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Tamazight NLP 39

From this evolved star forts, also known as trace italienne.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵉⵜⵔ ⴷⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⴰⵏ.

The second choice proved to be more popular as it became apparent that there was little point in trying to make the site genuinely defensible in the face of cannon.

ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵓⵢⵉⵙⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵏⵄ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵎⴷⴰⴼⵉⵄ.

Some true castles were built in the Americas by the Spanish and French colonies.

ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ.

Among other defensive structures (including forts and citadels), castles were also built in New France towards the end of the 17th century.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⴱⵏⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴳⵯ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵊⴷⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵟ 17 ⴷⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵡⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ.

The manor house and stables were within a fortified bailey, with a tall round turret in each corner.

ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⴰⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵀⴰⵢⵎ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⵓ ⵏⵍ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵇⵏⴰⵜ.

Although castle construction faded towards the end of the 16th century, castles did not necessarily all fall out of use.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵓⴱⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵢⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ 16 ⵙⵓⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

In other cases they still had a role in defence.

ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵖⵄⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵔⵉ.

In later conflicts, such as the English Civil War (1641–1651), many castles were refortified, although subsequently slighted to prevent them from being used again.

ⴳⵯ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⴳⵯⵍⵉⵣ (1641-1651) ⵣⴰⵢⴷⵏ ⵙⵃⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵄⵔ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⵯⴰⵏ.

Revival or mock castles became popular as a manifestation of a Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and chivalry, and as part of the broader Gothic Revival in architecture.

ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵄⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ.

This was because to be faithful to medieval design would have left the houses cold and dark by contemporary standards.

ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵇⵇⵕⴼⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

Follies were similar, although they differed from artificial ruins in that they were not part of a planned landscape, but rather seemed to have no reason for being built.

ⵜⵉⵎⵎⵉⵄⴷⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵅⵔⴱⵉⵛ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

A castle with earthen ramparts, a motte, timber defences and buildings could have been constructed by an unskilled workforce.

ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⴱⵓⵜ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴷⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.

The cost of building a castle varied according to factors such as their complexity and transport costs for material.

ⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

In the middle were castles such as Orford, which was built in the late 12th century for UK£1,400, and at the upper end were those such as Dover, which cost about UK£7,000 between 1181 and 1191.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⴼⵓⵕⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 12 ⵙ 1,400 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵊⵊⵢⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴷⵓⴼⵕ, ⵜⵉⴷ ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 7,000 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1181 ⴷ 1191.

The cost of a large castle built over this time (anywhere from UK£1,000 to UK£10,000) would take the income from several manors, severely impacting a lord's finances.

ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ (ⴳ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ 1,000 £ ⴰⵔ 10,000 £ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ.

Medieval machines and inventions, such as the treadwheel crane, became indispensable during construction, and techniques of building wooden scaffolding were improved upon from Antiquity.

ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵍⴰⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ.

Many countries had both timber and stone castles, however Denmark had few quarries and as a result most of its castles are earth and timber affairs, or later on built from brick.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ, ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵕⴽ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ.

For example, when Tattershall Castle was built between 1430 and 1450, there was plenty of stone available nearby, but the owner, Lord Cromwell, chose to use brick.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1430 ⴷ 1450, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⴽⵕⵓⵎⵡⵉⵍⵍ, ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⴱ.

He relied on the support of those below him, as without the support of his more powerful tenants a lord could expect his power to be undermined.

ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵍⵍⵓⵕⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.

This especially applied to royalty, who sometimes owned land in different countries.

ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ.

Royal households took essentially the same form as baronial households, although on a much larger scale and the positions were more prestigious.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵊⵊⵢⴰⵍⵏ.

As social centres castles were important places for display.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵓⵢⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.

Castles have been compared with cathedrals as objects of architectural pride, and some castles incorporated gardens as ornamental features.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵉⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

Courtly love was the eroticisation of love between the nobility.

ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵣⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.

The legend of Tristan and Iseult is one example of stories of courtly love told in the Middle Ages.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.

