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https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5319

Senate of the Parliament of Kazakhstan

The Senate of the Parliament of Kazakhstan is the upper chamber of the legislative body of the Republic. 40 deputies of the 50-member Senate are indirectly elected by local maslikhats and the remaining 10 deputies are appointed by the President. The term of office of the Senate deputies is 6 years. The Speaker of the Senate is called its Chairman, the current holder of this position is Maulen Ashimbaev. ## Electoral system 40 deputies of the 50 members of the Senate of Kazakhstan are indirectly elected by maslikhats of 17 regions and three cities of republican significance for six years. They are not elected immediately: every three years twenty are elected from each region and city. The remaining 10 deputies are appointed by the president, half of them are nominated by the Assembly of the People of Kazakhstan. ## History ### First convocation (1996–1999) Powers of the first convened Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan on January 30, 1996 with the opening of the first session began and ended on November 30, 1999, the date of the first session of the second convened Parliament. In the elections held in December 1995, 40 deputies of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan were elected from 19 regions and 2 from the capital of Kazakhstan. Seven deputies of the Senate were appointed by the President. On October 8, 1997, due to the expiration of the term of office of the Senate deputies elected for 2 years in 1995, the Senate deputies were elected for 4 years. As a result of the optimization of regions, elections were scheduled for 14 regions of the republic and the city of Almaty. In October 1997, 15 deputies were elected to the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In connection with the declaration of Akmola as the capital of the Republic of Kazakhstan, on February 11, 1998, the election of the deputies of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan was held in the city of Akmola. ### The second convocation (1999–2004) The mandate of the second convocation of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan began with the opening of its first session on December 1, 1999, and the first session of the third convocation began in 2004 ended on November 2. On September 17, 1999, on September 17, 1999, due to the expiration of the term of office of the Senate deputies elected for 4 years in 1995, the election of the Senate deputies was held for 6 years. The powers of the Senate deputies elected in 1997 continued until December 2002 in the second election in accordance with the constitutional norms. ### The third convocation (2004–2007) The powers of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan of the third convocation began with the opening of its first session on November 3, 2004, and the day of the first session of the fourth convocation of the Parliament 2007 ended on September 1. In December 2005, due to the expiration of the term of office of the Senate deputies elected on September 17, 1999, the election of Senate deputies was held on August 19, 2005. The powers of the Senate deputies elected in 2002 continued in the third election in accordance with the constitutional norms. ### The fourth convocation (2007–2012) The mandate of the fourth convocation of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan began on September 2, 2007 with the opening of its first session, and the day of the first session of the fifth convocation of the Parliament 2012 ended on January 19. According to the changes made to the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan in May 2007, 8 more deputies of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan were appointed by the Decree of the President of the country on August 29, 2007. The powers of the Senate deputies elected in 2002 continued until December 2008 in the fourth election. The powers of the Senate deputies elected and appointed in 2005 continued until September 2011. On August 19, 2011, another election was held for half of the deputies of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On November 23, 2011, 7 deputies were appointed by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, their mandate will expire in 2017. ### The fifth convocation (2012–2016) The term of office of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan of the fifth convocation began on January 20, 2012 with the opening of its first session and ended with the start of the first session of the sixth convocation of the Parliament. The powers of the Senate deputies elected in 2008 and 2011, appointed in 2007 and 2011 in the fifth election of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan will continue in accordance with the constitutional norms. On August 26, 2013, 8 deputies of the Senate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan were appointed due to the expiration of the mandate of the Senate deputy appointed in August 2007 by the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. On October 1, 2014, according to the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the election of Senate deputies was held. Deputies elected in 2008 were terminated due to registration of deputies elected in 2014. ### Sixth convocation (2016–2021) The mandate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan of the sixth convocation began on March 25, 2016 with the opening of its first session, and ended with the start of the first session of the Parliament of the seventh convocation. The powers of the Senate deputies elected in 2011, 2014, appointed in 2011, 2013 in the fifth election of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan will continue in accordance with the constitutional norms. On June 28, 2017, in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the election of Senate deputies was held. In connection with the registration of deputies elected in 2017, the powers of deputies elected in 2011 were suspended on June 30. In October 2018, the election of two Senate deputies was held in the city of Shymkent, as a city of republican significance. Elections of Senate deputies were held on August 12, 2020. In connection with the registration of the elected deputies of 2020, the mandate of the elected Senate deputies of 2014 was suspended on August 28. ### Seventh convocation (2021–2023) The mandate of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan of the seventh convocation begins on January 15, 2021 with the opening of its first session and continues until the first session of the Parliament of the eighth convocation begins . The mandate of the Senate deputies elected in 2017 and 2020, appointed in 2017 and 2019 in the sixth convocation of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan will continue in accordance with constitutional norms. Due to the creation of three new regions in the republic, the election of Senate deputies from these regions has been scheduled. On August 24, 2022, the election of six new Senate deputies was held. ### The eighth convocation (2023–) The seventh convocation was dissolved early and new parliamentary elections were announced in 2023. The eighth elected Senate began its work on March 29, 2023. ## Leadership ### Chairman Chairman of the Senate is the speaker of the Senate, elected by secret ballot among deputies. The Senate candidate is proposed by the President. ### Deputy Chairman The Senate has two Deputy Chairman who supervise the implementation of the orders made by the Senate. Deputies of the Senate elect the deputy chairpersons, and the chairperson himself proposes their candidacy. ## Committees * Committee on Constitutional Legislation, Judiciary and Law Enforcement * Committee on Finance and Budget * Committee on International Relations, Defense and Security \< > * Economic policy, innovative development and entrepreneurship committee * Socio-cultural development and science committee * Committee on agrarian issues, use of nature and development of rural areas ## School of Analysis From 2022, the School of Analysis will operate under the Senate. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5206

Kurmangazy

Kurmangazy Sagyrbayuly (1823-1896) is a great Kazakh singer-composer. A classic of Kazakh instrumental music. ## Biography Place of birth Bokei khanate, a place called Zhideli belonging to the Zhanakala district of the modern West Kazakhstan region. The place where the soil is ordered is the former "Shaytani bataga", now "Kurmangazy hill" of the Astrakhan region. The origin is the Kyzylkurt branch of the Sultansiyk, descended from Kishi hundred, twelve ancestors Baiul. Ershi, the seventh grandfather of Kurmangazy, was a man of fiery tongue, sickly mouth, and eloquent man. And his uncles are the Berish clan. The name of Agatai Batyr, who stood out for his bravery during the Kalmyk invasion, was the motto of Berish. Since then, Otemis bi, Makhambet Otemisuly, Isatai Taimanuly have been the honorable sons of not only the Berish clan, but also of Kazakhs. Kurmangazy's father Sagyrbay (real name is Duysenbay) was a peasant who could not devote himself to art. The fifth grandfather of Kurmangazy was probably an artist who graduated from the Baltabai family. And his seventh grandfather, Ershi, was a man with a fiery tongue, a scythe legend, and a man of words. To this day, there is a saying in the country: "Put the man in the saddle and argue with his wife first." Kurmangazy's uncle is the Berish clan. Kurmangazy's mother, Alka, a daughter of a country that has a tradition of bravery and freedom, flew freely like a manly wind of the field until she became a bride, a man became a bridegroom, and the game brought the atmosphere of a wedding. Later, when Igilyk's daughter married Aues, the Berish clan became Kurmangazy's in-laws. Since Kurmangazy's childhood, the most eloquent and sensitive language of Kurmangazy was the Kui language coming from the throat of the double-stringed dombra. That's why, as soon as he listens to Sokir Eszhan, the sahara's swashbuckling musician, he understands the language and religion of his dombra and listens to it. That's why he appreciated the state of his contemporaries such as Sherkesh, Baijuma, Balamaysang, and learned the most honest secret of the time from those states. Kurmangazy's teacher was Uzak. In 1830, Kurmangazy was also involved in the peasant uprising against Zhangir Khan, led by Isatai Taimanuly from Berish and his soul friend, stormy poet, quarrelsome musician Makhambet Otemisuly. In those years, he produced the tune "Kishkentai". In 1857, Kurmangazy was imprisoned. He escapes from the place where he is going to be driven to Siberia. The second time he was imprisoned in Orinbor prison, but he was saved with the support of the Governor-General Perovsky. He sings various tunes on the theme of the prison: "I will break up", "I will leave tomorrow", "Open handcuffs", "Escaped from prison", "Bet by a cart", "Perovsky march", "Neither scream, nor noise", "Machine". In 1880, he moved to the settlement of Sakmar in the foothills of Astrakhan. Kurmangazy, Dina Kenzhekvyna Nurpeyisova, Yergali Yeszhanov, Mendigali Suleymenov, who are highly respected among the community, will gather their successors. Kokbala, Menetay, Menkara, Sugirali, Torgaybai, Shora, famous masters of dombra playing at that time, were teachers of Kurmangazy. Kurmangazy saw off Sokyr Eszhan, a quarrelsome coachman of the Sahara, became close friends with a cheerful coachman like Dauletkerey, and learned from the art of musicians like Sherkesh, Baijuma, and Balamaisan. ## History and list of his life * 1823 - was born in Kurmangazy district, present-day Atyrau region. * 1836-1840 - animal husbandry is stopped and art comes to an end. Kuishi follows Uzak and travels around the country. * 1830-1840 - the field of composition opens and gives birth to dozens of tunes. * 1845-1850 - travels around Zhem, Saqig Bay and Mangistau, Ustirt regions. He lives in the land of his great-uncles Toremurat and Narynbai in Aday. * 1850 - after coming from Mangystau, he was imprisoned in Orinbor prison. Soon he will run away from him. * 1857 – on September 26, he was sent to Orda prison. * 1857 - escapes from prison at the beginning of November. * 1857-1860 - hides in other villages. * 1860-1863 - returns to the country. * 1864 - imprisoned in Orda prison for escaping from prison and "cattle theft" and spent 2 years and 7 months there. * 1868 - Meets journalist N. Savichev. * 1868 - enters the Ural prison. * 1870 - he was summoned from Astrakhan and imprisoned again. There he met a Kalmyk named Saranjap and escaped from prison. * 1882 – is in Krasnoyar prison. * 1884 - asked for help from the ruler Makash Bekmukhammedov and received a "White passport". * 1885-90 - Moves to Sakhma and publishes "Recreation". * 1890-95 - lived a leisurely life, hunted and shot birds. The disciple educates. * 1896 - died in Altynzhar, Volodar district, Astrakhan region. ## Works Kurmangazy's life, especially when he began to recognize right from left and began to actively participate in life, was very complicated. This period was the time when the colonial policy conducted by Tsarist Russia gained momentum, was expensive, and went beyond limits. It is a habit that the weight of the nauvet that comes to the head of the country falls first of all on the shoulders of tall men. Zamana Zobalan also engulfed Kurmangazy with its fire. His works include "Escaped from prison", "Opened the handcuffs", "I will leave tomorrow", "Bozkangyr", "Pabeski", "From the window and the door", "Bozsholak", "Buktym-buktym", "Ne krichi, ne shumi", "Arba" "Struck", "Aman bol, chechem, bol hale!", "Kairan chechem" are like one station of your zobalan, which is different from time. He responded to any discussion of harsh fate with his art and left a mark with his art. Kurmangazy is a singer in love with life. He can rejoice like a child in the bright moments of life and be filled with emotions. His "Red Birch", "Akjelen", "Aday", "Saryarka", "Balbyraun", "Serper", "Nazym", "Balkaymak", "Nightingale's Dry", "Aksak Kiik", "Toremurat", "Kuanysh" "like the heartbeat of a soul eager for life. Kurmangazy is a conceptual poet. It is characteristic of the spiritual nature of Kurmangazy to reflect on modern events that affect the fate of not one, not two, but several generations. His tunes such as "Dzhiger", "Kobik shashkan", "Kishkentai", "Akbay" are the assessment of a musical philosopher devoted to the historical and social nature of the time in which he lived. Similarly, "Aizhan-ay", "Ida nightingale", "Alatau", "Amandasar", "Bas Akjelen", "Remalys", "Laushken", "Oybai, my child", "Saranjap" "Negative" "Kapai", "Uzak Akzhelen" tunes are widely known. Kurmangazy's lofty spirit is not a phenomenon that fits into only one field of music. The existence of such a unique talent can be a testimony to the spiritual existence of a single nation. All the joys and sorrows of the great historical changes in the fate of the nation are always measured by the fate of the firstborn children. On this occasion, Kurmangazy was able to be the brightest witness not only with his unique art, but also with his life to all the qualities of his native people and the state of the people of that turbulent period. With his winged states, like Mahambet in poetry, like Shokan in science, like Kenesary in the battlefield, he lived without losing control of his ambitious spirit and without changing the times. ## History of Kuylyri "Kishkentai" is one of the first works of Kurmangazy Kushi. This song is dedicated to the leader of the rebellion, Isaiah. In his compositions "Akbay", "Aksak kiik", "Kobik shashkan", "Escape from prison", "Aday", bright future, people's hope, anger towards the ruling class are skillfully described. The poet brings to mind his homeland, the vast steppe through the poem "Saryarka". Kurmangazy's tunes captivate the listener with their rich melody, kerbez pattern, energetic energy, and their quick accent. Kuishi knew how to fully use the methods of performing the dombra, the rich sound and technical capabilities of the instrument. Due to the peculiarities of Kurmangazy tunes - the climax of the tune, i.e., the small mouth and the big mouth, the dombra range is completely mastered, and the original size and rhythm of the tune is kept unchanged throughout the work. "Balbyraun", "Erten zhetem", "Buktym-buktym", "Balkaymak", "Gray Kangyr", "Ne krichi ne shumi", "Aizhan-ay", "Laushken" etc. b. Below are detailed definitions of many states: * Kairan Chesham Akbay's messengers were about to tie Kurmangazy to a cart when they saw Akbala, his mother. He regrets that he has not done a good deed to his mother, who brought him up in a pitiful manner, and thinks that he is being driven away again. He comes to his mother with tears in his eyes. "If I say that I have found a son, then I have given birth to something bad and bad. Who are you crying in front of?" - and pulls him to the side with a slap. Kurmangazy realizes his mistake. While he was in the Ural prison, he thought about all of this and wrote a song called "Kairan Checham" dedicated to his mother. The mood begins slowly, as if describing the situation of a poet in a cage, and gradually it is moved and poured out with inspiration. * Kapy The dance that Kurmangazy revenged will be by following him. At one gathering, Kurmangazy, who was playing the tambourine and telling the story of Isatai and Makhambet, scolded Kurmangazy saying, "You told the story of Isatai Makhambet." Because of this regret, he released the status "Kapy". * Goodbye When Kurmangazy was about to be arrested and sent to the Orda prison, he said "Goodbye, my people, until we see each other again" and took the pose "Goodbye". " * Massacre of the girl Danai In 1850, Kurmangazy went with his brothers Toremurat, Oten, and Narymbai along the Zhem river and brought back the girl Danai. Kurmangazy protects the pursuers by knocking them down and preventing them from coming to the wedding. His uncles are pleased with this heroism and give him a gift. The inspired singer sings "Kyz Danai's massacre" for this joy. Kurmangazy describes the clatter of horse hooves and a fierce battle. In between, the girl was able to depict Danai's beauty and ringing smile with clay voices. Due to the emergence of this state, Toremurat gathers the people and makes a big feast with slaughtering of animals. * Red Birch It is said that Kurmangazy survived the persecutors by covering himself with a branch of a red birch that grew alone in the field. Later: "My country, my land, and my tree are a refuge. "I took care like a mother and devoted myself to the red birch, which sheltered me with its leaves," he said. * The foamy Caspian Sea at certain times rises in level, overflows the shore and overflows. According to scientists, this is a phenomenon that happens every epoch. A similar phenomenon occurred in the second half of the 19th century. Great composer Kurmangazy and poet Kashagan saw this with their own eyes. When Kurmangazy came, he met Kashagan and both of them walked along the shore of the overflowing sea. There is also a picture drawn by an artist about this. Kashagan published a saga called "The Flood" about this flood that caused suffering to the people. The poet connects the tragic phenomenon of nature with the loss of moral and sensual qualities of mankind with a philosophical concept. Kurmangazy saw the sea overflowing, foaming and raging, and felt pain that it had harmed the people. He is also greatly influenced by the Kashagan saga. So, the heart-wrenching clay "Foamed" came out. * Escaped from prison According to the book, Kurmangazy writes the poem after escaping from prison, while resting. Kuishi has been fighting for the independence of his country since he was young, and along the way he has been imprisoned many times. At one of those times, the coachman's friend in prison, Lavochkin's mother, secretly brings a steel saw to his throat. Then Kurmangazy escapes from the prison with the help of his supporters. Tired and taking a rest, the singer sings "The Escape from Prison". ## External links * Descendants of Kurmangaz * Status power ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7098

Kanat Bekmyrzauly Saudabaev

Kanat Bekmyrzauly Saudabayev (born in 1946) is a deputy of the Mazhilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Doctor of Political Science, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, State Secretary of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2007 - 2012) ## Biography \< > Born in 1946. He came from the Baiys section of the Zhanys clan of the Dulat tribe. Graduated from Leningrad State Institute of Culture, Academy of Social Sciences (Moscow). * After graduating from the institute, he worked in the field of the Ministry of Culture. He was the chairman of the State Committee on Cinematography, State Committee on Culture. * Since 1991, he has been appointed as the representative of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Russian Federation, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the Republic of Turkey, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Head of the Prime Minister's Office, and member of the Government since 1991. * In 2007, he acted as the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the United States of America, and the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Kazakhstan to Canada. * May 15, 2007 - State Secretary of the Republic of Kazakhstan. * Director of the state institution of multidisciplinary scientific analysis and humanitarian education "Nazarbayev Center" * Since August 27, 2015 - a deputy of the Mazhilis of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5075

Sara Tastanbekovyna

Sara Tastanbekovyna (1853; present-day Kapal district of Almaty region - 1907) is a poet, musician, folk poet, singer, drummer. He came from the Atalik Kaptagai section of the Matai clan of the Naiman tribe. ## Biography The creative path of Sara, who has seen a lot of hardships in her short life and suffered from social inequality, is a difficult and complicated path. He lost his father when he was three years old and grew up suffering from poverty. As if this is not enough, his cousin Jaishanbek, who is the sole support, even on the outside, goes to prison under the accusation that he "stole an ox". Turusbek Haji, who took care of an orphan, a widow, left alone in the midst of poverty, and brought her to his village, calls Sara and gives her to a rich son, Zhienkul, who is not equal to him, born with a defect in nature. Esimbek pilgrim, who heard about the action of the Turussbek pilgrim who bought cattle for the orphan girl, raised an argument and moved Sara to his village. But it will not be good for Sarah. In the end, the peasant settled down with the two pilgrims agreeing to divide the girl's livestock equally. In this way, the opening of the garden of the poet girl, who was in trouble like a snowball, will be a big reason for her to meet the famous Birzhan Sal, who is currently traveling around the Naiman country and making friends, and to argue with him in front of a square group. This argument increases Sarah's reputation in front of the people and spreads her fame far and wide. The pilgrims, who felt that the fate of the poetess, who was respected by the country and won the love of the people, was slipping out of their hands, could not oppose the crowd and gave her freedom. Thus, the poet Sara achieved equality thanks to her great talent, and at the age of nineteen she married her equal Altynbekuly Bekbay. It was as if he had reached equality, joined his equal, and opened his eyes. ## The meeting of the poet Abai and Sara On the way back from the city of Vernyi with the remains of Abish (Abdirahman), Sara, along with the good people of the Naiman country who came to condole with Abay, came to see the great poet, dear Expresses sympathy for the loss of a child. ## Birzhan and Sara Sara Tastanbekovyna's Birzhan salmen aytis, which has been continuing from century to century, is considered a high and artistic example of the Kazakh art of aytis. ## Poems of the poet In addition to this poem, "Heart", "Ashindym", "In front of Arsalan's brother", "Secret of the heart", "In the garden", "To the ghost of Abish", He has many poems such as "Hosh bol, elim" and the saga "Tuzak". ## Sara Tastanbekovyna's grave As a young woman, she saw a lot of poverty, suffered the effects of inequality, lived a hard life, and was accompanied by sadness. died early. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6143

Gibraltar

Gibraltar (English: Gibraltar [ʤɪˈbrɔːltɚ]) is a British dependency located on the Iberian Peninsula, bordering Spain to the north. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7346

Ilyas Korykbaev

Ilyas Korykbaev (1937, Batpakht village, Yrgyz district - 1994, Batpakht village, Yrgyz district) is a singer. ## Biography * Secretary of the Village Council * head of the postal communication department * worked as an accountant. ## Art way He learned drumming from his brother-in-law Zakaria Zyrau. Kurmangaz's "Aksak Kiik", "Aday", "Kisen Ashkan", Tattimbet's "Sarzhailau", "Sylkyldak", "Bylkyldak", etc. performed the tunes perfectly on the drum. "Kulager", "Manmanger", "Balkadisha", "Walking Musa" by the famous Akan Seri Koramsauly, "Ak sisa", "Sursha Kyz" by Baizhanuly, "Aitbay" by Birzhan Kozhaguly, "Gashigym", etc. . He sang his songs along with the drum. Sh. He recited Kaldayakov's songs and Nurkhan Akhmetbekov's poems "Esym Seri", "Jasaul massacre", "Ury karga" and epic poems "Alpamys batyr", "Er Targyn", "Kozy Korpesh-Bayan sulo". ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7170

Әбу-Насыр

Abu Nasir Al-Farabi (Arabic: ابو نصر محمد الفارابي ‎; Abu Nasir Muhammad ibn Muhammad Tarkhan ibn Uzlag al-Farabi al-Turki; 870 - 950) is a world-famous thinker, philosopher, sociologist, mathematician, physicist , astronomer, botanist, linguist, logician, music researcher. Born in Otyrar. ## Educational path He was educated in Otyrar Madrasah, Shash, Samarkand, Bukhara, then Harran, Egypt, Aleppo (Aleppo), Baghdad. ## The way of creativity Abu Nasir Al-Farabi is the most famous and famous of the Turkish thinkers, the scholar who was called "the 2nd teacher of the world". His time coincides with the development of the economy and culture of the cities along the Silk Road, including Otyrar. Abu Nasir Al-Farabi made global trips to the cities of Central Asia, Persia, Iraq, Arab countries and grew up quickly. In those places, he met and interviewed many scholars, thinkers, poets, and figures. According to historical data, he knew about 70 languages. A thinker who read a lot and searched a lot, he wrote about 150 treatises in the fields of philosophy, logic, ethics, metaphysics, linguistics, natural science, geography, mathematics, medicine, and music. In his works, he analyzed the works of ancient Greek scholars, especially Aristotle (he wrote commentaries on Aristotle's main works such as "Metaphysics", "Category", "First and Second Analytics"). The famous Arab scientist-geographer Ibn-Hawkal in his work "Kitab Masalik wa Mamalik" and Ibn-Khallikan who lived in the 13th century in his work "Ufiat al-aian fi al-Zaman" mentioned the names of the great-grandfathers of Abu Nasir Al-Farabi (Tarkhan, Uzlak ) is presented in pure Turkish. Although the future scientist learned his first language in his native place, at the age of 12-16 he followed the caravan and went to Baghdad in search of education. Before the birth of Abu Nasir Al-Farabi, 126 years ago, the city of Farab, a great cultural center of the Turks, had peacefully converted to Islam. At that time, it was obligatory for every open-minded Muslim to engage in the science of Islam. Since then, Abu Nasir Al-Farabi has been considered a scholar of the Arabic language. Since the Holy Quran is not only a collection of religious principles, but also a universal book that contains the secret keys of many teachings, Abu Nasir Al-Farabi made it obligatory for all Islamic scholars - ijtihad (work hard to reach the peak of thinking ability). and mujtahid (a person engaged in ijtihad bases his findings on the Holy Qur'an and Hadith Sharif - obligatory and sunnah actions). Under the influence of atheistic ideology during the Soviet regime, al-Farabi was presented as a non-religious scientist. However, the following information about his great contribution to the preservation of Islamic unity has been preserved. The brave commander Muhammad Ikhshid ibn Tugit Amir, who is of Turkish descent, meets with Abu Nasir Al-Farabi after defeating the "Karmat" country, which violated the path of Islam. Abu Nasir Al-Farabi, who was happy about the defeat of the Karmats who did not allow him to make a "pilgrimage" by cutting off the road to Mecca, secretly intends to make a "pilgrimage" and talks with the Arab caliph's said-zadas. In this story, the scientist expresses the idea that in order to preserve the unity of Islam, it is necessary to reconcile the sects, and declares that he is trying to eliminate the divisions between the Arab, Persian and Turkish races. "In the testament left by the ancestors, it was said that the Turkish people are just. Now we are convinced of the truth and justice of that word," Said-zadalar respectfully shakes Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's hand. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's visit to Baghdad from a young age has the following two secrets. First, the trusted viziers of the Abbasid dynasty, which ruled the Caliphate of Baghdad at that time, were mainly from the Turkestan city of Farab. Secondly, the city of Baghdad opened its gates wide and created the best possible conditions for those who are on the path of science and art. In Baghdad, there was a house of scholars called "Bait al-Hakma" and the richest library in the world. At first, Abu Nasr Al-Farabi introduced himself as a poet, singer, and musician, and then he began to engage in complex scientific research by reading the manuscripts of ancient Greek scientists. Farabi's first teachers were Nestorian Christians who recognized Jesus as a "prophet" and not as a "son of God". They were the ones who bridged the gap between ancient Greek science and Arabic science. The worldview of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi is the result of the interrelationships of two worlds: nomadic and sedentary civilizations and Eastern and Greco-Roman cultures. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's socio-political views, language culture, philosophical and humanitarian (philosophy, logic, ethics, aesthetics, politics, sociology, linguistics, poetry, rhetoric, music) and natural sciences (astronomy, astrology, physics, chemistry, geography) , cosmology, mathematics, medicine) and made valuable scientific discoveries in these areas. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi has three main directions in his philosophy: he recognized the eternity of the world, confirmed the dependence of knowledge on existence, differentiated the doctrine of intelligence. He sought the origins of eternity and dependence from Almighty God, from the essence of phenomena in the heavenly world, from intelligence, from the soul of man, from the relationship between form and matter. From the principles of Aristotle, he accepted those close to his worldview and explained it from this point of view. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's philosophical approach can only be deeply understood in historical context, in relation to his era. In the Middle Ages, the development of philosophical thought was based on the foundations of religious teachings. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the philosophical teaching of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi from the perspective of the religious concepts of his time. But he developed these concepts philosophically. It is especially evident from the doctrine of the "underworld". This was a further development of Aristotle's view of the creative mind. The creative mind is not only the cause of motion of the "underworld", but also the logos in itself. The law of this world is the mind inherent in the earthly world. An individual's mind develops only if it is combined with the world consciousness. The last, that is, world consciousness, is eternal. A person creates a world that is fleeting. From this, the idea that the soul is eternal and flies away to another place is born, which was a thesis that was the subject of a struggle between religious principles and philosophy. The great thinker attached great importance to philosophy and placed great hopes on it. He understood philosophy as an intellect that wakes up the society, a beacon of reason, a main direction that brings the people to a just society, a tool that continues the spiritual and cultural continuity between generations, a method that finds solutions to complex social and ethical problems, answers to the demands of the times. At this level, it is necessary to read and learn the 9 principles of philosophy in order to think correctly and act positively. The goal here is to search for integrity, truth, goodness, new sources of good, and to achieve it. The philosopher attached great importance to the education of a person to know his own nature. This problem is widely differentiated from the logical, ethical, pedagogical, and linguistic points of view, and it is considered in the continuity with each other. He looks for symbols of the highest spiritual goal in the sources that connect people to each other - the harmony of the soul, beauty, charity, happiness. "Views of residents of the benevolent city", "Words of state figures" and others. In his political and social treatises, he focused more on the issue of charity and happiness. Charity followed the tradition of ancient thinkers who espoused the ideas of reason, justice, happiness and equality. He warned that only people who have real knowledge about happiness, clearly know the ways to achieve it, and act accordingly are flexible to charity. Al-Farabi was again turning to the problem of improving the system of feeling and thinking, education and action. Without education, morality cannot be improved, an uneducated person cannot recognize the virtues of others. There is no great success without educating the soul. The way to spiritual health will be opened only if science and education are combined. He warns that a person who has not been able to correct his behavior will not have access to true science. The teachings of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi rely on Eastern thinkers, Aristotelian and New Platonist views, giving them a new character. In his work entitled "Treatise on the Necessary Conditions for Learning Philosophy", he presents his views on the nine conditions necessary for learning Aristotle's philosophy. Based on Aristotle's scheme presented in Nicomachean Ethics (Book 1, §1), al-Farabi divides philosophy into theoretical and practical. Theoretical philosophy studies immutable, impermanent things, practical philosophy studies things that can be changed or created. Philosophy, according to Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, is learned through reason, the "most special" good that exists only in man. The function of the mind and reason should not be carried out as it is, then purposefulness takes on a character. It is based on the correct methods of thinking, which are considered by the art of logic. According to Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, a person should start his path to happiness from logic. In a word, Farabi says that it is up to people to achieve their goals. He concludes that a person should constantly improve himself from the spiritual point of view, that a person can improve only by knowing the truth and the world around him. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's thoughts on civil, political, human and society are considered in the treatise "Fusul al-madani" ("Proverbs of statesmen"). Although the topics of this treatise are different, they are mainly dedicated to one goal - the relationship between man and society, and its development. A unique characteristic of labor is that physical and spiritual phenomena are compared. If Farabi begins his analysis of society in "Civil Policy" from the city, in "Proverbs..." he begins it from the smallest nest, fireplace or home. Like Aristotle, he divides the house into several parts - husband and wife, master and servant, parent and child, property and owner. The house has its own purpose, but as a part of the city, it is dedicated to serving the common purpose that the city defines, and in the meantime there is an opinion about subordinating the interests of a person to the interests of society. Here, understanding Farabi's city as the state, we find high manifestations of great civil humanism in his thoughts. Here, we consider not only the interests of the individual, but the high regard for the interests of the society as a sacred expression of great citizenship and morality. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi believes that a person must be honest. because if one does good deeds and expects to be paid for it, a person turns these deeds into bad deeds. A mature philosopher should know theoretical sciences and be able to apply these sciences to other sciences. Plato and Aristotle believed that a true philosopher should be entrusted with the duties of a governor, but according to Plato, a philosopher refers to immutable truths and considers state management to be a burden that hinders the achievement of a higher goal, while Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, on the contrary, does not keep away from life's affairs, but again people's pursuit of the truth. tries to help him get on his way. Meanwhile, he compares religion and philosophy. According to him, religion is similar to philosophy: both provide an understanding of higher principles, the beginnings of things. But philosophy requires proof, religion requires belief. The lawgiver, by virtue of his very good judgment, is able to properly implement the laws which are supposed to be in the interest of man. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi left many legacies from all fields of science of his time, especially mathematics, astronomy, physics, and natural sciences. In his work "The chain of sciences" he divides the science of that time into five major areas: * linguistics and its chapters; * logic and its chapters; * mathematics and its chapters; * physics and its chapters, metaphysics and its chapters; * civil science and its branches, jurisprudence and religious science. The scientist determines the subject of all these sciences and dwells on their summary. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi worked as a mathematician in three closely related fields. They are: 1) the methodology of mathematics. problems (origin of the subject of mathematical science, basic concepts and methods), 2) mathematical natural science, 3) participation in creating some specific chapters of mathematics. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi divides mathematics into seven chapters (arithmetic, geometry, optics, astronomy, music, statics, mechanics — the science of method and trick). He is one of the first scientists who considered algebra as an independent branch of mathematics and defined the subject of algebra. In this regard, Abu Nasr Al-Farabi proposed a very important idea of expanding the concept of number to the concept of positive real number. tries to reveal the origin and causes of mathematics in his treatise called "The Origin of Sciences". In the work called "Commentary on the difficult places in the introductions of the first and fifth books of Euclid", the methodol. gave valuable comments on the issues. He showed in practice that Euclid's "Fundamentals", which were considered perfect and perfect for a long time, could be tested, edited, and corrected, and pointed the right way to mathematicians. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, in addition to laying the foundation stone of philosophy of mathematics, also demonstrated the need to boldly apply it to the study of natural phenomena. According to Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, mathematics provides clear, true knowledge and strongly influences the development of other sciences. In his work entitled "What is right or wrong in astrological predictions", he separates scientific astrology from astronomy, and based on the principles mentioned in Aristotle's logical works and the achievements of natural sciences, he tries to distinguish whether unknown, random phenomena can be predicted in advance or not. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's later, his opinions were of great importance in the formation of the philosophy and logical bases of the probability theory. He wrote major works in the field of mathematics and natural sciences. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi wrote a lengthy commentary on the "Almage" of the great ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy. This work is known as "Commentary on Almages". This treatise of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, which was of great importance in the history of astronomy and mathematics, had a good influence on the development of trigonometry. Based on the works of mathematicians before him, he developed his own theory of trigonometry lines. The main innovation here is that Abu Nasr Al-Farabi considered sine, cosine, sine-fersus, tangent, cotangent lines within a single circle of constant radius. He revealed some relations between them, defined some simple features. He achieved significant success in determining the sine and cosine of one degree of arc, which is very necessary in making tables of trigonometry. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, based on these mentioned trigonometry data and other additional mathematical materials, offers the easiest methods of mathematically solving the problems of astronomy and geography discussed in "Almages". "The Book of Natural Secrets and Spiritual Methods and Tricks on the Details of Geometric Figures" has sorted out geometry construction problems and brought them into a single system. More than a hundred calculation methods are shown. These include: constructing a parabola, trisecting an angle, doubling a cube, constructing right polygons, constructing polygons, transforming plane figures, etc. there is Abu Nasr Al-Farabi has extensively considered problems that can be solved with the help of a permanent compass and a one-sided ruler. In this work, there is an idea of how to mentally solve the problem of 3, 4, 5, etc., that is, how to mentally solve the problem of building a cube. In view of this, there is reason to assume that Abu Nasr Al-Farabi is one of the first exponents of the idea of multidimensional abstract geometry. It has been found that the treatise of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi has been attributed by the historians of mathematics to the famous Khorasan mathematician Abu-l-Wafa. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi wrote a work called "A Brief Introduction to Theoretical Arithmetic" in the field of arithmetic. Many of his logical works contain elements of mathematical logic. The mathematical ideas and heritage of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi were widely used by Eastern scholars such as Abu-l-Wafa, Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), Abu Rayhan Biruni, Omar Khayyam, and European scientists such as Roger Bacon and Leonardo da Vinci. The outstanding work of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi in the field of physics is called "On Vacuum". Here he tried to prove that there is no vacuum by means of logical conclusions based on a rare experience of the ancient Greeks. In this work, Abu Nasr Al-Farabi considered various problems of physics, in addition to the problem of vacuum, and found the correct solutions according to the level of science at that time (the expansion or contraction of a body due to heat, the laws of increasing or decreasing the volume of air due to applied tension, pressure, the transfer of applied tension to air, etc.). In his treatise "On the Necessity of the Art of Alchemy", he analyzed the alchemical knowledge of his time, separated the scientific grain of alchemy from the false shell, and considered it as a branch of natural science with a specific research subject. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi in the field of medicine "Treatise written against Galen on the difference with Aristotle on human organs", "Animal Organs", "On Temperament" etc. wrote works, in which he mainly dealt with the theoretical problems of medicine, and tried to define the subject, tasks and goals of the art of medicine. In the philosophy and natural philosophy works of Abu Nasr Al-Farabi, he focuses on many problems of natural science. Astronomida observed through his own experience that the position of the sun's apogee is not constant. Ray propagation is proven by geometry with the laws of optics. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi's understanding of light, who discovered the laws of gathering, refraction, dispersion, and concentration of rays by geometrically precise methods, became known to European science only in the 17th century. German astronomer I. Kepler called it "focus" in Arabic. Eight centuries ago, Abu Nasr Al-Farabi called it "muharaq" from the meaning of "burning", "burning place". He made a concave mirror, that is, a parabola, a lens with his own hands, and used them in science. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi interprets and perfects the works of the great ancient Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, makes theoretical (mathematical) and practical conclusions, and gives ideas and opinions. For example, for the first time in history, he observes the passage of the planet Cholpan over the surface of the Sun, in his treatise "What is right or wrong in astrological predictions", the scholar describes scientific astronomy, the location, color, movement of stars, etc. distinguishes it from the ambiguous and doubtful science of astrology, which claims that it is possible to predict the future of human life and events on earth based on its visual properties. In the process of seriously reviewing the scholar's scientific and philosophical works, we see that he was one of the great figures in the history of pedagogy. He is an educationalist who created the first constructive pedagogical system in Eastern countries. In order to form the consciousness of the young generation, it is necessary to systematize and sequence the characteristics of three things: * The child's inner enthusiasm, passion; * Teacher's skill, honesty; * Location of the lesson process. The scientist paid special attention to the similarity of physical education and moral education, their influence on each other. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi. In his treatises "Rhetoric", "On the Art of Poetry", "Guide to Happiness", he paid attention to ethical and aesthetic issues, revealed the categories of art, beauty, happiness, kindness knowledge and proved their basis. He considered ethics to be, first of all, a science that allows us to distinguish between good and bad. That is why the categories of goodness and kindness occupy the main place in his concepts on ethics. The scholar's ethical thoughts are filled with deep humanism, he understands that the [human] child is the highest peak of creation, the owner of the whole soul, and that is why he should be respected and cherished. The main point of the Kortyn made by Farabi is the unity of the three knowledge, kindness and beauty. Farabi's humanist ideas spread widely around the world. He glorified the high value of intelligence and knowledge. Farabi says about art and beauty: it is a characteristic of the reality of life, an imaginary image of existence, real phenomena, social life. He believes that art is a sign that shows the beauty of the body and soul. ## Universal musician Abu Nasr Al-Farabi was also a universal musician. He played clay instruments, sang, composed songs and tunes. "The Great Book of Music" is a great historical work written by the scholar both about music and about physics and mathematics. Here the problems of musical acoustics are covered as widely as possible, the nature, origin, distribution of sound, etc. There are many correct and correct opinions about it. Creates the practical (experimental) and theoretical (mathematical) foundations of music, shows the ways in which physical-mathematical laws are realized in known musical instruments. Abu Nasr Al-Farabi defined three general (universal) theoretical conditions of scientific knowledge, and based on them he created a new theory of music. Those conditions are: firstly, to know all the fundamental bases and principles of science; secondly, to be able to draw necessary conclusions and results related to that science from these principles; thirdly, to be able to analyze the opinions that have never been expressed about this science, to be able to distinguish the right from the skin and correct the mistakes. In developing a mathematical theory of music, Abu Nasr Al-Farabi covered many fundamental problems of mathematics. They are: the theory of relations, problems of combinatorial analysis, functional dependencies and their mapping, the idea of axiomatics, etc. ## Al-Farabi and Abay There is no specific information about Abay's familiarity with Farabi's works. However, Sagdiyk: "... Abay al-Farabi, who attached great importance to philosophy and wisdom, was familiar with Ibn Sinas and had knowledge of these secret books" (Republican Literary and Memorial Museum of Abai. Inv. No. 172, 17-6. ), - is the opinion that Abay was familiar with Farabi's works. Abai does not hide the spiritual sources that nourished him in his works, he says again: "I searched for science, aimed at the world, looked in both directions..." - there is a deep secret in his warning. When considering the continuity of ideas in the works of Farabi and Abay, and the origins of the spiritual sources from which the poet's work was nourished, it is necessary to pay special attention to the view of the "soul power" common to the two great thinkers, or, in Abai's own words, "self-knowledge". In the course of the continuous development of scientific thought in the history of mankind, knowing the ways of formation of thoughts about "self-knowledge" or "soul power" has become a complex problem, which has prompted the development of opposite views from the very beginning. Although the first step of the doctrine of human self-knowledge began with the philosophers of the ancient world, the work of Farabi, who brought it down to a scientific system in his time, is especially noticeable. In the Kazakh soil, Farabi in ancient times and Abay in recent times explored the complex thoughts about "soul power" or "self-awareness" in general. In Abai's poems and poems, the thoughts about soul power are "spirit passion", "spirit power", "soul power", "soul food" etc. b. There are reasons for his special remark when he shares his thoughts in such a philosophical column: "The power of the soul is a lot of things, and there is not enough time to write them all here." From this conclusion, the poet's complete familiarity with the history of the doctrine of "self-knowledge" is clearly visible, and his regret for not being able to convey his thoughts to his listeners in a broad way can be felt. The philosophy used by Farabi on soul power. terms are given in Abay's poems and poems of Seventh, Seventeenth, Twenty-seventh, Thirty-eighth, Forty-third with equivalent words according to the kapyga or Kazakh concept in the original. Fourteenth and Seventeenth verses of the poet "At first, a cold ice is intelligent...", "There is no thought except for the eyes...", "A friend to an animal except an animal without sorrow...", "The word God is easy... ", "The heart is the sea, everything that is interesting is a precious stone..." is a special word and philosophy about the mind, courage, and heart. The origin of his thoughts on meaning lies in the works of Farabi. Farabi, in his work "Treatise on the Attitudes of the Residents of the Good City", systematizes the ideas of man about self-knowledge as "plant soul", "animal soul", "human soul". Analyzing the human soul (intellect), its internal and external sense organs (hawas), the heart is always given a decisive importance and shown in a special way. This approach to the knowledge of general soul power is characteristic of those who belong to the school of perepatetics. Farabi's and Abai's thoughts on this are consistent and interrelated. Farabi said, "Heart is the main organ, no other part of the body controls it. Next comes the brain. This is also the main member, but its dominance is not the first" (al-Farabi. Philosophical treatises. -A. , 1973, 289-6. ), - and giving decisive importance to the heart, Abay also said: "You will join the heads of the three of you in my said business. But it's okay if you have a ruling heart." From this, it can be seen that the basis of the knowledge of the heart of both great thinkers is the same, only the form of narration is different. According to the poet Farabi, in addition to giving the heart a decisive meaning, he also knows it as the source and abode of goodness, grace, and intercession. Moral philosophy, which the thinker-poet paid a lot of attention to, is also based on this knowledge. All the ideas of morality and morality that spread throughout Abay's works are combined with this point of view. The poet's line of thoughts about "hawas", "three pouring" (imani flower), "ja wan marelik", "justice", "intercession" are also concepts within this framework of knowledge. These are the basis of Farabi's knowledge about the most perfect (kamili insani) model of human personality in the above-mentioned work. The continuation of this Farabi tradition is clearly felt in Abay's thinking about the "complete man". Abay often mentions "full man", "half man", "being a man", "perfection of humanity", "perfection of personality", "full humanity", "humanity", "man's humanity", "being human", etc. b. concepts, groups of words with nominal meaning, and the source of opinions about it originate from the line of thought in Farabi's works. Farabi, in his work on "Fundamentals of Natural Sciences" (cosmogony), paid special attention to the khakas in general, and especially to its external sense organs, called khawasi hamsa zahiri. Al-Farabi's philosophies about the sense organs, which play a central role in recognizing the secret of the nature of the environment. concepts are presented in the same original form in Abai's Twenty-seventh, Thirty-eighth poems and the poem "Alla is easy to feel". The conclusion of the poet that "the owner of the soul, who benefits from the inanimate creatures, created the animals, and created the intelligent insan (man) who uses the living animals" originates from Farabi's step-by-step knowledge about the creation of the world, which says that God first created the inanimate world, plants, animals, and then intelligent people. If this knowledge is a weak point of Farabi's view, it is also a weak point of Abay's knowledge. In his works, the thoughtful poet pays special attention to the hawasi hamsa zahiri in the tradition of Farabi. Mind, consciousness is recognized as a spiritual phenomenon that arises from the reality of life around us through the external five senses, i.e., the radiant energy of cognition and radiation in the human mind. The basis of Abai's worldview about the origin of mind and consciousness corresponds to Farabi's line of thought: "Mind is nothing but experience" (al-Farabi. Philosophical treatises, 295-6.). Al-Farabi divides soul power into moving power and knowing power, and considers the knowing power in a person as internal and external soul power. This knowledge of Farabi is psychological in the work of Abai. is spoken as an equivalent of concepts. In the poems of the poet, five external human organs and internal sensory organs are taken together and interpreted as passion. Abai's sentence of hawas is often combined with the principle of representation (ahsi jihan), and in the Forty-third word, it is internally connected with Farabi's knowledge about the power of the soul in a person. The poet's concept of "ignorance of man" corresponds to Farabi's thoughts about the soul. Farabi paid special attention to the ability of a person to know the world (al-kwat almutehayila), and the main lines of thought are reflected in the concepts of hawas, hawasi hamsa zahiri, hawas salam, which are special words in Abai. When Farabi spread his own line of thoughts about soul power, he classified them into three: plant soul, animal soul, and human soul, and considered the process of cognition as an innate characteristic of the human soul. Similar conclusions can be found in the Seventh, Nineteenth, Twenty-seventh, Thirty-eighth, and Forty-third words of Abai. In his seventh speech, Abai dwelled on the "food of the soul" and said: "... we must have expanded our field and increased our treasure, which we passionately accumulated, this was the food of the soul", and he explains it in terms of feelings that develop through the passion of the soul. In his twenty-seventh speech, he classified the differences between animals and humans according to their way of knowing the world. Has the light of the soul been given to all of us equally? A person examines the front, the back, and this day - all three. "An animal knows its back, even this day, and doesn't even have to check its front," he notes that the ability to recognize a person has a great qualitative feature. As explained by the poet Farabi, he recognized that the qualities of passion and energy are unique to humans. In the time of Farabi, a new direction was formed in the thinking of the Muslim community, which explained the whole of existence, all the various phenomena in it, on the basis of mutakalliminim. The critical thinking of Farabi, who mercilessly criticized the fundamental error in the knowledge of Mutakallimins, was further developed by Abai, when the idea of pan-Islamism spread its wings. There is a secret of deep knowledge in the poet's radical rebuttal of the mutakallimin criticized by Farabi: "Mind and desire are all, The heart is full without knowledge, the heart is full of feeling, The mutakallimin, manticin, It is wasted in vain.." The concept of hawas, which Abai specifically raised, was confirmed by the three different meanings of "hawasi hamsa zahiri", "hawas salam", "hawas" in the poet's works. In the poem "The word Allah is easy", the poet openly refutes the reasoning of the scholars and logicians in the interpretation of hawas. The deep-seated critical attitude in the middle showed. What is worth noting in Abai's worldview is the poet's familiarity with the principle of classification of science created by Farabi. There is no concrete evidence that the poet was familiar with the principles of systematization of science created by Farabi. However, in his works, Abay expresses his opinion on the systematization of science to a certain extent with concrete data. For example, in the forty-first word. "... there are innumerable paths of science in the world, and on each path there is a madrasa...", he mentions the abundance of scientific fields and specific names individually. In the thirty-eighth speech of the poet, the principle of a certain systematization of the fields of science is revealed. When a scientist comments on rulers, he groups social sciences independently, saying: "...the fact that they sharpened the minds of human beings and taught them the difference between truth and courage...". In the 38th speech of Abay, the fields of science such as "human knowledge", "science of God", "self science", "science of the world", "external science", "knowledge of the world" are the philosophers of Farabi. it is considered with the names used in the conclusions or with an alternative name according to the Kazakh concept. ## Stages of reaching the legacy of the scientist The legacy of the scientist reaching us can be divided into four stages: * Through scholars who wrote in Arabic, Persian and other languages in the Middle Ages (An -Nadim, al-Baihaqi, Ibn Said al-Kifti, Haji Khalifa, Venike, Camerarius, etc.); * Through scientists of Western Europe and America during the New Age (Leonardo da Vinci, Spinoza, I.G.L. Kozegarten, G. Zuter, F. Dieterezzi, K. Brockel, J. Sarton, M. Steinschneider, D. S. Margolius, etc.); * 20th century, especially through Soviet Orientalists (V. V. Barthold, E. E. Bertels, B. Gafurov, S. N. Grigoryan, V. P. Zubov, A. Sagadeev, Yu. Zavadovsky, Turks A. Sayyly, H. Bolshoi, etc.); * Through scholars of Kazakhstan and Central Asia (A. Margulan, A. al-Mashani, O. Zhautikov, A. Kasymzhanov, A. Kobesov, M. Burabaev, A. Derbisaliyev, I. Zharikbaev, Sh. Khairullaev, etc. p. ). Fundamental research of the heritage of Abu Nasir al-Farabi in Kazakhstan was undertaken only in the 60s of the 20th century. Kazakh scientists Akzhan al-Mashani (Mashanov) and Kanysh Satbaev were the first to initiate it. An international conference was held in Almaty in 1975 according to the decision of UNESCO issued on the occasion of the 1100th anniversary of Abu Nasir Al-Farabi. These days, the Department of Oriental Philosophy and Farabi studies works at the Institute of Philosophy of the Academy of Sciences of the Ministry of Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. So far, more than 20 treatises of the scholar have been translated into Kazakh and Russian languages, scientific explanations and prefaces have been written here. This department conducts a series of studies on dialectics, epistemology and social philosophy of Abu Nasir Al-Farabi. The Farabi Studies Center was established at KazMU. Here, too, translation, research, and promotion of Abu Nasir Al-Farabi's heritage are being carried out in new, fresh directions freed from Marxist views. ## Pupils of Abu-Nasir al-Farabi Farabi was widely known among the people both during his time and after him. Farabi was considered a teacher by many scientists of the East and West, who received great morals, lessons, and education from his works. * Abu Ali Qusayin Ibn-Abdolla ibn-Sina (Avicenna) is the father of medical science, a great person from Central Asia who greatly influenced the development of science and culture. * Omar Ibn-Ibrahim Al-Khayyam (1048-1130) is a master and developer of the heritage of Farabi and Ibn-Sina. Thoughtful poet, deep philosopher, great mathematician. * Ulykbek Ibn Shahrukh (1394-1447) is a great statesman, astronomer, mathematician, a scientist who knows well the main works of early Greek scientists and outstanding scholars of Central Asia. ## Sources ## Links * A. Kasymzhanov. The book of Abu-Nasr al-Farabi * R.S.Karenov. Abu Nasir al-Farabi: his life, works, contribution to global science and culture * Works on Adebiportal.kz website

