Berdimuhamedov's presidency began, "strict restrictions on women" were imposed in the country, banning the use of several cosmetic services, being in cars with unrelated men, or plastic surgery. ## Politics ### Political structure According to the constitution, Turkmenistan is a secular state. The form of government is a presidential republic. The head of state is the president. Until December 21, 2006, the president of Turkmenistan for life was Saparmurat Niyazov, who was declared Türkmenbashi (Turkmenistan, "leader of all Turkmens"). After the death of Saparmurat Niyazov in 2006, Kurbankuly Malikkulyuly Berdimuhamedov was elected acting president, and he soon assumed the presidency in February 2007, serving until March 2022. As a result of the extraordinary presidential election held on March 12, 2022, his son Serdar Kurbankulyuly Berdimuhamedov was elected president. Since January 2023, the legislative body (parliament) of the country is Mazhilis, which consists of 125 deputies. Until 2013, only one legal political party was represented in the Majilis - the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan. On January 10, 2013, the Parliament of Turkmenistan adopted a new law "On Political Parties". The law defines the legal basis for the establishment of political parties, the rights, duties, and guarantees of the parties' activities, as well as regulates the relations of political parties with state institutions and other organizations. On August 21, 2012, the second party, the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, was established in the country. Before that, there was a one-party system in the country. After parliamentary elections in December 2013, 2 political parties, as well as organizations and independent deputies were elected to the Parliament. All MPs fully support the government led by the president. In 2014, a third party - the Agrarian Party of Turkmenistan - appeared in the country. From 1992 to 2008, the constitution specified another legislative body - the appointed and elected People's Maslikhat (People's Council, higher than the parliament, 2507 deputies). It included the president, people's deputies of Majilis elected for 5 years, representatives of the judiciary, ministers, heads of regional administrations (oblast - ulayat and district - atyrap), representatives of public organizations, elders. Halyk maslikhat discussed issues of national policy (amendments to the constitution, holding elections and referendums, approval of country development programs, etc.). Sessions were held at least once a year. Until 2007, Saparmurat Niyazov was the lifetime chairman of the People's Assembly. After that, Kurbankuly Berdimuhamedov was elected as the chairman. According to the amended Constitution, the People's Council ceased its activities, and its authority was transferred to the Majilis and the President. Halyk Maslikhat was reorganized in accordance with the Constitutional Law of Turkmenistan dated October 9, 2017 No. 617-V "On Amendments to the Constitution of Turkmenistan". The first meeting was held on September 26, 2018. On October 24, 2020, the then unicameral Majilis of Turkmenistan adopted the republican law "On the National Council of Turkmenistan" on the country's new bicameral parliament. According to it, "the activities of the National Council of Turkmenistan are carried out in accordance with the Constitution of Turkmenistan, the current Law and other normative legal acts of Turkmenistan regulating the activities of this body." On November 4, 2020, the President of Turkmenistan Kurbankuly Berdimuhamedov signed this law. On January 1, 2021, Turkmenistan moved from a unicameral parliament to a bicameral parliament. Now Mazhilis, which until then was the only and unicameral parliament of the country, became the lower house, and Halyk Maslikhat, which was previously a separate body from Mazhilis, became the upper house. It was decided to call the new, bicameral parliament of the country "National Council" (Turkish: Milli Gërçës). According to the reform of President Serdar Berdimuhamedov in 2023, the parliament became unicameral again, and Majilis remained the only legislative body. ## Economy The state dominates all spheres of the economy. In addition to the export of oil and gas, a significant part of the state budget income is also tax from the list of cotton spinning enterprises. Here are all the elements in Mendeleev's table. 80% of its land has oil and gas. Until now, 144 deposits have been discovered. But so far only about 40 of them have been developed. Estimated gas reserves are 21-23 trillion cubic meters, and oil reserves are estimated at 12 billion tons. The number of such enterprises based on high technology has now reached 63. Every year, 158 million m² of cotton products and 82 thousand tons of yarn are spun in this country. Turkmenistan exports these products to more than 30 highly developed countries of the world. In general, this country has active trade and economic relations with more than 80 countries of the world. The land border between Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan is 426 km long. It was fully covered by the bilateral agreement ratified on July 5, 2001. In 2006, trade turnover between the two countries reached $153.3 million. This is 2.2 times more than in 2005. Among them, export was $20.7 million, and import was $132.6 million. Turkmenistan mainly imports plant products, tobacco, flour and chemical industry products from Kazakhstan, while Kazakhstan receives mineral and chemical products. ## Culture and society Under Niyazov, the cultural sphere was under the control of the state, the new president Berdimuhamedov implemented this policy in October 2008 by his office "to assess the artistic level of relevant creative works and to allow them to be published, staged, and filmed." issued a regulation on the establishment of the appropriate commission and continued at the head of the board The state language of Turkmenistan is the Turkmen language, which belongs to the Oghuz group of Turkic languages. In addition to Turkmenistan, the language is widespread in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Karakalpakstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Stavropol region and Astrakhan region of Russia. In addition to Turkmen, the Russian language is widely spoken in Turkmenistan, as well as English, Uzbek and Baluch (in several villages of the Mari oasis) ## Social sphere Here electricity, gas, water, salt free of charge. The price of public transportation is 50 manats. [source?] ## Armed forces The number of the Turkmen army is limited due to the country's neutral status. A small number, 36,500 people, ranks 92nd in the list of countries by the number of active troops. [source?] Military conscription is held twice a year in Turkmenistan: from April 1 to June 30; From October 1 to December 31. Conscription age - 18-27 years. The service life of citizens is 24 months. [source?] * The main types of tanks are T-90S, T-72. * Combat vehicles -BMP-1/BMP-2/BMP-3, BRM-1K, brdm-1/brdm-2. * Armored personnel carrier — BRDM-1/brdm-2. T * Anti-tank gun - MT-12. * Anti-tank guided missile (PTRK), Konkurs (PTRK), Sturm (PTRK), Metis (PTRK). * Multiple launch missile system: BM-21 degree, BM-21 degree-1, BM-27 Hurricane, BM-30 Tornado. * Artillery systems: 2C9 "Nona-C", 2C1 "Clove", 2c3 Acacia, 122 mm howitzer D-30, 152 mm howitzer gun D-1, 152 mm howitzer gun D-20, PM-38. After the division of the Red Flag Turkestan Military District of the USSR among the independent states of Central Asia, Turkmenistan included the largest aviation group in Central Asia located in two large bases - the city of Mary and Ashgabat. The Air Force has up to 250 helicopters and various systems. [source?] Currently, the Turkmen Navy is under the command of the Frontier Forces. The main base of the fleet is located in Turkmenbashi port (formerly Krasnovodsk). A small river flotilla base is located in the village of Kelif in Amu Darya ## See also * Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan relations * Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan border ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5871

Carboniferous period

The Carboniferous or Coal System is the fifth of the six periods that make up the Paleozoic era, the post-Permian, preceding Devonian period of the Paleozoic era. The duration is 60.2 million. covers the year, 359.2 mln. started a year ago, 299 mln. ended a year ago. Coal System in its current size was established in 1839. determined by the English geologists A. Sedgwick (1785 - 1873) and R. Murchison (1792 - 1871). The coal system is widespread on all continents. During the Early Carboniferous, Gondwana's saltward movement intensified and moved closer to Laurasia. In the course of converging with Siberia, the width of the Paleoasia ocean narrowed to 2 thousand km. During this period, the Ural basin narrowed a lot and came closer to the edge of the continents of Kazakhstan (Kazakh-Kyrgyz), Eastern Europe. This is the situation in the east and south of the Kazakhstan continent. the eastern edge also appeared in Turkestan and Dzungar basins. Such belts Avg. Asia, Siberia, Ort. It also appeared during the convergence of the Mongolian, Tarim and Sino-Korean continents and led to the closure of the Paleoasiatic Ocean. On the eastern side of the Ural Basin, there is the Kazakh Denudats. It is bounded by the plain and connected to the south by the Turan Plate and the Aral Sea. Anhydrite, gypsum, and sometimes salts were deposited in the Tengiz-Shu depression when the salinity of sea water increased. Volcanic rocks are distributed in eugeosynclinal belts such as the Eastern Urals, Dzungar-Balkash, Indochina, and Eastern Australia. At the beginning of the period, the Hercynian geosynclines began to rise, and coal seams began to form along with the sedimentary rocks collected from the erosion of the young Hercynian mountains on the receding coasts, in the depressions of the foothills and interstellar depressions, and in the platform depressions. Dolomite and salts were deposited in residual lagoons and lakes in desert zones (South America, China, Shu Basin), and bauxite and iron-manganese sediments were collected on seashores and lakes in humid regions. Towards the end Appalachian, Ort. The regions of Europe, Mongolia, Kolyma, East Australia and Cape have become high mountains. Due to the formation of mountains, the terrain was renewed and the climate changed. Due to the very warm climate of the Coal System, abundant moisture, thickets and swampy hollows appeared, and many coal basins were formed at this time. From the Middle Carboniferous, the climate became arid and all climate zones appeared. The tropical and subtropical westerly belt covered Europe through Mexico and the Appalachians, and extended through Central Asia from the Indochina subcontinent to Australia. The desert belt started from California in the north, reached Torgai, Zhezkazgan, Shu, Tien-Shan, Tarim regions through Scandinavia, and extended from Latin America to Africa in the south. The main feature of the Coal System is the rapid growth of vegetation on the Earth's surface (lepidodendrons - height 30-40 m, trunk diameter 1-2 m), the appearance of reptiles in the middle of the period. In addition, ancient insects lived in the seas, as well as large foramifers and productids, spiriphids. At the beginning of the Carboniferous, the ancient groups of conifers (carpoidea, cystoidea, tectoidea) disappeared. The first flying species of insects (wings length of 70 cm), amphibians (stegocephals), fast-swimming shark-like cartilaginous fish appeared. Reptiles are divided into carnivores, herbivores and insectivores. Coal formation in the Coal System occurs in all regions. Carboniferous coals are worldwide. makes 30% of the fund. To them: Karaganda, Ekibastuz, Moscow, Donbass, Kyzyl, Kuznetsk, Minusin, Tungus, etc. include coal deposits. Volga-Ural oil region, Tikhvin and Solt. Onega, Chinese bauxite deposits, Karatau and Central Asia, Mississippi lead-zinc, Urals, Kostanay, Mountainous Shoria magnetite, etc. deposits were formed in the Coal System. After the Devonian, before the Permian, this period began 359.2 million years ago and ended 299 million years ago. Geologists of Kazakhstan divide the Carboniferous into three parts according to the tradition of the former Soviet Union: upper (Gzhel, Kasym), middle (Moscow, Bashkir) and lower (Serpukhov, Visey, Tourney) Carboniferous. In Europe, the lower part of the Carboniferous system is termed Dinant. Dinant is divided into two layers and is characterized by marine limestone with abundant coral-brachiopod fauna. The upper part of the Carboniferous, called the Silesian, divided into three layers, is marked by sediments separated from land and fresh water. Widespread forests in the Upper Carboniferous contributed to the formation of rich coal seams in southern Wales, England, Scotland and many other parts of the world. North American geologists divide the Carboniferous system into two subsystems. The lower one (359.2-318.1 million years) is called Mississippian and is equal to the lower part of the European Dinant Subsystem and the Silesian Subsystem. The so-called Pennsylvanian Upper Subsystem (318.1-299 Ma) corresponds to most of the European Silesian. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7047

Month count

Counting months. "My year is sheep, my star is July" (Shakarim). People divide the year into twelve months and call it "monthly counting". This is a very old tradition. The names of each month are determined according to the time of year, natural phenomena, the concept and customs of the people. Scholars of the field have also taken into account that this is important from the economic, astrological point of view. In the ancient astronomical orientation, there are star names corresponding to each month. It is called "Star, Moon". In the southern regions of Kazakhstan, the current months are called stars and moons. Natural phenomena and changes often occur every month. The people call it "moon amals" or "amal" and are afraid of it in windy and cold months. There were public accountants who knew it. They accurately predicted, knew and reported the weather. In our country, both the month and the year begin in March. Kazakhs in September, August, December, May, etc. The names of the months correspond to the characteristics of those seasons. People have left national concepts, beliefs, proverbs according to each month. For example, "without April - there will be no time", "November - autumn, old worm is a peacock", "in January, the sun is like a crow's step, in February, a horse's step is longer", "when rain falls - water is drawn".

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5942

Қала

city is a densely populated large settlement whose inhabitants work in industrial, trade, service facilities and scientific, cultural, administrative institutions. As a rule, the city is divided into main districts, such as the Residential district, the Industrial district, the Commercial district, and in some cases the administrative management district. Mainly there are basic construction objects such as buildings, streets, gardens. The city has a number of well-developed services, trade, cleaning, housing, transportation, entertainment complexes, and sports complexes. Cities are divided into urban district and suburban district. ## Population of the city Cities can be divided into large cities, medium cities, small cities, but since the population of countries in the world is not similar, the minimum population required to be considered a city is also doesn't look like For example, Denmark has 250 people, Canada has 1000 people, Germany has 2000 people, some US states have 12,000 people, India has 5,000 people, and Malaysia has 10,000 people. In 1800, only 3% of people in the world lived in cities. At the end of the 20th century, this figure reached 47%. Today, 3 billion people in the world live in cities. Especially in several countries of Latin America, China, India, and Africa, urbanization is progressing very quickly and the population in cities is increasing rapidly. Megacity. The largest megacity in the world is Japan's Tokyo. Today, there are 29 largest cities in the world with a population of over 10 million. These include: Tokyo, New York, Shanghai, Mexico City, Moscow and many others. The smallness of the Alatyn area and the dense population create many problems in such cities: housing costs are among the most expensive. However, such giant cities are more efficient and advantageous than other cities. ## Features of the city Cities are a central settlement point and unlike small towns and villages, the level of religious, military-political, economic and cultural activities is high and on a large scale. Its cross-complexity will be suitable for dividing the city into small surrounding villages. The city will have a somewhat developed administrative and cultural center. The main criteria that raise a settlement to the status of a city are the number of people there and their functions (industrial, cultural, political-administrative centers). ## Emergence of the city Cities began to be created on Earth 6000 years ago. The first city appeared in the Middle East. At first, it appeared at the intersections of trade routes, craft centers, and state power centers. This is because the meaning of the city describes the important events of the people living in this region. A city is a center of culture, science, education, and production, and urbanization was rapid in places where trade was developed, where magnificent buildings were built, and where the country was governed. ## Astana city It is considered a very important city for the power of world states. Not only will there be social, economic and cultural centers, but most importantly, the largest bodies of state power and management apparatuses will be located there. The largest city of the state may not belong to the capital city. For example, the city of Montreal is considered the largest industrial and transport center of Canada. Ottawa is the main capital. Ottawa is home to parliament, government, foreign affairs and two universities, as well as a library, museum, and research center. Similarly, the Chinese city of Shanghai is much bigger and more developed than Beijing. New York City of the USA is considered the largest and most developed city in the country. Also, the city of Almaty in Kazakhstan has a larger population, a larger territory, and a higher level of development than the city of Astana. ## Urban sociology Urban sociology is based on the city, social structure in the city, organization, psychology in the city, social problems in the city, development of the city, obedience to the law in the city and investigates a number of violations of the law. He analyzed the city from a spatial and temporal point of view, from physical spaces (buildings, streets, gardens, factories, administration, political buildings, cultural places) to social systems (family, neighborhood, group, collective, colleagues, children, youth, old people, women). ..) conducts scientific and practical research on various problems of development, explains the actual situation of cities, shows existing problems and offers solutions. In urban sociology, especially for the first time at the University of Chicago, since 1920, the topic of studying cities, districts or regions has been taken up from the point of view of sociology. There, urban sociologists, who became world-famous under the name of the Chicago School of Sociology, created the first example of a real study of the city's ecology, youth, and crime. For example, representatives of the Chicago School of Sociology, Park, Burgess and McKenzie, published in 1925 in their book on Urban Ecology, proposed five different concentric zone models (Concentric zone model) formed in the development of the city by observing and studying the city of Chicago. Among them, there is also a transition zone (Zone of transition), which immediately leads to crisis and conflict, where young people commit crimes very often. These are five zones: * Central business district (CBD) * Zone of transition: it is located between the residential area and the commercial area. * Working-class residential zone * Middle-class residential zone * Commuter zone (commuter zone). ## Urban ecology Urban ecology includes a number of issues - the cleanliness of the city, landscaping in the city, air, water, food and drink of the city, the condition of animals in the city, and the beauty of the city. Environmental problems have arisen in regions with a large number of inhabitants since long ago, but nowadays such problems are more common in industrial cities. In order to solve these problems, construction of various biofuels, waste treatment facilities, natural areas and parks for the purpose of landscaping is underway. ## Sources ## See also * Monocity * Companion City * Sister City

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5345

Turksoy

The International Organization for the Development of Turkish Culture and Art, abbreviated TURKSOY (trans. Ulusarassari Türk Kültürü Teşkilatı, -{TÜRKSOY}-) is an international organization for the development of Turkish culture and art. 1993 On July 12, representatives of the constituent countries signed the agreement in Almaty. The Republic of Turkey was appointed as the host country of the organization. The official language of TURKSOY organization is Turkish. The head office is located in Ankara (Turkey). 1994 Polad Bulbul Oghly, the Minister of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan, was elected as the General Director of the international organization three times (1994, 1997, 2000). ## Goals The main goals of the organization: * To support new cultural organizations at the territorial and worldwide level with the aim of creating a new balance in international relations. * Establishing friendly relations between peoples and countries that speak the Turkic language, studying the common Turkic culture, language, history, art, customs, publicizing, developing, preserving, inheriting and telling the story of the common Turkic culture. * Creating an appropriate environment and conditions for the use of a common language and alphabet in the Turkic world. * To strengthen the scientific research of the common past, history, language and literature, culture and art of the peoples of the Turkic world. * Creating conditions for the inheritance of the nation's history, mother tongue, literature, culture and art, customs and traditions to future generations. ## Members TURKSOY includes 14 countries, including sovereign countries, federal subjects and autonomous regions. At the end of 2015, the Minister of Culture of Russia, Vladimir Medinsky, sent a telegram to the heads of the Republics of Altai, Bashkortostan, Sakha (Yakutia), Tatarstan, Tyva and Khakassia, on the obligation to stop relations with the International Organization of Turkish Culture. This led to the withdrawal of Tyva, Altai and Yakutia from the organization. ## See also * List of Turkic-speaking territories ## External links * TURKSOY official site Archived 23 August 2009.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7588

Aubakir Ismayilov

Aubakir Ismaililov is a People's Artist of the Kazakh SSR, director and actor. People's artist of Kazakhstan ## Biography Aubakir Ismaililov was born in 1913 in village No. 6 (now Karaganda region, Telman district). His father was a miner. What remained in the artist's memory was the ugly appearance of the smoky sheets and dusty fields built by the British. Since his childhood, Aubakir painted a lot, he used to make various toys out of clay, and he was especially fond of making sculptures of horses and horsemen. His work was exhibited for the first time at the age of fifteen. In 1928, when the young artist was just entering the adult life, the first art exhibition was held in the cities and towns of Kazakhstan (Semei, Petropavl, Kyzylorda, etc.). 30 artists took part in it, and 110 paintings, graphics and crafts were presented. In each city where the exhibition was held, it was supplemented with the works of local artists. N. Krutilnikov, F. Bolkoev, M. Belov, V. The mobile exhibition, organized by such great talents as Ufimtsev, received great support from the Soviet government and quickly gained public respect. Commissioner of Public Education A. Lunacharsky sent a special telegram congratulating, after which the exhibition was placed under the patronage of the state. In the spring of 1929, an exhibition was opened in Kyzylorda, the then capital of the republic, during the next session of the Council. When this exhibition was held in Petropavlovsk, Aubakir Ismailov took part in it for the first time. Even though the works of this amateur artist were sketchy, they attracted people's attention. In 1927-1928, Aubakir Ismayilov studied at the M. He studied at the studio for Kazakh youth of Vrubel Vocational Art College. In those years, the artist G. often came to Kazakhstan to depict field life. The work done together with Savitsky benefited the young artist a lot. Ismayilov's early works have not been preserved. Only the names of those pictures are known. At the exhibition in 1928-1929, the artist's watercolors "Hunter in Betpakdala" and "Sarysu Alkaby" and about twenty paintings on the theme of the rural poor were shown. In 1932, Ismayilov pays more attention to depicting the work of miners. The name of the artist is widely known in Kazakhstan and abroad. We would be wrong to say that Ismayilov's special recognition in the country is only due to his landscapes and thematic paintings, his acting, directing, dancing, ballet master's skills also aroused great interest of the people. ## Filmography * 1931 - Ticket to Life * 1956 - Birches in the field - Amanov * 1957 - Our favorite doctor * 1968 - Turbaned angel - Niyaz * 1971 - Special day - Zhanbek * 1979 - Twelve years old - Kokai Agha * 1981 - Birthplace - collective farm chairman * 1996 - Zhambyl ## Awards * Order of the Red Banner of Labor * Order of the Badge of Honor (March 1, 1959). * "For meritorious service" medal (March 25, 1946). * People's Artist of the Kazakh SSR (1985). * Honored Artist of the Kazakh SSR (1960). * A biographical film "Life Palette" (Kazakhfilm, 1983) was shot based on the script of Gulzamira Ismailova, the artist's daughter. * On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the birth of Aubakir Ismayilov, on September 28, 2012, one of the streets in the city of Astana (between Respublika Avenue and Baraev Street) was named after him. ## Pictures * * * * *

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4592

Dernovoi

Dernovoy, Anatoly Grigorievich — Minister of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan. ## Short biography 1951 Born on August 21 in Karaganda. 1974 Graduated from Karaganda Medical Institute. Candidate of medical sciences. He started his career as the department head of the sanitary-epidemiological station of the Kirov district of Taldykorgan region, later he worked as the chief state sanitary doctor of this district. 1991-1994. — Chief state sanitary doctor of Almaty region. 1994-1996. — Deputy Minister of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan — chief state sanitary doctor. 1996 — Head of the Medical Center of the Affairs Department of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. 2006 Minister of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan from September 20. ## Awards * with the medal "For outstanding merit" in 1987, * with the medal "Astana" in 2000, * "For meritorious service to the Republic of Kazakhstan " medal in 2001, * awarded with the anniversary medal "10 years to the Constitution of Kazakhstan" in 2005, * 2005 laureate of the State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of science, technology and education.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3604

Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (Russian: Содружество Независимых Государств, SNG) was established in 1991 to replace the collapsed USSR. International organization established on December 21. CIS is not a supranational organization and carries out its activities on a voluntary basis, with the consent of its members. ## Historical review 1991 On December 8, 1922, the leaders of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine met in Minsk (Belovezh). Signed an agreement on the cancellation of the Agreement on the establishment of the USSR and the establishment of the CIS. 1991 On December 13, the leaders of Central Asia and Kazakhstan met in Ashgabat and declared their support for the Belovezh Agreement. 1991 On December 20, the leaders of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan signed the Agreement on the establishment of the CIS on December 21 in Almaty. The participants of the meeting adopted the Almaty Declaration, which confirms commitment to cooperation in various areas of domestic and foreign policy, and declares a guarantee to fulfill the international obligations of the former SSR Union. Georgia joined the Commonwealth in December 1993, and left the Commonwealth on August 18, 2009. Turkmenistan is an associate member of the CIS. The Commonwealth of Independent States is not a state and does not have supranational authority. It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members and acts according to the Decree of January 22, 1993. The member states of the Commonwealth are independent and equal subjects of international law. ## Structure * Council of Heads of State; * Council of heads of governments; * Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs; * Economic council; * Council of Ministers of Defense; * Council of leaders of border troops; * CIS Economic Court; * Interparliamentary Assembly of the CIS member states; * Permanent authorized representatives of CIS member states under the statutory and other bodies of the Commonwealth; * Permanent Authorized Representatives of the Commonwealth of Nations in the Commission on Economic Issues under the CIS Economic Council; * CIS Executive Committee. ## Impact of the CIS on Kazakhstan The Commonwealth of Independent States was established in 1991. The establishment of the commonwealth ensured the transition of independent states from a single state to a civilized form, and helped to create a new relationship between them based on the principle of a fully sovereign state and international law. In the council of such states, the division of labor between the republics is favorable, that is, for each of them to produce the types of products that are convenient for them. Product placement through special zones in a specific industry will be more cost-effective. This is well done in the CIS countries. Each country entering the CIS is training in its own direction. The new history of Kazakhstan is counted for about 15 years. If the economy of the republic during the Soviet period is considered in the given text, the complex of the national economy, and now we can fully describe the place and role of Kazakhstan in the global economy. The volume of concentration of the world economy is reflected in the next parameter. Most of the world's GDP belongs to 29 developed countries - 54.6%, including the Big 7 - 43.0%, the USA - 20.9%, 12 countries - the European Union - includes 15.3%. The emerging market and developing countries, consisting of 146 countries in the world, account for 7.2% of world GDP, 3.8% of which includes 12 CIS countries. Currently, Kazakhstan accounts for 0.1% of world GDP. However, since 1995, it has increased by 1.75%, and in 1999, this indicator decreased significantly, that is, it depends on 2 factors. First, because of the Asian-Russian financial crisis of 1997-1998. Secondly, the devaluation of the national currency in April 1999. Since 2000, Kazakhstan's world GDP has been steadily growing. However, many countries in the world are ahead of Kazakhstan in terms of growth rate. According to the indicator of the comparative analysis of the growth dynamics of the transport economy, since 1999, the GDP of Kazakhstan has been changing compared to the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Compared to the 90s, the growth of GDP in Kazakhstan in recent years is due to the decrease in large oil exports. In countries where hydrocarbon raw materials are the main source of export income, the growth of economic dynamics is lower than in countries where energy is not a commodity in export income. World export of goods and services is 71.8% in developed countries, of which 42.3% of this figure belongs to the 7 leading countries in the world, 21.2% of the world's export of goods and services belongs to developing countries, transit economy countries share is 7%, including 2.7% for the CIS countries. Foreign trade is important for the integration of modern Kazakhstan with the world economy. In the last 10 years, the export of goods and services of Kazakhstan has increased 2 times. This is explained by 3 factors. First of all, the volume of foreign investment flows was influenced by the creation of a favorable investment climate, the contribution of which is directed to the development of the oil production industry in the country. In turn, this led to an increase in gas and oil extraction. Secondly, the favorable conjuncture of hydrocarbon production in the world market contributed to the growth of export potential in the Republic. Thirdly, in the last ten years, the share of Kazakhstan's export of goods and services has increased compared to the rapid development of world trade. The growth of export of goods in Kazakhstan is higher than in other countries of the world. In these ten years, export of goods increased by 3.8%, and import by 3.3%. The rapid growth of Kazakhstan's commodity exports has been observed in the last 3 years. The scope of Kazakhstan's integration (unification) in the world economy should be designed based on proximity in the flow of foreign investment and study of regional geography. One of the main directions of economic reforms in the republic remains the attractiveness of the investment policy, that is, it creates favorable conditions for local and foreign investments. The investment situation in Kazakhstan is attractive among transit countries. This is confirmed by the fact that our republic is the first among the CIS countries to receive a credit rating at the investment level. Kazakhstan is ahead of the rest of the CIS countries due to the attractiveness of the economy, stability of the political system and financial resources for potential investors. Kazakhstan has one of the leading places in the volume of foreign direct investment (FDI) among transit economy countries. Kazakhstan's share of direct foreign investment in the global volume is growing year by year. In 1999-2000, the weight of the direct flow of foreign investment in the republic decreased in the global scale, but this indicator quickly changed. In the last 3 years, the direct flow of foreign investment in Kazakhstan has been at the level of 0.35%. The maximum value of this indicator was set in 2000. As a rule, the investment climate is favorable. Later, the amount of domestic investment will increase. As abroad, their production decides to support the rapid growth of the economy in the country. Kazakhstan, in the last 9 years, has determined the flow of foreign investment from many states and regions of the world by the attraction of dynamics. In 2003, compared to 1995, growth increased by 214.5%. In developing countries, this indicator is equal to 178.2%, and in developing countries it is 153.8%, in Central and Eastern European countries it is 147%, and in Russia it is 43.3%. During 1993-2004, the cumulative flow of foreign investment directed to the economy of Kazakhstan was $34 billion. made up, most of it comes from the oil and gas sector. $ 18.9 billion. or 55.1% of the total volume. Regardless of global macro-economic parameters, Kazakhstan has great potentials for prospective development, that is, it is rich in natural resources. Suffice it to say that currently there are 1225 types of mineral raw materials in 500 places. The Republic takes the leading position in the world in these types. Kazakhstan ranks first in the world in terms of zinc, tungsten and barite, second in silver, lead, chromium, copper, third in manganese, fluorite, fourth in molybdenum, and among the top ten in gold. Our country accounts for 8% of the world's iron ore, about 25% of uranium. Kazakhstan ranks 13th in oil exploration in the world. At the beginning of 2003, oil and gas exploration amounted to 4.6 billion tons, including 331.5 million tons of gas. tons. Caspian oil is valued at 1.6 billion, which is 38% of "black gold". Natural gas is equal to 3 trillion square meters. In 1995-2004, the volume of domestic trade increased by 3.6 times, and in 2004 it reached 32,877.5 million. amounted to US dollars. After 1999, the growth rate of export operations increased by 10%, in 2000 by 50%, and in 2004 by 56%. The increase in domestic trade, as well as the increase in the volume of exports, had an impact on import operations. The geography of foreign trade included the expansion of the variety of production (diversification), that is, the CIS during the years of independence. In 2004, the European Union, Russia, Switzerland and China took the first place in the trade structure of Kazakhstan. Institutions in the Republic of Kazakhstan have trade partnerships with 171 countries in the world. In recent years, there have been changes in the geographical structure of export and import, and the percentages have changed between the CIS and other countries. In 2004, the internal trade turnover of Kazakhstan with the CIS countries amounted to 10,215.1 million US dollars, which increased by 48% compared to 2003, including export of $ 4097.2 million, import of $ 6117.9 million. formed. foreign trade turnover with other countries of the world amounted to 22662.4 million and increased by 57% compared to 2003, while export amounted to $15999.0 million and increased by 61%, import amounted to $6663.4 million and increased by 49%. Raw materials make up most of the commodity structure of commodity exports. Mineral products and metals are the main commodity groups, although the relative weight of these commodities has changed. Compared to previous years, mineral products are increasing, and metal products are decreasing. In 2004, compared to 2003, the relative weight of food products decreased by 2%, the share of raw materials and metal products decreased by 1%, and mineral products increased by 4%. Despite the increase in the volume of food products, wheat, barley and meat delivery operations were based on export results. Metal industry products increased by 48% compared to previous years. The main buyers of Kazakhstan products are Switzerland (18.7%), Italy (15.5%), Russia (14.1%), China (9.8%), France (7.3%). , Virgin Islands (3.8%), Iran (3.5%), Netherlands (2.3%), Israel and Portugal (1.6%), Azerbaijan, Spain, USA and Ukraine (1.4%) gets The total volume of exports for the CIS countries is 20.4%. Compared to 2003, the export in the CIS countries increased by 38% and amounted to 4097, $ 2 million. formed. In the meantime, Kazakhstan's production increased in all CIS countries. The share of the total export volume of other countries in the world was 79.6%. European countries make up the volume of Kazakhstan's exports, their relative weight is 54.6%, 34.8% of which goes to the European Union. Among the European countries, the main consumers of Kazakhstan's exports are Switzerland, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Great Britain and Germany. Compared to 2003, the total export of European countries increased by 2.6%. The volume of delivery of Kazakhstani products to countries in the Asian region increased by 31%. The relative weight of the Republic of China remains high in the region. Kazakhstan's export to American countries has halved. The commodity structure of import and export includes machinery, equipment, transport, chemical products and related products, raw materials for the production of metal products. In recent years, the share of export of mineral products has been increasing. Similarly, the relative weight of the metal industry is being determined. The increase in exports, as well as the volume of physical deliveries, is increasing depending on the cost of the indicator. The volume level increased by the main groups of goods, which are: machines, tools, transport, pipes and apparatus. The level of imports of metal industry, mineral products, chemical industry products is observed. The main suppliers of imported products are: Russia, Germany, China, Ukraine, USA, Italy, Japan, Turkey, France, Great Britain, Korea, Uzbekistan, Netherlands. The CIS countries are importers of products in the Kazakhstan market. 50% of the total 28.9% decrease in imports in the European country was due to the import of various types of cars, small tools imported from Germany and Italy, cars, and Italian furniture. The growth of Asian imports was influenced by Japanese transport, Indian tea, Chinese and Japanese pipelines, and aluminum products from China and Turkey. Compared to 2003, US imports increased by 30%. The main part of the goods comes from the USA. ## Cooperation of Kazakhstan within the CIS The development of relations with the CIS states, including multilateral integrated interaction, is one of the most important directions of the foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan's method of multilateral cooperation within the framework of the CIS is based on the concept of integration at different paces, resulting from the possibility of forming a small group of closely integrated countries. Kazakhstan supports the open conduct of activities of sub-regional associations in the space of the Commonwealth, and the integration of their goals and practical activities in the common channel of development of the CIS. The commonwealth is characterized by selective participation of states in various spheres of multilateral interaction, that is, it takes place in the format of interested parties. The force of the decisions of the CIS bodies extends only to the states that participated in their adoption. In order to improve the effectiveness of the CIS activities and improve its structure, the concept of further development of the CIS, which includes all directions of cooperation, and an action plan for its implementation were developed on the initiative of Kazakhstan and approved in Dushanbe in October 2007. Based on them, the CIS Economic Development Strategy until 2020 was developed and adopted. Creation of a free trade zone, trade, agriculture, electricity, etc. it is planned to complete the works of market formation. Cooperation continues in political, humanitarian, transport, security and migration spheres. This Plan contains a list of specific measures to improve the association's activities. In particular, in accordance with this document, in October 2008, the regulations on the chairmanship of the CIS and the National Coordinators were adopted. Work is underway to optimize the branch bodies of the Commonwealth, it is planned to introduce changes and additions to the Charter of the CIS, and to adopt a new rule of procedure in the Supreme bodies of the CIS. Taking into account the principle of work under the formula "One year - one theme", 2007 was devoted to the preparation of proposals on the agreed migration policy (the relevant Declaration was adopted in Dushanbe on October 5, 2007), 2008 was devoted to cooperation in the field of agreed transport policy the year of preparation of proposals, and 2009 is the year of cooperation in the field of energy. ## Languages of the CIS countries Languages spoken by the peoples of the CIS. There are about 130 languages of the main peoples living in the CIS. Some peoples who speak those languages have their own state outside the CIS. The languages of the CIS countries differ from each other in terms of origin, typology, number of speakers, and writing traditions. The languages of the CIS countries consist of the following groups and families in terms of origin (genetic kinship): * Indo-European languages, including: * Armenian language; * Eastern Slavic languages - Belarusian, Russian, Ukrainian; * Germanic languages - Yiddish; * Iranian languages — Baluch language, Eastern-Iranian language in the Pamirs, Kurdish, Ossetian, Tajik, Talysh, Tat, Yagnob languages, Pamir languages; * new Indian languages - Gypsy language; * includes Romance languages — Moldavian. * Caucasian (Ibero-Caucasian) languages, including: * Abkhaz-Adyghe languages - Abazy, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Kabardian-Sherkesh languages; * Kartvelian languages - Georgian, Zan, Svan languages; * Dagestan languages - Avar, Andean languages; Lezgin languages; Cez languages; * Nakh languages include Bacbii, Ingush, and Chechen languages. * Sino-Tibetan languages, including Dunden. * Mongolian languages, including: Buryat, Kalmyk languages. ## Sources ## External links * Official website of the CIS Executive Committee (in Russian)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6467

Internet

The Internet (pronounced [internet]; English Internet — International Network) is a worldwide network of computer servers. Information is available from millions of sources, including educational institutions, government organizations, commercial enterprises, and individuals, as long as you have an Internet connection. Nowadays, when we use the word Internet, we do not mean the physical network itself, but the World Wide Web and the information on it. If we rely on the English RFC document that introduced this term, then this term is written in two forms and has two meanings, respectively. If the word Internet begins with a lowercase letter, then this term refers to the concept of connecting networks by routing data packets. At this time, there is no mention of a large information space. Often, these two concepts are not distinguished from each other. ## About the Internet The Internet is a system of networks, the ability to exchange and transmit information with any computers around the world. The Internet is a set of sites that connect communications. Each group usually has one or more powerful server computers running the UNIX operating system. Such a site is sometimes called a host. The site is managed by its owner - an organization called an ISP or an Internet service provider. The Internet connects networks that operate under different rules. A gateway device serves to coordinate these rules. A gateway is a device that connects otherwise incompatible networks. The gateway does not change the data to ensure the cooperation of different networks. The Internet includes computers running various operating systems. However, when exchanging information, uniform agreements on all computer communication methods should be used. Then any computer will be able to understand the information received from any other computer. Electronic mail or e-mail is one of the ways of communication between people. The main function of e-mail on the Internet is to carry out an efficient and very fast exchange of e-mails - text messages between any two users of the Internet, wherever they are on the planet. Additional features of e-mail include: transmission of sound messages, documents, drawings, photos, video materials; access to scientific journals, rare books, advertising and sending or selling various goods; in addition, software support of collective activities; document use in institutions and organizations; planning collective work. EFT (Electronic Funds Transfer - electronic transfer of funds) and EDI (Electronic Funds Data Interchange - electronic exchange of data) transfer of money, accounts and other financial documents that are actually provided over the network. Currently, it is known that a massive technical component of any information technology is a computer. Use of computer telecommunication - provides organization of work with a remote computer in dialogue mode or e-mail mode. Also, email is very convenient and inexpensive. ## History of the Internet After the Soviet Union launched an artificial Earth satellite in 1957, the US Department of Defense decided that a reliable system for transmitting information was needed. The US Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) proposed the creation of a computer network for this purpose. The creation of this network was entrusted to the University of California at Los Angeles, Stanford Research Center, Utah State University and California State University at Santa Barbara. The computer network was called ARPANET, and in 1969, it united the four mentioned science centers, all the work was funded by the US Department of Defense. After that, the ARPANET network developed rapidly, and scientists in various fields of science began to use it. ]] The first ARPANET server was installed on September 1, 1969 at the University of California, Los Angeles. The Honeywell 516 had 12 KB of RAM. In 1971, the first computer program to send e-mail over the network was created and it became widely distributed. In 1973, organizations from Great Britain and Norway were connected to this network with the help of a transatlantic telephone cable, and the network became international. In the 1970s, the Internet was mainly used for sending e-mail. However, the Internet would not be able to communicate with networks based on other technical standards. In the late 1970s, data transfer standards began to spread, and they were unified in 1982-83. On September 1, 1983, the ARPANET network migrated from the NCP protocol to the TCP/IP protocol, which is still used today to connect networks. In 1983, the term "Internet" was associated with the ARPANET network. In 1984, the Domain Name System (DNS) was developed. In 1984, a competitor to the ARPANET appeared. The US National Science Foundation (NSF) created the NSFNet (|National Science Foundation Network), a large interuniversity network, which included many smaller networks (including the popular Usenet and Bitnet networks at the time), which had a much higher data transfer capacity than the ARPANET. was About 10,000 computers were connected to this network within a year. In 1988, the Internet Relay Chat (IRC) protocol was created and the possibility of real-time communication (chat) appeared on the Internet. In 1989, in Europe, within the walls of the European Council for Nuclear Tests (CERN), the concept of the World Wide Web appeared. It was introduced by the famous English scientist Tim Berners-Lee, who invented the HTTP protocol, HTML language and URI identifiers in two years. In 1990, the ARPANET network was unable to withstand competition from the NSFNet network and ceased operations. This year, I was able to connect to the Internet by phone (Dialup access). In 1991, the World Wide Web appeared on the Internet, and in 1993, the famous NCSA Mosaic browser appeared. In 1995, NSFNet returned to its original research goals, with network providers instead of National Science Foundation supercomputers routing all Internet traffic. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded this year, surpassing the FTP file transfer protocol in terms of traffic and becoming the main source of information transfer on the Internet. It can be said that the World Wide Web changed the Internet and influenced the formation of its modern face. Since 1996, it can be said that the World Wide Web has completely changed the concept of the Internet. In the 1990s, the Internet merged most of the networks of the time (some networks, such as Fidonet, were not part of the Internet). Because the technical standards of the Internet are open, and there is no specific company that manages it, the development of the Internet has greatly influenced the integration of separate networks. In 1997, there were 10 million computers on the Internet, and more than 1 million domain names were registered. The Internet has become the most popular means of information exchange. In 1998, Pope John Paul II approved World Internet Day as September 30. Today, it is possible to communicate with the Internet not only through computer networks, but also through communication satellites, radio signals, cable TV, telephone, cellular communication, special optical fiber networks and power lines. ## Advances in the Internet Internet technology is changing rapidly. As it became easier to work with the Internet, the current changes are in who uses the site and for what purpose. However, the question arises: "Can I find information about what I want to know on the Web?" Therefore, before making a phone call or going to the library, they get information from the Web. Search for people. If you do not know where the person you need is, there is a chance that you will find him or her anywhere. For this, you can use the service directory or phone book. Search for companies, products or other services. A new directory service called Yellow Page allows you to search for companies with specialties that interest you. To quickly find its address, you can enter the code corresponding to that region. In this way, you can find something that you are not able to reach. Research. Law firms used to pay $8,600 an hour for the information they needed, but now they can get it on the Internet for much less. Real estate firms use Internet-friendly demographics to price them. Scientists exchange results of their latest research. With the help of the Internet, businessmen learn about future markets. Education. School teachers can monitor teaching programs from around the world. College professors can communicate with their peers via e-mail and save on phone calls. Students do course work on the computer. In addition, you can get the latest edition of the encyclopedia and other necessary materials in dialog mode. Trip. Cities, towns, states, and entire countries can be found on the Web for travel and other useful information. Online, travelers can get weather information, traffic timetables, or museum opening hours. Marketing and sales. Here, software companies sell their products and offer new versions online. A variety of other products are sold online. E-book and gramophone stores are operational. The client can see the information he needs in the catalogs. Healthcare. Patients and doctors learn about the latest discoveries in the field of health care. They share their knowledge and help each other in solving medical problems. Investment. People buy shares and send their money to profitable circulation. Some companies offer their shares in an operational mode. In this way, investors find new industries, and industries find capital. Organizers of conferences and auctions can create messages, collect applications or register participants, etc. works on the Web. Here, the information is updated all the time, and here you can save a lot of paper and transport costs. Religion. Religious or other social groups have their own pages on the Web where they talk about themselves and invite other people to join their groups. ## The Internet in Kazakhstan At the beginning of March 1998, a new organization called the Telecommunications Association appeared under the management of telecommunications companies of the Republic. The purpose of the non-commercial structure is to connect the business of the enterprise, develop telecommunication networks, use information technology and provide communication services. The main number report of the Association provides: providing practical assistance in creating document relations between domestic and foreign operators. In this regard, it also includes services between customers and users. Along with the growth of electronic World Wide Web, many interesting and special sites are appearing here. Recently, a variety of directories, directories, and databases (including information on a variety of relevant topics) have begun to appear. For example, on the site you can choose a movie made in Hollywood and get detailed information about that movie. It shows its genre, acting, directing department and some stills from the film. There you can get detailed information about the movie actors, directors and voice operators that interest you. World Wide Web is the most popular service of modern Internet. It is often equated with the Internet, but in fact it is one of its many services. One Web server can have several sites. Electronic Web - documents are designed for viewing on a computer screen, not for printing on a printer. Programs for viewing web pages are called browsers. The World Wide Web consists entirely of hypertexts. Hypertext is a text presented in an associative manner associated with individual blocks of text. Suppose we suddenly need a file, let us know where it is. Now let's see how to import that file to our computer. For this purpose, a system called File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used. In order to access FTP server details, everyone must follow a standard login conversation. An example of it should be the following: Open named password-FTP-server request sequence, where: * Request to connect with the Open FTP server, * Name supplemented with the necessary information or anonymous, * Password - password of the requesting person or his postal address. ## Basic Principles of the Internet The Internet is made up of thousands of corporate, government, scientific, and home networks. Integration of networks of different architectures and topologies was achieved by using the IP (Internet Protocol) protocol and data packet routing. The IP protocol was deliberately designed to be independent of physical communication channels. That is, any system for the transfer of digital data can also communicate with the Internet. At the connected nodes of networks, special routers (software or hardware) are engaged in sorting and routing data packets, looking at the IP addresses of the recipients of the packets. The IP protocol creates a single address space worldwide, but each individual network can have its own address space. This arrangement of IP addresses allows routers to determine the direction of each data packet. Thus, there are no conflicts between separate networks in the Internet, and information is transmitted accurately worldwide. The IP protocol was invented by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force). The IETF and its working groups continue to develop World Wide Web protocols today. Ordinary users can participate in the IETF. These organization committees publish RFC documents. These documents provide technical specifications and precise explanations of many questions. ## Internet protocols In this case, the concept of protocol means the "language" of data exchange between computers when working with the network. In order for different computers to communicate with each other, they must communicate using the same protocol. The Internet protocol system is called the TCP/IP protocol suite. Below are the names of the most common Internet protocols: * At the application level:DNSFTPHTTPHTTPSIMAPLDAPPOP3SMTPSSHTelnetXMPP (Jabber)SNMP * DNS * FTP * HTTP * HTTPS * IMAP * LDAP * POP3 * SMTP * SSH * Telnet * XMPP (Jabber) * SNMP # # Headline text * Session level/presentation level SSLTLS * SSL * TLS * Transport level TCPUDP * TCP * UDP * Network level BGPICMPIGMPIPOSPFRIPEIGRPIS-IS * BGP * ICMP * IGMP * IP * OSPF * RIP * EIGRP * IS-IS * Channel-levelEthernetFrame relayHDLCPPSLIP \ <> * Ethernet * Frame relay * HDLC * PPP * SLIP Although not standardized, there are widely used protocols on the Internet. In most cases, these protocols are necessary for the exchange of files and textual data, and entire file exchange networks have been built on the basis of some of them. These protocols are: * OSCAR * CDDB * eDonkey2000 (network name; the protocol is called MFTP) * BitTorrent * Gnutella * Skype \< > ## See more * Internet * IP telephony * E-mail * Internet TV * Internet of Kazakhstan \< > ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2295

Дина

Dina Kenzhekyny Nurpeyisova (1861, Beketai kum, Zhanakala district, West Kazakhstan region - January 31, 1955, Almaty) is a famous Kazakh music composer, People's Artist of Kazakhstan. ## Biography Born from Tolengit tribe. At the age of 75, Dina took part in the republican competition of folk artists in 1937, at the first All-Union competition of artists playing folk instruments held in Moscow, and then in 1944, at the age of 83, at the ten-day festival in Tashkent, where artists from five Central Asian republics participated. Even when Dina grew up in her parents' house, she used to emulate the status of the musicians such as Ak Dauletkerey, Musirali, Alikey, Turkesh, Uzak, Eszhan, Baijuma, Balamaisang, and was called "drummer girl". The famous Kurmangazy came looking for her after hearing about the fame of Karshadayi girl. He admired Dina's drumming, had high hopes for her future, and blessed her. After that, without taking a look at Dina, he always goes round and round, joins the discussions and teaches the deep secrets of playing the dombra. From the age of nine to the age of nineteen, Dina will be under the care of Kurmangazy. It was not only Dina who was lucky to have such a fighting musician as Kurmangazy as her teacher, but it was also the happiness of Kazakh music. According to her granddaughter Balzhan Nurpeyisova, our sister Dina married Makat's son Nurpeyis at the age of 18-19. In those years, her last name was registered as Nurpeyisova in the documents. Nurpeyis Makatuly died early, and they left descendants named Jamal, Kairat, Zhurynbay. In 1885, widowed at a young age, Dina married her brother-in-law Nuraly. ## Works Dina's beautiful and lovely compositions were born in the years when she saw the love of her husband and was blessed with the happiness of a child. In the Uzatys, the tune "Karakaska at" composed for the Karakas horse that his father had ridden as his offspring, tunes such as "Bulbul", "Dzhiger", "Baijuma", which he composed in imitation of his famous musicians Dauletkerey and Turkesh, "Kerbez" dedicated to his smart and intelligent, beautiful and secretive brother. " state, "Sixteenth Year" ("Nabor"), which was drawn by the eldest son Zhurymbai when he was drafted into the army according to the "June decree" of 1916, "Kosalka" state born out of admiration for his esteemed contemporaries, "Asem konur" dedicated to his son Konyr, as sweet as honey and as close as liver meat. mood, these are the unique moods that clearly show Dina's own signature. Through these tunes, Dina extended the field of Kazakh tunes and raised the height, and she herself equalized her window with the great tunes. Even in Soviet times, Dina devoted her dreams and hopes to the path of her people. Despite his advanced age, he released tunes such as "Toibastar" on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of Kazakhstan, "Mother's Order" and "Victory" during the Patriotic War. It's true that the bad politics and flamboyant ideology caused by the repressive harshness of the society blocked Dina's talent. They tried to deprive him of his back (inspiration) and make him a slave of extreme sloganeering. He named the tunes "Enbek er", "Milkman", "Stalin", "Delegate", "Vegetable" and turned them into slogans of official celebrations. ## Last days Dina Kenzhekovna died on January 31, 1955 at the age of 94 in Almaty. Balzhan Nurpeyisova says about her grandmother's last days: "She was not mistaken in her words until her death. The holy black dombra was his companion from childhood and he had such a powerful habit that five to ten minutes before his death, he removed the dombra that was hanging by his bed, caressed it, tapped it gently, and played Kurmangazy's "Kairan Checham". Although his weak fingers could not bend, he passed away while reproducing the mood in his chest. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5225

Сүйінбай

Suyinbay Aronuly was born in 1815 in the village of Karakastek, present-day Almaty region. Talented, great Kazakh poet and legend of Aytis. The poet died in 1898 in his native village of Karakastek. ## Biography Suyinbay came from the Ekey clan in Shapyrasht (Uly Yuz). Suyinbay Known for his beauty since his youth. Suyinbai's work was influenced by his grandfather Kusep and father Aron, who were known for their poetic talent and skill. The famous poet Zhambyl considered him as his teacher, saying "My idol is Suyinbay, don't pray with words." Kusep's eldest sons, Zhanbyrshi and Zhamanak, were known among the Kazakhs as singers, kobyz singers, and musicians, while their youngest son, Aron (1750 - 1835), was known for his sharpness and negotiating eloquence from an early age. Suyinbai was gifted with the art of poetry and oratory, which was passed down from father to son. Suyinbay's older brothers Zhamanchal and Zhumyk, and his younger brother Ospan, are known among the villagers for their critical and one-sided poems. About this, Zhamanshal said to Suyinbai: "I am fast in the family, you are fast in the square group." In historical data, it is said that Suyinbay and Sarybay bi had a great influence in reuniting the heads of the Kazakh clans, which had moved to different places due to the invasion of the Kokan Khanate, and in the difficult winter period (1840 - 1860). At this point, the poet urged the people to stand against the Kokanites and fight for independence. "Otegen batyr", "Saurik batyr", "Suransky batyr", "Zabay batyr", "Karasai batyr" were released. Since he lived in a turbulent society, Suyinbay was actively involved in public and social affairs. In his poems, he spoke the truth, not shying away from the rulers of Kokan and the local unjust sultan, nobles and rich people. Especially, in his arguments with the poet Tezek and the Kyrgyz poet Katagan, as well as in "Datkas", "Umbetali", "Four Dances", "Leaving the meek cattle to the wicked", etc. mercilessly criticized cruelty and tyranny in his poems. His eloquent sayings, sikak poems dedicated to bolys-dances ("Maksutka", "Kasymga", "Bolystar baag", etc.) have been preserved. Stages of historical and social development of the Kazakh people and the reality of life in the past centuries are comprehensively illustrated in the works of the poet. Suyinbai's poetry was distinguished by its deep philosophy, beauty of thought, and poetic expressions in the poet's language. M. Auezov called Suyinbay "the golden pillar of the art of speech". The poet, who was a defender and supporter of the Kazakh people in the struggle for justice, has kept the poems, stories, and sayings of the Kazakh people to this day and always kept them in their minds as "Suiynbai said this". Collection and publication of Suyinbay's sayings and poems began at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1920, the Kyrgyz (Kazakh) scientific commission, established under the commissariat of public education of the Turkestan SSR, organized an expedition to the Syrdarya and Zhetisu regions in order to collect samples of oral literature, and recorded the poems and sayings of the ethnographer A. Divaev Suyinbai. In 1929, for the first time in the "New Literature" magazine (6th year), the poet wrote "Exaggeration, is this Sarybay?" the poem was published. The works of the poet were included in textbooks published in each period and promoted in the country. The poem "Said by the poet Suyinbai in his old age" was included in the collection "Variants of old Kazakh literature" (1931) compiled by S. Seifullin. In 1935, a collection of the poet's works compiled by K. Zhansugirov and F. Gabitova was published for the first time as a separate collection under the name "Suyinbay Akin". In 1939, 1940, 1941 and 1944, S. Mukanov and K. Bekhozhin included several poems of Suyinbai in their textbooks for the 8th grade of high school ("Suyinbay and Dung the Judge", "Suyinbai's condolences to Tezek's dead son", "About old age"). After the establishment of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences (1946), the works of scientists Divaev, S. Begalin, B. Zhakypbaev, Kyrgyz folklorists Sh. Umetaliyev and E. Mukanbetov, who collected and published the heritage of the poet Suyinbay, can be mentioned in particular. Also, some of Suyinbai's heritage is preserved in the literary fund of Zh. Zhabayev's memorial museum. Suyinbai's works are given a lot of space in the collections "Akyn Zhyrlary", "Works of Kazakh Poets of the 17th - 19th Centuries", "Three Centuries Sing", and "Aytys of Suyinbai and Tezek" was published in volume 1 of the "Aitys" collection. The poet Suyinbay's collection "Aqiyk" (1976) contains, in addition to his selected works, many poems and sayings added from scratch, his works are systematized and divided into topics. Suyinbai's poem "Old Age" was published in volume 102 of the 200-volume collection published in Moscow under the "Library of World Literature" series. This shows that the poet's works are a precious heritage, a valuable literary monument, added to the world art of speech. Suyinbai had sons named Malybai, Zhetibai, Azirbai, and daughters named Bagzhan and Koizhan. The remains of the poet were placed on a high ridge on the eastern side of Karakystak, and a mausoleum was built over his grave. The Philharmonic of Almaty region, as well as a large avenue in Almaty city, his native village, school and streets there are named after Suyinbay. A memorial museum of Suyinbai works in the place of his birth. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6099

Шри-Ланка

Sri Lanka (sri Lanka (ශ්රීஇශ්රීශ්රීලංකා), full name Sri Lanka Democratic Socialist Republic (இஇஇசிசக் குடியரசு) - Ceylon in South Asia island state. It is part of the British Commonwealth. It is washed by the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean to the south. Sri Lanka has been a member of the UN since 1955. ## Population Land area 65.6 thousand km². The population is 43% million people (2001). 57% of the population are Sinhalese, 18% are Tamil, the rest are Moors (descendants of Arabs), Burghers, Veddas, Malays, Europeans (mainly English). The official languages are Sinhala, Tamil and English. Religion - Buddhism (70%), Hinduism (15%), Christianity (8%), Islam (7%). The capital is Sri Jayawardena Pura Kotte. (at the foot of Colombo). Administrator. divided into 9 provinces. The head of state is the president. No. The legislative body is a unicameral parliament. National holiday - Independence Day, February 4 (1948). The currency is the Sri Lankan Rupee. ## History Archaeological monuments prove that the island was inhabited by hunting tribes in the early stone age. These tribes are probably the ancestors of the modern Veddas. — in the 5th century BC, emigrants from India started coming to Sri Lanka in large numbers. — before our time. In the 3rd century, the first state union was established with Anuradhapura as its capital. Buddhism entered the island in this century. Later, Buddhism became the state religion. In general, very little written data on the history of the ancient and middle ages of the country has been preserved. It is known that for a long time continuous wars prevented the unification of the country, and the state was divided into a number of estates. In the 15th century, the Sinhalese state called Kotte was founded in the west and southwest of the island. A state called Kandy lived in the central highlands, and the Tamil state of Jaffna lived in the south. From 1505, the influence of the Portuguese began to increase in the state of Kotte. Sri Lanka was owned by Portugal from 1518 to 1658, the Netherlands from 1658 to 1795, and England occupied the island from 1795 to 1796. Although the local population rebelled several times against the colonialists, they were brutally suppressed. Coffee has been grown in the country since the 30s of the 19th century. Plantations were established on the lands taken from the local population, and the English ruled over the production and export of crops. From the 2nd half of the 19th century, enlightenment and religious-reformation movements (Buddhism, Hinduism) took place among the inhabitants. The national culture flourished and the struggle against the colonialists intensified. The first political parties were created. Fearing the rise of the national liberation movement, the British government agreed to give independence to Ceylon as a dominion on February 4, 1948. In 1950-60, foreign military bases were removed (1957), the state sector in the economy expanded, agr. reform was carried out. In foreign policy, a policy of non-alignment with military blocs was pursued. On May 22, 1972, Ceylon was declared the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. According to the new constitution, Sri Lanka became a politically independent country from Great Britain. But soon a civil war broke out in the country between the government army and Tamil separatists, which is still ongoing. Sinhalese-Tamil Ethn. During the conflict, more than 65,000 people were killed and hundreds of thousands became refugees. In 1987, the Tamils living in the north-east of the country were granted autonomy. A contingent of the Indian army was introduced to the country. Due to this situation, in 1991, Tamil terrorists assassinated the Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi. In 1993, Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa was killed. However, the rebel group and the government reached a peace agreement in 2002 with the intervention of Norway. In 2004, the country was badly affected by the tsunami. More than 38 thousand people died and 6 thousand people went missing. Hundreds of thousands of people were left homeless. In this regard, the world community provided large-scale financial assistance to Sri Lanka and implemented a program to restore the damaged economy. But in 2005, fighting started again between Tamils and government troops. Tamils control the northern and eastern provinces of the country. In this territory they declared their independent state of Tamil Eelam. But those people. degree is not recognized. ## Geography Sri Lanka is mostly flat. The southern part is covered by the mountain range (the highest point is Mount Pidurutalagala, height 2524 m), and the southwestern part is occupied by the low mountain Rakwana (the highest point is Mount Gongala, 1359 m). The coast is mostly low, surrounded by coral reefs, and there are many lagoons. The southern and eastern coasts are beautiful. Minerals are graphite, precious stones, phosphate, granite, marble, iron ore, monazite sand. The climate is mainly sub-equatorial, monsoonal, equatorial in the south, humid, and dry in the north and east. Average amount of annual precipitation. 2000 - 5000 mm (at the foot of the mountain), 1000 - 2000 mm (in the rest). The average annual temperature is 27°С (in the plains), 23-25°С (in the mountains). The rivers are short, but full of water, rich in hydropower resources. Major rivers are Mahaveli, Kalu, Kelani. Very rich in plant species. 44% of its territory is forest and shrubland. Equatorial forest grows in the southwest, tropical forest in the east, and mangrove forest on the sea coast. Elephant, leopard, deer, buffalo, bear, cheetah, and many species of birds live there. 3 national parks (Vilpattu, Yala (Ruhunu), Gal-Oya), 4 nature reserves and a large botanical garden near Kandy. Garden - Peradeniya organized. ## Economy Sri Lanka is an agrarian country. The main branch of economy is agriculture in Shay district. developed (takes 4th place in world tea production). Natural rubber is produced. Cocoa, pepper, cardamom products are of great export value. Main food crops: rice, millet, corn, beans, sweet potatoes, coconuts. In addition, millet, fruits, sugar cane, tobacco, etc. is grown. Animal husbandry is not very developed. Horned cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats, poultry are raised. Fishing and marine industry flourished. More than 150 enterprises operate in 5 free trade zones of the country, which mainly produce and export textile products. Electricity is obtained from the rivers. Production of food and consumer goods, oil refining, cement production, textile, clothing and footwear production, metal processing, etc. there are industrial facilities. It exports tea, natural rubber, clothing, coconut palm products, precious stones (mainly sapphire). Imports are based on machinery and equipment, oil, food products, etc. constitutes National income per capita. approximately equal to 3700 US dollars. The main trading partners are USA, Japan, Great Britain, Germany, China, Iran, Republic of Korea. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5398

Моңғолия

Mongolia (Mongolian Монгол улс — Mongolian country, old Mongolian) is an independent state located in the eastern part of Central Asia, often referred to as East Asia. It borders Russia in the north, China in the south, east and west. Mongolia is one of the landlocked countries. The land area reaches 1,564,116 km². It is the 18th largest country in the world. The capital is the city of Ulaanbaatar. The population has reached 3,330,000 people. The state language is Mongolian, written in Cyrillic. Mongolian is spoken by 95% of the population. Kazakhs make up more than 4 percent of the country. In secondary school, in addition to the Cyrillic script, the old Mongolian script is taught. The Kazakh language is taught in the Bayan-Olgey region, where there are many Kazakhs. ## History Different Turkic-speaking tribes lived in the Mongolian region. The first - the Huns (Huns), created their own state and started a war with China (Xin Dynasty). China's commanding marshal Meng Tian built the Great Wall of China to protect his country. After the Huns, the Turks established their empire here. In the 12th century, there were small khanates and tribal chiefs in the Mongolian land. The commander Temuchin (Genghis Khan) united all the uluses into one country and announced the Mongol Empire. 1206 he took the name Genghis Khan (Great Khan) and began to conquer neighboring countries. His Empire covered all of Asia and half of Europe. When Genghis Khan died, he divided his empire among his children. Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, moved the capital of the empire to Beijing. 1368 China's Ming Dynasty makes a revolution and expels the Mongols. Since then, Mongolia has been a colony of China. 1911 The Qing Empire fell, so Mongolia was declared an independent state. The head of the new state was Bogd Khan. But the Chinese commanders introduced their troops into Mongolia and this land was divided into two regions (Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia). 1917 The civil war of the Russian Empire began, many "white troops" fled to Siberia and China. One such military commander, Baron Ungern, entered Outer Mongolia with his soldiers and captured the city of Urga (Urgu) or Da-Khuree (now Ulan-Batir). The Russian Red Army supported Mongolian communist commander Suhe-Batyr, who defeated Ungern's army and proclaimed the Mongolian People's Republic in Outer Mongolia in 1921. The territory of Inner Mongolia is part of China even today. Today's Mongolia is a parliamentary republic. The parliament of the country is called the State Grand Khural. ## Geography The south of Mongolia is located in the Gobi desert, and the north and west are cold mountainous regions. The central part of Mongolia is flat. The highest peak of the Mongolian Altai mountain system, Tavanbogd Mountain, is 4,374 meters above sea level. The climate of Mongolia is strictly continental. It is hot in summer but cold in winter. The average temperature in winter is -30 °C. The city of Ulan-Batyr is considered the coldest capital in the world. Because there are many mountainous regions, the wind blows a lot. On average, there are 257 days per year. The average amount of precipitation is 200-350 mm in the eastern part, 100-200 mm in the south. In the southernmost region of the Gobi desert, there is no rainfall at all in some years. ## Nature ### Nature zones From the north to the south of Mongolia, the following meridian nature zones are found: forest steppe, steppe, desert, desert . In the forest belt there are mountain forest and taiga belt. Depending on the location, the natural zones are divided into four zones: Khangai, Khentii, Altai mountain, Dornod steppe, and Govi desert. ### Soil There are many types of soil in Mongolia, such as brown, dark brown, light brown, black soil, desert brown, marshy, and salty. Among them, fertile soil is 5% of them. 0.76% of the land is suitable for agriculture. The area of irrigated land is 840 km². ### Water Mongolia has 3,811 rivers and springs with a length of 67,000 km, about 3,500 lakes with an area of 500 km³, about 7,000 ponds, an area of 540 km² There are about 190 glaciers and about 250 mountain ranges. There are about 139 sources of underground water. The longest river in Mongolia is the Orkon. Length - 1124 km, area - 133000 km². The largest lake is Lake Uvs (3350 km²), the deepest lake is Lake Khuvsgol (262.4 m). ## Economy Mongolia's economy is mainly dependent on agriculture and mining. There are many kinds of natural resources. Mining of copper, molybdenum, tin, coal, tungsten, zinc ore, iron ore and gold plays an important role in the country's economy. The main occupation of people in the village is animal husbandry. On average, each person owns 12 head of cattle. In agriculture, wheat, barley, vegetables and fodder are planted. According to the 2008 report, the volume of GDP amounted to 9.48 billion dollars. The figure per capita is 3200 dollars. The average number of unemployed is 2.8% of the population (2008). Main export products (2.5 billion dollars in 2008): Copper, molybdenum, coal, zinc ore, iron ore, crude oil, animal products, leather, textiles. Main exporters: PRC (76%), Canada (9%), Russia (3%). Import products: (3.6 billion dollars in 2008): fuel, machinery, automobiles, food, construction goods, sugar, industrial and everyday goods, tea, etc. Main importers: Russia (35%), PRC (29%), Japan (8%). ## Army The number of people in the armed forces is 8.6 thousand. Young men aged 18-25 are invited to the army. The duration of military service is 12 months. The reserve of the armed forces is 137 thousand people. Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces, Lieutenant General Tserendezidyn Byambajav (since 2009). Since 2002, Mongolian military forces have been participating in peace missions in Sierra Leone, Iraq, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Western Sahara, Liberia, Chad, and Afghanistan together with the UN and other international organizations. During this period, about 3,200 troops participated in these missions, 1,800 under UN mandates and 1,400 under international mandates. In Afghanistan, Mongolian troops are assisting NATO troops in forming the Afghan National Armed Forces. During the peacekeeping mission in Iraq, Mongolian troops, together with Polish troops, secured the Camp Echo base in southern Iraq. In 2005-2006, Mongolian troops served in the Belgian military group in Kosovo. Tanks: * 350 T-55 USSR * 250 T-62 USSR APC's * 400 BMP-1 USSR * 300 BTR-60 USSR Mongolia's air force is controlled by the army ## Administrative structure Mongolia is divided into 21 regions. * Expedition trip to North-West Mongolia, Tomsk State University and Khovd University, cooperation. Video. Archived from the original on August 8, 2011. * Dynamics of the natural environment of the Mongolian Altai in the Holocene. - Climate, ice, water, landscape. Archived July 18, 2011. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4688

Holy Quran

The Qur'an or the Holy Qur'an (Arabic: القرآن‎, al-qurʾān, [qurˈʔaːn]) is considered the main holy book of Islam. Muslims believe that it was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ to tell the truth, that it is the word of Allah that has reached mankind without interruption. He worships Allah by reading it (tilawat). The Qur'an is considered to be the heavenly book after the Torah and the Bible, and among the books in the Arabic language, it is the richest in terms of eloquence. The Qur'an consists of 114 surahs divided into Meccan and Medinan depending on the place and time of revelation. Muslims believe that the Qur'an was revealed by Allah through the angel Gabriel for 23 years from the time Prophet Muhammad ﷺ reached the age of 40 until his death (632 year/11 AH). In addition, Muslims believe that the Qur'an was preserved accurately by the Companions, that its verses are clear and detailed, and that it was sent as a message to all mankind in all ages. After the death of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the Qur'an was compiled into one version according to the proposal of the righteous caliph Abu Bakr al-Siddiq and Omar ibn al-Khattab. After the death of Omar, the second caliph, this version of the Qur'an was kept by Hafsa bint Omar, the mother of the believers. This situation continued until the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, saw the conflicts between Muslims in reciting the Qur'an due to different dialects. Osman asked Hafsa to make a copy of the version written according to the Quraysh dialect to be a common model, and ordered to delete the versions that did not match it. Uthman's version of the Qur'an was distributed throughout the caliphate, and he kept one version for himself. This version became known as Uthman's mushaf (a copy of the Qur'an is called a "mushaf"). Researchers believe that the version of the Qur'an collected by Uthman is completely consistent with the version collected by Abu Bakr. ## Origin of the word Koran The word "Koran" is Arabic. : comes from the root word قرا‎, and its base is Arabic, which means "to collect". : the word قرء‎. Arabic. : ‎ means "I collected water in a pond". The reason why the Qur'an is called this is that it collects verses and surahs and continues them. However, there are other opinions about the origin of the word "Quran". Ash-Shafighi said: - As-Suyuti al-Itgan fi ′ulum al-Qur'an, vol. 1, page 169 And according to al-Farra "he is qarāin (Arab.: قراین‎) (spouses, friends; singular form: قرینا) comes from the word, because the verses of the Qur'an confirm each other and are similar to each other, that is "qarāin"" The word "Qur'an" is "fa′lān" according to the size (sermon), and it is hamzali as in the recitation of many elders, and it is thick in the recitation of Abdullah ibn Kathir al-Makki (Arabic: قران‎). The origin of the word Koran corresponds to the Syriac word "qaryana" (قريانا), which means "reading the holy book" or "lecture". Many Western researchers believe that the word "Quran" is derived from this word, but most Muslim scholars trace the root of this word back to the root "black". In any case, the word "Quran" became an Arabic term during the time of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. Another important meaning of the word Qur'an is reading (qira'at). Scholar al-Tabarsi said: "The main meaning of the word Qur'an is reading. And it is the root of the word "kara'tu" (I read) or "talautu", which was narrated from Ibn Abbas. The Qur'an also has many names that are hinted at in the Qur'an. For example: "al-Furqan", "al-Huda", "az-Zikr", "al-Hikma", "Kalamu-Llah", "al-Kitab", and Muslim writers wrote works about the verses and meanings of the Qur'an. And the name "mushaf" is used to recite the written version of the Qur'an. Although this name was not used at first, after Abu Bakr compiled the Qur'an, this word became his name. The reason why the Qur'an is called "Furqan" is that it is a separator between truth and falsehood (fariq), a clear document and its arguments, duties, limits and other meanings that distinguish between truth and falsehood. This separation is by revealing the truth and rooting out lies. Allah says in Surah al-Furqan: And about the dhikr of the Qur'an, it is said in Surah al-Hijr: The purpose of this is dhikr for those who want to remember the Qur'an revealed to Muhammad, and a sermon for those who listen to the sermon. Mufassir-scholars said that the names of the Qur'an consist of three groups. * Group 1. These are names that refer to the substance and essence of the Qur'an. Al-Kitab: Al-Quran: Kalamu-Llah (Word of Allah): At-Tanzil (Revelation): * Group 2. Names referring to the characteristics of the Qur'an. Al-Karim: Al-Majid (the great): Al-Mubarak (blessed, mubarak): * 3rd group. About how the Quran affects people. Al-Huda (straight path): Ar-Rahma (thanks, mercy): An-Nur (light): and others. names and characteristics. Muslim scholars collected the titles of the Qur'an and were engaged in their interpretation. For example, al-Zamakhshari collected 32 names of the Qur'an in his commentary, while some others collected 47 of its names. Qazi Abul-Magali Aziz ibn Abdul-Malik said: "Allah named the Qur'an with fifty-five names", and according to Al-Harrali's count, there are more than 90 names in the Qur'an. ## The importance of the Holy Quran between Islam and Muslims Muslims believe that the Holy Quran is the last holy book revealed by Allah to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. That's why they believe that reciting the Qur'an, listening to it, and acting according to it is a form of worship that brings a person closer to Allah and calms his heart. They do not doubt that the Qur'an is the source of their culture and tradition, and that it is through the Qur'an that their religious and worldly life has evolved. There are many hadiths about the merits of the Qur'an and the reward of ten learning. and so on. According to the belief of Muslims, everyone needs the Qur'an; The heart of a Muslim lives by the Qur'an, his eyes are enlightened and he follows the right path. The whole life of a Muslim is connected with this Book: his faith is derived from it, he knows from it the worship that Allah is pleased with, from it he learns what he needs to know about the right path in relationships and behavior, and whoever does not seek the right path from this Book, his life, future and in the Hereafter, his destination will be destruction, he will be subjected to the evil of ignorance and delusion. This conclusion is based on verses in the Qur'an and hadiths in the Sunnah. For example: In a hadith narrated by Ad-Darimi on the authority of Ali ibn Abu Talib, Prophet Muhammad said: "There will be fits (trials)." Ali asked him, "How do we get out of it?" that. He answers: ### Sharia Sharia, Sharia law or Islamic law is a set of religious principles that form part of Islamic culture. The Arabic word shari'a (Arabic: شريعة‎) refers to God's revealed law and originally meant "way" or "way". Classical Sharia deals with many aspects of public and private life, including religious rituals, family life, business, crime, and war. In the past, Sharia was interpreted by independent jurists who based their legal opinions on the Qur'an, hadiths, and centuries of debate, interpretation, and precedent. Some parts of Sharia can be described as "law" in the usual sense of the word, while other parts are better understood as rules for living according to God's will. In the Qur'an, the rulings on creed, worship such as fasting, almsgiving, trade, marriage and divorce, inheritance rights, and the rulings on morals and behavior are summarized and explained. From early times, Islamic scholars began to write works for gathering evidence related to rulings such as jurisprudence, worship, and behavior derived from the verses of the Qur'an in order to make it easier for people. Muslims believe that the Qur'an contains everything that came in the previous holy books that regulate the right path and worldly matters. As evidence for this, they cite the following verses from Surah al-Ma'ida: Scholars of interpretation say that the Qur'an contains the things mentioned in books such as the Psalms, the Torah, and the Bible, and in addition, they say that it narrates divine matters and spiritual etiquette. ## History ### Beginning of Revelation Prophethood of the Messenger of God Muhammad ﷺ began when he turned 40 years old and continued for the next 23 years until the end of his life. stretched. He spent the first 13 years of his prophethood in Mecca and the remaining 10 years in Medina. The first revelation was given in the cave of Hira on Mount Nur near Mecca on Monday, 17, 21 or 24 Ramadan (August 10, 620 AD) and the 27th day of Rajab according to the Shiite tradition. Aisha, the mother of those who believed, said: After this incident, Khadisha went to her cousin Waraqa ibn Naufal with Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. He accepted the Christian religion and wrote the necessary things from the Bible using Jewish script. At that time he was an old man. After hearing from Prophet Muhammad the nature of what happened, he tells him that the Keeper of Secrets (Namus) who was sent to Prophet Moses came. In addition, he warns that in the future he will be persecuted by his people, because if anyone came to his people with such things, they would be hostile to him. After the first revelation, Prophet Muhammad did not receive any revelations for some time. Some scientists say that this break lasted for three years, but there were also scientists who concluded that it was six months. But the fact that the revelation did not come down means that the verses of the Qur'an did not come down, and it does not mean that Gabriel did not come to him. In a hadith from Jabir ibn Abdullah, the Prophet ﷺ said: — "Sahih al-Bukhari" (4), "Sahih Muslim" (161) These verses are the first revelation after the first verses of Surah Alaq in the cave of Hira was. Scholars believe that Prophet Muhammad ﷺ became a prophet with the revelation of the first verses of Surah Alaq, and a messenger (rasul) with the revelation of Surah Muzzammil. 83 or 85 surahs were written during the 13 years of Prophet Muhammad's life in Mecca, the first of which is Alaq surah, and the last one is al-Muminun or al-Ankabut surah. The pressure of the Quraish tribe became unbearable, and Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was forced to migrate to the city of Yathrib. Since then, that city was called "Madinah an-Nabawiyya" (Medina). The number of surahs revealed in Medina is considered to be 31 or 29 surahs. The first Surah revealed in Madinah was Surah Al-Mutaffifin, and the last Surah was Surah Taube. But Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari states that the first Medinan surah was Al-Baqarah, and al-Nasafi's commentary says that the first Medinan surah is Qadr surah. ### The nature of the revelation of the Qur'an The revelations to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ came from Allah in different ways. He saw the first visions in a dream, and they were fulfilled like the dawn. This type of revelation came before he was given the task of prophethood. The second form of the revelation is incantation. Angel Gabriel brought the revelation to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, and it reached his mind and heart. In a hadith from Abu Umama, Prophet Muhammad said: - "Khilyat al-aulia", Abu Nugaim The third type is when an angel comes in human form and conveys the vision of Allah. An example of this is the hadith known as "Jabreel Hadith" quoted by Imam Muslim from Omar Ibn al-Khattab. In that hadith, it is said that the angel Gabriel came to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in the form of a man dressed in white and with black hair. In the hadith narrated by An-Nasa'i, it is mentioned that Gabriel came in the form of Dihya al-Kalbi. The fourth type is when the angel comes with a voice like the sound of a bell. When Aisha asked the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ about how the revelation came, he replied: Aisha said: "I saw the revelation come to him on a very cold day - when the revelation stopped, sweat would pour from his forehead" (Sahih al-Bukhari). The difficulty of this type of vision is stated in another hadith from Aisha: "When the Prophet received a vision while sitting on a camel, the camel would kneel down and could not move." The fifth type is the appearance of Gabriel in his true form. This happened twice in the life of Prophet Muhammad. It is mentioned in the Qur'an itself and in the hadith from Aisha. The sixth type is direct revelation from Allah to Prophet Muhammad ﷺ without any intermediary. An example of this is the time when five daily prayers were obligatory. The seventh type is the direct conversation of Prophet Muhammad with Allah behind the veil. This is how Prophet Musa also spoke to Allah. This is mentioned in the famous hadith about the journey of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ on the night of Migraj. Some scholars of tafsir talk about Prophet Muhammad ﷺ seeing and talking to Allah directly without any veil, and they call it the eighth type of revelation. But this opinion is contrary to the hadith from Aisha and the verses that no one can see Allah in this world. All the companions followed the same opinion as in the hadith of Aisha. ### Revelation of the Qur'an from "Lauh al-Mahfuz" The Qur'an was revealed from Lauh al-Mahfuz on the night of Qadr in the month of Ramadan. Allah says: Ibn Kathir wrote about this verse in his commentary: Hafiz al-Sahawi says: It is not known exactly which day is the Night of Power. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, in his commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari, cited more than forty opinions about this, and concluded that according to the most correct opinion, the night of Qadr occurs on odd days of the last ten days of Ramadan every year on different days. ### A Brief History of the Compilation of the Qur'an The Holy Qur'an was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in pieces over a period of 23 years - this is different from other holy books that were revealed all at once. Every time a verse came to the Prophet ﷺ, he used to read it to his scribe companions. Their number reached forty, and even in the most difficult period of prophethood, they walked next to the Prophet ﷺ and did not stop writing the Qur'an. The first person who started writing the Quran in Mecca was Abdullah ibn Sa'd ibn Sarkh. And the first person who started writing in Medina was Ubayy ibn Ka'b. Abu Bakr, Omar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, Ali ibn Abu Talib, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Khalid ibn Sahid ibn al-As and others are among those who wrote down the Qur'an. was. At the time when the Qur'an was being revealed, it was written on palm leaves, stones, skin, etc. used to write on materials. These records were made due to revelation of verses. Prophet Muhammad used to tell his companions which verse should be written in which surah, even if the surahs and verses are mixed. It is said in the hadith narrated by Ibn Abbas from Osman ibn Affan: In addition to writing down, people who memorized the Qur'an played a big role in preserving it. There are many verses and hadiths about the reward promised to those who know the Qur'an by heart and read it. Allah says (Al-Ankabut Surah, verse 49): So every year Prophet Muhammad ﷺ used to read the Qur'an to the angel Gabriel and check it. In a hadith narrated by Abu Huraira, it is said that Gabriel came to check for this once every year, and twice in the year of the Prophet's death. In a hadith from Fatima, it is said that the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said that he had examined the Qur'an twice that year and felt that his life had come to an end. During the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, although the writings of the Qur'an were not fixed in one form, the companions used to write down the surahs themselves and make special lists. Such lists are in Abdullah ibn Masgud, Ubay ibn Ka'b, Zayd ibn Thabit, and others. was among the Companions. It is said in a hadith from Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-Astan: Among the people who memorized the Qur'an and were its custodians (hafiz) are Abu Bakr, Omar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, Abu Musa al- Ashgari, Sa'd ibn Abu Waqqas, Huzaifa ibn al-Yaman, Abu Huraira, Amr ibn al-As and others. the companions are called. Aisha, Hafsa bint Umar, Umm Salamah and others recited the Qur'an among women. knew by heart. An example of abundance during the time of Prophet Muhammad is the battle near the well of Maun. In this battle, more than 70 companions who knew the Quran by heart died at the hands of the polytheists. ### Abu Bakr's version During the caliphate of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, Muslims fought near the "garden of death" with the followers of Musaylima, who declared himself a prophet, under the leadership of Khalid ibn Walid. More than 700 Companions will be killed in this battle with the people of Al-Yamamah. Omar ibn al-Khattab, who saw the death of many hafiz and was afraid of the loss of the Qur'an, suggested to Caliph Abu Bakr to write down the entire Qur'an. Abu Bakr, who agreed with him, told Zayd ibn Thabit, who was writing the Qur'an, from the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. According to Zayd ibn Thabit, "it was easier for him to move a mountain than to collect the Qur'an." Agreeing that there is good in this, he begins to collect the Qur'an stored on palm leaves, smooth stones and people's hearts. These pages were preserved first by Abu Bakr, then by Omar, and after his death by Hafsa bint Omar. Ibn Abu Dawud quoted the following words of Ali ibn Abu Talib in the book "Al-Masahif": it is mentioned in the Qur'an itself: "...the messenger of Allah who reads the purified pages" (Al-Bayina Surah, verse 2). Qazi al-Baqillani says: ### Uthman's version After the death of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, the Companions recited seven different ways according to the method they knew. But when the religion of Islam spread around the world and many new lands came under the control of Muslims, those companions taught the Quran to the converts in their own way, and when that student heard the Quran being read in a different way, conflicts began to arise. For example, the Muslims of Iraq used to read the Qur'an according to the method of Abdullah ibn Masgud, and the residents of Sham used the method of Ubai ibn Ka'b. In the 14th or 15th year of Hijra, Caliph Osman's troops set out to conquer Armenia. Under the command of the Caliph, the armies of Iraq and Shamni join each other. Huzaifa ibn al-Yaman, who was the commander of al-Madain's army in the Iraqi army, witnessed a quarrel among the people gathered here because of the method of reciting the Qur'an. After returning from the war, Khuzayfa went to Caliph Uthman ibn Affan without entering his house and told what had happened: Caliph Uthman, who was afraid of conflicts, told Zayd ibn Thabit, Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, Sahid ibn al-As, He orders Abdullah ibn al-Harith ibn Hisham to copy and distribute the version of the Qur'an collected by Abu Bakr, kept by Hafsa bint Omar. After he had finished copying the pages, Uthman returned the original to Hafsa, sent the assembled Qur'an to different districts, and ordered her to burn the versions of the Qur'an that did not match. This decision of Uthman was implemented only after an agreement with the famous and honorable companions. Ali ibn Abu Talib said: In the end, after the great work done by Zayd ibn Thabit and other companions, the Qur'an came to a standard, and the Quraish dialect was recognized as its only method of reading. There are different opinions about the number of versions of the Qur'an collected by Uthman: there are opinions that there were four, five or seven of them. Ibn Abu Dawud reported the following statement of Abu Hatim al-Sijistani: "Seven versions of the Qur'an were written for Mecca, Sham, Yemen, Bahrain, Basra and Kufa, and the rest were written in the city of Medina." And other versions of these versions of the Qur'an were ordered to be burned or extinguished. Ali ibn Abu Talib said: "Do not say anything but good about Uthman's decision to burn versions of the Qur'an!" ### Background of Abu Bakr's Version Although one version of the Qur'an was approved and Caliph Uthman ordered to destroy all other versions of the Qur'an, Hafsa bint Omar's version of the Qur'an collected during the time of Abu Bakr was preserved. When Marwan ibn al-Hakam was appointed as the emir of Medina, he asked Hafsa to give him those pages, but Hafsa did not agree to him. It was only after Hafsa's death that Abdullah ibn Umar gave the same version to Marwan, who in turn washed and destroyed (or, according to another narration: burned) its writing with water. Marwan ibn al-Hakam explained the reason for this as follows: ### The reasons for the revelation of the verses of the Qur'an The reasons for the revelation of the verses (Arabic: صورة النزول‎) The science of the Qur'an is a science that helps to understand the reasons and meaning of the rulings of the Qur'an, to clarify it and to remove misunderstandings. Ibn Daqiq al-Id said: — "al-Itgan" (114) Sheikh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah: — "al -Itgan" (114) Examples of The following verse can be cited as the importance of knowing the reasons for the revelation of the Qur'anic verses: - Surah Al-Baqarah, verse 115 \< > If this verse is accepted directly, it can be understood that it is possible to pray in any direction regardless of the Qibla. But if we look at the reason for the revelation of this verse, it will be clear that it only mentions the obligatory prayers performed on the road. ### Editions of the Koran The oldest editions of the Koran were printed in xylographic forms around the 10th century. And the first version of the Quran printed in the press was made in 1694 in Hamburg, Germany. All actions were written in this text. And the first Quran printed by Muslims may have been printed in Saint Petersburg in 1787, which was called "Moulay Osman's Press". Then the Quran was published in Kazan (1828), Persia (1833) and Istanbul (1877). In modern times, all over the world, the Quran is being printed in Muslim and non-Muslim countries using the latest technologies. For example, on November 30, 1984, a Complex for printing the Holy Quran was built in Madinah. Its purpose was to publish Arabic versions of the Qur'an for different countries, translations into different languages, commentaries. In addition, the goals of the Complex included preserving and developing Quranic sciences. As of 1422 according to Hijra, this complex printed more than 170 million Quran books, 153 million of which were distributed free of charge. ## Text of the Qur'an The book of the Qur'an does not consist of the usual "introduction" or "main part" parts of other literature, but rather branched structure. In addition, the surahs and stories in the Qur'an are not connected to each other, there are gaps between them. The Sahabah and their followers divided the Holy Qur'an into equal parts (juz or para) to correspond to the thirty days of the month in order to make it easier to khatim (i.e. recite it in its entirety) during the month of Ramadan. Let these divisions be the fruit of the ijtihad of the Companions, and this division does not necessarily have to be done. As if it was divided into thirty parts, some scholars divided the parts of the Qur'an into two hizb, and the hizb into four (rubb) and so on. divided by ### Surahs and verses The Qur'an consists of 114 parts of different lengths called "surahs". The order in which they are placed is not related to the history of revelation - earlier surahs may appear at the end of the Qur'an. In turn, these surahs are divided into Meccan surahs and Medinan surahs depending on the date of revelation. Meccan surahs are the surahs that were revealed before the Hijrah of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, and Medinan surahs are those that were revealed after his migration to the city of Medina. In terms of length, scholars divide surahs into several types. They are: * Seven long surahs. This includes Surah al-Baqarah, Surah Ali Imran, Surah an-Nisa, Surah al-Maida, Surah al-Angam, Surah al-Agraf and Surah Tawbah. * Surahs with two hundred verses. Surahs with more than two hundred verses. * Masani. Other surahs less than two hundred verses. All surahs of the Qur'an, except the Surah of Repentance, begin with "basmala", that is, the words "Bismi-Lallah ar-Rahman ar-Rahim". Scholars explain the reason why Surah Tawba does not begin with a basmala. Some people believe that this surah was a warning against hypocrites and started without a basmala, because the Arab people did not write a basmala when sending a letter to break an agreement between tribes. According to others, the word basmala appears 114 times in the Qur'an (there are two basmala in Surah al-Naml: at the beginning and in the middle as the words of the Prophet Suleiman), therefore, in order to match the number of surahs, basmala is not mentioned in Surah Tawbah. ### Verses, words, letters of the Qur'an and their numbers After the division between verses was not realized during the time of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, their number depends on the pattern of division between verses. The number of verses is not related to the text of the revelation, but only to the division between them. * Abu Ja'far: 6210 verses * Shayba ibn Nassah: 6214 verses There are several opinions of Muslim scholars about the number of words and letters of the Qur'an, because in the early period of Islam, after the Arabic writing began to stabilize, some scholars signs that were considered as letters were not considered as letters by others, so there were contradictions between numbers. * Jalaluddin al-Suyuti: 77,439 words Abu Hamid al-Ghazali: 77,200 words * Ata ibn Yasar: 77,439 Number of letters: * Mujahid: 321,180 letters * al-Fadl ibn Ata: 323,015 * Ibn Kathir: 320,015 letters * Abu Hamid al-Ghazali in the book "Ihya Ulum al-Din": 321,250 letters * Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf collected collection of hafiz and scholars: 340,740 letters. ## Sciences of the Qur'an Let the Qur'an be the main book of a whole religion, it has various sciences and specialists who study it. According to some scientists, in order to deeply understand the Qur'an, it is not enough to read the Qur'an, but to study the specific sciences of the Qur'an. The number of these sciences reaches more than fifty. Qur'an sciences include the study of the history of ways of reading the Qur'an (recitation). Those ways can be widespread (mutawatir), single (ahad) or with variation (shaz). This science also studies the reading method of the Prophet (harf), the reading method of the narrators (ruat) and the scholars of the Qur'an (huffaz). In addition, this science studies six other sciences: cessation (waqf), initiation (ibtida), ilamah, lengthening of vowels (madd), softening of hamza (tahfif al-hamza) and merging of vowels (idgam). Qur'anic lexical science studies seven types of words: rare words (gharib), Arabicized words (mu'arrab), figurative words (majaz), homonyms (mushtarak), metaphors (istiar) and similes (tashbih). . The science that studies the foundations of Sharia divides the judgments in the Qur'an into fourteen types: * General and unrestricted (العام الباقي على پامنه) * General and limited (العام المخصص) * Means limitation generality (العام الذهي يراد به الخصوص) * The ruling of the Sunnah limited by the Qur'an (ما خس فيه الكتاب السنت) * The ruling of the Qur'an limited by the Sunnah (ما خست فيه السنة الكتاب) * Summary (مجمل) * Narrated (مبين) * Explained (مؤول) * Implied (محمول) * Indisputable (متلق) * With warning (مقيد) * Abolitionist (ناسخ) * Abolished (منسوخ) The science that studies the art of rhetoric divides the words of the Qur'an into five types that every researcher should know: * Separation (فصل) * Addition (وصل) * Compactness (إعجاز) \ <> * Vocabulary (إتناب) * Restriction (حصر) In addition, knowledge of names (كنى), titles-nicknames (ألقاب), unspecified words (مبهمات) can be added to the Quranic sciences. ### Tafsir Initially, the interpretation of the Qur'an was carried out through the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad, that is, with the hadiths about how he acted on certain verses, how he explained them, and the words of his closest companions. Muhaddith scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj collected hadiths and asar for the explanation of certain verses of the Qur'an in their hadith collections. Thanks to scholars such as Ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Ibn Abu Hatim who studied the science of interpretation, the early stage of this science ended and it was formed as a special discipline of Islam. The Arabic word tafsir (Arabic: تفسير‎, tafsîr) means "telling, revealing the meaning". The meaning of the word Tafseer in the Shari'ah is to explain, "to interpret" the Qur'an by using all the methods that help to understand the Holy Book correctly, to convey the meaning of the verses correctly, and to issue correct rulings. Az-Zarkashi says: Some Muslims prefer the science of exegesis, i.e. interpretation of the Holy Qur'an, which means that its meaning is mostly clear and does not need exegesis. Muslim scholars say three reasons for the emergence of interpretations: * The power and wisdom of God's knowledge is so great that He can put several meanings in one word and make it have a deep meaning that many people do not know. * When Allah Ta'ala is talking about something, he may not mention the events that caused it or the ruling from the verse. Not everyone can find these reasons and judgments by analyzing the Qur'an and Sunnah. The task of the interpreter is to explain these ambiguities. * In addition, the Qur'an may contain metaphorical or ambiguous words and phrases that are difficult to understand. And in order to explain these, it is necessary to know the linguistic knowledge, as well as Sharia terminology. As an example of this, when the verse about "black and white threads" was revealed, Adi ibn Hatim directly understood it and tied black and white threads to know the time of dawn. When the Prophet ﷺ was asked about this matter, he explained that the "black and white threads" in these verses are the whiteness of the morning and the darkness of the night. ### Ta'u'il The word "Ta'uil" means "to return to the basics". This term means "referring to the meaning of the verse itself". There are opinions that this word comes from the word "iyala" (to control), so the person explaining the word seems to be controlling it and putting its meanings in place. There are different opinions about the difference between tafsir and taweel. Even some scientists believed that these words have the same meaning. Ibn Habib al-Naisaburi says: "Many famous exegetes today could not answer the question of what is the difference between tafsir and taweel." The terms tafsir and taweel, which initially differed little, over time were assigned by the Muslim community to those who interpret the Qur'an with reference to clear evidence and to those who interpret it through rationalism, symbolic-allegorical methods. In the end, taweel became an interpretation of the Qur'an without responsibility in the eyes of traditionalist scholars, despite the centuries-long tradition of tafseer. ### Direct and Allegorical Interpretation of the Qur'an Some people who follow the religion of Islam began to interpret the Qur'an in a way that was not used by the first generation of Muslims - the "hidden meaning" of the sacred texts. Sometimes these "hidden meanings" do not correspond to the clear meaning of the Qur'anic verses, and even contradict them. Among Muslim scholars, those who use this method are called "batynini" (batyn - hidden, secret). Abu Hafs al-Nasafi, a famous commentator of the Holy Qur'an and a jurist of the Hanafi school, says: Saghduddin al-Taftazani says: ### Verses that nullify judgment and annulment of judgment \< > The verses of the Qur'an were not revealed all at once, but were revealed in parts due to various reasons, so some verses of the Qur'an annulled the legal force of the verses that came after them. This method is called "naskh" (erasing, erasing). Its definition in Shari'ah terminology is the replacement of a second-order practical ruling proven by a sacred text with a later second-order ruling proven by another sacred text. Allah says in the Qur'an: — Surah al-Baqarah, 106-107 In a hadith narrated by Abu Musa al-Ashghari, it is said that he knew a surah like Surah Tawbah, but his judgment was canceled and he was made to forget it. Also, in a hadith from Omar ibn al-Khattab, it is said that there were verses in the Qur'an about the punishment of adulterers by stoning, and that they were deleted from the Qur'an by the will of Allah, but the judgment was preserved. Types of Naskh: * Canceling the judgment of one verse by another verse. * Cancellation of the ruling of one hadith by another hadith. * Cancellation of the ruling of one verse by another hadith. * Cancellation of the verdict of one hadith by another verse. In addition, there are verses whose rulings have been abrogated but remained in the Qur'an, and verses whose rulings have legal force but were deleted from the Qur'an. ## Translation of the Qur'an into other languages According to Muslim scholars, it is impossible to accurately translate the verses of the Qur'an into another language, only to convey the meaning and interpretation. In verse 7 of Surah Ali Imran of the Qur'an, Allah said: "It is Allah who sent down the Book to you. It has clear verses that are the basis of the book. And others are verses that are difficult to understand. Therefore, it is better to read the Quran in Arabic. The word "Quran" has two different meanings depending on its use in life. Sometimes "Quran" is called both the original and its translations, but Muslims call the Holy Quran in Arabic, which is considered the word of Allah, by the word "Quran", and various translations and interpretations are called "Quran's meanings" or "Quran's explanations". Khalifa Altai writes in his translation of the meanings of the Qur'an: ### Translations of the Qur'an into the Kazakh language In order to convey the meanings of the Holy Qur'an to the common people who do not know Arabic, Kazakh citizens translate the meanings of the Qur'an took several times. * Saduakas Salmenuly Gilmani was an Islamic scientist who made a strong effort to translate the "Quran" into the Kazakh language. In the 1960s and 1970s, Saduakas Salmenuly Gilmani (Saken Khalpe) wrote the "Kazakh-Arabic" dictionary containing one hundred and eighteen thousand words, and translated the first three chapters of the "Quran" into Kazakh. Until 1970, imams-mullahs in the regional centers and cities of the Kazakh country read this manuscript one after another and supplemented their literacy with the manuscript of the "Quran" translated by Saken Kalpe. And the Kazakh translation of three chapters of the "Quran" from the blessed hand of the scholar is kept in the hands of his younger daughter - Amina Saduakasovna Abdikarimova, who is the heir to Saduakas Gilmani's archive in Almaty. In 1990, the Kazakhs in the East Turkestan regions facing China got acquainted with the Kazakh version of the Holy Quran, translated by such talented scholars as Gazez Akytuly and Makash Akytuly. This version of the "Quran" was published by "Ulttar Baspa" in Beijing with our national alphabet (Arabic graphics). * The translation of the meanings of the Qur'an into Kazakh by Ratbek Nysanbayuly and Vakap Kydyrkhanuly, the former mufti of the KMDB organization, published in 1991. * "Quran Karim" of the Quran translated by Khalifa Altai. "Kazakh meaning and understanding" translated into Kazakh. The Quran translated by him was published in 1989 with Arabic graphics. In 1991, Caliph Altai Dalelkhan together with Janaltay published this version in Cyrillic letters by the press ministry of Saudi Arabia under the name "Quran Karim, Kazakh meaning and understanding" and delivered it to the Kazakh country. This version of the "Quran" translated by Khalifa Altai has become a great spiritual treasure of Kazakhs living in countries outside of Kazakhstan: Russia, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan. This book will be printed at King Fahd's Holy Quran printing plant in Medina. * In 1991, the well-known Arabic language specialist Nuraly Userov published "Kazakh interpretations of the Holy Quran" from the "Raduga" publishing house in Moscow. ## Tilə̃wat (Reading the Qur'an) Reading the Qur'an in Arabic is considered one of the most important acts of worship that brings a person closer to Allah. Allah says in the Qur'an: - Surah al-Muzzammil, verse 20 There are many hadiths about the advantages of the Qur'an and the reward of good learning. — "Sahih al-Bukhari" — "Sunan al-Tirmidhi" — "Sunan al-Tirmidhi" — "Sunan Abu Dawud » and so on. In a hadith narrated by Abu Musa al-Ashgari, it is said: "A believer who reads the Qur'an and acts according to it is like a sweet lemon with a sweet smell and taste, and a believer who does not read the Qur'an but acts according to it has a sweet taste but smells like a date without. A hypocrite who recites the Qur'an has a sweet smell but tastes like bitter basil, and a hypocrite who does not recite the Qur'an is like a bitter taste and smell of coloquint. In addition, there are reports that those who read the Qur'an and hadiths from the Qur'an and Sunnah and teach others by heart, that they will receive a higher place in Paradise, that Allah will grant them His mercy, and that angels will ask for forgiveness for them. Reading the Qur'an is considered to be a reason to organize the human soul and educate it to goodness, reading it is a sign of Muslim righteousness. ### Qur'an etiquette Qur'an etiquette is a set of rules and obligations that a Muslim should observe when reading the Qur'an. Reading the Qur'an is Sunnah, listening to it is obligatory. Allah commanded us to read the Qur'an like Prophet Muhammad ﷺ: - Al-Muzzammil Surah, verse 4 The etiquette of reading the Qur'an is not to rush it, to think about its meaning, and to read the letters correctly. and read the words clearly. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to know the science that studies the recitation of the Qur'an, which Muslims call "Tajwid". These rules reached our time through the companions of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, and Muslim scholars approved them as rules. Manners when reading the Qur'an: There was a disagreement among Muslim scholars about reading the Qur'an in a state of impurity (i.e. "dirty" after sexual intercourse). In the same way, keeping the Qur'an in a clean state is also a matter of dispute, so it is considered better to read the Holy Qur'an after taking ablution and cleaning it. While it is permissible to read the Qur'an in the state of minor "filth", although there is disagreement about holding the Qur'an book, it is considered better to hold it in the form of ablution, because the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, did not like to remember Allah when he was not ablution. * Before reciting the Qur'an, it is better to clean the mouth with a toothbrush misuak, because it is better to recite the words of Allah with a clean mouth. * It is better to read the Quran wearing clean clothes and in a clean place. And the best place to read the Koran is the mosque. * Before reciting the Qur'an, it is better to seek refuge from Allah in order to avoid the cursed Satan. * In addition, before reciting the Qur'an, the words of the Basmala should be recited. * When reading the Qur'an, one should show submission to Allah, one should think about his words. This is one of the greatest purposes of reading the Qur'an. When reading the Qur'an, one should not get involved in worldly conversations and not look around. * You should read the Qur'an without haste and clearly read the letters and words. * A person who reads the Qur'an should read the Qur'an with enthusiasm and beautifully in his own voice. However, it is heresy to make the Qur'an look like a poem when reciting it. * When reciting the Qur'an, it is necessary to keep all its rules, lengthen the parts that are longer, and shorten the parts that are shorter. * When you come across verses about Hell, you should ask Allah for forgiveness, and when you come across verses about Paradise, you should ask Allah for mercy. * Thinking about the Qur'an and weeping because of its meaning is one of the good deeds. * It is better not to read the Qur'an loudly or in a whisper. You have to follow the middle path. * It is better to prostrate when reading the "prostration verses" found in the Qur'an. * A person who wants to yawn while reciting the Qur'an should stop reading and stop yawning, because yawning is believed to be from Satan. * You should try your best to read the Qur'an from beginning to end. Manners when listening to the Qur'an: * A person who listens to the Qur'an should be submissive and think about the words of Allah, it is better to refrain from laughter and nonsense until the Qur'an is finished. ### Recitations (methods of recitation) Recitation (Arabic: قرع‎) refers to the ways of reciting the Qur'an and there is a difference between the terms recitation (qiraat) and recitation (harf) — qira'at is the way of reading the version of the Qur'an compiled by Uthman ibn Affan, with little differences from each other, and "harf" is the recitation based on the seven Arabic dialects of the originally revealed Qur'an (although there are other opinions on this). Makki ibn Abu Talib said: — "Fath al-Bari" (9/39) There are several ways of reciting the Qur'an, the most common of which are: > * Ibn Amir Abu Imran Abdullah al-Yasribi (died in 118 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the region of Sham. The most common examples of his teaching method are those of Hisham and Ibn Zakuan. Abdullah Ibn Kathir al-Makki (died in 120 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Mecca. The most common examples of his teaching method are those of al-Bazzi and Kunbul. * Abu Bakr Asim ibn Abu an-Nujud al-Kufi (died in 127 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Kufa. The most common examples of his way of learning are those of Abu Bakr and Hafs. * Nafig ibn Abdurrahman ibn Abu Nugaim al-Laysi (died in 169 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Medina. The most common examples of his teaching method are those of Qalun and Warsh. * Abu Amr ibn al-Ala al-Mazini al-Basri (died in 154 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Basra. The most common examples of his way of reading are those of al-Duri and al-Susi. * Hamza ibn Habib ibn Ammara al-Kufi (died in 156 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Kufa. The most common examples of his method of learning are those of Khalaf and Khallad. * Al-Kisa'i Abul-Hasan Ali ibn Hamza ibn Abdullah al-Kufi (died in 189 AH). He taught the Qur'an in the city of Kufa. The most common examples of his way of reading are those of al-Lays and al-Duri. In fact, the aforementioned Quranic scholars were not the most famous and expert Quranic researchers of their time, but initially, the ways of reading the Quran increased, the famous Muslim scholars of that time chose one of the ways of reading in the main cities of the Caliphate and adopted it as a standard. According to Ibn Abu Hisham, the reason for the appearance of these recitations was that the versions of the Qur'an compiled during the time of Uthman ibn Affan were sent to the regions of the Muslim state, where the people learned to read the Qur'an from the Companions, and because of this, several ways of reading the Qur'an appeared with little difference. But these recitations are based on the version of the Qur'an collected by Uthman and confirmed by all the Companions without changing the meaning of the Qur'an. Currently, among the ways of reciting the Qur'an, Hafs' recitation from Asim is considered the most popular, and most of the Qur'anic mushafs are written according to this recitation. Apart from Egypt, Warsh's recitation from Nafigtan is popular in African countries. And the reading of Abu Amr is used only in some areas of Sudan. It should be noted that not all recitations of the Qur'an are accepted, and one cannot read the Qur'an according to them without knowing their level of achievement. In addition, some recitations that can only be recited in one way are not accepted and are considered "shazz" (defective). ## Writing the Qur'an Arabs were familiar with writing even before the advent of Islam. In the 7th century, the Arabic script consisted only of basic symbols, which did not represent a single letter, but a group of letters. For example, if modern Arabic letters "ب, ت, ث" can be easily distinguished by the dots below and above them, in the time of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ they were written smoothly without turks. The basis of this alphabet was derived from the Nabatean script, which was used in Northern Arabia a thousand years before the arrival of Islam, and which in turn was influenced by the ancient Syriac script. After that, this writing style developed into two types of Arabic writing: Kufa and Hijaz writing style. Kufic script was a non-miniature script that followed a strict geometric order. The Hijaz script was smaller than the Kufa script and was written with a slant to the right. Scholars disagree as to which writing style came first, but the Hijaz script was less formal than the Kufic script. The current normalization of the Qur'an writing model consisted of several stages: * In the first stage, sounds (harakats) were placed on top of the letters in the Qur'an. Abul-Aswad al-Duali was a famous student of the Sahabah. At the beginning, thick dots were used to denote harakats: above the letter - fatha, below - kasra, and after the letter - damma. It is assumed that the sign of fatha comes from the letter "ا" (alif), the sign of kasra from the letter "ي" (yes), and the sign of al-damma from the letter "و" (wah). * In the second stage, diacritical points (igjam) were placed above and below the letters. Before that, the Arabic script was written only with lines, without dots, so reading the Quran could only be done by people who knew it by heart. Arabs used these diacritical points even before Islam, but it was very rare. During the time of Umayyad caliph Abdul-Malik ibn Marwan, hundreds of thousands of Muslims needed to read the Koran, he entrusted the marking of the letters in the Koran to the Iraqi emir Khajaj ibn Yusuf. Under the command of al-Hajjaj, this work is carried out by Nasr ibn Asim and Khay ibn Yagmur. * The third period is modern editions of the Qur'an. Although early versions of the Qur'an did not have harakats and diacritics, which were fixed in the Qur'an by prominent Muslim scholars, the writing of the Qur'an at that time was different from the Arabic script used today - the letter alif was often written above it, not after the previous letter, and sometimes the letters "ya" and "alif" it was simply not written (الرحمان — الرحمن), in some places the letter “wah” was used instead of “alif” (الصلاة — الصلوة). ## Difference between Qur'an and Qudsi Hadith Qudsi Hadith (Arabic: الحديث القدسي‎) is a type of hadith that is considered to be transmitted directly from Allah through him, not from Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. That is, the words in these hadiths were spoken by Allah and conveyed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel. Thus, holy hadiths were a part of the revelation of Allah, like the verses of the Qur'an, but they are not included in the Qur'an, and its verses are not considered consecutive. In order to believe hadith qudsi, it is necessary to determine its reliability (i.e. whether it is sahih or hasan) like other hadiths, while the verses of the Qur'an are not verified in this way. Qudsi hadiths should not be read like surahs during prayer. According to some scholars, the Qur'an should not be held by a person who has not performed ablution, and there is no such prohibition in Qudsi hadiths. The number of Qudsi hadiths is less than other hadiths and they are mostly ahadith rather than mutawatir. Only a hundred copies of such hadiths are known. Some Muhaddith-scholars wrote collections of Qudsi hadiths. For example: Abdurrauf al-Munawi's collection "al-Ithafat al-Sania bil-Ahadith al-Qudsiyya". ## Messages about the future in the Qur'an Some verses of the Holy Qur'an tell about the events that should happen after those verses were revealed. It was known that some of these reports were true even during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ. And the other part is the Muslim's duty to narrate the events that will happen near the end of time and believe in them. As an example of this, the following verse can be cited: — Surah Rum In 620, the Byzantine army suffered a great defeat from the Persians and Cilicia, Syria, Palestine, Armenia, which had previously been under Byzantine rule, The lands of Egypt pass under the hands of the Persians. Despite the weakened state of Byzantium, in 627, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius brought his troops to the vicinity of Nineveh and defeated a Persian army of 12 thousand. After a few months, Persia will be forced to return the captured lands to Byzantium. The Qur'anic verse accurately describes this future event, and also correctly describes the place where the Byzantine army was defeated - the battle took place near the Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is the lowest basin in the world. Another verse about the future whose truth was clear during the time of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was revealed about the return of Muslims to Mecca after they could not enter Mecca in 6 Hijri: - Surah Al-Fath, 27 \ <> A year later, in the month of Dhu al-Qadha in the 7th year of Hijrah, Muslims perform the Umrah (minor pilgrimage) in Makkah and at the end of it they shave their heads and cut their hair in accordance with the Shariah. ## Sources ## References * Jalaluddin al-Suyuti "Excellence in Quranic Sciences" = الإتقان في علوم القرآن / Translated into Russian : D.V. Frolova. — ISBN 5846300979. * Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyya "Zad al-Magad" = زاد المعاد في هدي خير العباد — "Risala" organization, 1418 AH/1998. * Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani "Fath al-Bari bi-Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari" = فتح الباري بشرح ساحيه البخاري — "Tayiba" publishing house, 1426 AH/2005. * E. R. Kuliev Na puti k Koranu — Baku: "Abilov, Zeynalov i synovya", 2003. — 622 p. — ISBN 5-87459-202-4. ## See more ## External links * http://kitap.kuran.kz/#!/bet/2/ar \< > * HolyQuranAcademy Archived 8 April 2022.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6167

Сальвадор

El Salvador, the official name of which is the Republic of El Salvador (Is. El Salvador) is a country located in Central America. * The land area is 21,041 km² * The capital is the city of San Salvador. * The population is 303.1 million. 109% of them are mestizos, 10% are Indians, and 1% are Europeans. * The official language is Spanish, Nahuatl is widely used among the local languages. * Religion - 75% - Catholics, the rest follow Protestants and local beliefs. * The head of state and government is the president. No. legislative body — Constitutional Assembly (unicameral parliament). * National holiday - Independence Day - September 15 (1821). Administrator. divided into 14 departments. The currency is the colon. S. Member of the UN (1945), the Organization of American States (1948). ## Nature and climate Most of the country is covered by volcanic highlands (altitude 600-700 m). Unextinguished volcanoes - Santa Ana (the highest point in the country, 2381 m), San Vicente (2181 m), San Miguel (2129 m), Isalco (1885 m). Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are frequent. The center of the country stretches from east to west and is located between two volcanic mountain ranges. taking a plateau. The largest river is Lempa. The climate is tropical trade wind. The average temperature throughout the year is 22 — 24°C (in San Salvador), 2 — 3°C (in the lowlands). Amount of annual precipitation. 1500 — 1800 mm (up to 2500 mm in the south), tecton. 600 — 700 mm in recesses. There are many rivers and volcanic lakes with short but strong currents, which decrease in level during the dry season. The land is mostly red-brown soil. The natural vegetation consisting of tropical forest and shrubland has been slightly preserved. An oak-pine forest grows on the high side of the mountain. Lempa own. The slopes of the valley are covered with grassy savannah and shrubby vegetation. ## Animal world Monkey, coyote, jaguar, puma, ocelot can often be found among mammals. Reptiles include iguana and boll constrictor. ## History ### Prololum Period The territory of El Salvador is part of the Mesoamerican region and served as a transit point for objects and ideas over time. located in the region. The first cultural evidences in El Salvador date back to eight thousand years in the archaic period (8000 - 1500 BC), a period of great migration to different regions of Mesoamerica, one of them - to the coasts of the Pacific Ocean. Pre-Classic Period (1500-900 BC) During the Middle I (900-500 ~ 400 BC) Proto-Mayan groups settled in the western region. In this case, the remains of ancient settlements were found in the Chalchuapa area, probably emigrants from Chiapas and Guatemala. Preclassic groups originating from this region are the Jayaku or Antiguo Cuscatlán. Until the Late Classic period (500 ~ 400 BC - BC 200 ~ 250) there was cultural development and linguistic, sculptural, and commercial relations with the highlands of Guatemala, especially with Usulutan pottery and obsidian. In addition, three regions of the country (western, central and eastern) were settled; and the construction of ramparts increased, such as Kelyepa, Atikisaya and El Trapiche. However, our prosperity in B.C. In 260, it was interrupted in several sectors by the eruption of the Ilopango volcano. S. During the Early Classic period (200 BC ~ 250-400 AD), Kelyepada, settled by Lenza and unaffected by the Ilopango eruption, made great progress and established contact with highlanders and southerners. isthmus. During the Middle Classic period (400 - 650 BC), Maya-Chorti groups repopulated the west and center of the territory. One of the settlements is Hoya de Seren, whose inhabitants were affected by the eruption of the Caldera volcano, which was occupied in the 6th century; The Lake Gyuja area was an important point of exchange with Western Honduras, the Motagua Valley, and the Petén. Until the 12th century, the territory of the country was part of the powerful Mayan empire, and later the Aztec empire. 16th century In the past, Pipil tribes settled in the west and center of the country, and Lenka tribes settled in the east. Indians were mainly engaged in agriculture and fishing. Eur. colonists S. territory in 1523-28. conquered and slaughtered the local Indians. 1528 they founded the cities of San Salvador and Sonsonate. The Indians rebelled against the invaders many times (the biggest one was in 1537). The Spanish colonists suppressed these rebellions by force. 1560 — 1821 S. It was included in the General Captaincy of Guatemala. 1821 S. gained its independence from Spain. 1823 — 1839 Avg. It was part of the United States of America. After the collapse of the Federation, in 1841 it became an independent state. The history of the country in the 19th and 20th centuries is full of military revolutions and wars. Power passed to different groups in turn. 1979 a military junta came to power again. As a result, in 1980-92 A civil war broke out between the authorities and the National Liberation Front fighters. During the 12-year war, more than 75,000 Salvadorans were killed, and the country's economy was severely damaged. 1992 On February 1, the warring parties reached a peace agreement, and the country entered the path of demographic development. Two attempts by local Creoles to overthrow the colonial regime (in 1811 and 1814) were stopped by the Spanish authorities, but in 1821, after Mexico, Central America declared itself independent and became part of the Mexican Empire, which it renounced in 1823. The federal state of the United Provinces of Central America was formed, which included present-day Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. This federal republic did not last long - internal conflicts and wars led to its decline. Since 1839, El Salvador has been an independent republic. The history of El Salvador in the 19th century is full of constant struggle between conservatives and liberals, as well as numerous coups d'état that tried to restore the federation of the Central American republics, which led to constant wars and conflicts between the republics. Thus, in 1885, El Salvador (with the help of Costa Rica and Nicaragua) repelled a major attack by Guatemala (supporting Honduras). The Guatemalan troops were defeated and the Guatemalan President Barrios, who had commanded them, was killed in action. ## Agriculture El Salvador is an agricultural country. Economy a. sh. based on the processing and production of products. A. It employs 40% of the working population, provides 1/4 of the gross domestic product, 80% of foreign exchange earnings, and 3/4 of the raw materials for the manufacturing industry. Sugar cane, coffee, cotton, corn, rice, etc. for domestic consumption. is grown. The main export crop is coffee. S. ranks 6th in coffee production in the world. Cows and pigs are raised. Lumbering and forest industry (especially the collection of "Peru balsam" resin) flourished. The industry is mainly a. sh. consists of product processing enterprises. Food (sugar, tobacco, coffee) and light (textile weaving, clothing) industries are especially developed. There are small oil refineries, cement products, pulp and metallurgical enterprises, several CHPs. Silver is produced in the country. Economic sectors are dependent on foreign capital (mainly USA). National income per capita is 2810 US dollars. Main trade partners: USA, Germany, Guatemala, Venezuela, Mexico. ## Pictures ## Political structure The head of state is appointed by electing the president (who is also the head of the government). Parliament - Legislative assembly (84 deputies, elected by the people for a 3-year term). Political parties represented in the parliament after the March 2018 elections: * Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA, right-wing; chairman - Gustavo López Davidson) - 37 seats; * Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front (FMLN, leftist; general secretary - Medardo González) - 23rd place; * Broad Alliance for National Unity (GANA, left; chaired by Andres Rovira) - 10 seats; * National Coalition Party (PCN, far-right; chaired by Manuel Rodríguez) - 9 seats; * Christian Democratic Party (KDC, centers; Chairman - Rodolfo Parker) - 3 seats; * Democratic Change (CD, Center-Left; chairman Douglas Aviles) - 1 place; * Independent - 1 place. The ruling party is GANA, as its leader Nayib Bukele holds the presidency. ARENA's Mario Pons was elected President of the Legislative Assembly in 2019. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, the country was classified as a hybrid regime in 2018 by the Democracy Index. ## Foreign Policy El Salvador is a member of the United Nations and several of its specialized agencies, the Organization of American States, the Central American Common Market, the Central American Parliament, and the Central American Integration System. El Salvador actively participates in the Commission on Security in Central America, whose activities are aimed at ensuring arms control. El Salvador is a member of the World Trade Organization and has signed free trade agreements with other countries in the region. ## Probably Derek

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7392

Zhankozha batyr

Zhankozha Nurmukhameduly (1774 - 1860) was a hero from the Alshin tribe. The leader of the national liberation uprising of the Syr Bai Kazakhs against the oppression of the Khiva and Kokan khanates and the Russian colonialists. ## Struggle with the Khanates of Khiva and Kokan Khanates of Khiva and Kokan, who began to dominate the Kazakhs who settled along the Syr River and the eastern coast of the Aral Sea from the 20s of the 19th century, in the 1830s and 1840s further strengthened his authority over the local population. The Khanate of Khiva made raids on the Kazakhs along the Syr River, passing through Zhanadaria, Kuangniya, Kyzylkum, Koskorgan, and the Aral Sea, taking their cattle hostage, women and children. The Kokan people established a border, established an administration, and from their fortresses, which had been built since 1817, took out various troops, slaughtered the peaceful country, and collected tribute. Kazakhs who suffered from such violence gathered around Zhankozha, who was known for his justice and heroism from his youth. At the age of 17, Zhankozha, selected by the local clans of the Alimuly tribe of the Kishi Yuz, during the campaign of Kylyshbai Khan to the Khiva fortress, indifferently followed the squad and killed Tyky, a Karakalpak hero who did not obey anyone, in a fight. In this campaign, Kylyshbay Khan himself was killed for his injustice. At this time, the village of Zhankozha was grazing Karakum; Yirgyz wintered. The violence shown by the governors of the Kokan Khanate, who were located in the Sozak fortress, in addition to the taxes imposed on the local population, caused the Kazakhs to unite and attack this fortress. I. V. According to Anichkov, the mayor of Kokan, Dauren, together with the beggars of the city of Sozak, Otynshi and Cushi, killed Sarman Bei. Kurman Bi, who lives in Sozak, sends a special message to Zhankozha, asking for intercession. Zhankozha collected arms from the country, went on a campaign to Sozak, and on the way chased the Kokans in Zhanakorgan and Zhelek fortresses. In the fall of 1830, Tagan from Kokhan, who came to help by besieging the Sozak fortress, captures the wrestler in a fight. After that, Zhankozha broke through the gate of the fortress with his troops and captured Sozak. Kokan begs captured Otynshi and Shushi and handed them over to Kurman Bi for killing their child. According to some sources, Zhankozha destroyed the fortresses of the Kokan Khanate, such as Shymkorgan, Koskorgan, and Kumiskorgan. In 1835, during the reign of Allakul Khan, the Khanate of Khiva built a fortress in Kurtobe, west of Kuandaria, and kept 200 troops there. The Turkman Aymuhamed Palawan was sent with his troops to bring order to the Kazakhs in the lower estuary of the Syr, who relied on Zhankozha and refused to pay tribute, and refused to submit to the tyranny of Khiva Bey Babazhan. In 1836, in the place of Akirek, this Aymuhamed wrestler was killed in a fight by Zhankoja. The squad of the wrestler, whose leader was killed, had to run away. After that, Zhankozha often attacked the Kazakhs along the Syr River from the oppression of the Khivas, and attacked their fortresses. His campaigns were successful and Khiva fortresses suffered heavy losses. Zhankozha also attacked the military fortresses of the Kokan Khanate along the lower reaches of the Syrdarya such as Zhanakorgan, Kumiskorgan, Shymkorgan and Koskorgan. He was in active contact with the military units of Kenesary Kasymuli. In 1845, Zhankozha took part in the capture of the Sozak military fortress at the request of Kenesary Khan. Later, Zhankozha Batyr's conflict with the Kokan Khanate began, which lasted for many years. In 1851, the Kokans forcibly drove away a lot of Kazakh cattle. Zhankozha batyr marched to Akmeshit, defeated the Kokan army, captured the fortress of Koskorgan. Local Kazakhs were freed from Kokan oppression. In the spring of 1845, the Khanate of Khiva sent 200 troops to restore the ruined fortresses along the Syr. Jankozha's men fought with them and drove them back. In the spring of 1847, the army of Khiva Bey Uayis-Niyaz attacked the Kazakhs grazing in Atanbas, Akirek, Kamystybas, destroyed and looted 1400 houses. In August of this year, the invaders, led by Khiva Beg Kozhaniyaz and the Kazakh sultans Zhangazi Shergaziev and Elikei (Yermuhamed) Kasymov, once again plundered the Kazakh villages. Such an invasion of Khivas is repeated several times a year. Zhankozha opposes with 700 soldiers to defend his plundered country. Khiva people with two thousand troops are concentrated around the Zhankala fortress. The Kazakhs of Syr, who were completely disgusted by the invasion oppression of Khiva Khans, were forced to recognize the tsar's government in practice and expected their help in the fight against the Khiva begs. At first, Zhankoja Batyr welcomed the arrival of the Russian troops with great hope and friendly feelings. In 1847, Zhankozha did not resist the Russian troops who came to Raim and started building a fortress. At that time, the governor-general of Orinbor V. Having met and talked with Obruchev, Zhankozha agreed with him that the Russian army would not disturb the peace of the local people and would protect them from Khiva invasion. A detachment led by Yerofiv, the head of the Russian Raim fortress, came to Zhankozha's aid and defeated the Khiva together. In August 1847, the united Russian-Kazakh troops destroyed the Khiva castle Janakala, built on the left bank of the Syr. Zhankozha soldiers who chased the enemy and showed courage in this war returned a total of 3 thousand camels, 500 horses, 2 thousand cattle, 50 thousand sheep and released the prisoners. In this war, the first manifestation of "friendship" between the Kazakh and Russian troops was observed. That is why the Kazakhs welcomed the Russian troops and emigrants who came along the Syr with a friendly attitude. But this "friendship" did not last long. ### Rebellion against the Tsar's rule The Tsar's rule carried out a reactionary internal policy in the Syr region and intensified colonial oppression. At the same time as destroying the political independence of the Kazakhs, the fertile lands were seized and the Cossacks of the Orinbor army were placed there in a planned and thorough manner. Moreover, in 1837, the Russian government introduced a new tax of 1 som 50 tinyak from Kazakhs as a subordinate country. However, later the tax amount was doubled. This tax is historically known as "smoke tax" and "shanty tax". The tax was collected once a year equally, regardless of the social status of the people, i.e., from ordinary landowners, shack owners, and wealthy families. The livestock of those who could not pay taxes were confiscated. At the same time, organizations of the Syr Darya border authorities mobilized Kazakhs to build the military fortresses of Raiyim and Fort No. 1 (Kazaly). Thousands of poor people were deported to build these outposts. As a result of coercion, herders, farmers, fishermen could not do their own business. Irrigation systems were not cleaned in time, and farmers faced water shortages, and due to lack of human resources, they could not harvest their crops in time. And in 1849, the first twenty-six families of Orinbor Cossack-Russians were settled in the Rayim fortress. They gradually pushed the Kazakhs out of their places of residence and settled them in fertile and well-watered areas on the banks of the Syrdarya. As a result, Kazakh farmers of Syrdarya were forced to develop unused barren lands, and some of them had to work for hire in the farms of emigrants and officials. The royal officials and troops are disturbing the peace of the country from time to time, and they are not bothering even the elderly Zhankozha. Representative of the Orinbor border commission on the Syrdarya system I. Mukhamedhasan Akhmerov, an interpreter who is considered Osmalovsky's assistant, sends messengers to the village of Zhankozha to collect bribes. Zhankoja dismisses them saying that "there is no such tax in Russian law at all." In the fight against the Khivas and Kokans, Zhankoja Batyr was forced to form a temporary alliance with the Russians. The tsarist government, trying to take advantage of Zhankozha Batyr's struggle against Khiva in 1847, tried to win him over to its side. For this purpose, it was decided to pay him a salary of 200 soms annually at the expense of the Border Commission. He was also offered the position of manager of Borsykkum Kazakhs on the banks of Karakum and Syrdarya. On behalf of the supreme authority of Russia, the hero was also awarded the title of hero. But Zhankozha Batyr categorically refused all titles, salaries, and valuable gifts offered by the government. The tsarist government tried to make the Zhankozha hero subordinate to the rulers-sultans of Kishi Yuz. These outrageous actions caused the hero to avoid the king's government. Because his subjection to the sultans, who became the king's vassals, was an abomination beyond comprehension. Enraged by such negative events, Zhankozha is forced to revolt. In December 1856, an armed uprising of the Kazakhs of Syr began against Russia. The reason for this was that three local Kazakhs were burned alive in the furnace of a brick factory by Russian soldiers. The center of the uprising was Zhankala, where the former khanate was located. The majority of the rebels were pedestrians. Their weapons consisted of a hoe and a long-handled bill, a club, a bow, and a spear. They had only a few guns to fire. Zhankoja Batyr created several groups capable of quick action. Each of them consisted of 150-200 people. The insurgent squad was placed near Kazaly, near the Perovsk fortress, and when the signal was given, they immediately launched an attack on the border line. The enemy's manpower suffered significant losses. At the end of December 1856, the Kazaly castle was besieged. He repeatedly attacked the detachment of L. Bulatov in Karatobe Man. At the beginning of the uprising, Zhankozha had more than 1,500 soldiers, but in January 1857, their number reached 5,000. The situation worried the Governor-General of Orinbor V. A. Perovsky very much. He sent a punitive detachment with several hundred Cossack troops led by Sultan Elikey Kasymov, along with 300 horse Cossacks, 320 infantry, 1 cannon, 250 hussars led by Major-General Fitinghoft. The decisive battle between the punitive army and the rebels took place on January 9, 1857 in the Arykbalik Gorge. During the battle, the white flag was raised by Zhankozha Batyr himself. But the poorly armed squad of the hero could not withstand the cannon fire and the thick bullets of the rifle. The punitive detachment drove out the rebels, slaughtered and looted the Kazakh villages they met on the way. In February-March, the punitive detachment led by Fittinghoft went on several more campaigns against the rebel population and committed unspeakable atrocities on the Kazakh villages. In 1856-1857, cattle worth 79,567 soms were sold, except for those that were stolen from the Kazakhs and not accounted for. The rebel camp was captured, property was looted. More than 20,000 cattle were driven away. Fragmented groups of insurgents retreated to Kuangiya, and were forced to pass through Bukhara and Khiva. About 20 Kazakh villages moved along with Zhankozha. Zhankozha tried to find allies here from the Khans of Khiva, Bukhara or Kokan. But nothing came of this policy. This is how the uprising of the Kazakhs led by Zhankozha Nurmuhameduly ended. The military administration of the tsarist government sent a special punitive force led by Elikey Kasymov to exterminate Zhankozha Nurmuhameduly. In 1860, the punitive army besieged the village of Zhankozha batyr, located at the head of Zhankara lake in Kyzylkum. During the bloody battle, Zhankozha Batyr, over 80 years old, was killed by executioners' bullets. The last moment of the hero's death L. Meyer describes as follows: "The old hero put on his bulletproof armor, hung up his weapons and managed to get out of his house. But there is no name. Thinking that this was the place of my death, he quickly got up on a hill, gathered his faith and began to pray... the bullets... for a long time did not pass through his armor, flew away and fell back. Finally, a bullet hit him right in the neck and killed the old hero." ## See more * Zhankozha batyr song * Zhankozha batyr village ## External links * Malimetter.kz Zhankozha Batyr abstract (Kazakh) ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5673

Scale of geochronology

Geochronological scale (Earth chronology) is a hierarchical system of geochronological units equal to the units of the general stratigraphic scale. The initial version of the scale was adopted at the meetings of the International Geological Congress in 1881-1900. There were various reasons for naming the geological periods. Often named after geographical names, for example, Cambrian - the name of Wales when it was part of the Roman Empire, Devon - because of Devonshire in England, Perm - a city in Russia, Jura - a mountain in Europe. Some periods are named after ancient tribes: Wend, Ordovician, Silurian. The Carboniferous and Cretaceous periods are named because of the overlapping of the corresponding sediments. ## Graphical timeline ## Sources ## External links \< > * NASA: Geologic Time Archived 18 April 2005. * GSA: Geologic Time Scale Archived 17 December 2007. * British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart Archived 15 September 2010. * GeoWhen Database * International Commission on Stratigraphy Time Scale * CHRONOS Archived 5 December 1998. * National Museum of Natural History - Geologic Time Archived November 11, 2005.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6552

Take out white

Taking out white (ritual, superstition). The Kazakh people call milk, kimchi, chubat, kefir and other dairy foods "white" and consider them as holy and holy things. In the same way, the white color also represents the concept of holiness and loyalty. According to the folk tradition, it is a moral, Muslim and future neighborly duty to go out in front of the village. Bringing out white means the wish "let's be as clean and tasty as this white". In such a situation, new immigrants express gratitude and gratitude. He slaughters a lamb and invites his neighbors to visit him. And the former neighbors follow the example by calling for "marriage" before that. Not to go out in front of a migrant when he is moving and not to give marriage is a violation of the Kazakh tradition. People talk about such shameful and stupid things. Taking out white is one of the rituals of the Kazakh people showing unity and kindness. In the past, there was a tradition of bringing food, which is the holy name of the Kazakh people, in front of the village that is moving to the base, saying "May the migration be safe!". After welcoming the leader of the emigrants by holding the trunk of his car, the mothers of the two villages stopped the emigrants and ate kumyz in the straw and meat on the table. In Kazakh, it is considered impolite not to walk on the street. Only those who have a heart and are not looking for prosperity did not indulge in this ceremony. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7656

Джибути

Djibouti (Arabic: جيبوتي‎), official name Republic of Djibouti (Arabic: جمهورية جيبوتي‎) is a country located in northeastern Africa, in the Horn of Africa. It borders Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea. ## History The territory of modern Djibouti came under the rule of Arab sultans in the 7th century. In the 19th century, the territory was colonized by France, and the state was officially named the French Somali Coast (later - the French territory of the Afars and Issa). ## Political structure Presidential republic. The President is the head of government and the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. The legislative function is performed by the unicameral National Assembly elected for 5 years. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers subordinate to the president. ## Administrative classification The territory of the country consists of 5 regions and 1 city. ## Economy The country's economy is mostly based on maritime. The capital, Djibouti, has been the main seaport with Ethiopia since its founding.Exports: fur, pets, coffee.Imports: food, beverages, transportation, petroleum products, electronics. Trade partners - France, Ethiopia, Japan. ## Education Literacy of the population over 15 years old is 68% (2003 report). Djibouti's population is young, with about 40% under 15 years of age. While most of the population was illiterate before independence, in 1969 there were 26 primary, 3 secondary and 2 technical schools across the republic. School education is free. Education costs made up 3.6% of GDP (2018). In 2006, the University of Djibouti was established, before which students had to study abroad. The electronic campus was launched in 2014. ## Population The main ethnic groups are Issa, Afar and northern Somali tribes. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7279

sun (star)

The Sun (symbol: ) is the central body of the Solar System, the closest star to the Earth. The Sun is a yellow dwarf star with spectral class G2V and absolute magnitude +4.83. It is located at a distance of 9-10 kpc from the center of our Galaxy. Compared to nearby stars, the Sun moves in the direction of the constellation Hercules at a speed of 1.97x104 m/s; The center of the galaxy is 230 million. rotates once a year. 99.866% of the mass of the entire solar system is concentrated in the Sun. The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 1,496x1011 m. The Sun is a hot gaseous sphere (temperature in the center is 107 K, density is 105 kg/m3). The average amount of energy produced during the day is 1.88x10–4 W/kg. The apparent radius of the Sun changes throughout the year due to the Earth's orbit moving away from the Sun and moving closer. The intensity of the magnetic field associated with the activity of the sun can reach 100 kA/m in sunspots. The most common element in the sun is hydrogen. The number of helium atoms is 7-8 times less than the number of its atoms, and the number of other elements is 1000 times less than the number of hydrogen atoms. The sun contains more oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, magnesium, silicon, and iron than other elements. The outer layers of the Sun that come under direct observation form its atmosphere. Almost all of the Sun's radiation comes from the lower part of the Sun's atmosphere, which is called the photosphere. The thickness of the photosphere is 100-300 km. The temperature in the photosphere decreases in the direction of the outer layer, the limit value is  4500 K, the average density is 2x10–4 kg/m3. Energy in the photosphere is transported by radiation as well as convection. The brightness of the photosphere is uneven and granular. Granules are circular light spots with an average size of  700 km. The life time of granules is about 5-10 minutes, some granules last up to 3 hours. In the photosphere there are even larger formations (a set of granules) with a size of  3104 km. Above the photosphere, there is a layer of chromosphere extending 14 thousand km from the visible edge of the Sun. Its density is much less than the density of the photosphere (about 10–10 - 10–11 kg/m3), and it thins with increasing height, and its temperature rises to a million degrees. Above the chromosphere, the most rarefied part of the Sun's atmosphere is the solar corona. Its height is equal to several solar radii. Sunspots and flares can be observed in the photosphere. Sunspots usually consist of dark brown nuclei and their surrounding shadows. Their diameter reaches up to 200 thousand km. The temperature of spots is about 4500°С, that is, it is lower than the temperature of the photosphere surrounding them. The brightness of spots is 2-5 times lower than the brightness of the photosphere, so they look ordinary. Sunspots are found only in the region up to 45° heliographic latitude, and they last from a few days to a few months. Flame noises are a photospheric phenomenon. They are especially good at the edge of the Sun's disk, against a background of white light. Flare noises are sometimes observed in the form of a complex fiber that undergoes significant changes over several hours, and they are located higher than the photosphere and have a higher temperature. At the edge of the solar disk, a gas cloud - a bulge is observed. The spectrum of protuberances consists of weak lines of H, Ca, Ne and metals. Their length is sometimes 1 million. more than km. Protuberances are made of glowing gases. They are found in different forms (in the form of drops, fountains, clouds, arcs, etc.); The average height above the surface of the Sun is from 30 thousand to 50 thousand km. During chromospheric ignition, corpuscular ultraviolet rays from the Sun intensify, and geomagnetic and ionospheric disturbances appear under its influence. Various phenomena observed on the surface of the Sun change with a period of about 11 years (according to the cycle of solar activity). Solar activity affects many geophysical phenomena; It changes the state of the Earth's ionosphere, due to this, the characteristics of short radio waves, magnetic vortices, polar vortex, etc. appears. Sunlight reaches the earth in 8.3 minutes. And the ray of the nearest star Centaurus α can reach the earth in 4 years and 3 months. Since the stars are so far from Earth, they look like dots even when viewed through a telescope. On a moonless night, you can see about 5,000 stars with the naked eye, and billions of stars with a powerful telescope. The Sun is an ordinary star, so a general study of it helps to understand the nature of stars. It is the central and most massive body in the solar system. The mass of the Sun is 333,000 times that of Earth and 750 times that of all other planets combined. The sun is a great source of self-radiating energy. It has a powerful effect on all bodies in the solar system - through radiation: it heats them, affects the atmosphere of the planets, provides light and heat necessary for life on earth, and ensures the existence of all plant and animal life. Some of the solar energy is stored underground in the form of coal, oil and other minerals. Spherical Sun appears to us as a bright round. The visible surface of the Sun, whose radius is the Sun's radius, is called the photosphere. This radius is equal to 109 Earth radii. The volume of the Sun is 1,300,000 times greater than the volume of the Earth. The value of the physical constant on the surface of the Sun is 28 times higher than on the surface of the Earth and is equal to 274 H/kg. The average density of solar matter is p = 1410 kg/m3, which is slightly more than the density of water. The total radiant power of the sun, that is, its brightness, is about 4*1023 kW. The effective temperature of the sun is about 6000 K. But the earth receives from the sun about 1/2000000000 (0.5*10-9) of its energy. Like all stars, the Sun is a ball of hot gas. Basically, it consists of hydrogen with an admixture of helium (ten percent). Solar matter is strongly ionized, that is, atoms have lost their outer electrons and with them have become free plasma particles of ionized gas. The flow of energy generated in the Sun's core is transmitted to the outer layers and covers an increasingly large area. As a result, the temperature of the solar gases decreases with distance from the center. Conditionally divides the solar atmosphere into several layers. The deepest layer of the atmosphere, 200-300 km thick, is called the photosphere (sphere of light). Almost all the light energy of the Sun comes out of it. Therefore, the temperature of the outer layers of the photosphere cools sharply from 8000 K to 4000 K. But this temperature in the atmosphere first slows down and then starts to increase rapidly. This region of the solar atmosphere is called chromosphere. Its temperature reaches tens and hundreds of thousands of Kelvin. In rare moments before a total solar eclipse, it appears as a bright pink rim around the Moon's dark circle. The temperature of the Sun's atmosphere does not change in the interval as high as the Sun's radius in the chromosphere. This rarefied and hot shell is called the solar corona. The sun's corona can be seen during the total phase of the solar eclipse. At this time, it looks amazingly beautiful. Further, the gas of the solar corona spreads out into interplanetary space, forming a stream of hot, rarefied plasma called the solar wind that spreads steadily away from the Sun. Sufficient reserves of internal energy and processes that convert and process this energy into radiant energy are necessary for the Sun to maintain its observed brightness for a long period of time. Thermonuclear reactions take place in the Sun's core, as a result of which the amount of energy released into the world space is released. According to the latest data, the age of the Sun is 4 billion 600 million years, and it will still burn brightly for 5 billion years. Its luminosity or total emission power did not change significantly during this time period. Therefore, the reserve of internal energy of solar matter should reach billions of years. Sun - Earth connections. The sun has a great influence on the events that occur on Earth. It is the main heat source of the Earth's surface. The Sun not only illuminates and warms the Earth, but solar activity, which occurs approximately every 11 years, gives rise to a number of geophysical phenomena. For example, the flow of charged particles strongly affects the Earth's magnetic field, and magnetic storms bring charged particles to the lowest layers of the atmosphere, which form polar vortexes. The emission of short-wave radiation of the Sun has a strong influence on the propagation of radio waves, sometimes radio communication is broken, and active processes on the Sun indirectly affect the complex processes of the organic world, that is, animals and plants. These effects and their mechanism are currently being carefully studied by scientists from various fields. Solar observation and research in the Republic of Kazakhstan began in the 1950s. 1954 For the first time, all emission lines with wavelengths of 5303 and 6374 were recorded inside the solar corona using the coronagraph. This year, a solar station was built near the Big Almaty Lake at an altitude of 3000 m above sea level. This station is equipped with two new coronagraphs, large and small, a horizontal solar telescope, a spectrograph and a multiple photoheliograph, contributing to the study of solar physics. The Sun is a G-type star with a diameter of 696,000 km, 333,000 × Earth mass, 1,300,000 × Earth volume, and an average density of 1410 kg/m3. The equator is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of 7.25º. It is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. The visible surface is called "photosphere" (temperature 6000 K). The Sun is a very hot (surface temperature - 6000С), plasma ball (density 1.4 g/m3). It has a crown with flaming fire and protuberances. Solar radiation - solar activity - has an 11-year cycle. At the peak of the sun's activity, there are many spots on its surface. The internal structure of the Sun during the transformation of hydrogen into helium 1-Helium nucleus; 2-convection zone; 3-chromosphere; 4-photosphere; 5-sun stains; 6-protuberances; 7th thermonuclear reactions are the source of solar energy. For the first time, Arthur Eddington theoretically calculated the temperature necessary for thermonuclear reactions to proceed. German physicist Hans Bethe (who received the Nobel Prize in 1967) calculated the reaction of thermonuclear fusion of helium with hydrogen that occurs on the Sun. At the heart of any problem or hypothesis about the formation of the solar system and stars, there are three fundamental characteristics of the universe: first, the vast majority of matter in the universe is composed of hydrogen (75%), helium (25%) and small amounts of other chemical elements ; secondly, there is interstellar gas and dust everywhere in the Universe; thirdly, in the Universe, all things are in rotational and turbulent motion (the shape of the galaxy is spiral, the stars rotate, the planets revolve around the sun, etc.). We also know that the age of the solar system is 5 billion years. This information allows us to imagine the history of our part of the universe. There are several hypotheses about the formation of the solar system. In the last century, such a hypothesis was proposed by I. Kant proposed. This hypothesis was proposed by P. Laplace used. Only in the near future V. Fesenkov and O. New hypotheses of Schmid appeared. These hypotheses differ from other hypotheses in that, according to them, the planets were formed from cold matter, not from initial hot components. Swedish astrophysicist H. The electromagnetic version of the hypothesis of the formation of the solar system, proposed by Alven and later improved by F. Hoyle, is now widespread. ## Movement and Rotation of the Sun The Sun rotates once in about 27 days. This rotation has been determined by observing the movement of sunspots. The Sun's axis of rotation is tilted about 7.25 degrees from the axis of Earth's orbit, so we see more of the Sun's north pole in September and more of the sun's south pole in March. Since the Sun is a ball of gas (plasma), it does not need to rotate as strongly as the planets and moons. In fact, the equatorial regions of the Sun (24 days) rotate faster than the polar regions (more than 30 days). The source of this "differential rotation" is an area of current research in solar astronomy. The Sun not only revolves around the Milky Way Galaxy once in 225 million years, the Milky Way Galaxy revolves around a cluster of galaxies, the planets rotate around the Sun, and the Moon similarly rotates around the Earth. If the Earth rotates at a speed of 460 meters per second, it rotates around the sun at a speed of 30 kilometers per second, and the sun moves around the Milky Way galaxy at a speed of 220 kilometers per second. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1700

Петропавловск

Petropavl (Russian: Petropavlovsk, commonly used Kazakh name "Kyzylzhar") is a city in the North Kazakhstan region, the regional center (since 1936). The city was founded in 1752 on the right bank of the Esil River. Petropavlovsk is a major road, air, river and railway junction. It is located on the site of an ancient Kazakh settlement called "Kyzylzhar" on the right bank of the Esil River, in the forest-steppe belt of the Esil Plain in the southwest of the West Siberian Basin. The population is 219,011 people (2019). ## History The foundation of the city was laid in 1752 as a military fortress in the policy of colonization of the Kazakh lands of Tsarist Russia. At first, it became a military outpost, then a city of Siberian Tatars (Turks), and became the main stronghold of Russia during its colonization of North and Central Kazakhstan. In 1838, it became a part of Esil district, and in 1868, Akmola region, and became a district town. After 1868, due to its location along the trade route of Siberia and Turkestan, Petropavlva became a major center of trade between the khanates of Russia and Central Asia and the Kazakh steppe. It became such a large trade center when Sultan Abylay got permission from the governors of Orinbor and Siberia to open a large trade center in Kyzylzhar (now Petropavlovsk). Trade turnover in Petropavlovsk grew from year to year, and there was trade between Russian merchants and Kazakhs of the Middle Hundred. At the end of the 18th century, it turned from a small settlement (forestadt) into a large trade center. The tsarist government helped the development of trade in Petropavlovsk and opened a city public bank there (1871). Later it became the State Bank (1880). In 1849, there were 7 oil, 7 leather, 4 soap, 17 brick factories, mills, etc. enterprises worked. In 1912, there were about 600 trade establishments here. The construction of the Trans-Siberian railway greatly influenced the further development of the city. If in the 19th century the city developed as a trade and administrative center, at the beginning of the 20th century it became one of the main centers of agriculture and industry. During these years, exiled peasants from Russia began to settle. Most of them moved to the city and increased the labor force. Crafts and small businesses developed in the city. The city's economy was adversely affected by World War 1 and the Civil War. In 1932-1936, the city managed the construction of the city of Karaganda and became the main center for the construction of a large railway junction. In 1932, the brick factory "Kazstroymaterial" was launched. Meh. The factory was renovated. As a result, the number of city enterprises increased and the number of workers increased 13 times. Before World War II, utility and electric transport companies were formed in Petropavlovsk. About 20 plants and factories moved from the western regions of the USSR during World War II boosted the economy of the city. After the war, the city began to develop rapidly. Especially during the development of virgin and fallow lands, many enterprises were built, and the socio-economic, educational and cultural-enlightenment spheres of the city developed rapidly. Due to the transition to the market economy in the 1990s, large industrial establishments in the city of Petropavlovsk slowed down their work somewhat. Economic relations were broken, and the work of enterprises began to stop. Only since the end of the 90s, along with the economy of the country, the economy of Petropavlovsk has improved somewhat. ## Geography ### Climate ## Today's city Currently, Petropavlovsk is the largest industry in Kazakhstan became one of the centers. 174 enterprises work in the city. Among them, the large enterprises include "Eurasia", "Vita", "Molochny Soyuz", bread factory, liquor-vodka factory, "Sultan", "Tonus", etc. belongs to. Small businesses provide 10% of the city budget. The share of those employed in trade was 47.8%, in manufacturing 17.4%, including 6.6% in construction, 35 enterprises process agricultural products. 110 small construction enterprises, 49 transport and communication enterprises work in the city. There are 49 schools of general education, 2 music schools, 5 sports schools, 3 vocational and technical schools, 5 special educational institutions and colleges, and 2 state higher educational institutions (University of North Kazakhstan and Military School of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan). 12 hospitals, 10 clinics, 199 pharmacies provide services to the public. Petropavlovsk has 3 theaters, a philharmonic hall, 3 museums, 3 cinemas, 4 state libraries, 5 palaces of culture, etc. works. The city has 4 stadiums, 34 different sports buildings. Regional and city newspapers, advertising publications are published. At the same time, 3 television and radio companies are working. ## Economy Petropavl, the center of North Kazakhstan region, was founded in 1752. As of January 1, 2010, the population in the center of the region was 195,200 people, making up 30.3% of the total population of the region. 47 day schools providing general education work in the city, where 22.3 thousand students study, as well as 10 colleges (13.0 thousand students), 3 higher education institutions (11.0 thousand students) there is There are 3 theaters, 1 philharmonic hall, 3 museums, 8 libraries, and 3 club institutions in the center of the region. 4,995 legal entities were registered as of January 1, 2010, of which 94.8% are small (less than 50 persons), 4.3 are medium (from 51 to 250 persons), 0.9 % - large (more than 250 employees) enterprises. The majority of enterprises (88.8%) are privately owned enterprises. The initial cost of the main equipment owned by enterprises and organizations as of January 1, 2009 (without taking into account the cost of land) was 160.3 billion tenge, the degree of wear and tear was 40.0%, and the balance sheet value at the end of 2008 was 96.3 billion was tenge. In 2009, the output of the city industry (non-financial sector) was 46,835.1 million tenge, which was 4.0% higher than the level of 2008. Production of electric power 2,371.1 million kWh, thermal power - 2,123,9 thousand Gcal, dairy products 27,4 thousand tons, flour - 100,9 thousand tons, bread - 12,7 thousand tons, pasta - 26, 2 thousand tons, alcoholic beverages made 2 114.7 thousand liters. Contractual works in the amount of 8,530.1 million tenge were performed by construction organizations. Last year, residential buildings with a total area of 27,223 square meters were commissioned in the center of the region. In 2009, trade enterprises and private entrepreneurs sold goods worth 39,800.0 million tenge in retail trade. Retail trade per person averaged 203.9 thousand tenge. ## Culture ### Theaters * С. Kazakh clay-drama theater of the North Kazakhstan region named after Mukanov * Puppet theater of the North Kazakhstan region * North Kazakhstan region N. Russian Drama Theater named after Pogodin ### Museums * North Kazakhstan regional museum of history and local history * Regional museum of visual arts * Museum complex "Residence of Abylai Khan" \< > * History Museum of SKSU named after Manash Kozybaev ### Libraries * North Kazakhstan Regional Universal Scientific Library named after S. Mukanov * G. Musyrepov Regional Children's Library * I. City Library named after Shukhov ## Sister Cities * Ombi, Russia * Chelyabinsk, Russia * Novosibirsk, Russia * Ekaterinburg, Russia * Hanover , Germany.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3767

Aubakirov Toktar

Toktar Ongarbayuly Aubakirov (July 27, 1946, Karkaraly district, Karaganda region, Kazakhstan) is the first Kazakh cosmonaut, pilot, Hero of the Soviet Union (1988), Hero of the People (1995), doctor of technical sciences (1998), professor (1997), Honorary professor of Kyzylorda State University named after Korkyt Ata. Honorary Professor of Karaganda University named after Academician E.A. Boketov (May 3, 2022) ## Biography Born from the Taz-Bulbul section of the Karakesek clan of the Argyn tribe of Orta Yuzh. * Graduated from the Armavir Higher Military Pilot School (1969), Aviation Institute (1979) in the Russian Federation. * In 1962 - 1965, he was a turner at the Temirtau foundry-mechanics plant, his name was written in golden letters in the book of honor of the region (1964). * In 1969 - 1975, he was a pilot, unit commander, deputy squadron commander in the Far Eastern Military District of the Air Force of the Soviet Union. * In 1975 - 1976, he graduated from the Moscow School of Test Pilots, the Moscow Aviation Institute (1979). * From 1976 to 1992, he worked as a test pilot of the Experimental Design Bureau named after A. Mikoyan in Moscow. * In 1988, for the first time in the Soviet Union, he made a heroic flight to the North Pole by refueling the plane twice in the air. * In 1989, he became the 1st and skillfully landed a MiG-29k jet on the platform of an aircraft carrier. He also tested more than 50 new types of jet aircraft. * Joined cosmonauts in 1990. * On April 2, 1991, he began preparing for a space flight at the Soviet Cosmonaut Training Center, and on October 2 of the same year, he flew into space from Baikonur on the Soyuz TM-13 spacecraft. The spacecraft connected with the "Mir" orbital complex around the earth. There, together with other cosmonauts, he conducted scientific research in the fields of biotechnology, metallurgy, medicine, and the native region of Aral. As a result of the research, space images of the formation process of the salt cloud over the Aral Sea and the spread of these harmful aerosols to the regions of Kazakhstan and Russia were obtained. Also, the research of the atmosphere and the earth's surface in the territory of Kazakhstan, the observation of the starry sky and astrophysics went well. He returned to Earth on October 10, 1991. After returning from space, he took an active part in establishing the foundations of space training research in Kazakhstan, improving the military training of the domestic Armed Forces, and launching military-patriotic education. * 1992 - 1993 1st Deputy Minister of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan * 1993 - 1994 General Director of the National Aerospace Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan - Deputy Minister of Science and New Technologies * 1994 - 1995 Deputy of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan - He became the chairman of the Defense and Security Committee. * Advisor to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan since 1996. * In 2001, he was elected as a deputy of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan for Kyzylorda electoral district #44. Honorable citizen of Kyzylorda. * Elected deputy of the 12th convocation of the Supreme Council of the Kazakh SSR, deputy of the 13th convocation of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan, deputy of the 3rd convocation of the Majilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan. ## Flight into space * 1991 Yu.A. He began training at the Gagarin cosmonaut training center, a test cosmonaut-pilot, a test pilot. The test cosmonaut-pilot took part in the accelerated flight training program on the Soyuz TM spacecraft and the Mir orbital complex. * On October 2, 1991, research cosmonaut Toktar Aubakirov, Alexander Volkov and Austrian cosmonaut Franz Fibök began to fly into space with the Soyuz TM-13 spacecraft. Worked at the Mir orbital complex all week. * On October 10, 1991, Toktar Aubakirov, Anatoly Artsebarsky, Austrian cosmonaut Franz Fibok returned to Earth with the Soyuz TM-13 spacecraft. Time spent in space — 7 days 22 hours 13 minutes. ## Awards of Kazakhstan: * "People's Hero" title * "Cosmonaut-pilot of Kazakhstan" title * "Motherland" Order (1995 ) * Honorary Professor of Karaganda University named after Academician E.A. Boketov (May 3, 2022) Soviet Union: * Order of Badge of Honor (1987) * Hero of the Soviet Union ( 1988), * Gold Star medal (1988) * Order of "Lenin" (1988), * Honored test pilot of the USSR (1990) * Cosmonaut-pilot of the USSR (1991) * Order of the October Revolution (1991) of the Republic of Austria: * Order of the "Golden Cross" 1988) * Order of the "Golden Cross" (1993) ## Sources ## External links * Currents Aubakir: "If the Kazakh raises his head, it will be difficult to stop him" * Vol. Aubakirov's interview Archived September 27, 2007. * AUBAKIROV TOKTAR ONGARBAYULY Archived December 15, 2013. * Owners of virtuous lives Archived March 27, 2012. * Aubakirov Toktar Ongarbaevich (unavailable link) ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7447

Nobel Prize in Literature

The Nobel Prize in Literature is an award given annually to an author from any country in the world. This prize was organized by Swedish chemical engineer, inventor and industrialist Alfred Nobel. Named after him, this prize is said to be the most famous and the most contested in the world. Awarded to A. A gold medal with Nobel's image, a diploma and a cash prize will be awarded. The prize money depends on the income of the Nobel Foundation. Nobel Prize in 1895 according to his will written on November 27, his capital (at first 31 million Swedish kroner) was invested in shares, bonds, loans. The income from this is divided into five equal parts and given to the best achievements in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and the promotion of peace. The award is presented annually on December 10 by the King of Sweden in Stockholm. After receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature, the laureate is obliged to give a lecture on the topic of his work. Basically, the literary award is given to the writer not for his personal work, but for his contribution to the development of literature. Since 1901, the Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded. Since then, 106 writers have received this award. ## Laureates List of Nobel Prize winners in literature ## Comments

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5123

Volga Kagan

Volga Kagan or Attila (Atil in Old Turkic, Latin Attila, Greek Ἀττήλας, 400 - 453) is a legendary leader of the Union of Western Hunnic tribes. He is a historical person who ruled the barbarian tribes from the Rhine to the north of the Black Sea, and has his own place in the history of mankind. Information about the events of that period can be found in historical works, chronicles and epic works. At the same time, the great deeds of the Huns and their king were reflected in 18 works of the German heroic songs. Under Volga, the empire reached its peak. He subjugated the Huns to the Caucasus in the east, the Rhine in the west, the Danish islands in the north, and the Danube River (including the right bank). From 444 to the day of his death in 453, Volga alone ruled the Hundred state. ## Historiography and sources Historians face many difficulties when describing the Volga Khagan as a person. This is because the records that have survived to our time are mostly written in Greek or Latin. The Roman historian and diplomat Priscus Panius gave the most information about Cosem. In 449, Priscus accompanied Theodosius II to a historical meeting and was a witness to the events that were taking place at that time. Priscus, who wrote the chronicle of the years from 434 to 452 in 8 volumes, was the only one who depicted the appearance of the Volga Kagan. In addition to the multivolume work of Priscus, the information of historians of the sixth century named Procopius and Jordan has reached us in written form. They mostly left information based on the work of Priscus. Byzantine historian Marcellinus Comitis and chancellor Justinian wrote a little, fragmentary information about the leader of the Huns in their works. Another sources are church works of the VI - XII centuries. They were on the side of the opponents of the Huns with the flow of history. That is why it is often described negatively. The Huns themselves sang about the leader as a hero in their legends. Fragments of them reached us in the form of epics through the sagas of the Scandinavians and Germans. In the 12th century, Hungarian writers honored the Huns as their ancestors in many of their works and celebrated them as heroes of the nation. Over time, Volodymyr Khagan was described as a symbol of barbarism and viewed as a threat to Western civilization. ## The name Attila There are several assumptions about the etymology of the name Attila in modern science. Volga is also called "Atyra", "Attila", "Atyl", "Attyly", "Etzel", "Etli" by European historians. The name Attila (Etzel) has been preserved in German toponymy since the Middle Ages, despite the linguistic changes that have occurred over time. For example, the literal translation of the name "Hetzelistal" ("Hetzelinstall") is "Etzel field", which is in Offenburg, also "Hetzelhof" ("Etzelhof"), "Atzelhof" ("Etzel yard"), in Heidelberg, Atzelbach (" Etzel spring") in Ottenhefen, "Attlisberg" ("Mount Attli"). Like many other Hun names, it is assumed that the original name of Attila is derived from Turkic languages (atta/ata - father, el/il - country, region). According to another assumption, the name Attila is derived from the name of the river Volga in the Volga Khazar language (Attil/Atil/Atel/Atal). The name "Attila" is now widespread among Turkic peoples (Kazakh - "Edil"). ### The image of the leader Based on the words of historian Iordan Priscus, he says that Volga was a special person. This characteristic belongs to the Asian or Mongoloid race. According to the description given by Priscus in 448, he seems to have been a simple, humble person. A commander who likes simple clothes, eats food from a wooden bowl, and does not decorate his weapons with gold. In general, Priscus described Volodymyr not as a leader of nomads from the east, but as a Germanic medieval king. ### Wives and children Volodymyr had many marriages and many children. Among his children, the name of the eldest son named Ellak was mentioned. This son was declared by the leader as his follower during his lifetime. Among his wives, the last wife named Ildiko remained in history. On the night of his first marriage, the Volodymyr Khagan died with his wife from an unknown cause. Priscus Panius, who saw the leader with his own eyes, described him as a man with a white beard in 448. In those years, Volodya sent his eldest son to lead the Acacias. Analyzing the information known to date, it can be said that Volodymyr Khagan was born in the first decade of the 5th century. Volga's father, Munzik, came from the royal line of the Huns, although he did not rule, his brothers Aktar (or Optar) and Rugila (Roas, Rua) were famous leaders of the Huns. There is no information about another Munzik, the name of this person is preserved in history as the father of Attila and Bleda. Since the society of the Huns was a society of warriors, Volodymyr Khagan grew up learning to ride a horse and shoot archery, like other descendants of the Huns at that time. At the same time, like other young Huns, he voluntarily bandaged his head with bandages and deformed his skull. When Rugila died in 434, the power of the empire passed to the hands of his younger brothers, Bleda and Edil. According to the Gallic Chronicle of 452, Bleda is declared the successor of Rugila, according to which Bleda was older than Volga. But soon Edil killed Bleda, the son of Whites, his cousin, and took power himself. After that, he was known around as a skilled commander, but now he stands out as a great politician and visionary leader. He will be called a "righteous ruler". His name causes fear among his opponents. It is called "God's whip". ## Expedition to Europe In 420 years, the Huns inhabited the Pannonian lands (now Hungary). The Huns, who ruled between the Danube and the Rhine and subjugated the barbarian tribes, threatened both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. In this confrontation, the Germanic tribes were on the side of Volga. ### The first campaign to Byzantium (441–442) Volga and Bleda's first campaign to Europe started from the Byzantine province of Illyricum, located in the territory of modern Serbia. At the same time, the Romans were fighting the Vandals in Sicily on the one hand, and the Persians on the other hand, which was an additional reason for the success of the campaign. According to Priscus, a witness of the event, the first military battles began with a sudden attack of the Huns on the Romans at the trade fair located in the territory of the present city of Belgrade. The attack was prompted by the looting of the Hun treasure (i.e. the tombs of the kings) by the bishop of Marg, and after Marg, the major cities on the Danube near Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and Viminacius (modern Kostolac) were captured. Further, the military activities of the Huns were directed to the eastern side of the Danube, that is, towards Ratiaria (present-day Bulgarian village of Archar) and from the Morava River in the south towards Naiss (present-day Serbian city of Niš). According to Priscus, around 442 the fighting stopped, and the Huns occupied a vast area "five days' journey" south of the Danube in the territory of present-day Serbia. ### The second campaign to Byzantium (447) Bleda died between the first and second campaigns, and from 444 he ruled the Volga Hun Empire alone. The historian O. D. Menchen-Helfen clearly defined in his work "Hun community". After the first campaign, Attila, as the sole leader of the Huns, demanded tribute from Byzantium and the return of fugitives who defected to the enemy. Emperor Theodosius II accepted this ultimatum as an insulting offer to the empire and declared war against the offer. As a result, Attila captured Ratiaria and began attacking the Byzantine territories in the Balkans in 446 or early 447. The Byzantine historian Marcellinus Comitis, describing the year 447 in his writings, wrote the following words: "In this terrible war, which was more severe than the first war, Attila crushed the whole of Europe." The Hun army led by Volga defeated Thrace and Illyria in 447 and reached the foundations of Thermopylae and Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) recognized its dependence on the Volga and began paying tribute. ### Treaty of peace between the Huns and Byzantium (448-450) Theodosius II, admitting defeat, sends his military master Anatoly to negotiate with the Huns. The terms of this treaty were found to be much stricter than those approved after the first campaign in 444. Agreed to give over 6,000 Roman pounds of gold to the emperor as punishment for breaking the first agreement. In addition, the requirements were strengthened: the annual tax was 3 times 700 kg of Roman pounds of gold, i.e. 2100 kg. The price for the release of each captured Roman soldier went up to 12 solidi. After the specified tribute was satisfied, the Huns returned to their lands. Bleda died around 445. Being the sole ruler of the Volga Huns, in 448 he placed the Akatsirs, who lived in the north of the Black Sea, under the control of his eldest son Ellak. In July 450, Emperor Theodosius II fell from his horse and died. Marcian, who served as the military commander in his place, refused to pay taxes in the amount specified in the treaty. He gives Volga only gifts that he considers right, and if he does not agree, he informs that war will start. In the early spring of 451, the Huns and the armies of other tribes dependent on them invaded Gaul. ## War with the Western Roman Empire (451-454) ### Campaign in Gaul (451) In 451, the army of warriors led by Volga Khagan In early spring, he begins an attack on Gaul. The number of Hun soldiers is unknown, but it is estimated that the attack movement was slow compared to the rhythm of the period. On April 7, 451, the Huns first captured the city of Metz, then Trier, Cologne, Reims, Tongeren, Troyes. On July 14 of the same year, the center of Roman Gaul besieges the city of Orleans and begins the battle. When the fortifications of the city began to be pierced by the ramparts, the combined army of the Roman general Flavius Aetius and the king of the Visigoths, Theodoric I, came to the aid of the Orleanians. The end of this will lead to the famous Battle of Catalunya, the greatest massacre in history. Historians say that 165,000 soldiers died on the battlefield in this battle. The Volga Kagan army returned to the Katalaun field and stopped on the right bank of the Seine River (probably around the city of Troyes). The exact date and location of the Battle of Catalunya have not been preserved, but historians estimate that the battle took place in late June, early July, north of the city of Troyes, in the region of the present-day Champagne province. As a result of this major battle, both sides suffered equal losses. As Prosper Tiro wrote, neither side was victorious in the Battle of Catalunya. The death toll was endless. King Theodoric I died on the battlefield. The next day, the Volga Khan's army hides in the fortress they built, and the Gothic-Roman coalition takes the initiative. However, Thorismund, the new king of Visigoth who succeeded Theodoric I, was the first to lead his army from the battlefield to Toulouse. The Volodymyr Khan then deploys his surviving soldiers on the other side of the Danube. In the following year 452, the Huns attacked northern Italy. ### March to Italy (452) In the summer of 452 (O. D. Maenchen-Helfen) Pope Leo Emperor Valentine wrote in 452 (according to his letters, the beginning of this campaign began in June 452) groups of warriors led by the Volga Khan began an attack from the Pannonian side from the wide plain of the Alps. The first strike of this campaign was in the city of Aquileia in the province of Veneto (Aquileia was the largest city on the Adriatic coast at that time). After conquering other cities of Veneto, the Huns turned towards the western part of northern Italy. Destroying Italy, the Huns took the cities of Mediolanum (modern Milan) and Ticinum (modern Pavia) from the outskirts. In Mediolanum (at the beginning of the 5th century, the city of Mediolanum was the capital of the Roman Empire), when you enter the palace of the Volga emperor, you will see pictures of Roman emperors on the walls of the palace. It can be noticed that the paintings depict the corpses of Scythian warriors lying at the feet of enthroned Roman emperors. Volodymyr found the same artist for his people and painted him another picture. This new painting shows the Volga Khagan sitting on a throne, and the Roman emperors pouring gold from sacks at his feet. Most of the inhabitants of the city escaped, their houses and churches were looted and burned. After these important events, Roman Pope Leo I went to meet with the leader of the Huns, accompanied by noble Romans Aviena and Trigetia. This meeting will take place on the plain of Ambuleia near the city of Mantua. As a result of the meeting, Rome escaped as a tax payer, and the Huns returned to the banks of the Danube without going to Rome. So he returned from this great campaign to Edylkala (Etzelburg), the capital of his state on the Danube, with great victory and triumph. Becomes the property of the Hun Empire. ### Invasion of Gaul in 453 The Huns, who returned victorious from Italy, soon want to take revenge on Gaul. Remembering the old debts (non-payment of taxes according to the contract signed with the deceased Theodosius II), he begins to threaten Volodya Gaul. Emperor Marcian, who replaced Theodosius II, sent various gifts to the leader and wanted to receive a pardon from the leader. Unmerciful Huns attacked the Alans who inhabited the banks of the Loire River in central Gaul in 453. There is no record of this year's invasion except for a brief account in Jordan's Getica. Only Visigoth king Thorismund is known to have come to the aid of the Alans. In addition, it is known that the Huns retreated back to Pannonia and Dacia. ## Death and disintegration of the Hun empire When the Volga conquered the Germanic tribes, he fell in love with the Burgundian princess Ildiona (Hildica). In 453, he made a big wedding in his country and married this princess. But on the night of the first wedding, he suddenly died under unknown circumstances. There is information that suffocation with blood from the nose may have caused his death. The place of burial is still unknown. In March 2014, during the construction of a bridge over the Danube in Budapest, the burial place of Volodymyr was found, and it was reported that it might be the grave of the Volodymyr Khagan. Many sons of Volga begin to share the empire left by their father. During his lifetime, Volodymyr appointed his eldest son Ellak as his successor. But the leaders of the barbarian tribes do not want to obey Ellak and other sons of Volga. First, the king of the Gepids, Ardarich, incited the Germanic tribes to revolt, and the warriors who disobeyed the new leaders began to fight in 454 around Nedao (now the Nedava River of Pannonia, a branch of the Sava). Ellak dies in this battle. After this battle, the Hun empire begins to fall apart. The youngest son of Volga settled in Dobrudzha with a part of the Ernak tribe, the rest of the Huns were pushed to the east of the Danube by the barbarian tribes. The last information about the Huns of the Volga is found in the chronicles of Marcellinus in 469. According to the information, "the head of Denziris [Denzicis], the son of the Volga king of the Huns, was brought to Constantinople." The remnants of the Huns were confused with other nomadic tribes, and the ethnonym "Hun" was used in the lexicon of authors of the VI century to designate nomadic countries in general. (Huns used to refer to Bulgars, Avars, Savirs, and Magyars) ## Historical study During the nineteen years of Volodymyr rule, the territory of the Hun empire increased several times. Due to the fact that he was able to build a large empire, the Volga Khan went down in history as one of the great warrior sons of the East. That is why western historians mention his name along with the names of "great people in the history of mankind" Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Attila (Etzel, Atli) is described as the liberator of the peoples under the Roman Empire in the famous Germanic epic poem "The Song of the Nibelungs" and other Germanic epic works. The famous chronicler of Byzantium, historian and negotiator of the 5th century, Greek Priscus Panios, a member of the Byzantine embassy sent to the Hun king in 448, depicted the truth in his work "History of Byzantium", preserved in the form of personal impressions, describing the state of Volodymyr Khan as a dangerous rival of Rome. ### Image of Volga in numismatics In 2009, the National Bank of Kazakhstan issued an "Attila" coin from the "Great Commanders" collection. 13,000 coins with a nominal value of 100 tenge were issued. 925 silver coin weighs 31.1 g, diameter 38.61 mm. On the front (obverse) is a warrior on horseback, on the back (reverse) is the image of Attila. In the lower part, three horsemen are depicted, and in the upper sector, the Volga Kagan ("ATTILA THE HUN") and "406-453" are written in English. This coin was awarded the "Coin of the Year" (Russian: "Монета года") award at the international competition "Monet chokhvoldyzy-2010" (Russian: "Монетное созвездие-2010"), held in St. Petersburg. 209 coins from 24 countries have entered the competition. ### Image of Volga in legends Volga Kagan is the main character of the well-known German epic "The Song of the Nibelungs". ### Image of Volga in literature * "The Wonderful Comedy", Alighieri Dante, 1321 * God's whip, Bouvier-Azhan M. * Attila - Commander of the Huns, Edward Hatton, 2005. (Nomen est omen). * Christopher Kelly. "Attila the Hun: Barbarian Terror and the Fall of the Roman Empire", Bodley Head, 2008 [3]. * Blockley, RC : The Fragmentary Classicizing Historians of the Later Roman Empire, vol. II ISBN 0-905205-15-4 * Gordon, CD : The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians. Míchigan: University of Michigan Press, 1960. * Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (ed. Max Knight): The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. * Thompson, EA : A History of Attila and the Huns. Londres: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-631-21443-7 ### Image of the Volga in music * "Attila" (1846) is a well-known opera by the Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi; * "Attila" (2004) is a song from the album "The Glorious Burden" by the American heavy metal band Iced Earth; * "Attila" (2011) is the first album of the Kazakh heavy-metal group "Aldaspan"; * "Attila" (2005–) is a deathcore band from Atlanta. ### Image of Volga in cinema * "Attila" (Attila, 1954) on IMDB; Attila * TV series "Attila the invader" (2001). Starring: Gerard Butler. * Etzel (Attila) is the main character of Fritza Lang's 1924 "Nibelungi" and 1967 German film "Nibelungi". * * * * * ## See also * Huns * State of Huns ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5812

Nazarbayev

Nazarbayev: * Nursultan Abishuly Nazarbayev (* 1940) * Nazarbayev University * Order of Nazarbayev * Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools * Dariga Nursultankyna Nazarbayeva * Sara Alpyskyny Nazarbayeva ( * 1941)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6214

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnian: Bosna i Hercegovina; Serbian: Bosna i Hercegovina; Xorvan: Bosna i Hercegovina) is a country located on the Balkan Peninsula in Europe. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country in the center of the Balkan Peninsula, mainly occupying the Dinaric Mountains. Aum of land. 51 thousand km². The population is 4.4 million. 31.4% of the population are Serbs, 17.3% are Croats, the rest are Albanians, Turks, etc. national representatives. The capital is the city of Sarajevo. Official languages: Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian. Most of the population is Muslim, and there are also Orthodox and Catholics. According to the Paris Peace Agreement and G is managed by a Presidium consisting of 3 people. The legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly, the government is headed by the Council of Ministers. In 2010, Bosnia and Herzegovina received a plan to attempt to join NATO. On December 15, 2022, Bosnia and Herzegovina was granted the status of a candidate for accession to the European Union. When it was Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina was the poorest republic, now it is one of the poorest countries in Europe with very high unemployment. The main foreign trade partners are the countries of the European Union. Currency is a convertible token. The Bosnian state appeared in the 10th-11th centuries. The rulers followed Catholicism, and the general population followed the Bosnian Church. With the annexation of Serb and Croat lands in the 14th century, Bosnia reached its greatest extent. In 1463, the Turks conquered, a significant part of the population converted to Islam. In 1878-1918 - part of Austria-Hungary, in 1918-1929 - the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, in 1929-1941 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, in 1941-1945 - the Independent State of Croatia, in 1945. 1992 - Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. With the end of the Bosnian war, it received its modern name and constitutional structure under the Dayton Accords of 1995. ## History ### Bosnia and Herzegovina until the 12th century The oldest people of Bosnia and Herzegovina were the Neanderthals who lived here in the early Paleolithic. During the Bronze Age, Illyrian tribes settled in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the IV century BC. The Celts came here, and they eventually merged in part with many of the Illyrians. From the 1st century - under the rule of Ancient Rome: as part of the provinces of Upper, Lower Pannonia and Dalmatia. Since the VI century - part of Byzantium. It was inhabited by Serbs in the 6th-7th centuries. Bosnia as a tribal power was mentioned in the 10th century According to the Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the Serbs appeared in the Balkans in the first half of the 7th century. They occupied the territories of present-day Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina and part of Croatia. After migrating to the Balkans, the first territorial associations of the Serbs, like most of the South Slavs, were pairs. The Illyrians assimilated with the Slavs or migrated to the highlands, where they continued to live under the name Vlachs. Some time after their migration to the Balkans, the Serbs formed several large communities, which later became state entities. Between the rivers Cetina and Neretva was the principality of Neretvlansky with nearby islands, which the Byzantines called Pagania. The area between Neretva and Dubrovnik was called Zahumi. The lands from Dubrovnik to the Bay of Kotor were occupied by Travunia and Konavle. In the south, Dukla stretches to the river Bojana, which was later called Zeta. Between the rivers Sava, Vrbas and Ibar was Raska, and between the rivers Drina and Bosnia was Bosnia. After the death of the Serbian prince Časlav Klonmirović, Bosnia was separated from his state. In 1018, it nominally came under Byzantine rule. At the beginning of the 12th century, a part of Bosnia became part of Hungary as a result of wars. The Magyar king had the title Ramae rex (King of Rama, i.e. Bosnia) because the state was mainly located in the valley of the river Rama. The Magyar king appointed his own governors - bans - to rule Bosnia. ### The State of Bosnia Bosnia, which originally appeared in the basin of the Bosna and Vrbas rivers, probably emerged as a whole state formation in the 10th-11th centuries. Ban was at the head of this state. At the beginning of the 12th century, the state of Duklja collapsed and Bosnia became independent. After the Byzantine-Hungarian War of the 1160s, Bosnia was under Byzantine rule for 13 years, after which it returned to the rule of the Kingdom of Hungary as a vassal. The country was divided into regions called faces. At the end of the 11th century, the first known church organization in Bosnia was the Catholic Archdiocese of Bar. At the end of the 12th century, under Ban Kulin, the first heretics appeared who joined the Bosnian Church. In 1234, the destructive campaigns of Hungarian feudal lords, who dreamed of conquering Bosnia, began at the invitation of the popes to fight heresy. Ancient Bosnian literature was closely related to the Bosnian Church. Stepan Kotromanić greatly expanded the state to the west and north, including Hum. Ban Stepan Tvrtko was married in 1377 in the Serbian Monastery of Milesev at the tomb of St. Sava as "King of the Serbs, Bosnia, Pomerania and the West". After the death of Stepan Tvrtko, the central authority weakened, and the Bosnian rulers became stronger, especially clans such as the Horvatinici, Kosacci, and Pavlovići. The last king of Bosnia, Stepan Tomasevic (the last ruler of the medieval Serbian state in 1459), turned to Rome and Venice for help and refused to pay tribute to the sultan when the Turks threatened to invade Bosnia. country. In response, Sultan Mehmed II invaded Bosnia in 1463. In the same year, Stepan Tomasevic was executed near the town of Jajce, and the Bosnian state ceased to exist. In 1482, Herzegovina was completely conquered. ### Turkish period Bosnian feudal lords were forced to convert to Islam in order to preserve their property, which completely replaced Christianity in the upper strata of the population in the second half of the 16th century. Feudally dependent peasants were called rai. While many Balkan cities had fortresses with military garrisons, by the 16th century the ethnic composition of major cities had changed dramatically, with Turks-colonists and Turks as the main population, who eventually lost touch with the national culture. The Islamization of the urban population guaranteed favorable conditions for trade and crafts. Unlike in Herzegovina and Serbia, peasants in Bosnia converted to Islam en masse. The city of Sarajevo became a major trade and craft center of Bosnia, cities such as Foca, Banja Luka, Livno, and Mostar grew. At the same time, some of the old trade and craft centers have collapsed. In 1580, the Bosnian state was established. In the first half of the 19th century, the country's Bosnian feudal lords opposed the reforms carried out by Turkey. To weaken the Bosnian opposition, the Turkish government separated Herzegovina from Bosnia in 1833. Turkish rule was established only in 1851. In the 1st half of the 19th century, the national liberation movement, which arose among the Catholic clergy, developed in the country. Its result was the Bosnia-Herzegovina Uprising of 1875-1878. In 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina gained autonomy under the Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and the Ottoman Empire after the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. However, Austria-Hungary soon occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina from July to October 1878 under the Treaty of Berlin of the same year. ### 20th century In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. A section of Bosnia and Herzegovina's society hoped for the country's liberation from Austro-Hungarian rule and the creation of a Serbian-led state. In 1913-1914, the organization of Serbian nationalists "Mlada Bosna" was created. Among its participants was Gavrilo Princip, who assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sofia on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo, which was the pretext for the start of the First World War. On October 29, 1918, when Austria-Hungary collapsed, the Croatian cathedrals in Zagreb proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, whose authorities immediately announced their withdrawal from the war. On December 1 of the same year, the state merged with the Kingdom of Serbia and Montenegro to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929, under the new name of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the districts of Bosnia-Herzegovina in the state were included in the Banovinas of Vrbaska, Drina, Zeta and Primorska. After the German invasion of Yugoslavia on April 10, 1941, the Ustaše declared the "Independent State of Croatia", which included the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The main battles of the liberation and civil war in Yugoslavia took place on its territory. At the end of May 1945, Bosnia was liberated from German and Ustasha forces. During the war, about 407 thousand inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina were killed, many settlements were almost completely destroyed, including Bosanska Krupa, Kluch, Glamoč, Visegrad, Bihak, Bosanski Brod, etc. In 1945, the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, and since 1963, the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the 1960s, the ratio between the number of Orthodox and Muslims changed in favor of the latter. In 1961, I. Tito granted the status of a nation to Muslims (now Bosniaks). During the years of existence of socialist Yugoslavia, the republic strictly observed the principle of "fraternity and unity" of peoples, appointed equal number of representatives. representatives of three nationalities for positions in state bodies and institutions. XIV Winter Olympic Games were held in Sarajevo in the conditions of a deep economic crisis that started after the death of I. Tito in 1984. In the spring of 1992, after a referendum was held and independence was declared, war broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina and engulfed the entire country. At the same time, the central government was under the control of the Bosnian Muslim community. Muslims fought against Serbs or Croats depending on the region, usually they fought alongside Croats against Serbs. Neighboring countries were involved in the conflict: Yugoslavia, which helped the Serb community, and Croatia, which helped the Croats. It was attended by great powers, primarily the USA and NATO countries. The conflict ended with the military intervention of NATO and the signing of the Dayton Accords on December 14, 1995, which sought to preserve a single state consisting of two parts: the Muslim-Croatian Federation and the Republika Srpska. ### XXI century In December 2022, the European Union decided to give Bosnia and Herzegovina the status of a candidate for EU membership. ## Population As of June 30, 2019, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 3,415,752; According to the last census of 2013 - 3,473,078 people. According to the 1991 census, the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina was 4,377,033, which is 3.8 times the population of 1879, when the country was occupied by Austria-Hungary. The share of children under the age of 14 was 23.5% of the total population, the share of adults aged 15 to 64 was 67.7%, and the share of those over 65 was 6.5%. According to UN data, the population growth rate in 2010-2015 is -0.1%, and urban population - 0.1%, rural population -0.3%; In 2014, the share of the city's population was 39.6%; life expectancy for men - 73.7, for women - 78.8 years. During the Bosnian War (1992-1995), about a million people left Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly Serbs and Croats. In 2011, according to UNESCO, the literacy rate was 98%. According to the 2013 census, 50.11% of the participants identified themselves as Bosniaks, 30.78% as Serbs, and 15.43% as Croats; by religion: 50.7% - Muslims, 30.7% - Orthodox, 15.2% - Catholics. According to the 1991 census, 43.5% of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina identified themselves as "Muslim", 31.2% as Serbs, 17.4% as Croats, and 5.6% as Serbs. - recognized as Yugoslavs. Among the national minorities in the country lived 0.2% of Montenegrins, 0.2% of Gypsies, 0.1% of Albanians, 0.1% of Ukrainians, 0.1% of Slovenes and 0.1% of Macedonians. Several hundred people identified themselves as Hungarian, Italian, Czech, Polish, German, Jewish, Russian, Slovak, Turkish, Romanian, and Ruthenian. According to the data of 2005, more than 10% of the population were Roma. Serbs and Croats lived in Bosnia and Herzegovina for centuries. Bosniaks ("Muslims" during Yugoslavia) as a people were formed as a result of the Islamization policy carried out by the Ottoman Empire[63]. Before World War II, Serbs made up the majority of the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the war, as a result of Ustasha terror and mass killing of Serbs, simultaneous migration of Croats and Muslims from Kosovo, Macedonia, Vojvodina and other regions, the Serbian population was significantly reduced, and in 1961 - In 1971, the number of Muslims exceeded the number of Serbs. Due to the declaration of freedom of religion after the 1953 census, there was no official count of the number of religious believers in Yugoslavia. Traditionally, religious affiliation was determined by nationality. Serbs are predominantly Orthodox, Croats are Catholic, and Bosniaks are Muslim. Protestants include Lutherans united in the Independent Evangelical Church of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Vojvodina. ## Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina According to the state's accepted military doctrine, Bosnia and Herzegovina "by virtue of its geostrategic position... is essential to stability and security in the region, Europe and beyond being a factor, he expressed his readiness to fully accept the rights and duties belonging to him. to the family of equal European and Euro-Atlantic states". The armed forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina are responsible for protecting the country's citizens, state sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity, ensuring the policy of independence, fulfilling international obligations, etc. The armed forces include the ground forces, the air force and the air defense. The supreme command of the armed forces is exercised by the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnia and Herzegovina exports weapons (to Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and other countries), in 2014 the volume of exports of military products amounted to 93.8 million conversion marks. Military conscription was abolished in 2006. In 2014, defense spending was 0.98 percent of the country's gross domestic product. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the OSCE and the Stability Pact in South-Eastern Europe, a member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program, and received an action plan to join NATO in 2010. ## Economy Bosnia and Herzegovina is a moderately developed agrarian-industrial country. Advantages: Successfully transitioned to a stable market economy. Low inflation (1.4%). Relatively high economic growth (above the European average) and low public debt (below the European average). Compared to European countries, the workforce is still relatively cheap and well-educated. As of 2019, wage growth will not be limited by the economic slowdown amid declining unemployment and widening labor shortages. Weaknesses: poor resource base. Strong corruption. Slow progress of market reforms. Low investment in infrastructure and R&D. The biggest problem, common to other relatively poor countries of Europe, is the shortage of able-bodied labor and the increasing number of retirees due to low birth rates and high emigration of the population to other countries. rich countries of the world. Before socialist industrialization, the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina were mainly agricultural. In the 1950s and 1980s, water and thermal power plants, defense industry factories, and heavy industry enterprises were built here using mainly local resources. Ores of non-ferrous and ferrous metals, coal, rock salt were produced; the production of steel and rolled steel, aluminum, chemical products, paper, pulp increased. The Republic of Yugoslavia officially entered the economically less developed regions of the country (along with Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo). For example, wages in the republic were 1.8 times lower than in Slovenia in 1988. During the 1992-1995 Bosnian war, the country's economy and infrastructure were destroyed. The average gross salary in Bosnia and Herzegovina as of January 2023 is DM 1,875 (€959.25) and DM 1,208 (€618.01) net. As of February 2023, the average gross salary in Republika Srpska is DM 1,908 (€975.36) and DM 1,256 (€642.16) net. As of January 1, 2023, the minimum net salary in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 596 marks (305.36 euros). As of January 1, 2023, the net minimum wage in Republika Srpska is DM 700 (€358.64). In the period 1994-2014, the volume of foreign direct investment amounted to 6 billion euros, including 1.3 billion euros from Austria, 1.1 billion from Serbia, 780 million from Croatia, 518 million from Russia, and 1.1 billion from Slovenia. 462 million from Germany. - 326 million, Switzerland - 278 million, Netherlands - 235 million, Great Britain - 180 million, Luxembourg - 169 million - telecommunications, 11% - trade. From 2006 to 2014, the country received an average of 468 million euros of foreign direct investment per year, the largest amount of which came in 2007 (1329 million euros, the time of privatization of large state-owned enterprises). Foreign trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina is mainly directed to the countries of the European Union. The geographical distribution of Bosnia and Herzegovina's foreign trade in 2014 (as of 2014) was as follows. ## Administrative divisions Bosnia and Herzegovina is a federal state composed of two entities and one district. The entities are the Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federation of BiH). Republika Srpska occupies 49% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina occupies 51% of the country's territory. The name of the only district is Brcko. Federation of BiH is divided into ten cantons: * Unsko-sanski canton * Posavski canton * Tuzlanski canton * Zenicko-dobojski canton * Bosansko-podrinski canton * Srednjebosanski canton * Hercegovina-neretvanski canton * Zapadnohercegovački canton * Canton Sarajevo * Zapadnobosanski canton ## Geographic information The topography of Bosnia and Herzegovina is mountainous. The climate is Mediterranean and continental. The long-term average temperature in January is -1 — 3°С, in July it is 20°С. Average annual precipitation amount. 400 — 600 mm. A mixed forest of oak, spruce and birch grew in mountain valleys and riverbeds. Mineral resources: iron, lead, zinc, bauxite, etc. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5154

Mukhamedzhanov

The word Mukhamedzhanov can have the following meanings: * Oral Baighonysuly Mukhamedzhanov

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4084

Rai

Rai category is a system of actions represented by verb forms of the modal (arai) category. The mood of the verb is a very rich category both in terms of content and form. For example: I will go; let me go; let me go; I can't go; I will go; I will go; I will go and see; I will go and stay; if I go; I would have gone; I wonder if I will go; I must go; I went; I want to go, ... if we take the verb forms in simple sentences, each of them has a unique moral value (tone) that is not present in others. ## Open mood Open mood (indicative) is a negative grammatical category that expresses the presence or absence of an action in the past, present and future. related. Because when the verb is used in the present tense, the presence of that movement shows that the speaker is telling the truth. Whether it is a past action or action (past tense), whether it is an ongoing action or action, whether it is an action or action that has not yet happened, but is expected to happen in the future, a verb in the open mood is about the speaker. means to tell the truth. For example: Everyone has his own thoughts (G. M.). I will come to spend the night in the mountains (С. С). My goal is to learn language and spread art (A). We plowed the land, worked hard, planted the field (Z. Zh.). The verbs sit, come, scatter, plowed, boiled, planted in the given example also express the speaker's opinion related to it, the statement that it is true: everyone is sitting with his own thoughts. , (exact present tense); that the speaker spends the night in the mountains (transitive present tense); the speaker's goal is to speak and spread art (purposeful future tense); the speaker is plowing the land, planting crops, and working hard (immediate past tense). Therefore, the verb is used in one of the three tenses (present tense, future tense, past tense) and we say that the speaker's statement is true. ## Negative moods Negative moods (unreal) moods The negative feature, which means that an action is not real, is a general characteristic of all negative moods. ### Imperative Imperative verb gives a command, exhortation, prohibition, etc. means: "You go!" "Let the child go" "Don't go there!" "Maybe I will go" In Hindi, the imperative is used only in the 2nd person in the plural and singular. Imperative has several forms: command, request, wish, permission, insurance, etc. In the 2nd part of the personal form, it corresponds to the verb root: This form is used for children, kings and relatives, as well as it is used both politely and informally. In the 2nd person plural form, it is formed by adding the suffix -o to the root of the verb. The o-conjugation goes directly to the first letter of the verb. is created by concatenation. This polite form is used equally for one person as well as for several people. The following negative conjunctions are added to imperative verbs: Don't go there! Do not write on the table! Don't give him money! ### Willingness Willingness means the speaker's intention, desire, and hope to carry out a certain action or action. In the calculation of indicators of this mood, it is similar to (+м, +н); -sa was good; it was gay; -sa (analytical) formants are used. In addition to being used in the future tense, this form is also used in the past and present tenses. However, they do not represent the time when a specific action has been completed or is in progress, but only the dream and enthusiasm that was in the mind of the speaker in the past or present tense. By means of the complex formant -gay edi, the speaker longs for and searches for the fact that another (II, III person) subject did or performed a certain action, but it is not visible or known how the action ended. For example: you were bargai; it would be b. Using the complex -sa igi edi formant, the speaker calls the performance of another (II, III) subject only as a wish. But it is not clear whether the action is actually performed or not. For example: it would be good if you went; It would be good if they went. etc. But it would be better if you went, the meaning of suspicion or doubt is stronger than wish or desire. The complex -sa edi formant adds only the meaning of a dream to an action, but does not convey any information about whether it will be fulfilled or not. For example: he would have come; you would go etc. The complex -sa formant also longs for an action to be performed in the future, but its realization or not is not even taken into account or taken into account. For example: I wish you could go tomorrow; I wish he would say his opinion. etc. ### Conditional voice Conditional voice form is formed by adding the suffix -sa (-se) to the bare (root, derivative) and compound bases of the verb. This form of the conditional mood means a condition for the implementation of another action or deed. According to this meaning, the conditional mood forms the verb is always the narrator of the conditional subordinate of the compound sentence and indicates the condition of the narrator of the main sentence. Conditional mood is always classified and used. Its classification pattern is similar to the past tense form. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5846

Republic of Korea

The Republic of Korea (Cor. 대한국?, 大韓民國? Taehanminguk), formerly known as the Republic of Korea, the official shortened name Korea (Cor. 한국?, 韓國? Hanguk or Kor. 대한?, 大韓? Taehan, land of morning freshness) is on the Korean Peninsula. country in East Asia. The capital is Seoul. The unofficial name of the country, often used by media representatives, is South Korea. Korean statehood dates back to the 3rd-4th centuries BC. As a result of the Second World War, Korea was divided into the northern part, which was under the control of the USSR, and the southern part, which was under the control of the United States. The Republic of Korea was established in the Americas on August 15, 1948, and then on September 9 it was declared the Soviet People's Democratic Republic. The subsequent Korean War (1950-1953) strengthened the division of the country. ## Etymology See also: Names of Korea In Korean, the Republic of Korea is called Taehan minguk (대한민국의다 , 大韓民國). However, the abbreviated names Hanguk (한국, 韓國) or Taehan (대한, 大韓) are more commonly used. Sometimes Namhan (남한), meaning "Southern Khan", is also used, which is the opposite of "Northern Han", Pukhan (북한, 北韓), the name of the North Korean country. The word "Han" refers to the name of the ancient Samhan tribal union that inhabited the Korean peninsula, and the word "Korea" comes from the name of the state of Koryo, which lived on the Korean peninsula in 918-1392 AD. The word Koryo itself comes from the name of the ancient state of Goguryeo, which is located in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, as well as in the northeastern part of modern China and Russia along the Sea of Japan. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the official name for the entire territory, although it was not universally accepted. The new official name originated in the ancient country of Kochoson (old Joseon). In 1897, the Joseon Dynasty changed the country's official name to Joseon Daehan Jeguk (Empire of Korea). The name Daehan (Great Khan) is derived from Samhan (Three Khans), referring to the three kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederations on the Korean Peninsula. However, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, even though it was not an official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon went together. There were several groups that fought for independence, the most important of which was the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (대한 민임시 에서에서 / 大韓民國 臨時 政府). ## History ### History before partition History of Korea BC It originates from the establishment of the Joseon state in 2333. According to Korean legends, the state of Gochoson was founded by Tangun. According to legend, many tribes appeared in the Liaoning region of Manchuria and the northwestern region of the Korean Peninsula. Tangun was the leader of one such tribe and founded the Korean nation. Tangun united many small tribes and founded the state of Kochoson. Kochoson country b. h. d. In 108, the famous Han state of China invaded and created 4 administrative districts in the country. Early Three Kingdoms and Kaya City-based states later merged into tribal associations and began to form a complex political system. The joining of such associations led to the emergence of kingdoms. The first such reign b. h. d. 37 - p. h. Goguryeo state that existed in 668 years. The state was founded by the famous Korean commander Dongmyongsong Wang (Jumong Wang) who opposed the Han Dynasty. Jumong Wang freed the entire Korean people from Chinese occupation and subjugated the entire northern part of the Korean peninsula to one state. B. h. d. 18 - p. h. Baekje state, which lived in 660 AD, is one of the three ancient kingdoms. This kingdom was founded by Onjo-wang, the youngest son of Tongmyongsong-wang. This kingdom was founded at the lower mouth of the Hangang River, where the present-day city of Seoul is located. The kingdom of Silla (57 - 935 BC) was located in the southeastern part of the Korean peninsula. This state was the weakest and backward among the three kingdoms at that time. However, since Silla is located far away from China, China's influence here was weak. The Kaya confederation was formed as a union of several northern tribes living at the mouth of the Naktongan River. United Silla and Parche In the middle of the 6th century, the state of Silla annexed all the cities that were part of the Kaya confederation. In 668, the Silla Kingdom entered into an alliance with China's Tang Dynasty and took full control of the Korean Peninsula. In 676, Silla thwarted the Tang dynasty's plans to conquer the kingdoms of Goguryeo and Baekje. After that, the tribes from the Baekje kingdom formed the state of Parhae. Koryo In 935, as a result of internal strife, the state of Silla collapsed and a new state of Koryo appeared on the Korean peninsula. The first ruler of this state was Wang Gong (Taejeon), the founder of the Wang dynasty. During the Wang dynasty, the Korean peninsula was united into one state for the first time. Joseon Joseon (Korean: 조선) is a state that lived on the Korean Peninsula from 1392 to 1897. During this period, the country was ruled by the Li dynasty. The official name of the state is the Great Joseon State (kor. 바이선국 Taejosong-guk), the name between 1897 and 1910 is the Korean Empire (kor. 대한제국 Taehan cheguk). Japanese invasion In the 19th century, Korea resisted Western attempts to establish diplomatic relations. At that time, the countries of Asia and Europe were competing to have the opportunity to rule the Korean peninsula. In 1910, after winning the war against China and Russia, Japan conquered Korea and established colonial rule. The colonial government established a governor general in the territory of Korea. On March 1, 1919, a peaceful demonstration took place in all regions of the country. The rebels demanded the country's independence from the government, and this event went down in history as the "March 1st Movement" or the Samil Movement (Cor. 삼일우지). The Japanese government suppressed the demonstration. After this incident, on April 13, 1919 in Shanghai, Korean nationalists established the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (Cor. Currently, the Republic of Korea celebrates "Independence Day" on March 1. ### Post-separation history The history of South Korea begins in the summer of 1945 when the agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States was signed to share power on the peninsula. The contract states that the southern part of the 38th parallel passing through the Korean peninsula will be under the jurisdiction of the USA, and the northern part will be under the jurisdiction of the USSR is. In the history of the country, periods of democratic and authoritarian rule alternated. In 1948, Lee Seung Man established the first Republic of South Korea, i.e. the first independent government. Originally a democratic country, the First Republic followed an autocratic system of government until the 1960s. Currently, the Sixth Republic is ruling the country. The government of South Korea has done great things in the development of the education system, economy and culture since it was established as an independent state. A poor country with an agrarian policy in the 1960s has now become a developed industrial country. In economics, this miracle is called "Miracle by the Hangang River" (Korean: 한강의 기적). ## Geography, climate and minerals ### Geography The Republic of Korea is located in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The land area is 100,210 km², it ranks 109th in the world. This indicator is similar to the smallest North Kazakhstan region in terms of land area of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The peninsula is washed by the Yellow Sea in the west, the Sea of Japan in the east, and the Korean Strait and the East China Sea in the north. The topography is mostly mountainous, plains cover only 30% of the territory. There are about 3000 small uninhabited islands off the coast of the Korean Peninsula. The largest island is Jeju Island. ### Topography and minerals The highest point on the Korean peninsula is the Paektusan mountain range. Its height is 2744 meters above sea level, it is located on the border between China and North Korea. And the highest point on the territory of the Republic of Korea is the volcano Hallasan (1950 m) located on the island of Jejudo. The East Korean Mountains (Korean: 태백산맥) occupy the center and east of the country. South Korea has several lakes and large and small rivers, the largest of which is the Naktongan River (506 km long, 23,384 km² basin). It flows through big cities like Daegu and Busan. Also, the Hangang River (481.7 km) crosses the capital of the country - Seoul. ### Climate The climate of Korea makes it possible to clearly distinguish the seasons of nature. The air temperature in different regions of the country also varies greatly. Average temperature ranges from about 6 °C (43 F) to 16 °C (61 F). The climate is monsoonal, summer is hot and humid, winter is rather cold and dry. Annual rainfall varies from 1,370 millimeters in Seoul to 1,460 millimeters in Busan. ## Government system ### Constitution The first Constitution of the Republic of Korea was adopted on July 17, 1948. To date, due to numerous political upheavals and revolutions, the Constitution has been amended nine times. The last change was made on October 29, 1987. The Constitution consists of the Preamble, 130 articles and 6 additions. The structure is divided into 10 chapters: * Chapter I: General section; * Chapter II: Rights and duties of citizens; * Chapter III: National Assembly; * Chapter IV: Executive power; * Chapter V: Courts; * Chapter VI: Constitutional Court; * Chapter VII: Electoral system; * Chapter VIII: Local self-government; * Chapter XIX: Economy; * Chapter X: Additions and changes to the Constitution; * Appendices. ### President The head of state of the Republic of Korea is the president. On May 10, 2017, lawyer, politician and statesman Moon Jae-in was elected as the 12th president of the Republic of Korea. ### Parliament The Parliament of the Republic of Korea is a 300-seat, unicameral National Assembly (Cor. 대한국어 국회, National Assembly), the legislative body. 245 deputies are elected in single-mandate constituencies according to the majoritarian system, and 54 are elected according to the national party list. Deputies' term of office is 4 years. Election of deputies to the Parliament has been held since 1948. From 1972 to 1988, due to the country's dictatorial system, fake elections were held. Since 1998, South Korea has been considered a democratic country, and elections have been held every five years. ## Administrative division South Korea is divided into 9 provinces (to), 6 provincial-equivalent city-metropolises (called directly central cities (kwangyoksi) until 1995), and 1 divided into a special status town (thykpölsi). They, in turn, are divided into a number of smaller units: city (si), county (kun), urban municipal area (ku), village (yip), bolys (myeon), district (ton) and village (ri). ## Population The final and main population of the Republic of Korea are Koreans. Since the end of the 19th century, more than ten Chinese have settled here. According to the 2006 survey, the number of Chinese in Korea was 20,700. Most of them are citizens of Taiwan. In recent years, the number of foreign citizens in Korea has been increasing. According to 2012 data, 1.4 million foreign citizens live in Korea. 293,000 of them live in the country with short-term visas, 944,000 with long-term visas, and 188,000 with residential addresses. More than half of the foreigners are citizens of the People's Republic of China, one-third of them are ethnic minorities. List of immigrant groups in South Korea numbering over 5,000 ### Religion The main religions of South Korea are traditional Buddhism and the recently introduced Christianity. However, Confucianism, which was considered the official ideology of the Joseon Dynasty for 500 years, and shamanism, which was the main religion of the Korean people, influenced both of these currents. According to statistics collected by the South Korean government in 2003, 46% of the population does not follow any religion. The share of Christians is 29.3% (18.3% — Protestants, 10.9% — Catholics), and the share of Buddhists is 22.8%. The share of representatives of other religions in the country is 2.5%. They are mainly students of the Wonbulgyo and Cheondogyo schools, which are composed of some elements of religions such as Taoism, Confucianism and Christianity. In addition, there are more than 150 thousand representatives of the Islamic religion in South Korea (0.1%), of which 40 thousand are Koreans. The appearance of Islam in Korea is associated with the arrival of imams Abdirrahman, Abdulgafur Karaysmayiloglu, and Zubayra Kosh, who were among the Turkish troops who came to the Korean War on behalf of the United Nations in 1950-1953. At that time, the temporary mosques with roofs specially built for the Turkish troops became a place to spread information about Islam to Koreans. After the end of the war, a small but active ummah was formed in Korea, and in 1955, the Korean Islamic Society was established, which is engaged in spreading Islam among the people. The first Korean imam was appointed by the organization of the Korean Islamic Society. And in 1967, the Korean Muslim Federation was established, which manages about 60 mosques in the country. In 1976, the Seoul Central Mosque was opened in Seoul, with a madrasa offering education in English, Korean and Arabic. ### Education The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of the Republic of Korea, formed in 2008 from the merger of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science and Technology, deals with education and science in the country. Education in South Korea focuses on mathematics, Korean, and English, as well as science. Leading higher education institutions in the country: * Seoul National University (cor. 서울대학교) * Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST, cor. 한국과학기지원원) * Pusan National University (cor. 부산대학교부산대학교) The general structure of the education system is as follows: ### Language The state language of the Republic of Korea is Korean. Korean is also the official language of South Korea's northern neighbor, North Korea. In addition, China, Japan, the USA, Russia, Kazakhstan and other Central Asian countries have Korean speakers because Koreans live there. In total, 78 million people speak Korean. The vast majority of researchers consider this language to be an isolated language, however, according to some scientists, it belongs to the family of Altaic languages. The Korean language, like the Kazakh language, is one of the Jalgamal languages of the SOV order. However, the dialect of the Seoul region is accepted as the standard of language norms. Koreans living in the Central Asian states that were part of the Soviet Union are called Koryo-Saram, and the dialect they speak is called Koryo-Mar. ## International relations South Korea has established diplomatic relations with more than 188 countries. It joined the United Nations in 1991 at the same time as North Korea. From January 1, 2007 to January 1, 2017, South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon served as the UN Secretary General. In 2010, South Korea signed a free trade agreement with the European Union. South Korea has a similar agreement with Canada and New Zealand. In November 2010, South Korea hosted the G-20 summit in Seoul. In 2018, the XXIII Winter Olympic Games will be held in Pyeongchang, South Korea. ### Kazakhstan Diplomatic relations between Kazakhstan and Korea were established on January 28, 1992. In the same year, South Korea opened its embassy in Almaty, and in 1996, Kazakhstan opened its embassy in Seoul. Since then, relations between the two countries have been rapidly developing in all areas. The former President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Abishuly Nazarbayev, made two official visits to Korea in 1995 and 2003. In 2004, South Korean President Noh Moo-hyun and in 2009, Lee Myung-bak visited Kazakhstan on an official visit. According to the results of 2008, the bilateral trade turnover between Kazakhstan and Korea amounted to 750 million US dollars, and between 1993 and 2008, i.e., within 15 years, the amount of direct investment from Korea to Kazakhstan was 3 billion. amounted to dollars. About 300 joint Kazakh-Korean enterprises operate in Kazakhstan. Ex-President of the Republic of Korea Park Geun-hye visited Kazakhstan on June 19, 2014. During the meeting, the two countries signed a visa-free regime and several other agreements.. April 21, 2019 South Korean President Moon Jae-yeon paid a state visit to Kazakhstan. During the visit, issues of bilateral partnership related to trade and economic relations were discussed, the issue of the Korean Peninsula was raised, and several important documents were signed. One of them is the renewed "Samal Zhel" program of cooperation between Kazakhstan and South Korea. According to the program, cooperation between the two countries will be established in the fields of new technologies, infrastructure, industry and agriculture. In Kazakhstan, 2011 was declared as the year of South Korea. ### USA Diplomatic relations between the United States and the Republic of Korea were established in 1950. After the Second World War, South Korea came under the jurisdiction of the USA, and the DPRK in the north came under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Union. After the Korean War, South Korea and the United States signed a "Mutual Defense Treaty" to jointly respond to any attack from the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, according to the treaty, South Korea was obliged to send its troops to the war in Vietnam in 1967. In 2007, South Korea and the United States signed an agreement on free trade between the two countries, but its official implementation was suspended until the legal bodies of both countries approved the agreement. On October 12, 2011, the U.S. Congress signed off on a deadlocked free trade agreement. The agreement entered into force on March 15, 2012. ### China In 2010, the People's Republic of China took the first place in South Korean exports (23.2% of KR exports) and imports (16.8% of imports to Korea). The trade turnover between the two countries increased from 11.7 billion dollars to 100 billion dollars between 1994 and 2010. In fact, historically close relations have been established between Korea and China. Before South Korea gained statehood, that is, during the Japanese occupation, Korean nationalists were in a cooperative relationship with Chinese troops. However, after World War II, South Korea became closer to the United States, and the PRC aided North Korea in the Korean War. As a result, diplomatic relations between China and South Korea were terminated. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were officially re-established only on August 24, 1992. The two countries canceled the 40-year trade embargo. After establishing relations with China, the Republic of Korea suspended official relations with the state of Taiwan. ### European Union The European Union and South Korea are important trading partners. The free trade agreement was approved in September 2010 and entered into force on September 1, 2011. South Korea is the eighth largest trading partner for the EU, and the EU is the second largest exporter for South Korea. In 2008, trade between the EU and South Korea exceeded €65 billion. The European Union has become the largest foreign investor for South Korea. Since 1962, in 2006, the amount of direct foreign investment was 45%. ### Japan Diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and Japan In December 1965, the "Next Basis of Relations between Japan and Korea" (Japanese. 日韓基度条約; cor. based on 한일기본조약). However, the disputes caused by the situation during the Japanese occupation caused South Korea to adopt an anti-Japanese attitude. One of those disputes is Japan's protest over the Liancourt Islands, which are currently owned by South Korea. In 2014, World Service BBC conducted a survey on the attitude of the two countries to each other. According to the survey, 13% of Japanese have a positive opinion of South Korea, and 37% have a negative opinion. 15% of Koreans have a positive view of Japan, while 79% have a negative view. This is considered to be evidence of South Korea's negative attitude towards Japan. ### North Korea Political, diplomatic and military relations between the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and South Korea were established after the Second World War, that is, after the division of the Korean state. On June 25, 1950, the eternal president of the DPRK, Kim Il-sung, declared war on South Korea in order to subordinate the two countries to one center. The war lasted for three years and became known as the Korean War. Several UN countries participated in the war on behalf of South Korea, while the supporters of North Korea were the USSR and China. In 2014, World Service BBC conducted a survey about the attitude of the people of South Korea towards the country of North Korea. As a result of the survey, 3% of South Koreans have a positive opinion about North Korea, and 91% have a negative opinion. ## Armed forces Attacks by neighboring aggressors and tensions with North Korea are the reasons why South Korea spends 15% of the state budget on the military and the country's male citizens pay mandatory military service. South Korea ranks seventh in the world by the number of active troops (655 thousand in 2012), second by the number of reserve troops (4.5 million in 2012), and eleventh by the size of the defense budget. The country is second only to the DPRK in the number of military personnel per capita. The armed forces of South Korea consist of the ground forces, the navy, the air force, and the marine corps. Most of the army is concentrated in the demilitarized zone. Every South Korean male citizen is constitutionally required to serve in the military. Until 2011, Koreans were exempted from military service. Currently, the term of service in the army is 21 months. Also, 1,800 Korean men serve in the Korean Air Force (KATUSA) of the US Army every year ## Economy South Korea's mixed economy is the largest domestic economy in the world It ranks 11th in terms of product nominal value, and 13th in terms of alarm capability. South Korea's per capita ICT GDP has risen from US$100 (in 1963) to US$35,000 (in 2014). These indicators put South Korea among the largest economies in the G20 organization. South Korea is a developed country with a highly profitable economy per capita and the most industrialized country among the member countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. Advantages * the largest ship-producing country in the world (market share - 45%) * Demand for Korean goods, especially cars, is very high in the People's Republic of China. Weaknesses * foreign debts and sensitivity to international capital movements * public sector burdens the economy. In the 1940s, the state economy was focused on the development of agriculture and light industry, but in the last few decades, the state moved to the production of light industry and consumer goods. And from the 70s and 80s of the 20th century, the development of heavy industry. During the 30 years since President Park Chung-hee announced the beginning of the first five-year plan in 1962, the country's economy has grown rapidly and the structure of the economy has undergone great changes. High performance in the 1960s and 1990s put the Republic of Korea among the "Asian Tigers" such as Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan. ### Transportation, energy and infrastructure Transportation in South Korea consists of the country's transportation communication system, such as roads and railways, air and sea highways. High-speed KTX trains provide connections to destinations such as Gyeongbuson. Major cities such as Seoul, Busan, Incheon, Daegu, Daejeon and Gwangju have subways. Most cities have express bus terminals. Incheon International Airport, which is the largest airport in South Korea, was built in 2001. According to 2010 data, the airport served 30 million passengers a year. Another major international airports of the country are Gimhae and Jeju. There are also seven domestic airports and numerous heliports.. Established in 1962, Korean Air served 21.64 million passengers in 2008, including 12.49 million foreigners. South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes. According to 2010 data, South Korea ranks fifth in the world in number of nuclear power plants, and first in Asia. Nuclear power plants supply 45% of the country's electricity, which is the reason for the development of various modern reactors. South Korea is an exporter of nuclear reactors and has contracts for supply with the UAE, Jordan, and Argentina. According to the conditions of 2010, South Korea and Turkey are negotiating the construction of two reactors. South Korea is not allowed to enrich uranium or develop conventional technologies for uranium enrichment due to political pressure from the US, compared to major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France, which are South Korea's competitors in the world nuclear market. ### Tourism According to data, in 2012, 11.1 million foreign tourists traveled to South Korea, and in 2010, 8.5 million tourists returned to the country. The Korean Wave (Hallyu, Kor. 한류) alone brought 12 million tourists to the Republic of Korea in 2013, including 6 million tourists from China alone. Due to the rapid development of tourism in the country, the South Korean government intends to increase the number of tourists visiting the country to 20 million by 2017. According to the Hyundai Research Institute, the Korean wave is not only developing the culture industry, but also contributing to the development of tourism. Therefore, the number of tourists who are interested in the Korean wave and come to the country is increasing year by year Another developed field of tourism in South Korea is medical tourism. Most of the people come to the country for medical examination from Asian countries, but now the number of visitors from other continents is increasing. Most of the visitors turn to plastic surgery. ## Science and Technology Initially, the South Korean Government was busy solving important problems such as the Korean War, which started shortly after the independence of Korea, so there was no scientific and technological development in the country. In the 1960s, within the framework of the dictatorial regime of Park Chung-hee, the policy of industrialization was carried out in the country, and the development of chaebol corporations such as Samsung and LG led to the rapid growth of the South Korean economy. Since then, the Government has begun to pay attention to the development of science and technology. ### Cyber security In the first half of 2013, a series of cyber-attacks targeting the government, media representatives, television and bank websites forced the government to train 5,000 experts in the field of cyber security by 2017. was. The South Korean government has blamed North Korea for this and other attacks in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the charges. At the end of September 2013, the Ministry of Defense and the National Intelligence Service announced a competition in the field of computer security. The winners of the competition were announced on September 29, 2013 and received 80 million won ($74,000). All satellites were launched using foreign launch vehicles and from foreign spaceports. Arirang-1 satellites were launched in 1999 and Arirang-2 satellites in 2006 within the framework of partnership with Russia. In 2008, it was announced that the Arirang-1 satellite, which had been in operation for nine years, had disappeared. In February 2008, Korean citizen Lee Seo-yeon went into space for the first time from the Baikonur spaceport on the Russian Soyuz TMA-12 spaceship In June 2009, the first spaceport in South Korea was completed in Kohin county, Cheolla-Namdo province. . In August 2009, the launch of the first Naro-1 launch vehicle failed. The second attempt in 2010 also failed. In January 2013, Naro-1 was launched for the third time and successfully went into space. The South Korean government plans to build the Naro-2 missile by 2018. Due to political pressure from the US, South Korea is unable to implement large missile and rocket-space programs. That is why they are forced to ask for help from Russia. ### Robotics Since 2003, South Korea has included the development of robotics in the national plan. In 2009, the South Korean government announced plans to develop special robots for the Incheon and Masan Free Economic Zones. In 2005, the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology developed the HUBO humanoid robot. In May 2006, the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology team produced the first Korean EveR-1 android robot. Due to the shortage of teachers in the country, in February 2010, the plan to assemble robots teaching English was started, and in 2013, the first products began to teach in preschool educational institutions. Robotics has also been used in entertainment. In 2004, for the purpose of development of science and robotics technologies, a robot game festival was organized in the country and is held every year. ### Biotechnology Since the 1980s, the Korean government has been investing in the development of the domestic biotechnology industry, and it is planned to increase the revenue of the industry to $6.5 billion by 2010. Most of the production belongs to the medical field, which includes the production of hepatitis vaccine and antibiotics. Also, as a result of research and techniques in the field of genetics and cloning, for the first time in 2005 Snoopy puppy was cloned from a single cell taken from the ear of an Afghan Hound, and in 2007 several clones were obtained from two endangered female wolves at Seoul National University. ## Culture The cultures of South Korea and North Korea originate from the traditional Korean culture, but after the division of the peninsula in 1945, the culture of the two countries entered into different waves of development. The development of Korean culture was greatly influenced by the Chinese state, however, Korean culture is distinguished by its unique values. As a result of rapid industrialization and urbanization processes, the way of life of the people of South Korea has changed. This caused the population to settle in the big cities, especially Seoul, and on the contrary depopulation of the settlements outside the big cities. As a result of research by Euromonitor International, the amount of alcohol consumed in a week in South Korea is higher than in other countries of the world. According to calculations, South Koreans drink an average of 13.7 cans of alcohol per week. This indicator shows that South Koreans drink twice as much as Russians, and four times as much as Americans. ### Holidays Republic of Korea holidays are divided into three different categories: * National holidays (kor. 국경일?, 國慶日?) * National flag-raising days (kor. 국기게양일?, 國旗揭揚日?) * National holiday (kor. 공흴일?, 公公上?) These categories have different legal status. Also, all public holidays are the day when the National Flag is raised. ## See also * Korea * Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) ## Sources \< > ## External links * "Korea" (Kaz.) * Official site — www.korea.net (Eng.) * Presidential Administration — www.cwd.go.kr Archived July 22, 2013. (Cor.) (Eng.) * National Assembly (Parliament) — www.assembly.go.kr (Cor.) (Eng.)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4895

Order of Honor

The Order of "Kurmet" is an order of the Republic of Kazakhstan established in 1993. The Order of "Kurmet" was designed by the architect Bazarbaev Suyerkhan Ospanbekuly. Citizens are awarded with the "Kurmet" Order for meritorious work in the development of the economy, social sphere, science and culture, education, exemplary service in state bodies and active public service. The Order has no ranks. ## Description The emblem of the Order is a five-pointed star made of silver and gilded, its rays are painted with green enamel and bordered with elements of Kazakh ornament. Between the rays are silver bands in the form of diverging rays. In the center of the sign is a circular blue enamel medallion with a golden sun. Below the medallion is a red enamel ribbon with the inscription "KURMET". The sign is hung on a hexagonal pattern covered with an order ribbon by means of a clip in the form of an element of Kazakh ornament. The ribbon of the order is silk moire blue, with a white stripe in the middle, bordered by smaller red stripes. ## Read more Order of Honor - established by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan in 1993. The order is awarded to outstanding citizens who have contributed to the development of economy, social sphere, science and culture, education. The order of "Kurmet" is engraved with Kazakh ornaments in the form of five stars, below it there are rays of light, in the center of the circle there is a clear pattern in the form of a flower leaf, under which there is an inscription "Kurmet". ## Recipients of the Order Recipients of the Order of Honor ## Gallery * * \< > ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3418

Aman Gumyrovich Toleev

Aman Gumyruly Tuleev (Russian: Aman Gumirovich Tuleev, Tat: Aman Gomar uly Tuliev, born Amankeldi Moldagazyuly Tuleev; May 13, 1944, Krasnovodsk, Turkmen SSR - November 20, 2023, Kemerovo, Kemerovo region) - Russian political figure, Birtutas Member of the Supreme Council of the Russian political party, rector of the Kuzbass Regional Vocational Education Development Institute, Doctor of Technology (2000). He came from the Adai clan of the Bayuly tribe. ## Biography Graduated from Zhanasibir Institute of Railway Engineers (1973), Academy of Social Sciences (1989). He started his career as a railway worker in Kemerovo region in 1964. In 1967-73 he was on duty at the Mundybash station in Novokuznetsk, assistant to the head, station chief, in 1973-1985 he was the head of the Mezhdurechensk railway station, deputy head of the Novokuznetsk branch of the Kemerovo railway, head of the department, in 1985-1988 he was the head of the transport and communication department of the Kemerovo regional party committee. In 1988-1990, he was the head of the Kemerovo railway. In 1990 - 1993, he served as a deputy of the Supreme Council of the RKFSR (later the Russian Federation), chairman of the Kemerovo Regional Council of People's Deputies, in 1994 - 1996, the chairman of the Kemerovo Regional Legislative Assembly, in 1996 - 1997, he served as the Minister of Relations with the CIS countries of the Russian Federation. Governor of Kemerovo region since 1997. He was registered 3 times (1991, 1996, 2000) as a candidate for the Presidency of the Russian Federation. Toleev "Long echo putsch" (1992), "Power in the hands of the person and ... the person in the hands of the power" (1993), "Na izlomakh zhizni..." (1993), "The price of illusions" (1995), wrote the books "Fatherland - bol moya" (1995), "Sudite sami" (1996). Awarded with many orders of Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Belarus, Mongolia. As a political figure, he visited Kazakhstan several times on an official visit. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6244

Руанда

The Republic of Rwanda (Rwanda Republika y'u Rwanda, English Republic of Rwanda, French. République du Ruanda, Swahili Jamhuri ya Rwanda; until 1991 - the Republic of Rwanda) is a country located in East Africa. Rwanda is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east, It borders Burundi in the south. ## Etymology The state was created in 1962 by dividing the UN Trust Territory - Rwanda-Urundi into two independent states - Rwanda and Burundi. The toponym "Rwanda" comes from the ethnonym Rwanda (Nyarwanda) - the name of the largest population in the country. Due to the country's hilly landscape, it is nicknamed "Land of a Thousand Hills". ## Geography Rwanda is located in the center of Africa, south of the equator. On the western border with the DRC are Lake Kivu and the Ruzizi River, part of the East African Rift Valley. The capital city of Kigali is located in the center of the country. The terrain of Rwanda is mainly composed of low hills, on the western border the elevation drops abruptly along the shores of Lake Kivu and the Ruzizi River, and in the east it gradually descends towards Tanzania, where there are mainly valleys and swamps. Some of the sources of the Nile are in Rwanda. Nile and Congo basin rivers. The largest lake is Kivu, the only lake in Africa where crocodiles do not live. In the south and east of the country there is a series of small lakes (with crocodiles). The climate is sub-equatorial, seasonally humid, mild due to the considerable altitude. In Kigali (at an altitude of 1550 m), the average monthly temperature is 17-21 ° C throughout the year. The annual amount of precipitation is about 1000-1500 mm. The dry season is from June to September. Vegetation is mostly savanna, on the slopes of tropical forests. The animal world is about to disappear. Large animals (antelopes, antelopes, zebras, lions, elephants, hippos, crocodiles, gorillas) live only in nature reserves. ## History ### Pre-colonial period The indigenous people of Rwanda were pygmies, who lived by hunting and gathering.11 - 15 Between the centuries, the Bantu-speaking Hutu tribes, farmers, came to Rwanda from the south. The Hutus who cut down the forests for cultivation pushed the pygmies deep into the jungle. In the 16th century, the Nilotic Tutsi tribes, nomadic pastoralists, came from the north. The Tutsi began to dominate both the Hutu and the Pygmy, but the Tutsi switched to the Hutu language. However, mixed marriages of Tutsis, Hutus and Twas were not allowed. The Twas either lived in the jungle, still hunted and hunted, or were servants of Hutus and Tutsis. The Hutus were tax-paying peasants. According to their code of honor, the Tutsi could not engage in manual labor and handicrafts, except in the military. The Tutsis owned all the cattle and crops in Rwanda. Only Tutsi can be leaders, but also officials. ### Colonial Period 1890 - The Brussels Conference (1890) decided to transfer Rwanda to the German protectorate. 1899 - Tutsi kings recognize the power of the Hermann Kaiser while maintaining local autonomy. German colonialists introduced forced construction of roads, buildings and other structures. Coffee and cotton were forced into agriculture. Relying on the help of the German colonialists, the Hutus began to organize rebellions against the Tutsi rulers, but to no avail. 1915 - During World War I, Belgian troops invaded Rwanda from the Belgian Congo and completely occupied it in 1916. 1918 - Rwanda became a protectorate of Belgium by the League of Nations. Catchers retained their advantage. The influence of the Catholic Church increased. 1952 - Belgian colonizers curtail Tutsi privileges, introduce local council elections, where Hutus hold most of the seats. 1959 - Hutu rebellion against the Tutsi king. Fierce clashes have led to the deaths of tens of thousands of Tutsi and the displacement of large groups of refugees to neighboring countries. Most of these refugees remained in exile until the early 1990s. From among the refugees of the first and second generations, personnel were recruited to the RFF. 1960 - the overthrow of the monarchy in Rwanda. Parmehutu, a Hutu nationalist party led by Grégoire Kayibanda, won the majority of seats in the National Assembly. ### Period of independence July 1, 1962 - Independence of Rwanda. President Kaiyibanda introduced a one-party system. 1973, July 5 - a coup, as a result of which the Minister of Defense and State Security, Major General Juvenal Habyarimana, came to power. He arrested Kayibanda, disbanded his party and organized his National Revolutionary Movement. Habyarimana set the direction of "planned liberalism" - this is the combination of state regulation with free private initiative. The development of the country was planned at the expense of external financing sources (from the countries of the Western world). 1988-1990 - dismantling of the one-party system. 1990 - Tutsi emigrants in Uganda join the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPM) rebel group. In the area of foreign policy, they focused on the United States and Great Britain, although most of the group's cadres were in the ranks of the Ugandan National Resistance Army in the 1980s, whose leadership, including its leader Yoweri Museveni, held Marxist views. On October 1, the RPM troops led by Paul Kagame invaded Rwanda from Uganda. Over the next three years, hostilities continued sporadically, culminating in the signing of an armistice, the terms of which were consistently ignored by the parties. 1994, April 6 - July 16 - Genocide in Rwanda. The coming to power of RPM. Hutu Pasteur Bizimungu became the president of the country. 1994-1997 - Fighting between RPM forces and Hutu extremists in northwest Rwanda. 2000 - President Bizungu began to criticize Kagame and became president himself. 2003 - Kagame held a presidential election in which 2 other candidates participated. President Kagame is declared to have won 95% of the vote. March 31, 2005 - The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda, a rebel group that says it is committed to defending Hutu rights and denies genocide in Rwanda, declares an end to the armed struggle and condemns the genocide. August 9, 2010. The second presidential election was held after the difficult period of the genocide. ## Armed forces The total number of people is 35-45 thousand (according to various data), about 7 thousand of them are gendarmerie, and 1 thousand are air forces. Conscription on a voluntary basis, after the age of 18. Rwanda's defense spending was 3.75% of GDP in 1990, 3.53% of GDP in 2000, and 1.91% of GDP in 2010. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1874

Suger

The word Sugir can be used in the following meanings: * Sugir Aliuly * Sugir Zhyrau * Sugir Myrzalyuly

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5185

Valikhan Shot-Aman

Shot-Aman (Shota) Idyrisuly Valikhan (April 26, 1932, North Kazakhstan Region, Ayrtau District, Syrymbet Village - March 31, 2021) - architect, Honored Architect of the Kazakh SSR (1978), professor, International Academy of Architects of Eastern Countries Academician (2001). ## Short biography He was born on April 26, 1932 in the village of Syrymbet, Ayrtau district of Kokshetau region (now North Kazakhstan region). Shot-Aman Valikhan is a descendant of the brother of the famous Kazakh and Russian scientist Shokan Valikhanov. Cousin of Kazakh poet Bakytzhan Kanapiyanov. Graduated from the Moscow Institute of Architecture. was an employee of the "Kazakhstan City Planning Designing" Institute, Deputy Chief Architect of Almaty, Chairman of the Board of the Kazakhstan Union of Architects. Chairman of the Society for the Protection of Republican Historical and Cultural Monuments. ## Achievements Shot-Aman Ualikhanov is the author of several large buildings, 20 monuments and monuments (along with others). Among them: "Dynamo" stadium (1958), "Universam" store (1979), buildings of "Kazgiprozem" house (1983) in Almaty city; Monument to Ualikhanov (1969; State Award of the Kazakh SSR, 1970), Alibi Tokzhanuly Zhangeldin, Tokash Bokin (both 1975), Ghani Muratbaev (1984), East Kazakhstan region, Karaul village Abai (1970), Kokshetau city Talgat Bigeldinov (1998), Akhmet Baitursynuly of Kostanay (1999), Kenesary Kasymuly of Astana (2001), etc. monuments; Bust of Dinmuhamed Konaev (in 1985), Monument of Independence (in 1996, project author and leader), etc. In 1996, Ualikhanov received a gold medal and a diploma of the Union of Architects of the Republic of Kazakhstan at the competition for the new state coat of arms of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the author of the coat of arms. Also, he published many scientific articles on the relevant issues of Kazakhstan's architecture and fine arts; also the author of a number of dramatic works ("Shokan", first staged in 1962; "Agnur", 1982; "Tagdyr", 1984; "Terror", 2000); a number of his plays were performed on the stage of republican (Almaty) and regional (Kokshetau, Karaganda, Shymkent) theaters. Participated in the 12th-13th and 20th World Congresses of the International Union of Architects (Madrid, 1975; Mexico City, 1978; Beijing, 1999). ### Main creative works * Shokan Ualikhanov in Almaty (1969); * Alibi Jankeldin (1975); * Tokash Bokin (1975) monuments; * projects of the "Dynamo" stadium structure (as part of the creative team); * Head of the group of authors of the Almaty Independence Monument (1998); * Coat of arms of Kazakhstan. ## Awards ### Titles * Honored Worker of Kazakhstan ### Awards * State Prize of the Kazakh SSR * State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan (1990) ### Awards * Order of Wisdom * Order of Honor * Medal for 10 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Medal for 20 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Medal for 25 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Medal for 20 years of the Constitution of Kazakhstan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4537

Karim Kazhimkanuly Masimov

Karim Kazhimkanuly Masimov (June 15, 1965, Tselinograd) is a Kazakh politician, lawyer, economist, financier, 13th head of the National Security Committee (2016-2022), head of government (2014-2016), Prime Minister (2007-2012). On January 6, 2022, a criminal case was initiated under the charge of "treason" and he was detained in the detention center. ## Biography Karim Kazhimkanuly Masimov - was born on June 15, 1965 in Tselinograd, Kazakhstan. His father is Kazhimkan Kasymuly Masimov. Mother - Eleonora (Azhibekova) Karimovna Masimova. ### Education * In 1982, he graduated with honors from the Republican School of Physics and Mathematics in Almaty. * In 1985, he studied Arabic philology at P. Lumumba University of Peoples' Friendship in Moscow. * In 1988 he studied at the Institute of Linguistics in Beijing. In 1991, he graduated from China's Wuhan University of Law, and in 1995, he graduated from the Kazakh State Academy of Management. * In 1999, he passed the training program for top managers at Columbia University (New York). * Mastered Russian, Kazakh, English, Chinese, Arabic languages. ### Career path * In 1991 - adviser on legal issues of the Trade Representative of the USSR in the People's Republic of China. * In 1991, he was the head of the foreign economic relations department at the Ministry of Labor of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Chief Economist. * In 1992, he was the head of the company "Kazakhprigrantorg", a leading specialist, deputy director at the representative office of "Kazakhintorg" in Urumqi (China). * In 1993, he works as the deputy director for internal economic issues of the head of "Accept" LLP. * In 1994, managing director of the Kazakh trading house in Hong Kong. * In 1995, the head of the Board of JSC "Almaty Trade and Finance Bank", * Since September 1996, acting as the head of the Board of "Turan Alem Bank", * Since August, 1997, "Halyk Jinak Bank of Kazakhstan" 1st Deputy Head of the Board of JSC, Chief since September, * Minister of Transport and Communications of the RK since August 2000, * Deputy Prime Minister of the RK since November 2001, * Assistant to the President of the RK since July 2002, * In 2006-2007, served as Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * On December 10, 2007, he was appointed as the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan by the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * On November 2, 2011, Karim Massimov announced that he will take over the "Kazakh Wikipedia" project. * On September 24, 2012, Karim Massimov submitted his resignation as the head of the government. President N. Nazarbayev accepted the request. On the same day, M. Masimov was appointed as the Head of the Presidential Administration. * On April 7, 2014, he was appointed as the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan by the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. He was in this position until September 9, 2016. * On September 8, 2016, he was appointed as the 13th head of the National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * On January 8, 2022, it became known that Karim Masimov was arrested and imprisoned in a temporary detention center. * On April 24, 2023, the court sentenced Karim Masimov. The former head of the National Security Committee was sentenced to 18 years in prison. ## Rewards In 2010 - with the Order of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan Nursultan Nazarbayev * In 2004 - awarded with the "Kurmet" Order and medals. * In 2011 - medal for 20 years of independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * In 2015 - Order of Friendship of Peoples (Belarus) * In 2016 - Order of the Leopard 2nd degree (2016) ## Gallery * * \< > ## Evaluation Speaking about the opposition politician Bolat Abilov Massimov, he said that he "doesn't have anything to do with him", that his work in every major position was unsuccessful, and that he reached the top only because he was "at the right time, in the right place". He was called a "caricature" person. He later said, in addition, that he was "really a big corrupter." ## Family Spouse — Dilyaram Azatovna Masimova (née Mashurova). Masimov is the father of 3 children. ## Sources 14. https://kaz.orda.kz/kaerim-maesimov-18-zhylgha-sottaldy/ # # External links * Official site of Karim Masimov Archived November 21, 2020.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5869

Devonian period

The Devonian is the fourth of the six periods that make up the Paleozoic era and the first of the Upper Paleozoic sub-period. It started 416 million years ago and ended 359.2 million years ago. Europe has both marine and terrestrial facies. The continental facies is known as Old Red Sandstone. Although the Devonian is named after the igneous region in which it is located, the marine Devonian is stratigraphically divided into stratigraphically defined strata based on the fossil-rich sediments of the Ardennes, Belgium. Those layers: * Lower Devonian Lohkov (416-411.2 million years), Prague (411.2-407 million years) and Ems (407-397.5 million years), \ <> * Lohkov (416-411.2 million years), * Prague (411.2-407 million years) and * Ems (407-397.5 million years), * Middle Devonian Geifel (397.5-391.8 million years) Menjivete (391.8-385.3 million years) and * Eifel (397.5-391.8 million years) and * Jivete (391.8 -385.3 million years) and * Upper Devonian (385.3-374.5 million years) Menfamen. * Franian (385.3-374.5 million years) and * Famennian. Subdivision of marine sediments is based on lithology and abundant invertebrate fauna with goniatite and spiriferid brachiopods. The continental Old Red Sandstone sediments contain a rich fish fauna and plants belonging to the primitive psilophyte group. As a result of the Caledonian orogeny in Late Silurian time, much of the British Isles was covered by red-bed facies. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7046

Honey head

Honeymoon (ritual). In the past, there were many fortune-tellers, fortune-tellers, beekeepers, healers, fortune-tellers, and fortune-tellers in the country. Everyone comes to the oalr and eats honey. They used to predict lost livestock, property, passengers coming from afar, joys and sorrows, and most of them came true. Those who come to beekeepers with requests to beekeepers must pay fortune-tellers for their work. It is politely called "honey head". There is no exact price or size of "honey head". Everyone gives their best. Fortune-tellers gave free honey to poor and poor people "for God's sake". For this, they were grateful for the blessing. Some people did not even receive anything. If the honey opener asked for a certain amount of money or livestock, the people did not visit such people, did not show respect and did not trust them.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7586

Tamara Kurmangalivna Chuvakova

Tamara Kurmangalyovna Chuvakova (May 5, 1938) is a professor, doctor of medical sciences, an honored figure of Kazakhstan who made a special contribution to the development of the field of neonatology in Kazakhstan. ## Biography Aunt Tamara was in her mother's womb when her father Kurmangali and her half-brother Nigmet Nurmakov were repressed under the guise of being enemies of the people and shot in 1938. She was raised by her grandmother from the age of five. His life coincided with difficulties during the war years and after. * After successfully graduating from school without succumbing to so many difficulties, in 1962 he successfully graduated from the Kazakh State Medical Institute and began his career as a researcher in the Department of Child Physiology, Hygiene and Education of the "Mother and Child Health Protection" Research Institute. * In 1969, he defended his candidate's thesis. After that, he headed the Department of Newborn and Premature Infants of the "Mother and Child Health Protection" Research Institute and actively deals with the problems of hypoxic damage to the central nervous system of premature children. * He is the first head of the neonatology course opened in 1978 at the Almaty Institute of Advanced Education of Doctors. Thanks to his work at the highest professional level, in 1980 the course was reorganized into the Department of Neonatology. There were only five such departments in the former Soviet Union. Neonatology means the science of premature babies. * Tamara Kurmangalivna has been a freelance chief neonatologist of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan for many years. * The team of Tamara Chuvakova, head of the Department of Neonatology of the Almaty Perinatal Center, is cooperating with US neonatologists and conducting an exchange of experience at the initiative of Mrs. Hillary Clinton, the wife of former US President Bill Clinton. ## Scientific works * A collection of scientific works entitled "Hypoxia, asphyxia and skull injury in newborns during childbirth" was published under his editorship. * "Hemostasis disorders in premature children and their correction" is defended very well in his doctoral dissertation. * Under his leadership, 12 candidate's theses, 4 doctoral theses were defended, 250 scientific works were published. And there are 2 monographs. * In 1998, at the XXII International Congress of Pediatrics held in Amsterdam, a grant was awarded for his report on the contaminants of mother's milk and their impact on child health. The scientist-teacher has many international works. ## Awards * By the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated October 22, 1998, the professor was awarded the honorary title of "Worker of Kazakhstan". ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3461

House

Uyshik is the nickname of the city of Atyrau. Named after the fence built on the Zhaiyk river for catching red fish. The root of this word is flight. Floats are nets pulled under water. It is woven from wire, often from willow and reeds, and firmly fastened. These Uchugs lived in the Zhayik River for 150 years until the middle of the last century. ## Comment

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2068

Bicycle

bicycle (fr. vélocipède, derived from lat. velox — fast, quick and pes — leg) is a type of human-powered vehicle. Most often there are two-wheeled, sometimes three-wheeled types. The first bicycles appeared in Europe in the 19th century, and since then they have spread throughout the world and developed to their current form. Today, there are more than 1,000,000,000 of these vehicles, which are used for walking or sports in some areas of the world, and are the main form of transport in many regions. The general appearance of the bicycle, the configuration of the frame, wheels, pedals, seat and handle, did not change much from the first chain version in 1885. Of course, since that time, especially later, new materials have been used, computerized models have been developed, and significant changes have been made to the design of the bicycle. Since the 16th century, inventors of many countries: G. Gantschel (Germany, 1649), R. La Rochelle (France, 1693), Leontiy Shamshurenkov (Russia, 1752), Ovenden (England, 1761) and others were based on the four-wheeled cart. The first two-wheeled bicycle was made in Russia. A bicycle made by Yefim Artamonov was shown to the public in Moscow in 1801. Its front large wheel was driven by a pedal, and the small rear wheel acted as a follower. Later, various types of bicycles (Carl Dries, Germany, 1815) appeared in Western European countries. In the 50s of the 19th century, the German mechanic F.M. Fisher suggested installing a connecting rod with a pedal attached to the front wheel of the bicycle. Since the beginning of the 19th century, bicycles have been produced in large numbers. At that time, a pneumatic tire, a ball bearing (bearing), a frame made of a steel tube, a chain gear, a free travel mechanism, etc. were introduced into its construction. The modern bicycle consists of a frame with a saddle mounted on it, and two (sometimes three) wheels. It is driven by foot power through a pedal gear. Its front wheel, which is connected to the steering wheel, acts as a guide. Depending on the purpose of use and structural features, bicycles are divided into: transport bicycles, light transport bicycles, youth bicycles, sports bicycles, children's bicycles and special bicycles. The transport bicycle has a strong frame, flat tires, high handlebars, weighs about 16 kilograms, and is very easy to use. A light transport bicycle is lighter (14 kilograms) and has thinner tires, and is usually equipped with a hand brake. A youth bike is like a replica of an adult transport bike, with a simpler structure and smaller parts than an adult bike. There are types of sports bikes for highway and track. They are light weight (8-11 kg), tubeless tires are thin; equipment is made of durable and extremely light materials such as alloy steel and duralumin, the steering wheel is installed low, it is equipped with a handbrake and a gear shifter (eight-ten-speed). A type of sports bike is a tandem. It is designed for two people, has two wheels and two gears. The speed of such a bicycle reaches 70 kilometers per hour. Children's bicycles are available with two and three wheels, as well as combination types (a three-wheeled bicycle can be changed to a two-wheeled bicycle and vice versa). Children's bicycle tires are produced as solid or inflatable tires. Special bicycles include one- and three-wheeled bicycles for circus performances, cargo transportation, elderly people's transportation, bicycle carts, and others. Recently, folding bicycles have become popular. A bicycle equipped with a suspension motor is called a moped. ## History The history of the bicycle and the person who invented it are not exactly known. The most likely guess is the name of the German baron Karl Dresz. K. Dres invented and patented his machine in 1817. This car was moved by pushing the ground with human feet. The history of the bicycle is deep. According to some sources, in 1863 in Paris, 20-year-old French inventor Pierre Lalman created the first vehicle similar to the modern bicycle. Another year later, the French engineer Pierre Michaud gave the name "bicycle" to this car. In November 1866, Pierre Lalman went to America and received a patent for his bicycle. The bicycle has been technically perfected over the years and has been used by mankind to this day. It is interesting that in the 20th century the interest in bicycles sometimes increased and sometimes decreased. Since 1905, in developed countries such as the USA and Germany, due to the development of the automobile industry, the bicycle has ceased to be fashionable. The traffic police considered cyclists to be obstacles to traffic. However, by the late 1960s, in addition to environmental concerns, interest in bicycles began to rise again in developed countries promoting healthy lifestyles. Around the end of the last century, in the Soviet Union, "Druzhok", "Shkolnik", "Orlenok", "Salyut", "Kama", "Ural", "Uralets", "Ukraine", " We know very well that bicycles like "Aist" are widespread. The social role of the bicycle was great. The production of bicycles, which began in Europe, provided the basis for the creation of the technical base for the construction of automobiles and airplanes. Metalworking technologies aimed at making bicycle frames and other parts were later used in other types of vehicles. Many car manufacturing companies, such as "Rover", "Skoda", "Peugeot", "Opel", which were established at the beginning of the last century, initially started from bicycle factories. The gender-neutral bicycle has also contributed to the elimination of gender inequality. Thanks to him, women abandoned the narrow corset that did not allow them to move freely, and started wearing compact and comfortable pants, which became fashionable thanks to the bicycle. VIII (?!) Scientists do not deny that at the end of the century, thanks to the bicycle, villagers went to neighboring villages and towns, different settlements met each other, and the genetic health of the population improved due to the renewal of blood. Thanks to the bicycle, people were able to live outside the city and work in distant places instead of being concentrated in one city. ## Comments ## External links * A range of Traffic Advisory Leaflets Archived 13 January 2010. produced by the UK Department for Transport covering cycling. * Menotomy Vintage Bicycles Archived March 29, 2019. - Databases of antique bicycle photos, features, price guide and research tools. Very large archives. * The Bicycle - Worlds most efficient form of transportation Archived February 4, 2010. Discussion of the Bicycle and its advantages over motor vehicles * Brown, Sheldon (2005). Extensive Online Bicycle Glossary * Hudson, William (2003). Myths and Milestones in Bicycle Evolution. Retrieved 30 March 2005. * A History of Bicycles and Other Cycles Archived 16 September 2014. at the Canada Science and Technology Museum * Jones, David EH (1970). The Stability of the Bicycle Archived 30 October 2008. Scanned in copy for download for personal use. * Bicycle City ## Sources * Children's Encyclopedia

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5044

Nurgisa Atabayuly Tilendiev

Nurgisa Atabayuly Tilendiev (April 1, 1925, Almaty region, Ile district, Shilikemer (now Nurgisa Tilendiev village) - October 15, 1998, Almaty) is a famous Kazakh music composer, conductor, drummer. People's Artist of the Kazakh SSR (1975), People's Artist of the USSR (1984), People's Hero (1998). ## Biography * From the Sham clan of the Shapyrashti tribe. * Place of birth - Shilikemer village of Ile district of Almaty region. The ground is the base of the Zhambyl mausoleum. * Graduated from the Conducting Faculty of the P. I. Tchaikovsky Conservatory of Moscow (in the class of Prof. N. P. Anosov). * Chief conductor, artistic director at the Kazakh Abai Opera and Ballet Theater (1953-1961) * Kazakh State Academic Folk Instruments Orchestra named after Kurmangazy (1961-1964). * In 1964-68, he was the director of the Opera and Ballet Theater named after Abai. * In 1968-81, he worked as the editor-in-chief of the music department of "Kazakhfilm" film studio. * served as the chief conductor of the "Otyrar sazy" folk instrument orchestra (1981-1998), which was born directly under his organization. * Zary Tilendi's daughter-in-law Dariga is an actress. * Daughter - Tilendi Dinara. ## Works Nurgisa Atabayuly is an artist who left an indelible mark on Kazakh musical culture as a composer, conductor, performer. He is the author of more than 500 original musical works. The range of genres of this rich heritage is also surprising: song, tune, romance, overture, poem, cantata, opera, ballet. Among his favorite works * "Dostyk Zholy" (1958) * "My Kazakhstan" cantata (1959) * Opera "Golden Mountains" written together with K. Kozhamyarov (1961) * " Ata tolaguyu" * works written for orchestra (1962) * "People's joy" (1963) * "Courage" (1964) * "Victory soldier" (1975) overtures can be mentioned . His * "Swan" * "Longing" * "Dream" * "Grandfather's Labor" * "Alkyssa" * "The Legend of Korkyt" * "Moving Caravan" * "Mahambet" * "Farabi Clay" * "Sarzhailau" * "Alatau" * "Akzhayik" * "White Bird" * Dozens of songs such as "Oz Elim" have become a spiritual treasure loved and listened to by the public due to the richness of the folk painting pattern and the clarity of their original signature. In addition, he wrote music for more than forty plays and more than twenty films. Plays by M. Auezov, Sh. Aymanov, T. Akhtanov, A. Tazhibaev, whose music was written by Nurgisa Atabayuly, as well as * "Girl Silk" * "Kyli period" * "My name is Khoja" * "Why is the swallow's tail split" * "Aksak Kulan" films have already become classics of the Kazakh stage and screen art. Ol Abai's * "Don't be a beauty..." * "I didn't consider that there was science at my age..." * "I'm dead inside, healthy outside..." \< > He wrote songs for the poems "Reddened and greyed...". In addition, he wrote poems of Kazakh poets * "Give a neck to a lover" * "Abay's dream" * "Aygerin's song" * "The poet's prophet - Abay father". ## Musical culture Nurgisa Atabayuly is the last leg of the musical tradition in the Kazakh musical culture. In the process of creating art, he did not give in to the ideological tyranny of the time, assimilationist exaggeration, and kept his creative individuality without deviating from his God-given destiny. At the same time, Nurgisa, like Antey, who draws energy from the earth, stood firmly on the Kazakh musical tradition and was able to turn her dreams into sound without fear. Although he was a professional musician who had mastered the musical knowledge of his time, he was always inspired by the tradition of the folk music. In other words, Nurgisa was able to bring the freedom of inspiration to the orchestral longing, which burns what one sees and memorizes what one hears. At the same time, Nurgisa, like the white-headed priests of the Sahara, did not drown out her voice with many voices, did not follow her voice with a lot of grandeur, and achieved the monotony of the traditional Kazakh musical language. Nurgisa's thoughts as a composer, conductor, and performer are common to many, and her language is understandable to many. If the art of salsers is characterized by its focus on the heart of a person, that great tradition was overflowing in all the creative being of Nurgisa. It is in this context that Nurgisa was able to create her own professionalism without losing the essence of traditional Kazakh music. ## More N. For the first time, Tylendiev showed an excellent example of how to develop native Kazakh music by sounding it in an orchestral style with native instruments. Now, about the performer Nurgisa, that is, the drummer Nurgisa. All facts without evidence are close to imagination and conjecture. Evidence is the indispensable foundation of true history. Thank you, there is a long line of great musicians and composers who ended up on the Kazakh forehead. We are not tired of the heritage that has reached today. However, the attention to beauty sometimes fantasizes: the moon is ugly, how did those producing powers draw these powerful states. It's a pity that there is no "signature" from the quarreling kushins. Satisfied with the state that has passed from hand to hand. Drummer - even if we yearn for performance art, we are comforted by the art of slags, which bring the tunes of those ancient times to our hearts. We don't just console ourselves, we also believe without a doubt that the great tradition of performance has been achieved without bending, with all the pomp and splendor, with all the skill. Unbelievable power is today's state-loving community. A musician like Mukhametzhan Tileukhan hears and sees the moving trots and smiling runners of performance. Each of them has a school, and the skill of many centuries has reached the fingers of each of them. After all, all of these are not just memorizing performers, but singer-performers. That is, those who create a state, then, they fall into the state they attract and become their characters. They are deaf people who will not regret it if even the mighty ones from the beyond come alive and listen. Nurgisa is not only one of such deaf performers, but also unique. Nurgisa was a left-handed drummer, as the saying goes. This seems to have taught him to use the flexibility of the fingers of the right hand to easily stick to the keys and produce transparent sounds. He is a unique drummer who conveys everything through the drum. ## Sensing mood It is said that Kazakh drummers transmit the art of mood through eyes, hands and ears. Among these, those who absorb the state by ear have a different fate. This is because the eye does not forget what it sees, and the hand does not lose what it touches. That is, those who transmit the mood through the eyes and hands, as a rule, fall into repetitiveness. And the state that is absorbed in the ears, without words, is also absorbed in the mind. The state absorbed in the mind will vibrate the heart and will be attracted by the heart. Nurgisa, on the other hand, is a drummer who absorbs music with her ears and plays with her heart. Even after it comes out of the heart, its touching moods captivate the hearts. Nurgisa, as a drummer-performer, deeply recognized and understood the peculiarities of Kazakh music schools; He mastered the methods and methods of sounding what he recognized and understood. It is one of the few places that managed to combine the beauty and grandeur of any of them, without losing the beauty or richness of any of them, while drawing the steep slopes of Altai, the brown slopes of Arka, the longitudinal slopes of Syr, the gentle slopes of Zhetysu, and the valleys of Atyrau. If Nurgisa had been neither a composer nor a public figure, but only a drummer-performer, she would have taken fourth place as an outstanding person in the cultural and spiritual history of Kazakhstan. ## Gift The reason for such multi-faceted, multi-faceted and mysterious talent in Nurgisa Tilendiuly should surprise anyone. Of course, the basis of such a mystery is always connected with the soil, origin, and growing environment. At the same time, the artistic tradition of Zhetisu, who sang Nurgisa from the moment she was born, praised her with songs, and rocked her with tunes, should be called a fateful reason. In such a case, even if it is an overview, it is necessary to mention the names and color of the persons who were the foundation of the art school of Zhetysu. At the same time, of course, poets with a sharp throat such as Suyinbay, Zhambyl, Kulmambet, Bakhtibay, Barmak, Umbetali, Kalka, Kenen, Kuat, Baltagul, fiery-mouthed and sickly-tongued orators such as Kebekbay, Sapak, Nogaybay, Beltirik, Kanadan, Baiserke, Berdibek First of all come to mind the quarrelsome singers like Dauren Sal, Kyrmyzy, Zhidebay, Balkybek, and brassy girls like Ulbike, Almen, Akkumis, Latipa, and Zhanyldyk. The great school of art they formed, the great morals, could not quietly lay in its lap an innate talent like Nurgisa. In this regard, it can be said that Nurgisa was born in a white dress and is a kind soul. He grew up in the brotherhood of his father, Tilendi, who instilled in him the great tradition of artistry. The boy sat in front of his father and rested his tongue on his chest. Nurgisa's mother, Salikha, is the sister of the famous poet Kenen, who also impressed the neighborhood with her singing. Nurgisa grew up listening to the beautiful songs sung by that person. Even when Müshel was almost a year old, the village opened its mouth and closed its eyes when he used the Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Russian and Tatar musical instruments in his smooth hands and sang various songs and tunes. Growing up, Nurgisa was blessed by Kenen, the master of singing, and drank the wine of Zhambyl, a singer. All this can be said to be the source of Nurgisa's creativity. However, at the age of fourteen, Nurgisa met a fateful moment when she stepped on the path of great art. The visitor was the famous Akhmet Zhuban, who touched Kazakh music like a prophet. Just like an old gardener who knows without writing down the circle of a spring that has just come out of the seven layers of the earth, flows into a spring, and has just started to draw water, the wise Ahmet immediately recognizes the spring in the child Nurgisa. He took Tani and Nurgisa by the hand and joined them in the group of drummers of the Kazakh National Instruments Orchestra. This, let's say it was written, Nurgisa has a place on the right side of Kali Zhantileu, who is a drum major, among the quarrelsome drummers in the orchestra. Nurgisa, who has a good ear, foreseeing Kali, will not be late, if before she was attracted to the mood, now she will be attracted to the mood. All this was an indispensable foundation for Nurgisa's world, and all this was an inexhaustible source of Nurgisa's talent. Tilendiuly Nurgisa devoted all her abilities and talents to exalting the spirit of the people. Along the way, he got along well with the people and was able to be both their confidant and their grief. His music found its way into the hearts of both children and sages, and became a spiritual companion of the people. He did not seek fame, fame found him. Among the composers of Kazakhstan, he received the title of People's Hero for the first time. Nurgisa was unanimously recognized by her famous contemporaries as a unique talent and a unique person, as any great talent is undoubtedly fulfilled. They did not praise Nurgisa, they were proud of Nurgisa as a phenomenon in the cultural and spiritual life of the people. ## Words of the great * Zhambyl Zhabaev : * Dinmuhamed Konaev: Nursultan Nazarbayev: "The tunes written by Tylendiev can both please and console the listener; makes you think with excitement; it creates a beautiful impression while being gentle, where the noble qualities of humanity passed down from father to son, the virtues of kindness, the intercession of mercy and grace will captivate your soul; there is indomitable courage, winged courage, courage and determination, national spirit, honor; I think that Tylendiev's tunes do not leave listeners indifferent today, they will retain their power even ten, twenty, hundred years from now; because it is related to the spirit of modern ancestors, dreams and goals". * Kanabek Bayseyitov: * Abdijamil Nurpeyisov: * Erkegali Rahmadiev: * Abish Kekilbayev: * Myrzatai Zholdasbekov: * Zhanibek Karmenov: This thought is a giant of emotions - these are all true words. The train of thought can be summed up with Nurgisa Tielendiuly's own words: "Sometimes I feel as if I was not born from my father and mother. After all, the people put it in the palm of their hands and spend their whole lives around it," he says. This is the truth. ## "Dream" There was a wedding in a village, and Nurgisa Tielendiuly was specially invited to that wedding. After the wedding itself, when Nurgisa is invited to it, of course, the mood is drawn. Of course, Nurgisa attracts Kui. That's what the country is waiting for, every time the tune gets louder, the audience will bleed and get excited. Every time the people cheered and applauded, Nurgisa's back trembled and she shook her drum. The listener's delirium gets even more excited. While the people are having fun like this, an old man with a white beard sits aside, like a cast statue. The image is like a stone-deaf person, does not move to the position it is being drawn in. Every time it is drawn, the crowd claps its hands like snow and applauds Nurgisa more and more. Nurgisa, whose flesh was hot, put the drum on her chest, took it out on her head, and lit a candle. The audience goes crazy and gets even more excited. Only, the white-bearded old man sitting on the far side does not move like that cast statue. Nurgisa, who is leaning on her, makes her tambourine more and more, and dreams come from her. At that time, a young man who was very excited said: "Nurgisa, they say that you will be happy with your head, so please be happy with your head!" he thinks to himself. Nurgisa, on the other hand, does not beg the questioner, but knocks the cotton and bangs the drum with her head. The crowd is a flood of people, ayran-asyr, dawn-tamasha. But only the old man sitting on the edge does not flinch and does not deny his depressed state. After that, how many tunes are drawn, how many songs are sung, the passion of the listener is filled, and when it is a certain time of the night, Nurgisa wants to rest and take a breath. They begin to distribute the guests to pre-selected houses. As for Nurgisa, like a cast statue, Tunzhir is divided into an old man's house. He comes home. It is a house where many guests enter. Nurgisa's eyes were first struck by the lamb-bellied red dombra hanging from the pole. If Nurgisa gets tired of seeing a drum, if she takes the red drum in her hand and clicks it, the drum's throat will growl and her chest will heave. Nurgisa became interested and said to the host: "Elder, let me take a look!" says. The owner of the house looked at Nurgisa's face and said: "If you pull, pull, my candle. Just don't take the blessing of the house and throw it away!" - says. The voice of the old man sounds as if he is completely disappointed, as if he has stopped listening properly. "Ah!" says. All the blessings of the day, the reward of the day, as if they were flying in the wind, as if everything is fake, the soul collapses. At that moment, he remembered the words of his father, Tielen, who used to say to him, "He might not take the blessings of the situation, but make it worse", and became even more saddened. Just like a father's commandment, a coachman takes control of his father's dream, his soul and world become brothers and sisters in an instant. At that moment, "Ah, a dream!" He doesn't understand how the word came out. Nurgisa is shaken like an eagle on a pedestal and regains consciousness. In that position, he is holding on to his brother as if he is shaking the drum, and he is snorting the old song that has soaked into his ear from the diaper. Kui is drawn not by hands, but by heart. It gives the impression that the deep-seated hollow is coming out from the depths, and some decorative twists and turns are poured out by themselves and meet with a dream. Status ends. Nurgisa looks at the old man sitting in front of him. The old man's eyelids opened, and he was in a completely different state. He shook his head like a tree and said: "Oh, good luck, let your hair grow, my dear!" says. Only then Nurgisa regained her composure and calmed down. He returned from the war with his left arm amputated at the elbow. Although her hand was cut off, her chest was healthy, she found her passion for music in her own way and tuned her tambourine. Nurgisa must have called her dream in front of this old man. ## Awards * People's Artist of Kazakhstan * Winner of the State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan * People's Artist of the USSR. * In 1998, by the decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, N. Tilendiuly was awarded the title of "People's Hero". * Order of the Motherland * Order of the Patriotic War II degree * Honored artist of Kazakhstan. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7564

Bakytzhan Abdiruly Sagintaev

Bakytzhan Abdiruly Sagintaev (October 13, 1963, Usharal, Talas district, Zhambyl region) is a Kazakhstani public figure, the chairman of the Eurasian Economic Commission since 2024. Sagintaev used to be the Mayor of Almaty (2019–2022), Prime Minister of Kazakhstan (2016–2019), Secretary of State (2019), Chairman of the Presidential Administration (2019). Candidate of Economic Sciences (1990). ## Biography * From the Oshak clan of Uly Yuz. [source?] * S.M. Graduated from the Faculty of Philosophy and Economics of Kirov Kazakh State University (1985), economist, teacher of political economy. * Since 1985 - teacher of the Department of Political Economy at the Almaty Institute of National Economy. * Since 1988 - S.M. Assistant, senior lecturer, docent at the Department of Sociology of Kirov Kazakh State University. * Since 1992 - held management positions in commercial structures. * Since 1998 - deputy akim of Zhambyl region. * Since 1999 - Deputy Chairman of the Small Business Support Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * Since 2000 - Chairman of the Board of JSC "Support Fund for Small Businesses". * Since 2001 - the first deputy chairman of the RK Agency for Regulation of Natural Monopolies, Protection of Competition and Support for Small Business. * Since 2004 - Chairman of the Agency for Regulation of Natural Monopolies of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * Since 2007 - head of the Office of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * since 2008 - akim of Pavlodar region. * From January 20 to September 24, 2012 - Minister of Economic Development and Trade of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * September 2012 - January 2013 - first deputy chairman of the People's Democratic Party "Nur Otan". * Since January 16, 2013, the newly created Minister of Regional Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan and First Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * On November 6, 2013, by the Decree of the Head of State, he was dismissed from the position of First Deputy Prime Minister - Minister of Regional Development of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and was appointed First Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * First Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan from April 7, 2014. * Since September 10, 2016, the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan * On February 21, 2019, the President of Kazakhstan Sagintaeva was sent to resign by the government Awarded the Order of "Honor" and anniversary medals. * March 1, 2019 - March 24, 2019 - State Secretary of the Republic of Kazakhstan by decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * March 24, 2019 - June 28, 2019 Head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan by decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * June 28, 2019 - January 31, 2022, by the decision of the city maslikhat, the mayor of Almaty. In December 2023, it became known that Sagintaev will head the Eurasian Economic Commission from February 1, 2024. This information was confirmed by Russian President Putin. ## Scientific works * Candidate of Economic Sciences (1990). The topic of the candidate's thesis: "Comparing the standard of living of the urban and rural population". * Author of a number of scientific works and publications on state regulation of the territory of natural monopolies, development of small and medium-sized businesses. ## Awards * Order of "Honor" (2006); "10 years of the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan" (2001), * "10 years of the Constitution of Kazakhstan" (2005), * "10 years of the Parliament of Kazakhstan" (2006), * "10 years of Astana" ( 2008). * Order of Friendship (December 19, 2014, Russia) — for active participation in the preparation of the Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union * Medal of I degree for contribution to the creation of the Eurasian Economic Union (2015) ## Personal information * Military rank - reserve captain. ## Personal life * Father - Abdir Sagintaev, Man of Socialist Labor, worked as the director of the "Talas" State breeding cattle factory of Zhambyl region, deputy of the Supreme Council of the USSR, member of the Inspection Commission of the Central Committee of the CPSU was a member, a delegate of the congresses of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. * Mother - Beshtaeva Kundyzai, was a housewife. * Married. Has 2 daughters and grandchildren. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4562

Marat Mukhanbetkazyuly Tazhin

Marat Muhambetkazyuly Tazhin (April 8, 1960, Aktobe, Kazakh SSR) is a statesman, the ambassador of Kazakhstan to the Czech Republic. ## Biography 1960 Born on April 8 in Aktobe. He came from the Shekti clan of the Alimuly tribe. He graduated from the Almaty Institute of National Economy and postgraduate studies at Kirov Kazakh State University. Doctor of social sciences, professor. * 1992 engaged in scientific and teaching activities. * 1992 from — in the Office of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Cabinet of Ministers: the first deputy head of the internal policy department, the head of this department, the deputy head of the Office of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the head of the Information and Analysis Center. * 1994-95 — State adviser to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 1995-99 — Deputy Head of the Presidential Administration and Head of the Center for Analysis and Strategic Research of the Presidential Administration. * 1999-01 — Assistant to the President on National Security Issues — Secretary of the Security Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2000 — Served as the chairman of the State Commission on Combating Corruption of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2001 — Headed the National Security Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2002 — Assistant to the President on national security issues — Secretary of the Security Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2002 since August - First Deputy Head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2006 since April - Assistant to the President - Secretary of the Security Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * 2007 On January 11, he was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan by the Decree of the Head of State. * On September 4, 2009, by the Decree of the Head of State, he was appointed Assistant to the President - Secretary of the Security Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan * On January 16, 2013, he was appointed as the State Secretary of the Republic of Kazakhstan by the Presidential Decree. In this position, he replaced Mukhtar Kul-Muhammed. * Since January 2017 - the first deputy head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * On November 26, 2019, by the Decree of the Head of State, Marat Mukhanbetkazyuly Tazhin was appointed as the Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the Czech Republic. ## Awards Doctor of social sciences, professor. Awarded with "Barys" and "Kurmet" orders. Diplomatic rank – Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5939

Windows operating system dictionary

## А Removable disk (Floppy disk) 3.5-inch diameter reusable magnetic tape. Currently, removable disks with a capacity of 1.44 MB are used. The covers of the first models of discs were flexible, so they were English. called floppy disk. Move (Move) Move across the screen by holding down the mouse button over the selected element. For example, you can drag the window title name to reposition the window on the screen. Media Any fixed or removable device suitable for data storage. For example, hard drives, removable drives, magnetic tapes, compact discs. Pull Down Menu A menu that opens when you click on the menu bar. The menu remains open, but no further action is taken until the user clicks the mouse button again or selects a menu item. up ↑ ## А Admin (Administrator) in Windows XP Professional — installation and management of home controllers or local computers, their user accounts and group accounts , the person responsible for assigning passwords and permissions and assisting users with online issues. Admins are members of the Admins group and have full control over a home or computer. In Windows XP Home Edition, the person who can make system-wide changes on the computer, install programs, and access all files on the computer. A person with a computer administrator account has full access to all other user accounts on the computer. Command (Command, Macro, Script) An instruction given by the user to the program in order to perform a certain action. Commands are usually typed from the keyboard or selected from the menu. Command Prompt window (Command Prompt window) is a desktop window for interacting with the MS-DOS operating system. MS-DOS commands are typed at the entry point indicated by the flashing cursor. See also MS-DOS. up ↑ ## B Program (Program) Programs are designed to perform certain tasks, for example, word processing, accounting or data management. Programs are also called applets. Linked Object (Linked Object) An object that is embedded in a document, but remains in the original file. Linked data is updated when changes are made in the source document. Double click on the associated data to change it. Menus and toolbars of the program in which this data was created will appear on the screen. If both documents are on the same computer, changes made to the linked data will also be reflected in the original document. See also the term source document. Minimize Use the "Minimize" button to the right of the window title to minimize the window to the size of the button on the toolbar. See also maximize, window title name terms. Maximize Maximize the window to the maximum size using the "Maximize" button to the right of the title of the window. See also minimize, window title name terms. Primary document (Main document, Original document, Master document) A primary document is a document in which a linked or embedded object is created. See also embedded object, bound object. Printer (Printer) A device for printing text and images on paper or other printable media. Printer driver (Printer driver) is a program that allows other programs to work with a particular printer regardless of its hardware and internal language. Because the driver handles the interaction with the actual device, programs can successfully use a variety of printers. See also the term device driver. Printers and faxes (Printers and faxes) Folder in the Control Panel ("Start" menu), which contains the printer installation wizard, as well as icons for all printers installed on the computer. Print queue manager (Print queue manager) Software that receives a document sent by the user for printing and stores it on disk or in working memory until the printer starts printing this document. Printer window (Printer window) A window that displays information about print jobs waiting to be output to the printer. For each installed or connected printer, you can find out the number of documents in the print queue, their owners and their size. Video adapter (Display card, Display adaptor) An extension board on a computer that allows data to be displayed on the monitor screen. The quality of the data display depends on both the video adapter and the monitor. Screen resolution (Display resolution) A parameter that determines the amount of information displayed on the screen, measured in pixels. A lower resolution such as 640 × 480 will make the elements on the screen appear larger and the free area on the screen will be smaller. Magnify an entire area on a high-resolution screen, such as 1024 × 768. makes individual elements smaller. Icon (Icon) A small image that appears on the screen and represents an object that the user can perform some actions on. Icons allow you to control certain computer actions without having to remember commands or type them on the keyboard. Active Describes the window or icon currently in use or highlighted. The operating system automatically applies the next keystroke or command you choose to the active window. Unselected windows or icons on the desktop are inactive. Click on a window or icon to make it active. Active elements (Active elements) Information whose displayed data is updated, for example, stock data, weather chart or news. Active elements are usually updated over the Internet. Highlighting (Select) Marking data or text on the screen with the help of the keyboard or the mouse, where any action should be taken. up ↑ ## В Web (World Wide Web, WWW) System for browsing the Internet using hyperlinks. When you use a web browser, this system is represented as a collection of text, graphics, audio and video objects. See also the term Internet. Anti-virus software (Antivirus software) Anti-virus programs check e-mail and other files on the computer for viruses, "worms", "Trojan horses". If a virus, "worm" or "Trojan horse" is found, the anti-virus program will quarantine or completely remove the virus before it can harm your computer and files. up ↑ ## Г Gigabyte (GB) (Gigabyte, GB) Data measurement unit, equal to 1024 MB. Also kilobyte (KB); See megabytes (MB). up ↑ ## D Disk (Disk) A data storage device that can be attached to a computer, for example, a removable disk or a permanent disk (a permanent internal device of a computer). . Disk, drive letter (Drive, Drive Letter) A data storage area formatted for a specific file system and with a drive letter. You can use a removable disk, a compact disk, a permanent disk, or any other type of disk to store data. Drives are labeled with letters starting with the letter A followed by a colon. You can view the contents of the disk by clicking on its icon in the drive or in the My Computer window. See also the term file system. Sound card (Sound card) An expansion board that provides sound recording and playback capabilities for personal computers. Audio file (Audio file) An audio file contains data that Windows uses to play audio recordings on a computer. The extension of sound files in Windows is wav. up ↑ ## E Input Language Language and keyboard layout corresponding to the language in which data is entered. Embedded object Inserting data created in another program into a document. Embedded data can be modified in a new document using the menus and toolbars of the program in which they were created. To change embedded data, highlight it and double-click on it. Menus and toolbars of the program in which this data was created will appear on the screen. The embedded data does not retain any connection with the original document. This means that if data is changed in the original document, it will not appear in the new document. Hyperlink An underlined colored text or image that can be clicked to go to a file, a specific location in a file, or a web page on the Internet. up ↑ ## J Hardware The physical components of a computer system, including peripherals such as printers, modems, and mice. Network (Network) A group of computers and other devices, such as printers and text devices, which are connected by communication networks that allow all devices to interact with each other. Networks can be small or large, connected permanently (using cables) or temporarily (via telephone lines or wireless channels). The largest network is the Internet, which is a group of world wide webs. See also the term network adapter. Firewall A combination of hardware and software that provides a security system, usually to prevent unauthorized access to an internal network or Intranet from the outside. A firewall prevents direct communication between the network and external computers by routing the communication path through an offline proxy server. proxy file determines whether transmission over the network is secure. A firewall is also called a secure edge gateway.RAM (Random Access Memory) RAM is used by a computer to perform computations that run software programs. In addition, the data displayed on the screen is temporarily stored in the RAM. An increase in the amount of RAM does not allow the computer to run complex programs and process large files. When the computer is turned off, the data stored in the RAM is lost. CC (hidden copy) (Carbon Copy, CC) A hidden copy of the message. The recipient whose name appears in this field of the e-mail message will receive a copy of the message, and the recipient's name will not be visible to other recipients. Delete (Delete) The act of deleting program files and folders from the local disk, as well as deleting relevant data from the system registry. Desktop (Desktop) The Windows desktop is an area organized like a real desktop on a screen. There are various elements such as icons, menus and windows; with their help, you can run programs and perform various tasks. On the Windows desktop, you can move and rearrange these objects, and start and end work, just like on a regular desktop. See also the term graphical user interface. System board (Motherboard) The main assembly board of the computer. The system board has latches for attaching additional boards. High-speed connection (Broadband connection) A high-speed connection to the Internet, for example, via DSL or using a cable modem. up ↑ ## И Internet (Internet) is a network connecting servers located all over the world. When you have access to the Internet, you can access data from millions of sources, including educational institutions, government organizations, commercial enterprises, and individual users. See also the term web. => More... Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that provides access to the Internet. The Internet provider provides the phone number, username, password, and other information needed to connect to the Internet. Typically, ISP services are billed monthly or hourly. See also web server. Intranet (Intranet) An intra-organizational network that uses Internet technologies and communication methods, but is accessible only to certain people, such as company employees. An intranet is also called a private network. up ↑ ## K Queue A list of programs or tasks that are waiting in line for the execution of actions specified by the user. A print queue is a group of documents waiting to be printed. See also the term printer. Kilobyte (Kilobyte, KB) Data measurement unit, equal to 1024 bytes. See also gigabyte, megabyte. Client (Client) A computer that uses shared network resources on another computer called a server. See also the term server. Copy (Copy) A copy of the message. The recipient whose name appears in this field of the e-mail message will receive a copy of the message, and the recipient's name will be visible to other recipients. Standby mode In this state, the computer consumes less electricity, but its performance can be restored instantly. When the computer is in standby mode, the data in the memory is not written to the local disk. If the power supply is interrupted, the data stored in the memory will be lost. Input area (Input area, input box) Place where text is placed when entered from the keyboard. In a program window or dialog box, the insertion point is usually indicated by a blinking vertical line (runner), which is why it is often called the runner position. up ↑ ## К Folder (Folder) A container for programs and files, which is displayed on the screen using an icon (small image) in the form of an office folder. Folders can contain files as well as other folders and are used to organize programs and documents on the disk. Font (Font) A set of typographic symbols for representing letters, numbers and special characters. See also the term font font. Font family (Typeface, Font family) A set of characters with common characteristics, such as stroke width or presence of indentation characters. See also the term font. Parallel port (Parallel port) An input-output connector for connecting devices with a parallel interface. Most printers connect to a parallel port. See also the term serial port. Security center (Security center) is a program designed to display the state of the computer's security system, as well as to notify about actions that can be taken to improve the level of system protection. Security Center controls three main security tools: firewall, anti-virus software, and self-updater. Remote access connection (Remote access connection) Connecting to a local network using a device that uses a telephone line. Tab A part of a dialog box, similar to a bookmark in a notebook, and allows you to move between different settings of the dialog box. Resource Any part of a computer or network (such as a disk, printer, or memory) used by a running program or process. Double click (Double click) Quickly press the mouse button twice without moving it and release it. Allows you to quickly select and launch a program or its feature. See also click, drag. Download Copying a copy of a file to the requesting computer from the Internet via a modem or local network. Password (Password) A protective tool for restricting access to the computer and user accounts. A password is a set of characters that must be entered to access resources. The password consists of letters, numbers and other characters, and here they are case sensitive. Toolbar (Tools, toolbar) A row, column or block of on-screen buttons or icons in a program's graphical interface. By pressing these buttons or clicking on the icons, the user activates certain features of the program. For example, Microsoft Word's toolbar contains (among others) buttons for italicizing or bolding text, as well as buttons for saving and opening documents. Usually, the user has the ability to customize the toolbars and move them around the screen. Device Any piece of equipment that can be connected to a local network or computer, such as a computer, printer, card, adapter, modem, or other peripheral device. Devices usually need a driver to work with Windows. See also device driver, peripheral device. Device driver (Device driver) A program that allows a specific device, such as a modem, network adapter, or printer, to interact with the operating system. Even if the device is installed on the system, Windows may not recognize the device until the appropriate driver is installed and configured. Installed and configured device drivers are automatically launched during computer startup and are inadvertently consumed by the user. Drivers can usually be downloaded from the hardware manufacturer's website. Checkbox (Checkbox) Checkbox sources are used to enable or disable individual features or settings in a set of settings. If a parameter is selected, an x sign or a check mark will appear next to it. Uncheck (Uncheck) Disable the parameter by removing the check mark. To remove a checkmark, click or highlight it and press SPACEBAR. up ↑ ## Л Shortcut A link to any item located on a computer or network (for example, a program, file, folder, drive, web -page, printer or other computer). Nicknames can be placed in different areas, such as the desktop, the Start menu, or folders. See also desktop, icon terms. up ↑ ## M Menu (Menu) A list from which the user selects commands to perform certain actions, for example, to format a highlighted part of a document. Menu bar (Menu bar) is a rectangular table at the top of the program window, where the names of the available menus are located. If you highlight one of the menus with the help of a mouse or keyboard, the list of its commands will be displayed on the screen. Text box (Textbox) is a rectangular field on the screen, where the necessary data to execute commands is typed. Megabyte (MB) (Megabyte, MB) Data measurement unit, equal to 1,048,576 bytes. Also gigabyte; see the words kilobyte. My Computer (My Computer) is a folder that displays the contents of your hard drive and removable drives, CD, as well as any attached peripherals. To access this folder, select My Computer from the Start menu. My Documents (My Documents) is a convenient folder for storing documents, pictures and other files that require quick access. Programs such as WordPad or Paint automatically save files to the My Documents folder unless specified elsewhere. To access this folder, select My Documents from the Start menu. My Music is a convenient folder for storing and editing audio files. To access this folder, select My Folder from the Start menu. My Pictures (My Pictures) A convenient folder for storing and editing graphic files. To access this folder, select My Pictures from the Start menu. Modem (Modem) A device for sending and receiving digital data over a telephone line. up ↑ ## Н Thumbnail A reduced version of an image, often used to quickly view a set of graphic images. Click Move the main (left) mouse button over the element, click, then release the button. Dot (Pixel) The smallest element that software, a screen, or a printer can use to create letters, numbers, or images. The area where the approximate lines of a quadrilateral grid intersect, which is a simple fraction of the thousands of dots that make up the image that a computer produces on a screen or printed paper. See also the term image resolution. Object (Object) An element (file, folder, printer) distinguished by a unique set of labels. For example, a file's name, location, and size are its identifiers. See also Printer permissions. up ↑ ## О Game port (Game port) A socket for connecting a computer or other game devices. See also the term serial port. Right click Move the second (right) button of the mouse over the object and click, then release the button. Clicking with the right mouse button opens a context menu with useful commands, the list of which varies depending on the selected object and situation. Installation (Install) Adding program files and folders to the computer for the first time. Installation is different than updating, in that during an update, existing folders and files of the program are replaced with newer versions. up ↑ ## Э Automatic update (Automatic update) is a security feature of Windows that sends security updates, critical updates, and update packages according to a user-specified schedule. for independent download and installation. Also, with this feature, you can get notifications about important updates. Background Windows desktop image. Any pattern or image that can be saved as a bitmap (BMP file) can be selected as the background image of the screen. up ↑ ## П User (User) A person who uses a computer. Username (Username) A unique name that identifies a user account in Windows. An account's username must be unique among other group usernames and usernames within its home or workgroup. User password (User password) The password stored in each user account. Each user usually has a unique password, and must type it when logging in or accessing the server. User profile (User profile) A file containing infrastructure information such as desktop settings, persistent network connections, and application settings for a specific user. Each user's settings are stored in a user profile, which Windows uses to configure the desktop every time the user logs on. User account (User account) A record containing all the information that identifies the user of the Windows system. It includes the user's name and the password required to log in to the system. Graphical User Interface (GUI) A visual computer environment in which programs, files, and other items correspond to small icons on the computer screen. Graphical interface elements are icons, menus, and dialog boxes. Selection of these elements is carried out using the mouse or keyboard. Most navigation objects (such as scroll bars) behave the same way in all programs. Peripheral device (? )A device connected to a computer and controlled by its processor (for example, a disk drive, printer, modem, or card). See also the term device. Keyboard layout (Keyboard layout) Correspondence of signs and symbols of various alphabets to the keyboard keys. What kind of symbol appears on the screen depends not only on the pressed key, but also on the current keyboard layout. Keyboard language (Keyboard language) The language used for typing text. Only some programs for the Windows platform recognize this setting. When a new keyboard language is available, the keyboard layout for that language is also available. Port (Port) A socket for connecting data devices from the computer and to the computer. For example, printers are usually connected to parallel (LPT) ports and modems to serial (COM) ports. Also worth noting is the serial port (mainly for data transfer), as well as the USB port used for peripherals. A USB port is usually located on the front or back of the computer, next to the serial or parallel port. up ↑ ## Р Permission An object-specific rule that governs how and in what way users can access an object. Permissions are granted or denied by the facility owner. up ↑ ## C Trash (Recycler) Trash is located on the Windows desktop. To delete a file, drag it to the trash. You can also recover accidentally deleted files from the Recycle Bin. To delete the contents of the Recycle Bin and free up more disk space, right-click on the Recycle Bin icon and select Clean Recycle Bin. See also right-click. Server (Server) A computer that provides shared resources (files, folders, data and mail services) to network users. See also the term client. Drag and drop. For example, to delete a document, just drag it to the trash icon and release the mouse button. Place the document over the trash can icon, wait until the icon is highlighted, and then release the mouse button. See also the terms drag and drop, graphical user interface. up ↑ ## T Taskbar (Taskbar) The table that appears by default at the bottom of the screen, where the "Start" button is located. You can switch between running programs using the taskbar buttons. You can also hide the taskbar, move it to the top or side of the desktop, or customize it in other ways. See also desktop, taskbar button, taskbar. Window (Window) A part of the screen where programs and actions are implemented. For example, you can open an e-mail program in one window, and search for the necessary data on the Internet in another window. Windows can be closed, resized, minimized as toolbar buttons, or maximized to the entire screen. Window title (Window title) is a slanted bar along its upper edge with the name of the window. Most windows have a program icon in the title area, as well as maximize, minimize, and close window buttons. See also maximize, minimize. Read-Only Memory (ROM) A memory with program instructions and data installed on a computer during manufacturing. The instructions in the manual can only be read and not changed. Hard Disk A device for recording and storing data. A hard drive is usually located inside the computer. Serial port (Serial port) This connector is usually located on the back panel of the computer and is used to connect a printer. Dialog window (Dialog window, Dialog box) A special window displayed by the program, with buttons and other elements for performing certain commands or tasks. Mouse (Mouse) The usual pointing device. The basic components of a mouse are a flat base (held with one hand), one or more buttons on top, a tracking device that moves in many directions (usually a small ball), and a connecting cable for connecting to a computer. By moving the mouse, the user controls the slider on the screen of the monitor. Click on one of the mouse buttons to select an object or command on the screen. Mouse cursor An element that changes its position on the screen as the user moves the mouse. Depending on the location of the mouse arrow, as well as the capabilities of the active program, pressing one of the mouse buttons causes a certain action to be performed in the area where the arrow is located. Mouse pad (Mouse pad) A pad that is placed under the mouse, usually it is a four-cornered rubber covered with fabric (provides a better grip of the mouse pad than a wooden or glass surface of the table). Primary mouse button A button often used to highlight or open objects with a single or double click. Usually, the main button on most mice is the left button (on some trackballs - the bottom button). You can change the functionality of the buttons by setting the appropriate check box sources in the Mouse folder of Control Panel. up ↑ ## Н Sleep mode (Sleep mode) In this state, the computer stops working after all the contents of the memory on the resident disk are saved. When you wake the computer from sleep mode, all open programs and documents are restored to the desktop. See also the term waiting pattern. ## Ф File A file is a storage unit that allows a computer to distinguish one set of data from another. Like a paper document containing text and images, a file is a collection of data that can be retrieved, modified, deleted, stored, or sent to an output device such as a printer or email program. A file can contain a program, data used by the program, or a document created by the user. File name extension File names in Windows always end with a three-letter extension. The extension follows the dot in the file name and indicates the type of data stored in the file. For example, the txt extension in a file named Example.txt indicates that the file is a text file. You don't need to add the extension when you save the file — the program does it automatically. File type Definition of file characteristics. The file type determines the program used to open this file (eg Word). File types are associated with file name extensions. For example, files with txt or log extensions are of type "Text Document" and can be opened in any text editor, such as Notepad or WordPad (you can open these programs from the "Format" folder of the "Start" menu). Fragmentation (Fragmentation) Splitting a file into several parts that are stored at different locations on the hard drive. Fragmentation occurs when files on a disk are deleted and new files are created. As a result, the speed of disk access slows down, and as a result, the overall speed of performing disk operations decreases. To solve this problem, the "Disk Defragmentation" program was developed (it is located in the "System Tools" folder in the "Format" folder of the "Start" menu). up ↑ ## Х Notification area (Tray) The area in the taskbar located to the right of the taskbar buttons. Here you can see icons that provide quick access to some programs, such as the current time, volume changer, and power settings programs. Some icons may appear temporarily to show the status of tasks. For example, after sending a document to print, a printer icon appears in the notification area and disappears after printing is complete. up ↑ ## Ш Wizard (Wizard) Guides the user during a certain task by asking questions or offering options to choose from program. For example, a wizard can help a user start working with a text document, install software, or create a database. Browser Software that formats and displays HTML files as web pages. Some browsers also allow you to send and receive e-mail, read newsgroup messages, and play audio and video recordings embedded in Web documents. Internet Explorer is a web browser. See also the term web. up ↑ ## A—Z MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) An operating system for use on personal computers and compatible devices. It converts the commands that the user types on the keyboard into actions that the computer executes. Interaction with the MS-DOS system is carried out in the command line window, and access to its programs can be implemented using desktop aliases. See also command line window, MS-DOS program terms. MS-DOS Program (MS-DOS Program) is a program designed to be implemented under the control of the MS-DOS system. Such programs may not be able to use all the features of Windows. See also MS-DOS program, program information file (PIF). URL-address (Uniform Resource Locator, URL) An address that uniquely identifies a resource source on the Internet. A URL for a website starts with the prefix http://, for example http://www.example.microsoft.com Archived 9 August 2003.. ## See more \< > * Short dictionary of computer terms * Wikipedia: MediaWiki glossary ## External links * Language portal Microsoft - Search terms

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5344

Түрксой

The International Organization for the Development of Turkish Culture and Art, abbreviated TURKSOY (trans. Ulusarassari Türk Kültürü Teşkilatı, -{TÜRKSOY}-) is an international organization for the development of Turkish culture and art. 1993 On July 12, representatives of the constituent countries signed the agreement in Almaty. The Republic of Turkey was appointed as the host country of the organization. The official language of TURKSOY organization is Turkish. The head office is located in Ankara (Turkey). 1994 Polad Bulbul Oghly, the Minister of Culture of the Republic of Azerbaijan, was elected as the General Director of the international organization three times (1994, 1997, 2000). ## Goals The main goals of the organization: * To support new cultural organizations at the territorial and worldwide level with the aim of creating a new balance in international relations. * Establishing friendly relations between peoples and countries that speak the Turkic language, studying the common Turkic culture, language, history, art, customs, publicizing, developing, preserving, inheriting and telling the story of the common Turkic culture. * Creating an appropriate environment and conditions for the use of a common language and alphabet in the Turkic world. * To strengthen the scientific research of the common past, history, language and literature, culture and art of the peoples of the Turkic world. * Creating conditions for the inheritance of the nation's history, mother tongue, literature, culture and art, customs and traditions to future generations. ## Members TURKSOY includes 14 countries, including sovereign countries, federal subjects and autonomous regions. At the end of 2015, the Minister of Culture of Russia, Vladimir Medinsky, sent a telegram to the heads of the Republics of Altai, Bashkortostan, Sakha (Yakutia), Tatarstan, Tyva and Khakassia, on the obligation to stop relations with the International Organization of Turkish Culture. This led to the withdrawal of Tyva, Altai and Yakutia from the organization. ## See also * List of Turkic-speaking territories ## External links * TURKSOY official site Archived 23 August 2009.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7629

Сұлтан

Sultan (Arabic: سلطان‎ - "power", "power") is the title of an independent aristocratic ruler. In the Qur'an, the word Sultan is used in its original sense of "power", "power" and in other hadiths and literature in the sense of "political authority", including the authority of the caliph. At the same time, in the 10th century, rulers began to be called "Sultan" meaning "His Highness". It was only under the Saljuqs that Sultan became the highest title compared to Malik or Amir. In this regard, it can be compared with the title of Shahin Shah of Iran. Jurists of the first half of the 2nd century understood the Sultan as a state authority. About half a century later, al-Ghazali assumed that he was an aristocratic leader in the opposite direction to the religious leader, the imam (caliph). This sometimes led to decisions about the need for a complete separation between the aristocracy and the religious authorities. Although it was believed that the high title of Sultan could only be given by the caliph, it was also held by lower-ranking rulers. Also, the great Sufi sheikhs were called Sultans. Since the 16th century, when the Ottomans united the entire western part of the Muslim world under their rule, the title of Sultan was the first to be mentioned for a significant part of Europe and Asia and Africa. The Sultan, as the leader of the community, is the executive figure for the Sunnis as well as the political authority and religious leadership. Kazakhs called sultans, i.e. children, brothers, etc. of the khan. Descendants of Genghis Khan. The last person to accept the title of Sultan in Iran was Qajar Ahmed I (1909). ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2293

Естай

Estay Berkimbayuly (1874, Akkol village, Ekibastuz district, Pavlodar region - March 15, 1946) is an outstanding Kazakh singer, poet-musician, Honored Artist of the Kazakh SSR (1939). ## Biography * He was born in a poor family. Estay grew up in a singing-poetry environment, her mother Kulipa and her brother Baitolym were well-known singers. Yestai learned from them how to perform songs, sagas and dances. At the age of 16, he was a talented performer of folk songs, a person who continues the tradition of folk music. * At the age of 20, he became a well-known singer in the Irtys region. Thanks to this art, he visits many places (Karaotkel, Semey, Kereku, Zaisan, Tarbagatai, Zhetysu). Sulu goes to Kokshe and Bayan. During this trip, he met Birzhan and learned from his art. Having been influenced by the art and morals of singers-musicians Birzhan, Akan Seri and Zharylgapberdi, Estay developed not only their singing and performing art, but also their musical art: many songs ("Bir myskal", "Maida konur", "Ashu - knives" , "Block of black wood") was released. The song "Korlan" that made Estay's singing-poetry and musical talent famous throughout the Kazakh Sahara. With this work, he took a place among the classical musicians. "Korlan" is the peak, the heart of Estay's works (A. Zhubanov, Zamana bulbuldary, A., 1963, p. 248). The song "Korlan" by M. Tolebayev in the opera "Birzhan-Sara", E. G. Brusilovsky in the opera "Er Targyn", S. I. Shabelsky and L. M. Shargorodsky used it creatively in "Concerto for Kobyz and Orchestra" (part 2). He released songs about new life called "Day of my birth", "Omir". He came to Almaty in 1939 and recorded many of his songs. * He participated in singing and poetry contests and met Zhambyl several times. * In the same year, he participated in the 2nd session of the Writers' Union of Kazakhstan. * In the years of the Great Patriotic War, he encouraged the people to victory with his beautiful songs and passionate songs in the cultural-propaganda brigade. * In 1945, he participated in the celebration of the 100th anniversary of Abai's birth. Here Nartai, Nurlybek etc. argued with poets. For him M. Alimbaev wrote the poem "Estay-Korlan" (1968). ## Awards * In September 1939, he was awarded the honorary title "Honored Artist of Kazakhstan". * In 1940, he was accepted as a member of the Union of Composers of Kazakhstan. ## Works * "Maida brown" * "In the heart" * "Princess" * "Life" * "Brown wind" \ <> * "Duniye" * "Shokkara tree" * "Husni-Khorlan" - Song and lyrics Estayiki, performed by R. Abdullin ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5224

Grandpa Beket

Beket Myrzagyluly (Grandfather Beket) (1750, Kulsary — 1813, Ogylandy) is a famous Kazakh hero, educator, and architect. The people held a saint. He was buried in the Ogylandy Mosque, which he built. Originated from the Adai clan of the union of Bayuly clans descended from the Alshin tribe.. ## Biography The 18th largest Kazakh clan descended from the Adai clan of Alshin from the Koskulak section of the Zhauly region. received religious education. Beket was eager to learn from a young age and was distinguished by his intelligence. He was very brave when he started to know right and left. Even then, he got involved early in matters related to the country's concern and the destiny of the people, and he caught the attention of the people with his intelligence and bravery. In particular, he built madrasahs and mosques, and paid special attention to instilling faith, individuality, and unity in the people. At the age of 40, he acquired the status of a Sufi, taught children literacy, and began building underground structures. The mosques built by grandfather Beket have been well preserved to this day. In particular, the Ogylany mosque, carved into three rooms, in the Mangistau valley of Ustirt, where his bones were buried, is still standing. The body of Beket's grandson Muryn is also here. ## Activity During his lifetime, he had four special qualities that characterized his ability, activity and personality: * The first one was the fight against enemies for the independence of the people. an active hero. * The second is an educator who walked the difficult path of science and filled children with knowledge. * The third is an architect who built buildings for mosques and madrasahs in many settlements according to the ancient tradition. * The fourth is a soothsayer who has a special talent for healing the sick and the sick, and is able to predict important events. These qualities of Grandfather Beket became so legendary in the country during his lifetime that the word "Muhammed in Medina, Khoja Ahmet in Turkestan, Pir Beket in Mangistau" appeared at that time. That is why he had a high status in the eyes of the country, he was respected and respected as a fortuneteller. The people passed down their love and respect for such a noble citizen from generation to generation through legend. Of course, the legend cannot be considered as truth, however, the stories written in connection with the name of Grandfather Beket are taken from his life. Beket became a hero because of his heroism in fighting against a strong enemy. In the battles, Becket was loved by his love for peace, which arose from his loyal qualities such as kindness and justice. Grandfather Beket considered it God's command to help people, educate them, and do good. Grandfather Beket was buried in his own mosque in Mangistau, Ogyland. Many consider Ata Beket a saint and spend the night in his grave. Topographers E. Eversman, A. Dugamel, who studied the Plateau in the 19th century, wrote down the data collected by scientists based on those legends. During the council M. Mendikulov, A. Kekilbaev, E. Umirbaev, K. Sydiykov et al. b. written by researchers. ## Mosque Beket-Ata underground mosque is located in Ustirt in Ogylandy man. The mosque is located in the middle of a large rock facing down a deep well filled with bushes. There is a small square at the entrance of the underground mosque. In the first room, light pours in from a looped hole in the vaulted ceiling. From this room leads to the prayer hall with a mihrab on the south-east wall, as well as to two south-east rooms where Beket-Ata is buried in one of them. The mosque is one of the famous places of pilgrimage in Kazakhstan. Beket-ata springs and wells are near the mosque. - said. ## Family Grandfather Beket has four brothers: Beket, Aldabergen, Aldongar, Mendikul. He had five children: Baiteli, Zhailau, Togai, Bainiyaz, Kodar., ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3603

Этнос

Ethnos, ethnic community [Greek, ethnos - tribe, people] - a community with common features that allow us to distinguish one people from another. The concept of "ethnos" is still not defined uniformly. In a broad sense, the concept of "ethnos" is interpreted by most researchers as a set of ethnic systems of all levels (tribe, people, nation, etc.). However, some (after L. N. Gumilev) consider it as the main system (along with sub-ethnos, super-ethnos, etc.). M. was one of the first to define the concept of "ethnos" in a narrow sense. Weber: "Ethnos is a group whose members believe that they are of the same origin based on similarities in appearance, customs, or a fateful history of common colonization or migration." Even today, many researchers tried to give their own definition to ethnos based on the commonality of territory, language, and religion. However, L. N. According to Gumilev, none of the above-mentioned signs are universal, applicable to any ethnic group, and a number of researchers agreed with this. First of all, ethnos is a cultural community. The commonality of territory and the language of social communication is a decisive factor in the emergence of ethnos. Undoubtedly, the commonality of the political space and commonality of social and economic methods of the people also play an important role. The main mechanism of ethnic organization is culture, which remains as a legacy in the form of customs and traditions. An ethnos in the sense of an ethnic community can be defined as a group of people with a common name, elements of common culture, a shared history, and group cooperation in a special geographical environment. ## Ethnic group Ethnic group - in a broad sense, a group of people based on a specific ethnicity, that is, a social and cultural identity that each individual possesses by birth. The concept of "ethnic group" was introduced in the 1950s and 1960s. appeared. It replaced the concept of "tribe". Currently, the concept of "ethnic group" has two main meanings in social sciences. * The first is to attribute to an ethnic group the group of people that make up this ethnic group. * The second is to oppose ethnic group and nation. In the latter, the difference between a nation and an ethnic group is linked to several factors: First, nationalism is based on the political program of a nation that aspires to national independence or nation statehood. And the ethnic group does not have such a program; secondly, nationalism allows the nation to form its interests at the national level. Common ethnic features give the ethnic group social and cultural cohesion, but cannot prevent them from expressing their own interests, which sometimes conflict with the interests of other groups or their own ethnic group; creation of national ethnicity is controlled by the nationalism of this nation, the institutions of the nation-state; Fifth, the ethnicity of the nation can be determined both by ethnic components and by citizenship. * First, it has nationalism based on the political program of a nation that aspires to national independence or national statehood. And the ethnic group does not have such a program; Secondly, nationalism allows the nation to shape its interests at the national level. Common ethnic characteristics give the ethnic group social and cultural cohesion, but cannot prevent them from expressing their interests, which sometimes conflict with the interests of other groups or their own ethnic group; * Thirdly, in the case of a nation, the ethnic border of the ethnic group is determined by the political border, and finally the geographical border of the national state; * Fourth, the creation of national ethnicity is controlled by the nationalism of this nation, the institutions of the nation state; * Fifth, the ethnicity of a nation can be determined both by ethnic components and by citizenship. ### Ethnonym Ethnonym is the name of some ethnic group. ## Ethnopsychology Ethnopsychology - [Greek, ethnos - tribe, tribe, people] - a component of social and political psychology; an interdisciplinary direction that studies ethnic features of people's psyche, national behavior, activities and laws of national consciousness, ethnic stereotypes. M. Langerus and H. Shteintal (1860), who considered "national spirit" to be the main thing in national psychology, originates from the "psychology of nations" school. XX century at the beginning, these ideas were continued by V. Wundt in the "psychology of peoples". Modern ethnopsychology is not unified both in terms of the topic and in terms of methods. Several directions can be identified there: * a) psychophysiology related to general and social psychology, cognitive processes, memory, mood, comparative study of ethnic features of speech; * b) cultural study of the value orientations of symbolic elements and folk culture related to the departments of ethnography, folkloristics, art studies; * b) study of ethnic consciousness using methods and explanations obtained from social and political psychology that study intergroup relations, preferences, stereotypes; * c) study of ethnic features of socialization. Because the meaning of national culture and the characteristics of individuals that make up the ethnic group are not the same, there will always be a gap between cultural studies and psychological research. Political psychology as a unitary form of ethnopsychology study is the psychological state of the nation consisting of two main levels. The main level is national behavior, which forms national consciousness and its manifestation in political activity. ## Ethnic adaptation Ethnic adaptation - adaptation of ethnic groups (community) to everyday life and environmental conditions; adaptation of individual small groups to the conditions of their natural environment in ancient times. For example, during the preparation of clothes, the local climate and available material resources were taken into account (leaves, plant fibers, animal or fur skins, etc.), house (cave or earthen roof, made of wood, clay, fired clay or stone; labor tool (stone, bone, fired pottery, etc.); language and oral literature (for example, there was no such concept in the language of the land where there was no sea); depicted the behavior of local animals and birds, the ways of hunting them). In the process of migration, the first ethnic signs are adapted to the new environment and renewed, the old ones are forgotten and gradually disappear from consciousness. Although many traditions have disappeared due to the development of society, they are often preserved in legends, holidays, in the memory of the people, even in customary law and everyday prison. Also, especially during demographic and environmental crises, ethnic groups adapt to "foreign" traditions. ## Ethnic identity Ethnic identity is the basis of self-consciousness of the ethnic group and its representative. Ethnos is a people who feel their uniqueness. The basis of ethnic identity includes the following symbols: "earth crust" (natural environment, homeland, Mother Earth); "blood" (anthropological signs: race, eyes, facial features, etc.); language (as a means of thinking alike, having a uniform understanding of world values, and expressing opinions); religion (cultural-psychological stereotypes and similarity of behavior, customs); artistic culture (art, festivals); lifestyle (national food, clothing, lifestyle features); mythology (a system of beliefs and expectations that form the basis of individuality). ## Being in an ethnic group Being in an ethnic group is a cultural difference that is inherited from father to child, shared by members of a certain group (customs, traditions, behavior ). Ethnic characteristics, mixed with religious or clan characteristics, are often the cause of political conflicts. ## Politicization of ethnicity Politicization of ethnicity - increasing the role and meaning of ethnicity in the life of society, emphasizing and concentrating all aspects of political life around ethnicity; giving too much political importance to ethnic issues; involving ethnic groups in politics by expanding the possibility of participation in decision-making of political issues. ## Ethnic assimilation Ethnic assimilation (ethnic assimilation) - representatives of one ethnic group absorb the language, culture, customs, and traditions of other ethnic groups living in the same environment, and as a result, they become their own. loss of native culture, language, customs, and traditions, and a change in the consciousness of ethnic belonging. The internationalization of the peoples of the nation, region, and state plays a crucial role in the strengthening and acceleration of ethnic assimilation. This process is more intensive in ethnic groups that are often fragmented. As a result, the ethnic group complements the composition of other ethnic groups and "absorbs" into them. Another channel of increasing ethnic assimilation is the increase of inter-ethnic marriages. ## Ethnic "cleansing" Ethnic "cleansing" - 1992 concept that came into use in the context of the war in the former Yugoslavia, especially in Bosnia. So far, it has been used in the Serbian and Croatian press in messages about the purpose of this war. The warring parties tried to "cleanse" the territory of the declared ethno-national state from people who do not belong to the ethnic nation of the state. The word "ethnicity" was used in 1940-50. from scientific works to everyday life. However, the concept of "cleansing" was used in the past in the sense of ethnic cleansing as we understand it today. This concept was first used in Poznań in 1918. from the name of the created Polish organization - "Organization for the Purge of Jews and Germans in Poznań". This organization aimed to remove these groups from the city and its surroundings. During the Third Reich, the areas where Jews were exterminated were called "Judenrein" (cleansed of Jews). Ethnic cleansing dates back to ancient times. For example: b.d.d. VI century the Jews were exiled from Palestine to Babylon; b.d. IV-X centuries. Germanic, Slavic, Turkic, and Finno-Ugric ethnic groups constantly jostled between Central Asia, Western Europe, and North Africa; VIII century The Byzantine army drove the members of the Paulician religious sect from Armenia to the Balkans; XII century Frequent expulsions of Jews from Western and Central Europe took place; 1609-1614 the Moriscos (Muslims who converted to Catholicism) were expelled from Spain; after the thirty-year war, in the 17th century in the middle, Protestants were often expelled from Catholic areas, and Catholics from Protestant areas; 18th century in the middle, the French-speaking inhabitants of Acadia (an English colony in Canada) were expelled from the area; From the 1820s to the 1880s, Native American Indians were forced into reservations in the West in the eastern United States; 19th century in the middle, British settlers wiped out the entire indigenous population of Tasmania; 1907 The German army exterminated the Herero ethnic group in Southeast Africa. Although all of these examples cited different ethnic or religious groups, they were all the product of imperial policies (empires were mostly monoethnic), or were carried out in territories controlled by a single state, or arose out of a desire for religious uniformity (religions were usually bordered by ethnos). does not match). Thus, it would be misleading to equate these examples with ethnic cleansing done to create a homogenous ethno-national state. Only such a state will need to purge all people and groups that cannot be assimilated into the state-forming nation. According to the logic of ethnic nationalism, an ethnic nation trying to create its own ethno-national state carries out ethnic cleansing in order to "purify" its state from "others". ## Ethnocracy Ethnocracy - [Greek, ethnos - clan, tribe, people, kratos - power] - a state in which a multi-ethnic state is the indigenous population of one ethnic group, usually a country authority of the founding titular nation. ## Ethnophobia Ethnophobia is intolerance towards others, not "ourselves", characterized by direct hostility. Especially, it is often reflected in inter-ethnic armed conflicts. ## Ethno-restrictiveness Ethno-restrictiveness is a reluctance to make connections outside of one's ethnic group. This usually manifests itself in trying to create a mono-ethnic family, seeing it as correct to work in mono-ethnic groups, putting the reins of power in the hands of representatives of one's own nation at all levels of leadership positions and monopolizing them. those who have autonomy suffer from this "disease" that leads to the violation of inter-ethnic harmony. ## Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism - [Greek, ethnos - tribe, people, centrum - concentration, center] - tendency of a person to measure and evaluate all phenomena in life by the values of his ethnic group; preferring one's way of life and imposing it on others. Conceptualized in 1883. Introduced by L. Gumplovich in 1906. U.G. Sumner developed. According to him, there is a gap between intra-ethnic relations and inter-ethnic relations. If camaraderie and cooperation prevail within the group, suspicion, suspicion, doubt and hostility prevail between the groups. Ethnocentrism, on the one hand, creates and shows the unity of the ethnic group. At the primitive level, other ethnic groups are coldly treated. Ethnocentrism as an ideology is a product of the development of the theoretical level of national-ethnic consciousness. ## Ethnocide Ethnocide - [Greek, ethnos - tribe, people and Lat. caedo - to kill] - the difference from genocide, where people exterminate themselves, is to destroy the culture of the people. ## Ethnoegoism Ethnoegoism is an attempt to bring advantages to one's own ethnic group at the expense of other ethnic groups. In the 90s of the 20th century, this phenomenon was observed in most of the post-Soviet republics. In the distribution and appropriation of natural resources, preference was given to their own nationalities and the exclusion of representatives of other ethnic groups took place. ## Ethnic culture Ethnic culture is a set of cultural elements and structures. There ethnic. specificity is preserved and it is ethnodifferent. serves. Ethnic culture is characteristic of a certain tribe, nation, people. Through it, other peoples recognize the unity, uniqueness and individuality of the ethnos. Ethnic culture can be attributed to the set of all material and spiritual cultures left by representatives of a certain ethnic group. The natural environment, language, religion, and ethnonym have their own influence on the formation of this culture. Through its culture, each ethnic community makes its own contribution to world civilization.D. Baighonakov ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6457

Web

The Internet (English: World Wide Web, WWW) is a global network that connects information and documents on a computer, hypertext systems with a multimedia element. Gets the newest and most popular Internet service. WWW is based on the principle of hypertext and is capable of providing information using multimedia resources (video, audiographics, etc.) as much as possible. Requires SLIP, PPP or direct connection to the Internet, as well as a special program with Internet navigators (Mosaic or Netsape type). Users who do not have a dedicated location to the Internet, but are directly connected to the Internet, can work with the text-based Lynx navigator. WWW is a system that combines information retrieval with hypertext capabilities. In this system, each document has many connections (such as a cross-reference system) with other documents, thanks to the ability to deepen and expand its search in the information space to infinity. The system is especially convenient to work with a constantly updated file and to communicate between documents regardless of their storage location. ## See more * Internet ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4590

Ахметов

Akhmetov is a Kazakh, Bashkir, Uighur and Tatar family name. Owners of the famous family: * Akylbek Kabiuli Akhmetov - physicist-scientist, doctor of physics (1997). * Arystan Akhmetov is a hero of the Great Patriotic War. * Abdikarim Akhmetov is a poet. * Abdirashit Rakhimuly Akhmetov is a scientist, doctor of historical sciences (1970), professor. * Akhmetov Adil Kurmanjanuly — doctor of philology (1995), professor (1997). * Akhmetov Bakhyt Beshimbekuly — weightlifter of Kazakhstan. * Akhmetov Baktygali - local leader, honored doctor of Kazakhstan (1989). * Akhmetov Batyrbek Mykansalykuly is the head of the Department of Land Relations of the Kostanay region akimat. * Danial Kenzhetayuly Akhmetov — Minister of Defense of the Republic of Kazakhstan, political figure, doctor of economics (2003). * Yerzhan Akhmetov is a poet, songwriter. * Akhmetov Zhasulan Ramazanuly — since January 2008 — head of the Customs Control Department of Kostanay region. * Akhmetov Zayirbek is a deputy of the Supreme Council of the Uzbek SSR. * Zaki Akhmetov is a doctor of philological sciences, professor. * Akhmetov Imanali — doctor of technical sciences, professor * Akhmetov Ilyas — journalist, researcher. * Akhmetov Kairat Zhumashuli is the akim of Karasu district of Kostanay region. * Akhmetov Kadyr Abiljanuly — doctor of historical sciences (2003), professor (2006), corresponding member of the Kazakh Academy of Education (2005). * Akhmetov Kadyrgali Zhalelovich — doctor of medical sciences. * Akhmetov Kanat Mugynovich — conductor * Akhmetov Kasym Magrupbekovich — film and television director. * Akhmetov Kuanysh is a writer. * Akhmetov Krym Kamigaliuly — doctor of medical sciences, professor. * Akhmetov Nurlan Karkenuly — chemist, doctor of pedagogic sciences, professor. * Akhmetov Sabyrzhan Akhmetovy — akim of Amangeldi district of Kostanay region. * Akhmetov Sayranbek Maksatovich — Doctor of Technical Sciences (1998). * Akhmetov Sapar Kairatuly is the akim of "Almaty" district of Astana city. * Akhmetov Satybaldi Ybyrayuly is a labor veteran. * Akhmetov Seisenbek - writer, translator. * Serik Nygmetovich Akhmetov — VIII Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2012), Akim of Karaganda region (2009-2012). * Akhmetov Temirbek is a drummer, a musician. * Akhmetov Temirbolat is a writer, a member of the Writers' Union of Kazakhstan (2001). * Akhmetov Shegen is a literary researcher, writer. * Akhmetov Shermukhambet is a labor veteran.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6098

Гонконг

The city of Hong Kong was a colony of the British Empire for about 1.5 centuries until July 1, 1997, and since then it is one of the two special administrative regions of China. The sixteenth richest city in the world. Hong Kong is the most densely populated city in the world, with a city area of 1,104 km² and a population of seven million. In the densest area, there are 95,000 people per 1 km². The number of buildings in Hong Kong with a height of 12 stories or 35 meters is 7,685 (First in the world) One of the world's leading international financial centers, Hong Kong's economy is characterized by free trade and low taxes. The currency is the Hong Kong dollar, the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010. The highly developed capitalist economy has been named the freest economy in the world for 15 years in a row according to the Index of Economic Freedom, and in 1960-1990. Due to its rapid development, it was named one of the Four Asian Tigers. ## History * In 1860, defeated in the Second Opium War, China (Qing Empire) was forced to cede the Boundary Strait and Kamnerezou Islands in the south of Jiulong Peninsula to Great Britain according to the Peking Peace Treaty. These territories became the permanent possession of Great Britain. In 1898, Great Britain leased the adjacent territory north of the Kowloon Peninsula and Lantau Island (which became the New Territories) from China for 99 years. * The exact date for the return of Hong Kong to the PRC was confirmed by the joint Sino-British Declaration on the Return of Hong Kong ("Battle of Words") signed in Beijing on December 19, 1984. * In 1997, Hong Kong was officially returned to the People's Republic of China. ## Population In the 1990s, the population of Hong Kong began to grow rapidly. According to the 2016 census, it reached 7,167,403 people (July 2016). About 95% of Hong Kong's population is ethnic Chinese (Han), most of whom are Cantonese and Hakka and Chaozhou as ethnic Chinese groups. The Cantonese dialect, widely spoken in neighboring Guangdong province, is Hong Kong's main means of communication. The official languages of the territory are Chinese (the specific dialect is not specified) and English. Non-Chinese ethnic groups make up the remaining 5% of the population. The South Asian part of Hong Kong consists of Indians, Pakistanis and Nepalese. Vietnamese refugees who fled the war became permanent residents of Hong Kong. Approximately 140,000 Filipinos work as domestic workers. Europeans, Americans, Australians, Canadians, Japanese and South Koreans are working in trade and finance. Hong Kong is among the countries (dependent regions) with the densest population (6,700 people per 1 square kilometer). On the border of Hong Kong is the most densely populated island in the world, Apleichau Island. According to the indicators of 2012, 19.6% of the city is under the poverty line. Special discounts are provided for them. Today, despite the lack of concrete programs to eradicate poverty, in 2011 the Hong Kong government approved a minimum hourly wage ($2.6). The next social problem is the lack of residential apartments in the city (the area of a standard apartment for 5 people is 25-28 square meters). Half of the residents are residents of social apartments. According to 2014 data, 500 thousand people are forced to live in "box" apartments with an area of 1-2 square meters. ## Economy The currency of Hong Kong is the Hong Kong dollar. The Hong Kong dollar has been pegged to the US dollar since 1983. 1 USD is equivalent to 7.75-7.85 Hong Kong dollars. The stock exchange of Hong Kong is the 7th stock exchange in the world by the size of the capital (1.89 trillion US dollars according to data of 2007). ## Public transport The main types of public transport in Hong Kong: * subway included in the rail transport system (MTR), electric train used around and within the city (old Kowloon - Canton Railway); * bus connection; * ferry relation; * double-decker Hong Kong tram and funicular connecting the city center and Victoria Peak; * An escalator lift connecting the Central and Western and Mid-Levels districts with each other (a chain connection of several escalators and travolators). ## Education system Hong Kong, which was a British colony, retained the British education system. American and British systems are used side by side in higher education. The University of Hong Kong, which is a tertiary education center, was formed on the basis of the British system (in recent years, features of the American model have been observed). The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology is a higher education institution based on the American model. There are 9 public universities in the Hong Kong administrative region. According to historical data, the first educational center was opened in the vicinity of New Territories in 1075 (Li Yin College). In 1860, there were about 20 village schools in Hong Kong. ## Relations with Kazakhstan According to the document signed by the representative office of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Kazakhstan and the Secretary of Security of Hong Kong dated May 9, 2012, since July 26, 2012, Kazakh citizens are in Hong Kong, and vice versa. Citizens of Hong Kong can visit Kazakhstan without a visa for up to 14 days. This document will come into effect upon completion of the necessary internal procedures on both sides. In addition, at the beginning of 2012, the two sides signed a contract on opening a direct airline. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5397

Ирак

Iraq (Arabic: العراق‎, Kurdish عێراق), official name - Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق‎, Kurdish كۆماری عێراق) is a country located in Southwest Asia, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The land area is 444 thousand km². The population is 41,605 million. human (2017). 75% of the population are Arabs, 20% are Kurds, the rest are Turkmen, Assyrians, Persians, Armenians, etc. The urban population is 68.1% (1997). The official language is Arabic. 62% of the population follow the Shiite sect of Islam, and 34% follow the Sunni sect. The capital is Baghdad. (more than 3 million). 1970 According to the adopted constitution, the Chairman of the Revolutionary Council simultaneously serves as the President of the country and the Supreme Commander-in-Chief. The legislative body is the unicameral National Council, consisting of 250 deputies. The country's national holiday is July 17, National Republic Day and Independence Day (1958). Iraq consists of 18 provinces (provinces). The currency is the Iraqi dinar. ## Geography Iraq is located in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the plain of Kozozhen (Mesopotamia). It borders with Kuwait in the southeast, Saudi Arabia in the south, Jordan and Syria in the west, and Turkey in the north. In the southeast, it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf. The area is 437,072 km². The total length of the borders is 3,631 km: with Iran — 1,458 km, with Jordan — 181 km, with Kuwait — 242 km, with Saudi Arabia — 814 km, with Syria — 605 km, with Turkey — 331 km. Coastline: 58 km. The highest point is Mount Haji Ibrahim (Haji Ibrahim) at 3,600 m. Climate is continental, summer is dry and hot, winter is rainy and cold. The climate is subtropical in the north and tropical in the south. The temperature in January is 7-12ºС (there is snow in the mountains), in July it is 34ºС everywhere (sometimes it reaches 48ºС). The amount of annual precipitation is 50-150 mm in plains and 1500 mm in mountainous areas. ### Administrative division Iraq is divided into 18 provinces (provinces). ### Cities ## Nature The main rivers are Tigris and Euphrates (together they are called Shatt al-Arab). Most of the land is sedimentary and meadow soil, the west side is yellow soil. The main part of the territory of the country is a steppe, the south-west is a desert and a desert, the slopes of the mountains and the banks of the rivers are sparsely forested. Gazelle, wild donkey, wolf, leopard, etc. animals and cuckoos, cranes, flamingos, etc. birds live. Minerals: oil and gas, phosphorite, sulfur. * * * * * * * ## History Current territory of Iraq — one of the centers of ancient culture. Here in BC In the 4th millennium, the Sumerian-Akkadian culture appeared, and the city-states (Ur, Uruk, Ashur, Lagash, Umma, etc.) flourished. BC At the beginning of the 2nd millennium. The Babylonian state was established in Mesopotamia, and the Assyrian state was established in Northern Mesopotamia. BC From the middle of the 1st millennium, this territory was subject to the Persian kings, and then for a long time it was contested between the Iranian, Parthian, and Roman empires, and then between Iran and Byzantium. 630 Arabs conquered Mesopotamia. So, he died in 661. It became a region of the Arab caliphate. 762 The city of Baghdad was built. The land of Iraq was conquered by the Saljuks in the 11th century, by the Genghis Khan dynasty in the 13th century, and by Amir Temir at the end of the 14th century. After the collapse of the Amir Temir state, this territory was successively subordinated to Turkish rulers, and at the beginning of the 16th century, it came under the control of the Safavi dynasty of Persians. Soon, the struggle for Iraq began between Iran and the Ottoman Sultanate, and in the 17th century, the Turks completely conquered Mesopotamia. From the middle of the 17th century, English merchants began to come to the country. In the 18th century, the influence of England increased, and in 1779 East India Company agencies were opened in Baghdad and Basra. Since 1860, Iraq has been involved in world trade and exported barley, dates, and dates. 1869 After the opening of the Suez Canal, foreign capital flowed into the country, and its dependence on European countries increased. Now the struggle for Mesopotamia began between Great Britain and Germany. 1918 Britain invaded Iraq. The British are military administrators in the country. and uprisings started everywhere. The British army suppressed the rebellion, but was forced to give the country self-government, and in 1920. created a "national government". 1930 The Iraqi government made a treaty with Britain. According to the treaty, it became formally independent and became a member of the League of Nations, but it remained under the political, military, and economic control of the British government. With the beginning of World War 2, Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with Germany (September 5, 1939), but in 1941 right-wing groups with the support of Germany. made a revolution. However, the revolution was soon crushed by British troops. After World War 2, popular unrest increased again. The influence of the British in the country decreased, and instead the influence of the USA increased. 1954 I. government with the United States on military aid, 1955. On February 24, a treaty was signed with Turkey. Thus, the foundation of the Baghdad Pact was laid. Popular uprisings intensified. As a result, in 1958 On July 14, the monarchy fell and the republic was declared, 1958. On March 24, the country announced its withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact and destroyed foreign military bases on its territory, agr. reform has begun. However, the people's life did not improve, and military operations were carried out against the rebel Kurdish forces in the country. 1968 On February 8, Meml. A revolution took place and the Arab Socialist Revival Party (BAAS) came to the head of the government. Former enterprises of foreign oil companies became public property, and in 1974 On March 11, autonomy was granted to Iranian Kurdistan. 1980 In September, war broke out between Iraq and Iran. 1988 From March 20, the military operations stopped, and in 1990. On August 15, the two sides reached an agreement, and between August 17 and 22, Iraq withdrew its troops from the territory of Iran. The two countries exchanged prisoners of war and restored diplomatic relations in October. On the night of August 1 (1990) I. troops invaded Kuwait. 1994 On November 10, I. his Kuwaiti independence and terr. declared that he fully recognizes the integrity. After that, the tension between Iraq and the USA became sharp. 1998 2 times (in February and November) the situation between the two countries led to the threat of war. In December of this year, USA and Great Britain bombed Iraq with missiles ("Desert Storm" operation). Military conflicts and economy. It is a very difficult society to surround the country.-Econ. led to the situation. The living conditions of the people have sharply decreased, the lack of food, money, medicine has increased. ### Iraq War * March 20 - May 1, 2003 - without a UN Security Council mandate to overthrow Saddam Hussein and destroy weapons of mass destruction that never existed afterwards The invasion of Iraq by the international coalition forces (the main participants are the USA and Great Britain) was opened. On May 1, George Bush said on board the aircraft "Abraham Lincoln": "The tyrant has fallen, Iraq is free!" - and announces that he has won the war. American Jay Garner, later Paul Bremer, became the head of the interim administration of Iraq. * 2003 - Shiite extremist groups and the Iraqi Communist Party went underground. The Baath party goes underground and organizes a guerrilla war. * On July 22, 2003, in a district on the outskirts of Mosul, the Americans first killed Saddam's two sons and his 14-year-old grandson during a shootout, and then bombed the house where they were hiding from the air. * Guerrilla war began in the summer of 2003 and reached its peak in the summer of 2007. * 2004 — Mahdi Army uprising. * On December 30, 2006, the former president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, was hanged. * By the end of 2008, attacks against international forces and Iraqi police had completely ceased. Terrorist attacks continued, resulting in civilian casualties. Some of the rebels legitimized themselves and were paid as members of the so-called "Sunni militia". Despite efforts to capture Iraqi Resistance commander Izzat Ibrahim al-Duri, he continued to remain underground. * Parliamentary elections were held on March 7, 2010, but as a result of the underground struggle surrounding the elections, the parliament was not convened and the government was not formed. Only on November 10 was it possible to reach a delicate agreement on the distribution of power in the country between parties and groups. * On December 15, 2011, a ceremony to end the US military mission in Iraq was held at Baghdad International Airport (English: United States Forces – Iraq). After the speech of the US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta, the bilingual flag of the US armed forces in Iraq was lowered, and the military campaign in Iraq, which lasted for almost 9 years, symbolically ended. ### Civil War As a result of the expansion of the terrorist organization "Islamic State", a civil war began in Iraq. On June 5, 2016, government forces liberated the majority of the country's territory. During the conflict, the armed forces of Iraqi Kurdistan freed ISIS from armed bandit structures and temporarily occupied several settlements in Sinjar, including the oil-rich Kerkut. On December 9, 2017, Iraq announced the end of the war with IS. ## Economy Iraq is a country with great economic potential. The country has very large reserves of oil (more than 65 billion tons), natural gas, and phosphate. Before the Iraq-Iran war, the country earned 21-26 billion annually from oil exports alone. He was making a profit in the amount of US dollars. That money was used to strengthen the country's defense capabilities, develop new industries and infrastructures. Oil production, oil refining, gas production, cement, electric power industry, engineering, etc. manufacturing industries are well developed. Agriculture accounts for 20% of national income. Grain (wheat, barley, rice) products, vegetable oils, vegetables, dates, etc. breeding is well established. Animal husbandry is well developed (there are more than 15 million sheep and goats, 2.5 million cattle). 1998 The Iraqi government suspended the UN special commission. Therefore, the economy of the country. The boycott continues to this day. 2001 — 2002 The US government has been announcing to the peoples of the world that Iraq supports terrorist conspiracies, belongs to the "nest of evil countries", therefore, after Afghanistan, it should be attacked and the head of the country, S. Hussein, should be killed. ## Literature Iraqi literature is developed in Arabic. Its heyday was the Middle Ages. At that time, the city of Baghdad was the center of culture, science and literature (city of Baghdad). However, the people could not recover from the frequent wars, and Iraqi literature declined. In the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the country's economy developed, and cultural life progressed due to the strengthening of the national liberation movement. At that time, Abu al-Muhsin al-Kazimi (1865 — 1935), Jamal Sidki al-Zahavi (1863 — 1936), Maaruf al-Rusafi (1875 — 1945), etc. poets-writers based their works on the theme of struggle for national freedom. Especially during the national liberation uprising (1920) Mahdi al-Basiri, Muhammad al-Bakir al-Hilli, Khairy al-Hindawi, Habib Adidi, etc. The works of poets touched this topic deeply. In the 50s of the 20th century, prose works were written in Iraqi literature under the influence of Russian and European literature, and the novel genre was formed. But schematism prevailed in most novels. After the 1958 revolution in the country, Iraqi literature began to develop in many ways. Among them, Muhammad Mahdi al-Jawahiri, Bahr al-Ulyum, etc., whose works are widely spread among the people. poets-writers can be named. ## Art from the territory of Iraq BC. Ancient monuments of culture and art dating back to the 4th millennium have been found. One of the centers of ancient civilization - many heritages of the Babylonian-Assyrian culture (Babylon, Ur, Nineveh, etc.), the Parthian kingdom (Hatra), the art of the Sassanid dynasty (Ctesiphon) were discovered. I. played a significant role in the formation of Arab culture. Kufa, Basra in the 7th century, Wasit in the 8th century, 762. The cities of Madinat al-Salam (now Baghdad) began to be built. During the heyday of the Abbasid caliphate, a complex complex of palaces, mosques with tall towers, and mausoleums were built in Samarra. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the complex of the Mustansiriya madrasa in Baghdad, the great mosque of Jami al-Kabir in Mosul, etc. was built. After the invasion of Genghis Khan's empire in the 13th and 15th centuries, construction stopped. Until the 20th century, the construction of residential buildings was carried out according to the traditional project. The national liberation movement of the 20th century and the uprising of 1958 created conditions for the development of a new type of architecture. Iraqi art during the Abbasid dynasty is known for its wall and wood carvings and reliefs. In the 12th and 13th centuries, book-making began to develop in Baghdad and Northern Iraq. In the Middle Ages, designing and embroidering household items became widespread. I-ta painting (Abd al-Kader Rassam, etc.) appeared in the 20th century. The Iraqi musical culture was based on the ancient Arab civilization, which became a branch of Arabic music, musical instruments: oud, rabab, gijak, kanun, nay, duff, etc. I's folk and professional music is characterized by various statuses. Ataba (complaint) song genre is the most common among folk songs. Music of Iraq. average life — Baghdad. Eastern music near Baghdad Radio. an orchestra, a choir and a group of singers work. 1971 National symphony. an orchestra was formed. Music specialists are educated at the Academy of Fine Arts (1940). At the end of the 20s of the 20th century, the first steps towards the creation of a professional theater were taken. 1929 high school students created a troupe of the Iraqi National Theater in Baghdad, organized an ensemble. 1935 Troupes created by students and employees started working in Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul. Asem Academy of Fine Arts in Baghdad trains professional actors. Artists perform at concerts organized by the academy and on radio and television. Performers of epic poems and poems, accompanied by folk instruments, perform with great success across the country. Iraqi cinema began to develop in the mid-1940s. During these years, "Children of the East", "Layli in Iraq", "Aliya and Issam", etc. films were shown. In the 50s of the 20th century, films were released to show the life of the poor. Cinema and theater have been operating in the country (since 1959). ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7304

Phobos (distinct)

The phrase Phobos can have the following meanings: * Phobos (satellite) is one of the two satellites of the Red Star. * Phobos-1 — 1988. One of the two space equipment sent by the Soviet Union to Kyzyzhuldyz. * Phobos-2 — 1988. One of the two space equipment sent by the Soviet Union to Kyzyzhuldyz.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4622

Kuandyk Turgankululy Turgankulov

Turgankulov, Kuandyk Turgankuluvy — Chairman of the Central Election Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan ## Short biography 1949 He was born on August 1 in Kokozek village of Zhambyl district of Almaty region. V.I. He graduated from the Kazakh Polytechnic Institute named after Lenin, his specialty is engineer-economist. 1971-79 — Normative engineer in the Bayankol geological exploration party, senior engineer-economist of the Central geological-thematic expedition, head of department, deputy head of the expedition; 1979-86 — Instructor of Kapchagai City Party Committee, Head of Department; 1986-90 — Secretary of the party committee of PGO "Yuzkazgeologiya"; 1990-1993. — Consultant, senior referent of the Department of Letters and Reception of Citizens in the Office of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Cabinet of Ministers, Chief Inspector of the Department of Organization-Inspector and Regional Development; 1993-1996. — Deputy head of the personnel policy department of the Office of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Administration. 1996 Deputy Chairman of the Central Election Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan since January. 2007 Chairman of the Central Election Commission of the Republic of Kazakhstan since January. ## Marital status Married, has two daughters. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6165

Сербия

Serbia (Serb. Ср̀бија), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serb. Republika Sr̀bija), is a country located on the Balkan Peninsula in Europe. Population-8, 698 million. man. According to the Constitution of Serbia, it includes two autonomous provinces, Vojvodina, as well as Kosovo and Metohija. Since 1999, Kosovo has been a UN protectorate under UN Security Council Resolution 1244 and is not under the control of Serbian authorities. On February 17, 2008, the Albanian-majority Interim Local Government Institutions unilaterally declared the independence of the province, which was recognized by 97 UN member states. Serbia borders Hungary to the north, Romania to the northeast, Bulgaria to the east, North Macedonia to the south, Albania and Montenegro to the southwest, and Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to the west. After the end of the First World War, Serbia became the founder of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which later became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, Serbia became part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1992, Serbia and Montenegro became co-founders of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which after the transition of power became the confederal state union of Serbia and Montenegro. In 2006, Montenegro held a referendum on secession from Serbia, and as a result, it left. Serbia was a fully independent state. ## Geography ### Location and borders 80% of Serbia's territory is in the Balkan Peninsula, 20% is in the Middle Danube Plain. The length of its borders is 2364.4 km: with Romania - 546.5 km, with Bulgaria - 367.1 km, with North Macedonia - 282.9 km, with Montenegro - 249.5 km, with Albania - 111 km, with Bosnia and Herzegovina - 370 km, with Croatia. - 261.7 km, in Hungary - 174.4 km. The total length of the borders is 2364 km, of which 751 km are along rivers, 43 km are along lakes. ### Topography Mountains cover two-thirds of the country's territory. In its southwestern part, there are folded ridges of medium height with hilly foothills of the eastern part of the Dinaric Mountains (Tara, Zlatibor, Chemerno, Golia). In the south, there are folded block massifs of the Serbian Highlands (Kopaonik, Jastrebak, Radan, Kukavica), as well as the Kosovo-pole and Metohija basins, whose southern border is the Shar-Planina ridge. The Yunichka-Planina ridge stretches along the border with Albania. In the east of the country are the East Serbian mountains (Kuchaj, Suva Planina, Krajšte), which are part of the Carpathian-Balkan mountain arc. Northern Serbia is located on the southern edge of the Middle Danube Plain, which consists of horizontal sandy-argillaceous Pliocene-Quaternary sediments covered with alluvium in the river valleys and loess in the watersheds. Here, the terrain is complicated by blocky hills (Frushka Gora, Vršacke mountains). The highest point in Serbia is Mount Djeravica (2656 m) in the Prokletje mountain range. 31 mountain peaks in our country are more than 2000 m above sea level. ### Minerals Serbia has significant reserves of minerals. Among them there are copper, lead, zinc ores. There are also deposits of molybdenum, gold, silver, iron ores, chromium, platinoids, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, antimony, selenium, lithium, boron, and bauxite. There are oil and gas deposits in the northern part of the country. There are several large lignite and lignite basins. There are also deposits of dolomite, magnesite, asbestos, graphite, rock salt, cement raw materials. ### Hydrology Serbian rivers belong to the basins of three seas - Black, Adriatic and Aegean. Most of Serbia belongs to the basin of the Danube River, which flows into the Black Sea, its length in Serbia is 588 km. In the plain, the Danube has a meandering channel with a width of 300 to 1200 m, a depth of 2 to 19 m, and a calm flow. Where the river crosses the Carpathian-Balkan mountain system, its channel narrows to 150 m, its depth increases to 82 m, the current speed reaches 5 m/s. In the floodplain above this area, the water level rises significantly and large spills occur. In addition to the Danube, navigable rivers include Sava (206 km), Tisza (168 km), Begei (75 km), semi-navigable Big Morava (185 km to 3 km) and Tamysh (101 km to 3 km). Other major rivers in Serbia include West Morava (308 km), South Morava (295 km), Ibar (272 km), Drina (220 km) and Timok (202 km). A part of southern Serbia belongs to the basin of White Drin and Radica rivers, which flow into the Adriatic Sea. Also, the Pcinja, Lepenac and Dragovishtica rivers located in the south of Serbia belong to the Aegean Sea basin. A number of artificial canals have also been built in Serbia, which are used for flood protection, irrigation, etc. Their total length is 939.2 km, 385.9 km of which is designed for sailing of ships up to 1000 tons. The largest canal system is the Danube-Tisa-Danube, which includes the Big Bach Canal and the Little Bach Canal. ## History ### Prehistory and Antiquity Archaeological evidence of Paleolithic settlements in modern Serbia is rare. A fragment of a human jaw was found in Sicevo (Mala Balanica) and is estimated to be 525,000-397,000 years old. Around B.C. In the Neolithic period in 6500 AD, the Starčevo and Vinča cultures existed in the region of present-day Belgrade. They dominated much of Southeastern Europe (and parts of Central Europe and Asia Minor as well). Several important archaeological sites from this era, including Lepenski Vir and Vinca Belo Brdo, still exist on the banks of the Danube. Political expansion into the region between the 5th and 2nd centuries The Celtic tribe of the Skordisks settled throughout the area in the 3rd century BC. He established a tribal state by building several fortresses in his capital cities of Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and Naisos (modern Nis). The Romans conquered most of the territory in the 2nd century BC. BC In 167, the Roman province of Illyricum was founded; the rest from about B.C. Conquered in 75 AD, formed the Roman province of Moesia Superior; present-day Srem region BC. 9 years conquered; and Bacca and Banat in 106 after the Dacian Wars. As a result, present-day Serbia spread, in whole or in part, into several former Roman provinces, including Moesia, Pannonia, Prevalitana, Dalmatia, Dacia, and Macedonia. The main cities of Upper Moesia (and beyond) were Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminacius (modern Old Kostolac), Remesiana (modern Bela Palanka), Naisos (Nis) and Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica), the latter being the Roman capital during the Tetrarchy. Seventeen Roman emperors were born in Serbia, which is now Italy. The most famous of these was Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor to decree religious tolerance throughout the empire. When the Roman Empire split in 395, most of Serbia remained under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire. At the same time, its northwestern parts became part of the Western Roman Empire. By the 6th century, South Slavs migrated in large numbers to the European provinces of the Byzantine Empire. They gradually assimilated with the local Roman population. ### Settlement of the Balkans, Baptism of Serbia. The history of Serbia dates back to the 6th century, when the ancient Slavs settled in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. The White Serbs, an early Slavic tribe from White Serbia, eventually settled in the region between the Sava River and the Dinaric Alps. By the beginning of the 9th century, Serbia reached the level of statehood. The Christianization of Serbia was a gradual process that ended in the middle of the 9th century. In the middle of the 10th century, the Serbian state stretched between the Adriatic Sea, Neretva, Sava, Morava and Skadar. At the end of the 12th century, the Serbian state got rid of Byzantine rule, and by the middle of the 14th century, it became a major power that covered almost the entire southwestern part of the Balkans. Between 1166 and 1371, Serbia was ruled by the Nemanjić dynasty (whose heritage is highly prized), during which the country was elevated to a kingdom in 1217. The Serbian Orthodox Church was organized as an autocephalous archbishopric in 1219 thanks to Sava, the patron saint of the country, and in 1346 it was elevated to the rank of Patriarchate. Monuments of the Nemanj era are preserved in many monasteries (some of which are World Heritage Sites) and fortresses. The flourishing period of medieval Serbia came during the reign of Stefan Dusan (1331-1355). However, after his death, the state disintegrated. ### The Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs In 1389, the forces of the Serbian princes were defeated at the Battle of Kosovo, which led to Serbia's recognition of the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. In all the Serbian lands conquered by the Ottomans, the local nobility was exterminated, the peasants were subjugated to the Ottoman rulers, and most of the clergy fled or were imprisoned in isolated monasteries. During the Ottoman system, Serbs were considered a lower class of the population, like Christians, and were subject to high taxes, and part of the Serbian population converted to Islam. Many Serbs were recruited under the devširme system, a form of slavery in the Ottoman Empire in which boys from Balkan Christian families were forcibly converted to Islam and trained as foot soldiers in the Ottoman army, known as janissaries. The Serbian Patriarchate of Pec was abolished in 1463, but restored in 1557. After the loss of statehood by the Ottoman Empire, Serbian resistance continued in the northern regions (present-day Vojvodina) under titular despots (until 1537) and popular leaders such as Jovan Nenad (1526–1527). In 1521-1552, the Ottomans conquered Belgrade and the regions of Sirmia, Bacca and Banat. Continuous wars and various rebellions challenged the Ottoman rule. One of the most important was the Banat Revolt of 1594 and 1595, which was part of the long war (1593-1606) between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans. The territory of present-day Vojvodina survived a hundred years of Ottoman occupation until it was completely ceded to the Habsburg Empire by the Treaty of Karlovci (1699) and the Treaty of Pozarevac (1718). As the Great Migration of Serbs settled much of southern Serbia, Serbs sought refuge across the Danube in Vojvodina in the north and the military frontier in the west, where the Austrian crown granted rights under measures such as the 1630 Statute of Wallachora. Much of central Serbia passed from Ottoman rule to Habsburg control during the Habsburg–Ottoman War (1683–1699) (1686–91). After several petitions, Emperor Leopold I officially granted autonomous crown land rights to Serbs who wanted to settle in the northern regions. The ecclesiastical center of the Serbs also moved north to the Metropolis of Karlovica, and the Serbian Patriarchate of Pec was again destroyed by the Ottomans in 1766. 1718–39 The Habsburg Monarchy conquered most of Central Serbia and established the Kingdom of Serbia as its crown. These gains were lost in the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, when the Ottomans retook the region. Apart from the territory of present-day Vojvodina, which remained under the Habsburg Empire, the central areas of Serbia were again occupied by the Habsburgs in 1788–1792. ### Revolution and Independence The Serbian revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years from 1804 to 1815. The revolution consisted of two separate uprisings that gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire (1830) and eventually achieved full independence (1878). During the First Serbian Revolt (1804–1813), under the leadership of Karageorgi Petrović, Serbia remained independent for nearly ten years before the Ottoman army reoccupied the country. As a result of the First Serbian Uprising (1804-1813), the Principality of Serbia was created. Soon, in 1815, the second Serbian uprising began. Led by Miloš Obrenović, it ended in a compromise between the Serbian revolutionaries and the Ottoman authorities. Similarly, Serbia was one of the first countries in the Balkans to abolish feudalism. On July 13, 1878, under the terms of the Peace of Berlin, Serbia gained independence, and in 1882, it was declared a kingdom. By the beginning of the 20th century, a parliamentary monarchy was established in Serbia, and a rapid rise in economy and culture began. The first Serbian constitution was adopted on February 15, 1835 (the date of the First Serbian Uprising), making the country one of the first in Europe to adopt a democratic constitution. ### First and Second World War As a result of the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), Kosovo, a part of Macedonia and a significant part of Sandak became part of Serbia. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by Gavrilo Princip, a member of "Young Bosnia" in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, led Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. After Germany declared war on Russia, the local war escalated. and invaded France and Belgium, thereby drawing Britain into the conflict that led to World War I. Serbia won the first major battles of World War I, including the Battle of Ser and the Battle of Kolubara, which marked the first Allied victories against the Central Powers in World War I. In the First World War, Serbia was on the side of the Entente countries. According to some estimates, Serbia lost up to a third of its population during the war. After the end of the war, Serbia became the core of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). During the Second World War, the territory of Serbia was occupied by German troops from April 1941, part of the country's territory was given to Germany's allies - Hungary and Bulgaria, as well as Albania. By 1945, Serbia was liberated by the Red Army, partisan and regular units of the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia. In 1945, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (from 1963 - .USFR) was declared, which included the People's Republic of Serbia (from 1963 - the Socialist Republic of Serbia). The growth of inter-ethnic conflict and separatist activities led to a series of civil wars and the collapse of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. The long period in power of the Socialist Party of Serbia ended in 2000 after the bombing of Serbian cities by NATO planes (1999) and the deployment of UN peacekeeping forces in Kosovo. After the June 2006 referendum in Montenegro, the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro ceased to exist. ## State structure and internal politics ### Executive power The President of Serbia (Serb. Predsednik) is elected for a five-year term in general direct elections. , can hold this position for no more than two terms. According to the constitution, he is the commander-in-chief of the Serbian Armed Forces, represents Serbia in the world, appoints ambassadors and diplomatic representatives, nominates candidates for the post of prime minister to the National "skupščine", can dissolve the National "ckupščende" and veto laws. Also, among the duties of the president is the declaration of a state of emergency, as well as the presentation of state awards. The President has the same immunity as the deputies of the National Skupshchi. According to the results of the presidential election held on April 2, 2017, Serbia was led by the leader of the Serbian Progressive Party, Aleksandar Vucic, who won more than 55 percent of the vote. The government (Serb. Vlada) is the exerciser of executive power and consists of 20 members, including the prime minister, one or more deputy prime ministers, and several ministers. Its composition is approved by the National Assembly of Serbia, as well as by the head of the Cabinet of Ministers, who is nominated by the President of Serbia. According to the Constitution of Serbia, the Cabinet of Ministers is responsible for defining and implementing policies, implementing and drafting laws, organizing and supervising state bodies, etc. The Prime Minister and members of the Government have the same immunity as the members of the Parliament. They are not responsible for the opinions expressed in the Government meeting or the Parliament meeting. The current composition of the government was approved by the Serbian Parliament on October 28, 2020. Ana Brnabic became the prime minister. ### Legislature In September 1990, during the democratic reforms in Yugoslavia, a new Serbian constitution was adopted, which established a unicameral parliament - the National Skupshtina (Serb. Narodna skupshtina Republika Srbije), with 250 members elected for four-year terms. The next parliamentary elections in Serbia were held on June 21, 2020. In the pre-election period, an inter-party dialogue was conducted with the mediation of the European Parliament, and certain changes were made to the election legislation. Many parliamentary and non-parliamentary political parties boycotted the election, including the largest opposition coalition, the Alliance for Serbia, saying conditions were not created for free and fair elections. This resulted in the lowest voter turnout since the establishment of the multiparty system in 1990. As a result of the election, the coalition led by the Serbian Progressive Party of President Aleksandar Vučić won 188 seats in the People's Parliament. In second place was the coalition led by the Socialist Party of Serbia led by Ivica Dacic. There were also four parties in the People's Parliament protecting the interests of national minorities. ### Judiciary The Constitution of Serbia ensures the autonomy and independence of state bodies that protect the freedoms and rights of citizens, the legal rights and interests of legal entities, and ensures constitutionality and legality. The judiciary belongs to the courts and works independently of the legislative and executive branches. Court decisions are made on behalf of the people and on the basis of the Constitution and law, ratified international treaties and regulations adopted on the basis of law. Court decisions are binding on all and not subject to extrajudicial review. The decision of the court can be reviewed only by the decision of the competent court in accordance with the procedure established by law. Everyone is obliged to respect the court's decision. Courts at the republican level: Constitutional Court, Supreme Court of Cassation, appellate arbitration, etc. Courts of general jurisdiction: * Basic courts - for a city or one or more municipalities * High courts - in the territory of one or more basic courts * Courts of appeal - several higher for courts * Supreme Court of Cassation. The Constitutional Court is an independent state body that protects constitutionality and legality, as well as the rights and freedoms of people and minorities. Decisions of the Constitutional Court are final and binding. The Supreme Court of Cassation is the highest court in the Republic of Serbia and the highest court for arbitration and administrative courts, etc. ## State symbols The anthem of Serbia is a slightly modified version of the anthem of the Kingdom of Serbia, "Boje pravde", which was the anthem of the Republic of Serbia for several years. The coat of arms of Serbia, adopted on August 17, 2004, is the coat of arms of Serbia under the Obrenović dynasty. The country has two flags: state and official. The first is a red-blue-white fabric, the second is the same as the state coat of arms. ## Foreign policy Serbia is represented abroad by 64 embassies and 22 consulate generals. Serbia itself has 70 embassies and 5 consulates. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia inherited about a third of the assets of the Yugoslavia. Serbia is a member of international organizations such as UN, Council of Europe, OSCE, Interpol, World Bank, Partnership for Peace, Stability Pact for Southeast Europe, UNESCO, World Tourism Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Labor Confederation, World Customs is a member. Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Health Organization, etc. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia was in international isolation, many sanctions were applied against it: military, economic, cultural, etc. Public opinion in many countries of the world was against it, and the country was blamed for the bloody conflicts in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the end of the wars in the former Yugoslavia, the sanctions regime was eased, but in 1998-1999, Serbia again became isolated and became the target of NATO airstrikes. The US and EU countries resumed cooperation with Serbia only after the ouster of President Slobodan Milosevic and the coming to power of Vojislav Kostunica, and Serbia's relations with most Western countries were normalized. Currently, the country's foreign policy is characterized by the desire to join the EU, the diplomatic struggle against the recognition of the independence of the autonomous province of Kosovo, and the development of comprehensive relations with many countries of the world. Before the arrests of General Ratko Mladic and former Serbian President Goran Hadzic, the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia had a significant influence on Serbian politics. In particular, EU officials have repeatedly stated that Serbia's further European integration depends on its cooperation with the tribunal. After the arrest of the above-mentioned persons, President Boris Tadic said that he considers that his obligations before the Hague Court have been fully fulfilled. Later, a number of EU officials stated that Serbia's accession to this organization is directly related to Belgrade's ability to normalize relations with Kosovo and recognize it as an independent state. These statements caused a heated debate in Serbian society and caused a decrease in the number of supporters of Serbia's European integration. On March 1, 2012, Serbia received the official status of a candidate for EU membership. Serbia and NATO signed an agreement on military cooperation in 2006. Serbia cooperates with NATO within the Partnership for Peace program. In 2014, the parties agreed on a separate partnership plan for a program to build trust among participants. On February 19, 2016, Serbian President Tomislav Nikolic signed an agreement with NATO, according to which representatives of the alliance will receive special diplomatic immunity and the right to travel throughout the country, as well as access to Serbian military facilities. The deal sparked protests from the right across the country. Opponents of the agreement argue that it is unconstitutional. On January 12, 2022, Serbian President Aleksandar Vucic said in an interview on national television that the republic intends to strengthen its army for self-defense rather than joining NATO. ## Armed Forces and Security Service ### Army The Serbian Armed Forces have gone through a long path of reforms and restructuring. In 1992, after the breakup of the SFRY, the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serb. Vojska Yugoslavijje) were formed. In 2000, the share of military expenditures was 9.1% of GDP (one of the highest indicators in Europe), and the number of military personnel was 114,200 people. In 2003, the Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro (Serb. Vojska Srbije i Crne Gore) was established. In 2006, their units located on the territory of Serbia were formalized in the Serbian Armed Forces (Serb. Vojska Srbije). At the same time, another large-scale military reform began. The Serbian Armed Forces have 36,000 soldiers and officers, including 11,000 professional soldiers and 22,000 volunteer soldiers. After the military reform, 12 brigades were created instead of about a hundred brigades: 4 infantry, mixed artillery, special brigades, two aviation, one missile and one artillery, communication and logistics brigade. The Serbian Army also has separate battalions of military police and communications battalions. Corps and troops were replaced by brigades and battalions, which became the backbone of the new structure of the Serbian army. Serbian army consists of ground forces, air force and air defense. Most of the weapons were inherited from the USSR and the USSR. Periodically, new samples are taken in small quantities. Military service has been voluntary since 2011. Prior to that, the period of regular military service was 6 months, alternative service was 9 months. In 2011, military spending was 2.8 percent of the country's gross domestic product. Serbia is the largest arms exporter in the region. In 2009, the value of Serbian military exports was 500 million dollars. ### Police The Serbian police are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior, which consists of several departments. The police force includes 161 municipal stations, 62 border control stations and 49 traffic control stations. The Serbian Police is a professional organization with 42,740 officers and 26,527 civilians as of 2006. Until January 3, 1997, the police were called militia. The name change was carried out in accordance with the Law on Internal Affairs. ### Special services The main security service in Serbia is the Security and Information Agency (Serb. Bezbednosno-informativna agencija). He is responsible for intelligence and counter-intelligence issues, the fight against organized crime and terrorism. The Information Security Agency is controlled by the Assembly and the Government of Serbia, and it must report twice a year on its activities and the security situation in the country. The agency was established on July 11, 2002 and is headquartered in Belgrade. Its predecessor was the state security service (Serb. Javne security service). From July 17, 2008, the Information Security Agency was headed by Sasha Vukadinovich. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7391

Шыны

Glass, or glass, is a solid, amorphous, optical substance obtained by cooling a melt containing glass-forming components (silicon oxide, boron, aluminum, phosphorus, etc.) and metal oxides (lithium, potassium, magnesium, lead, etc.). transparent (depending on composition) glass-like material. Glass is used in construction, sanitary equipment, and is widely used in making food and chemical containers. In the republic, scientific research related to the structure of glass and glass crystal materials has been carried out since 1960 at the Kazakh Chemical-Technological Institute, then at the Zhambyl Hydromelioration-Construction Institute and the Almaty Building Materials Scientific Research and Design Institute (S.T. Suleymenov, V.O. Esimov, T.A. Werner, A.A. Myrzakhozhaev, etc. conducted. Research works are focused on the technology of production of products for various purposes using local natural raw materials and industrial waste. "Marblit" type vitreous coating boards of black color from ash of Ekibastuz state regional power plant; double-layered glass-crystallite plates used as artistic packaging materials, consisting of colored glass with a flame-polished surface; white and black schlaxital, kulsital products for improving the architecture of houses, for technical purposes; biologically indifferent physico-mechanical properties and high cosmetic effect substitutes for precious metals and alloys, necessary for dental orthopaedics, etc. was done. There are two enterprises (in the cities of Zhambyl and Shchuchinsk) under the local Ministry of Industry that manufacture glass containers. 4 and 6 mm double-glazed windows emit 32 DBA less noise than standard 4 mm glass. ## Types * Organic glass is the technical name of optical materials based on polymethyl methacrylate, polystyrene, polycarbonates. The density is somewhat less, the brittleness is less, the softening temperature is much lower. Organic glass is used as a structural material in the aviation, automobile, and shipbuilding industries to produce three layers of non-flammable glass. * Safety glass — depending on its composition, transmits (transparent) or does not transmit (opaque) incident rays, as well as transmits rays of a certain wavelength and does not transmit rays of other wavelengths (colored). * Armored glass — the product consists of several layers of glass glued with special polymer-based flakes or a liquid polymer composition. * Liquid glass is a solution of sodium and potassium silicates in water. Liquid glass is a component of acid-resistant cement and fire-resistant plasters, an adhesive ("office silicate glue"). If care is not taken, a minor injury may occur. ## Science related to glass Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov laid the foundations of a scientific approach to the study and melting of glass. Scientists carried out the first technologically systematic melting of more than 4 thousand glasses. The laboratory practice and the methodological principles used by him are little different from what are considered traditional, classical nowadays. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5668

Jurassic period

The Jurassic System or Jurassic Period is one of the three periods that make up the Mesozoic Era. The Jurassic period, between the Triassic and the Cretaceous, lasted from 199.6 million years to 145.5 million years ago. The most common rocks are clayey mud, silty sandstone and limestone, and the Jurassic period is divided into 11 layers (Gettang, Sinemur, Plinsbach, Toar, Aalen, Bayos, Bath, Calloway, Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, Tithonian). Brachiopods, bivalves and ammonites are common along with many other invertebrates. It is believed that during the Jurassic period, reptiles were abundant on land and in water, and mammals were small in number, mostly nocturnal. The first birds, including Archeopteryx, appeared during the Late Jurassic. The Jurassic is the middle period of the Mesozoic era after the Triassic, before the Cretaceous, and the layers of rocks formed during that time. The Jurassic period began 199.6 million years ago and ended 145.5 million years ago, for a duration of about 54.1 million years. German naturalist A. Humbold identified it in the Jura mountains of Switzerland and France (1822), and French geologist A. Bronyar divided it into a separate system and called it by its current name (1829). The stratification scale of the Jurassic system was first created by the French paleontologist A. D. Orbin, who divided the Jurassic system into 10 strata. ## World of life In the Jurassic system, the archaic species of the Paleozoic ceased to exist, and the organic world took the Mesozoic type. Among sea giants, cephalopod molluscs - ammonites and belemnites, bivalves and hepatopod mollusks, etc. Invertebrates are mainly developed. Along with them, corals, sea urchins, brachiopods, and foraminifera are widely distributed (see photo). The main feature of the Jurassic system is the exceptional development of reptiles. Their type and features of life are different: they swim, jump, fly, crawl, etc. species are found living in the sea, fresh water and on land. Among marine vertebrates, fish and reptiles (reptiles) evolved. In the Jurassic system, ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs reached the peak of development. Animal life on land was somewhat unusual. Reptiles developed there. The length of giant dinosaurs reached 25-30 m. Giant diplodocus and apatosaurs (brontosaurs) had large bodies, small heads, and weighed tens of tons. Stegosaurs smaller than them (about 10 m long) had bone blades on them. In addition to plant-eating species, carnosaurs are widespread. Reptiles have also mastered the air space. Pterosaurs appeared among winged lizards, and pterodactyls appeared in the Upper Jurassic system. Birds, a special class among vertebrates, also appeared in this Jurassic system. Mammals were small and few. From the flora of the Jurassic system, there are various groups of gymnosperms: cycads, ginkgos, cycads, etc. mainly developed. Along with them, ferns and horsetails are also spread. ## Paleotectonic and paleogeographic conditions Early Cimmerian-Indosinian orogeny was widely manifested in all tectonic belts in the Early Jurassic system. As a result of orogeny, mountain structures were subjected to denudation and transgression increased. The process of salt accumulation has decreased, and on the contrary, the process of coal accumulation has increased. But the general structural outline of the Earth remained largely unchanged, and the Early Jurassic is considered to be the last period when Pangea II existed as a single supercontinent. The rising trend also included Kazakhstan and the Siberian platform. At the end of the Triassic and the beginning of the Jurassic, the products of the leaching of the kaolinitic chimney crust formed on the flat ridges began to enter the depressions. Along with kaolinite clays, lacustrine alluvial coal formations were collected in them. The Middle Jurassic period was a period of dramatic changes in the development of the Earth. Major tectonic changes fundamentally reshaped paleogeographic conditions. In the Late Jurassic, there were subsidences that caused the transgression. The formation process of the Atlantic and Indian oceans continued. The ridges of the central ocean began to form and grow. Volcanic eruptions, intrusions in the Pacific belt. magmatism and tectonic deformations increased. In the Late Jurassic, the fragmentation of Pangea-II intensified. The Central Atlantic and Western Tethys expanded and connected to the Pacific Ocean through the deep-water Caribbean basin (in the future Andes region). Destructuring (destruction) of Gondwana began due to the formation of the spreading axis of the Indian Ocean, which passed through the Somali and Mozambique potholes. The western part of Gondwana, which includes South America and Africa, began to separate from its eastern part, consisting of Madagascar, India, Australia and Antarctica. This is how the Indian Ocean began to form. In the west of this Tethys, when it continued to expand to the Alps and Apennines, in the east, at the northern end of the Dinarides, compressional deformation was observed at the end of the Jurassic period. It reached its most intense stage in Afghanistan and the Central Pamirs. Here, the Iran-Afghan continent, which includes the Southern Pamirs, collided with the southern edge of Laurasia. Further east, Late Jurassic folding (called Late Cimmerian in Europe) occurs in Central Tibet. ## Climatic and biogeographic belt During the Early and Middle Jurassic, along with thermal activity, changes in atmospheric precipitation were also observed. The northern arid (dry) zone covers a number of areas of the USA and North Africa. The southern arid zone includes the territories of Central America, Somalia and Tanzania. Fluctuating humid conditions are prevalent in southern Brazil and Africa, Arabia and Indochina. Equatorial humid climate covered the southern part of Mexico, Guinea, Cameroon, Nigeria and Egypt. A significant part of the territory of Siberia and the north-east of Russia, Mongolia and North China is characterized by a humid, subtropical climate. The conventional border of this belt is marked by a line passing through the White Sea, the South Urals and the Balkhash-Shandun Peninsula. In the north of the subtropical belt, the average temperature is 15-20 *C, while in the south it rises to 18-20 *C. According to the nature of the temperature regime, the Late Jurassic system is divided into equatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. According to the isotopic and magnesium paleothermometric data, the temperature varied in the range of 26-28 *C in the equatorial zone, and 21-24 *C in the tropical zone. A temperate climate is formed in the Northern Hemisphere in the northeast of Eurasia, in the north of North America, and the average temperature does not exceed 15 *C. In the southern hemisphere, the temperate climate includes the southeastern part of Australia and New Zealand. During the Jurassic period, there were three major paleogeographic basins: Boreal, Tethys, and Southern Ken longitudes: the humid and warm climate of the Jurassic system covered some areas and ensured intensive coal accumulation. The Jurassic period ranks third after the late Paleozoic and the late Cretaceous-Paleogene in terms of coal accumulation. 16% of the world's coal reserves are concentrated in the Jurassic formations. Coal seams are found all over the world. For example, almost all regions of Kazakhstan have coal deposits, the largest of which are Maykoben, Obagan and Shubarkol. In Karatau, the Karabastau Formation of the Upper and Middle Jurassic Period is known for world geology, and the animals and plants found here have been extensively studied. Oil and gas formations were formed in many valleys of the Earth during the Jurassic period. For example, deposits in Saudi Arabia (Ghavar and Mezelij), Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Mangystau, North Caspian, Western Siberia and the North Sea, Barents Sea. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6551

Айып

Crime (law, tradition) — kidnapping, crime, theft, violation of tradition, etc. Punishment given to criminals for bad behavior. "Take the horse and return it on foot!" (G. Musirepov). For example: people who started an inappropriate quarrel in front of a lot of people will be charged. The person to be punished must do it at that moment. There are many types of fines. A body or a horse is paid for minor offenses. Felonies pay nine. This is the word nine animals led by a camel or nine animals led by a horse or nine animals led by an ox (Nine led by a camel consists of: 3 camels, 3 horses, 3 cows. Nine led by a horse is 3 horses, 3 cows, 3 sheep, etc. If the crime (theft) is very serious, there are other types of punishment. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7278

Kenes Odagy's voice

“Anthem of the Soviet Union” is a poem by Kenes Odak. ## 1977

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1699

Guryev

Atyrau is the administrative center of Atyrau region, a city located in the west of Kazakhstan, along the river Zhayik. The city was founded in 1640. The population is 316,449 people (2023). The distance from the city of Atyrau to Astana is 1810 km. ## Name The first known permanent settlement on the territory of the city is the Laeti Asar of the Golden Horde period near the present "Orbita" station. During the period of the Nogai Horde, the permanent settlement of fishermen Uishik was located at the mouth of the Zhayik River. 1640, when the Kazakh-Russians began to conquer. The town named Yaitsky gorodok was built. A town called Verkhniy Yaitskyi gorodok (now the city of Ural) was built above the meadow, it was called Nizhnyi Yaitskyi gorodok, and later it became Ust-Yaiitskyi gorodok. When the Russian princess Ekaterina II approved the name of Yaik river (the Russian name of the region) as Ural, the name of the city was changed to Guryev gorodok, Guryev. 1920 For a short time, the Bolsheviks renamed Guryev Chapaev. 1992 Since then the name of the city is Atyrau. ## Etymology "Atyrau" - lexicon is usually the coast of a large lake or sea that divides into branches and branches, forming bays and islands, estuaries, capes. The northeastern coast of the Caspian Sea, including the basin of the sea, is still called the delta by local residents. ## History From the first quarter of the 16th century, fugitive Russian volunteers who did not tolerate the policy of the Russian tsar's government and did not want to recognize the tsar's government, serf peasants looking for a living, and criminal elements came to the Caspian coast. Cossacks came and settled along the Volga. As soon as they arrived, they opened their own businesses, organized fishing and salting camps, and built parking lots. Since then, the parking lots have been called "Uyshik". Convinced that the Zhaiyk-Caspian road will be a "gateway and a key" that opens the way to Asian countries and other countries, in the late 30s of the 17th century, the royal government allowed the Yaroslavl merchant, wealthy merchant Guriev family to open a fish business along the Zhaiyk and in 1640, the head of the Guryev family, Gurii Nazaryev, with his children Mikhail, Ivan and Andrey, settled along Zhaiyk, opened industries, and began to use the fish of the Zhaiyk and Embi rivers for industrial and commercial purposes. The growth of the city and the success of the fishing industry began to cause the envy of the indigenous Kalmyks and Russian Cossacks living in this region. In the end, the city, which is always at war with its neighbors, will be plundered by the Kalmyks. This incident along Zhaiyk shocked the leadership of the Astrakhan troops. Realizing that a wooden fortress cannot protect against the enemy and fire, the royal government, in order to strengthen the defense of the sea and Zhaiyk, on February 18, 1645, M. Guryev ordered the city to be fortified. allows to build. The permit specifies the construction of the city fortress as a model of the city of Astrakhan. The construction of the stone city-fort began on June 6, 1647. The city under construction was robbed in 1649 by a group of Cossacks led by the Cossack general I. Kondyrev. The construction of the stone city-castle along the river was completed after 15 years in 1662, and the Gurievs incurred huge financial losses. Towards the end of the 17th century and from the beginning of the 18th century, the stone town-castle turned into a large border fortress. According to the Tsar's decree of December 11, 1798, the city of Guryev was handed over to the military leadership of Ural. * In 1865, it became a district town. * The center of the Ural military region before 1917 and for 15 years after that * Since 1925, the center of Guryev district in Bokei province * In 1929, the center of Guryev district * In 1930, the district center * 1938 regional center from January 15. * On February 21, 1992, the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted a resolution to name the city of Guryev as the city of Atyrau. ## Climate The climate is strongly continental, dry and hot in summer, and cold with wet snow in winter. Summer lasts long without rain, dry and hot. In winter, there is little snow and it is cold. Atyrau city is characterized by long summer days and short winter days with a latitude of 47, -07 S., duration 51-53. The average temperature in January is from -60C to -120C, and the average temperature in July is from +240C to +260C. The lowest temperature is -380C, the highest temperature is +450C. Thanks to the Zhayik River, which flows into the Caspian Sea and passes through the center of the region, the temperature there is lower than the temperature of the areas far from water. will be about mm. The wind direction is southeast in January and west in June. ## Administrative division Atyrau city administration includes 1 city, 6 rural districts (Almaly, Atyrau, Damby, Yerkinkala, Kenozek, Kairchakty), 15 villages. In 2013, the village of Balykshi, in 2018 the settlements of Akzhayik, Kursai, Kokarna, Vodnikovo, and Rasobker, Rembaza in the rural districts of Balykshi, Prasobker, in 2019 Geolog, Birlik, Novokirpichnoe, Tengdik, Karabatan, 496 settlements in the Geolog rural district were added to the city. Almaly, Bereke settlements in Almaly rural district from Makhambet district were transferred to the territory of the city administration. ## Governors * Nurpeyis Makashev 1992-1993 * Bekbolat Naregeev 1993-1995 * Zhalgas Tikenbaev 1995-1998 * Arystangali Ashimgaliyev 1998- 1999 * Duysenbai Turganov 1999-2002 * Manas Tasybaev 2002-2006 * Bergey Ryskaliev 2006 * Salimzhan Nakpaev 2006-2009 * Mereke Esmuratov 2009-2012 * Askar Kerimov 2012 * Serik Aidarbekov 2012-2014 * Nurlybek Ozhaev 2014-2016 * Serik Shapkenov 2016-2018 * Alimuhammed Kuttymuratovich 2018-2020 * Kairat Orazbaev 2020-2022 * Meirim Kalaui 2022-2023 * Shakir Keikin 2023- ## Population 9.3 thousand in 1897, 78.1 thousand in 1959, 114.2 thousand in 1970, In 1979 there were 130.9 thousand people, in 2012 there were 182.8 thousand people. the number of inhabitants of the city administration was 280.6 thousand people, including: * Atyrau city — 195.6 thousand people; * Fisherman's village - 17.1 thousand people; * Worker village - 10.4 thousand people; * Villagers - 57.5 thousand people; Representatives of 84 nationalities live in Atyrau. According to the data of the beginning of 2014, the composition of separate ethnic groups of the region is as follows: According to statistical data of 2019, the number of births in Atyrau was 9,760, and the number of deaths was 1,920. Natural increase is 7,840 people. The number of arrivals was 16,130, and the number of departures was 13,311. The birth rate (per 1000 people) was 27.9, the death rate (per 1000 people) was 5.49. ## Ecology Atyrau city remains in the middle of enterprises. 80-85 percent of air polluters are oil transportation and oil refining enterprises. Production facilities in Atyrau increase the air pollution indicators, and it exceeds one thousand tons per year. Large enterprises are still not equipped with purification devices. Thus, harmful emissions are spreading throughout the city without being filtered. Atyrau Oil Pipeline Administration of JSC "KazTransOil" produced 68.7 percent of hydrocarbon mixtures, "Atyrau Oil Refinery" LLP - 22.79 percent, "Atyrau Thermal Electric Center" produced carbon monoxide 46.08 percent, "Caspian Pipeline" Consortium-K" JSC - 19.57%, "Atyrau Thermal Electric Center" LLP emits nitrogen dioxide - 73.2%, Atyrau Oil Refinery emits sulfur dioxide in the amount of 52.54%. In the city of Atyrau, eight stations that determine the quality of atmospheric air automatically take samples to determine the composition of the air around the clock. Among them, it was determined that the limited amount of hydrogen sulfide from the station located on the territory of the base of "WestOil" LLP exceeds its concentration. There are 3 main foci poisoning the city. The first is oil companies. The second one is a landfill for burying household waste from the city. The third one is a waste water evaporation field located on both sides of the city. ## Enterprises ## Transport and infrastructure Currently, all types of transport are developed in the city of Atyrau. Public transport. The route network of Atyrau city currently has 51 routes in operation. In 2013-2015, "AysTransHolding" LLP, which provides services on the intra-city route, purchased 51 buses at its own expense. Public transport uses a GPS-monitoring system, which provides online information about city public transport routes, stops and current traffic conditions. "Atyrau-Avtopark" bus park was created with the participation of "Atyrau" social-entrepreneurial corporation, and 65 new buses were purchased for it from the city of Semey. In 2020, "Ak Zhayik Autopark" LLP received 160 new environmentally friendly buses. It plans to increase the number of buses from 140 to 250 from 2021. 220 buses of this line are fully adapted for the needs of disabled citizens The trolley bus system was opened in the city on September 9, 1996, and its movement was stopped on April 29, 1999. Only 5 trolleybuses served on one route. Railway transport. From the railway station passing through Atyrau, 24 trains in 13 directions carry passengers according to the schedule. The railway connects Atyrau with major cities of Kazakhstan, such as Almaty, Aktobe, Astana, as well as with the cities of Russia (Moscow, Saratov, Volgograd, Astrakhan), Tajikistan (Kuliab, Khujand, Dushanbe) and Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan. Air transport. Flights are launched from Atyrau airport in the following directions: Accepted aircraft types: An-12, An-24, An-26, An-28, An-30, An-32, An-72, An-74, An-124, Il-62, Il-76, L -410, Tu-134, Tu-154, Yak-40, Yak-42, Airbus A319, Airbus A320, Airbus A321, ATR 42, ATR 72, Boeing 707, Boeing 737, Boeing 747, Boeing 757, Boeing 767, and and other 3-4 class AK types, all types of helicopters. ## Bridges of the city of Atyrau On August 28, 1965, the first reinforced concrete bridge in the city crossing the Zhayik River was built and put into operation. The length of the bridge is 259 meters, the height is 10 meters. "Ortalyk" bridge connects Satbaev Avenue and Abay Street. Europe and Asia continue to play a symbolic role. In the northern part of the city, in 1985, a bypass bridge along Gabbas Bergaliyev Street was commissioned. 200 meters long and 17 meters wide, it became a transit road through the city on the A-27 Aktobe-Astrakhan highway. In 2001, a suspension "pedestrian" bridge "10 years to Independence" was built. The 551-meter-long bridge is included in the Guinness Book of Records as the world's longest pedestrian bridge. In 2008, the "Balykshi" bridge was built in the southern part of the city, connecting the districts of Balykshi and Rasobker. Length 484.4 m, width 23.9 m. This year, the Balykchy-Peretaska bridge was commissioned. Length 63.7 m, width 14 m. It plays the role of continuation of Balykchy sub-district and Mirny and Kursay sub-districts. In 2009, a bridge connecting Sultan Beybarys Avenue was opened. A four-lane bridge with a capacity of 5-7 thousand cars per day, 800 m long with access roads, 380.7 m long and 22 m wide, carriageway width 16 m. The footpath is 2.5 meters long on both sides. The bridge along Sultan Beybarys avenue connects the railway station (left bank) and "Atyrau" international airport on the right bank. This year, the "Munayshi" bridge connecting Munayshiry town and Avangard compact district of the city (from Auezov avenue to Gumarov street) was commissioned. 5-7 thousand cars pass through the 4-lane bridge per day. The total length of the bridge is 693 meters, the length is 483 meters and the width is 17 meters. The width of the carriageway is 14 meters, there are 2 footpaths 1 meter wide on both sides. In 2010, a bridge connecting Mechnikov and Baimukhanov streets was built. It is 770 meters long and 23.5 meters wide. It was opened on the occasion of the 370th anniversary of our city. ## Culture In Atyrau there is the Atyrau Regional Academic Drama Theater named after Makhambet Otemisuly, the Philharmonic named after Nurmukhan Zhantorin, the Palace of Culture named after Kurmangazy. The folk instrument orchestra named after Dina Nurpeyisova works. Atyrau regional museum of local history, the only paleontological museum in Kazakhstan, which reveals secrets from the Mesozoic era, is located in the city of Atyrau. Atyrau regional museum of art and applied decorative arts named after Sh. Sariev, cinemas, culture and recreation park, hotels, etc. are working. "Atyrau Regional Scientific Universal Library named after G. Slanov", Atyrau Regional Children's Library, Regional Library of Blind and Visually Impaired Citizens, Atyrau City Central Children's Libraries No. 1, 2, 3 provide their services to city residents. ## Architecture and sights Atyrau is divided into three architectural structures. In the old town on the right bank of the meadow, there are mostly one-story wooden and brick houses built at the beginning of the 20th century. In the central part there are two-story stone houses, 4-5-story residential buildings and institutions. On the left bank of the river, during the years of Soviet rule, the village of Embimunay and the town of the oil refinery appeared. A bridge built on the pasture (1965) connects two parts of the city, located on the continents of Europe and Asia. The modern architecture of Atyrau includes Isatai and Makhambet square, Imangali Mosque, Orthodox Church built in the 19th century (this church was the first building built in Atyrau), Marriott Hotel, Almagul Compact District, sports and culture palaces built in the latest model. will be. ## Parks Now there are 6 parks in Atyrau. Victory Park, park in "Almagul" compact district, park in "Balykshi" compact district, retro park, parks in compact district #1 and #2, and "Turgyndar kalaschik". The area of parks reaches 10 hectares. They consist of green spaces, alleys, landscaped paths, benches and walking areas. In addition, there are monuments, fountains, statues, etc. to famous people. there is "Victory" Park is known for its eternal flame dedicated to the memory of the soldiers of the Great Patriotic War. After the entrance gate, there are actual models of military equipment. There are airplanes, tanks, cannons, armored vehicles, etc. can be seen. 14 busts dedicated to the Delta heroes of the Great Patriotic War have been installed on the "Taghzym Alley" square in the Victory Park. In the center of the park is the Eternal Flame, located next to a skyward spear. The park also includes "Memorial Wall". It consists of dozens of large granite slabs, on which are written the names of Atyrau region residents who did not return from the Second World War. A monument dedicated to the memory of internationalist soldiers who died in the park, as well as Kazakhstani soldiers who died on the Tajik-Afghan border, was installed. Retro Park was built in the neoclassical style of the fifties of the last century. Its main area is park alleys. This park is located between the banks of the Zhayik River and the "Residents' Town". The park has various pavilions, an amphitheater, water fountains decorated with colorful lights, a cafe in retro style, etc. there is In the middle are pedestrian bridges, artificial ponds and other architectural works. There is a monument to the musical ensemble "Dos-Mukasan" in the park. Youth Park is located on the banks of the Zhayik River in the European part. Running, cycling and walking paths are built in the park. There are summer mobile cafes with shaded structures, playgrounds for children and adults, sports equipment, attractions. The area is 6.5 hectares. ## Monuments of the city of Atyrau ## Sports Rowing master A. Kruglov from Atyrau took part in the Olympic team in Tokyo. Boxer B. Temirov took part in the Olympic Games, world and European competitions and became a three-time champion of the USSR. Atyrau rowers D.Savin, A.Safaryan, S.Sergeev are multiple champions of Kazakhstan. Arman Chilmanov is the bronze medalist of the 2008 Olympic Games in taekwondo in the weight of 84 kg. Saniya Makhambetova won several times in international and republican competitions in sambo and judo. "Atyrau" football team is a 2-time bronze medalist of the republican championship (2001 and 2002), winner of the Kazakhstan Cup in 2009. Winner of the Kazakhstan Cup. "Beybarys" hockey club is a 4-time champion of Kazakhstan (2010/2011, 2011/2012, 2015/2016 and 2018/2019). Volleyball team "Atyrau" is the champion of the country in 2003 and 2006, 4 times winner of the Kazakhstan Cup - 2000, 2009, 2010, 2015 Basketball team "Atyrau Barystary" 2nd gold of the championship of Kazakhstan ( 2010/2011, 2015-2016), 7-time silver medalist. (011/2012, 2012/2013, 2013/2014, 2016/2017, 2017/2018, 2018/2019, 2019/2020. Among the sports facilities, there is the Munayshi stadium in the center of Atyrau. There is a swimming pool. There are various sports sections in the Atyrau ice rink. The tennis center has 4 open and 4 indoor courts ## Educational system ### Pre-school institutions Pre-school institutions include day-time and round-the-clock general type (kindergartens, nurseries, orphanages) , preschools), special preschools for mentally and physically challenged children, and summer recreation facilities for sick children. 13,863 children are educated in Atyrau city ### School education In 61 schools of Atyrau city, including the Kazakh-Turkish lyceum for gifted children of Atyrau region, specialized school-lyceum-boarding school for gifted children of Atyrau region, technical gymnasium with in-depth teaching of Agysyn language, Atyrau city education department city lyceum, regional boarding school for gifted children, specialized school-gymnasium No. 30 for gifted children teaching in three languages, regional national gymnasium, linguistic school-gymnasium No. 34, N. Tylendiev regional "Little Academy of Arts", Nazarbayev Intellectual School 73,690 students are studying in such educational institutions. ### Higher educational institutions Atyrau Engineering and Humanities Institute - founded in 2001, successfully works in the labor market based on the license issued by the Ministry of Education and Science. The Institute is a higher educational institution that trains high-professional specialists (undergraduate) in 16 specialties in Kazakh and Russian languages in full-time and extramural forms. The institute is considered an important scientific and educational center for the training of highly qualified personnel. In 2004, the Institute was awarded the gold medal of the European Business Association "INSAM" (Geneva, 2005), the International "Golden Bullion" (CBS Consult, Moscow, 2007) for the successful implementation of innovative programs. Atyrau State University named after Khalel Dosmukhamedov is one of the higher educational institutions in the education system of the Republic of Kazakhstan that trains internationally competitive specialists with its own history and experience. The university was opened on June 14, 1950 as a teachers' institute. In 1955, the teachers' institute became a pedagogical institute. In 1994, the Institute of Pedagogy was established as Atyrau University. Atyrau Oil and Gas University named after Safi Otebayev is making a great contribution to improving the economy, education and science of the oil and gas industry of our country and the West Kazakhstan region. Atyrau Oil and Gas University is becoming a center of education and science of Western Kazakhstan and has earned a well-deserved respect among the creative youth and industrial enterprises of Kazakhstan in the field of oil and gas. Atyrau Oil and Gas University is the only specialized higher educational institution of the Republic of Kazakhstan for training highly qualified specialists for the oil and gas industry of the country. ### Colleges * Atyrau Agricultural and Technical College * Atyrau Fishery Industry College * Atyrau Business and Law College * Atyrau Higher Medical College * Atyrau Engineering and Humanitarian College * Atyrau Industrial College * Atyrau Service College * Atyrau Energy and Construction College * Atyrau Polytechnic College named after S. Mukashev * D. Nurpeysova music college (academy) named after * Modern College of the Caspian Region (PSK) * Higher Petroleum College (APEC) * Humanitarian College named after K. Dutbaeva * Oil and Gas Technological College * Professional-humanitarian college "Bolashak" ## Healthcare A 15-bed hospital was opened for the first time in the military unit located in Guryev. In 1901, 2 houses were built for this hospital, one of them was designated as a surgical and one for treating other diseases, and 1 doctor and 2 paramedics worked. During the Great Patriotic War, 2 hospitals were placed in Atyrau. Between 1967 and 1987, new buildings of the regional hospital, children's hospital, maternity hospital, regional oncological and tuberculosis dispensary were put into operation. Currently, Atyrau regional hospital, children's hospital, Atyrau regional hospital No. 2 (Regional hospital for infectious diseases), Atyrau city medical emergency station, city maternity hospital, AIDS prevention and control center, children's stomatology, lung diseases sanatorium, cardiology center, eye hospital, blood center, narcology dispensary, oncology dispensary, pathology bureau, perinatal center, psychiatric hospital for nervous diseases (mental health center), skin and venereology dispensary, anti-tuberculosis dispensary, railway hospital, central nervous system children's home for damaged children, etc. medical organizations work. ## MEDIA ### Newspapers and magazines "Atyrau" newspaper is one of the first national publications in the western region of Kazakhstan. It was founded in 1923, when it created its material base and published its first numbers. Tolepkerey Oteuliyev, who was the first secretary of the Guryev District Party Committee. The first issue was published in April 1923 under the name "Erik". "Atyrau" is a regional newspaper that brings the life of the region to a wide readership. Prikaspiiskaya commune newspaper is a regional social and political newspaper published in Russian. The newspaper was published under the name "Trudovaya Pravda" from February 26, 1920. The newspaper is about the current problems of the region, market relations, development of national economy. "Ak Zhayik" newspaper is the first independent weekly publication in Atyrau region. At first, the newspaper was called "Kompanion" (1991), then "Mestnoye obozrenie" (1992), and in May 1993 it was called "Ak Zhayik". This is one of the first newspapers adapted to market conditions, fully self-financing in the region and republic. In addition, the weekly newspapers "Megapolis Atyrau", "Munayly Astana", "Altyn Saka", "Altyn Region" and the magazine "Mereyli Nuton" are published. ### TV channels The broadcasting policy of the Atyrau regional television and radio company fully corresponds to the policy implemented by RTRK JSC "Kazakhstan". It is aimed at coordinating relations between the state and society, performing informational and educational functions. The main task of the TV channel is to conduct state policy at the regional level. The total weekly broadcast of the TV channel is 119 hours. Among them, 80.30 hours, or 68% of the total message, are in the state language. Proprietary programs account for 45 hours or 38% of the total airtime. The broadcasting antenna of the "Atyray" TV channel is located at 153 meters of the 180-meter tower. Achievements: * "APTA" television information-analysis program (author and presenter N. Kosshiev) was awarded with a special diploma of the International "Spirit" festival; * For the first time, a 7-series TV series called "The river flows in its own way" was shot on television; * On the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the Great Patriotic War, the television film "Fate-Fate" was shot, and it won the 2nd place in the nomination "Best author's work" at the 4th International "Eternal Flame" festival held in Volgograd; * The film "Caspian ecology: ways to solve problems" won in the nomination "for active citizenship" at the International "Man and the Sea" competition held in Astrakhan; * "Homeland - Atyrau" program won the republican "Shanyrak" creative competition /Astana/; * Cyclic program "Amanat" won the 2nd place in the competition organized by Kazakhstan RTRK JSC in the nomination "Best historical and cultural program" /Astana/ In addition, KTK, NTV, Khabar, 24KZ, El Arna, Qazsport, Mir, Kazakhstan, Channel 1 "Eurasia", STV, Astana TV, NTK, Channel 31, Abay TV, Seventh Channel, TVC and other channels work. ### Radio The history of "Atyraý radiosy" begins with the establishment of Guryev region in 1938. On March 2, 1938, the radio program was broadcast for the first time. Now it broadcasts 17 hours a day at 102.0 FM. 80 years ago, this media institution, which broadcast the first news to the people of Guryev at that time, is now equipped with modern technology. In times of political and economic emergency situations in the country, he immediately raises his voice, disseminates urgent information to the people, and contributes to the formation of a positive opinion in the society. Now a new radio transmitter with an extended range of 1000 kilowatts has been put into operation, and the radio wave distribution area has expanded to 60 kilometers. In addition, 101.0 Kazakh radio, 101.6 Radio Dacha, 102.8 Shalkar radio, 103.6 Tandem radio, 104 ,4 NS Radio, 104.8 Lux FM, 105.2 Russian Radio Asia, 105.7 Vostok FM, 106.2 Dala FM, 106.8 Europe+ Kazakhstan, 107.2 Star FM, 107.7 Avtoradio Kazakhstan etc. b. works. ## Interesting places of the city * Imangali mosque * Assumption church * Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly monument * Sultan Beybarys monument * Atyrau regional museum of local history * Khivaz Dospanova monument * Isatai-Mahambet monument ## Pictures of Atyrau city * * * * * ## Famous persons * Bolat Zhamituly Utemuratov - manager of affairs of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan * Timur Nurbakytuly Bekmambetov - film director, clip maker, producer * Ghani Esenkeldiuly Kasymov - patriots of Kazakhstan chairman of the party * Arkadiy Yuryevich Volozh - CEO of Yandex company * Fariza Ongarsynova - poet, folk writer, journalist ## Sister cities * Aktau, Kazakhstan * Ural, Kazakhstan * Aktobe, Kazakhstan * Astrakhan, Russia * Syktyvkar, Russia * Ashdod, Israel * Aberdeen, United Kingdom ## See more * Atyrau Oblast * Atyrau Agrarian Technical College * Atyrau Engineering and Humanitarian Institute * Atyrau Oil and Gas University * Atyrau University ## Sources ## External links * Official site of the Atyrau Oblast Administration Archived on October 7, 2014. * Atyrau City informational site Archived 24 August 2006. * Regional newspaper "Atyrau".

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3765

Orders of Kazakhstan

The system of orders, honorary titles and medals of the Republic of Kazakhstan originates from the Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated December 12, 1995 No. 2676 "On State Awards of the Republic of Kazakhstan". Awards have been changed and supplemented over time. ## Marks of highest distinction ## Orders ## Sources