The purpose of marriage between the medieval elites was to secure land.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵖⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

This derives from the image of the castle as a martial institution, but most castles in England, France, Ireland, and Scotland were never involved in conflicts or sieges, so the domestic life is a neglected facet.

ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⴰ, ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ.

For instance many castles are located near Roman roads, which remained important transport routes in the Middle Ages, or could lead to the alteration or creation of new road systems in the area.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⴰⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ.

Urban castles were particularly important in controlling centres of population and production, especially with an invading force, for instance in the aftermath of the Norman Conquest of England in the 11th century the majority of royal castles were built in or near towns.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵙ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⴷⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 11 ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.

Rural castles were often associated with mills and field systems due to their role in managing the lord's estate, which gave them greater influence over resources.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ.

Not only were they practical in that they ensured a water supply and fresh fish, but they were a status symbol as they were expensive to build and maintain.

ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⴷⴰⵢⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵛⵛⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵉⵣⴷⴳ.

The benefits of castle building on settlements was not confined to Europe.

ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⴼⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

Settlements could also grow naturally around a castle, rather than being planned, due to the benefits of proximity to an economic centre in a rural landscape and the safety given by the defences.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵙ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.

They were usually located near any existing town defences, such as Roman walls, although this sometimes resulted in the demolition of structures occupying the desired site.

ⴳ ⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴷⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ.

When the Normans invaded Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the 11th and 12th centuries, settlement in those countries was predominantly non-urban, and the foundation of towns was often linked with the creation of a castle.

ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵕⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵙⴰ 11 ⴷ 12, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ.

This signified a close relationship between feudal lords and the Church, one of the most important institutions of medieval society.

ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

Another example is that of the 14th-century Bodiam Castle, also in England; although it appears to be a state of the art, advanced castle it is in a site of little strategic importance, and the moat was shallow and more likely intended to make the site appear impressive than as a defence against mining.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴷⵢⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 14, ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵜⵉⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵉⵃⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ, ⴰⵛⴱⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵍⵢ.

Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important.

ⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵔⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉ ⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ.

In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1403, ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ 37 ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵢⴰⵕⵏⴰⵕⴼⵓⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵡⵡⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⵍⵢⵏⴷⵡⵔⵣ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵛⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class.

ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ.

It was more efficient to starve the garrison out than to assault it, particularly for the most heavily defended sites.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵙ ⵍⴰⵥ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵖ, ⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ.

A long siege could slow down the army, allowing help to come or for the enemy to prepare a larger force for later.

ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵡⵓ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⴰⵛⵏⴳⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

If forced to assault a castle, there were many options available to the attackers.

ⴰⵔ ⵎⴽ ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴽⵯⴰⵢⵏ.

The trebuchet, which probably evolved from the petraria in the 13th century, was the most effective siege weapon before the development of cannons.

ⴰⵎⵔⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⴱⵓⵛⵉⵜ, ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⴰⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 13, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ.

Ballistas or springalds were siege engines that worked on the same principles as crossbows.

ⵉⵎⵔⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵎⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵙⴱⵔⵉⵏⴳⴰⵍⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⵢ ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵓⵙⵙⴱⵓⵡ.

They were more commonly used against the garrison rather than the buildings of a castle.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

A mine leading to the wall would be dug and once the target had been reached, the wooden supports preventing the tunnel from collapsing would be burned.

ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⴱ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⵓⵙ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⵉⵔⵔⴷⵍ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ.

A counter-mine could be dug towards the besiegers' tunnel; assuming the two converged, this would result in underground hand-to-hand combat.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴼⵓⵔⴰⴳ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵏⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

They were used to force open the castle gates, although they were sometimes used against walls with less effect.

ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙ ⵔⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴱⵏ ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ.

A safer option for those assaulting a castle was to use a siege tower, sometimes called a belfry.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵓⵣ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴱⵉⵍⴼⵔⵉ.

The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵏⴷⵓⵎ (ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ) ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ.

The monarchy included the king and the queen, while the system was made up of clergy (the First Estate), nobles (Second Estate), peasants and bourgeoisie (Third Estate).

ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ), ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⴽⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ).

"In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with ""commons"" as the second estate."

“ⴳ ⵏⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴳ ““ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ”” ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ.”

"In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or ""burghers"" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class."

“ⴳ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵅⵖⴰⵏ (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ), ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ (ⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ), ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵛⴰⵢⵔ, ""ⵉⴱⵓⵔⴳⵔⵏ"" (ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ.”

Since clergy could not marry, such mobility was theoretically limited to one generation.

ⵙ ⵡⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ.

Huizinga The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, 1924:47).

ⵀⵢⵓⵣⵉⵏⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (1919, 1924:47).

Commoners were universally considered the lowest order.

ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ.

In many regions and realms there also existed population groups born outside these specifically defined resident estates.

ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⵍ.

The economic and political transformation of the countryside in the period were filled by a large growth in population, agricultural production, technological innovations and urban centers; movements of reform and renewal attempted to sharpen the distinction between clerical and lay status, and power, recognized by the Church also had their effect.

ⵉⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ; ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴽⵉⵏⵉⵙⴰ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ.

The second order, those who fight, was the rank of the politically powerful, ambitious, and dangerous.

ⴰⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵉⴽⵔⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ.

In addition, the First and Second Estates relied on the labour of the Third, which made the latter's inferior status all the more glaring.

ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ, ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵓⵃⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.

Most were born within this group and also died as a part of it.

ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵜ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ.

In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms.

ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⵢⵓ 1776, ⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⴳⵓⵜ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ.

When he could not persuade them to rubber-stamp his 'ideal program', Louis XVI sought to dissolve the Estates-General, but the Third Estate held out for their right to representation.

ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵏⵢⴰⵏ ‘ⴰⵀⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ’ ⵢⴰⵏⴼ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ XVI ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⴳⵢ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⵎⵃ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Because the Parliament of Scotland was unicameral, all members sat in the same chamber, as opposed to the separate English House of Lords and House of Commons.

ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵊⴷⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ, ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ.

"As in England, the Parliament of Ireland evolved out of the Magnum Concilium ""great council"" summoned by the chief governor of Ireland, attended by the council (curia regis), magnates (feudal lords), and prelates (bishops and abbots)."

“ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⴰⵉⵕⵕⴰ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⴳⵏⵉⵎ ⴽⵓⵏⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ ""ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏ"" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ (ⴽⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⵔⵉⵊⵉⵙ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵟⵏ (ⵉⵍⵓⵕⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵉⵜⵏ), ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵓⵙⵏ (ⵉⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵀⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ).”

In 1297, counties were first represented by elected knights of the shire (sheriffs had previously represented them).

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1297, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵉⵔ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵏ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ).

Each were free men, and had specific rights and responsibilities, and the right to send representatives to the Riksdag of the Estates.

ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵖⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵟⴰⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Prior to the 18th century, the King had the right to cast a deciding vote if the Estates were split evenly.

ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

However, after the Diet of Porvoo, the Diet of Finland was reconvened only in 1863.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢ ⴰ, ⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴼⵓ, ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⴼⴰⵍⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1863.

Around 1400, letters patent were introduced, in 1561 the ranks of Count and Baron were added, and in 1625 the House of Nobility was codified as the First Estate of the land.

ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1400, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴱⴰⴱⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1561 ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1625 ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵍⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

Heads of the noble houses were hereditary members of the assembly of nobles.

ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.

This resulted in great political influence for the higher nobility.

ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ.

In later centuries, the estate included teachers of universities and certain state schools.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰ.

Trade was allowed only in the cities when the mercantilistic ideology had got the upper hand, and the burghers had the exclusive right to conduct commerce within the framework of guilds.

ⵓⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵍⴰ.

In order for a settlement to become a city, a royal charter granting market right was required, and foreign trade required royally chartered staple port rights.

ⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⵉⵛⵉⵍ ⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵏ.

Since most of the population were independent farmer families until the 19th century, not serfs nor villeins, there is a remarkable difference in tradition compared to other European countries.

ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵔⴰⵣ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵅⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ.