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Jangir-Kerey Khan

Bokeiuli Dzhangir Khan (1801-1845) was the last khan of the Bokei Horde that broke away from the Abilkhair Khanate of Kishi Yuz, the great-grandson of Abilkhair, the grandson of Nurali. His real name is Jihanger. ## Biography His father Bokei ruled his country between the Volga and Zhayik first as a sultan, and then he received the title of khan in 1812 due to the Russian policy of dividing and weakening the Kazakh khanates. But he could not see much of the interest of the khanate and died in 1815. The Khan was inherited by the eldest of the three children left behind by Bokei, but due to the fact that he was studying abroad (in the house of Astrakhan Governor Andreyevsky), Bokei's younger brother Shigai Sultan took over the power until he became a man and knew his right and left. The young man, who received European education, was brought up in Russian, and learned the ways of managing the khanate from the administrative side, after taking the reins of power in 1823, he became one of the puppet khans who implemented the policy of the tsar in West Kazakhstan. The foundation of the Inner Horde was solidified, and the internal social and economic situation was formed and strengthened during the period of 1823-1845 when Jangir Khan ruled. Dzhangir, who is open-eyed, open-minded, fluent in Russian, Tatar, Arabic, and Persian languages, was awarded with many awards of the Russian government, became a cavalier of the Order of St. Anna, 1st degree, decorated with a golden crown, and was the first Kazakh khan to be promoted to the rank of general-major. In the fall of 1824, Zhangir married Fatima, the daughter of mufti of Orinbor, Mukhamedzhan Huseynov. Fatima had a European education, mastered languages, was close to dance and music. In 1826, Khan Zhangir and his wife Princess Fatima were invited to the enthronement ceremony of Russian Tsar Nicholas I. At the ceremony held in Moscow, the Russian intelligentsia, Tsar Nicholas himself, who invited Fatima to dance, were impressed by Fatima's knowledge and culture, as well as her speaking and dancing in Russian. In 1827, Zhangir Khan presented a yurt made with special skill to the king. In 1829, Empress Alexandra Fedorovna Fatima presented Princess Fatima with a gold tiara, comb and earrings decorated with Brazilian topazes. During the rule of Dzhangir, Kazakh peasants were forbidden to use the lands along the banks of the Volga, Zhayik rivers and the Caspian Sea. They have no right to graze or fish in these regions. Added to this was an increase in taxes and a decrease in the share of the peasants in the distribution, and all this led to the birth of a peasant uprising led by Isatai Taimanov and Makhambet Utemisuly in the Bokei Horde. During his reign, Jangir Khan paid special attention to the issue of transitioning the country to settlement, opening a school and educating children. Muhammed-Salyk Babazhanov, a well-known Kazakh ethnographer and a staff member of the Russian Geographical Society, one of the first to study at the school opened by him, writes: ...under the influence and sympathy of the khan, people in the Horde began to feel the need for education. In order to encourage students and teachers, the late khan spared neither his money nor his enthusiasm to explain the benefits of education to the hordes. He opened a school in his palace and taught 60 people about Islamic religion, Russian writing and language. This school near the palace has been called "Zhangir school" to this day. There, 30 children are receiving education at the expense of the Orda's economic finances. At one time, Zhangir himself donated important manuscripts written in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish languages to the library of Kazan University. In 1844, the scientific council of the university elected Dzhangir as an "honorary member of Kazan University" in recognition of his work to spread enlightenment. Zhangir bought Russian publications, newspapers and magazines, various books, and accumulated a rich library fund. In his personal library at home, there were the publications "Severnaya pchela", "Otechestvennye zapiski", "Sovremennik", "Architecture of the 19th century" by Shinkel, and "Dead Souls" by Gogol. Dzhangir Khan is a complex person in which both good and bad qualities are competing, and depending on the circumstances of his actions, both of them are reflected. We believe that the time has come to see the good and glorify it, not to exalt it, to see the bad, to memorize it, not to push it to the edge, but to give a historical evaluation of human morality with high common sense. There is no doubt that Jangir Khan has a special place in the history of our nation. After the death of Jangir Khan, the Khan's authority in the Bokei Horde was abolished and the management system was reorganized. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3725

Наурыз

March is the third month of the Gregorian calendar. 31 days in March. In the northern hemisphere, spring begins in March. . (31 days), the beginning of spring. Kazakhs also call this holiday Az-Nauryz. In the first three days of the people's belief, a special sound (roar) can be heard from heaven Only the shepherd who cares for it hears it. On this day, special feelings, energy, and virtue are poured into the whole nature, the soul and the animal. That's why our people say, "There will be no joy." ## History According to the Turkic tribes, the first month is considered the beginning of the year, it is a holiday of entertainment and March festival found the holiday to be a religious ritual and banned its official celebration in 1926. It was celebrated as a national holiday only in 1988, when the democratic movement began to take shape in the country. In his historical article "A few words about the origin of Kazakh", Abay takes the history of Nauryz back to the time when the nomadic peoples were called "Khibagi" and "Khuzagi". That day is called "Great Day of the Nation", he writes. The poet does not associate Nauryz with religion, but writes openly that it is a spring holiday, and notes that the word "Great day of the nation" changed its original meaning in his time and began to be used in connection with Eid al-Adha. ## Additional information ## Sources http://www.info-tses.kz/red/article.php?article =52851 Archived 24 September 2015. ## See more * Kazakh calendar * Gregorian calendar * Nauryz holiday

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2651

My Kazakhstan

The phrase My Kazakhstan may have the following meanings: * My Kazakhstan (song) * My Kazakhstan (anthem) * My Kazakhstan (movement)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5247

Tahir Khan

Taiyr Khan was the ruler of the Kazakh Horde who ruled (1523-1533). Taiyr Khan was a person with low ability to rule the country, he was not good at military, political and diplomatic affairs. He could not control the feudal strife, he was at war with most of the neighboring countries: the Shaibani family, the Nogai Horde, and the Mongol Khans. The Kazakhs were defeated in these wars, the Kazakh Khanate lost some of its land in the south and north-west, and its influence remained only in Zhetysu. Tahir Khan fled to Zhetisu and formed an alliance with the Kyrgyz against the Mongol Khan. After 1527, he mostly ruled the Kyrgyz, fought against the attack of the Oirat-Dzungars on Zhetysu. State power has declined, and the border area of the state has decreased. After the death of Taiyr Khan, his younger brother Buydash (1533-1534) became the head of the Kazakh-Kyrgyz union. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3874

Part of the sentence

Parts of a sentence are independent parts of a sentence that are used in syntactic function as a result of semantic interconnection of words. The words in the sentence have a semantic connection with each other, and the words and phrases that have a grammatical meaning based on that connection serve as parts of the sentence. The correct structure of the sentence, the use of each word in its place, and the clearness of the line of thought and style are important in the function of the parts of the sentence. The parts of the sentence are divided into two large groups. There are two types of them: * dependent members (initial, narrative); * non-positional members (determiner, complement, modifier). Different parts are considered the main backbone of the sentence, they are used as the smallest sentence based on the predicative relationship, and based on them, the subject, rhema, even noun and verb phrases are defined. * The subject is the owner of the thought in the sentence, it is a noun in the zero, plural, dependent persons, noun phrases, and the narrator is a verb, clarifying the main properties of the subject, etc. made up of word classes. Indefinite clauses are directly related to the subject and the narrator, complementing and clarifying the thought to be expressed in the sentence. * The complement indicates the material quality of the predicated words and is divided into direct and indirect types. * Determines the definite article, substantivized word classes, adverbial modifiers, it has qualitative and specific types. * The modifier is often used for actions, and sometimes for nouns. The parts of the sentence are mainly formed from independent word classes, auxiliary nouns, auxiliary verbs, adverbs, modal words are involved in their formation, the semantics of independent words are determined by these auxiliary words. Sentences are single, complex, compound, sometimes compound. A part of a sentence is a fully meaningful word, phrase or complex word that is part of a sentence and answers a certain question. In a sentence, words are grammatically connected to each other, express a known meaning, concept, and give reasons for expressing thoughts. A meaningful word or sequence of words that is grammatically connected with other words in a sentence and can answer a specific question is called a part of a sentence. The parts of the sentence are divided into five parts: initial, narrative, complementary, defining, and elaborative. Depending on the ability to form a sentence, they will be a fixed member and a non-fixed member. We call the initial and the narrative participles, and the determiner, complement, and modifier are the participles. Introductory is a noun clause in a sentence, it expresses who and what the thought is about, and is directly related to the narrator. Who is the starter? what? who are what are who am i what? who what is and other word groups become objects and answer the questions in the noun phrase. The primary nominative case consists of a noun and a pronoun: The race was given to the brigade. Don't think only of yourself. (G. Mustafin) Other word groups (adjectives, nouns, pronouns of verbs, forms of closed verbs, etc.) that are classified in the nominative case also serve as initials. Narrator is a structural member that is classified in a sentence and expresses the actions and actions of the subject, who he is, and is used to cross-link with him from the point of view, sometimes singular, plural (1-2 parties). What did the narrator do? back? why? answers the questions. Sometimes the beginning of a sentence is hidden, and it can be determined from the narrator which word it is. A complement is a non-positional member that complements one member in terms of substantive meaning, standing in one of the adverbs other than the noun and subject. Complementary questions: who? what? to whom why who has in what from who from what with whom with what about who (what)? about who (what)? Determinant is an indefinite article that determines the article that is a noun or used in a substantive sense in terms of quality, quantity, and ownership. What is the identifier? which one whose what's where? when? how much how many what is how? what do you do? answers one of the questions. Depending on the composition, it is divided into single (black) and complex (dark blue). Modifier is an indeterminate part of the sentence that expresses the state of action, action, amount, time, place, reason and purpose of the action. How is the processor? back? when? where? where from why why? for whom why? what to do for what purpose? by what by whom? how many times Answers the questions. Adverb is a qualifying word class. At the same time, nouns in the adverbs of barys, zatys, khisht, khujmar, sometimes adjectives and nouns, the prepositional form of the verb in the adverbs barys, khisht, khujmar are words and words in the adverbs of barys, khisht, khujmar together, layer, row, and adverbial impersonal words and through, because of, for, every, adverbial adverbs also serve as modifiers. Depending on the composition, it is divided into single (for fun) and complex (for fun). a) How is the action processor? how back? how many times by what b) When is the tense modifier? since when when? until when b) Reason modifier why? why? why? c) What is the purpose of the processor? why why why? ## Substantive parts of the sentence Substantial parts are the main parts of the sentence and the narrator. ## Irregular parts of a sentence By Irregular parts, we mean determiners, complements, modifiers that cannot form a sentence by themselves, but only expand the scope of the thought given in the sentence # # Literature * S. Amanzholov, Kazakh language grammar, 1966. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6110

Польша

Poland (pol. Polska), official name — Republic of Poland (pol. Rzeczpospolita Polska) — is a country in Central Europe. Land area — 312.7 thousand km². The population is 37.8 million. Most of the population are Poles (97.1%), the rest are Germans (1.3%), Belarusians (0.6%), Ukrainians (0.5%), etc. The official language is Polish. The majority of the population is Catholic, and the northern regions are Protestant. According to the constitution, the head of state is the president. The supreme legislative body is the bicameral parliament (the Seym and the Senate). The capital is Warsaw. Administratively, it is divided into 16 voivodeships. National holiday - November 11 - Independence Day. The currency is the zloty. ## Nature More than 90% of Poland's land is flat, mountain massifs are found only in the southern part. The part connected to the Baltic Sea is flat and sandy. The topography of Northern Poland is mainly covered by the Great Poland, Mazovia and Podlias basins formed from accumulative sediments. The asymmetric ridges of Silesia, Lesser Poland, and Lublin continue to them from the south. The Sudeten massif is located on the southwestern edge of Poland, and the Carpathian mountain range (the highest point is 2499 m) is located in the south and southeast. The climate is temperate, changing from maritime to continental climate from west to east. The average temperature in January is 1⁰C on the sea coast and in the west, 6⁰C in the mountainous region; 17⁰C in July, 10 — 14⁰C in the mountainous region. The average amount of annual precipitation is 500 — 1000 mm. The river network mainly belongs to the Baltic Sea basin. The largest rivers are Vistula and Odra. 27.6% of its territory is forest (mostly conifers dominate). ## History ### Prehistoric Poland At the beginning of our era, it was known that the Germanic tribes Skirs and Lugis lived on the territory of Poland. Then they were replaced by the Goths of the Wilbar culture. In the middle of the 1st millennium, the south of Poland was ruled by Alans and Turkic tribal associations. The Baltic Velbar culture is indisputably connected with the Crimean Goths. At the end of the 1st millennium, the Western Meadows (from them the name of the country), Lenzians (from them the name of the neighboring Poles: "Poles"), Kuyavians, Pomeranians, Mazovians, Wislans, at the end of the 1st millennium tribes, Slensians (in Silesia), etc. Gradually, large on the basis of tribal principalities, proto-state associations appear; the main principalities of these principalities were the Principality of Vistula in present-day Lesser Poland (Kraków district) and the Poles in Greater Poland (Poznan district). ### Gniezno Poland (877-1320) After the conquest of Lesser Poland by Great Moravia in 877, Greater Poland, whose capital was the city of Gniezno, remained the center of the formation of the Polish state. The first known ruler of Poland was Mieszko I (960-992), Prince of Greater Poland from the Piast family; In 966, he accepted the Western Christian religion. During the reign of his son Boleslaw Batyr, the Polish principality reached the peak of power. In 999, Boleslaw took the future Lesser Poland with Kraków from Bohemia; he was a Czech prince from 1003 to 1004, annexing Lusatia and Milsko after a long war with the Holy Roman Empire. Boleslaw was related to the Cursed Prince of Kiev Svyatopolk, supported him against his brother Yaroslav the Wise, and captured Kiev in 1018; He received the title of king in 1025. His son Mieszko II the Sloth, forced to fight Germany, Bohemia and Russia at the same time, lost almost all his father's conquests, including the royal title, which he renounced in 1033. After his death, a period of chaos and anarchy began, and his son Casimir I the Restorer, driven out of Poland by the rebels, restored his power with difficulty and expense. But the latter's son, Boleslaw II the Bold (1058-1079), completely revived the former Polish rule and again (1076) assumed the royal title; In 1068, he supported his relative Izyaslav Yaroslavich and captured Kiev. He was deposed by a conspiracy; but under Boleslaw III Kryvoust (1102-1138) the Old Polish state reached its final prosperity. Boleslaw repelled the invasion of the German emperor in 1109, and in 1122 annexed all of Pomerania to Poland. However, after his death, just as in Russia in those years - after the death of Vladimir Monomakh, feudal disunity began in Poland. According to the "Statute of Bolesław Wrymuth" (1138), Poland was divided between four sons with the title of Grand Duke and the Grand Duke's inheritance (part of Greater Poland with Gniezno and Lesser Poland with Kraków) for the eldest. A number of principalities were established: Kuyavia, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Sandomierz, and others. It was at this time that the German "Attack to the East" began. In 1181, the prince of Western Pomerania recognized himself as a vassal of the German emperor; In 1226, Prince Konrad of Mazovia invited the Teutonic Order to fight the Prussians. In 1241, the Tatar-Mongols invaded Poland and defeated the Poles and Germans near Lignitz, but then moved on to Hungary. At the end of the 13th century, centripetal tendencies began to emerge again. Prince Przemyśl II (1290-1296) of Great Poland received the title of king in 1295. Soon after, Przemyśl was killed by the Electors of Brandenburg and the magnates of Greater Poland. ### Kraków Poland (1320-1569) In 1320, Prince Władysław Loketek (1305-1333) of Kuyavian annexed Greater Poland and was appointed Polish king in Krakow. From now on, Krakow will be the new capital of Poland. Under his successor, Casimir III the Great (1333-1370), Poland flourished. In 1349, Galicia was annexed to Poland. In 1370, Casimir's Angevin nephew, King Louis (Lajos) I of Hungary became King of Poland - the first foreign king to ascend the Polish throne. Not firmly established in the country, he granted the concessions of Košice in 1374, according to which magnates and nobles were exempted from military service and all duties except for a small tax of 2 gross of land. In 1384, Jadwiga became the queen of Poland (according to Polish law - the king). The magnates began looking for a husband for Jadwiga who could become a full-fledged Polish monarch, and found her in the person of Grand Duke Jagiello (in Polish, Jagiello). In 1385, a Polish-Lithuanian union was created in Krewa, according to which Jagiellon was baptized in the Catholic rite, introduced Catholicism as the state religion in Lithuania, married Jadwiga and ascended the Polish throne as Władysław II. Thus, the Polish-Lithuanian state appeared in the east of Europe. During the reign of Jagiello, the oppression of the Orthodox people of the Russian lands occupied by the Poles began. Jagiello gave the Catholics the Orthodox Cathedral in Przemyśl, built during the reign of the Russian prince Volodar Rostislavovich, which began the Catholicization and Polonization of the city. The Orthodox metropolitan of Galicia lost all his lands in favor of the Catholic archbishop. In 1410, the Battle of Grunwald took place, which ended with the defeat of the Teutonic Order. Jagiello's son Władysław III (r. 1434-1444) was king of Hungary and Poland at the same time, but was killed in a battle with the Turks near Varna. After that, the Polish-Hungarian union ceased, but the (broken) Polish-Lithuanian union was restored thanks to the election of Władysław's brother, Lithuanian prince Casimir Jagiellonczyk (Casimir IV, 1447-1492) to the Polish throne. . In 1454, according to the statutes of Neshav, Poland became a republic, where the supreme power belonged to the Sejm. Wars with the Teutonic Order started again. In 1466, according to the Second Treaty of Toruń, Poland annexed Pomerania with Gdańsk and got access to the Baltic Sea. The king's son Vladislav became the king of the Czech Republic in 1471, and the king of Hungary from 1490. In 1505, the Nihil novi law was passed, which limited the power of the king in favor of the nobles. Since then, the term Rzeczpospolita has been widely used to refer to the Polish system of government. After the battle of the Mohawks with the Turks, when the Czech-Hungarian king Louis (Lajos) Jagiellon died in 1526, the geopolitical situation changed dramatically: there was no trace of the supremacy of the Jagiellonian dynasty, and the territories of southern Poland were divided between Turkey. and Austria. During the reign of the last Jagiellon, Sigismund II Augustus, the Polish-Lithuanian alliance again faced the rise of the Muscovite state, ruled by Ivan IV the Terrible. From 1562, Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were involved in the Livonian War, which was violent, long and destructive for both sides. ### Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Sigismund Augustus was childless, as he grew older, the question arose about the future fate of the Polish-Lithuanian state, which was held together only by family unity. The need to create it according to new principles led to the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569), according to which Poland formed a united confederal state with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania headed by the Sejm and a king elected by it. The state entered history as "Rzeczpospolita" (Polish Rzeczpospolita, from Latin res publica ("republic"), "common cause"; it was first used in reference to the Polish state in the 13th century by Wikentius Kadlubek). . As a result of the Union of Lublin, vast southern Russian territories were transferred to Polish crown lands, greatly increasing Polish Rus', which now accounts for about two-thirds of Polish territory. After the death of Sigismund, the era of elected kings began under the new constitution. The French Henry Valois (1572-1574) ascended the throne and soon fled to France, and Ivan the Terrible again attacked Livonia. In 1576, the election of Prince Stefan Báthory of Transylvania turned the situation in favor of the Commonwealth: he returned the lost Polotsk (1579), then he invaded Russia and besieged Pskov. The peace of Yama-Zapolsky (1582) restored the old border. After Bathory's death in 1586, the Poles elected Sigismund III Vasa, King of Sweden; however, he soon lost the Swedish throne due to Catholic fanaticism. Three important events are associated with his rule: the transfer of the capital from Kraków to Warsaw in 1596 (the Tajiks were still held in Kraków); The Brest Union of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches (1596) put an end to the traditional religious tolerance of the Poles and set the stage for the Khmelnytsky Uprising and Poland's intervention in Russia during the Troubles. Polish intervention in Russia Polish magnates supported the false Dmytro Mniszeki and equipped him with an army of Zaporozhian Cossacks and Polish volunteers. In 1604, the impostor's army invaded Russia, and the cities and troops sent to meet him swore to the new king. In 1605, the impostor entered Moscow and was crowned, but was soon killed. The swindler promised Sigismund III, the Polish king, to repay the aid to Smolensk. Under the pretext of these promises, Sigismund began the siege of Smolensk in 1610. The army sent to the rescue by the new Tsar Vasily Shuisky was defeated by Hetman Zholkievsky in the battle of Klushino, after which the Poles approached Moscow, and the troops of the new false Dmitri II besieged it from the other side. Shuisky was deposed and later extradited to Zholkevskii. The Moscow boyars swore allegiance to Sigismund Vladislav's young son and then sent a Polish garrison to Moscow. Sigismund did not want to send his son to Moscow and did not want to baptize him into the Orthodox faith (this was done according to the terms of the treaty), but after the departure of Zolkiewski, he tried to personally rule Moscow through Alexander Gonsevsky, who headed the Polish garrison in Moscow. The result was the unification of the former "Tushino thieves" - the Cossacks with the Shuisky nobles against the Poles (beginning of 1611) and a joint campaign against Moscow with the support of the uprising in Moscow itself, which the Poles were able to suppress. only by setting fire to the city. The siege of Moscow by the First Militia failed due to disagreements in its ranks. The campaign of the second militia led by Kuzma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky left the Poles in a difficult situation. Having taken Smolensk, Sigismund dispersed his army. On November 1, 1612 (according to the new style), the militia took Kitay-gorod, the Poles took refuge in the Kremlin. On November 5, the Poles signed a capitulation, freed the Moscow boyars and other nobles from the Kremlin, and surrendered the next day. In 1617, Vladyslav, bearing the title of Grand Duke of Moscow, invaded Russia and tried to take the "legitimate" throne, reached Moscow, but failed. According to the Treaty of Deulinsky, the Commonwealth received the lands of Smolensk and Seversk. Vladislav retained the title of Grand Duke of Moscow. After the truce, Russia tried to return Smolensk, but after the defeat under its walls in 1633, according to the Polyanovsky peace, Smolensk recognized Poland, and Vladislav renounced the title of Moscow. The beginning of the disintegration of the state King Władysław IV prevented the participation of Commonwealth countries in the Thirty Years' War, supported religious tolerance, and carried out military reforms. He opposed the magnates and sought to strengthen the royal power. The reign of Władysław IV was the last stable era in the history of royal Poland. In addition, rapid Polonization took place in the 16th century, and then the conversion of Western Russian gentry to Catholicism was for a long time spontaneous and voluntary, arising from status advantage. By the end of the 16th century, Ukrainian-Belarusian Orthodox peasants were under the rule of the Catholic Polonized nobility. This situation, together with the rise of the Counter-Reformation and the influence of the Jesuits, gave rise to the desire to convert the "serfs" to Catholicism. The result of the Orthodox pressure was an increase in tensions, and ultimately the rebellion of Bogdan Khmelnytsky, which began in 1648, was disastrous for the Commonwealth. In 1654, Russian troops invaded Poland; the following year - the Swedes occupied Warsaw, King Jan II Casimir fled to Silesia - anarchy began, which in Poland was called the "Flood". In 1657, Poland renounced its sovereignty to East Prussia. The Swedes could never stay in Poland because of the outbreak of partisan warfare. On the other hand, some of the Cossack officers, frightened by the influence of the Russian governors, retreated from Moscow and tried to restore relations with the Commonwealth, thanks to which the Poles returned Belarus and Ukraine on the right bank. According to the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667), Poland lost Kiev and all areas east of the Dnieper. Young Vishnevetsky's short reign was not very successful; Poland was defeated in the war against the Ottoman Empire, which captured Podolia and forced to surrender the fortress of Kamenets. Jan III Sobieski carried out a radical reform in the armament and organization of the army. Under his command, a coalition of Christian powers defeated the Turks at the Battle of Vienna on September 12, 1683, stopping the advance of the Ottoman Empire into Europe. The reign of Jan Sobieski was the last great episode in the history of the Commonwealth, and then began a continuous decline. In 1697, Elector of Saxony Augustus II the Strong was elected King of Poland, ushering in the era of the Saka kings. His plans to regain Livonia ended in the Northern War, during which Charles XII, King of Sweden, invaded Poland, defeated Augustus II, captured Warsaw, and installed his subject, Stanisław Leszczynski, on the Polish throne. In 1709, Peter I expelled the Swedes and their vassals from Poland and restored Augustus the Strong to the throne. With no internal resources, no tax service, no customs, no standing army, and no capable central government, the country was no longer the puppet of its powerful neighbors. After the death of Augustus the Strong in 1733, the War of the Polish Succession broke out, during which the Saxons and Russians expelled the French-backed Stanisław Leszczynski and installed a new Saxon elector, Augustus III (1734). -1763), on the Polish throne. At the end of the reign of Augustus III came the era of the Seven Years' War, when Poland became a battlefield between Prussia and its rivals. Prussian king Frederick II was the master of the idea of partitioning Poland, but his failures in the war pushed this project back. In 1764, under pressure from Russia, the less popular and less influential Stanisław August Poniatowski was elected king of Poland. In fact, a Russian protectorate was established over Poland. Although Poniatovsky was an educated and sensible person, he lacked the political will to act in such a difficult situation. The real protectorate of Russia was manifested, in particular, in the fact that Russia, with the support of Prussia, forced Stanislav to solve the "problem of dissidents" - to equalize the rights of Orthodox and Protestants with Catholics. Also, the king had to stop the reforms he had started; Catherine declared herself a guarantor of the "liberum veto." The nobles' response was the "All Confederacy" (1768), which began a guerrilla war against the Russian troops. The rebellion was soon suppressed and the rebels exiled to Siberia; on their part, Austria and Prussia jealously watched the establishment of Russia in Poland, and took advantage of its difficulties in the war with Turkey to claim their share. In 1772, the Commonwealth was first divided between Prussia, Austria and Russia, according to which Galicia went to Austria, West Prussia to Prussia, and the eastern part of Belarus (Gomel, Mogilev, Vitebsk, Dvinsk) to Russia. The dark years after the first partition gave way to a new social upsurge in the late 1780s. In 1787, a new Russo-Turkish war began, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland. In 1788, the "Quadrennial Diet" began its work, which set itself the task of implementing radical reforms that could renew the country. A constitution was drawn up, which abolished the pernicious principle of the "liberum veto," curbed clan anarchy, softened the social inequality of serfdom, introduced the foundations of civil society, and established a strong and capable centralized government. The Constitution of May 3 (1791) was one of the first constitutions in the world. Dissatisfied with the destruction of "Golden Freedoms", magnates go to Petersburg in search of support and agree to Russian intervention. To justify the intervention, they created an act of confederation, actually in St. Petersburg, but falsely calling Targovitsa - the property of one of the confederates, as a result of which the confederation was called Targovitska. Empress Catherine II moved her troops to Poland. Fierce struggle began between the supporters of the new constitution against the confederates and the Russian army. After the victory of the Russian troops, the constitution was abolished, the dictatorship of the Targovice confederations was established; at the same time, Prussian troops also entered Poland, and the second division of the lands of the Commonwealth between Prussia and Russia (1793) was carried out. A Sejm was convened in Grodno, where the restoration of the old constitution was announced; Warsaw and several other cities were occupied by Russian garrisons; The Polish army was drastically reduced. In March 1794, Kosciuszko's national liberation uprising began. Kościuszko, proclaimed "leader of the insurrection" in Kraków, defeated the Russian detachment in Racławice and moved on to Warsaw, where the insurgent population routed the Russian garrison; Vilna was captured. In the summer, the rebels withstood the siege of Warsaw by Russian-Prussian troops. However, in the fall, the rebels suffered several defeats. It was found that the people of Belarus and Ukraine did not support the uprising. Kosciuszko was defeated and captured at Macevice, Suvorov captured the suburbs of Prague and Warsaw; Warsaw surrendered. After that, the third partition took place (according to the agreement between Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1795), and Poland ceased to exist as a state. ### Statelessness period For more than a century, Poland did not have its own statehood, Polish lands were part of other states: Russia, Prussia (later the German Empire) and Austria (later Austria-Hungary) Duchy of Warsaw (1807-1813) Napoleon After defeating Prussia, he created the Duchy of Warsaw, a vassal of France, from part of the Polish lands belonging to him. Russia recognized this principality, ruled by the Saxon king Friedrich August, loyal to Napoleon, and received the Bialystok region. In 1809, after a victorious war with Austria (in which the Poles also took part), Lesser Poland and Krakow joined the Duchy of Warsaw. The 5th Corps of the Grand Army consisted of 3 Polish divisions and light cavalry: 16th Division (Zajonczek), 17th Division (Dombrowski), 18th Division (Kniazewicz). The next (fourth) division of Poland took place between Austria, Prussia and Russia at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. Most of the former Duchy of Warsaw was given to Russia, Poznań went to Prussia, Krakow was declared a "free city". The Congress of Vienna announced the granting of autonomy to the Polish lands in all three parts, but in practice this was only implemented in Russia, where a constitutional Kingdom was established under the initiative of Emperor Alexander I, known mainly for his liberal aspirations. Poland was created. Kingdom of Poland (1815-1915) On November 27, 1815, Poland received its own constitution as part of Russia, which bound Poland and Russia in a personal union and allowed Poland to elect its own Diet, its own government, and its own army. First, Kosciuszko's old comrade-in-arms general Joseph Zaionchek was appointed governor of Poland, and then Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, brother of the Russian emperor. Initially relatively liberal, the constitution was later restricted. A legal opposition emerged in the Polish Sejm, and secret political societies emerged. In November 1830, the "November" uprising began in Warsaw, and after it was suppressed, in 1831 Nicholas I canceled the constitution given to Poland in 1815. National liberation uprisings took place in Poznań in 1846 (they were suppressed by Prussia). In the same year, there was an uprising in Krakow, as a result of which (with the agreement of Nicholas I) the city went to Austria. After the death of Nicholas I, the liberation movement rose with a new force, which was now divided into two hostile camps: the "reds" (democrats and socialists) and the "whites" (aristocrats). The general demand was for the restoration of the 1815 constitution. In the fall of 1861, martial law was introduced to stop the unrest in Poland. The liberal Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, who was appointed viceroy, could not bear this situation. It was decided to announce admission and send pre-selected "unreliable" young people to the soldiers on a special list. The meeting, in turn, became a signal for the mass "January Uprising" of 1863. The uprising was suppressed and military rule was established in the Kingdom of Poland. The January Uprising led Alexander II to the idea of depriving the rebellious clans of social support, and in order to carry out peasant reform - in 1864, the Decree on the Settlement of the Peasants of the Kingdom of Poland was adopted, which was abolished. remnants of serfdom, and land was given to peasants. The suppression of the January Uprising gave impetus to the policy of abolishing the autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland and bringing Poland closer to the Russian Empire. The accession of Nicholas II to the Russian throne revived hopes for the liberalization of Russia's policy towards Poland. In 1897, the emperor visited Warsaw, where he agreed to establish a polytechnic university and erect a monument to Mickiewicz. In 1897, on the basis of the National League, the National Democratic Party of Poland was founded, which, although its strategic goal was to restore the independence of Poland, primarily fought against the laws of Russification and the restoration of Polish autonomy. Soon, the National Democratic Party became the leading political force in the Kingdom of Poland and participated in the activities of the Russian State Duma (Polish Colo faction). During the 1905-1907 revolution in Russia, there were also revolutionary uprisings in the Kingdom of Poland. Józef Piłsudski's Polish Socialist Party, which organized a series of strikes and strikes in the industrial enterprises of the Kingdom of Poland, gained great influence. During the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, Piłsudski went to Japan and tried to finance an uprising in Poland and organize Polish legions to join the war against Russia. This was opposed by the National Democrats of Roman Dmovsky. Nevertheless, Pilsudski received the support of Japan in the purchase of weapons: in 1904, he founded the Fighter Organization of the Polish Socialist Party, which in the following years carried out several dozen terrorist attacks and attacks on Russian institutions and organizations, including the Bezdan robbery of 1908, the most famous of the year. Only in 1906, 336 Russian officials and military personnel died at the hands of Pilsudsky militants. Intensive Germanization was carried out in Polish lands within Prussia, Polish schools were closed. In 1848, Russia helped Prussia put down the Poznań Rebellion. In 1863, the two powers concluded the Alvensleben Convention to help each other in the fight against the Polish national movement. The situation of the Poles in Austria was somewhat better. In 1861, the Sejm of Galicia was established in Lviv to solve the problems of the local life of the Polish-dominated province; schools, institutions and courts used the Polish language; and the Jagiellonian (in Kraków) and Lviv universities became all-Polish cultural centers. After the outbreak of World War I on August 14, 1914, Nicholas II promised to unite the Kingdom of Poland with the Polish lands acquired in Germany and Austria-Hungary into an autonomous state within the Russian Empire after winning the war. The war created a situation where the Poles, Russian subjects, fought against the Poles who served in the armies of Austria-Hungary and Germany. The pro-Russian National Democratic Party of Poland, led by Roman Dmowski, considered Germany to be Poland's main enemy, and its supporters believed it necessary to unite all Polish lands under Russian control with autonomous status within the Russian Empire. Anti-Russian supporters of the Polish Socialist Party (PSP) believed that Poland's path to independence was through Russia's defeat in the war. A few years before the start of World War I, PPS leader Jozef Pilsudski started military training for Polish youth in Austro-Hungarian Galicia. After the start of the war, the Polish legions were formed as part of the Austro-Hungarian army. In 1915, the territory of Russian Poland was occupied by Germany and Austria-Hungary. On November 5, 1916, the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary issued a manifesto on the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Poland in the Russian part of Poland. In the absence of the King, his powers were exercised by the Council of Regents. After the February Revolution in Russia, on March 16 (29), 1917, the Provisional Government of Russia announced that it would contribute to the creation of a Polish state in all areas inhabited mainly by Poles in the event of a "free military union". ” with Russia. In August 1917, the Polish National Committee (PUC) was established in France, headed by Roman Dmowski and Ignacy Paderewski; where the Polish "blue army" led by Josef Haller was formed. On October 6, 1918, the Council of Regents of Poland announced the creation of an independent Polish state, the Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland (Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej) was established, and on November 14, after the surrender of Germany and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, it assumed full power in the country Gave to Jozef Pilsudski. Meanwhile, a Polish-Ukrainian war broke out in Galicia between Polish forces and the forces of another newly formed state, the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (WPR), resulting in large-scale hostilities starting on November 1. From 1918 to July 17, 1919, and the BUKH ended in defeat. On December 27, 1918, the Poles of the German province of Posen launched the Wielkopolska Uprising, after which the province became an independent state until mid-1919. ### Republic of Poland (1918-1939) On January 26, 1919, elections were held to the legislative Sejm, which confirmed Józef Pilsudski as the head of state. In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles ceded most of the German province of Posen as well as part of Pomerania to Poland, giving the country access to the Baltic Sea (the Polish Corridor); Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of "free city". In Silesia in 1919-1921 there were three uprisings of Poles against German rule. After a referendum held in Upper Silesia in 1922 in which part of the population (Poles) preferred to join Poland and part (Germans) preferred to live in Germany, the League of Nations deemed it appropriate to partition the region. according to the wishes of the residents. . The eastern part formed the autonomous Silesian Voivodeship within Poland. On January 1, 1918, Poland declared war on the Ukrainian People's Republic due to the Ukrainian side's refusal to hand over territories controlled by Ukraine to Poland. The Polish-Ukrainian war ended with the complete defeat of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic. In 1919, the Soviet-Polish war began, which continued with varying success. At the beginning, the Poles penetrated deep into Belarus and Ukraine and occupied Minsk and Kiev. The Red Army then launched a counterattack and reached the Vistula, but they were unable to take the well-fortified Lviv and Warsaw. The "Miracle on the Vistula" happened - the Red Army was defeated. During the war, a total of up to 200,000 Red Army soldiers were captured by the Poles, of whom, according to various estimates, up to 80,000 died of starvation and disease. The war was actually lost to Soviet Russia, and according to the Treaty of Riga in 1921, the western part of Ukraine and Belarus was transferred to Poland. The southern border of Poland was agreed upon at the conference of ambassadors held on July 28, 1920. Teszyn region was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia. In October 1920, Polish troops under the command of General Zheligowski occupied a part of Lithuania together with the city of Vilna (Vilnius) and declared Central Lithuania a virtual puppet state. The annexation of these lands to Poland was approved by the Vilna Sejm on February 10, 1922. In 1921, the Legislative Seimas adopted a constitution according to which the Seimas, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, are elected by secret ballot on the basis of universal, equal and direct suffrage by citizens over the age of 21 without distinction. There was a legislative body based on gender, religion and nationality, the head of state - the President, who was elected by the Seimas and exercised representative functions, and the executive body - the Council of Ministers, appointed by the President and responsible to the Seimas. On November 5, 1922, elections to the Diet were held. After the revolution in 1926, an authoritarian sanitary regime was established in Poland led by Józef Piłsudski. In 1934, a camp for opponents of the ruling regime was established in Bereza Kartuzskaya, the Brest trial of oppositionists was held, the Greater Poland camp, as well as the National Radical camp, were declared illegal, and freedom of the press and assembly were restricted. introduced. On June 15, 1931, the USSR and Poland signed a treaty on friendship and trade cooperation. On January 25, 1932, the USSR and Poland signed a non-aggression pact. On January 26, 1934, Poland and Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact. On November 4, 1935, Poland and Germany signed an agreement on economic cooperation. Shortly before Pilsudski's death in April 1935, a new Constitution was adopted in Poland, which included the main principles of Sanation: a strongly centralized state with a presidential system of government. In 1938 (after the Munich Agreement) Poland annexed the Ceszyn region of Czechoslovakia. On March 21, 1939, Germany demanded that Poland hand over the free city of Danzig to it, join the Anti-Comintern Pact, and open the "Polish Corridor" for it (created after the First World War to ensure Poland's access to the Baltic Sea). Poland rejected all German demands. On March 28, 1939, Hitler broke the non-aggression pact with Poland. After that, Poland wanted a guarantee from the Allies. Poland expected help from Great Britain. However, Poland refused to ally with it, France and the USSR. Britain gave a verbal guarantee of protection from Germany. When Hitler learned of the British guarantees, he was furious and ordered Operation Weiss. On August 23, 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact. According to the secret additional protocol to the agreement on the delimitation of areas of mutual interest in Eastern Europe in the case of "territorial and political reconstruction", the inclusion of Eastern Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Finland and Bessarabia was considered in this area. The interests of the USSR, Lithuania and Western Poland are in the sphere of German interests. ### World War II On September 1, 1939, the Wehrmacht invaded Poland. Combat operations for the defenders were unsuccessful, on September 16, the Germans reached the line Osovets - Bialystok - Bielsk - Kamenets-Litovsk - Wlodava - Vladimir-Volynskyi - Zamosc - Lviv - Sambir, and approached the Soviet Union at a distance of 150-200 km. Polish border. Encircled in Warsaw, units of the Polish army tried to hold the city as long as possible. On September 17, Soviet troops entered Poland. On the night of September 17-18, the country's top leadership fled to Romania (later a new leadership was formed, called the "Polish government in exile"). On September 27, the German troops took Warsaw, the Polish army stopped the resistance. On October 5, the last large Polish division of General Kliberg surrendered. The territorial division of Poland between the USSR and Germany ended on September 28, 1939, with the signing of the Friendship and Border Treaty between the USSR and Germany. As a result of the division of the Polish territory, the USSR began to border with Germany and Lithuania. Initially, Germany intended to make Lithuania its protectorate, but on September 25, during Soviet-German contacts on the settlement of the Polish problem, the USSR proposed to start negotiations on the withdrawal of German claims to Lithuania. Warsaw and Lublin provinces of Poland. On this day, Count Schulenburg, the German ambassador to the USSR, sent a telegram to the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in which he was invited to the Kremlin, where Stalin added that this proposal was the subject of future negotiations. If Germany agrees, the Soviet Union will proceed immediately to resolve the question of the Baltic states in accordance with the protocol of August 23, and expect the full support of the German government in this matter. After that, the occupied Polish territories were added to the Ukrainian SSR and the Belarusian SSR. In the spring of 1940, the NKVD of the USSR carried out the Katyn massacre - a mass execution of Polish citizens (mainly captured officers of the Polish army). Germany took the rest of the Polish territories, and those that were part of Prussia before the First World War (Poznan and Danzig) were directly annexed to Germany, and a significant part of the Polish population was expelled from there. By the end of 1944, about 450,000 Polish citizens had been drafted into the German army, including some members of the Polish underground. Occupation administration was organized in the remaining territories, which received the name "General-Governorship". The Polish language was banned in the Polish territories completely occupied by the Germans, the Polish press was closed, almost all the clergy were arrested, Polish cultural institutions were destroyed, and Polish intellectuals and civil servants were killed. Poles lost about 2 million non-military personnel, 45% of doctors, 57% of lawyers, 40% of university professors, 30% of engineers, 18% of priests, and almost all journalists. It is believed that more than 20% of Poland's population - about 6 million people - died during World War II. During the Second World War, a resistance movement consisting of heterogeneous groups, often with opposite goals and subordinated to different leading centers, operated on Polish territory: the Homeland Army, exiled under the command of the Polish government, organized the Warsaw Uprising. 1944; Ludow Guard is a military organization of the Polish Communist Party; Khlopsky battalions formed by the peasant party, etc. ; There were also Jewish militant organizations that organized the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April 1943. On July 30, 1941, after the German attack, the USSR recognized the "London" government in exile; The military units subordinated to this government on the territory of the Soviet Union were formed from Polish citizens who were expelled from the USSR in 1942 and later distinguished themselves in the battles in Italy. On April 25, 1943, the USSR broke off relations with the "London" government, citing Poland's position on the Katyn issue as a pretext. After that, Stalin formed the 1st Infantry Division of the Polish Army from the Poles remaining in the USSR. Tadeusz Kosciuszko, led by Colonel Zygmunt Berling, a deserter from the Polish army of Anders. The "London Government" instructions to the Home Army, drawn up on October 1, 1943, contained the following instructions in the event of unauthorized entry of Soviet troops into Poland by the "Polish Government": "The Polish Government will send a protest. Against the violation of Polish sovereignty due to the entry of Poland into the United Nations without the consent of the Polish government - at the same time declares that the country will not interact with the Soviets. At the same time, the government warns that underground organizations will move to self-defense in case of arrest of representatives of the underground movement and any persecution against Polish citizens." The pre-war Polish government created the concept of the return of Polish territories, which was the basis for the belief that, if not in war, it would be possible to strike at the USSR in geopolitics. The commander-in-chief of the Polish armed forces, Panzer Kazimierz Sosnkowski, believed that the third world war would begin and that the USSR would be defeated in this war. However, Poland's eastern border was agreed at the Tehran Conference, so the Poles could not get support on this issue. Together with units of the Soviet army, Berling's army moved to the Polish border. On July 20, 1944, the Red Army crossed the "Curzon Line" and the next day, the communist-led "Polish Committee for National Liberation" (Lublin Committee) was formed, which took over the functions of the Provisional Government. With the support of the Council. The decree of the Craiova Rada of the People's Council on the merger of the partisan People's Army with the 1st Polish Army into a single Polish army, as well as the decree on the appointment of the high command of the Polish army (General Michal Zimerski was appointed as the commander of the Polish army). On July 26, 1944, the government of the USSR and the Polish National Liberation Committee signed an agreement on the recognition of the authority of the Communist Party of Poland on the territory of liberated Poland, and the Soviet government recognized the Communist Party of Poland as the only legal authority in the country. At the end of July, the question of who will be established in Polish territory - London or Lublin - was raised. Parts of the Red Army approached Warsaw; On August 1, an uprising started in Warsaw led by the Homeland Army and led by General Bur-Komorowski, with the aim of liberating Warsaw and preventing Polish troops from entering Warsaw before the arrival of the Soviet troops by order of the "London Government". The coming to power of the National Liberation Committee. Meanwhile, the Germans launched a counterattack near Warsaw, and Rokossowski (a few hours before the beginning of the uprising in Warsaw) was forced to order the 2nd Panzer Division, which was advancing on the city, to go on the defensive. Stalin ignored the Zhukov-Rokossovsky plan to resume the offensive after regrouping and refused to allow the use of Soviet airfields to aid the rebels after the appeal of Winston Churchill, who supported the "London Government". However, no documentary evidence of the Red Army's deliberate halting of the offensive was found. The brutal suppression of the uprising and the destruction of Warsaw was a severe blow to the Poles. The offensive of the Red Army resumed on January 12, 1945; On January 17, Warsaw was captured by the 1st Army of the Polish Army, and in early February, almost all of Poland was liberated from German forces. The Polish Workers' Party began its activities, and the underground resistance of supporters of the London government could do nothing. In Poland during the war, the Germans and members of the Polish nationalist underground organized mass killings of the Jewish population [48]. The last major Jewish pogrom took place in Kielce in 1946, involving Polish police and soldiers. The Holocaust and the anti-Semitic atmosphere of the post-war years created a new phase of Jewish emigration from Poland. By the decision of the Berlin Conference of 1945, the western border of Poland was established along the rivers Odra (Oder) and Nysa-Luzhitskaya (Neisse), two-thirds of the territory of East Prussia went to Poland. As a result of the conclusion of the Soviet-Polish border treaty, the Bialystok region (from the BSSR) and the city of Przemysl (from the Ukrainian SSR) went to Poland. Poland returned the Teszyn region, which had been captured in 1938, to Czechoslovakia. The extermination of the Jews, the post-war relocation of Germans from the German territories annexed to Poland, as well as the establishment of new borders with the USSR and the exchange of population with it, turned Poland into a practically mono-ethnic state. ### Modern Poland (since 1989) Gorbachev's reconstruction policy weakened the influence of the USSR on Poland and led to changes in the country. A new wave of mass strikes in the spring and autumn of 1988 forced the PZPR leadership to negotiate with Lech Walesa and his supporters in Magdalenka. On February 6, 1989, an agreement was reached between the government and the opposition to convene a "round table". On April 4, it ended with the signing of an agreement, the main points of which were the holding of free elections, the introduction of the presidency and the upper chamber of the Seym (Senate). Poland was the first country in the socialist union to begin the peaceful abolition of the socialist system. In the elections held on June 4, 1989, the Solidarnost bloc (which was built around the Solidarity movement and united various political movements from left-wing socialists to conservative, Catholic, nationalist groups) won 99% of the seats in the Senate. and 35% of the seats in the Sejm, he then formed a government that, under the leadership of Prime Minister Tadeusz Mazowiecki and Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister Leszek Balcerovic, initiated market reforms: price liberalization and privatization of state-owned property. The consequence was a radical change in political institutions and local government bodies. At that time, the centrally planned economy, dominated by chaos and hyperinflation, was replaced by a market economy, which emerged in the context of an intensifying economic crisis, political chaos, and the collapse of central and regional institutions. Wojciech Jaruzelski became the country's president. In the direct presidential election of 1990, the candidate of the "Solidarity" party, Lech Walesa, won. However, in the face of a sharp decline in the real incomes of the population, a rapid increase in unemployment, the emergence of new social inequalities and a growing sense of danger and insecurity, the political consensus united with the initially victorious Solidarity forces. on the issue of reforms, the former socialist regime was abolished. Even within the coalition, there was a demarcation between left-liberal and right-wing (mainly conservative Catholic and nationalist) forces. After the 1991 parliamentary elections, President Lech Walesa offered Jan Olszewski, a member of the conservative Center Accord party, to head the government. At the same time, Olszewski demanded that the architect of "shock therapy" in Poland, Leszek Balcerowicz, not enter his government. However, Olszewski's premiership was overshadowed by a conflict with the president, which led to the premature resignation of the cabinet. Olszewski's main act as prime minister was to enact the lustration law (though it was soon declared unconstitutional). On June 5, 1992, a vote of no confidence in his government was passed. Having lost public support, Olszewski's cabinet had to give way to the centrists - the new government was headed by Hanna Sukhotskaya. Parliamentary elections in 1993 led to the formation of a coalition government of the Union of Democratic Left Forces, under the prime ministership of Waldemar Pawlak, who united former peoples with the Polish Peasant Party and other political forces. He resigned in March 1995, and the government was led by representatives of the SDLS. main market institutions were established. The 1995 presidential election was won by Oleksandr Kwasniewski from the Union of Democratic Left, but Solidarity won again in the 1997 parliamentary elections, with Jerzy Buzek of Solidarnost leading the government. In 1997, a constitution was adopted and finally a mixed republic was established. In 1999, Poland joined the NATO bloc and supported the bombing of Yugoslavia (1999), the bloc's intervention in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003). Kwasniewski was re-elected president in the 2000 presidential election, the SDLS also won the 2001 parliamentary election, and SDLS member Leszek Miller became head of government, replaced by Marek Belka in 2004. On May 1, 2004, Poland joined the European Union. In the fall of 2005, right-wing forces returned to power in Poland. At this time, two parties from the anti-communist opposition and Solidarity fought for influence on the political scene: the Kaczynski brothers' Law and Justice, a conservative party with strong elements of populism and nationalism, and the liberal-conservative Civics. Platform party. , directed by Donald Tusk and Ian Rokita. In the parliamentary elections held on September 25, 2005, the Law and Justice party won 26.99% (155 out of 460 seats), followed by Civic Platform with 24.14% (133 seats), followed by Andrzej's populist Self-Defense " party won. Lepper - 11.41%. The Kaczynski brothers' party formed a governing coalition with two other smaller parties, Self-Defense and the right-wing nationalist Catholic League of Polish Families. First, Kazimer Marcinkiewicz became the prime minister, and from July 2006, Jarosław Kaczynski became the prime minister. On October 9, 2005, Lech Kaczynski and Donald Tusk entered the second round of the presidential election. On October 23, Lech Kaczynski won and became the president of Poland. 54.04 percent of voters voted for it. His opponent got 45.96% of votes. Extraordinary parliamentary elections held in October 2007 brought victory to the Civic Platform, while the Law and Justice Party and its allies were defeated. Donald Tusk, the leader of the "Civil Platform", became the prime minister. On April 10, 2010, the presidential plane crashed on its way to Smolensk to participate in events dedicated to the anniversary of the Katyn tragedy. All passengers and crew, including the president and his wife, were killed. Marshal of the Seimas Bronislav Komorovsky became the acting head of state. On July 4, 2010, the 2nd round of the presidential election was held in Poland, where Bronisław Komorowski won the most votes, and the gap with Jarosław Kaczynski was 6%. On August 6, 2010, Bronisław Komorowski took office as the President of the Republic of Poland. On October 9, 2011, regular parliamentary elections were held, in which the governing coalition of the Civic Platform and the Polish Peasant Party retained their majority in the Sejm and the Senate. The third largest party in the Sejm was the new liberal anti-clerical party of the Palikota movement. In 2014, many deputies switched from it to the Union of Democratic Left Forces and the Security and Economy parliamentary group. ## Economy Poland has the fastest growing economy with the lowest unemployment rate among European countries. Between 1990 and 2015, the gross domestic product (GDP) doubled. And in 2021, the GDP reached 661.7 billion US dollars (6th place in Europe). Between 2015 and 2015, GDP per capita grew by an average of 7.3% annually, which is higher than the GDP growth of countries such as South Korea and Singapore during this period. That's why Poland is called the tiger countries of Asia and Europe. Advanced economic development began with radical market reforms in the 90s. Industry and agriculture are equally developed in Poland. The leading branches of the economy are machine-building, shipbuilding, metalworking, chemical, food, and textile industries. The country's agriculture is mainly focused on raising rye, grain, oats, fruits and beef and dairy cattle and pigs. It exports machinery, chemicals, metal, food, textiles, copper, coal, and imports tools, household goods, and raw materials. Polish economy also has weaknesses. Agriculture suffers from a lack of investment, a large number of small farms and overstaffing. The amount of compensation for expropriations under communist rule has not been determined. Polish economy is a socially oriented market economy. It is the sixth largest economy in the European Union and the largest among the former members of the Eastern Bloc and the new members of the European Union. Since 1990, Poland has pursued a policy of economic liberalization, and its economy was the only one in the EU to avoid recession during the financial crisis of 2007-2008. As of 2019, Poland's economy has been growing steadily for the past 28 years, a record in the EU. This growth has been exponential: GDP per capita at purchasing power parity has grown by an average of 6% per year over the past 20 years, the most impressive rate in Central Europe, leading to a doubling of the country's GDP since 1990. On September 29, 2017, the financial company FTSE Group, which calculates stock indices, announced the results of its annual market classification, according to which it upgraded the Polish economy from an emerging market to a developed market; Poland is the first post-communist country to achieve this status. Other financial companies (notably MSCI and S&P) classify Poland as an emerging market. ### Standard of living From January 1, 2019, the minimum monthly salary (gross) is PLN 2,250 (EUR 523.54). As of January 1, 2019, the average salary in Poland is PLN 5,071.25 (€1,180.16 gross) and PLN 3,600 (€837.78 net). The Keitz index (the ratio of the minimum wage to the average wage) is about 44.4% as of January 1, 2019. From August 1, 2019, income tax for employees under the age of 26 has been abolished in Poland, if the employee's income is less than 85,528 PLN (about 20,000 euros) per year, which affects about 2 million young workers in Poland. As of October 1, 2019, income tax in Poland has been reduced from 18% to 17%. From July 1, 2019, the monthly allowance for the first child and each subsequent child is PLN 500 (EUR 116.33, net). As of January 1, 2020, the minimum wage (gross) in Poland is PLN 2,600 (€600) per month and PLN 17 (€3.92) per hour. The Keitz index will be 49.7% according to the estimated average salary in Poland in 2020. Starting January 1, 2021, the minimum wage (gross) in Poland is PLN 2,800 (€630.55) per month and PLN 18.30 (€4.12) per hour. According to the projected average salary in Poland, the Keitz index will be 53.2% in 2021. From January 1, 2022, the minimum wage is PLN 3,010 (EUR 653.20) gross and PLN 2,363.56 (EUR 512.92) net. From January 1, 2023, the minimum wage is PLN 3,490 (EUR 742.54) gross and PLN 2,709.48 (EUR 576.48) net. ### Leading branches of the manufacturing industry engineering (Poland fishing vessels, electric trains, freight and passenger cars, road and construction machinery, machine tools, engines, electronics, industrial equipment, etc.), ferrous and non-ferrous (large zinc production), chemical (sulfuric acid, fertilizers, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetic products), textile (cotton, linen, wool), sewing, production of cement, porcelain and earthenware, production of sports goods (kayak, yacht, tent, etc.). ### Agriculture Poland's agriculture is highly developed. Agriculture is dominated by crop production. The main cereals are rye, wheat, barley, oats. Poland is the main producer of sugar beet (more than 14 million tons per year), potatoes and cabbage. Exports of apples, strawberries, raspberries, currants, garlic and onions are of great importance. The leading branch of animal husbandry is pig farming; dairy and meat livestock farming, poultry farming (Poland is one of the largest suppliers of eggs in Europe); beekeeping. Sea fishing and reindeer husbandry (deer and deer in the Lublin Voivodeship). ## Relations between Kazakhstan and Poland Relations between Kazakhstan and Poland began in the 19th century. 1830 — 1917 A. contributed to the study of Kazakh culture among Poles exiled to Kazakhstan. Yanushkevich, G. Zelinsky, B. Zalessky and A. V. Zataevich was also there. 1936 — 39 years and Poles were deported to Kazakhstan during World War II. Currently, about 60 thousand Poles live in the northern regions of Kazakhstan. 1994 Diplomatic relations were established between Kazakhstan and Poland, the embassy of Kazakhstan was opened in Warsaw, and the embassy of Poland was opened in Almaty. 1999 In October, Polish President A. Kwasniewski visited Kazakhstan on an official visit. 2002 President of Kazakhstan N. A. Nazarbayev paid an official visit to Poland. Joint enterprises of Poland operate in Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan buys shoes, furniture, medicines, mining machines from Poland. Poland buys oil, yellow phosphorus, gas, coal and metallurgical products from Kazakhstan.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4786

Flag of the President of Kazakhstan

The flag of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is one of the high official symbols of the head of state. 1995 of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan In accordance with the Decree of December 29 "On the procedure for the official use of the flag of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and its insignia", the official insignia and their locations were determined. It is blue (the same color as the national flag), rectangular in shape, the width and length of which correspond to two-thirds. In the center, a young leader of the Saka era, sitting on a winged leopard with his right hand raised, is depicted in a golden circle. The fabric is covered with gold fringe on three sides. Sabyna A silver plate with the surname, name and patronymic of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan written in the state language and the time of election is attached. The flag of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan is always with the Head of State and is carried with him when traveling abroad.

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6191

Кения

Kenya (eng. Kenya), Republic of Kenya (eng. Republic of Kenya) is a country located in East Africa. The land area is 582.6 thousand km². The population is 55,143,353 people. The ethnic composition of the population is Bantu, Nilot, Kikuyu (about 21%), Luya (14%), Luo (13%), Kalenjin (11%), Kamba (11%), etc. consists of tribes and more than 165 thousand people from Asia, Europe, Arab countries. The official languages are English and Swahili. Some of the residents adhere to traditional beliefs, some to Catholic and Protestant branches of Christianity, and some to Islam. The capital is Nairobi. Kenya is a republic within the British Commonwealth. According to the constitution adopted in 1969, the country is governed by a president elected for 5 years in general elections (since 1978, Daniel Arab Moi). The supreme legislative body is the unicameral National Assembly. Administratively, it is divided into 7 provinces and the capital district. National holiday December 12 - Republic Day (1963). The currency is the Kenyan shilling. Kenya occupies the northeastern edge of the East African highlands. The equator line passes through the central part of the Earth. There are many savannah plants. Tropical forests grow in the center and mountain slopes, and meadows grow on the tops of the mountains. ## Mineral resources Coal sodium salt, kyanite, diatolite, gypsum, thorium, niorium, gold and polymetallic ores. The climate is subequatorial: the average temperature in January is 14 — 24°С; 12 — 25°С in July, annual precipitation is from 250 mm (north-east) to 2000 mm (west). The rivers are small. The largest rivers Tana and Galana flow into the Indian Ocean. Lakes — Rudolph, Baringo, Nakuru, Naivasha, Magedi, etc. Amboseli, Mara, Marsabit, Agong game reserves and Mount Kenya, Nairobi, Tsavo, etc. national parks are located. They have elephants, giraffes, zebras, buffaloes, lions, leopards, monkeys, ostriches, etc. there is Crocodiles and hippos can be found in the rivers. ## Nature Kenya occupies the northeastern edge of the East African highlands. The equator line passes through the central part of the Earth. The land is red, laterite, meadow black-gray soil. There are many savannah plants. Tropical forests grow in the center and mountain slopes, and meadows grow on the top of the mountain. Mineral resources: coal sodium salt, kyanite, diatolite, gypsum, thorium, niorium, gold and polymetallic ores. The climate is sub-equatorial: the average temperature in January is 14-24C; 12 - 25C in July, annual precipitation amount. From 250 mm (north-east) to 2000 mm (west). The rivers are small. The largest rivers Tana and Galana flow into the Indian Ocean. Lakes - Rudolph, Baringo, Nakuru, Naivasha, Magedi, etc. Amboseli, Mara, Marsabit, Agong game reserves and Mount Kenya, Nairobi, Tsavo, etc. national parks are located. They have elephants, giraffes, zebras, buffaloes, lions, leopards, monkeys, ostriches, etc. there is Crocodiles and hippos can be found in the rivers. ## History The indigenous peoples of Kenya are mainly those who immigrated from other places in the 14th - 19th centuries. BC 5th century i BC 6th century Greek, Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Arab seafarers often come and go. Arab and Swahili settlements appeared here in the 7th - 8th centuries. In the 11th century, city-states were established on the coasts and inland regions. From the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese came to the country and pushed out the Arabs. In the 18th century, several Arab sultanates were established, most of which later became subordinate to the neighboring Sultanate of Zanzibar. In the 19th century, Kenya was colonized by Great Britain and Germany. In 1890, the country was completely controlled by the British, and in 1895, the East African Protectorate was established, and most of the country was declared the property of the British Crown. The colonialists issued special laws in 1904, 1915, 1939, displaced local peoples from better lands, subjected them to racist discrimination. Negroes were not employed in local administrations. However, during World War 1 (1914-18), along with local Europeans, Negroes were drafted into the army and joined the war against Germany. After the war, Europeans began to flock to Kenya. The first political organizations appeared. During World War 2 (1939 – 45), Britain used Kenyan troops to fight in the Middle East and Burma. After the war, political organizations began to be formed among the local population, demanding the elimination of racism. In 1952, the colonial government punished the leaders of political organizations. In response, an armed uprising against the colonists began. In 1956, the uprising was crushed. But there were small uprisings everywhere. In 1960, the government agreed to end the state of emergency and introduced some reforms. In the same year, the newly formed African National Union (CANU) began negotiating with the government for the independence of Kenya. KANU won parliamentary elections in 1961 and 1963 and formed the first African government in 1963. On December 12, 1963, Kenya was declared an independent republic. In 1963-66, there was a disagreement among the leaders of KANU about ways to develop the country. In 1969 there was a very strong internal political crisis. Conflicts began between different ethnic groups in the country. To suppress it, political parties were banned and only the KANU party was in power in the country. In 1984, the government suppressed ethnic unrest by force. In 1989, political prisoners were released. In 1991, the government moved to a multi-party system and allowed the formation of opposition parties. In 1997, mass uprisings of the people took place in the country regarding the implementation of democratic reforms. In 1998, there was an explosion at the US embassy in Nairobi, killing more than 230 people and injuring about 5,000 people. ## Economy Kenya is a poorly developed economy. 80% of the population work in agriculture, 7% in industry, and 13% in services. The number of unemployed in the country is 16%. The annual national product of the country is 9.3 billion. About USD. To the side: produces tea, coffee, oil products, fruits. Crude oil, machinery, industrial goods, chemical products, and household items are brought to the country from abroad. Main trade partners: Uganda, Great Britain, Tanzania, Germany, Japan, United Arab Emirates, etc. The indigenous peoples of Kenya are mainly those who immigrated from other places in the 14th - 19th centuries. Between the 5th century BC and the 6th century AD, Greek, Egyptian, Chinese, Indian, Arab seafarers often came and went to its shores. Arab and Swahili settlements appeared here in the 7th and 8th centuries. In the 11th century, city-states were established on the coasts and inland regions. From the end of the 15th century, the Portuguese came to the country and began to displace the Arabs. They completely occupied the coasts and kept them under their control until the 18th century. In the 18th century, several Arab sultanates were established, most of which later became subordinate to the neighboring Sultanate of Zanzibar. In the 19th century, Kenya was colonized by Great Britain and Germany. 1890 the country was completely controlled by the British in 1895. East Africa was established as a protectorate and most of the country was declared a possession of the British throne. Colonists 1904, 1915, 1939 issued special laws, displaced local peoples from better places, subjected them to racist discrimination. Negroes were not employed in local administrations. However, during World War 1 (1914-18), along with local Europeans, Negroes were recruited into the army and joined the war against Germany. After the war, Europeans began to flock to Kenya. During World War II (1939-45), Britain used Kenyan troops to fight in the Middle East and Burma. After the war, political organizations began to be formed among the local population, demanding the elimination of racism. 1963 On December 12, Kenya was declared an independent republic. Kenya is a poorly developed economy. 80% of the population works in agriculture, 7% in industry, and 13% in service industries. To the side: produces tea, coffee, oil products, fruits. Crude oil, machinery, industrial goods, chemical products, and household items are brought to the country from abroad. Main trade partners: Uganda, Great Britain, Tanzania, Germany, Japan, United Arab Emirates, etc. ## Sources ## External links * Republic of Kenya General Info Archived 31 August 2009. (English) * Kenya from the Encyclopædia Britannica (English) * Map of Kenya (Russian)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2886

NEWhoo

Open Directory Project (eng. Open Directory Project). Other names: ODP, DMoz (D — English directory, Moz — Mozilla) is an open directory of multilingual Internet links owned by Netscape. The founders and supporters are considered to be an association of voluntary processors. List of 1998. started working. Current 2006 As of June 1, more than 4,769,732 sites were described in more than 708,584 sub-sections of the public part of the inventory, 78 language sections were created and supplemented, another 99 are in the preparation phase, 72,729 editors participated during the entire period of the project's existence, including 7,495 editors engaged in active editing. stand 2006 June 12, 2007, in the public part of the inventory, the Kazakh site section. Archived from the original on January 15, 2007. placed. ## External links * Open List Project Archived 14 May 2016. * Public Board Archived June 21, 2008. — Open List Project Public Board Kazakh section Archived February 7, 2007. — Open List Project * Kazakh section of the Public Board Archived February 7, 2007. — Open Enumeration Project * Census(link unavailable) — Open Enumeration Project * Paper Archived 19 January 2007. — Open List Project

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4011

Дания

Denmark (Danish: Danmark [ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊]), officially the Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark) is a country in Northern Europe. It is located on the Jutland peninsula and the Danish archipelago. Denmark is located in the north of the Central European plain, between Europe and the Scandinavian peninsula. This kingdom has been living since the 19th century. Denmark stretches 360 km from north to south and 480 km from east to west. The territory of Denmark is 43,093 km 2 (excluding Greenland and the Faroe Islands). A large part of the country (29,776 km²) is located on the Jutland Peninsula. The Danish archipelago includes 500 islands. They are mainly located in the east of Jutland, between the Baltic and Kattegat straits. The area is 12,729 km², and the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea is 588 km². The length of the coast of Denmark is 7,438 km. Denmark is bordered by dry land only with Germany. This border is 68 km long. In the east, Denmark borders with Sweden, it passes through the Öresund (Sund) and Kattegat straits, and in the north, the Skagerrak strait separates Denmark from Norway. Denmark is part of the northern sea shelf. It is the eastern part. Besides, Denmark is part of its former colonies. They are the Faroe Islands and the Greenland Island, they have their own representatives in the parliament. The Faroe Islands are located 375 km north of Scotland. Its territory is 1399 km². They have been under the rule of Denmark since 1380, only in 1948 they received the right to govern themselves. Greenland is the largest island in terms of size, its area is 2,175,600 km², but only 341,700 km² of it is free of ice. Greenland was a colony of Denmark in 1729, it was accepted as part of the state in 1953, and in 1979 it was given the status of autonomy. Sectoral industry structure. Agriculture, forestry and fishing industries in the gross domestic product - 3%, industry - 21%, services - 76% (2006). ## Population The population of Denmark is 5810 thousand people. In the 1980s, the population was stable, and since 1990, its number has increased, mainly due to immigration (11,000 people per year). About 625,800 people live in the city of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Gentofte communes. (1995). In other large cities - Aarhus (275.5 thousand), Odense (182.6 thousand), Aalborg (159 thousand), Esbjerg (82.6 thousand), Runners (64.4 thousand), Kolling (59.6 thousand) , Herning (57.7 thousand), Helsingør (56.9 thousand), Horsens (55.3 thousand) and Vaile (52.3 thousand). 2 million people around the city of Copenhagen. 26% of the population lives in this country. Zeeland (Shellann) is located below - 42% of the population lives there. The population of the city is 85%, there are many cities with 15 inhabitants. 570 thousand people live on the islands of Funen, Lollann and Falster, and 50 thousand people live on Bornholm. The population of Jutland is 2.4 million people, the population density is 81 people. The population of Greenland is 59,000 people (1997), 5,000 of them are Europeans, and the rest are Inuit (Eskimos). The population of the Faroe Islands is 50 thousand people (1997). Population and increase in 1995 - 2000 years. Number (people) 5 199 437 5 249 632 5 305 048 5 333 617 5 356 845 5 336 934 increase 0.22% 0.38% 0.59% 0.49% 0.38% 0, 31% Age structure of the population between 1995 and 2000. 0 - 14 years 17% 17% 18% 18% 18% 18%15 - 64 years 68% 67% 67% 67% 67% 67% Birth and death rate 1999 - During 2000 years ( per 1000 people ) Birth 12.38 12.24 12.78 12.18 11.57 12.16 Death 11.14 10.42 11.22 11.08 10.97 11.00 Age infant mortality rate 6.80 4.80 5.20 5.17 5.11 5.11 Sex composition of the population in 1996-2000. Newborns 1.06 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 all 0.97 0.98 ... 0.98 0.98 \< > Average life expectancy of the population between 1995 and 2000. all 76.11 77.30 76.10 76.31 76.51 76.54 Among men 73.23 73.78 73.44 73.64 73.83 73.95 Among women 79.16 81. 01 78.90 79.12 79.33 79.27 ### Ethnic composition 98% Danes, Eskimos, Faroese, Germans. Evangelical Lutherans make up 91%, and the remaining Protestants and Catholics make up 2%. Denmark is a single-ethnic state. A small number of Germans, Jews and Poles have been assimilated. In 1960, the development of production required additional labor force. Because of this, labor ("gastearbejdere" - guest workers) emigrants came to the country. By the end of 1980, a large number of Turks, Yugoslavs, Iranians, and Pakistanis were formed. The official language is Danish, close to Norwegian. English is less popular than German. From these tribes, the modern Danish people are formed. In addition, the Danes have a dialect in their language, they mainly speak the Copenhagen dialect. The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the official church of Denmark and is supported by the state. There is freedom of belief. Those who join this church make up 87% of the country. Muslims (74 thousand people) are a significant minority of religious communities. The rest are Catholics (33 thousand ), Baptists (6 thousand), Jews (5 thousand). ## Nature Flatness of the Earth's surface. Most of Denmark's land area is made up of not very high undulating plains. The highest point of the country is Iding-Skovh mountain (173 m), located in the east of Jutland. The lowest point (12 m) is located in the western part. There are many potholes on the land, lakes and swamps are located in them. In the north of the country, layered sea plains are spread. The main rock is limestone, which was formed in the late Cretaceous and Cenozoic eras. Groundwater is closely connected with these rocks. The eastern part of Denmark is covered with many deep pits. It is divided. The western and northern parts are sandy hills. The southwestern part was formed as a result of marine activities. During this period, many dams and dams were built to protect against floods. ## Climate Denmark is a land with mild maritime winters. The influence of the ocean is very noticeable in winter. The average temperature in February is 0° C, in July it is 15-16° C. A lot of wind blows throughout the year. Mostly from the west. There are many cloudy days in winter. It is sunny in summer. A lot of precipitation occurs in autumn and winter. Rain falls in the form of rain. Rivers and lakes. The surface of the country is covered with many river networks. Their speed is not high and the length is short. Floods occur in winter. The largest river - Gudeno is located in the east of Jutland. Its length is 158 km. Lakes are concentrated mainly in central Jutland. ## Economy General information about the economy. Denmark is a developed country in the world with a highly developed industry and a high standard of living of its people. The private sector plays a leading role in its economy. Denmark's industry is diversified. The main highly developed electronic equipment production, food, shipbuilding and construction. Fishing plays a major role in agriculture. Denmark managed to recover its economy after the Second World War. The share of agriculture in the national income increased to 20% in 1953 and 3.9% in 1995. In Denmark, 74.7% of the population works in services. the share of foreign trade in the product is 54.9%. In 1991-1997, the share of the unemployed was 10.3%, and inflation was 2.5% in 1990-1995. The gross domestic product in Denmark in 1995 was 173.3 billion. USD, or USD 33,144. per capita. At that time, it was second only to Switzerland and Japan in terms of per capita. State expenditure in 1996 was 46% of GDP, half of which was allocated to pensions and benefits. Average economic development was 4.5% in 1960 and 1.7% in 1986-1995. State budget. In 1996, the income of the state was 61.3 billion. dollar was 65.6 billion, the deficit was 2.5% of GDP. 46% for social payments, 13% for education and research, 10% for business development, 10% for health care, 3% for defense, 3% for culture and the church, 2% for accommodation subsidies and 2% for police and law. to the protection authorities. The counties and municipalities have their own tax inspectorate. They are subordinate to the central government. Denmark's net financial debt in 1994 was 38 billion. dollar amounted to 26.2% of GDP. Foreign trade. Exports and imports make up 1/3 of GDP. 2/3 of foreign trade is conducted with the countries of the European Union. Mainly Germany and In addition to the European Union, the United States and Japan. 75% of exports are industrial goods. These are devices, chemical products, agricultural products. Agriculture makes up 15% of exports. Services make up 10% of exports. 70% of imports are raw materials. 30% of exports are household goods, i.e. cars. The service sector. In Denmark, economic development is gaining a lot of success thanks to the provision of services thanks to the educated population. In 1994, this sector accounted for 71% of employment and 72% of GDP (49% private sector and 23% public sector). The main service sectors are banking, tourism, financial, transport and trade. In 1994, the amount of money received from foreign tourists was 3.8 billion. dollar made up ## Transport In Denmark, the transport industry is considered traditional. It helps to bring in foreign money. Through this industry, 90% of foreign money is earned. 75% of transportation is done by sea transport. Total 2 838 2 848 3 358 2 859 Motorways connect Danish cities with each other. Bicycle transport is also popular. Motorways 1990 ( km. ). Total 71 042 71 420 71 600 71 437 Kastrup Airport in Copenhagen is the largest airport in Europe. The airline "Scandinavian Airlines System" - "SAS" serves Danish, Swedish and Norwegian routes. It also carries out transportation within and outside Europe. "SAS" company carries out transportation through "Danair" (Copenhagen - Zeeland, Jutland, Funen, Bornholm and Faroe Islands). Airports in 1990. Total concrete 102 102 28 28 28 Length 3 047 m. 2 2 2 2 2 Length from 2 438 m to 3 047 m. 7 7 7 7 7 Its length is from 1,524 m to 2,437 m. to 3 3 3 3 3 From 914 m to 1 523 m in length 13 13 13 13 13 To 914 m in length 77 77 3 3 3 All underground 7 7 90 90 90 From 1 524 to 2 437 m in length 1 1 1 1 1 From 914 m to 1,523 m 6 6 7 7 7 Length up to 914 m ... ... 82 82 82 In addition, bridge and ferry transportations are made in this state. Main ferry routes: Funen Island - Zeeland Island, Sund Strait (route, Denmark - Sweden). Two bridges connect Funen Island - Jutland. The longest bridge in Denmark connects Zealand and Falster. Ports: Aalborg, Aarhus, Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Odense , Köge, Greno, Struer, Fredericia. Telephone communication. Telephone and telegraph communication are at a high level. Local lines - through underground and sea cables, 4-channel communication system. International lines - 18 sea lines, they connect Denmark with Norway, Sweden, Russia, Poland, With Germany, Netherlands, Faroe Islands, Iceland and Canada, 6 stations Intelsat, 10 stations Eutelsat, 1 station Orion, 1 station Inmarsat (Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden are registered to the Inmarsat station together with Denmark). ## Industrial production The volume and type of goods of the Danish industry are very large. gas (10.8 billion cubic meters per year) and building materials. The main processing industries are machine-building and metalworking (electrical engineering, radio electronics, shipbuilding, machine tools, equipment for food production), food, chemistry, pharmaceuticals, woodworking, and others. 3.5% of the population works in agriculture. Main the field is beef and dairy cattle breeding and pig farming. They grow wheat, rice, and millet from grains. 2/3 of agricultural products are exported. In the food industry, dairy products, meat products make flour and beer. In the chemical industry, the main ones are gasoline, medicines and plastic products. In the machinery industry, engines, agricultural machines, pumps, thermostats, refrigerators and telecommunication equipment are used. Also ships the assembly is developed. Finally, Danish furniture, clothes and toys are the main selling goods. Danish design is highly appreciated in the world. Agriculture. The main branch of agriculture is meat and dairy cattle breeding. It produces 9/10 agricultural goods. It also grows potatoes, sugar beets, and wheat. Fishing is 1.6 million. etc. (in 1986). In Denmark, 64% of the land is under agriculture due to favorable topography. 80% of agricultural products are produced by cooperatives. Recently, the importance of agriculture in Denmark is decreasing. Grain production and food products. In 1995, 58% of the cultivated land was planted with potatoes, sugar beets, turnips, and kohlrabi. 25% was planted with forage grass or used as pasture. 4 million in the country in 1996. millet was produced. This is 30% less than in 80 years. Millet is feed for pigs. It is also used to make beer, the rest is exported. Wheat production in 1995 was 4.2 mln. T reached. From other products: rye 429 thousand. t, rice 169 thousand. t, potatoes 1.6 million. T and sugar beet 3.5 million. etc. Wheat is mainly grown in East Jutland, West Zealand and Funen. Rye is grown in Central and West Jutland. Rice is grown in North and West Jutland. Potatoes are widespread mainly in Jutland. Vegetables and garden products. Since 1970, the volume of these products has been decreasing. At the end of 1980s, during harvest, the volume was 305 thousand. made t; 60% of it is for apples, it is 75 thousand. t has decreased. 25% of the horticultural area is located in Jutland. The rest is on the islands. Vegetable and horticultural production is intensively developing in southeast Zealand. Their products are processed in Copenhagen and Slagelse canneries. The second main area is the island of Funen and the Odense and Svennborg canneries. . 40 thousand in 1995. 40% of the harvested apples go to the domestic market. In 1995, the import of food products in Denmark amounted to 5.1 billion. USD, and export - 11.6 billion. dollar formed. Animal husbandry. 90% of grain products are fed to cattle, pigs and poultry. By 1994, 65% of the livestock population was owned by farms. In Denmark, dairy farming is developing more than meat farming. In 1983, the amount of milk production was 5.4 mln. t, in 1995 it was 4.6 mln. t decreased. The number of black cattle is 3 million. decreased from to 0.8 million. 1 bln. in 1996 from cheese export. USD. profit. The main types of livestock are black Danish and red Danish cows. 90% of the milk production is for the second type. The main livestock breeding area is Jutland. 75% of them are black cattle. The number of pigs in 1993 was 11.6 million. The volume of pig production is 1.7 mln. t, export profit in 1996 was 3.4 bln. made up of dollars. 3/4 meat products are exported. Mainly they are sent to developing countries. Fishing. Fish export to the state is 2.1 billion. dollar brought in 1993. But in 1995, this figure was 520 million. Dollars decreased. The main fish caught is cod, which accounts for 1/3. Other fish are flounder, sea crab and herring. The main fishing ground is the North Sea and Skagerrak, the main port is located in the western part of Jutland. In shipping, Esbjerg served in the North Sea. Since 1980, fishing has decreased after the exploitation of resources increased and the North Sea became polluted. ## Health Care According to the report, in 1970, the birth rate was 14.4 per 1000 people, the death rate was 9.8, the number of live births per 1000 children, per meter 15. Cardiovascular diseases, cancer and other non-communicable diseases are more common in the country. Epidemic diseases such as influenza and typhoid are common. Tuberculosis is also common. In 1967-1968, 193 hospitals with 47.2 thousand beds, including 17 hospitals with 1.6 thousand beds, were privately owned. In 1968, there were 6.9 thousand doctors, 1.9 thousand dentists and 15.6 thousand midwives. Doctors are trained by 7 special higher educational institutions. ## Education General management of schools is carried out by the Ministry of Education. Tuition is free, although there are private educational institutions. In 1970, 20,875 children were educated in pre-school institutions. The term of study at the gymnasium is 3 years, its graduates can enter higher educational institutions. Vocational education is given in secondary and lower special educational institutions. The largest higher education institutions are the Danish Military Technical School and the Danish Engineering Academy. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5276

Ғұндар

Huns are a nomadic people. The Huns followed the divine religion and used the Turkic script. The spoken language was also Turkic. In the east, Mede conquered the "Eastern Ku" tribes, and its composition included, approximately, Sanbi and Ukwan tribes living in the Kerulen and Onon valleys. Mede made campaigns against the Yuedi (Yuezhi) tribes in the west. At that time, the territory stretching from modern Korea to Tibet and from East Turkestan to the middle reaches of the Yellow River came under the control of the Hun Shanyus, and in the north, the tribes united to the Hun confederation occupied the territory from Baikol to the southern regions. The records also mention the campaigns of the Huns against the Sayan-Altai tribes. The chronicler B.C. In 201, it is reported that the Sunnis continued their campaign to the north and northwest and conquered the countries of Kunyu, Tusuyshe, Dinglin, Gekung and Sinli. In the explanation given in the text, it is said that the five mentioned countries are located in the northern part of the Sunnis, which probably stretches from the Kem (Yenisei) river to the Ile valley in the west. BC. During the campaign of 201, the Huns conquered almost all the Altai tribes, but they did not completely subjugate this territory. However, neither written records nor archeological materials could show that this happened at that time. In the following decades, in addition to the strengthening of the Hun tribes, they also began to show intense activity in the west. BC In 177, under the pretext that Mede had acted against his neighbors on his own, he sent his tuks (kinazis) in the west on a campaign against the Yuedi. The cavalry of the Huns defeated the Yuedi near Zhangye-Gangzhou district, and at the same time conquered several parts of the outlying region of the forming Hun union. In the summer of the following year, Shanyu said about this: "By the grace of heaven, the warriors came out alive, and the horses were strong: they destroyed and appeased the Yuedi; He strengthened (his authority) by putting him to the sword or subduing him. Loulang, Usyn, Kutze and 36 shares adjacent to them (from Kinaz) were assigned to the Sunnis. All of them joined the army of the Sunnis and became one family. This document is very important, but requires a critical review. "Thirty-six states" refers to the territories located in the territory of present-day East Turkestan, that is, in general, all the land up to the coast of the Caspian Sea in the west. Sima Qian, the author of "Historical Records" (Shitizi), welcomed the news about the "complete" defeat of the Yuedi, and in this regard, BC. In 177, he did not take into account that only a part of the Yuedi (Yuezhi) living west of the northern valley of the Yellow River was known to the Chinese. After the nomadic tribes called Yuedi in Chinese records destroyed Greco-Bactria, information about them began to spread throughout Central Asia. Most likely, B.C. It should be considered unreal that the Sunni-Huns conquered all the countries from the Pacific Ocean to the shores of the Caspian Sea in 177 with the cavalry of one person. However, there is no doubt that the Yuedi in the east were subjugated, and it is also true that the communities of Laulang, Usyn and Kutize were dependent on the Yuedi. The geographical location of these ethnic-political names is not very clear. Only Laulang (Croraina) fault in Lobnor district more or less corresponds to the present age. The ethnonym of the place or tribe of Kutize, which is equated with the name of other data in the Chinese records, may come from the local name Aigyr. It was located between Usyn and Tizang-kun countries, that is, approximately in Southern Altai. Herodotus' Argive tribe is believed to have settled in this vicinity. I. According to X. Dvoreshchii, the word "Argippei" means "steed", "horse" in ancient Greek, so it is a translation of some local name close to the same concept. From this point of view, it seems correct to compare the above-mentioned transcriptions of the early Chinese language with the Turkic words "argymak" or "stallion". The social life of the confederation was strongly influenced by powerful forces that did not want to submit to a single center, and the lack of strong political and economic ties between different areas of the vast land. At first, some unity was established by a special type of inter-phratry organization in the Hun society. It is known from the history of Sunnu-gun that the dynastic union consisted of three and later four exogamous ruling clans (phratries). The document says: "Kuyang clan, Lang clan, and Suibu clan appeared after them; Among them, the most famous branches are precisely these three dynasties"11. In this regard, the Kuiang clan was the most famous of the left wing, while Lang and its subsidiary Suibu were the ten wings. It is interesting that the Luangti clan of Shanyu is not called a famous clan. And Kuyang and Lang were related by the mother-in-law. When approaching our time, in-law kinship has changed a bit. In the southern Sunnis, the Shanyu clan began to be called Sui-Liang-ti, and other aristocratic families were named Kuiang, Suibu, Tsuling and Lang. "These four clans were famous clans in their country and were usually related by blood to Shanyu." It further states: "The Kuiang clan was the left (i.e. eastern and large) wing, and the Lang and Suibu clans were the right (i.e. western and small) wing." After another two centuries, their royal family changed and changed their name. The most famous listed is the Duge (Tughlaq) clan, which was "the most heroic and the greatest, so the Shanyus came from them. Their famous four clans were the Kuyang clan, the Suibu clan, the Lang clan, and the Tsao (Tsuling) clan, but the most famous is the Kuyang clan, from which came the chancellors, left-wing and right-wing Jichus. Over time, the Shanui clan's evolution from an unknown clan to the "greatest" clan based on being "the bravest" is remarkable. In fact, a dual organization was formed here at a certain period with the de facto dominance of the male (patriarchal) lineage, which showed the principle of inheritance from the male side. BC Already in the middle of the 1st century, the Sunni society, along with the loss of its vassal possessions, was divided into two groups in the "indigenous" composition - the southern group led by Gukanyechangui and the northern group led by Zhizhi. The southern Sunnis lived in the territory of Ordos, and the northern Sunnis, under the pressure of their tribesmen, moved to the Sayan and Baikol regions and migrated to the north and west. BC In 49, Zhizhi took advantage of the short absence of Guqanye, who went on a diplomatic trip to a neighboring province, to seize his land and thereby attempt to restore the unity of the confederation. However, his strength did not reach him. According to the chronicler, "Zhizhi himself knew that he could not strengthen the Sunnah by force." He asked for help from his vassal Utizutu, but the latter took his ambassador's head and sent 8,000 cavalry to attack Zhizhi. Zhizhi's cavalry routed the Yuxin forces, and Zhizhi, without allies, was forced to withdraw from the southern Hun lands. This and subsequent events are described in the following account as follows: "Seeing that the house of Zhizhi had a large army, and that his ambassador had not yet returned, he deployed his army, set foot on the houses, and destroyed them with stones; turns to the north, hits Utize and subdues it. With the help of his army, Zhizhi destroys Zizangqu in the west and conquers Danlin in the north. After conquering the three evils, he sent troops to his home several times and usually defeated them. ## History From the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the role of nomadic tribes of Central Asia increased in the ethno-political history of Eurasia. In the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, a group of tribes called the Huns (Xunnu, Dunhu) appeared in the north of China and Central Asia. Specifically, he was born in 209 BC and lived until 216 BC. The famous Mote hero who raised his bell. In 209 BC, Medes killed his father and took the throne. From this time, the Hun state began to grow stronger (in particular, in 188 BC, the Huns subjugated the Chinese emperor Gao-Di, it is known that the Han dynasty paid taxes to the Huns. Yuezhi, Lovfan, Baiyan, Yusun and others takes the land of the tribes.) The Huns established a state in the area from Baikal to Tibet, from East Turkestan to the Yellow River. His army was 300-400 thousand. After the death of Mede, mutual strife began. During Hulagu's time, in 47 BC, the Huns split into southern and northern Huns. The southern Huns accepted Chinese rule, while the northern Huns went west in alliance with the Central Asian tribes and preserved their independence. However, due to constant pressure from China, he crossed the Tien-Shan and came to the Khanals. This was the first migration of Huns to Central Asia and Kazakhstan. The second migration took place in the 1st century AD. In 93, the Northern Huns, displaced by the Chinese, again moved westward. They headed west through the territory of Kazakhstan. Due to the entry of these nomads into Kazakhstan, the Turkification of the ethnic tribes of eastern Iran begins. At the beginning of the 1st millennium of our era, the appearance of the tribes of Zhetysu and southern Kazakhstan began to become mongolized. The Huns subjugated the local tribes and entered the Aral region, central and western Kazakhstan along the Syrdarya. It took three centuries for the Huns to arrive in Eastern and Central Europe in the 4th century AD. The Huns threatened the Roman Empire. In the 30s of the 5th century, the leader of the Huns, Attila, terrified the people of Europe. In 375-376, the struggle of the Visigoths with the Huns from the steppes of Kazakhstan led to the fall of the ancient Roman Empire. ## Farming The basis of the agricultural-cultural type is nomadic animal husbandry. Livestock breeding, especially horse breeding, played a major role. Also, sheep breeding, hunting, agriculture developed. Handicrafts of the Huns are strongly developed (made of metal, bone and horn, stone and clay, wood, ceramics). The development of trade is shown by silk fabrics, mirrors, jade products. They raised all kinds of livestock. The main shelter of the Huns was yurts. Huns developed a style of gluing different colored objects on the surface of their products, historically it was called polychrome style. This style was developed in Central Kazakhstan. It was used by the decoration method. Wild animals were the main image for decorating products. ### Animal husbandry Nomadic animal husbandry was very important in the life of the Huns. Due to the increase in the number of livestock, livestock breeders intended to develop new territory and obtain suitable pastures. Pasture was changed more often, and cattle were increasingly grazed far away from settlements. In Chinese records, it is written that they raised horses, cattle, sheep and goats and kept some camels and donkeys. They ate domestic animals, made their skins into clothes, and used their fur and skin for clothing and blankets. The Huns founded horse racing games. And they used sheep meat, skin and wool. Almost all cattle were grazed in the fields throughout the year. Therefore, drought in summer or frostbite in winter, cattle epidemics caused great disaster. Huns were also engaged in hunting as an additional occupation. This occupation was carried out mainly to increase their food reserves and to create a village. ### Agricultural occupation and settlements Among the Huns, there were those who had settled marriages and engaged in agriculture. Among the grain crops, the Huns grew a lot of millet. Tools necessary for planting and harvesting crops such as iron scythes, plow teeth, hand mills, threshers were found, indicating that agriculture was well developed. If grain storage bins are found inside the premises, straw remains can be found on the plaster of the floor, walls, and raw bricks. They mostly lived in yurts. The yurt consisted of a lattice frame, a hut, a roof and a felt covering. Around the yurt are whips, swords with wooden scabbards, bows and arrows, etc. was going to be hung. ## Social structure Social inequality was formed in the Hun tribes. Many valuable objects are found in the graves of wealthy families or members of the ruling class. In the graves of poor people, cheap items of simple manufacture are found, and in some graves nothing is found. The ruling group of the Huns protected the interests of the noble clan and solved all the problems as a leader. ## Society The signs of patriarchal-tribal relations were very strong. Huns are divided into 24 clans. Elders were at their head. The Council of Elders and the People's Assembly worked. There were also slaves who were prisoners of war. Written data also left information about the sign of authority in the Hundred society. Shanyu ruled the country. Then there were the tumanbas. The appearance of private ownership of cattle and land in the Hundred society, the creation of a primitive bureaucratic apparatus, the existence of taxes and writing led to the emergence of a class society and state. ## Relations of the Huns with the Yuezhi, China, Uysin, Kangli The struggle of the Huns with the Yuezhi tribe ended with the victory of the Huns. The Yuezhi were finally defeated only in 174-165 BC. As a result, the Yuezhi retreated to Central Asia and moved to the upper reaches of the Amu Darya. Among those who surrendered to the Huns, there were Uysin. Chinese records mention the subjugation of about 36 neighboring uluses. Medes died in 174 BC. During the reign of Laushan, the son of Mede, the Yuezhi were defeated and some of them settled in Zhetisu. Under the pressure of the Yuezhi, a part of the Sakas in Zhetsu crossed Ferghana, moved to Parthia, Bactria, and another part went from Afghanistan to North India (Kashmir). The big Yuezhi managed to occupy Zhetisu only for about 30-40 years. Later, Zhetysu was taken from the Yuezhi by the Yuxin. Thanks to the military assistance of the Huns, the houses were located in Zhetysu. The Yuezhi, who moved to the west, subdue Bactria. Some of them have now joined their families. Exchange trade was going on between the Huns and China. This was especially beneficial for the Huns. In 158 B.C., in order to expand trade sources on the border, the Holy Prophet started a war against China. In 152 BC, he reached a trade agreement with the Huns. Trading places will be opened in the border areas. At the same time, they will take back pastures south of the Gobi. In 133 BC, a new period of Hun-Chinese wars began. This time the war was started by the Chinese. Military movements moved to the former Hun territory. In the last battle, 90,000 Huns were defeated. In the conflicts of the 90s before our era, 70 thousand Chinese troops could not defeat the Hun army. Convinced that they could not defeat the Huns by their own power, the Chinese rulers, after a 20-year break, began to drive other nomadic tribes against the Huns. In 71 BC, the Huns began to attract conquered countries to their side. Among them, he sends an ambassador to the ruler of his house and establishes marriage ties. The Huns did not stand by and in their turn gave a daughter to the kunbi (gunmo) of their house. And the conflict between the Huns and the Chinese continued. The Huns now begin to take revenge on the allies of the Chinese. The Chinese princess in the Uysin sent a letter to the imperial palace and demanded help for the Uysin. 100,000 Chinese cavalry marches against the Huns. Uysinder alone produces 50,000 troops. 39,000 prominent Huns who could not resist the combined Chinese-Chinese forces were captured, and 700,000 livestock remained in the hands of the enemy. This was an irreparable blow to the Huns. In 71 BC, the Huns, who attacked the Uysin in return, were attacked by the Dunkhus from the east and the Uysin from the west. The Hun army will suffer a heavy defeat. He will lose half of his livestock. A third will die on the battlefield. 3/10 of people die of hunger. Chinese troops also attack from three directions and capture thousands of soldiers. The Chinese continued to incite their neighbors against the Huns. Military labor armies will be placed on the land taken from the Huns. In 59 BC, China established a body to manage the Western region. Now there was a split among the Huns and a struggle for power. Due to power struggles, internal and external crises, the Hun state disintegrated and split into the south and the north in 55 BC. The southern group, led by Huhanye Shanyu, established peaceful relations with China. And the northern part of the Huns, led by Zhi-Zhi, moved to the west under the pressure of China. In the first half of the 3rd century AD, the Hun tribes who came to East Kazakhstan and Zhetysu founded the Yueban state, which existed until the 5th century. This state, which was considered to be the descendants of the former Northern Huns, received the traditional title of Tangirkut. There is information that the Yueban language was close to the ancient Turkish language. ## Appendix Huns, Huns - a union of tribes in ancient times, ancestors of the Turkic peoples. It was formed in the 1st millennium BC. Initially, they settled in northern China, Mongolia, Baikal region. In ancient Chinese chronicles, the Huns are known as gui fan, gong rong, hong yu, xian yu, shiung nu, etc. given by names. By the end of the 3rd century BC, the Huns formed an army and formed their own state. The Huns were divided into 24 clans, which were ruled by the beg. Each clan had its own place of migration. The supreme ruler held the position of "Tangirkut". In Chinese sources, the supreme ruler of the Huns is called "shanyu". Nomadic animal husbandry plays a major role in the life of the Huns. He grew noble breeds of horses and mastered horse training. Among the Huns, there were those who had settled marriages and engaged in agriculture. Among the grain crops, the Huns grew a lot of millet. Craftsmanship and visual arts were at a high level. He gave birth to the polychrome style in jewelry. He founded equestrian games. He prayed to the spirits of his ancestors. Formed their own traditional legal system. Basically, it provides the following: "The land of the person guilty of theft will be confiscated, the person who beheaded or captured the enemy in battle will be given a cup of wine, the captured booty will be given to him, and those who were captured will be his slaves and his slaves; those who died on the battlefield "Whoever replaces a person's remains will receive all the property of his family." The Huns beheaded those who were guilty of crimes among themselves. Because the scar on the face of the victim is a sign of past guilt, such people did not dare to commit a crime again. This is because the next punishment would be death penalty. The Huns enslaved prisoners of war and used them as domestic servants, shepherds, artisans and plowmen. Almost all men were considered ordinary soldiers. The basis of the Hun army consisted of cavalry. The weapons of a traditional warrior are bows, swords, daggers, spears, and bugalyk (thieves' axe). Shocked by the fighting power of the Huns, the Chinese built the Great Wall of China. The Chinese did not like the fact that the Huns were a powerful state. They were looking for a way to weaken the Huns. From 209 BC, the Huns were ruled by Mede. Even in the first years of his reign, Mede made raids on the border areas of China and struck a devastating blow. In a fierce struggle, the dominant military and political power of the Han dynasty forced the Huns to refuse to settle in the places where the Huns moved in Ordos. Emperor Gaozu of Han was forced to bow down to Mede and sign a "treaty of peace and kinship" with him. Under this treaty, he agreed to give Medes his princess as a wife and to pay taxes as a "gift" every year, which he paid regularly thereafter. In the east, Mede subjugated the "Eastern Hu" tribes, which roughly included the Xianbi and Wuhuan tribes living in the Kerulen and Onon valleys. In the west, he made expeditions to the Yuezhi tribes. At that time, the territory extending from present-day Korea to Tibet and from East Turkestan to the middle reaches of the Yellow River fell under the control of the Huns. In the campaign in 201 BC, the Huns conquered almost all the Altai tribes. By 177 BC, they controlled the lands from the Pacific Ocean to the shores of the Caspian Mountains. Thus, the Hundred state included Dunhu, Yuezhi, Gyangun (Kyrgyz), Uysin, Kangly, etc. tribes entered. By the middle of the 1st century BC, the state of the Huns, which had become an empire, began to weaken due to continuous bloody wars, a dispute over the throne, and the influence of forces that did not want to submit to a single center. As a result, in 56 BC. It was divided into southern groups led by Huhanye and northern groups led by Zhizhi (Shouje). South G. They inhabited the Ordos region, and the northern Huns moved to the Sayan and Baikal regions under the pressure of their tribesmen. In 49 BC, Zhizhi attempted to re-establish unity by capturing the lands of the Southern Huns, which had become a vassal of the Han Empire. But his efforts did not yield results. Northern Huns were defeated in 87-93 by a joint alliance of the Chinese Xianbi and Dinglin tribes. Part of the defeated Northern Huns created their own state in South Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the 5th century and conquered Afghanistan, Iran, and some parts of India. As a result of the rebellion in 304, the southern Huns, under the control of the Han Empire, had the opportunity to create their own state called Liu-Han. In 318, the state of Liu Han was divided into the Greater Zhao and the Lesser Zhao. In 329, Zhao the Younger conquered Zhao the Great and northern China. 350 years Zhang Ming, the commander of Little Zhao, who was of Chinese origin, seized power and massacred most of the Huns in Little Zhao. This soon led to the downfall of Little Zhao. the southern Huns became stronger again towards the end of the 4th century. At the beginning of the 5th century, their famous commander Heliang founded the Baba Xia Kingdom, and the Meng Sun leader Bei Liang founded the Kingdom. These two states, founded in the region of Ordos and Nanynan (now Gansu Province of the PRC), were destroyed in 439 as a result of an attack by Tobaghs (Toba). In the 2nd half of the 4th century, a large part of the northern Huns in Volga conquered the coast of the Black Sea, the region up to the Dniester. After bringing the Sarmatians to their knees, they defeated the Alans. In 375, he conquered the Ostrogoth, Herul, Genid, Saka tribes and marched to the Kap mountain. The march of the Huns to the West triggered the "great migration of peoples". The Huns established their empire in Europe. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4851

Erbol Turmakhanuly Orynbaev

Yerbol Turmakhanuly Orynbaev (June 29, 1971, Shymkent) is a social and statesman, assistant to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan (since 2013). He came from the Kulshigash clan of the Konyrat tribe. ## Career Since 1992 - specialist of the commercial department of "Ak Bastau Bank" OJSC (Shymkent city). Since 1993 - Deputy Chairman of the Board of the Joint-Stock Commercial Bank "Future" from Moscow. M.V. Graduated from the Faculty of Law of Moscow State University named after Lomonosov (1995). Since 1995 - Liverpool "Welkfield inspection Services Ltd." general director of cotton certification company (Shymkent city). Has a master's degree in international economic development. In 1996 - 1998, he was the deputy governor of Turkestan region. In 1998 - 2001, he worked in the Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms, the Presidential Administration, the Agency for Public Service Affairs. In 2001, he worked as a consultant of the World Bank in Washington. In 2002, he was appointed the Vice-Minister of the Ministry of Economy and Budget Planning, In 2003, he was appointed the Chairman of the Department of Marketing Analysis, Research, Center. since April 2004 - deputy head of the Administration of the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, since 2005 - head of the Department of Social and Economic Analysis, since 2006 - deputy head. From January 2007 - Head of the Office of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. In 2008 - 2013 - Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Kazakhstan. November 2013 - Assistant to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan. August 24, 2015 Assistant to the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan was dismissed. ## Sources

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6661

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is the only international legal document that declares basic human rights and freedoms. 1948 On December 10, the UN General Assembly adopted and promulgated Charter 217 A (III). The main task of this document is to ensure universal recognition, protection and effective implementation of the human rights and freedoms defined and approved in the document. The uniqueness and importance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights lies in the fact that it was the first to raise human rights and freedoms to the international level. The declaration has no obligation, legal character, that is, the approved norms must not be fulfilled without fail. However, due to the importance of the principles of human rights and freedoms set forth in the document, the Declaration is recognized as a universal act and all states that have voted to adopt it strive to implement it. As stated in the UN Charter (Article 30): None of the principles in this declaration shall be interpreted as conferring on any State, group of persons or individuals the right to engage in any activity. ## Sources ## External links * Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Kaz.) * Universal Declaration of Human Rights (eng.)

https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4934

Cosmonaut-pilot of Kazakhstan

Honorary title "Cosmonaut-pilot of Kazakhstan" — 1993. was established. The title is awarded to those citizens who successfully implemented the assigned program of space flight, and who performed the scientific and technical, research and practical tasks set before them in an exemplary manner. ## Awardees Currently 4 people have been awarded, including: * Toktar Aubakirov — the 1st cosmonaut-pilot of Kazakhstan * Talgat Musabaev — 2nd cosmonaut-pilot of Kazakhstan * Yury Malenchenko — 12.01.1995; * Aydyn Ayymbetov — 14.10.2015. Other cosmonauts born in Kazakhstan Viktorenko ## Sources