Their representatives to the Diet were elected indirectly: each municipality sent electors to elect the representative of an electoral district.

ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ.

They had no political rights and could not vote.

ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ.

In Sweden, the Riksdag of the Estates existed until it was replaced with a bicameral Riksdag in 1866, which gave political rights to anyone with a certain income or property.

ⴳ ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ, ⵔⵔⵉⴽⵙⴷⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵔⵔⵉⴽⵙⴷⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1866, ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ.

In Finland, this legal division existed until 1906, still drawing on the Swedish constitution of 1772.

ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1906, ⵉⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1772.

Furthermore, the industrial workers living in the city were not represented by the four-estate system.

ⵔⵏⵓ ⴰⵙ, ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ.

Later in the 15th and 16th centuries Brussels became the place where the States General assembled.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵙ 15 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙ 16 ⴱⵔⵓⴽⵙⵉⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

As a consequence of the Union of Utrecht in 1579 and the events that followed afterwards, the States General declared that they no longer obeyed King Philip II of Spain, who was also overlord of the Netherlands.

ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵅⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1579 ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱⴱ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵚⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ.

It was the level of government where all things were dealt with that were of concern to all the seven provinces that became part of the Republic of the United Netherlands.

ⵙⵢⵉⴼⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵙⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵛⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ.

In the Southern Netherlands, the last meetings of the States General loyal to the Habsburgs took place in the Estates General of 1600 and the Estates General of 1632.

ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ, ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵀⴰⴱⵙⴱⵓⵔⴳ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ 1600 ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ 1632.

It no longer consisted of representatives of the States, let alone the Estates: all men were considered equal under the 1798 Constitution.

ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ : ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1798.

In 1815, when the Netherlands were united with Belgium and Luxemburg, the States General were divided into two chambers: the First Chamber and the Second Chamber.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1815, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⴰ ⴷ ⴱⵍⵊⵉⴽⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵓⵎⴱⵓⵔⴳ, ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ: ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.

From 1848 on, the Dutch Constitution provides that members of the Second Chamber be elected by the people (at first only by a limited portion of the male population; universal male and female suffrage exists since 1919), while the members of the First Chamber are chosen by the members of the States Provincial.

ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1848 ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵜⵎⵏⴹⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵓⵍⴰⵏⴹⵉⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵚⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ; ⵓⵎⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1919), ⴰⵔ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

The clergy was represented by the independent prince-bishops, prince-archbishops and prince-abbots of the many monasteries.

ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜⵏ.

Many peoples whose territories within the Holy Roman Empire had been independent for centuries had no representatives in the Imperial Diet, and this included the Imperial Knights and independent villages.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⵉ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⵜⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴱⵕⴰⵟⵓⵕⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓⴳ.

The four major estates were: nobility (dvoryanstvo), clergy, rural dwellers, and urban dwellers, with a more detailed stratification therein.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ : ⵉⵏⵓⴱⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ,, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

The bourgeoisie in its original sense is intimately linked to the existence of cities, recognized as such by their urban charters (e.g., municipal charters, town privileges, German town law), so there was no bourgeoisie apart from the citizenry of the cities.

ⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ, ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ), ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴱⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.

"Historically, the medieval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted ""the bourgeoisie""."

“ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵓⵡⵢ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜⵏ (ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⴱ), ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ““ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ””.”

Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed.

ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ (ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴼⵢⵓⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵍⴽⵔⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ.

They tend to belong to a family that has been bourgeois for three or more generations.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵢ ⵏⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴳⴰⵔ.

The names of these families are generally known in the city where they reside, and their ancestors have often contributed to the region's history.

ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.

These people nevertheless live lavishly, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time.

ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴰ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎ ⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴼⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ.

In the French language, the term bourgeoisie almost designates a caste by itself, even though social mobility into this socio-economic group is possible.

ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵕⵊⵡⴰⵣⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵉ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

Hitler distrusted capitalism for being unreliable due to its egotism, and he preferred a state-directed economy that is subordinated to the interests of the Volk.

ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵏ ⵀⵉⵜⵍⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⵅⴼⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵍⴽ.