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data/part_5/0011e0b1b1832c392c85a0d6ffad99e2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0011e0b1b1832c392c85a0d6ffad99e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_19947i.pdf"},"pageCount":163,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"57006b24-0036-4508-b811-14c04d60e1a9","abstract":""}

data/part_5/00513c879f3a781c313090b19804eb6f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00513c879f3a781c313090b19804eb6f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a438a4d-1723-4086-8511-ba681195aaa1/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Note: You must click the \"Add\" button to save the information in the CGSpace system."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Before you add any information to the following fields make sure that you check if the information is not already in the controlled list of the input box. You can check by clicking Click to see available values. If the information is not in the list, you can add it manually."}]},{"head":"Submitting publications: authors","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"In this field, add the author(s) full name, following the ICRAF Style Guide: surname, given name+initials (withouth spaces or full stops). If there is more than one author, add them one by one."}]},{"head":"Submitting publications: authors","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The correct way to add this information authors name + colon + space + ORCID number. You can find authors' ORCIDs via this link: https://orcid.org/orcidsearch/search. Add the affiliations of all the authors but only 1 per author. Only add the full names of the institutions, not the acronym."}]},{"head":"Submitting publications: title and journal articles","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Only for journal articles:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Add the name of the journal in which the article was published."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Add the edition of the journal in which the article was published. You can add issue numbers in parentheses."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Add the page range where the article can be found. These can be alphanumeric."}]},{"head":"Every publication need a title!","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Submitting publications: item types and language","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"If the publication has more than one language, you can select them by holding the Ctrl button on your keyboard."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"CGSpace has 38 different options to identify the item type."}]},{"head":"Submitting publications: date of publication and publisher","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"For journals articles, add the date of publication of the journal edition."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"When a publication is part of a numbered series (e.g. working papers) you can add it to this field. Here you can add the URL of related publications. If there are more than one, separate them using a semi-colon (;)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"for CCAFS Info Notes we use CC BY NC 4.0 publications: usage rights Submitting publications: sponsor details and related content First, check the Click to see available values list. If the information is not there, you can add it manually.  Search for the correct Search for the correct  creative commons creative commons  license in the publication license in the publication  and select that option in and select that option in  this field. this field. e.g.: CCAFS Working Paper e.g.:264 e.g.: CCAFS Working Papere.g.:264  Only choose \"Other\" if Only choose \"Other\" if  the item does not have a the item does not have a  license or none is license or none is  specified. specified.  "}],"sieverID":"3a888660-ac56-4ce3-8d76-b0d6795d044f","abstract":""}

data/part_5/006801d39c0348ccb9325489c682f28e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"006801d39c0348ccb9325489c682f28e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3bff121a-5c40-4bc0-854e-44abbc47df54/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IntroducC16n-","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"El trabajo que se presenta es una descrlpclón de los trabajos que se reallzan en la secclón de Agronomía de Legumlnosas del Programa de Pastos Troplcales del CIAT, en los cuales el autor trabajó en calldad de colaborador de la unldad en todas las actlvldades que en ella se desarrollan El Programa de Pastos Troplcales contempla crlterlOS específlcoS de selecclón para las lCgumlnosas y gramíneas forrajeras El germoplasma se organlza de acuerdo con su potenclal para ecoslstemas específlcos de acuerdo con los obJetlvos del Programa,de trabajar con plantas reslstentes o adaptadas a condlclones de suelos OXlsoles y Ultlsoles, de bajo pH, alto contenldo de Al y de poca fertllldad Las legumlnosas mejoran las condlclones del suelo, ya que aportan Clertos factores nutrltlvoS y Sllmlnlstra nltrógeno a la gramínea cuando se slembra en asocl.ac 16n"},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Hay un gran número de especles legumlnosas que son natlvas de Amérlca del Sur, aunque aparecen en los pastlzales en forma errátlca y no proporclonan las bacterlas para la fljaclón del nltrógeno J J ~n la producclón de forraje una mezcla de gramínea y legumlnosas rlnde más que cualquler gramínea Sln fertlllzar o legumlnosa sola La lncluslón de especles legumlnosas en los pastlzales lncrementa la cantldad y calldad de los forrajes J tamblén la producclón anlmal hay lndlcl0s de que las legumlnosas ejercen una lnfluenCla decíslva sobre el rendlIDlento de los anlmales"}]},{"head":"LIIIITACIOlIES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Hay varIas razones para que la producclÓ~ de leg~lnosas en algunas zonas sea l1ml tada, COMO en los tróplcos hÚ1::leaos, de'ltro de ellas se destaca la Cuando las ~lan~as tle~e0 de 6 a 8 se~~\"1as est~ listas nara el t~anspl~~~e CUR'1do eXIste suflCIente 1'J.aterlal éste es t.!'a\"1spo!:'t.ado a CIA:'-:;\",lllc\"-ao "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 slembra se hace una evaluaclón en donde se observa el estado y la unlformldad varletal de los ecotlpoS 61 se dlspone de poco materlal, se transplanta al campo en Palrnlra o se deja en el lnvernadero en potes grandes, esta p;áctlca se reallza con el hn de asegurar la producclón de s~lla En el campo se slembra en hlleras de 5 mts cada una En cada lote se coloca un ecotlpo como testlgo Evaluaclón Las evaluaclones del materlal que está en CIAT-Palrnlra QUll1chao o de los materos en el lnvernadero se evalúa cada 28 días y se hacen comparaclones con ecotlpoS de la IDlsma especle que h~~ mostrado lli~ mejor comportamlento en ocaslones anterlores La escala arbltrarla que va de 1-5 tlene las slgulentes equlvalenclas l~lo, 2=regular, 3=bueno 4=muy bueno, y 5=excelente A los patrones testlgos se les dá un valor de 3 Los parámetros que se conslderan en la evaluaclón son lnlc1aclón de la floraclón colocando un dlstlntlvo de cobre determlnado para que el personal que reallza estos trabajos esté pendlente del momento en que cOmlenza la producclón de semlllas Se observa tambÁén el momento en que la planta alcanza su máxlma floraClón 6 Producclón de sem111a se señala con una clnta de un color deter¡¡nnado A partlr de este lnstante se debe v1g1lar períodlcamente las parcelas para no perder selllllla Capacldad de rebrote Al año se realiza el prlmer corte Se hacen dos obserVaC10'leS a los 15 ;f 30 <lías después oel corte para ClC1:ermlnar la capacldad de rebrote Luego de las e\\alhaclores ~e~cl0~adas las pl~~~as la~ seleccIonándose • S~ble~QO o baja~do ce categor2a o 1nporta~cla para el programa Las espeCIes selecclo~adas aquí pasa~ a ensaJos e'1 cor:'e y pastoreo y luego al estaoleclr:ue'1to a.€ la pra.dera La recoleccIón de la se\",,:.:.lla en el Ca.'11DO CIAT-oal\"'llra, QUII1Cf!.aO o el lnVer'1aa.ero}: debe .['•acerse CO'\" CJ-IC5.UO ?a:ra la c . . . . . al se usa'1 00.15::' tas ae reCOl.eCCIÓ n , CO\"\"' la s~gu~ente knformac~ón nombre del colector, número de la parcela, fecha de recolección Luego se llmpka, se pesa, se compara con la semilla original para comprobar su autenticidad y luego se registra su peso total y el peso de 100 se=llas Herbarlo Debido a que gran parte del materlal que llega a la unkdad no Viene identificado taxonÓmlcamente como es debkdo Existe un herbarko para tratar de Solucionar el problema, aqui se kdentiflca debkdamente y se archkva el materkal de knterés Entrega de Germoplasma La Secc~ón de Agronomía de Leguminosas distrkbuye pequeñas cantidades de semlllas a otras lnsti tuciones, en espeCial a las que trabajan en el área de ~mpacto y con las que hay intercambio de se~illas Los registros sobre entraday salida de semilla se llevan en una planilla REVISION BIBLIOGRAFICA 1 CIAT Reporte Anual 1977 2 R E McDo~ell 1975 Bases blológ~cas de la prodUCCión anlmal en zonas tropicales pag 188-202 3 B Harvard Duclos 1969 Las plantas forrajeras tropicales Técnicas agríCOlas y prodUCCiones tropicales Pag 139, 218, 246, 266, 308, 309 4 lCA Gramíneas y legum~nosas forrajeras en Colombia Hanual de ASistenclS. técnlca No 10 5 Whlte, RO, T R G ~!Olr y J P Cooper 1975 Las gramíneas en la agricultura FAO Pag 123 6 GIAT Procedlm~ento y métodos de laboratorlO para la propagac1ón pregerrnlnada de semilla forrajera Unldad de Agronomía de LegUmlnosas 7 thnlsterlo de Agricu:tur'a de pastos y forrajes bOnl tal! Pag 71-75 Cuba 1978 CienCia y técnica en la agrlc0.lt\"ra EstaCión Ce'ltral de Pas\"Cos J Forrajes \",hr.a "}],"sieverID":"c655bbbe-b231-451b-8cac-fa31ffc70c56","abstract":""}

data/part_5/009169fc9f344c74a988787c3f0246a3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"009169fc9f344c74a988787c3f0246a3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0e0400b3-e122-4aa8-b0a4-d37b2f50ed9a/retrieve"},"pageCount":17,"title":"Trends in recent late blight scientific publications","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"61457ff6-150d-41e2-9215-b85bf9ed6681","abstract":"CIP-China Center for Asia Pacific (CCCAP) CIP is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato and Andean roots and tubers. It delivers innovative science-based solutions to enhance access to affordable nutritious food, foster inclusive sustainable business and employment growth, and drive the climate resilience of root and tuber agri-food systems. Headquartered in Lima, Peru, CIP has a research presence in more than 20 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. www.cipotato.org CIP is a CGIAR research center CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by 15 research centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners across the globe. www.cgiar.org CIP thanks all donors and organizations which globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund. https://www.cgiar.org/funders/"}

data/part_5/01e260bd35f2d7b583dc3bdac5de91ef.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01e260bd35f2d7b583dc3bdac5de91ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6462785e-9af8-43da-b28f-5988ccd3571e/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Developing Gender and Youth-Responsive Agronomic Solutions for Use Cases in the Excellence in Agronomy Initiative","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Step 1: Carry out a diagnostic gender and youth assessment"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Step 1.1. Contextualize a ready-made gender/youth-focused research questionnaire"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Step 1.2. Administer the questionnaire"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Step 1.3. Analyze the quantitative data Background on the study households Gender/youth -disaggregated analysis"}]},{"head":"Intersectionality","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Step 2: Identify recommendations for MVP design"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Step 2.1. Identify the evidence that warrants specific action"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Step 2.2. Use the Reach-Benefit-Empower-Transform framework to organize options for action"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Step 2.3. Identify which attributes of the MVP to act on and for whom"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Step 3: Design a prototype MVP to be gender-and youth-responsive"},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"Step 3.1. Integrate the information generated in Step 2 when designing the prototype"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Step 3.2. Identify indicators to track the gender-and youth-responsiveness of the prototype at validation stage "}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The objective of EiA is to deliver data-driven, gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions, supported by appropriate decision support tools, to women, men and youth smallholder farmers in prioritized regions of the Global South through (i) the galvanization of a CGIAR-wide, integrated framework to identify, diagnose, and resolve both technical and social constraints hampering the sustainable intensification of smallholder agriculture, (ii) the use of data-driven agronomic solutions that are responsive to the diverse needs and circumstances of especially women and youth smallholder farmers, and (iii) deep engagement with research and scaling partners in the public and private sectors with durable impact pathways and co-ownership of innovations."},{"index":2,"size":226,"text":"This Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is designed for Excellence in Agronomy (EiA) Use Case teams with an interest in developing gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions. The SOP is a guide to help Use Case teams move from each step in their workflows when designing, validating, and piloting their Minimum Viable Products (MVPs) to ensure they can develop gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions by the end of their Use Case. This stepwise procedure first entails carrying out a diagnostic assessment of gender and generational differences in agricultural management practices and technology adoption and the factors contributing to these differences. The evidence generated is utilized by Use Case teams to inform the design of their MVPs to ensure they are responsive to the diverse needs and circumstances of especially women and youth smallholder farmers in their focal context. The design phase also considers the extension support approach needed for use when validating and piloting MVPs. During both these stages, Use Case teams collect additional information to determine whether the MVPs are meeting the needs of women, men, and youth, and adjust accordingly before the MVP can be taken to scale by partners. These steps (6 total) to developing gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions are described with some detail in this SOP. See Figure 1 for an overview of the stepwise procedure. Step 1: Carry out a diagnostic gender and youth assessment"},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The main objective of the diagnostic gender and youth assessment is to provide contextual information that will serve as a foundation for Use Case teams to reflect on the gendered and generational impact pathways of their MVP. The assessment ensures that such a foundation is based on 'facts' rather than 'myths.'"},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"The main aim of the gender and youth assessment is to support Use Case teams in designing their MVP such that they can REACH, BENEFIT and EMPOWER women and youth through excellence in agronomy. The assessment will also help relevant Use Case teams to design and test gender transformative approaches (GTAs) alongside the piloting of their MVPs to TRANSFORM the unequal power relations and discriminatory structures (informal norms) that prevent women and youth from accessing and benefiting from agronomic solutions."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Broadly, the assessment informs the Use Case teams on:"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"1) Gender and generational divisions within and across households concerning:"},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"a. Farm and off-farm work b. Access to resources c. Agricultural input use d. Access to agricultural information NOTE: Given the importance of digital tools and technology, the questionnaire pays special attention to this component."},{"index":8,"size":46,"text":"2) Women's and youth's agency in agriculture: a. Decision making on agricultural management practices b. Decision making on income allocation, from farming specifically and household income more generally 3) Social norms and perceptions regarding women's and youth's roles in farming, agronomic practices and agricultural technology adoption."},{"index":9,"size":23,"text":"NOTE: These affect both current gender and generational discrepancies and will affect the gendered and generational uptake and impact pathways of the intervention."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"To carry out the assessment, a quantitative tool (survey questionnaire) was developed for Use Case teams to contextualize to fit their specific needs for evidence to inform the design of their MVP. The tool can be found HERE. All Modules in the tool are indicated in Appendix A."},{"index":11,"size":43,"text":"NOTE: Qualitative research should accompany the quantitative assessments to further probe into the factors (and identify others) that explain gender and generational differences and how these gaps can be narrowed or eliminated via the use of gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions and transformative approaches."},{"index":12,"size":8,"text":"Step 1.1. Contextualize a ready-made gender/youth-focused research questionnaire"},{"index":13,"size":24,"text":"In certain places, the questionnaire might benefit from modifications to reflect local conditions. These modifications typically fall within four types (see also Box 1):"},{"index":14,"size":17,"text":"First, response codes or categories may have to be adjusted to reflect the local context. Examples are:"},{"index":15,"size":36,"text":"• Measurement units, changing asset lists to reflect commonly held durables and production assets, adjusting credit sources and groups that respondents may be members of, crops commonly grown, and recall periods based on local crop cycles."},{"index":16,"size":53,"text":"Second, additional questions might be required to capture socio-economic characteristics, social norms or attitudes, or productive activities that are deemed important to gender and agriculture, but do not appear in the standard questionnaire. Use Case teams are strongly encouraged to carefully reflect on such gaps and to add relevant questions to the questionnaire."},{"index":17,"size":44,"text":"Third, the Progress out of Poverty Index (PPI) module is country specific. Each country has another set of questions that should be answered to calculate the PPI. For each country, the PPI and supporting documents can be accessed on-line (www.povertyindex. org ) 1 ."},{"index":18,"size":99,"text":"Fourth, adjust the questionnaire based on the specific MVP under development, including its subcomponents, and the envisioned delivery or extension support approach for delivering/disseminating the MVP. We envision most adjustments and tailoring to take place in the module on Use Case Technology 2 . The Use Case may also find it useful to carefully consider the agronomic practices and inputs to be considered in the module Agricultural Inputs and Management, or the main crop to be considered for the questions in the module Household Decision Making, and the questions asked related to agricultural extension in the module Agricultural Extension."},{"index":19,"size":29,"text":"All these local adaptations are an essential part of questionnaire design and Use Case teams are encouraged to reach out to the EiA gender team regarding the envisioned modifications."},{"index":20,"size":53,"text":"NOTE: Each Use Case team is also encouraged to dedicate funding to support a gender expert (or consultant) to assist with this contextualization process and other work mentioned in subsequent steps. This dedicated person could then work with the EiA gender team to ensure the work is carried out at the highest level."},{"index":21,"size":41,"text":"Once these modifications are made, Use Case teams need to make sure to translate the questionnaire into the relevant language(s) of the study context. Translation will ensure accuracy, efficiency, and consistency of enumeration. After translation, the questionnaire is ready for use."},{"index":22,"size":18,"text":"Box 1: Key changes Use Case teams should consider when contextualizing the gender and youth questionnaire Key changes:"},{"index":23,"size":16,"text":"1) Tailor response codes and categories to the local context (e.g., measurement units, credit sources, etc.)"},{"index":24,"size":111,"text":"2) Add questions to capture relevant socio-economic characteristics, farm characteristics, or social norms or perceptions that are not yet captured in the standard questionnaire. These questions should capture relevant characteristics of the respondents, households and communities related to gender and generational gaps. 3) Include PPI module specific to the study country. This includes screening the questionnaire to avoid unnecessary repetition of questions. 4) Adjust existing questions, categories, and response codes to the specific MVP. This includes filling in the main crop(s) of interest, ensuring inclusion of agricultural technologies that are employed in the MVP (including the MVP and its sub-components), and the envisioned delivery or extension support system for the MVP."},{"index":25,"size":2,"text":"Step 1."}]},{"head":"Administer the questionnaire","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The questionnaire consists of two main parts:"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"(1) A household questionnaire (2) An individual questionnaire Part 1 asks general questions regarding the household. Any knowledgeable household member (or multiple members) can respond to this first part."}]},{"head":"NOTE:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The interviewer should appoint (or ask) one main household member to respond. This member can receive input from other household members to respond as accurately as possible to the questionnaire. This main respondent appointed for the household questionnaire is also the person who must give informed consent."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"1. It is important to note that the PPI might include questions that are answered elsewhere in the questionnaire. If so, they do not need to be repeated in the PPI questionnaire module. For example, the PPI often includes a question asking how many members live in the household. This information can be calculated based on the module on Household demographics and roster, and therefore can be dropped in the PPI module. 2. The term \"Use Case technology\" could either narrowly refer to the specific MVP under consideration, or it could refer to any sub-component or relevant related technology, tool or innovation. The Use Case team should decide which one or ones to include depending on the situation."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Part 2 should be administered to one male and one female primary decision maker in the household, as identified in Part 1. The questionnaire contains questions pertaining to the individual who responds to the questionnaire. To ensure that the respondent answers freely, the enumerator should ensure the respondent is interviewed separately. No other household or non-household members should be present or able to overhear the interview, except for children below two years of age 3 ."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"NOTE: In the case where there is only on adult female or male decision maker in the household, there is no need to administer the questionnaire to another household member (e.g., a child < 18 years old), and therefore, only the primary adult female or male is asked to respond to the questionnaire."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"NOTE: Informed consent is required from any new respondent who is identified to participate in Part 2 who was not the main household member responding to questions in Part 1."},{"index":6,"size":57,"text":"Enumerator teams should include male and female enumerators and ideally they are gender-balanced. It is preferable that male enumerators interview male respondents, while female enumerators interview female respondents. However, matching enumerators and respondents based on gender can be burdensome logistically, such that teams might decide to not strictly follow this rule where it is deemed culturally acceptable."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"More details on questionnaire implementation will be provided in the enumerator manual."},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"Step 1."}]},{"head":"Analyze the quantitative data","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Some basic steps towards data analysis are described below and are exemplary of options for the analysis of the quantitative data. This is not an exhaustive list of options and Use Case team members, including data analysts, are encouraged to explore additional options as they see fit."}]},{"head":"Background on the study households","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"The variables collected in the household questionnaire can help to contextualize the study households. Once analyzed, Use Case teams would be able to provide statements such as \"In this context households on average tend to be X (e.g., asset poor), and Y (e.g., mild food insecure), and have (e.g., big/small) family sizes, etc….\""},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"We provide an overview of the most common indicators that Use Case teams are expected to report on:"},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"In the exceptional case where an interview in private is impossible due to contextual factors or norms, the number of nonrespondent attendants must be limited to the best possible extent. Moreover, any interview not conducted in private must be duly reported to the supervisor and this information must be entered on the questionnaire.  The data should also be used to explore differences between women and men, and across different generations (or age groups). We do not envision the development of one composite score or indicator across all modules. Rather, the data from the tool should be used to get a varied and broad overview of gender and generational differences within the population of interest. There are multiple options for this:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"1) Compare indicators based on a gender/generational characterization of households. For example:"},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"a. Women-adult-only households vs. men-adult-only households vs. mixed-adult households b. Youth vs. non-youth farm decision makers"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"2) Compare responses of women and men (youth and non-youth) to questions in the individual interviews, based on the gender (or age group) of the respondent."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"3) Disaggregate individual-level information on household members from modules in Part 1."}]},{"head":"4)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Compare plots managed by men to plots managed by women."}]},{"head":"Intersectionality","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Gender and generational inequalities are not constant, but may differ depending on characteristics of the communities, households, or respondents. Social differences and socio-economic conditions, such as poverty, age, ethnicity, market distance or geographic marginalization, are known to create differences between and within groups of women and men. It is therefore extremely useful to explore such interactions between gender and other socio-economic characteristics or biases. Such detailed analysis of gender differences is typically referred to as intersectionality."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Examples of criteria which are often relevant to intersectionality are depicted in Figure 2. Step 2: Identify recommendations for MVP design"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Step 2.1. Identify the evidence that warrants specific action"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"After data analysis, Use Case teams should examine the results more closely to determine which require their consideration when designing their MVP and delivery approaches to ensure that they are gender-and youth-responsive."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"NOTE: Gender-and youth-responsive agronomy does not mean that Use Case teams must develop agronomic solutions specifically \"for women and youth,\" but rather, that Use Case teams have made evidence-based decisions about the specific circumstances or preferences , etc. of women, men, and youth when designing their MVPs for them. When their specific circumstances or preferences are not considered then \"gender-blind\" (or \"generational-blind\") decisions get made when designing agronomic solutions."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Use Case teams should identify differences in key barriers and constraints and outcomes experienced by women and men and youth and non-youth farmers that agronomy can help remove and/or improve. After identifying these, Use Case teams can begin to anticipate how MVP and delivery approach design decisions may influence and be influenced by women's and youth's labor, resources, and opportunities."},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"For instance, when prioritizing MVP features, Use Case teams should consider the main technical constraints they have identified (e.g., late planting that leads to low productivity) alongside the social/gender constraints they uncovered via their diagnostic assessments (e.g., women's time and work burdens and/or lack of decision-making powers). Use Case teams should also begin to consider, for example, how better to target farmers during validation/piloting stages of the MVP."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"The aim is to make evidence-based, gender/generational-aware decisions when designing MVPs so Use Case teams can better reach, benefit, and empower women and youth, while also making efforts to transform unequal power relations and social/gender norms that could limit the uptake of their MVPs."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Step 2.2. Use the Reach-Benefit-Empower-Transform framework to organize options for action"},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"Use Case teams can link their evidence identified in Step 2.1 to specific options for action using the \"Reach-Benefit-Empower-Transform\" framework 4 . The framework (see also Figure 3) can help Use Case teams to:"},{"index":11,"size":122,"text":"1) REACH more women and youth through better targeting and accounting for the key social and gender issues that would otherwise prevent/limit them from being involved in the MVP design, validation, and piloting phases. 2) BENEFIT more women and youth farmers through their use of the MVPs and related capacity development efforts when validating/piloting. 3) EMPOWER women and youth farmers economically through their use of MVPs to increase productivity and profits. 4) TRANSFORM social relations at household, community, and institutional levels to address the restrictive social/gender norms and power relations that limit women's and youth's decision-making powers and control over resources that are essential for their uptake and adoption of agronomic solutions for wide-ranging development outcomes, including food, nutrition, and economic security."},{"index":12,"size":133,"text":"NOTE: All Use Case teams can design MVPs and delivery/extension approaches to REACH, BENEFIT, and EMPOWER women and youth. Only Use Case teams that adopt gender transformative approaches (GTAs) will be able to address (or TRANSFORM) the social/gender norms and power relations that cause gender and generational inequalities. For example, the diagnostic gender and youth assessment might find that young women provided more labor to cultivate wheat in the study context in Ethiopia compared to younger men and older men and women. A general option for action would be to ensure young women are included in the design and validation/piloting phases of the MVP. This option would simply allow the Use Case team to REACH additional young women but would not per se enable the Use Case to BENEFIT and EMPOWER young women."},{"index":13,"size":91,"text":"If the diagnostic assessment found that a greater percentage of older women had not heard about mobile applications that are related to agricultural production, marketing, or weather compared to older and younger people, the Use Case could target older women for inclusion in training courses on the use of mobile applications (REACH), and then once trained, the Use Case could make concerted efforts to increase older women's access to devices to use mobile applications to enable them to BENEFIT from their use of the MVP (e.g., a digital decision support tool)."},{"index":14,"size":64,"text":"In another example, if the diagnostic assessment found that younger women make few inputs into decisions about the Use Case focal crop variety and the use of related agronomic practices compared to men and older women, the Use Case could adopt the use of household methodologies that engage couples in ways to work together to make decision making within the household more equal (EMPOWER)."},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"Additional examples of options based on fictional findings under select survey Modules can be found in Appendix B for Use Case teams to consult."},{"index":16,"size":2,"text":"Step 2."}]},{"head":"Identify which attributes of the MVP to act on and for whom","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Once the specific options for action have been identified, Use Case teams can next reflect on which features or attributes of their MVP and/or delivery/extension support approach need to be modified, re-considered, or developed anew to ensure that the agronomic solutions that Use Case teams design meet the needs and circumstances of women, men, and youth. Use Case teams must make sure that their intentions to reach, benefit, and/or empower women and youth via their MVPs and delivery/extension support approaches match the design changes."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"For example, if the Use Case aims to ensure young women are included in the design and validation/piloting stages of the MVP (REACH), then their delivery/extension support approach must be designed in a manner that recognizes heterogeneity amongst farmers and directly targets young women for inclusion in the design, validation, and piloting stages. Young women's preferences for certain features they would like to have in the MVP could be ascertained and then built into the design process. Thus, an MVP that integrates the preferences of young women who were especially targeted by the Use Case would likely bring about more BENEFITS to these young women as the MVP moves through validation and piloting."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Step 3: Design a prototype MVP to be gender-and youth-responsive"},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"Step 3.1. Integrate the information generated in Step 2 when designing the prototype Use Case teams should consider all the information they put together in Step 2 to make informed, evidence-based decisions on how better to design their protype MVPs in a manner that enables them to meet the needs and experiences of women, men, and youth farmers."},{"index":5,"size":61,"text":"In some cases, characteristics of the MVP itself will need to be (re)considered/modified based on the conclusions made by the Use Case teams during Step 2. For example, if the preferences for digital versus hard copies of training manuals for women versus men or younger versus older people differed, then Use Case teams need to consider both when designing their MVPs."}]},{"head":"12","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"In other cases, aspects of the approach to delivering the MVP via extensions support services will need to be (re)considered/ modified. For example, if younger women are not being reached by extension officers for training and other purposes, the Use Case must understand why this is the case and augment the approach they use to reach young women farmers when disseminating their MVP. It could be that mostly male extension officers are employed in the public system or within a partner organization. The Use Case would then ensure that an equal number of women and men are part of the Use Case and/or partner team when deploying the MVP during validation (and piloting) stages."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Importantly, different Use Case team members must work together to make the decisions on which attributes of the MVP or delivery/extension approach need to be (re)considered/modified based on the evidence consolidated in Step 2. It may be useful for the Leads of Use Case teams to delegate someone to manage this step so that different perspectives on how to take the evidence from Step 2 and build it into the design process is carried out in a rigorous/systematic/unbiased manner. Setting up a stage gate could be useful here to ensure the findings from Step 2 were considered and integrated into the prototype design process."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"Step 3."}]},{"head":"Identify indicators to track the gender-and youth-responsiveness of the prototype at validation stage","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"After determining which design features will be (re)considered/modified, it is important for Use Case teams to identify indicators that enable the Use Case to report on whether the certain changes that were made or concerns that were considered can meet the needs and experiences of women, men, and youth farmers according to those who take part in the validation process. While the sample size of the participants who will be included in the validation process will be relatively small, it is important to collect feedback from various end users or other stakeholders on the gender-and youth-responsiveness of the prototype designed at this early stage in the workflow."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Indicators should be developed in response to the characteristics of the prototype MVP and/or delivery/extension approach that were (re)considered/modified. Developing indicators that enable Use Case teams to determine the likeliness of their MVP reaching, benefiting, and empowering women and youth is another aspect of tracking the success of the Use Case in designing a gender-and youth-responsive MVP. For those Use Cases that are piloting GTAs alongside the testing of their gender-and youthresponsive MVPs, they would need to inquire about whether the GTA has the potential to help facilitate changes in unequal power relations and discriminatory structures (e.g., informal norms)."},{"index":3,"size":118,"text":"Indicators can be both quantitative and qualitative in nature. If the Use Case did not consider the preferences of women, men, and youth farmers during prior steps of the workflow, Use Case teams could ask about people's perspectives on the prototype, what changes need to be made, or how it could meet their specific needs/experiences. Additional information about willingness to pay for the prototype MVP could be added to the list of questions to determine any differences between women, men, and youth farmers. Key at this stage in the design process is to obtain different perspectives from potential end users about how the MVP prototype was design and how it can lead to positive outcomes through its uptake."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"A list of general indicators for use during the validation stage is provided below for Use Case teams to consult/modify to fit their specific context."}]},{"head":"Gender and youth responsiveness","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"-Perceptions of women versus men versus young people (both female and male youth) on whether and how the prototype can meet their needs and the different conditions they face as farmers cultivating the Use Case focal crop(s)."}]},{"head":"Reaching women and youth","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"-The number or proportion of women, men, and youth participants who participated in the validation stage."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"-Perceptions of participants on how better to reach women and youth via the overall Use Case approach to delivering the MVP, by sex and age."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Benefiting women and youth -The number or percentage of participants who believe positive outcomes related to the MVP will result from its use/ uptake (e.g., increase in productivity, profits, and other agronomic gains), by sex and age. -Perceptions of different participants about the types of outcomes related to the MVP that could result from its use/ uptake, by sex and age."}]},{"head":"Empowering women and youth","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"-The number or percentage of participants who feel that women's and youth's decision-making powers over whether, or how, or when to use the MVP or any derived products or income resulting from the use of the MVP will increase in response to the delivery/extension approach employed to address empowerment-related issues identified by the Use Case (e.g., on whether the household methodologies used in combination with the MVP would increase women's abilities to make decisions on the use of the MVP for agronomic gains), by sex and age. -Perceptions of participants on the utility of the MVP and delivery/extension approach in increasing women's and youth's decision-making powers, by sex and age."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Transforming power relations and discriminatory social/gender norms -The number or percentage of participants who feel that the GTA taken by the Use Case team can change social and gender norms and relationships of power between women and men or younger and older people, by sex and age. -Perceptions of the participants on which aspects of the GTA can change social and gender norms and power relations, by sex and age."},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"Step 4: Validate the prototype MVP"},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The validation process has the objective of confirming the \"technical\" and \"social\" viability of the prototype MVP. The process should assess whether the proposed MPV meets the practical needs of women, men, and youth farmers to increasing their agricultural production of the targeted crop."},{"index":5,"size":109,"text":"This step seeks to provide credible and reliable evidence-based information about how the prototype MVP addresses the genderand generational-based constraints involved in update/use/adoption of the agronomic solution under development. Validation will be a stepwise procedure involving the stakeholders gathering to discuss relevant indicators to be considered, how these indicators align with overall EiA objectives, and the methodology to be used. It will also involve data collection consisting of collecting feedback from various stakeholders and analyzing the data to inform the piloting stage. From this information collected, it will be possible to determine whether the changes to the prototype MPV are needed or not and to make the necessary adjustments."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"Step 5: Pilot the MVP"},{"index":7,"size":178,"text":"The piloting of the gender-and youth-responsive MVP validated in Step 4 will be carried out through a participatory and inclusive action learning approach involving a combination of iterative, participative, and reflective field activities. Ideally, both public and private scaling/demand partners will be involved in the piloting process. As was the case during the prototype design, Use Case teams leading the piloting phase should consider using findings from Step 2 and Step 4 to make informed, evidence-based decisions on how better to pilot their validated MVPs in a manner that takes into account the differences between women and men, youth and non-youth in all aspects of farming and access to resources. All these will be considered along different steps of piloting. In doing so, a participatory approach in site selection, stakeholder analysis, development, and implementation of action plans, and data collection (baseline and endline studies for impact assessments) will be used. From this information gathered during the piloting process, it will be possible to determine whether the changes to the MPV are required and to make the necessary modifications."},{"index":8,"size":59,"text":"Step 6: Finalize development of a ready-to-scale version of the MVP Determine how the learning from the piloting of the MVP can be packaged and marketed to clients/stakeholders to increase uptake/promotion and agronomic gains by women, men, and youth users. Some ideas on how to finalize the development of a ready-to-scale version of the MVP, consult the GenderUp webinar."}]},{"head":"Appendix B","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Examples of specific options for action based on findings from select survey modules for Use Case teams to consult. "}]},{"head":"Module","index":17,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Stepwise procedure for designing, validating, and piloting gender-and youth-responsive agronomic solutions "},{"text":"• Women-adult-only/mixed-adult/male-adult-only household • Monogamous, polygamous household Land tenure (Module C2.1 and C2.2) Number of plots and land size cultivated Number of plots and land size owned Number of plots and land size rented in Household has home garden Number of plots and land size with land documentation Number of plots and land size by gender of land rights holder Number of plots and land size by relation to household head of land rights holder Crop production (Module C2.2) Crops cultivated, Cropping diversity Most important crops cultivated Gender of main Use Case crop manager (cultivation) Agricultural inputs usage and access (Modules C.4) Inorganic fertilizer usage Irrigation usage mechanization, etc. Agricultural extension (Module C.4) Attended agricultural training or informational events in the past 1 year Attended agricultural training or informational events in the past 5 years Livestock ownership Type of livestock owned Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) owned Food security status and poverty (Modules C3.3, C3.4, C3.4) Share of crops for home consumption Food Insecurity Experience Scale Progress out of Poverty Index Off-farm income sources (Module C7) Off-farm income sources Number of different income sources Main source of household income (farm vs. off-farm) Farm labor endowment (Module C9) Own-farm versus hired labor Farm assets (Module C10) Use of farm machinery Ownership of farm machinery Gender/youth -disaggregated analysis "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Criteria to consider when carrying out an intersectional analysis "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. A framework for reaching, benefiting, and empowering women and youth and transforming social relations (source: Nchanji, n.d.) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Common household-level indicators to report on Broad theme Indicator   "},{"text":": Land use Example Finding From the Diagnostic Assessment Options for Action   REACH BENEFIT EMPOWER TRANSFORM REACHBENEFITEMPOWERTRANSFORM Young women provided Ensure young   Young women providedEnsure young more labor to cultivate the women are included   more labor to cultivate thewomen are included Use Case focal crop than in the design and   Use Case focal crop thanin the design and younger men and older men validation/piloting   younger men and older menvalidation/piloting and women phases of the MVP   and womenphases of the MVP Older women provided Consider the work   Older women providedConsider the work more labor to manage burdens of older   more labor to manageburdens of older and work in home gardens women when   and work in home gardenswomen when than older men and young including them in   than older men and youngincluding them in people Use Case activities   peopleUse Case activities Module:    Module:  "},{"text":"Crop production and use Example Finding From the Diagnostic Assessment Options for Action  Module: Digital access     Module: Digital access Example Finding  Options for Action  Example FindingOptions for Action From the Diagnostic Assessment REACH BENEFIT EMPOWER TRANSFORM From the Diagnostic AssessmentREACHBENEFITEMPOWERTRANSFORM A greater percentage Target older women Once trained,   A greater percentageTarget older womenOnce trained, of older women had for inclusion in increase women's   of older women hadfor inclusion inincrease women's not heard about mobile training courses on access to devices   not heard about mobiletraining courses onaccess to devices applications that are related the use of mobile to use mobiles   applications that are relatedthe use of mobileto use mobiles to agricultural production, applications to applications for   to agricultural production,applications toapplications for marketing, or weather enable them to information to   marketing, or weatherenable them toinformation to compared to older men and use digital decision increase their   compared to older men anduse digital decisionincrease their young people support tools productivity, links to   young peoplesupport toolsproductivity, links to  and other digital output markets, etc.   and other digitaloutput markets, etc.  agronomic solutions    agronomic solutions A greater % of young women Target younger    A greater % of young womenTarget younger did not use a mobile device women for inclusion    did not use a mobile devicewomen for inclusion for accessing prices and in training courses    for accessing prices andin training courses purchases of agricultural on how to use    purchases of agriculturalon how to use inputs and input price mobile devices to    inputs and input pricemobile devices to information compared access prices and    information comparedaccess prices and to young men and older purchase agricultural    to young men and olderpurchase agricultural women and men inputs and input    women and meninputs and input  price information    price information Module: Use Case technology REACH BENEFIT EMPOWER TRANSFORM Module: Use Case technologyREACHBENEFITEMPOWERTRANSFORM Households headed by younger women, men, and couples had lower yields Example Finding From the Diagnostic Assessment REACH Ensure all household types Options for Action gain access to the BENEFIT EMPOWER TRANSFORM Households headed by younger women, men, and couples had lower yields Example Finding From the Diagnostic AssessmentREACHEnsure all household types Options for Action gain access to the BENEFIT EMPOWERTRANSFORM than those headed by older A larger % of older and  MVP for increased Ensure older and   than those headed by older A larger % of older andMVP for increased Ensure older and women, men, and couples younger women have not  productivity younger women are   women, men, and couples younger women have notproductivity younger women are used related MVP technol-Module: Agricultural extension ogies in the past 12 months able to access the MVP for increased   used related MVP technol-Module: Agricultural extension ogies in the past 12 monthsable to access the MVP for increased compared to older and  agronomic gains and   compared to older andagronomic gains and Example Finding younger men  Options for Action food and economic  Example Finding younger menOptions for Action food and economic From the Diagnostic Assessment Men received more Module: REACH Ensure that the BENEFIT security EMPOWER TRANSFORM From the Diagnostic Assessment Men received more Module:REACH Ensure that theBENEFIT securityEMPOWERTRANSFORM information from extension extension support    information from extensionextension support services over the past 12 approach used to    services over the past 12approach used to months than women deliver the MVP    months than womendeliver the MVP  during validation/    during validation/  piloting phases    piloting phases  reaches women    reaches women A greater % of male Work with a    A greater % of maleWork with a extension officers provided greater % of female    extension officers providedgreater % of female extensions services to extension officers to    extensions services toextension officers to sampled households than deliver the MVP    sampled households thandeliver the MVP female extension officers     female extension officers Within the household, a   Implement social change  Within the household, aImplement social change greater % of men decided   activities alongside the  greater % of men decidedactivities alongside the on whether to act upon   delivery of the MVP to  on whether to act upondelivery of the MVP to or implement advice from   work with couples on  or implement advice fromwork with couples on extension officers   equal decision-making  extension officersequal decision-making    powers within the  powers within the    household  household  "},{"text":"Household decision making Example Finding From the Diagnostic Assessment Options for Action  REACH BENEFIT EMPOWER TRANSFORM REACHBENEFITEMPOWERTRANSFORM Younger women make  Increase young women's  Younger women makeIncrease young women's little inputs into decisions  decision-making powers  little inputs into decisionsdecision-making powers about the Use Case focal  using Household  about the Use Case focalusing Household crop variety and the use of  Methodologies that  crop variety and the use ofMethodologies that related agronomic practices  engage couples in ways  related agronomic practicesengage couples in ways compared to men and older  to make decision-making  compared to men and olderto make decision-making women  within the household  womenwithin the household   more equal  more equal  "}],"sieverID":"16fd04bf-f69a-4d0b-8d4b-aeb9f10a0254","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0283a75318db49a823aed1df6be9ba12","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b7e11bfa-2131-4d01-9d9c-6b9cae9f8e49/retrieve"},"pageCount":44,"title":"Genetic Enhancement of Early and Extra-Early Maturing Maize for Tolerance to Low-Soil Nitrogen in Sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":["low soil nitrogen","tolerance","maize","genetic enhancement","Zea mays L"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Review Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Although research into low-N tolerance in maize is relatively new in SSA, a lot of information has been accumulated by different researchers."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"This review covered the research conducted by international research institutes, particularly IITA in WCA and CIMMYT in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA), and national programs, especially universities and national research programs. We focused on how the research was carried out, highlighting their conclusions, and pinpointing what is missing that new research may address. Our focus was also on the coverage and contribution to the genetic improvement of low-N tolerance in maize, comparing the research findings of one group with those of another."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"Furthermore, the empirical evidence and new research methods as they pertain to low-N tolerance research and its wider subject matter were thoroughly and critically scrutinized. To be useful to other researchers and practitioners, we clearly stated the objectives of what we needed to obtain from the reviewed studies, made the methodology explicit, assessed the validity of the findings of the studies, and made a systematic presentation and synthesis of the findings of each study in the review. We accomplished all of these by searching through the existing literature, especially from IITA and CIMMYT in the last 20 to 30 years. Therefore, the review covered conventional and ongoing molecular aspect of low-N tolerance research in early and extra-early maturing maize."}]},{"head":"General Overview","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":258,"text":"Maize (Zea mays L.) introduced to WCA more than 500 years ago, has become fully adapted to the region, producing well over 11 million metric tons of grain annually. It is cultivated in mixed crop situations over a large area and, to a smaller extent, in pure stands, usually mechanized. Initially, under the mixed cropping system, maize cultivation was under bush fallow for several years, but with the increase in population and urbanization, the period of fallow has gradually reduced and, in many cases, has disappeared and the maize crop must be grown annually in the same field. The maize crop thrives and produces high yields under high fertility conditions which, to a limited extent, is supplied through the fallow system. However, with the fallow system disappearing, it has become necessary to supply inorganic fertilizers, particularly nitrogen (N), the nutrient most needed by the crop. Unfortunately, the WCA maize farmers apply less than 10 kg N per hectare (ha) to the crop thus keeping Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 Crop Breeding, Genetics and Genomics 3 of 44 the grain production rather low, regardless of the type of variety cultivated and the agronomic practices applied. Apart from the fact that ideal fertilizers are hard to come by, most fertilizers available are adulterated, a high proportion of the real nutrient is lost through volatilization, farmers cannot afford the capital to purchase them, and the timing of fertilizer application is usually missed. All of these and perhaps many more are the reasons for the low rates of fertilizers being applied. "}]},{"head":"Nitrogen Dynamics in African Soils","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"Nitrogen is an essential nutrient required for healthy plant growth and development. It is an important constituent of chlorophyll, which plays an important role in photosynthesis, a major requirement for high grain yield of maize. Nitrogen plays a significant role in plant metabolism, and it is also an important constituent of protein synthesis and nucleic acids [1]."},{"index":2,"size":380,"text":"The lack of nitrogen at the physiological stage in maize reduces leaf area development, photosynthetic rate, increases kernel and ear abortion, accelerates leaf senescence, and reduces crop kernel weight [2,3]. Tropical soils in most developing countries of SSA are low in available nitrogen and organic matter content, resulting in the cultivation of maize on nitrogendepleted soils. The edaphic condition of the nitrogen-depleted soil is further aggravated due to the subsistence level of resource-poor smallholder farmers who constitute a large percentage of maize producers and can hardly afford the high cost of mineral fertilizers to supplement the available nitrogen in the soil. Consequently, maize production in the sub-region is seriously affected by inadequate use and high cost of nitrogen-based fertilizers or non-availability of fertilizers, or lack of funds for farmers to buy fertilizer [3][4][5]. A study by Ertiro et al. [6] reported a 71% yield reduction under severe low soil nitrogen conditions. Similarly, Obeng-Bio et al. [7] reported a yield reduction of about 80% under low nitrogen conditions. Therefore, there is a need for the development and commercialization of superior maize germplasm with tolerance to low soil nitrogen to ensure increased maize productivity and sustained maize production as opposed to the practice of long fallow by smallholder farmers in SSA. High-yielding nitrogen-use efficient maize genotypes under low soil nitrogen will provide resource-poor farmers in depleted soil areas with tolerant improved maize varieties to achieve better yield [8][9][10]. Unfortunately, N is the most limiting nutrient in tropical soils, especially the savannas of WCA, an otherwise highly productive Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 environment for maize due to the high incoming solar radiation, reduced incidence of pests and diseases, low humidity, and low night temperature [3]. The dynamics of the amount of nitrogen in the soil and its availability to plants are greatly influenced by genetic and environmental factors. The amount of nitrogen available to plants is dependent on the level of soil organic matter and clay content; both fix nitrogen in the soil and can therefore release the nutrient (mineralization) under some conditions [11,12]. The soils of WCA contain low levels of organic matter and the low fixation type, which is clay is largely kaolinite. Nitrogen applied as fertilizer is an additional way of making nutrient available in the soil [3]."},{"index":3,"size":401,"text":"Nitrogen losses through running water, volatilization, leaching, and plant uptake-all significant environmental factors-reduce the amount of soil nitrogen that is available. Genotypic differences are also known to exist in the ability of plants to take up nitrogen in the soil [13]. Plants also differ in their ability to mobilize photosynthates produced, using absorbed nitrogen as input, into the economic part, and relocation of assimilates during conditions of nitrogen stress [11]. Although maize germplasm can be screened for each of these mechanisms using appropriate indices, screening based on yield and associated secondary traits under low nitrogen offers the prospects of identifying genotypes that owe their superiority to a combination of the mechanisms for low-nitrogen tolerance [14]. Logrono and Lothrop [15] estimated that loss of maize yield due to low-N stress varies from 10 to 50% per year in SSA while the occurrence of the stress during grain-filling accelerates leaf senescence and reduces crop photosynthesis and kernel weight [2]. Leaching and the extensive removal of crop residues for animal feed and fuel have compounded soil N depletion in the soils of SSA [16]. Weber et al. [5] indicated that the maize plant requires 50-60 kg N and 30 kg P ha −1 in plant-available forms for 1 ton of grain produced. There is a high correlation between N requirement and maize grain yield [2,17,18]. Lownitrogen effects could be reduced through the application of organic manure and inorganic fertilizer and the use of legumes capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, but only a few farmers can afford enough good manure for application [19,20]. One possible alternative is to use nitrogenfixing legumes in rotation, but the time required to grow the legumes prevents the acceptance of this alternative by farmers [21]. Therefore, breeding for tolerance to low-N offers the most economic and sustainable approach for increased maize yields by smallholder farmers who utilize low agricultural inputs in SSA. Low-N tolerant cultivars are superior in the utilization of available N, either because of enhanced N-uptake capacity or more efficient use of absorbed N for grain production [22]. Therefore, the developmemt and commercialization of maize germplasm with enhanced tolerance to low-N are essential prerequisites to sustain increased maize productivity in the region [22]. Bänziger et al. [23] found that improvement for drought tolerance also resulted in improved performance under low-Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 N conditions, suggesting that tolerance to either stress involves a common adaptive mechanism."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"The adoption of high yielding and nitrogen use efficient maize genotypes provide a great opportunity to reduce the surging cost of fertilizer [3]. Moreover, to support the rapidly expanding population and to motivate farmers who typically apply moderate levels of N to their maize fields, genotypes with high yield potential under low-N conditions are needed. Smallholder maize farmers in the stress-prone areas of WCA will greatly benefit from genetic improvement strategies that aim at tailoring maize for better performance under low-N [9]. In addition to improved yield under severe N-deficient conditions, these cultivars will be more responsive to the small N doses that farmers apply. Improved maize cultivars for low-N conditions have been developed using a variety of breeding techniques, including selection for increased yield under N stress and for specific mechanisms that are confer low-N tolerance [24]. In a study by Castleberry et al. [25], larger selection gains for enhanced grain potential were obtained in high-N conditions compared to low-N ones."},{"index":5,"size":101,"text":"Nonetheless, it is anticipated that genetic gains under low-N will be higher when selection is done under both low and high-N. Furthermore, several studies have reported an outstanding performance of tropical maize genotypes selected for drought tolerance under low-N conditions [15,23,24,[26][27][28]. Selection for Striga resistance under low-N could also result in a concomitant increase in tolerance to low-N. For example, Badu-Apraku et al. [29]  Low-N stress in SSA is caused by several factors, including the widespread removal of crop residues for use as animal feed and fuel, and leaching of soil N below the root zone due to heavy rainfall [23]."},{"index":6,"size":123,"text":"Additionally, poor weed control in farmers' fields increases the incidence of N deficiency, which is worsened by the application of sub-optimal levels of inorganic fertilizer due to high prices and the unavailability of fertilizer [30]. Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in tropical soils. Consequently, lack of or low-N availability occurring early in the life of the plant reduces plant leaf area expansion, as well as photosynthesis [23]. Nutritional stress occurring just before flowering causes severe damage to structures that determine yield. The low level of nitrogen in tropical soils is a constraint to high productivity if fertilizers, either organic or inorganic, are not adequately applied. Available nitrogen is reduced by losses through running water, volatilization, leaching, and nitrogen taken up by plants."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Estimated yield losses due to N stress alone range between 1 and 50% [31]."},{"index":8,"size":6,"text":"Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001"}]},{"head":"Breeding Maize for Tolerance to Low Soil Nitrogen at IITA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"To alleviate the effects of low-N stress, the IITA-MIP has embarked on the development of low-N tolerant genotypes during the last three decades, resulting in the development of several low-N tolerant populations, inbred lines, and hybrids [3]. The availability of extra-early and early maturing maize in the savannas of SSA has boosted maize production and consumption either as green maize or dry grain and has helped to fill the hunger period in July in the savannas of the sub-region, during which other food reserves are depleted due to the long dry period [32]. Additionally, the availability of extra-early and early maturing maize hybrids has resulted in considerable increases in maize productivity and production, leading to remarkable improvements in the incomes and wellbeing of farmers in the sub-region [3]. Despite the remarkable progress that has been made, low soil nitrogen, drought, and Striga hermonthica "}]},{"head":"Screening Methodologies for Low Soil Nitrogen Tolerance","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":348,"text":"Because of the existence of genotype × environment interaction (GEI) in most yield trials, attention is presently being focused on breeding for tolerance to low-soil N in SSA. Genotypes that optimize grain yield under optimal soil nitrogen are not necessarily the best when soil nitrogen is limiting. Many maize farmers in SSA do not apply fertilizers or apply them in quantities too low for the full expression of the yield potential of the varieties that are cultivated; therefore, breeding for low-N tolerance is the most economically feasible and sustainable option for increased grain production [3]. It is desirable to have genotypes that can show superiority under both stress and optimal soil nitrogen conditions. Evaluation for tolerance to low-N must, therefore, be conducted under both low-N and optimal growing conditions. One problem faced by maize breeders is the determination of the low-N level under which screening would be carried out. The problem is aggravated by the differences in soil types and solar radiation received in the different agro-ecological zones in SSA. As a starting point for successful screening for tolerance to low-N in SSA, the N level in the soil should be well below 1.5 g/kg, the critical level above which no fertilizer is required for optimum yield of maize. Screening of maize Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 genotypes for low-N tolerance is conducted on experimental plots which have been depleted of soil nitrogen by continuous planting of maize and removal of the stover after each harvest. Soil samples from low-N plots are analysed to ascertain the amount of available N in the soil and to estimate the additional amount of N required for the set low-N level (e.g., 30 kg of N ha −1 ). The soil of the site under which maize genotypes are screened must be uniform to reduce experimental error that could be associated with identifying genotypes that truly owe their superiority to the ability to excel under conditions of nitrogen stress. Measures that are used to increase precision in non-stressed environments will also improve precision in nurseries for breeding for low-N tolerance [3]."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"Screening for tolerance to low-N involves the exposure of the genetic materials to at least two contrasting levels of N fertilizer, e.g., 30 and 90 kg N ha −1 with the lower level serving as the testing rate, while the higher level serves as the control. The two levels are used for selection to ensure that selected low-N tolerant genotypes are not necessarily mediocre in performance under high-N. Soil tests are carried out and inorganic N fertilizer added to make up the two levels. In our early and extra-early trials, two sites are used for low-N screening: Ile-Ife in the forest agroecology and Mokwa in the southern Guinea savanna (SGS). Soil test results showed that the soils at these sites have significantly been depleted of its inherent N. In addition to the specific low-N screening sites, the Striga screening sites at Mokwa and Abuja also serve as indirect screening sites for low-N because only 30 kg N ha −1 is applied to the Striga-infested plots, while the non-infested plots that receive optimal recommended N rate (90 kg N ha −1 ) serve as the control. Recommended meaures are employed for the control of weeds, insect pests, and diseases. Border rows are essential and often included in all trials. For extremely poor soils, yield may approach zero. In such soils, some little quantity of nitrogen fertilizer, such as 30 kg ha-1 or less, may be applied prior to the N treatments [3,33,34]."},{"index":3,"size":322,"text":"Apart from grain yield which is the primary trait considered in most maize breeding programs, several other agronomic traits were assayed when screening for low-N tolerance, including flowering (days to 50% anthesis and silk emergence), plant and ear heights, plant and ear aspects, root and stalk lodging, leaf senescence, and ears per plant. Anthesissilking interval (ASI) and a few other traits are generated from the primary traits that are measured [14,23,26,[33][34][35]. Heritability of grain yield is low under stress factors; therefore, selection for grain yield alone without some other suitable secondary traits may be ineffective under low-N conditions. Pollen shed and silk emergence are usually delayed under nitrogen stress, with silk emergence exhibiting a greater delay resulting in higher ASI. Genotypes with low ASI values under N stress are considered tolerant to low soil nitrogen. Desirable secondary traits are those that have high heritability and significant genotypic and phenotypic correlations with grain yield under nitrogen stress [3,33,35]. Therefore, to improve the efficiency of selection for low-N tolerant genotype, secondary traits such Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 as ears per plant, delayed leaf senescence, and anthesis-silking interval are often used in combination with grain yield [23,26]. Germplasm for tolerance to low-N can be screened from diverse sources, including openpollinated varieties (OPVs) from farmers' fields, elite populations, different types of families (such as S1, full sib and half-sibs), inbred lines, and all types of hybrid varieties. In WCA, OPVs from farmers' fields are sources of genes for tolerance to low soil N because farmers grow their maize with little or no fertilizers [3]. By selecting high-yielding plants under such conditions as sources of seeds for the next cropping season, they inadvertently may have increased the frequency of genes for tolerance to low-N in their populations. Also, recurrent selection could be deployed for genetic improvement of elite populations for enhanced tolerance to low-N. Subsequently, inbred lines could be extracted from the improved low-N populations."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"Breeders at IITA and some West Africa (WA) national programs have used recurrent selection to improve grain yield and resistance/tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses of maize for about four decades [29,[36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]."},{"index":5,"size":279,"text":"Breeders initially deployed the International Progeny Testing Trial (IPTT) strategy designed at CIMMYT. A critical requirement for the IPTT strategy, is availability of data from a cycle of selection spanning two years and two seasons each year [36]. Despite being effective, the IPTT approach was too resource-intensive for national programs, and the data obtained from some sites were sometimes highly variable and thus unfit. As a result, the number of testing locations was decreased to four, all of which were managed by IITA, with three replications at each location. Recurrent selection has also been deployed for newly developed populations. For example, Menkir and Kling [38] evaluated the genetic gain in a genetically broad-based, late-maturing (about 120 days to physiological maturity) maize composite, TZL COMP1-W, which had undergone six cycles of recurrent selection. They found that selection improved performance by 24% cycle −1 and ears per plant (EPP) by 9% cycle −1 . Following three cycles of full sib recurrent selection for improved tolerance to low-N, Alabi et al. [41] found that each cycle of selection in a low N tolerant pool, dubbed LNTP-Y resulted in grain yield improvement of 0.15, 0.20 (5.4%) and 0.13 t ha −1 (4.1%) under high N, low-N and across N levels, respectively. Yield performance of C3 under high-N was lower than those of C1 and C2 resulting in a nonsignificant gain from selection when the cycles were evaluated under high-N (120 kg ha −1 ). Recurrent selection has been used to improve early and extra-early maturing maize varieties as well. Salami et al. [39] evaluated the progress from two cycles of reciprocal recurrent selection in two early maize populations, TZE Comp3 and TZE Comp4."},{"index":6,"size":128,"text":"Selection gain in grain yield per cycle was 0.29 ± 0.05 t ha −1 (10.4%) for TZE Comp3 and 0.17 ± 0.05 t ha −1 (5.7%) for TZE Comp4. Results from an earlier evaluation of the selection program showed mid-parent heterosis of 4% for C1 and 7% for C2 relative to the original population cross [37]. More Striga-free conditions, these sources of variation also significantly impacted plant height and stalk lodging. Genotype mean squares were also significant for stalk lodging as well as Striga damage, but not for the number of emerged Striga plants at 8 and 10 weeks after planting. Apart from year × location mean squares that were significant for seven of the ten traits, genotype by environment interaction effects were not significant in Striga-infested environments."},{"index":7,"size":364,"text":"In the IITA Maize Program, selection for Striga resistance is normally done under low-N conditions without deliberate selection for low-N tolerance. Based on the improved germplasm and breeding techniques, selection for enhanced resistance to Striga and tolerance to drought began independently in 1988 and 1994, respectively, and have gone through three breeding eras. Several comparisons of older and newer hybrids under contrasting N levels have been reported [25,[44][45][46], but similar studies in tropical maize are limited, thus making it difficult to completely ascertain the genetic gain that has been made for grain yield in relation to N fertility in the numerous varieties that have been released in SSA. For example, Castleberry et al. [25] evaluated 25 open-pollinated and hybrid maize cultivars used between the 1930s and 1980s and found that genetic gains for grain yield under low and high soil fertility were 51 and 87 kg ha -1 year −1 , respectively. Similarly, with four hybrids representing Brazilian maize germplasm released between the 1960s and 1990s, the most recent hybrid produced higher grain yields at all levels of N [45]. Also, a newer Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 hybrid (Pioneer 3902, released in 1988) produced approximately 25% more grain than an older hybrid (Pride 5, released in 1959) at both low-N and high-N [43]. In contrast to these studies, O'Neill et al. [46] showed that a hybrid widely grown in the USA during the 1970s (B73 × Mo17) produced approximately 8% more yield under the deficit N treatment than hybrids released in the early and late 1990s, while the latter had greater yield responses to applied N fertilizer. A series of studies were also conducted by IITA scientists to test the hypothesis that tolerance to low-N had been significantly improved while selecting for Striga resistance during the three breeding eras. The 50 early maturing cultivars used for the drought and Striga studies were also evaluated in replicated field trials in 2010 and 2011 at Mokwa, in the southern Guinea savanna and Ile-Ife in the rainforest agroecology under both low-N (30 kg N ha −1 ) and high-N (90 kg N ha −1 ) levels. The data were subjected to ANOVA and regression analysis."},{"index":8,"size":305,"text":"Grain yield increased significantly from the first to the third breeding era under both low and high-N (Table 1). Similarly, for both low and high-N, plant and ear heights increased slightly, while ear aspect decreased from era 1 to era 3. Days to flowering, and stalk and root lodging were not affected by breeding era. Instead, in era 3 compared to era 1 and under low but not high-N, plant aspect and the stay-green character improved. In the ANOVA, the variety-within-era source of variation was highly significant for both low-and high-N under multiple stresses and optimum growing environments, respectively (Table 2). Across stress conditions, genetic gain in grain yield was 30 kg ha −1 year −1 while an annual increase in grain yield of 37 kg ha −1 was recorded across optimum growing environments. The genetic gains in grain yield per annum were 0.56%, 1.52% and 1.62% for the cultivars of period 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Under stress condtions, only three agronomic traits;ears per plant (0.32% year −1 ), ear aspect (−0.51% year −1 ), plant aspect (−0.24% year −1 ), and days to anthesis (0.11% year −1 ) were significantly altered (p < 0.05 or <0.01) during the three eras. The increase in grain yield from the first-to the third-generation cultivars across stress environments was associated with significant improvement in plant and ear aspects, increased ears per plant, and stay-green characteristic. Under growing conditions, there was a 1.24% annual increase in grain yield from first to third generation cultivars, and this rise was correlated with significant improvements in plant and ear heights, plant and ear aspects, husk cover, and the number of ears per plant. It was concluded that substantial improvement in the yield potential of maize had been made in this subregion by breeding for stress tolerance during the past three decades. "}]},{"head":"Strategies for Improving Effectiveness of Selection for Tolerance to","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Low-N in Early and Extra-Early Maturing Maize","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":365,"text":"Grain yield under stress and optimal growing conditions is controlled by different physiological mechanisms [3,47,48]. Therefore, to achieve the highest expression of genetic variation for target traits that could be exploited in stress tolerance breeding programs, genotype evaluations should be conducted in an environment best suited to the specific agricultural ecosystems [2], which will allow for maximum production in that target environment [49]. To improve maize grain yield under low-N conditions, indirect selection under low-N is very important as this strategy accelerates the gains from selection for grain yield through the exploitation of specific adaptation. The development of high-yielding and stable maize hybrids with tolerance to low-N is crucial for increased maize productivity and offers the most economic and sustainable approach for increased maize yield by smallholder farmers in SSA who utilize low-N inputs. In maize breeding, genotypes possessing the most desirable traits such as high grain yield and earliness under optimal growing conditions are targeted. However, genotypes selected for high performance in highinput conditions often do not maintain those same high yields under lowinput conditions partly due to lack of natural genetic variation of traits advantageous in stressful environments [50]. According to Bertin and Gallais [51] and Presterl et al. [52], the N uptake efficiency contributes more to NUE variation under low and high-N availability, while N utilization efficiency contributes more under low-N conditions. There is a wide variation within maize germplasm in terms of nitrogen nutrition particularly for low-N tolerance and NUE [26]. Genotypes with a short ASI and prolific genotypes seem to have the ability to remobilize N from the stover to the grain efficiently, particularly during the early stages of embryo development, avoiding embryo or ear abortion [53]. Maize genotypes possessing high stay green capacities have greater tolerance to post-silking environmental stresses [54], which include reduction in N uptake and prolonged leaf longevity [55] to sustain photosynthetic activity at a time of decline but high crop N demand [54] These attributes make stay green characteristic an important component of genetic variation in NUE in maize [2]. The presence of genetic variation in NUE implies that Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 NUE could be assessed and improved genetically through selection [56],"},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"making it possible to breed new cultivars possessing better adaptation to nitrogen-deficient environments. Genetic variation for NUE is expressed differently at low and high-N-input. Therefore, genes for adaptation to N stress can only be observed under sufficiently low-N input [2,57]. The maximum genetic advance at low-N-input is better achieved when selection is conducted in low-N environments [53]. In low-N environments, genetic variance is usually reduced. For example, studies by Bertin and Gallais [51] under both low and high-N inputs demonstrated a reduction in genetic variance in NUE under low-N input. A high correlation between grain yield and kernel number was reported by the authors across varying nitrogen levels and a complete lack of G × N interaction for plant traits at silking. These results indicated that grain yield is largely influenced by kernel numbers which was determined by nitrogen use. In addition to the use of the conventional breeding methods in the genetic enhancement of the early and extra-early maturing maize, molecular tools have been adopted as adjuncts to accelerate the genetic gains in the improvement of early and extra-early maize for low-N tolerance. The progress made in the use of molecular tools, as reviewed herein (see later) has focused on the assessment of genetic diversity and population structure, genome-wide association mapping (GWAS), and identification of candidate genes underlying traits involved in NUE."}]},{"head":"Inter-Trait Relationships in Early and Extra-Early Maturing Maize","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Germplasm Under Low-Soil Nitrogen Environments","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Grain yield is a complex trait with low heritability under stress environments. As a result, improvement progress based on direct selection for yield alone is usually too slow and inefficient [58]. Under low-N conditions, selection for grain yield alongside secondary traits may help increase selection efficiency provided the secondary traits have adaptive value, relatively high heritability, significant genetic correlation with grain yield, and are easy to measure [58,59]. Therefore, it is crucial to identify secondary traits and estimate their values for use in index selection for improved grain yield in low-N environments."},{"index":2,"size":221,"text":"Badu-Apraku et al. [60] studied 90 extra-early maturing maize inbred lines under low-N and reported large and significant genetic and phenotypic correlations between grain yield and stress-adaptive secondary traits excluding anthesis-silking interval and stalk lodging. In a similar study, Badu-Apraku et al. [61] using genotype × trait (GT) biplot analysis, found that days to anthesis and silking, stay green characteristic, direct effects on grain yield and accounted for 79.5% of its total variation [61]. These results, however, contradicted the findings of Talabi et al. [14] who analysed a maize panel of 250 early maturing full-sib progenies generated from North Carolina Design I. Using stepwise multiple regression analysis, the authors identified ear aspect, plant aspect, ears per plant, stay green characteristic, days to silking and stalk lodging as the most important secondary traits for yield improvement in low-N environments. Among these traits, ear aspect had the highest direct effect on grain yield (-0.419), whereas only ears per plant (0.199) and ear height (0.160) had positive direct contributions to the observed 75% variation in grain yield [34]. Recently, Bhadmus et al. [35] conducted a genetic study on 96 early white quality protein maize (QPM) hybrids under low-N and identified plant and ear aspects as traits with significant direct effects on grain yield, accounting for about 73% of the total variation in grain yield."},{"index":3,"size":125,"text":"In their study, plant aspect had the highest direct effect (-0.58) on grain yield while five traits (stay green characteristic, days to 50% silking, ear height, ears per plant, and plant height) contributed indirectly to grain yield through both plant and ear aspects. More recently, Badu-Apraku et al. [33] evaluated 54 early maturing maize hybrids developed during three breeding periods under low-N and reported a relative genetic gain of 2.91% per year and an average rate of increase in grain yield of 75.37 kg ha −1 year −1 . The reason adduced for the yield improvement was that the breeding strategy used under low-N resulted in delayed flowering; reduced anthesis-silking interval; improved husk cover, plant, and ear aspects; as well as improved stalk lodging [33]."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001"},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"From the foregoing, faster genetic progress in grain yield improvement of both early and extra-early maize germplasm under low-N is possible using plant and ear aspects, in combination with yield in a selection index."},{"index":6,"size":128,"text":"The traits were consistently associated with yield in several independent studies using both GGE biplot and path analyses. In addition to these traits, plant and ear heights were particularly important for extra-early maize and should be considered for inclusion in the IITA base index for characterizing extra-early maturity maize for low-N tolerance. Even though ears per plant, anthesis-silking interval and stay green characteristic were not consistently identified among the most reliable traits, their inclusion in index selection could further improve the precision with which low-N tolerant genotypes are identified. These seemingly important traits would have high value in maize improvement because they do not limit yield potential, have a higher heritability than yield alone, and are easy to determine because they are based on visual selection or counting."}]},{"head":"GENETICS OF TOLERANCE TO LOW SOIL NITROGEN IN MAIZE","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The presence of genetic diversity for nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in maize makes breeding for the trait an achievable objective [62,63]. The genes for NUE are well expressed under sufficiently low-N environments because under sufficient levels of nitrogen deficiency the influence of environment on gene expression is reduced whereas heritability of NUE and related secondary traits is increased [3]. Understanding the genetic mechanism of tolerance to low-N conditions is a pre-requite for the success of a breeding program as it enables the design of the appropriate breeding strategies for the improvement of populations and hybrid development."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Research on the genetics of low-N began several decades ago, but the literature is contradictory on the genetic basis of low-N tolerance in maize."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"One of the earliest reports was the research of Pollmer et al. [64] which found that both additive and non-additive gene effects contributed significantly to the uptake and translocation of nitrogen in maize genotypes selected from three different source populations. However, other earlier literature [8,28,65] have reported non-additive gene action to be more important, while Rizzi et al. [66], Bellow et al. [67] and Kling et al. Badu-Apraku et al. [76], and Mafouasson et al. [77] reported that the inheritance of low-N tolerance is modulated by non-additive gene action."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"The inconsistencies in reports on the gene action for low-N tolerance could be attributed to the differences in the germplasm used for these studies."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001"},{"index":6,"size":198,"text":"This implies that the gene action for low-N tolerance is germplasm dependent, hence it is important to determine the gene action for newly developed inbred lines before utilizing them in hybrid programs to maximize heterosis. One of the recent studies on the mode of inheritance of low-N tolerance in the IITA early maturing inbred lines was conducted by Obeng-Bio et al. [7]. This research involved 24 early maturing provitamin A quality protein maize (PVA-QPM) inbred lines, which were evaluated under drought, low-N, and optimal growing conditions in Nigeria for two years. It was observed that additive genetic effects were greater than non-additive effects for grain yield and most agronomic traits under each and across the three environments. Two of the 24 inbred lines, TZEQI 82 and TZEIORQ 29 were identified to have significant and positive GCA-male and female effects for grain yield and stay green characteristic under low-N and across environments. These invaluable inbred lines could be used as either male or female parents for developing low-N tolerant hybrids. Furthermore, TZEIORQ 29 could be exploited for PVA favourable alleles in the development of superior hybrids to improve the nutritional security of consumers of high maize-dependent diets in SSA."}]},{"head":"Heterosis, Heterotic Grouping and Identification of Inbred and Single Cross Testers Under Low Soil Nitrogen Environments","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"A vital component of hybrid maize breeding programme is the development of a set of inbred lines that maximize the manifestation of heterosis in hybrid combinations. The term heterosis was coined by Shull [78], to express the uncommon vigour of a hybrid or F1 generation resulting from the hybridization of two inbred lines of maize [79]."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Heterosis can be defined as the amount by which the mean of any F1 family surpasses its better parent value (better parent heterosis) or mid-parent value (mid-parent heterosis) [80]. According to Ige et al. [81], mid-parent heterosis is not utilizable in practical plant breeding, because it does not offer the hybrid any advantage over the better parent. Two important theories to explain the phenomenon of heterosis are: (i) the dominance theory proposed by Keeble and Pellow [82] who suggested that increase in vigour after crossing resulted from the combination of various dominant alleles by each parent and (ii) the over-dominance theory as established by Shull [83] and East and Hays [84], who modified the dominance theory and suggested over-dominance hypothesis which states that heterosis is as the result of heterozygosis. Gardner et al. [85] and Moll et al. [86] were later able to show that dominance is the principal cause of heterosis."},{"index":3,"size":222,"text":"The manifestation of heterosis depends on the genetic diversity of the two parents Moreno-Gonzales and Dudley [87]. Two parental varieties which exhibit a large amount of heterosis from their hybrids can be termed to be genetically more varied than two varieties that manifest little or no heterosis in their hybrids. It is reported in maize production that the range of heterosis contributes between 15 and 50% of the total grain yields [88] The author reported that mid-parent heterosis for grain yield under low-N ranged from −9 to 241% with an average of 102% whereas the better parent heterosis ranged from −13 to 180% with an average of 75% (Table 3). The best 20 low-N tolerant hybrids displayed moderate to high positive mid-and better-parent heterosis for grain yield. According to the author, the hybrids will be priceless for production by the resource-poor maize farmers in WCA since the hybrids could produce high grain yields on soils with limited N. Moreover, negative mid-and better parent heterosis were estimated for days to silking and anthesis under low-N environments for most of the promising hybrids (Table 3), indicating that the hybrids matured earlier than their corresponding inbred parents in the different environments. However, positive heterosis values were recorded for ear and plant heights under low-N environments, an indication that the hybrids were taller than the parents."},{"index":4,"size":208,"text":"Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 stocks in hybrid production [101]. Mating designs that can be employed to classify genotypes into heterotic groups include diallel [10,98], the line × tester [94,95], and the North Carolina Design II [61]. Numerous methods have been proposed for heterotic grouping of inbred lines and are presently used widely across the world. The specific combining ability (SCA) effects of grain yield is the traditional method used to classify genotypes into heterotic groups [102]. The heterotic grouping based on the SCA of grain yield method has been utilized by several researchers [95,103,104]. Nonetheless, the SCA effects of grain yield have often been influenced by the interaction between environments and genotypes, resulting in the classification of the same genotypes into different heterotic groups in different research [69]. Owing to the inconsistency of the SCA heterotic grouping method, the use of both SCA and general combining ability (GCA) effects of grain yield was proposed by Fan et al. [97]. The method, designated as heterotic group's specific and general combining ability effects of grain yield (HSGCA), was found to be more efficient for allocating inbred lines into heterotic groups. However, both methods (HSGCA or SCA) are based on only grain yield which poses a serious challenge [69]."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"Grain yield is a quantitatively inherited trait which is controlled by many genes. It also has low heritability, especially under stress conditions, and affected by other traits. Badu-Apraku et al. [69] therefore proposed a heterotic grouping method based on GCA of multiple traits (HGCAMT). The proposed method is based on several traits of inbred lines with significant GCA effects. The HGCAMT is very important, particularly in the NCD II where crosses are not made among all inbred lines involved. It is appropriate to allocate genotypes to heterotic groups based on multiple traits, principally in a situation where hybrids or varieties are being developed for resistance or tolerance to several stresses."},{"index":6,"size":184,"text":"Over the years, efforts by various investigators to identify the most efficient method for allocating maize genotypes into heterotic groups have Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 discovered contradictory results. For instance, Amegbor et al. [94] found the SCA method to be less efficient than the HSGCA method. The HSGCA, molecular marker, and SCA classification methods were compared by Fan et al. [97] and Akinwale et al. [105], and the HSGCA method was found to be the most efficient. Furthermore, the HSGCA method had a higher breeding efficiency than the SNP-based grouping method when they were compared by Annor et al. [94]. Similarly, the HSGCA method was found to be the most efficient compared to the SNP marker-based, HGCAMT, and the SCA methods by Badu-Apraku et al. [10]. In contrast, Badu-Apraku et al. [71] found the molecular marker method to be the most efficient when compared to the SCA, HSGCA, and HGCAMT. Also, the HGCAMT was found to be the most efficient compared to the HSGCA and SNP-based molecular methods in a study conducted by Badu-Apraku et al. [76]. In addition, Badu-Apraku et al."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"[69] compared to the HSGCA, HGCAMT, SCA, and SSR-based molecular marker methods and found that the HGCAMT was more effective, followed by the HSGCA method. The inconsistencies found in the different studies could be attributed to the variances in the genetic materials used."},{"index":8,"size":29,"text":"An important prerequisite of any successful low-N tolerant maize improvement programme is the availability of efficient testers which could differentiate and classify maize inbred lines into proper heterotic groups."},{"index":9,"size":189,"text":"The tester should be appropriate for the development of outstanding synthetic varieties and hybrids [35,69,94,106]. According to Pswarayi and Vivek [107], an inbred line could be selected as a potential tester based on the following criteria: the inbred line should (i) be classified into a particular heterotic group; (ii) have a high per se grain yield performance, and (iii) have a positive and significant GCA effect across the test environments. Based on these criteria, several inbred lines have been identified by several authors [10,35,69,71,76,107]. On the other hand, identification of the single-cross hybrids as a tester is based on (i) display of good GCA effects of the inbred lines constituting the single cross, (ii) grouping of the inbred lines constituting the single cross to the same heterotic group, and (iii) a good yielding ability of the potential single-cross tester to qualify its use as a seed parent in successful three-way and double-cross hybrids for high seed production. Based on these criteria, Pswarayi and Vivek [107], Badu-Apraku et al. [69], Annor [92], and Bhadmus et al. [35] have identified low-N tolerant single-cross testers for use by maize breeders in SSA."}]},{"head":"Genetic Gains from Selection for Tolerance to Low Soil Nitrogen in","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":330,"text":"Genetic gain, one of the important concepts in conventional quantitative genetics and breeding can be explained as the level of increase in performance that is achieved annually through artificial selection. This is also tied to the genetic diversity of source population(s) as it affects the potential genetic gain through selection. Genetic gains in traits are typically tracked between a base or source population (unselected population) and progeny generated from parents selected from the source population. Thus, Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 the improvement made in the progeny for a trait is usually estimated using the \"breeder's equation\"; \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC45 = ℎ 2 × \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC46, where \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC45 is response to selection, ℎ 2 is heritability, and \uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC46 is selection differential (the difference between the mean of the source population and the mean of the parental population). Response to selection (R) generally represents the absolute gain, and therefore, gains per unit time (Δg) is quantified as \uD835\uDEE5\uD835\uDEE5\uD835\uDEE5\uD835\uDEE5 = \uD835\uDC45\uD835\uDC45/\uD835\uDC3F\uD835\uDC3F , where \uD835\uDC3F\uD835\uDC3F is the unit time involved in the improvement of the trait. The concept of genetic gain is also applied in instances where the performance of old and new generation hybrids or cultivars are compared to monitor the level of progress made from one breeding period to the other. In this case, regression analysis using linear or quadratic relationship models is performed between a trait and the period of improvement to estimate the slope (b value), and this value divided by the intercept represents the absolute gain in that trait. The absolute gain divided by the years of improvement per period represents the relative gain per that period [3]. However, in the agro-ecologies of SSA, limited N availability is equally a common phenomenon [4,30]. Limited N levels in soils of SSA and the associated challenges faced by farmers to resolve the problem continue to reduce the grain yield potential of cultivars in the sub-region. For example, Obeng-Bio et al. [110] estimated wider range (10-71%) of annual yield reduction due to low-N."}]},{"head":"Genetic Gains from","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Unlike under low-N conditions, this knowledge gap is gradually becoming narrower for studies under Striga infestation [69,111,112] and drought conditions [10,61,69,[112][113][114]. However, some genetic gain studies under low-N environments were conducted close to two decades ago to provide information on absolute gains that could be realized from the improvement in grain yield. For example, Omoigui et al. [115] adopted the full-sib family selection breeding strategy to improve tropical maize populations for low-N tolerance. Genetic gains of 2.3 and 1.9 per cycle for grain yield under lowand high-N respectively, were estimated following three cycles of full-sib recurrent selection for low-N tolerance. The authors also observed increased stay green characteristic and kernel weight with corresponding gains of 17.7 and 4.7 per cycle, respectively. The magnitude of change in the average grain yield and other important agronomic traits after three cycles of selection indicated changes in gene frequencies due to the significant improvement made in the tropical maize populations used."},{"index":2,"size":419,"text":"In the past decade, genetic gain studies conducted for the early and extraearly maturing maize cultivars within the IITA-MIP have revealed interesting results to aid the understanding of cultivar performance from one breeding period to the other. For instance, Badu-Apraku et al. [111] evaluated a set of 50 early maturing cultivars developed during the three breeding periods to test the hypothesis that tolerance to low-N had been improved while selecting for drought tolerance and Striga resistance and the authors also estimated genetic gain in grain yield under low-N conditions for the cultivars. Results showed that selection for Striga resistance and drought tolerance in the early maturing maize populations also enhanced low-N tolerance. Under low-N conditions, grain yield improved from 2280 kg ha −1 during the first period to 2610 kg ha −1 during the third period with an absolute increase of 165 kg ha −1 per period, and r 2 of 0.94. Under high-N conditions, grain yield increased from 3200 to 3650 kg ha −1 with an absolute increase of 225 kg ha −1 per period, and r 2 of 0.93 (Figure 1). Relative gain per period (that is, gain in grain yield in a period per unit yield in the previous period) was the same (30 kg ha −1 ) for both the high-N and low-N rates with r 2 values of 0•99 and 0•94, respectively. Regression analysis of grain yield under the N environments showed a positive predictive relationship between one level and the other, with performance under low-N predicting performance under high-N better than vice versa (Figures 2a and 2b). Thus, substantial progress was made as grain yield improvement was higher in later than earlier breeding periods. In another study, Badu-Apraku et al. [112] Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5( 1 showed a significant increase in grain yield compared to those developed during the initial two eras under low-and high-N conditions (Table 4). That    Additionally, the results revealed genetic gains in grain yield of 0.3140 Mg ha −1 (13.29%) and 0.4930 Mg ha −1 (16.84%) per era under low-and high-N, respectively (Figure 3). The annual genetic gain in grain yield was 0.054 Mg ha -1 (2.14%) under low-N and 0.081 Mg ha -1 (2.56%) under high-N conditions (Table 5). The study revealed significant progress made in breeding for high gain in grain yield in the third period (period 3) of the early maize hybrids relative to those in the first and second periods under low-and high-N conditions (Table 5). In low-N environments, grain yield improved from 2784"},{"index":3,"size":285,"text":"Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 kg ha −1 in the first period to 2933 and 3197 kg ha −1 in the second and third periods, respectively. Likewise, under high-N, grain yield increased from 4294 kg ha −1 in period 1 to 4330 kg ha −1 in period 2 and then to 4614 kg ha −1 in period 3, although grain yield in period 2 was not significantly different from that of period 1 (Table 6). The results showed annual genetic gains in grain yield of 75 kg ha −1 year −1 with a relative gain of 2.91% under low-N conditions, and 55 kg ha −1 year −1 with a relative gain of 1.33% under high-N conditions (Table 6). Generally, the gains in grain yield observed from period 1 to 3 under both low-and high-N conditions was influenced by reduced ASI, and improvement in stalk lodging, husk cover, stay-green characteristic, as well as plant and ear aspects. Also, significant positive absolute gains (b values) were recorded for grain yield, plant height, and EPP. On the contrary, significant negative b values were observed for plant and ear aspects in both low-and high-N environments and ASI in low-N environments (Table 7).    5b). The average phenotypic variation explained (PVE) by these SNPs was 30.01% and three of them had a PVE value greater than 40% (Table 9). These significant associations were delineated into 15 putative candidate genes, majority of which were involved in root functions, probably facilitating nitrogen uptake [119]. Following the validation of the markers and the putative candidate genes, and the SNPs identified in these studies could be used as markers for marker-assisted selection to facilitate genetic gains for low-N tolerance in maize production in SSA.  "}]},{"head":"Summary, Conclusions and Perspectives","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"This manuscript reviewed the up-to-date literature on tolerance to lowsoil nitrogen with a major focus on early and extra-early maturing maize genotypes at IITA. Nitrogen is an important plant nutrient required for growth and productivity but, for several reasons, it is not readily available to the farmers in SSA. Deficiency of nitrogen in maize causes reduced leaf area development, photosynthetic efficiency, kernel weight, ear formation, and accelerated leaf senescence. When bush fallow was prominent in the farming system, there was little attention to N deficiency."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"With the fallow period disappearing, it has become necessary to find a cheap and sustainable alternative source of N or develop low-N tolerance for maize production. The latter option has been widely adopted by the international research centres (IITA and CIMMYT), in collaboration with NARS of countries in Eastern, Southern, Western, and Central Africa. To begin with, breeders determined that native plus added N should not exceed 30 kg ha −1 as that required for screening for N tolerance regardless of the differences in soil types, rainfall, and solar radiation received in the different agro-ecological zones in SSA. Therefore, soil samples from low-N must be analysed to ascertain the amount of available N in the soil and to estimate the additional amount of N required to make it up to 30 kg ha −1 ."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"In addition, the site for screening must be uniform, and measures that improve precision in non-stressed environments will also improve precision in screening for low-N tolerance. Grain yield, which is the primary trait to be improved, and several secondary traits such as flowering (days to 50% anthesis and silk emergence), plant and ear A good relationship between combining ability and GD has been reported in several studies. Thus, extensive screening over the years has revealed a wide diversity for low-N tolerance in maize. This milestone offers breeders the opportunity to improve maize germplasm for the trait and release several varieties and hybrids to sustain maize production and alleviate hunger in SSA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"The Maize Improvement Program (MIP) at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, Nigeria initiated a breeding program for low soil N tolerant early and extra-early maturing maize several years ago. A few years before then, CIMMYT scientists had initiated a similar program in Mexico and later brought it to Kenya to cover ESA countries. Together, all countries of Eastern, Southern, Central, and Western Africa are well covered in the research for improved tolerance to low-soil N, and their outputs are reviewed in this report. "},{"text":" evaluated three cycles of S1 progeny selection for Striga resistance in the extra-early maturing white population, TZEE-W Pop STR under low-N (30 kg N ha −1 ) and the recommended high-N (120 kg N ha -1 ) rates and found that the gains in grain yield were higher under low-N than high-N. As a result, selection under low N has become an important strategy of the IITA Maize Improvement Program (IITA-MIP) for developing low-N tolerant cultivars. "},{"text":" parasitism are still major limitations to maize production and productivity in SSA. Therefore, to mitigate the effects of low-N stress, the IITA-MIP has embarked on the development of low-N tolerant, open-pollinated, extraearly, and early maturing cultivars and hybrids that can utilize available nitrogen more efficiently. Several maize genotypes with good nitrogen use efficiency have been identified following several years of extensive testing in SSA and have been used as parents to develop adapted source populations for improvement using recurrent selection methods. Several promising extra-early and early maturing hybrids and open-pollinated varieties with high grain yield under low nitrogen have been identified and commercialized in SSA. "},{"text":"1 ( 6 . extensive recurrent selection studies have been carried out in two other Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 early (TZE-W Pop DT STR C0 and TZE-Y Pop DT STR C0) and two extra-early (TZEE-W Pop DT STR and TZEE-Y Pop DT STR) populations by IITA scientists. From each population, 167 S1 lines were generated and evaluated along with two checks in Ferkessédougou (Ferke) under artificial Striga infestation; Sinématiali (Siné), a high-yielding, non-stress environment; and Kamboinse, a drought stress environment, all in Côte d'Ívoire. In 1998, the first cycle of improvement in each population was completed by inter-crossing the top 25-30% families identified in 1997 through progeny yield trials. Thereafter, each population was taken through three more cycles of S1 recurrent selection under Striga, drought, and non-stress environments, using 196-256 S1 lines and, with a selection intensity of 25-30%, the top families of each population were recombined to reconstitute each population for the next cycle of selection. Evaluation of the four cycles of recurrent selection products in several stress and nonstress environments showed that grain-yield response in the two early populations under Striga differed greatly: about 70.6 kg ha −1 (6.3%) cycle −1 for TZE-Y Pop DT STR and 352.5 kg ha −1 (58.0%) cycle −1 for TZE-W Pop DT STR. Corresponding values for the two populations under Striga-free environments were similar: 194.0 kg ha −1 (6.6%) cycle −1 and 186.5 kg ha −0%) cycle −1 , respectively. Similarly, ASI decreased in the improved cycles relative to the C0. For the extra-early populations, genotypes, locations, and years significantly affected grain yield, days to silk, ASI, and ears plant −1 under both Striga-infested and Striga-free conditions. Under "},{"text":" environments. The highest-yielding cultivars under both N environments, such as TZE-W DT C2 STR, EV DT-W 2008 STR, 2009 DTE-Y STR Syn, and TZE-W DT C1 STR, were mainly from breeding era 3. For the 50 varieties, yield performance in the low-N environments predicted grain yield under high-N accurately, with an R 2 value of about 0.54. Analysis on individual era basis, however, showed that grain yield in low-N environments for eras 2 and 3 cultivars predicted grain yield in high-N environments than era 1 cultivars. Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that selection for Striga resistance and drought tolerance in early-maturing maize populations enhanced low-N tolerance in the maize cultivars derived from the populations. Recent breeding eras in WA showed greater improvement than previous eras. No direct comparisons of grain-yield potential and other agronomic traits have been made across multiple stresses for the early-maturing, drought-tolerant, and Striga-resistant maize cultivars developed during Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001the three breeding eras. Since drought, Striga infestation, and low-N do not occur singly but occur together under field conditions, a holistic evaluation of the gains from the efforts over the three eras seemed warranted at this time to serve as the basis for the direction to pursue in future breeding efforts in the sub-region. Therefore, a study was conducted at 16 locations in WCA for 2 years to determine genetic improvement in grain yield of maize cultivars developed during three breeding periods, across drought, Striga infestation, low soil nitrogen, and optimal growing environments. The objective was to evaluate the genetic yield gain that had been made in breeding stress-tolerant early-maturing maize during the three breeding eras across multiple stresses (managed and natural drought stress, Striga infestation, low-N) and optimal growing environments. Grain yield had an annual genetic gain of 1.52% and 1.24% "},{"text":" anthesis-silking interval, plant height, and ears per plant, as well as plant and ear aspects showed strong and significant correlation with yield. The authors concluded that anthesis-silking interval, ears per plant, and plant and ear aspects were the most reliable traits for indirect selection for improved yield potential among early maturing maize inbred lines under low-N environment. Based on these results, a base index involving Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 increased grain yield, reduced anthesis-silking interval, increased ears per plant, good stay green characteristic, and desirable plant and ear aspect scores, was formulated to characterize early and extra-early maturing maize germplasm for tolerance to low-N in WCA. Several studies have been conducted to confirm the appropriateness and to gain insight into the interrelationship among the traits used in the base index for selection for improved grain yield under low-N environments. For example, ear height, plant aspect, ear aspect, and stay green characteristic were identified by both path-coefficient and genotype main effect plus genotype × environment interaction (GGE) biplot analyses as reliable traits for selecting for low-N tolerant extra-early maize inbred lines[60]. In the same study, the authors reported that a strong positive correlation existed among the following traits: stay green characteristic, plant, and ear aspects, and husk cover, suggesting that measuring just one of these traits will suffice without sacrificing important information on the genotypes. It is striking to note, however, that ears per plant and anthesis-silking interval, which have been used in the base index, were not among the reliable traits for selecting low-N tolerant genotypes[34].In a study involving 56 extra-early open-pollinated maize cultivars developed during three breeding eras, plant aspect (P = −0.52), stalk lodging (P = −0.42), days to silking (P = −0.36), plant height (P = −0.22) and ear aspect (P = −0.18) had "},{"text":"[ 68 ] reported additive gene action to be more important. Under the IITA maize improvement program, several studies undertaken on the genetics of low-N using germplasms from different source populations have also yielded contradictory reports. Findings from studies conducted more recently suggest that additive gene action is more important in determining the inheritance of grain yield and other agronomic traits under low-N[7,10,35,57,63,[69][70][71][72][73][74]. On the contrary Makumbi et al.[75], "},{"text":" Selection for Low-N Tolerance in the IITA Maize Improvement Programme Breeding effort towards the development of low soil nitrogen (low-N) tolerant early and extra-early maize genotypes in the IITA Maize Improvement Program (IITA-MIP) commenced more than two decades ago in collaboration with the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) in SSA. During this period, early and extra-early maturing maize germplasm with good NUE were identified following several years of extensive testing in SSA and have been used as parents to develop adapted source populations for improvement using recurrent selection procedures. Several promising early-maturing varieties with high grain yielding ability under low-N have been identified and commercialized mainly through NARS in SSA. Outstanding newer cultivars are still being developed in the IITA-MIP and NARS under low-N conditions to replace older varieties that were once superior. Thus, the breeding pipeline for the development of low-N tolerant early and extra-early maize cultivars at the IITA-MIP and partners consistently remain very functional. To this end, it has been very imperative to track and quantify the performance of cultivars over different generations to provide information on the level of improvement made for key traits under low-N conditions. This strategy helps to guide breeding processes for the development of superior low-N tolerant early and extra-early maize varieties for SSA. Achieving this objective has always required genetic gain studies for grain yield and other important traits under low-N conditions. It suffices to note that drought, low-N, and infestation by Striga hermonthica Del. (Benth) which constitute the three main constraints to maize production and productivity in SSA, practically act and interact with devastating synergistic effects. Studies conducted in WCA on the combined effects of the three stress factors indicated 44 to 53% grain yield reduction by drought stress, 42 to 65% by Striga infestation, and 40% by low-N [108,109]. In this review, emphasis is placed on the genetic gain under low-N conditions Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 because investigations under Striga-infested and drought environments have received much attention relative to that under low-N environments. "},{"text":" ):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001 evaluated 56 extra-early open-pollinated maize cultivars developed during three breeding eras, 1995-2000, 2001-2006, and 2007-2012, under low-and high-N conditions at two locations in Nigeria to investigate the genetic gains in grain yield. The third generation of the extra-early maize cultivars (era 3) "},{"text":" is, the low-N experiments revealed grain yield increased from 2.65 Mg ha−1   in the first era to 3.27 Mg ha −1 in the third era. Similarly, the high-N experiments showed yield increase from 3.41 Mg ha −1 in the first era to 4.40 Mg ha −1 in the third era. Grain yield reduction under low-N compared with that under high-N was 24%. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Relationship among grain yield of early maturing maize cultivars (kg ha −1 ) for three breeding eras evaluated under low-and high-nitrogen environments at Ile-Ife and Mokwa, Nigeria, 2010 and 2011. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Regression of (a) grain yield of low-nitrogen (N) environments on grain yield of high-N environments and (b) grain yield of high-N environments on grain yield of low-N environments. "},{"text":" grain yield and low-N tolerance among the 56 extra-early open-pollinated maize cultivars representing three breeding eras from 1995 to 2012. More recently, 54 early maturing hybrids developed during three breeding periods were evaluated under low-N (30 kg ha −1 ) and high-N (120 kg ha −1 ) across two locations, Ile-Ife and Mokwa, in Nigeria, from 2017 to 2019 [62]. Amongst the objectives of the study was the determination of genetic gains in grain yield of the early-maturing hybrids. The results revealed a significant (p < 0.05) "},{"text":"Figure 3 .Table 5 . Figure 3. Relationship among grain yield of extra-early maturing maize cultivars (Mg ha −1 ) for three breeding eras evaluated under low-and high N environments at Ile-Ife and Mokwa, Nigeria, 2013 and 2014. "},{"text":") undoubtedly distinguished period 3 Figure 4 . Figure 4. Comparative performance of early-maturing maize hybrids of the three breeding periods in low and high-N environments. Regression of (a) grain yield of low-N on grain yield of high-N and (b) grain yield of high-N on grain yield of low-N conditions. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. (a) Manhattan plot of marker-trait association analysis for low nitrogen base index (LNBI), low nitrogen tolerance index (LNTI), and (b) grain yield under low-N (YIELDLN) and high-N (YIELDHN). "},{"text":" heights, plant and ear aspects, root and stalk lodging, leaf senescence, and ears per plant are measured. Because heritability of grain yield is low under stress factors; selection for grain yield and desirable secondary traits combined in an index selection may be practiced. Germplasm for tolerance to low-N can be screened from diverse sources, including openpollinated varieties (OPVs) from farmers' fields, elite populations, different types of families (such as S1, full-sib and half-sibs), inbred lines, and all types of hybrid varieties. Recurrent selection has been used successfully to screen maize for tolerance to low-N in many programmes of SSA. Using S1 recurrent selection, two early (TZE-W Pop DT STR C0 and TZE-Y Pop DT STR C0) and two extra-early (TZEE-W Pop DT STR and TZEE-Y Pop DT STR) populations have been improved from which several experimental varieties, inbred lines, and hybrids have been selected for commercialization in SSA. Similar to several investigations of long-term studies in advanced countries, about 50 cultivars generated during three breeding eras (era 1, 1988-2000; era 2, 2001-2006; and era 3, 2007-2011) were evaluated under low and high-N regimes in several environments and definite progress have been made in the third era relative to the two earlier eras. Relative to conventional breeding methods, the molecular approach fast-tracks the development of crop varieties. To date, molecular Crop Breed Genet Genom. 2023;5(1):e230001. https://doi.org/10.20900/cbgg20230001efforts toward improving early and extra-early maize for tolerance to low-N at IITA have been the assessment of genetic diversity and population structure, as well as genome-wide association mapping studies. The IITA-MIP is proactively fostering partnerships with CIMMYT and other advanced research institutions to boost its internal capacities, which will ultimately facilitate timely harnessing of emerging technological opportunities. The genetic diversity (GD) and population structure of early and extra-early low nitrogen tolerant maize germplasm have been assessed at IITA using molecular approaches. Genetic distance ranged between 0.042 and 0.500 in one study and from 0.019 to 0.607 in another. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Minimum, maximum, and mean ± se of grain yield (t ha -1 ) of maize cultivars of three breeding eras evaluated under low-and high-N conditions at Mokwa and Ile-Ife in 2010 and 2011. Era No. of varieties Low-N   High-N  EraNo. of varieties Low-NHigh-N   Min Max Mean ± se Min Max Mean ± se MinMaxMean ± seMinMaxMean ± se 1 (1988-2000) 15 0.8 4.2 2.3 ± 0.056 0.9 3.2 3.2 ± 0.174 1 (1988-2000) 150.84.22.3 ± 0.0560.93.23.2 ± 0.174 2 (2001-2006) 16 0.3 5.4 2.4 ± 0.063 0.8 5.8 3.3 ± 0.076 2 (2001-2006) 160.35.42.4 ± 0.0630.85.83.3 ± 0.076 3 (2007-2011) 19 0.7 5.6 2.5 ± 0.055 1.0 5.5 3.7 ± 0.068 3 (2007-2011) 190.75.62.5 ± 0.0551.05.53.7 ± 0.068  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Mean  Era   Regression  % Genetic EraRegression%Genetic     parameters  gain Era −1 parametersgain Era −1 Environment 1 (15cvs) 2 (16cvs) 3 (19cvs) R 2 Intercept b-value Environment 1 (15cvs)2 (16cvs)3 (19cvs)R 2Intercept b-value Multi-stress 2176 ± 54.20 2286 ± 49.20 2606 ± 49.00 0.93 1926.0 215.0 11.16 Multi-stress2176 ± 54.202286 ± 49.20 2606 ± 49.000.93 1926.0215.011.16 (16 env)       (16 env) Non-stress 3398 ± 52.50 3615 ± 46.70 3957 ± 42.30 0.98 3097.7 279.5 9.02 Non-stress3398 ± 52.503615 ± 46.70 3957 ± 42.300.98 3097.7279.59.02 (35 env)       (35 env) Mean 2760.25 2908.5 3206.5 0.96 2512.2 223.1 8.88 Mean2760.252908.53206.50.96 2512.2223.18.88  "},{"text":" resilient cultivars in a range of stress conditions were EV DT-W 2008 STR, 2009 DTE-Y STR Syn, and TZE-W DT C2 STR, all from the most recent breeding era. These varieties should be promoted to help this subregion achieve food security. Recurrent selection had been effective in improving early and extra-early maize populations in WCA for tolerance/resistance to Striga hermonthica infestation, drought, and low tolerance/resistance to Striga hermonthica infestation, drought, and low soil N. The R 2 -value (0.54) obtained by regressing yield performance in the soil N. The R 2 -value (0.54) obtained by regressing yield performance in the low-N environments on grain yield under high N suggests that greater low-N environments on grain yield under high N suggests that greater improvement would result if selection was carried out for N tolerance per improvement would result if selection was carried out for N tolerance per se. se.  "},{"text":" percentage, moderate estimates for plant and ear height, ear circumference, number of kernels per ear row, number of kernel rows per ear, and grain weight were reported by Saleh et al.[89].Meseka et al.     [28] evaluated under low and high nitrogen conditions, 96 hybrids derived [28] evaluated under low and high nitrogen conditions, 96 hybrids derived from 24 inbred lines using the North Carolina Design II. The authors from 24 inbred lines using the North Carolina Design II. The authors observed average heterosis for grain yield of 129% under low nitrogen and observed average heterosis for grain yield of 129% under low nitrogen and 114% under high nitrogen. Nigussie et al. [90], in a study carried out to 114% under high nitrogen. Nigussie et al. [90], in a study carried out to determine the combining ability and heterosis of eight elite maize determine the combining ability and heterosis of eight elite maize genotypes indicated that the crossing of maize inbred lines developed genotypes indicated that the crossing of maize inbred lines developed from different source germplasm could result in better use of hybrid from different source germplasm could result in better use of hybrid vigour. Ige et al. [81] evaluated ten open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) and vigour. Ige et al. [81] evaluated ten open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) and their parental crosses under high-N and low-N conditions in Nigeria and their parental crosses under high-N and low-N conditions in Nigeria and found mid and better parent heterosis for grain yield of 29.14 and 19.81%, found mid and better parent heterosis for grain yield of 29.14 and 19.81%, respectively. Under high-N, mid and better-parent heterosis for hybrids respectively. Under high-N, mid and better-parent heterosis for hybrids were 30.98% and 18.94%, respectively. Hybrid, DMR-LSR-W × TZSR-Y-I were 30.98% and 18.94%, respectively. Hybrid, DMR-LSR-W × TZSR-Y-I displayed the highest mid (97.70%) and high-parent (87.15%) heterosis for displayed the highest mid (97.70%) and high-parent (87.15%) heterosis for grain yield under high-N. However, the same hybrid expressed very low grain yield under high-N. However, the same hybrid expressed very low mid (9.26%) and high-parent (4.99%) heterosis under low-N environment, mid (9.26%) and high-parent (4.99%) heterosis under low-N environment,  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Estimates of heterosis for grain yield and other agronomic traits of early maturing maize hybrids (the best 20 low-N tolerant and worst 10 susceptible hybrids selected using the base index) under low-N environments.To exploit maximum heterosis in maize, inbred lines are classified into different heterotic groups before crosses are made in breeding programmes.Many investigators have indicated that the combination of lines from different heterotic groups results in hybrids with better chances of genetic expression of the target character[69,[93][94][95][96][97][98]. A heterotic group, according to HYBRID YIELD  POLLEN  ASI  PLHT  PASP  EASP  EPP  STGR  HYBRIDYIELDPOLLENASIPLHTPASPEASPEPPSTGR  MP BP MP BP MP BP MP BP MP BP MP BP MP BP MP BP MPBPMPBPMPBPMPBPMPBPMPBPMPBPMPBP TZEI × ENT 13 163.69 139.55 −8.69 −6.56 −24.26 865.63 54.35 35.96 −13.51 −6.05 −7.88 −6.47 1.17 −4.99 48.31 106.85 TZEI × ENT 13163.69139.55−8.69−6.56−24.26865.6354.3535.96−13.51 −6.05−7.88−6.471.17−4.9948.31106.85 TZEI × TZEI 17 160.07 125.38 −6.48 −5.87 −77.33 285.42 30.83 18.91 71.75 84.16 15.46 36.87 5.38 4.69 1.62 16.76 TZEI × TZEI 17160.07125.38−6.48−5.87−77.33285.4230.8318.9171.7584.1615.4636.875.384.691.6216.76 ENT 8 × TZEI 10 184.37 174.96 −7.39 −6.65 −61.08 −8.54 44.39 39.74 −4.83 −2.67 −20.06 −14.67 21.36 19.57 43.79 54.24 ENT 8 × TZEI 10184.37174.96−7.39−6.65−61.08−8.5444.3939.74−4.83−2.67−20.06 −14.67 21.3619.5743.7954.24 ENT 8 × TZEI 17 149.34 130.89 −7.50 −5.61 −97.73 −87.50 40.90 39.18 24.74 66.06 18.32 52.88 3.17 −3.16 68.71 83.07 ENT 8 × TZEI 17149.34130.89−7.50−5.61−97.73−87.5040.9039.1824.7466.0618.3252.883.17−3.1668.7183.07 TZEI × ENT 13 241.44 180.33 −10.15 −9.33 −61.99 −52.78 44.21 38.10 −22.21 −16.21 −0.28 1.62 −7.16 −7.69 19.90 41.05 TZEI × ENT 13241.44180.33−10.15−9.33−61.99−52.7844.2138.10−22.21 −16.21 −0.281.62−7.16−7.6919.9041.05 TZEI × TZEI 10 153.01 139.16 −6.37 −6.05 −93.86 16.67 38.02 38.00 15.73 31.31 −10.92 −4.55 16.00 10.95 34.90 37.04 TZEI × TZEI 10153.01139.16−6.37−6.05−93.8616.6738.0238.0015.7331.31−10.92 −4.5516.0010.9534.9037.04 TZEI × ENT 13 124.93 92.99 −9.69 −8.30 −58.27 −0.48 32.95 30.55 5.67 17.57 4.56 0.57 −6.46 −11.82 20.95 28.95 TZEI × ENT 13124.9392.99−9.69−8.30−58.27−0.4832.9530.555.6717.574.560.57−6.46−11.82 20.9528.95 TZEI × TZEI 17 93.59 92.97 −8.56 −7.86 595.83 943.75 45.60 39.19 34.67 61.45 19.57 50.47 4.93 2.15 81.27 102.74 TZEI × TZEI 1793.5992.97−8.56−7.86595.83943.7545.6039.1934.6761.4519.5750.474.932.1581.27102.74 TZEI 16 × TZEI 23 124.92 108.92 −9.14 −3.44 −23.85 62.69 24.17 19.25 14.34 18.58 0.77 3.38 −2.99 −5.70 56.77 94.10 TZEI 16 × TZEI 23124.92108.92−9.14−3.44−23.8562.6924.1719.2514.3418.580.773.38−2.99−5.7056.7794.10 TZEI × TZEI 10 176.76 165.90 −7.54 −7.02 −22.26 −17.55 27.61 20.97 29.33 54.52 −5.13 9.65 13.57 5.78 11.79 13.63 TZEI × TZEI 10176.76165.90−7.54−7.02−22.26−17.5527.6120.9729.3354.52−5.139.6513.575.7811.7913.63 TZEI × ENT 13 141.64 127.56 −9.55 −8.36 −58.09 −25.00 15.67 11.31 3.55 14.64 4.26 5.06 −10.37 −12.85 40.75 51.48 TZEI × ENT 13141.64127.56−9.55−8.36−58.09−25.0015.6711.313.5514.644.265.06−10.37 −12.85 40.7551.48 ENT 8 × TZEI 23 121.72 103.97 −7.26 −4.21 −50.00 −20.00 33.52 28.75 13.28 29.01 15.34 24.32 9.39 −1.47 57.26 67.27 ENT 8 × TZEI 23121.72103.97−7.26−4.21−50.00−20.0033.5228.7513.2829.0115.3424.329.39−1.4757.2667.27 TZEI × TZEI 17 118.09 86.97 −7.70 −7.10 34.07 1039.58 29.14 20.81 32.42 71.51 28.65 64.07 9.63 5.51 32.27 54.79 TZEI × TZEI 17118.0986.97−7.70−7.1034.071039.5829.1420.8132.4271.5128.6564.079.635.5132.2754.79 TZEI × TZEI 129 205.96 135.14 −11.03 −9.80 −81.00 −68.87 48.35 27.12 −13.33 −20.55 −15.32 −15.06 4.52 −9.00 47.65 56.88 TZEI × TZEI 129205.96135.14−11.03−9.80−81.00−68.8748.3527.12−13.33 −20.55 −15.32 −15.06 4.52−9.0047.6556.88 ENT 17 × TZEI 10 193.32 158.92 −9.04 −7.36 45.36 356.85 20.41 14.26 −9.44 −4.64 −8.88 −7.10 15.85 13.29 −7.82 25.83 ENT 17 × TZEI 10193.32158.92−9.04−7.3645.36356.8520.4114.26−9.44−4.64−8.88−7.1015.8513.29−7.8225.83 TZEI × TZEI 10 232.19 151.37 −9.42 −8.03 −64.77 −59.91 40.60 32.94 2.71 10.50 −16.89 −14.04 27.59 19.47 75.33 133.00 TZEI × TZEI 10232.19151.37−9.42−8.03−64.77−59.9140.6032.942.7110.50−16.89 −14.04 27.5919.4775.33133.00 TZEI × ENT 13 156.43 142.56 −7.11 −6.29 −70.22 −63.01 20.32 19.05 11.17 35.15 2.06 −1.45 −3.36 −7.46 62.47 71.79 TZEI × ENT 13156.43142.56−7.11−6.29−70.22−63.0120.3219.0511.1735.152.06−1.45−3.36−7.4662.4771.79 TZEI 24 × ENT 13 98.50 67.32 −10.29 −9.58 −66.49 −47.55 37.90 34.80 −9.84 −10.83 0.04 6.54 10.98 −6.43 66.44 75.99 TZEI 24 × ENT 1398.5067.32−10.29−9.58−66.49−47.5537.9034.80−9.84−10.83 0.046.5410.98−6.4366.4475.99 TZEI × TZEI 17 85.16 75.30 −5.98 −4.50 125.00 125.00 40.77 34.60 52.87 72.21 17.74 51.47 7.64 4.01 61.27 92.15 TZEI × TZEI 1785.1675.30−5.98−4.50125.00125.0040.7734.6052.8772.2117.7451.477.644.0161.2792.15 TZEI × TZEI 10 124.59 116.15 −7.69 −4.51 −59.46 −29.72 46.10 39.17 13.92 19.62 −6.23 −14.14 12.31 7.58 3.39 14.05 TZEI × TZEI 10124.59116.15−7.69−4.51−59.46−29.7246.1039.1713.9219.62−6.23−14.14 12.317.583.3914.05 TZEI × TZEI 23 17.35 3.30 −6.13 −2.73 −4.70 34.28 15.01 14.60 50.48 58.83 24.18 47.59 0.08 −6.12 72.40 83.37 TZEI × TZEI 2317.353.30−6.13−2.73−4.7034.2815.0114.6050.4858.8324.1847.590.08−6.1272.4083.37 TZEI × TZEI 129 107.45 75.06 −8.94 −7.00 −2.98 4.12 33.34 24.95 −1.26 −9.18 6.79 0.41 14.70 9.50 79.20 98.40 TZEI × TZEI 129107.4575.06−8.94−7.00−2.984.1233.3424.95−1.26−9.186.790.4114.709.5079.2098.40 TZEI × TZEI 10 24.80 15.50 −2.41 −1.76 −59.62 −48.70 27.22 25.81 17.75 19.98 13.89 6.42 −16.08 −22.09 11.69 41.83 TZEI × TZEI 1024.8015.50−2.41−1.76−59.62−48.7027.2225.8117.7519.9813.896.42−16.08 −22.09 11.6941.83 TZEI × TZEI 23 −8.71 −12.48 −6.55 −1.67 116.46 101.70 18.49 9.77 61.67 64.66 43.46 49.93 0.27 −3.21 35.40 38.84 TZEI × TZEI 23−8.71−12.48−6.55−1.67116.46101.7018.499.7761.6764.6643.4649.930.27−3.2135.4038.84 TZEI 16 × TZEI 17 29.11 20.73 −6.23 −5.55 19.92 4277.08 15.37 5.80 69.74 103.49 64.51 89.47 −19.64 −20.94 113.86 126.59 TZEI 16 × TZEI 1729.1120.73−6.23−5.5519.924277.0815.375.8069.74103.49 64.5189.47−19.64 −20.94 113.86 126.59 TZEI × TZEI 23 19.10 −9.16 −5.22 −1.52 −5.68 17.90 11.11 2.59 36.56 67.53 27.33 47.68 −11.12 −12.54 81.99 103.83 TZEI × TZEI 2319.10−9.16−5.22−1.52−5.6817.9011.112.5936.5667.5327.3347.68−11.12 −12.54 81.99103.83 TZEI × TZEI 17 55.39 30.31 −4.51 −2.69 139.94 6858.33 33.99 29.53 42.77 89.21 40.57 80.06 −27.18 −27.40 33.36 104.30 TZEI × TZEI 1755.3930.31−4.51−2.69139.946858.3333.9929.5342.7789.2140.5780.06−27.18 −27.40 33.36104.30 TZEI × TZEI 10 0.63 −6.33 −5.58 −4.52 −36.32 −18.24 13.41 8.49 36.37 43.82 23.18 34.58 0.03 −4.23 77.99 108.29 TZEI × TZEI 100.63−6.33−5.58−4.52−36.32−18.2413.418.4936.3743.8223.1834.580.03−4.2377.99108.29 TZEI × TZEI 23 2.76 −7.78 −4.41 0.84 −1.34 39.02 16.26 13.14 62.69 64.20 32.85 39.38 −16.12 −20.37 70.83 73.59 TZEI × TZEI 232.76−7.78−4.410.84−1.3439.0216.2613.1462.6964.2032.8539.38−16.12 −20.37 70.8373.59 TZEI × TZEI 23 −4.62 −12.72 −5.81 −3.61 −14.57 123.30 22.43 21.55 62.11 65.22 51.17 54.40 −15.25 −15.44 92.52 128.89 TZEI × TZEI 23−4.62−12.72−5.81−3.61−14.57123.3022.4321.5562.1165.2251.1754.40−15.25 −15.44 92.52128.89 Average 102.08 75.35 −7.71 −5.96 −12.84 382.57 27.31 21.22 21.57 35.32 13.80 26.94 0.66 −6.02 60.53 81.56 Average102.0875.35−7.71−5.96−12.84382.5727.3121.2221.5735.3213.8026.940.66−6.0260.5381.56 Note: MP = mid-parent heterosis; BP = better-parent heterosis; YIELD = grain yield (kg ha -1 ); Pollen = days to 50% anthesis; ASI = anthesis-silking interval; PLHT = plant height (cm); PASP = plant aspect; EASP = ear aspect; EPP =ears Note: MP = mid-parent heterosis; BP = better-parent heterosis; YIELD = grain yield (kg ha -1 ); Pollen = days to 50% anthesis; ASI = anthesis-silking interval; PLHT = plant height (cm); PASP = plant aspect; EASP = ear aspect; EPP =ears per plant; STGR= stay-green characteristic.                per plant; STGR= stay-green characteristic.  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Grain yield and other agronomic traits of extra-early maize cultivars of three breeding eras evaluated under low and high Nitrogen conditions at four locations in Nigeria between 2013 and 2014 growing seasons. Trait Era No. of cultivars Low-N High-N TraitEraNo. of cultivarsLow-NHigh-N Grain yield, t ha −1 1995-2000 14 2.65 ± 0.05 3.41 ± 0.07 Grain yield, t ha −11995-2000142.65 ± 0.053.41 ± 0.07  2001-2006 17 3.05 ± 0.05 3.93 ± 0.06 2001-2006173.05 ± 0.053.93 ± 0.06  2007-2012 25 3.27 ± 0.04 4.40 ± 0.05 2007-2012253.27 ± 0.044.40 ± 0.05 Days to anthesis 1995-2000 14 50 ± 0.18 49 ± 0.17 Days to anthesis1995-20001450 ± 0.1849 ± 0.17  2001-2006 17 52 ± 0.16 51 ± 0.15 2001-20061752 ± 0.1651 ± 0.15  2007-2012 25 52 ± 0.13 51 ± 0.13 2007-20122552 ± 0.1351 ± 0.13 Days to silking 1995-2000 14 52 ± 0.18 50 ± 0.19 Days to silking1995-20001452 ± 0.1850 ± 0.19  2001-2006 17 53 ± 0.16 52 ± 0.17 2001-20061753 ± 0.1652 ± 0.17  2007-2012 25 53 ± 0.13 52 ± 0.14 2007-20122553 ± 0.1352 ± 0.14 Anthesis-silking interval 1995-2000 14 2 ± 0.10 2 ± 0.09 Anthesis-silking interval1995-2000142 ± 0.102 ± 0.09  2001-2006 17 2 ± 0.09 1 ± 0.08 2001-2006172 ± 0.091 ± 0.08  2007-2012 25 2 ± 0.08 1 ± 0.07 2007-2012252 ± 0.081 ± 0.07 Plant height, cm 1995-2000 14 163 ± 0.95 182 ± 1.26 Plant height, cm1995-200014163 ± 0.95182 ± 1.26  2001-2006 17 170 ± 0.85 190 ± 1.12 2001-200617170 ± 0.85190 ± 1.12  2007-2012 25 170 ± 0.71 191 ± 0.94 2007-201225170 ± 0.71191 ± 0.94 Ear height, cm 1995-2000 14 79 ± 0.87 90 ± 0.98 Ear height, cm1995-20001479 ± 0.8790 ± 0.98  2001-2006 17 82 ± 0.77 97 ± 0.88 2001-20061782 ± 0.7797 ± 0.88  2007-2012 25 82 ± 0.65 97 ± 0.74 2007-20122582 ± 0.6597 ± 0.74 Root lodging (%) 1995-2000 14 11.3 ± 0.59 10.6 ± 0.60 Root lodging (%)1995-20001411.3 ± 0.5910.6 ± 0.60  2001-2006 17 10.7 ± 0.53 10.1 ± 0.54 2001-20061710.7 ± 0.5310.1 ± 0.54  2007-2012 25 10.1 ± 0.44 8.8 ± 0.45 2007-20122510.1 ± 0.448.8 ± 0.45 Stalk lodging (%) 1995-2000 14 17.5 ± 0.81 28.8 ± 1.05 Stalk lodging (%)1995-20001417.5 ± 0.8128.8 ± 1.05  2001-2006 17 15.5 ± 0.72 26.5 ± 0.94 2001-20061715.5 ± 0.7226.5 ± 0.94  2007-2012 25 11.7 ± 0.61 23.3 ± 0.79 2007-20122511.7 ± 0.6123.3 ± 0.79 Husk cover 1995-2000 14 2.4 ± 0.03 2.3 ± 0.03 Husk cover1995-2000142.4 ± 0.032.3 ± 0.03  2001-2006 17 2.3 ± 0.03 2.2 ± 0.03 2001-2006172.3 ± 0.032.2 ± 0.03  2007-2012 25 2.3 ± 0.02 2.2 ± 0.02 2007-2012252.3 ± 0.022.2 ± 0.02 Plant aspect 1995-2000 14 3.2 ± 0.03 3.1 ± 0.03 Plant aspect1995-2000143.2 ± 0.033.1 ± 0.03  2001-2006 17 3.0 ± 0.03 2.9 ± 0.03 2001-2006173.0 ± 0.032.9 ± 0.03  2007-2012 25 2.9 ± 0.02 2.7 ± 0.02 2007-2012252.9 ± 0.022.7 ± 0.02 Stay green characteristic 1995-2000 14 4.6 ± 0.14 - Stay green characteristic1995-2000144.6 ± 0.14-  2001-2006 17 4.3 ± 0.13 - 2001-2006174.3 ± 0.13-  2007-2012 25 4.0 ± 0.11 - 2007-2012254.0 ± 0.11- Ear aspect 1995-2000 14 3.3 ± 0.10 3.0 ± 0.03 Ear aspect1995-2000143.3 ± 0.103.0 ± 0.03  2001-2006 17 2.8 ± 0.09 2.8 ± 0.03 2001-2006172.8 ± 0.092.8 ± 0.03  2007-2012 25 2.7 ± 0.07 2.7 ± 0.02 2007-2012252.7 ± 0.072.7 ± 0.02 Ear rot 1995-2000 14 2.5 ± 0.13 3.3 ± 0.15 Ear rot1995-2000142.5 ± 0.133.3 ± 0.15  2001-2006 17 2.1 ± 0.11 2.7 ± 0.13 2001-2006172.1 ± 0.112.7 ± 0.13  2007-2012 25 2.3 ± 0.10 2.9 ± 0.11 2007-2012252.3 ± 0.102.9 ± 0.11 Ears per plant 1995-2000 14 0.9 ± 0.001 0.9 ± 0.01 Ears per plant1995-2000140.9 ± 0.0010.9 ± 0.01  2001-2006 17 0.9 ± 0.001 0.9 ± 0.01 2001-2006170.9 ± 0.0010.9 ± 0.01  2007-2012 25 0.9 ± 0.001 0.9 ± 0.01 2007-2012250.9 ± 0.0010.9 ± 0.01  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Relative genetic gain, coefficient of determination (R 2 ), slope (a) and regression coefficients (b) of grain yield and other agronomic traits of early-maturing maize hybrids during three breeding periods under low-N in four environments and high-N in five environments in Nigeria from 2017 to 2019.  Relative gain (%       Relative gain (%  per year)  R 2  a  b  per year)R 2ab Trait Low-N High-N Low-N High-N Low-N High-N Low-N High-N TraitLow-NHigh-NLow-N High-NLow-NHigh-NLow-NHigh-N Grain yield (t ha -1 ) 2.14 2.56 0.513 0.587 2.52 3.16 0.054** 0.081** Grain yield (t ha -1 )2.142.560.5130.5872.523.160.054**0.081** Days to anthesis 0.14 0.21 0.078 0.185 50.60 49.55 0.069 0.105 Days to anthesis0.140.210.0780.18550.6049.550.0690.105 Days to silking 0.08 0.08 0.032 0.118 52.84 51.10 0.040 0.087 Days to silking0.080.080.0320.11852.8451.100.0400.087 Anthesis-silking interval −1.11 −1.68 0.363 0.189 2.25 1.79 −0.025* −0.030 Anthesis-silking interval−1.11−1.680.3630.1892.251.79−0.025* −0.030 Plant height (cm) 0.38 0.38 0.399 0.337 162.16 181.84 0.610* 0.682* Plant height (cm)0.380.380.3990.337162.16181.840.610*0.682* Ear height (cm) 0.33 0.30 0.117 0.157 78.77 92.72 0.257 0.280 Ear height (cm)0.330.300.1170.15778.7792.720.2570.280 Root lodging (%) −0.68 −0.99 0.056 0.098 10.76 10.48 −0.073 −0.104 Root lodging (%)−0.68−0.990.0560.09810.7610.48−0.073−0.104 Stalk lodging (%) −2.65 −1.86 0.323 0.332 18.67 31.89 −0.494* −0.592* Stalk lodging (%)−2.65−1.860.3230.33218.6731.89−0.494* −0.592* Husk cover −0.64 −0.59 0.284 0.473 2.51 2.38 −0.016* −0.014** Husk cover−0.64−0.590.2840.4732.512.38−0.016* −0.014** Plant aspect -0.85 -0.87 0.510 0.663 3.29 3.12 0.028** −0.027** Plant aspect-0.85-0.870.5100.6633.293.120.028**−0.027** Ear aspect −1.11 −0.97 0.404 0.480 3.25 3.09 −0.036* −0.030** Ear aspect−1.11−0.970.4040.4803.253.09−0.036* −0.030** Ear rot −1.76 −2.11 0.211 0.350 2.73 3.80 −0.048 −0.080* Ear rot−1.76−2.110.2110.3502.733.80−0.048−0.080* Ears/plant −0.22 0.11 0.197 0.125 0.91 0.89 −0.002 0.001 Ears/plant−0.220.110.1970.1250.910.89−0.0020.001 Stay green characteristic −1.51 − 0.316 − 4.91 − −0.074* − Stay green characteristic−1.51−0.316−4.91−−0.074* − Note: *, ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels.       Note: *, ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels.  "},{"text":"Table 9 . List of SNP markers significantly associated with low nitrogen base index (LNBI) low nitrogen tolerance index (LNTI) and grain yield in high-N environments by association mapping.Note: Chros = chromosome number; MAF = minor allele frequency; LNBI = low nitrogen tolerance base index.; LNTI = low nitrogen index.  Chros  Base      ChrosBase Trait No. SNP ID Transition Position P-value MAF Candidate Gene Gene annotation TraitNo.SNP IDTransition PositionP-valueMAFCandidate GeneGene annotation LNBI 1 PZE-101084671 A/G 73357546 7.72 × 10 −4 0.13 GRMZM2G026137 - LNBI1PZE-101084671A/G733575467.72 × 10 −40.13GRMZM2G026137- LNBI 3 PZE-103012466 T/C 6650941 4.42 × 10 −4 0.36 GRMZM2G380319 Putative MCB2 protein LNBI3PZE-103012466T/C66509414.42 × 10 −40.36GRMZM2G380319Putative MCB2 protein LNTI 2 PZE-102090548 C/T 96081718 2.46 × 10 −4 0.12 GRMZM2G077863 GDSL-like lipase/acylhydrolase putative expressed LNTI2PZE-102090548C/T960817182.46 × 10 −40.12GRMZM2G077863GDSL-like lipase/acylhydrolase putative expressed LNTI 2 PZE-102090550 C/T 96086002 2.46 × 10 −4 0.12 GRMZM2G077863 GDSL-like lipase/acylhydrolase putative expressed LNTI2PZE-102090550C/T960860022.46 × 10 −40.12GRMZM2G077863GDSL-like lipase/acylhydrolase putative expressed Yield (low-N) 2 PZE-102086253 C/T 79050153 1.01 × 10 −3 0.34 AC209972.4_FG005 Protein kinase Yield (low-N)2PZE-102086253C/T790501531.01 × 10 −30.34AC209972.4_FG005Protein kinase Yield (high-N) 1 SYN27559 T/C 291864105 9.95 × 10 −4 0.26 GRMZM2G004459 ATP/GTP/Ca++ binding protein Yield (high-N)1SYN27559T/C2918641059.95 × 10 −40.26GRMZM2G004459ATP/GTP/Ca++ binding protein Yield (high-N) 2 SYN259 T/C 211523915 1.68 × 10 −4 0.39 GRMZM2G111809 - Yield (high-N)2SYN259T/C2115239151.68 × 10 −40.39GRMZM2G111809- Yield (high-N) 6 PZE-106083594 G/T 141063673 9.11 × 10 −4 0.45 GRMZM2G442057 Tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-like superfamily protein Yield (high-N)6PZE-106083594G/T1410636739.11 × 10 −40.45GRMZM2G442057Tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-like superfamily protein Yield (high-N) 6 SYN38086 G/A 158286621 9.73 × 10 −4 0.48 GRMZM2G080314 ATBARD1/BARD1 putative expressed Yield (high-N)6SYN38086G/A1582866219.73 × 10 −40.48GRMZM2G080314ATBARD1/BARD1 putative expressed Yield (high-N) 6 SYN38080 T/C 158287119 9.73 × 10 −4 0.48 GRMZM2G080314 ATBARD1/BARD1 putative expressed Yield (high-N)6SYN38080T/C1582871199.73 × 10 −40.48GRMZM2G080314ATBARD1/BARD1 putative expressed Yield (high-N) 8 PZE-108014231 C/T 14071576 6.96 × 10 −4 0.33 GRMZM2G011213 Mitochondrial glycoprotein family protein Yield (high-N)8PZE-108014231C/T140715766.96 × 10 −40.33GRMZM2G011213Mitochondrial glycoprotein family protein Yield (high-N) 8 PZA01049-1 A/G 129940935 8.60 × 10 −4 0.33 GRMZM2G090928 Transmembrane uncharacterized protein Yield (high-N)8PZA01049-1A/G1299409358.60 × 10 −40.33GRMZM2G090928Transmembrane uncharacterized protein Yield (high-N) 8 PZE-108074836 T/C 129941989 4.69 × 10 −4 0.35 GRMZM2G090928 Transmembrane uncharacterized protein Yield (high-N)8PZE-108074836T/C1299419894.69 × 10 −40.35GRMZM2G090928Transmembrane uncharacterized protein Yield (high-N) 9 PZE-109016384 G/A 16485622 4.57 × 10 −5 0.17 GRMZM2G338056 ZOS11-10 -C2H2 zinc finger protein expressed Yield (high-N)9PZE-109016384G/A164856224.57 × 10 −50.17GRMZM2G338056ZOS11-10 -C2H2 zinc finger protein expressed Yield (high-N) 9 SYN25338 T/C 143003020 3.93 × 10 −4 0.21 GRMZM2G150598 ATP-dependent Clp protease ATP-binding protein Yield (high-N)9SYN25338T/C1430030203.93 × 10 −40.21GRMZM2G150598ATP-dependent Clp protease ATP-binding protein  "}],"sieverID":"87866a47-f549-4005-a6df-035dddd85ac4","abstract":"To increase and improve food crop production and crop management for sustainable agricultural development, the Maize Improvement Program (MIP) of the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has, in partnership with national and international organizations, focused attention on the genetic improvement of maize (Zea mays L.) for tolerance/resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses constraining maize grain production. One of the abiotic stresses into which new technologies have been established for crop protection and sustainable natural resource management is low soil nitrogen (N). Nitrogen, an important plant nutrient required for growth and productivity, is not readily available and little quantity or none is applied by farmers for maize production. Because of long periods of bush fallow, the absence of N was not noticeable at the initial stages of maize production in West and Central Africa (WCA). However, with the fallow period gradually reducing and totally disappearing, it has become imperative for external supply of N in maize production. Taking a cue from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), IITA has been breeding low-N tolerant maize and several low-N-tolerant maize varieties and hybrids are now available to farmers. Reviewed in this manuscript are the efforts used to develop low-N tolerant early and extra-early maturing maize by the MIP of IITA. The review covers the objectives, methodology, and output of the"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"031ebcaf003380a2d2a2670b22a0491c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a3f5165e-aa2a-4797-905d-097a4ffb40f5/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"(i) association between household crop diversity and child diet diversity/nutritional status; (ii) association between household land size holding and child diet diversity/nutritional status (ii) association between kitchen garden diversity and child diet diversity/nutritional status","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"OBJECTIVES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Funded Count, expenditure & quantity of food consumption data is required.Kids also consume a fair amount of biscuit, outside food like chips and Kurkure and chocolates. Child food diversity is more than ten across all land size holdings.Child food diversity by Land SizeOf the total, 60 percent were female and 40 percentwere male. Almost 43 percent of the surveyed young children (< five years of age) are moderately underweight & almost 26 percent are severely underweight. Almost 17 percent are severely stunted & 13 percent are moderately stunted. Diet diversity of children (< two years of age) is in favor of consumption of food grains, pulses, roots & tubers, other vegetables, Vitamin A vegetables, other fruits, milk & milk products, eggs, fish, and other meat. with special focus on West Bengal (2018-2020). We are exploring to collaboration and additional funding for scaling-up our work. ., Harris, J., Headey, D., Yosef, S., & Gillespie, S. (2014). Agriculture and nutrition in India: mapping evidence to pathways. Ann NY Acad Sci, 1331(1), 43-56. Kumar, N., Harris, J., & Rawat, R. (2015). If they grow it, will they eat and grow? Evidence from Zambia on agricultural diversity and child undernutrition. The journal of development studies, 51(8), 1060-1077. "}],"sieverID":"b8d2f867-fcbe-44e1-8365-2678c07e8eb7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"034969785b295bde1ba69e498c759e6e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bab440e6-492f-48df-a9be-fad5559da49d/retrieve"},"pageCount":76,"title":"Economic Development 12 Facing up to sweetpotato viruses in Africa 14 Improving potato production in Peru 17 Sweetpotato at London Olympics 2012 18 Promoting a participatory market chain approach 20 CIP project wins prestigious agricultural award in Uruguay 21 Biofortifi cation of the potato Social Inclusion 24 Improving incomes and gender equality in southern Bangladesh 26 The dynamic conservation of native potato 29 Sweetening social inclusion in Rwanda with a sweetpotato project Environmental Sustainability 34 Sustainable potato production and climate change 36 The dual purpose sweetpotato 38 Applying environmental sustainability practices at CIP 42 Journal articles 47 Books, Book chapters, conference papers 58 Financial report 60 Donors 61 Global offi ces 64 Executive committee 65 CIP's internal structure 66 Staff list 74 CGIAR centers","keywords":["Donini","Paolo Monneveux","Philippe","Executive Offi cer For CRP Management Salinas","Lilia","Executive Assistant Gómez","Félix","Research Technician Gómez","Walter","Research Technician Gruneberg","Wolfgang","Sweetpotato Breeder Geneticist Gutiérrez","Luis","Research Technician Gutiérrez","Raymundo","Agricultural Engineer","Intermediate Researcher Heider","Bettina","Plant Genetic Resources Specialist"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Financial indicators for CIP refl ect sound fi nancial stewardship. At the end of 2012 CIP showed yearon-year growth over the previous year. Moreover, CIP continued to implement streamlined and transparent administrative processes to be more accountable to stakeholders."},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"On behalf of the board, I would like to thank CIP's donors, investors, and all CGIAR partners for their support. I also extend my appreciation to CIP's management and staff for their continued dedication to the organization and its important mission. At the time, World Food Prize Laureate Pedro Sanchez noted that \"CIP has taken leadership in assessing and realigning its program to meet the Millennium Development Goals, setting an example that can be followed by other Centers in the System\". We should take pride in our decision to align with the Millennium Development Goals but in doing so recognize that the factors underlying our decision were based in the fi rm understanding that our research will only remain relevant if it delivers the results required for the time."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"Today the world is focusing on Sustainable Development Goals. These include Economic Development, Social Inclusion, Environmental Sustainability, and Good Governance. The stories in this report demonstrate how CIP's research aligns with, and will continue to contribute to, the post-2015 global agenda that is emerging. You will discover how CIP's work on sweetpotato viruses has helped economic development in Africa and how CIP research is focused on improving incomes and gender equality in Bangladesh. You will also read how CIP scientist Roberto Quiroz has mapped climate change to mitigate the impact of pests and disease and plan for future sustainable potato production, while on CIP's Lima campus plumber Juan Palomino devised an innovative way to reduce our water consumption to improve our environmental sustainability. These stories and our success in building a smarter, stronger CIP governance structure reassure me that CIP has done well to align with the Sustainable Development Goals and deliver a more food-secure world."},{"index":4,"size":80,"text":"I would like to take the opportunity to thank all of our stakeholders, from the Heads of State, business leaders, and donors to the individual extension workers, laboratory technicians, and smallholder farmers who motivate and support us. We are also are grateful to the donors, policymakers, and other key partners who have challenged us. I would also like to recognize all of the researchers, staff , advisors, and leaders who have accepted the challenge to make the world more food-secure."},{"index":5,"size":114,"text":"We look forward to continuing our work together through another year and advance CIP's vision of roots and tubers improving the lives of the poor. Sweetpotato is an extremely important crop for this region's subsistence farmers, who produce over 7 million tons of sweetpotato annually. However, SSA faces a major limitation in sweetpotato production due to the cumulative eff ect of virus infection. In 2011, CIP launched a collaborative project with the Boyce Thompson Institute (BTI) to study the Pan African sweetpotato virome. Since then, the initiative has been evaluating the deep sequencing and assembly of small RNAs from fi eld-grown sweetpotato samples collected throughout Africa, to systematically and effi ciently identify virus genomes."}]},{"head":"Pamela K. Anderson","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The US National Science Foundation's Basic Research to Enable Agricultural Development (BREAD) and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation fund this research project."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"There is a general lack of data and understanding of virus populations throughout Africa, even though such basic information is required to manage the spread and impact of these viral diseases. In order to identify sweetpotato viruses in"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"The central challenges of sustainable development are the tasks of ending extreme poverty and promoting economic development, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where food security remains a huge challenge for the millions of people who depend on agriculture for survival."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"the fi eld and understand the dynamics of virus distribution, the project carried out sample surveys, with the assistance of local collaborators across SSA in 2012, collecting more than 500 samples of sweetpotato for viral testing. The team collected samples at random every 5-50 km in Ethiopia, Guinea, Benin, Nigeria, and Tanzania. These samples were each tested for viruses."},{"index":5,"size":129,"text":"The most common potato viruses include the Feathery Mottle Virus (SPFMV) and the Chlorotic Stunt Virus (SPCSV). Understanding these viruses and their distribution patterns is crucial for eff orts to eliminate them from the fi eld. Crops such as sweetpotato are prone to virus infection because they are grown vegetatively -farmers sow plant cuttings rather than seeds -so diseases can easily spread from one generation to the next. The only way to eliminate viruses from infected plants is through a laborious, time-consuming process that involves a combination of heat or cryotherapy treatment with meristem tip culture, which involves using the ends of shoots or roots that contain the tissue that produces new cells. It is a process that has advanced little since its inception more than 60 years ago"},{"index":6,"size":151,"text":"The initiative that CIP is spearheading aims to develop an alternative method by cracking the RNA silencing code of diff erent viruses, which would enable scientists to add modifi ed RNA to a test tube and rid plants of viral infections through a simple, one-step process. \"It's like a plant vaccine, \" says Jan Kreuze, Principal Virologist at CIP. Viruses contain pieces of DNA or RNA (a complement of DNA) that fool the plant into copying and spreading them, causing diseases in the process. Plants can defend themselves against viruses using a type of RNA called small interfering RNA, or siRNA. The siRNA recognizes the viruses and destroys them by cutting their DNA or RNA into tiny pieces -a process called RNA silencing. However, the plant does not always win the battle, so CIP scientists are looking to fi nd ways to boost the plant's defenses through its RNA silencing mechanism."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"Kreuze is leading this innovative CIP research project, in collaboration with the Crop Research Institute of Norway. \"Basically we're going to add bullets, in the form of siRNA, to the plants' defense arsenal, \" says Kreuze. \"It's science fi ction right now, but if it works, then the lengthy, expensive cleanup process could be shortened from a year to a matter of minutes. \""},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The purpose of the CIP project is to use new knowledge of RNA and plant defense mechanisms to help plants fi ght off viral infections. Kreuze and his team will stimulate RNA silencing and Systemic Acquired Resistance, or SAR, in infected plants in vitro. The goal is to tip the delicate balance between the plant's RNA silencing mechanism and the virus's ability to avoid and suppress this mechanism, in favor of the plant."},{"index":9,"size":132,"text":"If successful, Kreuze and his team will produce 'kits' containing appropriate cocktails for diff erent sweetpotato viruses, which could be used to help sweetpotato subsistence farmers throughout SSA, and the rest of the world, to increase their harvests and improve their livelihoods. While the project is initially focusing on sweetpotatoes, a successful outcome could see the technique being applicable to a wide range of viruses and crops, meaning it could enrich the lives of millions of the world's poor and underprivileged.  and communication, and thereby increase the welfare of farmers with limited economic resources through the adoption of new technologies (the catalogue contains a directory of providers of quality tuber seed). CIP developed the improved varieties promoted by the catalogue in order to mitigate the eff ects of social and environmental change."},{"index":10,"size":105,"text":"The catalogue's launch came at an important time for Peru, a country where more than 600,000 families directly depend on subsistence farming and income generated from potatoes. In the Andes, potato is the principal crop for smallholders, and its commercialization represents US$ 500 million annually for Peru. New trends in the Peruvian and global potato markets, and access to the Brazilian market through the recently completed Inter-Oceanic Highway, as well as the ongoing search for processing varieties, have further increased the importance of the potato as a vehicle for development. The need to expand and diversify crop production is of growing importance for the economy."},{"index":11,"size":59,"text":"There has been a clear trend in supermarkets, both domestic and global, to demand a greater diversity of potatoes, better quality, and longer shelf life. There has also been a huge increase in demand for environmentally friendly products, and CIP developed the new varieties in the catalogue based upon models of sustainable agriculture without an increased need for agrochemicals. "}]},{"head":"Participatory varietal Selection","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"the catalogue should help to encourage farmers to focus on the production of indigenous varieties of potato currently in demand -both globally and domestically. At the same time, CIP's progress toward increasing the nutrient content (higher zinc and iron) of new potato varieties through biofortifi cation will reduce the likelihood of malnutrition across the Peruvian highlands."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"Varieties promoted by the catalogue range from CIP's Serranita, which is very resistant to late blight, to Pallay Poncho, which is popular with potato farmers in the south of the country for its fl avor and texture. The catalogue presents these potato varieties and their benefi ts and characteristics in detail, as well as those of ten other varieties. PMCA essentially involves all the players that make their living from the market chain, including public and private service providers (such as researchers, credit providers, development professionals and chefs) in a facilitated process to identify and exploit market opportunities. The approach consists of three phases, beginning with an R&D organizational phase to identify potential partners and carry out research on the market chain.  According to the World Health Organization (WHO), iron defi ciency is the most common nutritional disorder in the world. In developing countries, half of the pregnant women and about 40% of preschool children are estimated to be anemic. Health consequences include impaired physical and cognitive development, increased risk of morbidity in children, and reduced work productivity in adults. In the Peruvian highlands, up to 60% of preschool children suff er the stunting eff ects of malnutrition, with iron defi ciency as the main contributing factor."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"CIP scientists are consequently focusing on adding nutritional value to potato through breeding, or biofortifi cation, as a way to improve health in poor communities where people cannot aff ord commercially fortifi ed foods and vitamin supplements. Interestingly, the bioavailability of iron in potato can be greater than in cereals and legumes due to the presence of high levels of ascorbic acid, which promotes iron absorption, and low levels of phytic acid, an inhibitor of iron absorption."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"Their eff orts are focused on identifying and breeding varieties that are rich in concentration and bioavailability."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"The potato is recognized as a key food staple, but its potential for combating malnutrition is not well known. \"In the Andean altiplano, where there is little access to meat, it is an important source of dietary iron, \" says Gabriela Burgos, who coordinates the Quality and Nutrition Laboratory at CIP. \"For example, in Huancavelica in the Peruvian highlands, women and children consume an average of 800 g and 200 g of potato a day respectively. So improving iron concentration and bioavailability in potato can have real impact in these areas. \""},{"index":6,"size":221,"text":"In 2006, as part of the HarvestPlus program, CIP started to screen the genebank's potato germplasm for micronutrients (Fe, Zn, vitamin C, and phenol). Initial screening of 579 native Andean landrace cultivars and 315 improved varieties showed a wide variation for iron and zinc concentration and a large genetic diversity that CIP could use in breeding programs. CIP breeder Walter Amorós explains: \"We selected a group of potatoes for their high levels of iron and we have done a series of crosses with them and studied the progeny. From a baseline iron content of 19 mg/k, after two selection cycles we've achieved levels as high as 35 mg/k. \" The future challenge is to combine these cultivars with CIP's advanced breeding lines that have disease and pest resistance, high yields and high acceptance from farmers and consumers for whom potato is an important component of their diet. Bangladesh through the exploitation at scale of the full potential of potato, sweetpotato, and targeted vegetables, as well as through the sale of planting materials. Shawkat Begum, CIP's Chief of Party in Bangladesh, is optimistic about the project's potential for improving the nutritional security and incomes of some of the country's poorest households. She is especially enthused about the impact it will have on her countrywomen, since CIP designed the project to be gender-responsive."},{"index":7,"size":87,"text":"The four-year project, which began in October 2011 aims to improve the incomes and nutritional security of more than 100,000 households by securing food availability through increased crop activity and ensuring better access through income generation, seed markets and through participatory gender-aware intervention strategies. The project also aims to off er more profi table and healthier uses of produced crops by adding value and building capacity and through the establishment of greater food system stability through yield stability, sustainable production systems, improved storage, and value chain resilience."},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"Begum and her team are integrating adapted varieties, such as nutritionally rich sweetpotatoes, into local farming systems using disease-free planting material, teaching the farmers techniques to improve their crop productivity, and potato storage, and helping them to access new markets."},{"index":9,"size":129,"text":"While the project works with both men and women, several components are specifi cally for women. Bangladesh's unequal land inheritance laws and patriarchal society leave most rural women extremely poor and marginalized. Begum is all too familiar with the barriers her countrywomen face, but she is also well prepared to manage a project designed to strengthen capacities for innovative farming methods and increase their participation in value chains. She was born in the small town, Rangpur, in northern Bangladesh, and has two decades of \"It will be a challenge to reach our ambitious target of 100,000 households within four years, \" she observes, adding that it is important that they contribute to changes in attitudes to ensure that the enterprises they help women create continue after the project ends."},{"index":10,"size":84,"text":"Despite the demands of an ambitious start up, the project made great progress during its fi rst year, 2012, reaching approximately 5,000 men and women. This included 1,216 women that the project trained in sweetpotato vine multiplication, to grow the crop and sell vines as planting material. Participants learned about the sweetpotato's nutritional value -the varieties are rich in beta-carotene (a precursor to vitamin A) and iron -and that the plant's leaves are also nutritious. Sweetpotato-leaf curry has since become popular in the communities."},{"index":11,"size":147,"text":"\"I think that sweetpotato has a huge potential to contribute to the poorest households, since it can be grown in tiny plots and it doesn't require a lot of labor, \" Begum says. She explains that one group of landless women in Barisal, which the project trained in vine multiplication, earned approximately $130 per member over an eight-month period. The group generated this income from the sale of vine cuttings and sweetpotatoes -and spent the majority of their earnings on school supplies and milk for their children. Another group in Jessor began grafting tomato seedlings in the tiny spaces behind their homes, but after selling a couple of crops of seedlings, the women had enough money to rent a small plot of land where they now produce seedlings. They are now receiving advance orders, so the project will begin to provide the group with small business training."},{"index":12,"size":64,"text":"Begum claims that, \"Female participants have said that in addition to improving their household diets and providing income, their participation in project activities have earned them prestige and a new identity within their communities. \" She adds that the project includes a gender research component, the results of which CIP can use to improve project activities, and apply in the design of future projects."},{"index":13,"size":182,"text":"Rural women in Bangladesh, as is the case in many developing countries, are responsible for more than 50% of the food production and yet are often underestimated and overlooked in agricultural policies and strategies. Having recognized that increasing the role of women in agricultural production is essential for improving the nutritional status of families and generating greater levels of income in Bangladesh, CIP is committed to integrating a gender-responsive approach throughout the country. \"I am enthusiastic about the positive impact that we are having on the lives of local women, \" affi rms Begum, \"and I am very confi dent that this project will be gender transformative. \" Fortunately, beginning in 1971, CIP collected cultivars from many of these communities, which were conserved in in its earthquakeproof genebank in Lima. As a result of this eff ort, the Center is now able to return lost cultivars, disease free, to communities in a dynamic conservation cycle. This in turn leads to greater levels of biodiversity, increased social capital within the communities, and creates a relationship built on trust between CIP and rural farmers."},{"index":14,"size":73,"text":"Concerned farmer groups catalyzed the eff ort by appealing to CIP for help, which marked the beginning of the collaborative repatriation of more than 400 diff erent native potato varieties to various communities scattered across the Peruvian Andes. Rene Gomez, the native potato curator at the CIP's genebank, puts it simply, stating that, \"This is a restoration of diversity, which in turn leads to a restoration of productivity with increased social harmony. \""},{"index":15,"size":57,"text":"One of the fi rst communities to receive repatriated clean potato seed was San Jose de Aymara. CIP repatriated more than 200 accessions of lost potato lines to the community. Since then the community has experienced a great deal of development, and today they generate a healthy profi t by producing a wide array of diverse tubers."},{"index":16,"size":113,"text":"However, the repatriation of native potatoes provides more than economic benefi ts to those impoverished populations. As Janny van Beem, CIP's Head of Genetic Resource Acquisition and Distribution points out, \"The potato is sacred to Andean communities, and by repatriating lost tubers to these peoples, we are essentially helping them restore a sense of their cultural heritage. \"  accessions of oca, olluco, and mashua, to more than 50 communities throughout Peru. Rene Gomez explains that, \"CIP has helped create more than 12 community seed banks throughout the country where farmers can go to directly receive lost genetic lines. \" Once CIP has established these community seed banks, the communities manage and maintain them."},{"index":17,"size":70,"text":"A further benefi t to the communities in this cycle of restoration is that the cultivars they receive from CIP are all disease free. CIP treated all of the collected material accessions for viruses using the thermotherapy laboratory at the genebank. Returning the same cultivars to communities free of viruses and pathogens greatly helps the farmers, who in many cases lost those genetic lines as a result of viral diseases."},{"index":18,"size":130,"text":"Repatriation creates an environment of trust between communities and CIP, and when farmers receive tubers they thought they had lost, they are far more likely to trust CIP with other cultivars for future safekeeping. As van Beem puts it, \"repatriation leads to a dynamic cycle of conservation where rural farmers are more inclined to turn over new cultivars to the genebank for security. \" This greatly benefi ts the conservation eff orts of CIP. The reception of accessions from the same areas where they were once collected, and their comparison to older germplasm collections, will strengthen the scientifi c understanding of how the tuber landscape has developed over the past 40 years, and help scientists understand the eff ects of climate change on the development of tubers in these areas."},{"index":19,"size":61,"text":"The dynamic conservation of native varieties of potato eff ectively provides communities with the tools, knowledge, and social capital needed to improve their livelihoods. While bolstering social inclusion, the repatriation of lost lines of potato also holds huge potential for positive scientifi c and environmental results, and CIP will continue to ensure the success of such projects well into the future."}]},{"head":"Sweetening Social Inclusion in","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Rwanda with a Sweetpotato Project consumption of orange-fl eshed sweetpotato (OFSP) in ten African countries. This project works to develop the essential capacities, products, and methods of mainly female sweetpotato farmers in Rwanda, to improve their income levels and social status within their respective communities."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Rwanda has some of the highest sweetpotato production in Africa, with more than 80 kgs per capita produced annually. Women are the main growers of sweetpotato in Rwanda, and the crop has become increasingly important due to serious disease problems that currently aff ect cassava and banana. The Sweetpotato Superfoods in Rwanda Project promotes an eff ective public-private sector partnership that provides evidence that sweetpotato products can be profi table and enhance the value chain while increasing revenues for local farmers."},{"index":3,"size":283,"text":"In 2012, the project developed high-value sweetpotato value chains, and involved diff erent local partners and national institutions such as the Rwanda Agricultural Initially seen as a poor people's crop, sweetpotato gained acceptance with the introduction by CIP and RAB of new orangefl eshed varieties with higher yields and better taste than local varieties. The OFSP varieties are rich in B-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. Rwanda Super Foods Project supplies these varieties to RAB, which does seed multiplication through tissue culture and onfi eld rapid multiplication, and makes planting material available to cooperatives and other contracted farmers. \"The Kotemu cooperative in Rulindo district, for example, decided to give it a try, \" explains Kirimi Sindi, CIP's Impact Specialist at the Nairobi offi ce. \"While the cooperative members could take some home to feed their families, they also had enough to sell to Urwibutso (SINA) Enterprises, the main processor working with the project. Success is contagious and soon neighbors were asking for vines to plant. \" Encouraged by the results, the cooperative expanded its production and all members received a profi t from the sales. Kotemu members also learned how to process sweetpotato into bread, cakes, and doughnuts called mandazi. The Tuzamurane farmer group located in Rubugurizu village, Muhanga district, joined them. Initially reluctant to grow sweetpotato, the Young Women's Christian Association (an NGO contracted to work in the area) managed to persuade these groups to do so. In 2012, the farmers planted over 12 hectares and were able to harvest 700 kg of sweetpotato, 500 kg of which they sold to SINA. They hope to increase their profi t in the next season, with the planting of sweetpotato on a 25-hectare plot."},{"index":4,"size":66,"text":"CIP's SASHA project continues its work through training in production methods, and careful harvesting and storage practices, to avoid losses and damage during handling and to prevent rot. Since vines are in high demand, SASHA held training events in Rulindo and Muhanga districts in September 2012. These focused on how to build vine conservation tunnels to protect the vines from insects and aphids that spread diseases."},{"index":5,"size":94,"text":"In early November 2012, the Rwanda Sweetpotato Super Foods project in collaboration with SINA Gerard Enterprises, RAB, CRS, and its partners launched the \"Akarabo Golden Power Biscuits\", Rwanda's fi rst orange-fl eshed sweetpotato biscuits, which are rich in Vitamin A. Those tasty and healthy biscuits are now sold in supermarkets and local shops in Rwanda and neighboring countries. Only four Akarabo Golden Power biscuits provide 48% of daily vitamin A requirements of a child under nine years old, and 28% of a non-pregnant woman's daily needs, or 21% of an adult man's daily requirement."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"The Project has positive social impacts on a daily basis, and while gender inequality persists in many areas of Rwanda, women Climate change is expected to aff ect agriculture in general, but potato crops in particular are deemed more susceptible than others to the expected changes in temperature, radiation, water regimes, and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Contrary to a number of global studies that reported that increased levels of atmospheric CO2 benefi t potato production, CIP's research reveals evidence that long-term exposure to an enriched CO2 environment can bring about a partial stomatal closure resulting in a decline in photosynthetic rates."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"A rise in global temperatures as a result of climate change could signal a very real threat to potato production in the form of increased pests and diseases. According to Roberto Quiroz, CIP's Leader for Production Systems and the Environment, \"Major climate change factors likely to infl uence plant disease severity and the spread of pests include elevated CO2, heavy and unseasonal rains, higher humidity, drought, cyclones and hurricanes, and elevated temperatures. \""},{"index":8,"size":197,"text":"The CIP study also points out that genetic changes in pathogen population and higher infection pressure could increase the impact of diseases. Furthermore, temperature has a strong infl uence on insect development, reproduction and survival. While the longterm eff ects of increased vectors, pests, and pathogens are not altogether clear at this time, Quiroz argues that, \"It is absolutely vital to begin creating models and assessing the results beforehand in order to be prepared. \" To measure the potential consequences of climate change, researchers rely on modeling tools, and in the case of potatoes, a potato growth model is fed with present and prospective climate data and the results are compared. However, in developing countries such as Peru, where the weather station network is quite limited and the mountainous terrain results in microclimates, traditional climate change modeling is unfeasible. Quiroz and the team from CIP consequently used a groundbreaking approach to develop models using remote sensing and mathematical tools to obtain and generate daily weather data for complex landscapes where conventional linear corrections have failed. While this approach produced accurate models for potato growth, it also holds huge potential for application for climate change study in general."},{"index":9,"size":160,"text":"In Peru, farmers cope with frequent droughts, frosts, hailstorms or excess rainfall by planting an assortment of potato varieties and landraces. Climate change will result in increased severe weather events, and the models developed by CIP simulate the expected behaviors of a wide genetic diversity, including the native and commercial landraces and varieties planted in Peru to deal with climate change. CIP assessed these varieties under variable climate conditions to determine adaptation options for future climates. Recent studies based on local meteorological networks have evidenced a signifi cant warming since 1979 (0.32 -0.34 o Celsius per decade). CIP simulated the behaviors of several potato varieties at a number of diff erent sites with varied altitudes and climatic conditions, using a model to assess whether this warming trend had a signifi cant eff ect on potato productivity. The fi ndings were consistent with the warming trends and observation that there has been an upward migration of potato-based agriculture to higher altitudes."},{"index":10,"size":200,"text":"Quiroz's team speculates that this upward migration of the Andean agricultural frontier will encroach upon grasslands and peatlands. While moving potato production upwards is supported from the point of view of productivity, Quiroz pointed out that the feedback to the environment in CO2 emissions caused by converting grasslands into cropland must be factored into the equation. Wet grasslands and peatlands in the Andes are very rich in carbon content and the carbon molecules stored in those soils are likely to be released rapidly into the atmosphere as a result of crop production. The reality faced by poor farmers worldwide is that growing human populations create increased demands on the output per unit of land for crops and livestock. This exacerbates malnutrition and poverty and leads to a food production model that is environmentally destructive and unsustainable. These intensifi ed production systems employ continuous cropping methods, utilize few external nutrient inputs, and include the removal of fodder for livestock with limited recycling of nutrients and organic matter back into the soil. The result is the depletion of soil nutrients and organic matter, leaving barren lands and severe hardships for a great deal of poor farmers and those who depend on them."},{"index":11,"size":125,"text":"More than 20 years ago, CIP's Carlos Leon-Velarde realized that mixed crop-livestock systems can play a crucial role in improving the environmental stewardship and incomes Sustainable development cannot be attained without ensuring environmental sustainability, and this means fi nding green solutions that support economic progress. In 2012, an 18-year-old CIP research program on the dual-purpose qualities of sweetpotato -for production of both tubers of smallholders, and that better sweetpotato cultivation methods could improve the food security and diet of their families. Leon-Velarde and his colleagues at CIP recognized sweetpotato's potential as a remedial crop for such farmers because of its high productivity and low input requirements, while its usefulness for both food and feed (dual-purpose) makes it attractive in areas where land availability is declining."},{"index":12,"size":176,"text":"Leon-Velarde formed a dual-purpose sweetpotato team focused on utilization rather than breeding, and as this team incorporated diff erent management strategies for sweetpotato over the years, they began to increase the amount of foliage produced, and improved the quality of vines as animal fodder. The team tested diff erent cutting frequencies as well as several genetic materials from the collection at CIP's genebank, before they managed to defi ne an index of root to biomass to develop varieties that produce abundant vines while simultaneously maintaining good tuber productivity. Sweetpotato production takes approximately 150 days from planting to harvest, and if cropped for tubers alone, the plant will produce large amounts of roots, but relatively little vine and leaf material for fodder. However, Leon-Velarde's research revealed that if sweetpotato vines are cut 65 to 70 days after emergence, high quality fodder can be obtained. This fodder can be fed directly to livestock or stored in microsilos, and cutting does not aff ect the roots, so farmers produce the same quantity and quality of sweetpotato crops as usual."},{"index":13,"size":59,"text":"As CIP-led research into dual-purpose sweetpotato progressed, the team conducted studies throughout Peru and in Ecuador, the Dominican Republic, Vietnam, China, Indonesia, Thailand, Kenya, Uganda, and Papua New Guinea. Initially the team sought two partners in each country to conduct tests and analyze how increased foliage could improve the bio-economic situation of farmers in diff erent cultures and environments."},{"index":14,"size":101,"text":"Global research conducted by the team over the past fi ve years has consistently demonstrated evidence to support the hypothesis that dissemination of dualpurpose sweetpotato can help to improve the livelihoods of smallholders using mixed crop-livestock systems around the world. It could furthermore lead to a system of food production that is far less demanding on the environment. Dual-purpose sweetpotato farming therefore holds huge potential as an environmentally sustainable means of agricultural food production that allows farmers to produce more quality fodder for animal feed and crop fertilization without harming their tuber yields, while simultaneously easing the environmental strains on cropland."}]},{"head":"Applying Environmental Sustainability Practices at CIP","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"In Lima, water problems are always an issue. Because the city is located in a coastal desert, water supplies are limited, whereas demand has been growing for years. A steady supply of water ranks as a high priority for CIP's Lima headquarters."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"In 2001, the 60-meter well that supplies water for the agricultural research center was nearly dry. Only 70 centimeters of water remained, compared to 17 meters in 1989. Thanks to sustainable water management practices, the well's water level had been largely restored by 2012, and CIP's water usage decreased by roughly 50 percent from 200 m 3 to just over 100 m 3 ."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"In 2001, when it looked as if CIP's well was going to be tapped out, the decision was made to dig the well 60 meters deeper. Juan Palomino, a plumber at CIP, came up with a proposal to reduce waste and increase recycling."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"Palomino realized that clean water was being lost due to ineffi cient pumps. Using techniques such as reverse osmosis, he helped set up a new system to recuperate wasted water and store it in a cistern to be used for irrigating CIP's fi elds. Today, nearly 80 percent of the water that Palomino's system recovers is clean water that was previously lost. The remaining 20 percent is recycled after usage in fi elds, air conditioning units, and other areas."},{"index":5,"size":52,"text":"\"In addition to the important scientifi c work done by the researchers, we in the administrative department try to do our part by conserving vital resources like water, \" says Palomino. This includes irrigating CIP's gardens and lawns after six o'clock in the evening in order to avoid water loss from evaporation."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Inspired by the positive results of his water management project, Palomino attended a training course on how to construct solar panels, which was off ered at the Agrarian University of La Molina, located across the street from CIP's Lima campus. He subsequently built a pair of solar waterheating units, which he and colleagues tested in Lima and at CIP's Huancayo station. The panels are currently installed in the dormitories of CIP-Huancayo."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"In addition to conserving water and energy resources, Palomino has helped CIP's"}]},{"head":"• Environmental Sustainability","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 39 researchers with innovative designs and construction for hydroponic, aeroponic, and drip irrigation systems. Palomino would like to install more thermal solar systems and is always looking for other ways to increase effi ciency."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"\"When we talk about sustainable agriculture and the preservation of our earth's precious resources, we cannot just look to the farmers, \" notes Palomino. \"It's important that we do our part too. \""}]},{"head":"CIP ARCHIVES","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Palomino built a pair of solar water-heating units. The panels are currently installed in the dormitories of CIP-Huancayo.         CEN CE CEN CEN CEN CEN CE CEN EN EN EN CEN CEN CEN CEN CEN CE CEN CEN CEN CEN CEN CEN   E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E   "}]},{"head":"T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T T TE E E ER ER ER ER ER ER ER E E E E E E E E E CGI","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RS CGIA A IA IA A A A A A A A","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CGIAR C T T T T T T T TER T S A A A A A A A","index":10,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"From left to right: Dr. Arturo Flórez, Dr. Bir Pal Singh, Dr. Rodney Cooke, Dr. Pamela Anderson, Dr. Peter VanderZaag, Ms. Phyllis Kibui, Dr. Simon Best, Dr. Stella Williams, Eng. Andrés Casas International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 5 Statement by the Board Chair 2012 was another successful year in the 40-plus year history of CIP. The International Potato Center (CIP) has seen steady programmatic and fi nancial growth in recent years and 2012 continued this trend. The year's highlight was taking the lead in implementing the CGIAR Research Program on Roots, Tubers and Bananas. CIP is the lead Center in this new and exciting research program and is joined by three other CGIAR partner centers: International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), and Bioversity International. CIP is also working in a total of seven other CGIAR Research Programs (CRP): Agriculture for Nutrition and Health, Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security, Dryland Systems, Managing and Sustaining Crop Collections, Integrated System for the Humid Tropics, and Policies and Institutions and Markets. These new CGIAR Research Programs also allow CIP to expand its research programs to continue playing an important role in improving potato and sweetpotato production systems and the livelihoods of millions of people around the world. "},{"text":" world will assess the success of the Millennium Development Goals. These United Nations goals set in 2000 were a framework designed to help more than a billion people rise out of extreme poverty. In 2002, CIP aligned its vision with the Millennium Development Goals on Poverty, Hunger, Child and Maternal Mortality, Sustainability, Slum Dwellers, Least Developed Countries, and New Agricultural Technologies. These areas became the foundation upon which we developed our research for development activities. "},{"text":" Judges awarded a CIP-led INCOPA/Papa Andina project fi rst place in a competition titled \"Agricultural Innovation Success Stories 2012, \" hosted by the Regional Fund for Agricultural Technology (FONTAGRO) in partnership with the InterAmerican Institute for Agricultural CooperationThe project stressed the importance for smallholders to take advantage of the biodiversity and international culinary trends of native potatoes, socially and culturally. Hugo Li Pun, executive secretary of FONTAGRO, noted that those eff orts have resulted in nine new commercial products, the celebration of National Potato Day, the Wholesale Trade Law for the Potato, improved technical standards, improved management of postharvest crops, production of quality seeds, selection of native varieties for processing, and integrated crop management.Pamela Anderson, Director General of CIP, and André Devaux, CIP Regional Leader for Latin America and the Caribbean, accepted the prize at the GCARD2 conference. During the ceremony, Anderson acknowledged the 20 public and private partners for the INCOPA/ Papa Andina project that helped to generate innovations to improve competitiveness for small producers of native potatoes in Peru. "},{"text":" collaboration with the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center (AVRDC) and national Bangladeshi partner organizations, has begun implementing a four-year Horticulture Project to improve the nutritional security and incomes of 100,000 poor households in Southern • Social Inclusion "},{"text":" the past 15 years, the International Potato Center (CIP) has carried out an initiative focused on the repatriation of native potatoes to communities located throughout the Peruvian highlands. In the early nineties, a number of traditional potato farmers began to notice that the rich diversity of their native potato varieties was dwindling due to changes in traditional farming practices, terrorism, increased poverty, the outbreak of new potato diseases, and urban migration. This in turn led to a low supply of quality potato seed, which resulted in poorer yields and increased susceptibility to pests and diseases. "},{"text":" In situ conservation eff orts of the Ruta del Condor help local farmers manage and protect their resources.She continues, \"The older generations can remember a lot of the really strange purple and semi curved cultivars we are returning to them. To see them again and to have a younger generation be able to cultivate them is incredibly important to these elders. \"In 2012, for the fi rst time, CIP repatriated native potato varieties to the communities of the Potato Park in Pisac, as in-vitro potato plantlets.\"Repatriation through in-vitro seedlings off ers the highest quality of clean seed compared to other planting material, \" says Gomez. \"It took us 10 years to build the infrastructure and train the communities so that they could receive potato samples as in-vitro plantlets. \"Through such programs as the Ruta del Condor, CIP has now repatriated over 1,200 varieties of potato, and more than 90The Ruta del Condor is a CIP initiative focused on the repatriation of native potato varieties back to their communities of origin, and the establishment of micro conservation sites spanning the spine of the Andes from Mérida in Venezuela, to Jujuy in Argentina. The aim of these centers is to restore, conserve, and develop a market chain linking enhanced production to consumption to improve the lives of rural farmers. "},{"text":" CIP has successfully launched the Sweetpotato Super Foods project in Rwanda as part of the Sweet Potato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA) Project, which promotes the breeding, dissemination of high-quality planting material, production, post-harvest process, and Board (RAB), Kigali Institute of Science and Technology, non-governmental organizations led by Catholic Relief Services (CRS), and the private sector. "},{"text":" up sweetpotato farming under the Project's guidance have found a fi rmer foothold within their own society. CIP continues to support such initiatives to give economic and social rights to all members of society and reduce all elements of inequality in a concerted drive towards sustainable development. As part of CIP's broader, 10-year, multi donor SASHA initiative, the project is expected to lay the groundwork for improving the lives of 10 million Sub-Saharan households over the next decade.Potato yields are susceptible to the increased atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), temperature, and precipitation levels associated with climate change. These factors can also result in an increase in pests and diseases. In response to the serious threat that climate change poses to potato production, CIP has developed tools to assess probable impacts. In 2012, a CIPled study reviewed potato responses to climate change variables, analyzed the likely outcomes of host-pathogen interactions, and developed models for simulating the behaviors of potato genetic diversity to assess adaptation options. "},{"text":" resulted in a model that CIP could use to increase the livelihoods of millions of poor rural farmers and have a positive global impact on environmental development. "},{"text":"Forbes Fuentes, S.; Heider, B.; Tasso, R.C.; Romero, E.; Felde, T. zum; Kreuze, J.F. 2012. Complete genome sequence of a potyvirus infecting yam beans (Pachyrhizus spp.) in Peru. Archives of Virology. (Austria). ISSN 0304-8608. 157(4): 773-776. "},{"text":" REVENUE For the Year Ending December 31, 2012 (US$ 000) "},{"text":" A A AR A AR AR AR AR AR AR AR AR AR R R R R R R R C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C CENT E EN ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT ENT N ENT ENT ENT ENT NT NTER ER R ER ER ER ER E ER E ER R "},{"text":" CE C CE C CE CE CE CE C C CE C CE E E E ECE CG CGI GI GI GIA IA IA IA A A A A AR C TERS "},{"text":" E EN NT T N NT N NT N N N NT N N N N NT NT NT N NT N NT NT N NT NT NT AR AR R AR AR AR AR AR AR AR AR A A A C C C C CE E CE CE EN EN N "},{"text":" Legal en la Biblioteca Nacional del Perú No 2005-9640 Readers are encouraged to quote or reproduce material from this report. As copyright holder CIP requests acknowledgement and a copy of the publication where the citation or material appears. Please send this to the Communications and Public Awareness Department at the address below. Printed by Tarea Asociación Gráfi ca Educativa. Pasaje María Auxiliadora 156-164 Breña, Lima-Perú "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Annual Report 2012 17  Sweetpotato at London Promoting a Olympics 2012 Participatory Market Since 2008, CIP and INIA have system-atically conducted fi eld studies in order to access varietal selection through the participation of local farmers in pov-S. DE HAAN CIP's Maria The International Potato Center's (CIP) innovative contribution to the reduction of child undernutrition through the promotion Chain Approach CIP Archives of sweetpotato cultivation and consumption erty hotspots. During fi eld days, farmers Andrade leads a received attention from world leaders on the identify and prioritize key characteristics they would like to see in improved va-discussion at the closing day of the Olympic Games in London. British Prime Minister David Cameron and CIP´s PMCA story began in the late 90's, when CIP's Papa rieties ranging from shape and color for Brazilian Vice President Michel Temer hosted producing chuño (freeze-dried potato) to issues such as taste, texture, cooking Global Hunger the Global Hunger Event at 10 Downing Andina regional program began work to strengthen the Street on August 12, 2012, along with double time, and resistance to frost or late blight disease. They also assess and select pre-Event. Olympic gold medal winner Mo Farah, to urge capacity of R&D organizations in Bolivia, Ecuador, and a global drive to reduce or eliminate child ferred characteristics (size, shape, color, quality, texture, taste, and others) among undernutrition by the next Olympics. Maria Andrade, a CIP Sweetpotato Breeder and Peru, in order to increase competitiveness and improve all improved potato clones derived from native landraces (i.e. CIP's B1C5 and bio-Seed Systems Specialist, participated in the event along with various heads of state and the livelihoods of small potato farmers. fortifi ed populations). While voting is government, NGOs, and private-sector leaders. stunted and suff er from vitamin A defi ciency, always anonymous, diff erences in pref-erences and priorities are divided along gender lines. Maria Andrade traveled from Mozambique to which is a signifi cant contributor to early This led to a partnership with the Project childhood mortality. \" for Potato Innovation and Competitiveness London to attend the event where she stressed the importance of orange-fl eshed sweet potato (OFSP) as a crop with enormous potential for reducing child undernutrition. She was also able to share insights about her work on the in Peru (INCOPA) and experimentation Andrade went on to emphasize other with a participatory approach to stimulate sweetpotato advantages. They grow in agricultural innovation. This in turn led to the marginal conditions and require little labor and few chemical fertilizers, making them a cheap development of PMCA in 2003. Sweetpotato at London Promoting a Olympics 2012 Participatory Market Since 2008, CIP and INIA have system-atically conducted fi eld studies in order to access varietal selection through the participation of local farmers in pov-S. DE HAAN CIP's Maria The International Potato Center's (CIP) innovative contribution to the reduction of child undernutrition through the promotion Chain Approach CIP Archives of sweetpotato cultivation and consumption erty hotspots. During fi eld days, farmers Andrade leads a received attention from world leaders on the identify and prioritize key characteristics they would like to see in improved va-discussion at the closing day of the Olympic Games in London. British Prime Minister David Cameron and CIP´s PMCA story began in the late 90's, when CIP's Papa rieties ranging from shape and color for Brazilian Vice President Michel Temer hosted producing chuño (freeze-dried potato) to issues such as taste, texture, cooking Global Hunger the Global Hunger Event at 10 Downing Andina regional program began work to strengthen the Street on August 12, 2012, along with double time, and resistance to frost or late blight disease. They also assess and select pre-Event. Olympic gold medal winner Mo Farah, to urge capacity of R&D organizations in Bolivia, Ecuador, and a global drive to reduce or eliminate child ferred characteristics (size, shape, color, quality, texture, taste, and others) among undernutrition by the next Olympics. Maria Andrade, a CIP Sweetpotato Breeder and Peru, in order to increase competitiveness and improve all improved potato clones derived from native landraces (i.e. CIP's B1C5 and bio-Seed Systems Specialist, participated in the event along with various heads of state and the livelihoods of small potato farmers. fortifi ed populations). While voting is government, NGOs, and private-sector leaders. stunted and suff er from vitamin A defi ciency, always anonymous, diff erences in pref-erences and priorities are divided along gender lines. Maria Andrade traveled from Mozambique to which is a signifi cant contributor to early This led to a partnership with the Project childhood mortality. \" for Potato Innovation and Competitiveness London to attend the event where she stressed the importance of orange-fl eshed sweet potato (OFSP) as a crop with enormous potential for reducing child undernutrition. She was also able to share insights about her work on the in Peru (INCOPA) and experimentation Andrade went on to emphasize other with a participatory approach to stimulate sweetpotato advantages. They grow in agricultural innovation. This in turn led to the marginal conditions and require little labor and few chemical fertilizers, making them a cheap development of PMCA in 2003. Sweetpotato for Profi t and Health Initiative and eff ective crop in developing countries that Sweetpotato for Profi t and Health Initiativeand eff ective crop in developing countries that (SPHI), a CIP multi-stakeholder program that need to grow more food in smaller areas. (SPHI), a CIP multi-stakeholder program thatneed to grow more food in smaller areas. aims to improve nutrition and livelihoods in  aims to improve nutrition and livelihoods in 10 million households across 17 Sub-Saharan During the event, Andrade also discussed 10 million households across 17 Sub-SaharanDuring the event, Andrade also discussed Africa countries over the next 10 years through 15 new drought-tolerant varieties of OFSP Africa countries over the next 10 years through15 new drought-tolerant varieties of OFSP the eff ective production and expanded use developed by CIP and released in Mozambique the eff ective production and expanded usedeveloped by CIP and released in Mozambique of sweetpotatoes. in February 2011, before calling on world of sweetpotatoes.in February 2011, before calling on world  leaders to invest in nutrition training at a leaders to invest in nutrition training at a During a discussion, she explained how community level and acknowledge that During a discussion, she explained howcommunity level and acknowledge that repositioning OFSP within African food farmers adapt technologies faster when there repositioning OFSP within African foodfarmers adapt technologies faster when there economies is resulting in the reduction of child are market opportunities. economies is resulting in the reduction of childare market opportunities. undernutrition across the continent. \"Orange-  undernutrition across the continent. \"Orange- fl eshed Sweetpotatoes are packed with vitamin \"We join Prime Minister Cameron's and Vice fl eshed Sweetpotatoes are packed with vitamin\"We join Prime Minister Cameron's and Vice A and other vital nutrients, \" she explained President Temer's call to end global hunger and A and other vital nutrients, \" she explainedPresident Temer's call to end global hunger and during a presentation. \"A sweetpotato a day childhood undernutrition, \" said CIP's Director during a presentation. \"A sweetpotato a daychildhood undernutrition, \" said CIP's Director can supply undernourished children with General, Pamela Anderson. Concerted action to can supply undernourished children withGeneral, Pamela Anderson. Concerted action to the recommended amount of vitamin A. This promote agricultural research and innovative, the recommended amount of vitamin A. Thispromote agricultural research and innovative, is especially important in regions like Sub- pro-poor agricultural strategies are vital to is especially important in regions like Sub-pro-poor agricultural strategies are vital to Saharan Africa where 43 million children are achieving this goal. \" Saharan Africa where 43 million children areachieving this goal. \" • Economic Development International Potato Center • Economic Development • • Economic Development International Potato Center • Economic Development •  "},{"text":"Annual Report 2012 19  over the past decade, while the value of native potatoes sold has increased by more than 150% (at constant prices of 2011). them and agricultural researchers and other service providers. These improved relations contributed to innovation processes and CIP Project Wins over the past decade, while the value of native potatoes sold has increased by more than 150% (at constant prices of 2011).them and agricultural researchers and other service providers. These improved relations contributed to innovation processes and CIP Project Wins Since 2003, CIP has applied the PMCA in several Andean countries after improving the created an environment conducive to future collective action for market chain development such as the Farmer Business School for Prestigious Since 2003, CIP has applied the PMCA in several Andean countries after improving thecreated an environment conducive to future collective action for market chain development such as the Farmer Business School for Prestigious approach through the implementation of two PMCA cycles in Peru. The fi rst application focused on the marketing of improved supporting farmers in their business activities. In order to foster economic development Agricultural Award approach through the implementation of two PMCA cycles in Peru. The fi rst application focused on the marketing of improvedsupporting farmers in their business activities. In order to foster economic development Agricultural Award potato varieties; the second cycle focused on marketing native potatoes. Both initiatives were hugely successful, and resulted in the more eff ectively in the coming years, CIP will continue improving upon the PMCA based on experiences of its application to market chains in Uruguay potato varieties; the second cycle focused on marketing native potatoes. Both initiatives were hugely successful, and resulted in themore eff ectively in the coming years, CIP will continue improving upon the PMCA based on experiences of its application to market chains in Uruguay establishment of permanent organizations in developing countries. The PMCA represents establishment of permanent organizationsin developing countries. The PMCA represents such as CAPAC (Productive Agricultural Quality a new way to do agricultural R&D as it triggers such as CAPAC (Productive Agricultural Qualitya new way to do agricultural R&D as it triggers Chains in Peru), which promotes the marketing innovation processes, which often continue Chains in Peru), which promotes the marketinginnovation processes, which often continue of high-quality local agricultural products, and evolve long after PMCA projects have of high-quality local agricultural products,and evolve long after PMCA projects have and the creation of Peru's National Potato Day, formally ended. and the creation of Peru's National Potato Day,formally ended. which was established in 2005. CIP applied the  which was established in 2005. CIP applied the same strategy to Ecuador in 2008.  same strategy to Ecuador in 2008. As a means of promoting South-South  As a means of promoting South-South Cooperation, the PMCA was then applied  Cooperation, the PMCA was then applied in Uganda, where the approach was used  in Uganda, where the approach was used from 2005-2007 for the country's potato,  from 2005-2007 for the country's potato, sweetpotato, tomato, and hot pepper market chains. Reviews of the work done in Uganda reveal that the PMCA permitted  launching specifi c market initiatives with private partners. sweetpotato, tomato, and hot pepper market chains. Reviews of the work done in Uganda reveal that the PMCA permittedlaunching specifi c market initiatives with private partners. R&D professionals and market chain actors to collaborate in developing mutually benefi cial innovations. In 2012, it became evident that as a result of the innovations triggered by the PMCA in Uganda, farmers, processors, market agents and, in particular, women were able to increase their incomes and, in some cases, acquire productive assets, including land. Through the Uganda PMCA, CIP identifi ed three  CIP contributed signifi cantly to the approach's development and its adaptation for diff erent regions. CIP fi rst developed PMCA in 2002 and applied it to market chains in the Andean region of South America. Its success led to subsequent PMCA process applications in countries as diverse as Uganda and Indonesia. replicated and R&D professionals and market chain actors to collaborate in developing mutually benefi cial innovations. In 2012, it became evident that as a result of the innovations triggered by the PMCA in Uganda, farmers, processors, market agents and, in particular, women were able to increase their incomes and, in some cases, acquire productive assets, including land. Through the Uganda PMCA, CIP identifi ed threeCIP contributed signifi cantly to the approach's development and its adaptation for diff erent regions. CIP fi rst developed PMCA in 2002 and applied it to market chains in the Andean region of South America. Its success led to subsequent PMCA process applications in countries as diverse as Uganda and Indonesia. replicated and This is followed by a joint analysis of potential market opportunities, in which individuals from participating R&D organizations, such as CIP, facilitate groups to explore and analyze potential market opportunities. The last phase involves the joint development of innovations where partners focus on developing, testing, and ways to improve future PMCA applications: the development of funding for innovation facilitators, the development of services for The award recognizes CIP's work over the entrepreneurs with emerging innovations, and course of thirteen years, when the Papa the provision of support to small farmers to Andina and INCOPA Projects coordinated improve their capacity to respond to changing actions within a wide network of public and market demands. private partners in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. among market chain actors and between that the PMCA strengthened relations A principal objective was the promotion The PMCA was applied to market chains for of innovation systems for poor farmers to fresh and processed potatoes in West Java, improve food security, facilitate market Indonesia from 2008-2009. Upon evaluating the Indonesian case in 2012, CIP determined access, and reduce poverty. Through a combination of market-chain applied to innovation, policy changes and public awareness, PMCA has contributed to changing the image and perception of native potatoes in Peru. Previously considered a mere staple for poor farmers, native potatoes Uganda. are now a Peruvian delicacy worth a premium in gourmet restaurants and foreign markets. As a result of increasing values in the market chain and greater recognition of native potatoes in diff erent rural and urban by farmers has increased by more than 70% contexts, the volume of native potatoes sold This is followed by a joint analysis of potential market opportunities, in which individuals from participating R&D organizations, such as CIP, facilitate groups to explore and analyze potential market opportunities. The last phase involves the joint development of innovations where partners focus on developing, testing, and ways to improve future PMCA applications: the development of funding for innovation facilitators, the development of services for The award recognizes CIP's work over the entrepreneurs with emerging innovations, and course of thirteen years, when the Papa the provision of support to small farmers to Andina and INCOPA Projects coordinated improve their capacity to respond to changing actions within a wide network of public and market demands. private partners in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru. among market chain actors and between that the PMCA strengthened relations A principal objective was the promotion The PMCA was applied to market chains for of innovation systems for poor farmers to fresh and processed potatoes in West Java, improve food security, facilitate market Indonesia from 2008-2009. Upon evaluating the Indonesian case in 2012, CIP determined access, and reduce poverty.Through a combination of market-chain applied to innovation, policy changes and public awareness, PMCA has contributed to changing the image and perception of native potatoes in Peru. Previously considered a mere staple for poor farmers, native potatoes Uganda. are now a Peruvian delicacy worth a premium in gourmet restaurants and foreign markets. As a result of increasing values in the market chain and greater recognition of native potatoes in diff erent rural and urban by farmers has increased by more than 70% contexts, the volume of native potatoes sold  "},{"text":"Burgos, G.; Amoros, W.; Salas, E.; Munoa, L.; Sosa, P.; Diaz  system in the production of quality potato CIP Staff Publications 2012 (Solanum tuberosum l.) seed in developing system in the production of quality potato CIP Staff Publications 2012 (Solanum tuberosum l.) seed in developing countries. African Journal of Biotechnology.   countries. African Journal of Biotechnology. ISSN 1684-5315. 11(17):3993-3999.   ISSN 1684-5315. 11(17):3993-3999. Journal Articles Claessens, L.; Antle, J.M.; Stoorvogel, J.J.  Journal Articles Claessens, L.; Antle, J.M.; Stoorvogel, J.J. 2012. A method for evaluating climate   2012. A method for evaluating climate change adaptation strategies for small-   change adaptation strategies for small- Adimo, A.O.; Njoroge, J.B.; Claessens, L.; scale farmers using survey, experimental M.; Pallet, D. 2012. Physico-chemical Adimo, A.O.; Njoroge, J.B.; Claessens, L.; scale farmers using survey, experimentalM.; Pallet, D. 2012. Physico-chemical Wamocho, L.S. 2012. Land use and climate and modeled data. Agricultural Systems. characterization of starches extracted from Wamocho, L.S. 2012. Land use and climate and modeled data. Agricultural Systems.characterization of starches extracted from change adaptation strategies in Kenya. (Netherlands). ISSN 0308-521X. 111(1):85-95. potatoes of the group Phureja. Starch-Starke. change adaptation strategies in Kenya. (Netherlands). ISSN 0308-521X. 111(1):85-95.potatoes of the group Phureja. Starch-Starke. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for (Germany). ISSN 0038-9056. 64(8):621-630. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for(Germany). ISSN 0038-9056. 64(8):621-630. Global Change. (Netherlands). ISSN 1381-  Global Change. (Netherlands). ISSN 1381- 2386. 17(2):153-171. Clark, C.A.; Davis, J.A.; Abad, J.A.; Cuellar,   2386. 17(2):153-171. Clark, C.A.; Davis, J.A.; Abad, J.A.; Cuellar, J.W.; Fuentes, S.; Kreuze, J.F.; Gibson,  Cai, D.; Rodriguez, F.; Teng, Y.; Ane, C.; J.W.; Fuentes, S.; Kreuze, J.F.; Gibson,Cai, D.; Rodriguez, F.; Teng, Y.; Ane, C.; R.W.; Mukasa, S.B.; Tugume, A.K.; Tairo, F.D.;  Bonierbale, M.; Mueller, L.A.; Spooner, D.M. R.W.; Mukasa, S.B.; Tugume, A.K.; Tairo, F.D.;Bonierbale, M.; Mueller, L.A.; Spooner, D.M. Agili, S.; Nyende, B.; Ngamau, K.; Masinde, Valkonen, J.P.T. 2012. Sweetpotato viruses: 2012. Single copy nuclear gene analysis of Agili, S.; Nyende, B.; Ngamau, K.; Masinde, Valkonen, J.P.T. 2012. Sweetpotato viruses:2012. Single copy nuclear gene analysis of P. 2012. Selection, yield evaluation, drought 15 years of progress on understanding and polyploidy in wild potatoes (Solanum section P. 2012. Selection, yield evaluation, drought 15 years of progress on understanding andpolyploidy in wild potatoes (Solanum section tolerance indices of orange-fl esh sweet managing complex diseases. Plant Disease. Petota). BMC Evolutionary Biology. ISSN 1471- tolerance indices of orange-fl esh sweet managing complex diseases. Plant Disease.Petota). BMC Evolutionary Biology. ISSN 1471- potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam) hybrid clone. (USA). ISSN 0191-2917. 96(2):168-185. 2148. 12(70):16 p. potato (Ipomoea batatas Lam) hybrid clone. (USA). ISSN 0191-2917. 96(2):168-185.2148. 12(70):16 p. Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences. (USA).  Journal of Nutrition and Food Sciences. (USA). ISSN 2155-9600. 2(3):8 p.  ISSN 2155-9600. 2(3):8 p. Devaux, A.; Ordinola, M. 2012. De America  Carvalho, L.M.V.; Jones, C.; Posadas, A.N.D.; Devaux, A.; Ordinola, M. 2012. De AmericaCarvalho, L.M.V.; Jones, C.; Posadas, A.N.D.; para el mundo. Revista Papa. (Colombia).  Quiroz, R.; Bookhagen, B.; Liebmann, B. 2012. para el mundo. Revista Papa. (Colombia).Quiroz, R.; Bookhagen, B.; Liebmann, B. 2012. ISSN 0122-2686. no.26. 16-19.  Precipitation characteristics of the South ISSN 0122-2686. no.26. 16-19.Precipitation characteristics of the South , C.; Bonierbale, M. 2012. American monsoon system derived from , C.; Bonierbale, M. 2012.American monsoon system derived from Carotenoid concentrations of native multiple datasets. Journal of Climate. (USA). Carotenoid concentrations of nativemultiple datasets. Journal of Climate. (USA). Andean potatoes as aff ected by cooking. ISSN 0894-8755. 25(3):4600-4620. Andean potatoes as aff ected by cooking.ISSN 0894-8755. 25(3):4600-4620. Food Chemistry. (UK). ISSN 0308-8146.  Food Chemistry. (UK). ISSN 0308-8146. 133(4):1131-1137.   133(4):1131-1137.   Chavez, P.; Yarleque, C.; Loayza, H.; Mares, V.; Chavez, P.; Yarleque, C.; Loayza, H.; Mares, V.;   Hancco, P.; Priou, S.; Marquez, M.P.; Posadas, Hancco, P.; Priou, S.; Marquez, M.P.; Posadas, Cabello, R.; De Mendiburu, F.; Bonierbale, A.; Zorogastua, P.; Flexas, J.; Quiroz, R. 2012. Cabello, R.; De Mendiburu, F.; Bonierbale,A.; Zorogastua, P.; Flexas, J.; Quiroz, R. 2012. M.; Monneveux, P.; Roca, W.; Chujoy, E. 2012. Detection of bacterial wilt infection caused by M.; Monneveux, P.; Roca, W.; Chujoy, E. 2012.Detection of bacterial wilt infection caused by Large-scale evaluation of potato improved Ralstonia solanacearum in potato (Solanum Large-scale evaluation of potato improvedRalstonia solanacearum in potato (Solanum varieties, genetic stocks and landraces for tuberosum L.) through multifractal analysis varieties, genetic stocks and landraces fortuberosum L.) through multifractal analysis drought tolerance. American Journal of applied to remotely sensed data. Precision drought tolerance. American Journal ofapplied to remotely sensed data. Precision Potato Research. (USA). ISSN 1099-209X. Agriculture. (Netherlands). ISSN 1385-2256. Potato Research. (USA). ISSN 1099-209X.Agriculture. (Netherlands). ISSN 1385-2256. 89(5):400-410.  13(2):236-255. 89(5):400-410.13(2):236-255.   Chiipanthenga, M.; Maliro, M.; Demo, P.; Chiipanthenga, M.; Maliro, M.; Demo, P.;   Njoloma, J. 2012. Potential of aeroponics Njoloma, J. 2012. Potential of aeroponics International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 Environmental Sustainability • • Publications International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 43 International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012Environmental Sustainability • �� PublicationsInternational Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 43  "},{"text":"Devaux, A.; Ordinola, M.; Andrade-Piedra, J.A.; Velasco, C.; Manrique, K.; Thomann  , , A.; Fonseca, C.; Lopez, G.; Reinoso, I.; Oros, A.; Fonseca, C.; Lopez, G.; Reinoso, I.; Oros, R.; Horton, D. 2012. Innovacion para el R.; Horton, D. 2012. Innovacion para el desarrollo: Las estrategias y experiencias de desarrollo: Las estrategias y experiencias de Papa Andina. Revista Latinoamericana de Papa Andina. Revista Latinoamericana de la Papa. (Colombia). ISSN 1019-6609. la Papa. (Colombia). ISSN 1019-6609. 17(1):1-52. 17(1):1-52.  "},{"text":"Tjintokohadi, K.; Triono Syahputra, A.; 69% above 2011. This large increase over 2011 is due to the start of the CGIAR Research Program Roots, Tubers and Bananas, in 2012, for which the International Potato Center is the lead center. Total Revenue included USD$16.7M in CGIAR Research Programs revenue, USD$13.2M in CGIAR Research Program Roots, Tubers and Bananas CGIAR partner center pass through revenue, USD$25.5M in bilateral restricted revenue, USD$1.1M in unrestricted revenue, and USD$0.8M in other revenue, consisting of interest earned on investments and exchange rate gains. Although total revenue increased 69% compared to 2011, when the Roots, Tubers and Bananas CGIAR partner center revenue is discounted from the total CIP's revenue, the increase is 30% compared to 2011.The International Potato Center achieved a USD$0.2M surplus in 2012. CIP's reserves, measured as net assets minus net fi xed assets remained steady at USD$8.1M. 's fi nancial position as of December 2012 is presented in the table below. A copy of the complete audited fi nancial statements may be requested from the offi ce of the Chief Financial Offi cer at CIP headquarters in Lima, Peru. Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 169-184. strategy and impact. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, Center pass through funds) decreased from 113 days in Financial Report O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB). Sweetpotato for sustainable agriculture and 2011 to 90 days in 2012. The fi nancial stability indicator AUDITED FINANCIAL (calculated as the unrestricted net assets minus net beyond. 5. Korea -China -Japan Sweetpotato fi xed assets, divided by the daily average expenditures Statement of fi nancial position  Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 169-184. strategy and impact. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, Center pass through funds) decreased from 113 days in Financial Report O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB). Sweetpotato for sustainable agriculture and 2011 to 90 days in 2012. The fi nancial stability indicator AUDITED FINANCIAL (calculated as the unrestricted net assets minus net beyond. 5. Korea -China -Japan Sweetpotato fi xed assets, divided by the daily average expenditures Statement of fi nancial position A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. excluding depreciation and CGIAR Partner Center pass climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference Workshop. Jeju (Korea). 17-19 Sep 2012. Jeju  A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. excluding depreciation and CGIAR Partner Center passclimate change: Book of Abstracts, conference Workshop. Jeju (Korea). 17-19 Sep 2012. Jeju Garcia, D.; Pedraza, C.; Fonseca, C.; Ruiz, R.; Maldonado, L.; Pozo, A. 2012. Seleccion Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of through funds) decreased from 92 days to 72 days in 2012. Both indicators decreased due to the increase of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference programme. 16. Triennial 30% in operating expenses in 2012; both these indicators are given the 30% increase in 2012. programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the Year ended 31 December 2012 (USD $000) (Korea). NICS KRIBB. pp. 57-58. International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. 2012 2011 US$ US$  Garcia, D.; Pedraza, C.; Fonseca, C.; Ruiz, R.; Maldonado, L.; Pozo, A. 2012. Seleccion Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of through funds) decreased from 92 days to 72 days in 2012. Both indicators decreased due to the increase of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference programme. 16. Triennial 30% in operating expenses in 2012; both these indicators are given the 30% increase in 2012.programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the Year ended 31 December 2012 (USD $000) (Korea). NICS KRIBB. pp. 57-58. International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. 2012 2011 US$ US$ participativa de variedades de papa en Symposium of the International Society for Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 132. Tjintokohadi, K.; Triono Syahputra, A.;  participativa de variedades de papa en Symposium of the International Society forAbeokuta (Nigeria). p. 132. Tjintokohadi, K.; Triono Syahputra, A.; Colombia In: Thiele, G., Quiros, C.A. Ashby, J., Hareau, G., Rotondo, E. Lopez, G. Paz Ybarnegaray, R. Oros, R. Arevalo, D. Bentley, J. (eds.) Metodos participativos para la inclusion de los pequenos productores rurales en la innovacion agropecuaria: Experiencias y alcances en la region andina 2007-2010. Lima (Peru). Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 185-196. Gutierrez, D.; Tachin, M.; Schulz, S.; Miano, D.; Ndunguru, J.; Mukassa, S.; Ngadze, E.; Chiona, M.; Kowalski, B.; Fei, Z.; Kreuze, J. 2012. Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 79. Thompson, R.; Quain, M.; Afriyie-Debra, C.; Carey, E.E. 2012. Development of an informative set of Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers for sweetpotato fi ngerprinting and diversity assessment in the West African sub-region. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference The International Potato Center's total revenue Horton, D.; Rotondo, E.; Paz, R.; Lopez, G.; Oros, R.; Velasco, C.; Rodriguez, F.; Escobar, E.; Hareau, G.; Thiele, G. 2012. Sintesis de los logros obtenidos y las lecciones aprendidas con la implementacion del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas. In: Thiele, G., Quiros, C.A. Ashby, J., Hareau, G., Rotondo, E. Lopez, G. Paz Ybarnegaray, R. Oros, R. Arevalo, D. Bentley, J. (eds.) Metodos participativos para la inclusion de los pequenos productores rurales en la innovacion agropecuaria: Experiencias y alcances en la region andina 2007-2010. Lima ASSETS Kossay, L.; Hendar; Koswara, E.; Jusuf, M. 2012. Collection and utilization of sweetpotato wild relatives In: National Institute of Crop Science (NICS). Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB). Sweetpotato for sustainable agriculture and beyond. 5. Korea -China -Japan Sweetpotato Workshop. Jeju (Korea). 17-19 Sep 2012. Jeju (Korea). NICS KRIBB. pp. 59-60. Tumwegamire, S.; Rubaihayo, P.R.; Bonte, D.R. la; Gruneberg, W.J.; Kapinga, R.; Mwanga, R.O.W. 2012. Dry and starchy orange-fl eshed sweetpotato farmer varieties: Implications for CIP's indirect cost ratio decreased from 20.6% to 16.7% in 2012. CIP is currently implementing a new ERP Accounting System and is still working on cost allocations to bring the center into line with the full costing principles in FG5. (US$ thousands) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Current assets Cash and cash equivalents 11,003 7,775 Investments 21,132 15,135 Accounts receivable: Donors 2,701 2,304 Other -CGIAR Centers 8,199 1,728 Allowance for doubtful accounts (1,336) -Employees 148 123 Others 268 672 Inventory 475 343 Advances 3,969 2,525 Prepaid expenses 379 399 Total current assets 46,938 31,004 Non-current assets Investment 51 66 Property and equipment, net 5,675 4,431 reached USD$57.1M, Financial Reserves Total non-current assets 5,726 4,497 Colombia In: Thiele, G., Quiros, C.A. Ashby, J., Hareau, G., Rotondo, E. Lopez, G. Paz Ybarnegaray, R. Oros, R. Arevalo, D. Bentley, J. (eds.) Metodos participativos para la inclusion de los pequenos productores rurales en la innovacion agropecuaria: Experiencias y alcances en la region andina 2007-2010. Lima (Peru). Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 185-196. Gutierrez, D.; Tachin, M.; Schulz, S.; Miano, D.; Ndunguru, J.; Mukassa, S.; Ngadze, E.; Chiona, M.; Kowalski, B.; Fei, Z.; Kreuze, J. 2012. Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 79. Thompson, R.; Quain, M.; Afriyie-Debra, C.; Carey, E.E. 2012. Development of an informative set of Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers for sweetpotato fi ngerprinting and diversity assessment in the West African sub-region. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference The International Potato Center's total revenue Horton, D.; Rotondo, E.; Paz, R.; Lopez, G.; Oros, R.; Velasco, C.; Rodriguez, F.; Escobar, E.; Hareau, G.; Thiele, G. 2012. Sintesis de los logros obtenidos y las lecciones aprendidas con la implementacion del Enfoque Participativo de Cadenas Productivas. In: Thiele, G., Quiros, C.A. Ashby, J., Hareau, G., Rotondo, E. Lopez, G. Paz Ybarnegaray, R. Oros, R. Arevalo, D. Bentley, J. (eds.) Metodos participativos para la inclusion de los pequenos productores rurales en la innovacion agropecuaria: Experiencias y alcances en la region andina 2007-2010. Lima ASSETS Kossay, L.; Hendar; Koswara, E.; Jusuf, M. 2012. Collection and utilization of sweetpotato wild relatives In: National Institute of Crop Science (NICS). Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB). Sweetpotato for sustainable agriculture and beyond. 5. Korea -China -Japan Sweetpotato Workshop. Jeju (Korea). 17-19 Sep 2012. Jeju (Korea). NICS KRIBB. pp. 59-60. Tumwegamire, S.; Rubaihayo, P.R.; Bonte, D.R. la; Gruneberg, W.J.; Kapinga, R.; Mwanga, R.O.W. 2012. Dry and starchy orange-fl eshed sweetpotato farmer varieties: Implications for CIP's indirect cost ratio decreased from 20.6% to 16.7% in 2012. CIP is currently implementing a new ERP Accounting System and is still working on cost allocations to bring the center into line with the full costing principles in FG5. (US$ thousands) 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Current assets Cash and cash equivalents 11,003 7,775 Investments 21,132 15,135 Accounts receivable: Donors 2,701 2,304 Other -CGIAR Centers 8,199 1,728 Allowance for doubtful accounts (1,336) -Employees 148 123 Others 268 672 Inventory 475 343 Advances 3,969 2,525 Prepaid expenses 379 399 Total current assets 46,938 31,004 Non-current assets Investment 51 66 Property and equipment, net 5,675 4,431 reached USD$57.1M, Financial Reserves Total non-current assets 5,726 4,497 Determining the pan-African sweetpotato virome: Understanding virus diversity, distribution and evolution and their impacts on sweetpotato production in Africa. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 166. Revenues 2002 2003 2005 (US$ thousands) 2004 (Peru). Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 143-147. fi ghting vitamin A defi ency in East and Central Africa. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). 5,000 6,000 2011 2012 Total assets 52,664 35,501 2011 2010 US$ US$ 7,000 8,000 9,000 Determining the pan-African sweetpotato virome: Understanding virus diversity, distribution and evolution and their impacts on sweetpotato production in Africa. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 166. Revenues 2002 2003 2005 (US$ thousands) 2004(Peru). Programa Alianza Cambio Andino Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP). ISBN 978-92-9060-417-4. pp. 143-147. fi ghting vitamin A defi ency in East and Central Africa. In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). 5,000 6,000 2011 2012 Total assets 52,664 35,501 2011 2010 US$ US$7,0008,0009,000 Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, 2006 Kadian, M.; Carli, C.; Parr, J. 2012. The roots (and tubers) of development and  Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, 2006Kadian, M.; Carli, C.; Parr, J. 2012. The roots (and tubers) of development and A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. 2007 International Potato Center (CIP) in South, climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference  A. Ayinde, A.I. Obadina, A.O. Sobukola, O.P. 2007International Potato Center (CIP) in South, climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 108. Kossay, L.; Hendar; Koswara, E.; Jusuf, M. 2012. Problem of reduction sweetpotato production in Indonesia. In: National Institute of Crop Science (NICS). Korea Research Institute 0 10 20 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 UNRESTRICTED RTB PARTNERS West and Central Asia (SWCA): A profi le. Souvenir. National Consultation on Potato Research and Development: Way Forward. Bhubaneshwar (India). 26 Sep 2012. Orissa (India). Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology. pp. 38-44. Koudahe, K.; Batcho, A.; Hell, K. 2012. programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 239. 2009 2010 2011 2012 30 40 50 60 W1 & W2 Indirect cost ratio 5% 10% BILATERAL & W3 16.7% 15% 20% 21.4% 20.6% 20% 25% Adebayo, K. Sanni, L.O. (eds.). The roots (and tubers) of development and climate change: Book of Abstracts, conference programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 108. Kossay, L.; Hendar; Koswara, E.; Jusuf, M. 2012. Problem of reduction sweetpotato production in Indonesia. In: National Institute of Crop Science (NICS). Korea Research Institute 0 10 20 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 UNRESTRICTED RTB PARTNERSWest and Central Asia (SWCA): A profi le. Souvenir. National Consultation on Potato Research and Development: Way Forward. Bhubaneshwar (India). 26 Sep 2012. Orissa (India). Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology. pp. 38-44. Koudahe, K.; Batcho, A.; Hell, K. 2012. programme. 16. Triennial Symposium of the International Society for Tropical Root Crops (ISTRC). Abeokuta (Nigeria). 23-28 Sep 2012. Abeokuta (Nigeria). p. 239. 2009 2010 2011 2012 30 40 50 60 W1 & W2 Indirect cost ratio 5% 10% BILATERAL & W316.7% 15%20% 21.4% 20.6% 20%25% Heider, B.; Romero, E.; Gruneberg, W. 2012. Pest and diseases of 16 local and exotic  Heider, B.; Romero, E.; Gruneberg, W. 2012.Pest and diseases of 16 local and exotic Development of interspecifi c hybrids between sweet-potato varieties in Benin and their  Development of interspecifi c hybrids betweensweet-potato varieties in Benin and their three American yam bean species (Pachyrhizus agronomic characteristics. In: Okechukwu, The liquidity indicator (measured as net working capital three American yam bean species (Pachyrhizusagronomic characteristics. In: Okechukwu, The liquidity indicator (measured as net working capital spp.). In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A. R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, plus long-term investments divided by the daily average spp.). In: Okechukwu, R.U. Adebowale, A.A.R.U. Adebowale, A.A. Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, plus long-term investments divided by the daily average Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, expenditures excluding depreciation and CGIAR Partner Bodunde, H. Eruvbetine, D. Idowu, M. Atanda,D. Idowu, M. Atanda, O. Dipeolu, A. Ayinde, expenditures excluding depreciation and CGIAR Partner • CIP in 2012 CIP in 2012 • International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 59 • CIP in 2012CIP in 2012 •International Potato Center • Annual Report 2012 59  "},{"text":"Liabilities and net assets Current liabilities  Accounts payable   Accounts payable Donors 15,750 13,992 Donors15,750 13,992 Other -CGIAR Centers 15,253 1,280 Other -CGIAR Centers15,2531,280 Employees 263 231 Employees263231 Others 5,321 5,191 Others5,3215,191 Accruals and provisions 194 399 Accruals and provisions194399 Total current liabilities 36,781 21,093 Total current liabilities36,781 21,093 Non-current liabilities   Non-current liabilities Employees 1,454 1,260 Employees1,4541,260 Accruals and provisions 527 597 Accruals and provisions527597 Total non-current liabilities 1,981 1,857 Total non-current liabilities1,9811,857 Total liabilities 38,762 22,950 Total liabilities38,762 22,950 Net assets   Net assets Designated 5,778 6,001 Designated5,7786,001 Undesignated 8,124 6,550 Undesignated8,1246,550 Total net assets 13,902  Total net assets13,902  "},{"text":"12,551 Total liabilities and net assets 52,664 35,501  Adequacy of Reserves Adequacy of Reserves  "},{"text":"for International Forestry Research Indonesia CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo Mexico CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa Peru ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas Syria ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics India IFPRI lnternational Food Policy Research Institute USA IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Nigeria ILRI lnternational Livestock Research Institute Kenya IRRI lnternational Rice Research Institute Philippines IWMI lnternational Water Management Institute Sri CGIAR is a global agriculture research partnership for a food-secure future. Its science is carried out by the 15 research centers who are members of the CGIAR Consortium in collaboration with hundreds of partner organizations. www.cgiar.org  Global Offi ces Global Offi ces  CIP is a member of CGIAR. CIP is a member of CGIAR.  Africa Rice Benin Africa Rice Benin  Bioversity International Italy Bioversity International Italy CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura CIATCentro Internacional de Agricultura  Tropical Colombia Tropical Colombia CIFOR Center CIFOR Center  www.cgiar.org www.cgiar.org  "}],"sieverID":"9b582965-14e4-4620-b688-b3a6acb8f465","abstract":"The International Potato Center (known by its Spanish acronym CIP) is a research-for-development organization with a focus on potato, sweetpotato, and Andean roots and tubers. CIP is dedicated to delivering sustainable science-based solutions to the pressing world issues of hunger, poverty, gender equity, climate change and the preservation of our Earth's fragile biodiversity and natural resources.Our vision is roots and tubers improving the lives of the poor. Our mission is to work with partners to achieve food security, well-being, and gender equity for poor people in root and tuber farming and food systems in the developing world. We do this through research and innovation in science, technology, and capacity strengthening."}

data/part_5/039aff0f70d038a3ec0cb098cbb0fcd7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"039aff0f70d038a3ec0cb098cbb0fcd7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a85a357d-6fd3-41c8-a647-37c607e853c6/retrieve"},"pageCount":31,"title":"Phaseolus germplasm exploration in New Mexico, USA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The New Mexico state perspective This biodiversity includes diverse species of Phaseolus and their associated microflora"},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"• Phaseolus species have not been adequately collected or described • Existing populations may be under threat from urban expansion, mining and (over) grazing • P. acutifolius and P. filiformis wild relatives will/may be especially important as a germplasm resource for common bean • It is imperative that these species are better characterized and collected as soon as possible"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"A multi-disciplinary team is needed to address these needs Route -study of maps, roads, protected areas"}]},{"head":"Itinerary plan","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Source: Tim Pearce, 2018. Planning for a seed collection mission. Seed Conservation Techniques course. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Plan to make three collections a day"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"• Aim to collect as many seeds as possible without compromising the source population."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• Take herbarium specimens and deposit them in the New Mexico State University Herbarium (NMC)"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Luis Guillermo"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"What resources will you need?"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"Do you have the right team and resources in place?"},{"index":8,"size":18,"text":"Source: Tim Pearce, 2018. Planning for a seed collection mission. Seed Conservation Techniques course. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew."}]},{"head":"Luis Guillermo","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Source: Collecting beans and tropical forage Genetic Resouces; SOP-SEE-005-EN-v.20190301"}]},{"head":"Luis Guillermo","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Coll. no. In situ soil/microbes samplings of the wilds"}]},{"head":"Species","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• WHY?"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"• Very few Information on nodule symbiont of undomesticated Phaseolus"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• N2 fixation is crucial for agricultural sustainability"},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"• CIAT Rhizobia collection"},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"• Systematic studies of P. acutifolius have not been undertaken"},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"• P. vulgaris X P. acutifolius hybrid progeny demonstrated effective nodulation only with several isolates"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Interspecific progeny formed successful associations with both Bradyrhizobium and Rhizobium leguminosarum."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• Loose rhizobia is like to loose a good friend (mutually beneficial but facultative)"},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"• 1) Describe and understand the ecophysiological parameters of wild accessions in NM"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• 2) Basis for abiotic resistance potential of wilds for further crossings"},{"index":11,"size":20,"text":"• 3) The diversity, geographic distribution, and evolution of beannodulating rhizobia in the Americas + their potential for NM agrosystems"},{"index":12,"size":3,"text":"The rationale Milan "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" fuentes: Chacón et al. 2007, Debouck 2019, Delgado et al. 2006 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" • A systematic, well-organized, cooperative effort across institutions is required, and it is underway • We have formed a five-star team and we have made progress in spite of considerable challenges • Our observations to date point toward a need for in situ protection of wild relatives • Wish list: a decent monsoon season next year, improved access to some areas, funding Phaseolus acutifolius Phaseolus filiformis Phaseolus acutifoliusPhaseolus filiformis Phaseolus grayanus Phaseolus parvulus Phaseolus grayanusPhaseolus parvulus  Luis Guillermo Luis Guillermo  "},{"text":" Results: the annuals went along the odd rainfall pattern, while the perennials invested into their roots with little seed production . Results: the Rhizobia and symbionts, and the soil samples 3. Results: what we have found and where 4. What went well and what we could have done better 3. Results: what we have found and where 4. What went well and what we could have done better P. acutifolius Great County Latitude N #3390 Longitude W Elevation m Date #3393 P. acutifolius GreatCountyLatitude N #3390Longitude WElevation mDate #3393 3387 • Herbaria record research acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 22' 19.1\" 106º 33' 44.1\" 29 Sep 3387 • Herbaria record research acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 22' 19.1\"106º 33' 44.1\"29 Sep 3388 3389 • Local weather and road condition research acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 22' 16.6\" 106º 33' 17.3\" • region, elevation, and plant community acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 20' 05.6\" 106º 35' 52.0\" 3390 acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 20' 13.5\" 106º 35' 13.6\" • Delegated roles (ex. herbaria, roots, photo, driver, etc.) 29 Sep 29 Sep 30 Sep 3388 3389 • Local weather and road condition research acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 22' 16.6\" 106º 33' 17.3\" • region, elevation, and plant community acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 20' 05.6\" 106º 35' 52.0\" 3390 acutifolius Doña Ana 32º 20' 13.5\" 106º 35' 13.6\" • Delegated roles (ex. herbaria, roots, photo, driver, etc.)29 Sep 29 Sep 30 Sep 3391 acutifolius Doña Ana  32º 21' 56.2\" 106º 35' 55.2\" P. filiformis 1 Oct 3391acutifoliusDoña Ana32º 21' 56.2\"106º 35' 55.2\" P. filiformis1 Oct 3392 Future Improvements acutifolius Luna 32º 08' 56.3\" 107º 37' 05.2\" 2 Oct 3392 Future Improvements acutifolius Luna32º 08' 56.3\"107º 37' 05.2\"2 Oct 3393 • More scouting filiformis Luna  32º 08' 56.3\" 107º 37' 05.2\" 2 Oct 3393 • More scouting filiformis Luna32º 08' 56.3\"107º 37' 05.2\"2 Oct 3394 • Early season rain grayanus Grant  33º 04' 13.1\" 107º 58' 56.7\" 3 Oct 3394 • Early season rain grayanus Grant33º 04' 13.1\"107º 58' 56.7\"3 Oct 3395 3396 P. grayanus parvulus acutifolius • Access of private lands (local contacts) Grant 32º 58' 23.1\" 108º 12' 51.2\" Grant 32º 38' 24.9\" 108º 33' 23.5\" #3394 • Cattle exclusion for in situ conservation 3397 acutifolius Grant 32º 38' 54.1\" 108º 32' 10.7\" • More walkie talkies with the same channel 3398 grayanus Grant 32º 37' 00.4\" 108º 24' 23.0\" • Federal fiscal year budget/paperwork 3 Oct #3395 4 Oct 4 Oct 4 Oct 3395 3396 P. grayanus parvulus acutifolius • Access of private lands (local contacts) Grant 32º 58' 23.1\" 108º 12' 51.2\" Grant 32º 38' 24.9\" 108º 33' 23.5\" #3394 • Cattle exclusion for in situ conservation 3397 acutifolius Grant 32º 38' 54.1\" 108º 32' 10.7\" • More walkie talkies with the same channel 3398 grayanus Grant 32º 37' 00.4\" 108º 24' 23.0\" • Federal fiscal year budget/paperwork3 Oct #3395 4 Oct 4 Oct 4 Oct 3399 3400 #3399 grayanus and #4000 acutifolius, grayanus Hidalgo 31º 31' 04.0\" 109º 00' 10.7\" 5 Oct acutifolius Hidalgo 31º 30' 56.8\" 108º 59' 11.6\" 5 Oct P. parvulus photos: DG Debouck 2023 18 One 6-person trip or Two 3-person trips? Hidalgo County, Oct. 5, 2023 Sarah Milan 24 Milan 3399 3400 #3399 grayanus and #4000 acutifolius, grayanus Hidalgo 31º 31' 04.0\" 109º 00' 10.7\" 5 Oct acutifolius Hidalgo 31º 30' 56.8\" 108º 59' 11.6\" 5 Oct P. parvulus photos: DG Debouck 2023 18 One 6-person trip or Two 3-person trips? Hidalgo County, Oct. 5, 2023 Sarah Milan 24 Milan  "}],"sieverID":"6a8d64ad-0f88-4f5d-9db8-82b86cd9bbf1","abstract":"Outline 1. Why we did this work and why it is important 3. What we have found and where 4. What went well and what we could have done better 5. Where are we going from here: the next steps Palmira, 16 November 2023 2. How did we plan this exploration Marcela 1. Why this work, and how it came about? Areas of common bean production (traditional and new ones) getting warmer and drier in 2021-2040 + 1.5 o C + 2.0 o C source: report 6th assessment Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2023 Scenario no. 1 Scenario no. 2 annual hottest-day temperature annual mean total column soil moisture Daniel"}

data/part_5/03ae617dfeebfd8519942e74e761b767.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03ae617dfeebfd8519942e74e761b767","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/25878c99-6065-46ac-ad74-ec5ef67f1307/retrieve"},"pageCount":40,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"(Map data: ©2019 GBRMPA, Google)"}]},{"head":"Rarotonga Aitutaki","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Location of collection for each accession collected during the expedition."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Collected Specimens Local Name: Tarua Teatea Classification: ABB Bluggoe Notes: Typical 'Silver Bluggoe' type. Tarua is the name for Xanthosoma, and \"teatea\" means \"white\"."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Local Name: Tarua Teatea Classification: ABB Ney Mannan Notes: Typical 'Ice Cream'/'Blue Java' type. Tarua is the name for Xanthosoma, and \"teatea\" means \"white\"."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Local Name: Utu Tekou 1 Classification: Fe'i Collection Code: COOK006 Island: Rarotonga  Local Name: Utu Va'airua Local Name: Utu Marua Local Name: Utu Anikitao Local Name: Utu Turoa Local Name: Utu Va'airua Local Name: Utu Marua Local Name: Utu Anikitao Local Name: Utu Turoa Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Classification: Fe'i Collection Code: COOK001 Collection Code: COOK002 Collection Code: COOK003 Collection Code: COOK005 Collection Code: COOK001 Collection Code: COOK002 Collection Code: COOK003 Collection Code: COOK005 Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Island: Rarotonga Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' on Rarotonga. Name assigned by owner on Rarotonga. Name assigned by owner on Rarotonga. Name assigned by team on Rarotonga. Name assigned by owner on Rarotonga. Name assigned by owner on Rarotonga. Name assigned by team upon collection in honor of a family member. upon collection, not an old traditional name. based on collection location, not an old upon collection in honor of a family member. upon collection, not an old traditional name. based on collection location, not an old Skin mostly smooth and uncracked at time of Similar to 'Utu Va'airua' but with more traditional name. Collected as a Skin mostly smooth and uncracked at time of Similar to 'Utu Va'airua' but with more traditional name. Collected as a observation, fruits larger and with a broader extensive cracking on skin. representative sample from an extensive observation, fruits larger and with a broader extensive cracking on skin. representative sample from an extensive apex as compared to 'Utu Va'airua'. ancient grove in the mountains. apex as compared to 'Utu Va'airua'. ancient grove in the mountains.  "},{"text":"Local Name: Utu Tekou 2 Classification: Fe'i Collection Code: COOK007 Island: Rarotonga Notes: All Fe'i cultivars are collectively called 'Utu' on Rarotonga. Name assigned by team based on collection location, not an old traditional name. Collected as a representative sample from an extensive ancient grove in the mountains. Local Name: Ve'i Local Name: Mangaro Aumarei Local Name: Ve'i Local Name: Mangaro Aumarei Classification: Fe'i Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: Fe'i Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Collection Code: COOK011 Collection Code: COOK008 Collection Code: COOK011 Collection Code: COOK008 Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki  "},{"text":"Mangaro Torotea Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Collection Code: COOK009 Island: Aitutaki Notes: Green pseudostem and petioles, almost no red coloration on plant. Rachis very straight, bunches large and relatively compact with many fingers and hands. One of very few \"Popo'ulu\" type plants remaining on Aitutaki. More red coloration, especially on petioles, as compared to similar 'Ta'anga'. Local Name: Mangaro Manii Local Name: Akamou Local Name: Ta'anga Local Name: Mangaro Manii Local Name: Akamou Local Name: Ta'anga Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Collection Code: COOK010 Collection Code: COOK014 Collection Code: COOK016 Collection Code: COOK010 Collection Code: COOK014 Collection Code: COOK016 Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Island: Aitutaki Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: One of very few \"Popo'ulu\" type plants One of very few \"Popo'ulu\" type plants remaining on Aitutaki. Plants with less red, remaining on Aitutaki. Plants with less red, especially on petioles, as compared to similar especially on petioles, as compared to similar 'Akamou'. 'Akamou'.  "},{"text":"Local Name: Meika Maori Atetu Classification: AAB Maoli-Popoulu Collection Code: COOK015 Island: Mangaia  Notes: Notes: No photos, not observed. Collected on No photos, not observed. Collected on Mangaia island by Mr. Atetu Atetu and Mangaia island by Mr. Atetu Atetu and suckers were sent by plane to the team on suckers were sent by plane to the team on Rarotonga. Named for the farmer who Rarotonga. Named for the farmer who provided suckers. Said to be a Meika Maori provided suckers. Said to be a Meika Maori (\"native banana\") type (presumably Maoli- (\"native banana\") type (presumably Maoli- Popo'ulu subgroup) with distinct purple/black Popo'ulu subgroup) with distinct purple/black coloration on petioles and pseudostem. coloration on petioles and pseudostem. According to information received during the According to information received during the final meeting with the Aitutaki Island Council final meeting with the Aitutaki Island Council on May 30 th , this cultivar was most likely on May 30 th , this cultivar was most likely introduced to Mangaia from Aitutaki during introduced to Mangaia from Aitutaki during the 1970's but is no longer found on Aitutaki. the 1970's but is no longer found on Aitutaki.  "},{"text":"Local Name: Tarapuakatoro Classification: AAB Plantain, false-horn Collection Code: COOK012 Island: Aitutaki Notes: One of two Plantains, False-Horn type. Name means \"cow horn\". Local Name: Tarapuakanio Local Name: Rekua Local Name: Tarapuakanio Local Name: Rekua Classification: AAB Plantain, French Classification: ABBT Classification: AAB Plantain, French Classification: ABBT Collection Code: COOK013 Collection Code: COOK017 Collection Code: COOK013 Collection Code: COOK017 Island: Aitutaki Island: Rarotonga Island: Aitutaki Island: Rarotonga Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: One of two Plantains, French type. Name Very rare, no fruiting plants observed, plant One of two Plantains, French type. Name Very rare, no fruiting plants observed, plant means \"goat horn\". somewhat resembling an ABB Saba type, but means \"goat horn\". somewhat resembling an ABB Saba type, but with more drooping leaves. Confirmed with more drooping leaves. Confirmed tetraploid. The name is derived from an ancient tetraploid. The name is derived from an ancient warrior chief associated with this plant. A well warrior chief associated with this plant. A well known chant about the chief and this plant known chant about the chief and this plant persists today in which it is suggested that this persists today in which it is suggested that this plant produces large bunches with many fruits. plant produces large bunches with many fruits. Classification suggested by preliminary Classification suggested by preliminary molecular characterization, potentially similar molecular characterization, potentially similar to ITC0811/PNG170 'Giant Kalapua' based on to ITC0811/PNG170 'Giant Kalapua' based on a previous observation by Jeff Daniells. a previous observation by Jeff Daniells.  "},{"text":"Titikaveka Red Classification: AAB Mysore Collection Code: COOK004 Island: Rarotonga  Notes: Notes: Name was given upon collection based on its Name was given upon collection based on its location as no local name was known. Similar to location as no local name was known. Similar to standard Mysore types except with extensive red standard Mysore types except with extensive red coloration on pseudostem. The only bunches coloration on pseudostem. The only bunches observed were particularly small and weak observed were particularly small and weak appearing, though the plants appeared healthy. appearing, though the plants appeared healthy.  "},{"text":"Meika Initia Classification: AA hybrid breeding line? Collection Code: COOK018 Island: Rarotonga Typical 'Praying Hands' cultivar of Saba. Only observed in one garden on Aitutaki near to the former garden of a well known collector of exotic plants. Paua means \"clamshell\". Local Name: Kauare Classification: AAA Cavendish Local Name: unknown Classification: AAA Red Local Name: unknown Classification: AAA Red Local Name: Mario, Ladyfinger Classification: AAB Pome Local Name: Mario, Ladyfinger Classification: AAB Pome Local Name: Goldfinger Classification: AAAB hybrid Local Name: Mitiruki Local Name: unknown Local Name: Ladyfinger, Australian Banana, Local Name: Ladyfinger, Australian Banana, Local Name: Paua Local Name: Tiki Classification: AAB Silk Classification: AAB Mysore Classification: ABB Pisang Awak Classification: ABB Pisang Awak Classification: AAB Maoli-Popo'ulu Australian Mario, Ducasse Ducasse Classification: ABB Saba Local Name: Kauare Classification: AAA Cavendish Local Name: unknown Classification: AAA Red Local Name: unknown Classification: AAA Red Local Name: Mario, Ladyfinger Classification: AAB Pome Local Name: Mario, Ladyfinger Classification: AAB Pome Local Name: Goldfinger Classification: AAAB hybrid Local Name: Mitiruki Local Name: unknown Local Name: Ladyfinger, Australian Banana, Local Name: Ladyfinger, Australian Banana, Local Name: Paua Local Name: Tiki Classification: AAB Silk Classification: AAB Mysore Classification: ABB Pisang Awak Classification: ABB Pisang Awak Classification: AAB Maoli-Popo'ulu Australian Mario, Ducasse Ducasse Classification: ABB Saba Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: Notes: A number of Cavendish variants exist, many Typical 'Green Red' form of Red, uncommon. Typical tall Red type. Typical tall form of Pome, abundant. Typical dwarf form of Pome, not as common Some off-types with bud and fruit shape Typical Silk type. Typical Mysore type. Likely ITC0210 'Pacific Plantain' introduced in Notes: Notes: A number of Cavendish variants exist, many Typical 'Green Red' form of Red, uncommon. Typical tall Red type. Typical tall form of Pome, abundant. Typical dwarf form of Pome, not as common Some off-types with bud and fruit shape Typical Silk type. Typical Mysore type. Likely ITC0210 'Pacific Plantain' introduced in Notes: Notes: Notes: are remnants from former commercial export as tall form. variations present. the relatively recent past by an Australian Typical tall Pisang Awak type. Typical dwarf Pisang Awak type. Notes: are remnants from former commercial export as tall form. variations present. the relatively recent past by an Australian Typical tall Pisang Awak type. Typical dwarf Pisang Awak type. Name means \"Indian Banana\", which is a name production. program. Name means \"Indian Banana\", which is a name production. program. often applied to any small, sweet, foreign- often applied to any small, sweet, foreign- introduced type. Likely a hybrid from a breeding introduced type. Likely a hybrid from a breeding program introduced by an Australian development program introduced by an Australian development program in the relatively recent past. Rare, only one plant observed in a home garden. Non-Collected program in the relatively recent past. Rare, only one plant observed in a home garden. Non-Collected Specimens Specimens  "}],"sieverID":"c5e00470-2a17-4661-a1bf-e945ebbab12d","abstract":"This field exploration took place in Cook Islands from May 20th to May 31st 2019. The project was co-organised by Bioversity International and the Ministry of Agriculture of Cook Islands, with the essential support of the Pacific Community (SPC). In Rarotonga, the team benefited from the essential support of William Wigmore, Ngatokorima Maireroa, Ngatamariki (Moe) Tutira and Edwin Apera from the Ministry of Agriculture. Ms. Celine Dyer from the Climate Change Office shared her precious knowledge on Fe'i bananas (locally named Utu or Ve'i) growing in Takuvaine valley and allowed the collection of suckers from her private garden. In Aitutaki, the team was greatly assisted by Fred Charlie, Pepe Raela, Victor Ioane, Ben Samuel and Jamayne Loane from the Agriculture Department of the Aitutaki Island Administration Office. In Mangaia, Mr. Atetu Atetu from the Agriculture Department collected a rare Maoli banana and sent it to the team in Rarotonga (COOK015).Overall, we are extremely grateful to all the women and men in Rarotonga and Aitutaki who answered our questions and provided samples and suckers from their plants. Additional thank you to Dr. Jeff Daniells who provided critical feedback on identification of specimens both during (remotely) and after the expedition.This catalog presents banana cultivars as collection and observed on Rarotonga and Aitutaki. Information on the collection mission itself can be found in the collecting mission report (Sardos et. al. 2019, Report of the Banana Collecting Mission to Rarotonga and Aitutaki,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03ceecf9a5d141f6a1d7c040e28cb2ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/26addcc7-7eeb-4c4a-89d3-ef2499780bab/retrieve"},"pageCount":38,"title":"","keywords":["Climate change","Agricultural risk management","Insurance","Resilience"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction: Insurance and climate risk management","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"In much of the developing world, climate change is expected to increase the risk from extreme weather events such as drought, flooding and heat waves (IPCC 2014). Climate shifts and extreme weather already threaten tenuous agricultural-based livelihoods. The associated damage to livestock, crops and other assets induces farmers to resort to traditional risk avoidance mechanisms and costly coping strategies, such as liquidating productive assets, borrowing at excessive interest rates or defaulting on existing loans, withdrawing children from school to work on-farm, reducing nutrient intake and forgoing health care (Barrett and Carter, 2001;Carter and Barrett, 2006;Carter et al., 2007;Dercon, 2004;Dercon and Hoddinott, 2005;Hoddinott, 2006;McPeak and Barrett, 2001;Wood, 2003;Alderman et al., 2004;Dercon et al., 2005;Victora et al., 2008). Anticipating the possibility of such losses, farmers also forgo profitable yet higher-risk investment opportunities, and incur significant costs trying to diversify their livelihoods (Morduch, 1995)."},{"index":2,"size":164,"text":"As a result, the mere anticipation of climate risks can trap already vulnerable households in poverty, impeding the kinds of transformation that smallholder agriculture needs to adapt to climate change. Studies of drought-prone areas in India and Burkina Faso suggest that farmers may sacrifice 12-15% of average income to reduce risk (Gautam et al., 1994). Elbers et al. (2007) estimate for farmers in Zimbabwe that this ex ante effect of risk on investments is twice as large as the effect of shocks ex post. Reducing risk, for instance by promoting improved agricultural technologies, can improve investments in modern inputs, cultivation practices and wage labour during normal years, enhancing both productivity and agricultural employment (Emerick et al., 2016). As such, the effects of weather shocks are not limited to households for whom farming is their main livelihood; production losses have effects more broadly on rural economies by reducing local agricultural employment, wages and non-farm income (Hazell and Hess, 2017), and by increasing local food prices."},{"index":3,"size":159,"text":"Agricultural insurance is an important tool in adapting to climate change. By providing monetary compensation after a shock, insurance not only prevents farmers from resorting to costly coping strategies that could trap them into poverty, but it can also unlock investments in higher-risk yet productive agricultural and non-agricultural opportunities before a shock occurs, because the mere existence of risk hampers investments. As such, agricultural insurance can help increase farmers' incomes and resilience. Yet, agricultural insurance markets have generally failed to provide smallholder farmers with insurance coverage at scale, and where scale has been achieved, programs were not necessarily designed to impact resilience and adaptation. In this light, leveraging both the power and flexibility of the markets alongside the insights of science can help agriculture adapt to the growing risks of climate change. This paper discusses how insurance industry can work with agricultural research-for-development (AR4D) institutions to leverage the insights, methodologies and research products that have their origin in science."},{"index":4,"size":148,"text":"Traditional indemnity-based crop insurance relies on an assessment of physical loss and, hence, requires farm visits to verify insurance claims. Although effective for large-scale farms, adverse selection (the tendency for insurance to be purchased preferentially by farmers with greater risks, increasing premiums and payouts), moral hazard (the incentive for farmers to neglect good risk management in order to receive payouts), and high transaction costs associated with verifying claims have made this type of insurance generally unfeasible as scalable solution for smallholder farmers. Index-based insurance, on the other hand, has gained attention as a promising tool for adapting agriculture to climate risk. Index-based insurance triggers payouts based on an index that is correlated with agricultural losses, for instance rainfall during a defined period or average yield sampled over a larger region. Such insurance can reduce the costs of administering and delivering insurance while eliminating adverse selection and moral hazard."},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"Since its introduction to the agricultural sector in the mid-1990s, index insurance has overcome some of the major obstacles to insuring smallholder farmers in the developing world."},{"index":6,"size":215,"text":"It is a promising approach for underwriting the costs of government and relief agencies, providing a fast and reliable source of funding once an insured catastrophe has occurred. Based on a recent review of documented index-based agricultural insurance programs in the developing world, Hess and Hazell (2016) estimated that about 198 million farmers are insured, divided into approximately 650,000 in Africa, 3.3 million in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 194.2 million in Asia-of which 160 million are in China and 33.2 million in India. Although risk reduction can play a part in stimulating the entrepreneurship and innovation needed for agricultural development, until recently, the private sector has played only a minor role in insuring farmers in the developing world against agricultural risks. Responsibility for providing insurance was largely in the hands of government, relying on public funds to address market failures. This is changing with a growing emphasis on climate insurance in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) processes under the Loss and Damage track. While it is important to highlight that insurance is not a silver bullet nor a stand-alone solution, index insurance is now recognized as a risk management tool with significant potential to reduce climate risk and improve welfare for smallholder farmers by protecting livelihoods and promoting investments."},{"index":7,"size":274,"text":"At the same time, as we will argue in this paper, insurance faces several challenges that impede the ability of affordable index insurance to strengthen resilience and foster climate change adaptation at scale. Scaling introduces for instance the challenge of having to provide clients with an understanding of often complicated indices, and of designing products that are adequality tailored to local contexts, minimizing basis risk. Basis risk means that the index and associated payouts do not correlate adequately with actual crop losses. As a result, farmers may end up paying the insurance premium without receiving a payout when experiencing crop damage ('downside' basis risk). Alternatively, they may receive payouts during good years when they did not suffer actual losses ('upside' basis risk). Both reduce potential welfare impacts of insurance for a risk averse farmer, and thus rational demand for index insurance (Clarke, 2016). This paper argues that deeper collaboration among experts from insurance, agriculture and climate science is required to address these challenges. To that end, we will describe AR4D methodologies and research outputs that can help address the challenges faced by the insurance and climate change sectors. The paper is structured as follows. We first describe existing evidence and gaps in our knowledge on how insurance can both support farmers in protecting their livelihoods from catastrophic losses and promote investments in income-enhancing opportunities, enabling farmers to become more resilient. Based on a review of secondary literature, interviews with key informants and the authors' experience, the next section highlights challenges that warrant concerted multi-stakeholder attention and action in order to realize the potential of agricultural insurance as a key component of climate change adaptation."},{"index":8,"size":48,"text":"The final part of the paper discusses how experts from across the insurance, agriculture and climate change sectors can work together to overcome these challenges. We thereby focus on applying insights and innovations from AR4D that can be fundamental in overcoming the challenges to scaling of agricultural insurance."}]},{"head":"Pathways for welfare impacts of agricultural insurance","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Climate risk insurance can improve resilience and welfare through at least three channels. First, when coping with catastrophic losses from extreme weather events (ex post), insurance payouts provide farmers with an alternative source of income, reducing their reliance on costly coping strategies. Payouts can help avoid having to sell off one's livestock or enable farmers to re-invest in their fields for the next agricultural season."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"For example, in northern Kenya, insurance payouts for livestock following a drought reduced distress sales by 64% among better-off pastoralist households and receiving an insurance pay-off reduced the likelihood of rationing food intake by 49 percentage points among poorer households (Janzen and Carter 2018). In Ethiopia, payouts from the Horn of Africa Risk Transfer for Adaptation (HARITA) project, now known as the R4 Rural Resilience Initiative, increased farmers' savings (Madajewicz et al., 2013). A similar program in Senegal protected farmers' food security from drought (Dalberg Global Development Advisors, 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":234,"text":"Second, when anticipating the mere possibility of losses due to extreme weather (ex ante), insurance can encourage prudent investments in agriculture, particularly in high-return yet higher-risk technologies and innovations. Climate variability reduces incentives and opportunities to invest in innovations such as improved seeds, fertilizers or other agricultural technologies. While improving incomes during years with good weather, these investments aggravate the losses associated with extreme weather events. In addition, climate variability has a negative impact on the development of rural financial services and supply chains, limiting the availability of credit for smallholder farmers in ways that further constrain investment opportunities and reinforce poverty at the farm level. Agricultural insurance transfers the risk from local actors in agricultural value chains to financial markets, which may help boost the investment confidence on part of both farmers and other actors in the agricultural value chain, including the financial sector (Carter et al., 2016). Improved access to credit could help farmers take advantage of productive opportunities that can bring them higher income in most years.1 1 For example, evaluation of the R4 Rural Resilience Initiative in Ethiopia showed that insurance allowed farmers to increase their savings, increase the number of draught animals, access more credit, and invest more in inputs such as Third, index insurance should not be seen as a complete or stand-alone solution for all agricultural risks. It can be used to complement other risk management strategies."},{"index":4,"size":155,"text":"For example, a farmer can protect against yield losses from moderate droughts by using drought-tolerant seeds. In the likely scenario that these seeds are more expensive than regular seeds, a risk averse farmer may prefer not making this investment, even if profitable in expectation, because the seeds only protect them from moderate droughts; during years with an extreme drought, pest or disease attack, or other weather calamities, a farmer would lose the investment, and if the inputs were paid for through a loan, this would put them at risk of default. Index insurance can, hence, build resilience by not only providing a payout in bad years to help farmers protect their assets, but also by unlocking opportunities to increase investments in risk-mitigating technologies that protect farmers from the downside risks of more regular bad weather events, allowing insurance coverage to focus on only the most extreme events for which technologies are unable to offer protection."},{"index":5,"size":299,"text":"Empirical evidence on the size of private and social benefits conferred by insurance through each of these three mechanisms is however generally lacking. Impact evaluations in several settings indicate that index insurance affects smallholder farmers' livelihood strategies, investments and technology adoption ex ante. However, these studies often evaluate smaller-scale pilot studies, and there is limited evidence that the impacts on productivity, profitability and incomes-if observed-are large enough to offset program costs. This suggests that farmers mainly experience benefits from insurance payouts ex post, by improving their ability to cope with extreme weather events. More research is needed on whether and how insurance generates adaptation benefits ex ante, that is, whether the increased investments due to risk reduction indeed help households build resilience and improve their incomes during years without insurance payouts, and if not, why this is not the case. It could be that improvements in income take more time to materialize than the time horizon of the typical impact evaluation. Alternatively, such impacts may require a more enabling environment in fertilizers and improved seeds (Madajewicz et al. 2013). The ACRE (Agriculture and Risk Enterprise Ltd., formerly Kilimo Salama) initiative reported that insured farmers invested 19% more in farm productivity, resulting in 16% more earnings compared to their uninsured neighbours (IFC, 2013). Further evidence that index insurance enhances adoption of improved production technologies comes from evaluations and experimental studies with farmers in Bangladesh, India, Ghana, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Ethiopia and Zambia. which insurance is not communicated and offered as a stand-alone solution, but as an instrument to provide farmers with access to credit, improved production technologies, high-value output markets, and agricultural advisories to guide investments. Impacts of insurance on coping ex post are important but the lack of income effects ex ante will undermine its potentially transformative impacts."},{"index":6,"size":168,"text":"A second evidence gap in the literature is whether insurance reaches its full potential in enabling financial institutions, agro-dealers and other actors in the value chain to expand their businesses and provide improved services to smallholders, and whether this is a cost-effective strategy in creating resilience at scale. A few studies have examined impacts of insurance on access to credit and technology adoption, and on farmers' uptake of index insurance when bundled with technology (Carter et al., 2016;Carter et al., 2017), but there have been very few evaluation studies to show the full impacts on resilience. In addition, evidence about demand and scaling potential remains mixed and controversial, especially when it comes to equity in terms of what types of farmers have best access to insurance and whether insurance diminishes or exacerbates inequalities in farming communities (Fisher et al., 2019). Although many studies analyse how to increase adoption among the poor, uptake is not an indicator of welfare, leaving room for studies on distributional impacts of index insurance."},{"index":7,"size":129,"text":"The next section describes challenges to achieving impacts at scale. Note that it is insufficient to analyse take-up and renewal alone as indicators of impact. Take-up and renewal, especially in meso-or macro-level programs, but even in micro-insurance programs, are not necessarily indicative of welfare-enhancing and cost-effective products. Instead, to track impacts of insurance, cost-benefit analyses and impact studies are needed, particularly those spanning a longer term and exploring welfare impacts of insurance offered at different levels (macro, meso and micro), along with complementary options. These would help guide decisions about when public financing might yield a positive net social return. It will be important to build more long-term monitoring and evaluation (M&E) components into future insurance programs, and this paper describes how the AR4D can contribute towards this goal."}]},{"head":"Scaling impactful agricultural insurance: Challenges and opportunities","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"There are many challenges to making (index) insurance strengthen resilience at scale."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Because of the complex nature of these challenges and the marginal contexts within developing countries in which the product is being rolled out, overcoming them requires concerted effort by stakeholders from across the insurance, agriculture and climate change sectors. We highlight these challenges and identify how the insurance and agricultural research communities can work together to turn them into opportunities."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The next section will detail specific contributions that agricultural researchers can make. While we focus more on index insurance than insurance per se, they are also applicable to indemnity insurance not least because one of the added values of agricultural research is that it is improving how we measure yields and management practices, making it possible to come closer to indemnity insurance again (Ceballos and Kramer, 2019)."}]},{"head":"Data availability","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"A crucial factor determining the benefits of index insurance is the accuracy of the index: the greater the correlation with losses suffered by the insured, the greater the potential benefit. While it is impossible to fully eliminate basis risk in index insurance, it is critical to minimize it through careful index selection, cross-validating the index using several data sources, including farmers' input through participatory processes, and designing a contract that maps the index data to historical and anticipated patterns of losses (IRI 2013). To design and implement high-quality indices, index insurance needs place-specific data on historical yields, rainfall and other production hazards. However, these data are often sparse and of low quality, which is a key hurdle that needs to be addressed for index insurance to achieve scale."}]},{"head":"A promising solution is being provided by Information and Communication","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Technology (ICT). Much can be gained from investing in national meteorological services' infrastructure, such as weather stations, rain gauges and gridded weather datasets, and harnessing these data to identify weather indices that capture the risks that are important to farmers. There is however a tension between the use of weather stations and rain gauges versus satellite data. Weather stations are increasingly established at lower cost but are often not equally distributed and introduce possibilities for technological and manual errors. They require investments are required in procurement and maintenance, and new weather stations come without site-specific historical records. Gridded satellite data are available for longer periods of time at a lower cost but provide estimates of weather conditions, potentially reducing accuracy. Merged datasets that calibrate satellite weather data with station data offer a potential solution to improve gridded datasets and reconstruct historical data gaps (Dinku et al., 2018)."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Using such datasets requires capacity building on part of both insurers and farmers, due to a lack of familiarity and tangibility of these data."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"Moreover, given challenges in designing weather index insurance, countries such as India and Kenya have shifted to area-based yield insurance for regions and crops where sufficient historical yield data has been available. As an index, these programs suffer because official yield measurements can be unreliable or biased, and are often reported late after the harvest, leading to delays in payment. Furthermore, collecting area-based yield insurance at a high spatial resolution within the short period before harvest, while the crop is still on the ground, is a daunting operation. In response to these challenges, recent innovations in ICT are focusing on indices that use satellite remote sensing to predict agricultural losses, for instance through cloud cover, vegetation cover, or soil moisture for a chosen region during critical agricultural periods. AR4D and climate science can help the insurance sector utilize this increased availability of quality data for the development of more robust indices."}]},{"head":"Targeting and design of insurance","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"For index insurance to achieve scale it needs to be appropriately targeted. Farmers are not homogenous. The diversity of smallholder farmers' needs requires different insurance solutions. In some cases, insurance may not be an appropriate intervention."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"How do we understand better the demand for insurance as well as the welfare impacts among different types of farmers, and develop products that target men and women farmers' context-specific needs, packaged at the right scale (e.g., individual farmer, aggregator, national government)? How do we identify which farmers should be targeted for insurance while recognizing those for whom insurance is not appropriate?"},{"index":3,"size":221,"text":"And how do we ensure that insurance is packaged in a way that complements men and women farmers' livelihood needs in ways that can be integrated into their on-going climate adaptation and climate service initiatives? Agricultural researchers and development practitioners have developed various livelihood frameworks that can be helpful in targeting the sorts of farmers who are most likely to be receptive to insurance. These frameworks have been integrated into recent policy approaches to the agricultural sector (e.g. DFID, 2015). For instance, Oxfam, the UN World Food Programme and partners have been developing the R4 Rural Resilience program that allows very poor yet productive farmers to take out insurance in return for labour. Eligible farmers in Ethiopia, Senegal, Malawi, Zambia, Kenya and Zimbabwe can enrol in insurance coverage in exchange for their work on resilience-building activities in their community. At a macro-level, the African Risk Capacity (ARC) is providing insurance to members of the African Union in order to finance their humanitarian response operations when facing natural disasters such as drought, and ARC's Replica Coverage allows UN agencies and other humanitarian actors to match these country insurance policies. The aim of this initiative is to finance an expansion of food aid or social safety nets primarily for the extreme poor and vulnerable who would be unable to finance insurance premiums themselves."}]},{"head":"Distribution channels","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Farmers' demand for insurance and their capacity to access it will be weakened if there are lengthy forms to be filled out or special journeys to make to register or receive a payout. The power of technology and big data can be harnessed to make the payment and claim processes even more simple and timely. Some insurers are taking advantage of mobile phone and mobile banking technologies. A good example are the ACRE Africa insurance products in East Africa, which enable farmers to pay their insurance premiums and receive payouts via the M-PESA mobile banking system (Hess and Hazell, 2017). Using mobile money and objective triggers such as rainfall, measured near real-time, allows insurers to disburse payouts rapidly, which can make insurance a much more attractive proposition for farmers. One challenge of using mobile phones is to ensure that the technology reaches both men and women, considering that mobile phones are still mainly owned by the male head of the household in many rural cultures."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Few private insurers have the required distribution networks in rural areas so they often work through an intermediary with an existing network of their own (e.g., a microfinance institution, bank, input dealer, agro-processor, or NGO), or they work with groups of farmers who can be insured as single entities. Farmers may not understand or trust the insurance, especially when it is new, and this adds to the perceived risk of buying it. The existence of basis risk means that transparent communication is crucial for trust. But index technologies that reduce basis risk can be more complex and hence more challenging for farmers and other stakeholders to understand and trust. It is important to market the insurance through existing distribution channels that farmers use and trust, such as microfinance or input suppliers."},{"index":3,"size":254,"text":"Even where farmers already trust the distribution channel, appropriate training and participation of farmers in the process from the start are crucial to building their trust in the eventual insurance products. Communicating index insurance, a potentially complex product, to farmers and other stakeholders requires large investments in consumer education and marketing. The process includes giving farmers a voice in insurance design as this can improve uptake and satisfaction. Participatory methods that have proven effective, however, are challenging to scale up. How can farmers' needs and realities be incorporated into the design of tailored solutions at scale, in a costeffective manner? To what extent can ICT and especially mobile phones be exploited to enable farmers to play a greater role in product development at scale? A focus on distribution channels also raises the issue of how the insurance is best marketed, and, whether to do so at a micro-, meso-or macro-level. There are distinct advantages to focusing at the meso-level. One of these advantages is that aggregating risk to the meso-level helps overcome basis risk arising from idiosyncratic risks in production. A relief agency, microfinance institution, agricultural input supplier or farmer group can pool farm-level variation and seek insurance for covariate risks that cannot be pooled at the meso-level. Basis risk is however not eliminated by underwriting risks at the meso-or macro-level. Index insurance offered at these aggregated levels can still suffer from inadequate index design, data quality issues, and covariate losses that are not directly tied to the index variable such as weather-sensitive pests."}]},{"head":"Embedding index insurance in the agricultural value chain","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Many successful programs provide insurance as a bundled product with other services, including credit, modern inputs and better technologies, or to a better market outlet (e.g., contract farming), all of which can make the insurance part of a real value-adding proposition for insured farmers that extends beyond the value of its direct risk-reducing benefits (Hazell and Hess, 2017). This has led to successful cases where index insurance is packaged with other types of insurance that farmers find attractive, such as life or accident insurance. NWK AgriServices in Zambia has built weather and life insurance into its cotton farming contracts, in order to enhance farmers' loyalty and deliveries, and secure them against debt and livelihood problems in case of weather failures (Hazell and Hess, 2017). Bundling insurance policies with other financial services such as credit can also lower the costs of distribution and premium collection, since premiums can be deducted from loans and factored into interest rates. Meanwhile, reduced risk exposure could result in lower interest rates or expanded access to credit, if leading to a lower default risk."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Successful agricultural index insurance initiatives treat insurance as just one component of agricultural risk management, and some bundle insurance products within credit or technology packages. Hess and Hazell (2016) give the example of Zambia, where farmers emphasized the need for insurance to be embedded in the entire agricultural value chain. They expressed a strong need to increase their productivity and cope with production and post-production risks, which would require better access to quality farming inputs, irrigation, mechanization and other investments. These insights provide an opportunity to link index insurance with agricultural technologies and practices that help farmers reduce their exposure to risk, often without reducing productivity. The question, however, is to how to identify the most suitable climatesmart technologies and practices in a given context."},{"index":3,"size":140,"text":"A related opportunity to increase the contribution of index insurance to agricultural resilience is to expand coverage beyond farmers, and beyond particular farm enterprises. These include financial institutions, agricultural traders and processors, landless workers, and village shopkeepers who are dependent directly or indirectly on local agriculture, and whom in turn can be adversely impacted by a drought and reduced agricultural production. One example of this broader insurance approach is the Livelihood Protection Policy (LPP) in the Caribbean. This insures nonsalaried income earners against adverse weather events, such as high wind speed and/or excessive rainfall (Hazell and Hess, 2016). Insurance does not need to be tied to specific crops and can in principle be sold to anyone. This raises the possibility of insuring anybody in a region whose income is correlated with the insured event, including but not confined to farmers."}]},{"head":"Regulatory environment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"There are three types of agents that are active in providing agricultural insurance to smallholder farmers: the private for-profit sector, governments (public), and development organizations, including non-profits such as NGOs and international organizations. They have their own networks for distributing insurance to farmers."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Since most of these organizations are not licensed to sell insurance, they inevitably partner with private insurers who provide and underwrite the insurance contracts. Other agencies help finance and initiate insurance programs, including bilateral donors, United Nations (UN) organizations and multinational development banks. Such agencies can play an important role since private insurers can face high setup costs and barriers to entry. For example, these agencies provide technical and financial assistance to help private insurers overcome high initial investment costs in research and development of index insurance products. Such costs might not be easily recouped if competitors can replicate products that prove profitable to sell."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Establishing a legal and regulatory environment for enforcing contracts that both buyer and seller can trust is a fundamental prerequisite for scaling insurance. This requires attention to incentives, monitoring product quality, support through publicprivate partnerships, and enabling regulatory frameworks. In low-income countries where index insurance is expanding, achieving these aspects can prove challenging."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"Sometimes insurers use their own networks to sell insurance directly to farmers, but more often they work through other players along value chains who sell directly to farmers. For example, they may link up with agro-processors, input suppliers, or seed companies that offer farmers insurance along with credit, seeds, fertilizer, or contract farming arrangements. These players typically do the marketing, servicing and subsidizing of insurance, with the advantage that such partnerships (facilitated by the aggregation of farmers in for instance farmer groups) establish linkages between private insurers and farmers whom would otherwise not be reached."},{"index":5,"size":125,"text":"An enabling regulatory environment also means introducing minimum quality standards for insurance products, monitoring product compliance with these standards, and certifying those products that meet the standards. Farmers may lose their trust in insurance markets because they are worse off buying insurance compared to staying without coverage due to high premium rates, basis risk, poor product quality more generally, or a combination of these factors. Regulatory bodies can help build trust in insurance markets by monitoring whether products do no harm compared to not having insurance at all, and whether premium subsidies do in fact improve smallholder farmers' welfare in a cost-effective way, by comparing farmers' ex-ante welfare from a premium subsidy with the benefits from a similarly sized cash transfer (Carter and Chiu, 2018)."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Additionally, laws and regulations need to be consistent with international standards to improve the chances of insurers gaining access to global markets for risk transfer. It is critical that insurers have access to appropriate reinsurance coverage."},{"index":7,"size":36,"text":"Assured and timely payments received from a reinsurer, when a disaster occurs, can help avoid some of the delays and uncertainties incurred in obtaining emergency funding from government and/or donor sources (Clarke and Vargas Hill, 2013)."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"Reinsurance can also help smooth out the annual cost of a disaster assistance program to governments and donors in the form of a predictable and regular annual premium given that such a program aggregates any losses to a regional scale (Hess and Hazell, 2016). Laws and regulations must harmonize with international standards to improve the chances of insurers gaining access to global markets for risk transfer."}]},{"head":"Role of the public sector","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"The public sector plays an important role in creating an enabling environment for index insurance. This includes investing in weather stations and agro-meteorological research and data systems, educating farmers about the value of insurance, building the capacity of the insurance sector on index insurance, and facilitating international reinsurance."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"There may also be a need for \"smart\" subsidies to correct initial market failures and externalities that hold back the development of markets for index insurance products (Hazell and Varangis, 2019). These subsidies should serve a well-defined policy objective, target a well-defined set of beneficiaries, be informed by monitoring and evaluation, and have either a clear exit strategy or a viable long-term financing strategy."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"For instance, subsidies directed at costs of developing and administering insurance to overcome initial program setup may be more cost-effective and less distorting than direct subsidies to premiums. If premiums are subsidized, the literature recommends providing subsidies on a per-farmer rather than proportional basis, to equitably support relatively poor smallholder farmers; and ensuring that farmers' portion of the premiums is not less than the long-term average expected payout, to avoid disincentives to managing risk through other available means."},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"Insuring against agricultural risks is expensive. In many countries, catastrophic events like droughts occur with such a high frequency that premium rates may need to exceed 10-15 percent of the total sum insured just to cover the amount that insurers expect to pay farmers in the form of claims (i.e., the average annual loss or actuarially fair premium rate). Subsidies will usually be less distorting if made directly to the insurer to offset administration, infrastructure, and development costs rather than subsidizing the premium rates paid by farmers. Premium subsidies for products that cover specific crops may encourage farmers to grow unsuitable crops in risky environments, leading to net social losses and adding to the future costs of insurance and the size of the subsidy."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"There are other innovative ways to deal with farmers' inability to pay for a premium. Index insurance is designed to cover the most extreme risks that a farmer can face. Smaller risks are more efficiently addressed through a range of cheaper risk management strategies such as credit, savings and risk-reducing practices and technologies. Index insurance is expected to be the last recourse, but it can be expensive."}]},{"head":"Initiatives such as the 'work-for-insurance' strategies developed by the R4 Rural","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Resilience Initiative can help tackle this challenge by allowing farmers to pay the premium by providing labour to public works programs that help build the infrastructure to better manage risks. The requirement that farmers need to invest either some time or money in the insurance product gives the insurance providers an incentive to provide a high-quality product that responds to farmers' needs, while the option to pay the insurance premium through labour means that the product remains affordable for cash-constrained farmers."}]},{"head":"AR4D for development and scaling of insurance","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Given these challenges, the process of scaling up insurance to achieve resilience calls for a mix of stakeholder expertise. One area where we see tremendous and largely underutilized synergy is the contribution that agricultural research can make to overcome the aforementioned challenges to scaling insurance. As a leader in povertyfocused agricultural innovation, the CGIAR can offer a large knowledge base in this regard. The CGIAR, established in 1971, is a global network of 15 international agricultural research institutions and their partners, all working to advance agricultural science and innovation to reduce poverty, improve food and nutrition security, and to improve natural resources and ecosystem services. Researchers within the CGIAR network produce, in partnership with actors from both public and private sectors, global public goods including agricultural production technologies, data, methods, tools, analyses and evidence. These public goods can contribute to overcoming the challenges to scaling impactful agricultural insurance schemes."}]},{"head":"Insights from CGIAR research","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":238,"text":"CGIAR research can contribute to the scaling of high-quality insurance schemes in at least four distinct ways. First, the CGIAR has worked since its establishment on developing and understanding context-specific viable production technologies and livelihood options that are available to smallholder farmers. Second, it has a deep understanding of the constraints and risks (beyond those targeted by insurance) that smallholder farmers face, and how they impact management decisions and smallholder farmers' welfare. Third, the network has established relationships with relevant institutions in the agricultural sector and can provide guidance on how to engage them to strengthen agricultural insurance. Fourth, the CGIAR offers independence from an insurance provider's financial interests, and it offers peer review that can help with quality control of good practice knowledge and evidence. The AR4D community has also developed, tested and evaluated innovations in index insurance. Because much of this research was implemented through the CGIAR or with the CGIAR's partners, we conducted an inventory of recent insurance-related research projects undertaken within the CGIAR as a starting point. We reviewed these research projects to identify (potential) innovations delivered by these projects.2 CGIAR research has aimed to address challenges to scaling insurance-driven resilience impacts through innovations such as weather securities, gap insurance, crop simulations and optimization, remote sensing, linking value chains stakeholders with the insurance industry, bundling insurance with climate risk-reducing technologies, as well as other formal and informal risk-financing strategies, impact evaluation and participatory approaches."},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"2 It is important to note that this inventory is not meant to be exhaustive; there is a large body of research on innovations for agricultural insurance also outside the CGIAR but focusing on the CGIAR offered a starting point and hence the focus of this paper."},{"index":3,"size":164,"text":"Reviewing these projects highlighted both the spread in regions and countries in which the CGIAR has implemented insurance activities, and the range of innovations being researched. In terms of geographic coverage, the CGIAR has conducted insurance research in Ethiopia, Kenya, Ghana, Tanzania and Mozambique in the Africa region; in Uruguay, Honduras, Nicaragua in Latin and Central America; in Syria and Egypt in the Middle East, and in India and Bangladesh in South Asia. Research has spanned a multitude of innovations, including aspects relating to the targeting and design of insurance, as well as projects addressing issues around distribution channels and the use of technology. A substantial number of projects aims to help improve data availability and bundling with other informal or formal financial services. The CGIAR has also conducted several rigorous evaluations to assess the impacts of these innovations on resilience. Research has looked less often into the regulatory environment; creating an enabling environment or using smart subsidies; and capturing the full value chain."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"These challenges provide areas for future research."}]},{"head":"Weather security units","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"A first set of studies in Ethiopia, India and Uruguay (Hill and Robles, 2011;Hill, Robles and Ceballos, 2016;Ceballos and Robles, 2017) explores the demand for weather security units as a more flexible alternative to weather-based index insurance. The weather securities analysed in these studies are simple insurance units designed for smallholder farmers with strong heterogeneity in cropping patterns, for instance due to variation in crops or varieties grown, sowing dates, or risk exposure. The key idea is that farmers can choose from a menu of different insurance products, for instance with different coverage periods, different triggers (attachment points) or different coverage amounts (exhaustion points), to best suit their risk profile. As such, these products help improve the design of insurance as they offer farmers the flexibility to express heterogeneity in demand."},{"index":2,"size":140,"text":"In addition, weather securities relax data availability requirements; instead of having to correlate historical weather indices with historical yield, and setting insurance parameters such as triggers, exit values and the sum insured based on those correlations, weather securities allow farmers to construct their optimal insurance portfolio themselves to match their expected yields under different weather realizations. Farmers may for instance know how much rain they need and when and, hence, can decide on what insurance product would best suit their needs. In this way, the weather securities relax data requirements by reducing basis risk in a temporal dimension (by allowing farmers to choose coverage for the period during which they are at risk) and from a design perspective (because farmers now use their own knowledge on the types of weather conditions required by their crops when purchasing their weather securities)."},{"index":3,"size":184,"text":"The studies in Ethiopia and Uruguay demonstrate that farmers mix and match the weather security units to construct an insurance portfolio based on personal risk exposure. Data collected during both an experimental game and real purchases of such insurance policies among farmers in southern Ethiopia suggest that the securities are well understood and can fit heterogeneous farmer needs. In Uruguay, farmers purchased insurance for different months, and with different triggers, depending on their crops and soil type, as well as cropping decisions. In other words, farmers construct their own risk management portfolios based on their perceived insurance needs, and the availability of more flexible insurance products allows doing so. Nevertheless, demand was strongly price sensitive, and an important area for future research is whether the flexibility of the weather units approach increases or decreases demand. Literature on menu effects suggests that the quality of decisions deteriorates as a decision-maker is presented with a larger number of options to choose from, and this may well be the case when farmers need to choose among a large number of flexible weather units (Ceballos and Robles, 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"However, from a more general perspective, farmers' significant heterogeneity in demand, which is correlated with heterogeneity in their farming practices, is important. It highlights that there is no one-size-fits-all weather-based index insurance product, and that the different needs that farmers have when managing their productions risks are important to consider in the design and targeting of climate risk insurance."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"Even if weather securities themselves might be challenging to implement, this finding offers an important motivation for the use of methodologies that design index insurance based on weather simulations and crop modelling, by using remote sensing, and/or through participatory approaches. Each of these methodologies acknowledges that is important to consider the heterogeneity across farmers in their exposure to weather risks, and the difficulties that insurance programs would face in capturing this heterogeneity by means of a simple one-size-fits-all weather-based index insurance product."}]},{"head":"Gap insurance and fail-safe triggers","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":311,"text":"Another innovation aims to reduce downside basis risk in index insurance through socalled 'gap insurance', also referred to as fail-safe contract design (Carter et al., 2017). This approach was introduced first in a pilot project in Ethiopia, where a failure-prone rainfall index was backed up by the possibility of conducting an area yield audit (Berhane et al., 2015). Specifically, in case the rainfall index did not trigger a payout, but farmers reported that they had suffered severe damage, they could petition for the insurance provider to conduct a crop-cutting exercise in their village. Payouts would be made if the average yield measured was below a predefined threshold. This hybrid model in which the contract design combines both weather index-based insurance and area-yield index-based coverage reduces downside basis risk, thereby making insurance more attractive. This approach was also adopted in an impact evaluation of weather index-based insurance in Bangladesh (Vargas Hill et al., 2018), and the mechanism design behind this approach is further developed within the context of a pilot project in Tanzania (Flatnes and Carter, 2015). There, combining zone-level yields, predicted based on satellite observations of rainfall, with a crop-cut audit that is initiated at the request of farmers (if they indeed believe that yields in their zone are below 60% of normal yields), improves the accuracy of insurance payouts. This contract could be offered at a lower cost than an area-yield index contract if the rainfall index is sufficiently accurate, and if there is a penalty for farmers who call for an audit if they did not suffer severe damage in their zone, so that the insurance provider needs to carry out the costly crop-cut audits only in a limited number of scenarios. In that case, the cost of the insurance policy can remain well below those of area-yield index contracts, with a comparable accuracy, leading to increased welfare gains."}]},{"head":"Crop simulation and optimization","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"A second set of studies involve applications of crop simulation modelling to index insurance design, implemented for contract design in various contexts including Honduras, India, Nicaragua, Syria and Uruguay (Kost et al., 2012;Ceballos, 2016;Shirsath et al., 2019). The stochastic weather modelling that these crop simulations often use will help fill in missing weather data, thereby addressing challenges around the absence of reliable weather data for estimating probabilities of insurance payouts and thus premiums. In this way, crop modelling can be used to calibrate insurance triggers or attachment points and exits or exhaustion points, along with the associated insurance premiums, to existing heterogeneity in soil characteristics."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Heterogeneity in soil characteristics can be an important source of basis risk, and a challenge in targeting and designing index insurance products. In Nicaragua, researchers were able to overcome this challenge through a crop modelling approach."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"They interpolated monthly data on precipitation as well as temperature means and ranges from observed weather station data in the tropics and subtropics, and used these data, combined with farm plot-level characteristics, to simulate crop yields within crop models for how the biochemistry, physiology and agronomy determines crop water balance, photosynthesis, growth and development. These data were used to estimate a crop's minimum water requirements at fixed intervals during its growth and development, that is, for different time-blocks of the growing season. Triggers were based on the predicted probabilities that a crop would not meet its water requirements."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"In India, a similar approach was applied to insurance contract design: combining agro-meteorological statistical analysis, crop growth modelling and optimization techniques, Shirsath et al. (2019) develop contracts that increased farmer satisfaction by 50 and 72 percent for soybean and pearl millet, respectively, while increasing the correlation of payouts with yield losses (i.e., reducing basis risk), and reducing the overall loss-cost ratio, lowering the required insurance premium subsidy per farmer insured. Similar approaches are underway in other contexts, and the tools to develop these improved contract designs are typically available for the insurance industry to use, free of charge."}]},{"head":"Remote sensing","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Each of the innovations mentioned above require weather-based indices to capture the risks that are important to smallholder farmers, and to be reliable predictors of crop yields, which is not always the case, resulting in basis risk. Advances in remote sensing and \"big data\" analytics are expanding the range of options for reducing basis risk but have yet to be fully tested and exploited. The European Union's new satellite system Sentinel-2A could be a game changer for the types of indices that can be developed and monitored around the developing world. Using such data however requires biophysical or statistical models that relate remotely sensed data to the agricultural losses to be insured. AR4D can play an important role in this regard."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"The Index Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) project is one of the better-known and successful applications of remote sensing to provide index insurance to smallholder farmers at scale. The IBLI project has developed a remotely-sensed vegetation index calibrated against mortality survey data to insure livestock mortality losses for pastoral households in northern Kenya and Ethiopia (Mude et al., 2010). Products have been shown to generate positive welfare impacts (Chantarat et al., 2017), to be more costeffective in comparison with cash transfers (Jensen, Barrett and Mude, 2017), and to improve coping strategies by allowing poorer households to limit food rationing when experiencing droughts (Janzen and Carter, 2018)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Vegetation indices are a good indicator of livestock mortality as pastoralists' livestock survival is largely dependent on forage, and reductions in forage availability are easily detected by vegetation indices. Measuring crop productivity is more difficult, especially in areas with intercropping, due to increased heterogeneity and smaller plots."},{"index":4,"size":105,"text":"In addition, remote satellites may not be very tangible to farmers, and available lowcost satellite imagery can be too coarse (either in terms of spatial resolution, or in terms of temporal resolution, especially in seasons with cloud cover) to accurately measure ground conditions at the localized level for which a smallholder farmer will need insurance. To overcome challenges related to cloud cover, the Remote sensing-based Information and Insurance for Crops for Emerging Economies (RIICE) project has used AR4D to pioneer a radar satellite data-based system that allows for accurate and timely measurement of planted areas and yields for rice in Asia (Hess and Hazell, 2016)."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Another strand of CGIAR research on insurance is analysing the potential impacts of linking index-based insurance with picture-based insurance, which uses farmers' georeferenced ground pictures of the insured crops to measure crop damage for insurance purposes (Ceballos et al., 2019). A mobile app collects data, including pictures and self-reported practices and input use, with high frequency, both pre-and post-damage. These pictures are sent to an online server, where experts identify the extent of damage. These data are used to build large training datasets for machine learning algorithms that can automate the process to rapidly trigger payouts."},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"Compared to traditional indemnity insurance, this will reduce the costs of loss verification; compared to index insurance products, this improves the tangibility of the insurance product, and potentially reduces basis risk if the pictures capture localized losses that cannot be measured through satellite imagery or weather stations. In a pilot implementation of this approach in the rice-wheat belt of India, nearly two-thirds of trained farmers took at least four pictures (roughly one per growth stage), which was considered sufficient for loss assessment; severe damage was visible from the pictures in 71 percent of affected sites; and this reduced basis risk significantly compared to alternative index-based products (Ceballos et al., 2019). Hufkens et al. (2019) find that the images also improve upon satellite measurements of NDVI when detecting crop growth stages or lodging events for winter wheat in India. An interesting avenue to explore is whether pictures can be used to expand agro-advisory services, and whether there are benefits from bundling advisory services with picture-based insurance (Ceballos et al., 2018). The innovation is currently being tested by several major insurance initiatives as a strategy to reduce basis risk in their index insurance products."}]},{"head":"Bundling insurance with other climate risk management options","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"Bundling provides an excellent opportunity for the insurance industry to utilize outputs from AR4D. AR4D has over the last two to three decades developed and tested many climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices, including stress-adapted germplasm from advances in breeding (for instance drought-tolerant maize and floodtolerant rice), diversified farming systems including agroforestry, and conservation agriculture, which is a system of practices that reduces soil disturbance from tillage, maintains soil cover with organic material, and diversifies crops through intercropping or rotations. These technologies and practices have been developed to stabilize production and reduce exposure to weather risk (Hansen et al., 2019). These riskreducing technologies could lend themselves well to being bundled with index insurance."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"Risk-reducing technologies and index insurance have the potential to complement each other and solve the problems they face when offered in isolation."},{"index":3,"size":120,"text":"Risk-reducing technologies may protect the farmer against moderate periods of drought, thus already providing a form of insurance. However, such varieties do not protect the farmer from extreme weather events. In fact, investments in risk-reducing technologies such as drought-tolerant seeds could expose farmers even more to extreme weather, because these seeds are typically more expensive than the local varieties that farmers grow. Vice versa, index insurance covers the farmer against extreme events, but paying out during moderate drought years would make the insurance policy more expensive. Proper bundling of the two and structuring insurance to trigger payouts only for extreme weather events may help resolve these issues by leveraging complementarities between the two types of innovations (Lybbert and Carter, 2013)."},{"index":4,"size":202,"text":"Bundling with drought tolerant varieties would also add an implicit subsidy to the cost of insurance by reducing the cost of reinsurance due to the reduced value-at-risk that the insurer faces. Ward et al. (2019) tested this by eliciting the valuation for drought-tolerant rice and weather index insurance as complementary risk management tools among smallholder farmers in Bangladesh. Farmers generally did not value the droughttolerant variety enough to purchase it if offered independent of insurance, but when bundled with insurance, their valuation of the variety increased. Farmers also valued insurance on its own, but even more so when bundled with the drought-tolerant variety, suggesting strong complementarities between the two different risk management instruments. In a study in Odisha, India, Ward and Makhija (2018) find that smallholder farmers' valuation for such a complementary risk management product is highly sensitive to the basis risk implied by the insurance product, with farmers less enthusiastic about risk management products that leave significant risks uninsured.3 This is also consistent with the theoretical predictions in Kramer and Ceballos (2018) that in the presence of basis risk, calibrating weather index insurance bundled with stress-tolerant varieties to trigger insurance payouts only in case of extreme weather events can worsen demand."},{"index":5,"size":221,"text":"Another way of bundling CSA and insurance is through climate-smart insurance subsidies. India has a large national insurance scheme, in which premiums are highly subsidized; farmers only pay around 2-5% of the sum insured, and a small fraction of the insurance premiums (Fisher et al 2019). These premium subsidies could be used to promote more sustainable farming systems by conditioning premium subsidies on the adoption of climate-smart technologies and practices. This approach was piloted in the states of Punjab and Haryana, India, which face an environmental hazard from largescale crop residue burning. While testing a picture-based insurance approach, 3 Ward et al. (2019) and Ward and Makhija (2018) use discrete choice experiments to elicit willingness to pay for the drought-tolerant seeds, insurance and the bundled product. Although these hypothetical measures of willingness to pay may not reflect actual willingness to pay for insurance versus seeds, the main purpose of the studies was to elicit the value of the bundled product relative to the value of the stand-alone products. researchers varied experimentally whether farmers received insurance coverage unconditional on management practices versus conditional on not burning residues. The no-burning condition significantly reduced the proportion of farmers burning their residues, suggesting that premium subsidies can be used to promote desirable behaviours that have positive externalities for the surrounding communities (Kramer and Ceballos, 2018)."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"AR4D has also tested the potential for bundling insurance with other formal or informal financial services. Although weather index insurance can cover covariate risks such as droughts, basis risk in the insurance product design and idiosyncratic risks such as pests or disease could still lead to losses not covered by the insurance product."},{"index":7,"size":96,"text":"Bundling insurance products with other financial risk management instruments, either formal or informal, could help farmers cope with the financial losses from these uninsured risks, thereby potentially increasing take-up. In Ethiopia, researchers for instance tested the provision of insurance through informal funeral societies (iddirs) that traditionally share risk. Insurance take-up was considerably higher in groups where insurance trainings had emphasized risk sharing (Dercon et al., 2014), suggesting important complementarities between on the one hand informal risk sharing for idiosyncratic shocks and basis risk and on the other hand formal index insurance to cope with covariate shocks."}]},{"head":"Participatory approaches to index design and implementation","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Another component of AR4D utilizes participatory approaches in the design and implementation of index insurance. Participatory approaches hold two key functions: collecting data to explore and validate data sources and parameters of a product through crowdsourcing with farmers and local experts, and developing awareness, capacity and ownership of farmers and insurance stakeholders by engaging them throughout the design and validation process."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"The Social Network for Index Insurance Design (SNIID) process developed by the International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI), one of the partners in the CGIAR, is a farmer-centred index design process using participatory processes and crowdsourcing to collect information on cropping calendars, crop vulnerability, historical risk profiles and season monitoring to co-produce and validate index products. It is coupled with insurance games simulating farmers' seasonal decisionmaking processes in the face of risk, to explore preferred risk coping strategies and unpack complex concepts such as insurance, basis risk, frequency of payout, satellite data and comprehensive risk management strategies. Additional experimental research games can be played to explore specific questions such as farmers' preferences regarding payout frequency, or group and individual insurance compared to other risk management options (Greatrex et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Trust is an important component when delivering insurance. Co-producing the index product by engaging with farmers along every step of the way, from index design to implementation and payouts, will increase the understanding and attractiveness of insurance products. These participatory approaches are now being increasingly combined with mobile technologies to reach more farmers and help address the need to go to scale while keeping farmers at the centre of the process."}]},{"head":"Impact evaluation","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"As argued earlier, take-up and renewal alone are insufficient indicators of impact. In general, high take-up and especially high renewal rates can offer a signal that an insurance scheme provides a first indication that insured clients perceive the insurance product to offer value for money, but the conclusion that the insurance program is welfare-enhancing, and does so in a cost-effective way, cannot be drawn at face value."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Instead, AR4D can work with insurance initiatives to ascertain that insurance products are indeed welfare-enhancing for targeted farmers through an ex-ante cost-benefit analysis, prior to rolling out a program. In addition, by building long-term monitoring and evaluation (M&E) components into insurance programs, economists and other social scientists within the AR4D community can help insurance initiatives conduct expost impact assessments and identify the main channels through which these impacts occur."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"In designing impact evaluations, it is important to consider when impacts occur, when they are being observed, and how they can be measured. In this regard, it is important to distinguish between impacts ex ante, which would be unconditional on experiencing extreme weather events and receiving insurance payouts, and impacts ex post, which are experienced by beneficiaries who are affected by extreme weather events, and for whom the insurance product should make payouts. Moreover, data collection and analyses need to be centred around the core hypothesis that one of the main impacts of insurance is a smoothening of consumption, meaning that welldesigned impact evaluations measure consumption repeatedly over time, in order to assess whether insurance prevents food rationing and spending cuts among households facing weather shocks. The degree to which consumption smoothing generates welfare benefits also depends on beneficiaries' preference for consumption smoothing, or risk aversion, meaning that it is important for impact evaluations to elicit such preference parameters. Prior to the roll-out of a scheme, AR4D, donors or governments and insurance industry can work together to design strategies to measure impacts on household welfare and conducting cost-benefit analyses."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"AR4D offers a toolbox of evaluation approaches that can help in this regard."},{"index":5,"size":124,"text":"These evaluation approaches are designed to address attribution problems in the sense that they help assessing whether differences between an intervention group and a counterfactual can be plausibly attributed to the insurance program. Simply evaluating outcomes by comparing insured and uninsured individuals or households often leads to selection bias, where those who choose to participate in the treatment (insurance) are systematically different than those who do not. Higher take-up is for instance observed among wealthier, more educated and more progressive farmers, who could have increased agricultural investments also in the absence of the insurance program, meaning that differences between the insured and the uninsured (even if measured over time) could be due to systematic differences in unobserved characteristics rather than the insurance program itself."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"Methods that help overcome this evaluation challenge include natural experiments, quasi-experimental approaches that rely on econometric techniques such as propensity score matching or regression discontinuity designs, and randomized control trials (RCTs). Researchers can use variation in whether individuals were offered insurance coverage, but often, in situations where such variation cannot be introduced, alternative strategies are often feasible in which smallholder farmers or other value chain actors are randomly assigned into an encouragement arm, which receives a promotion (for instance awareness raising or premium subsidies) to enrol, versus a control arm, where no additional encouragements are offered to sign up for the schemes."},{"index":7,"size":43,"text":"Different types of programs and implementation plans call for different evaluation strategies. Involving impact evaluation specialists from the AR4D community early in the program design can facilitate the integration of a long-term independent evaluation strategy into the roll-out plans of an insurance initiative."}]},{"head":"Conclusion/recommendations","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"Insurance is an important tool that can enable farmers to manage better climate-related risks and to invest in more profitable production systems and practices. Index insurance payouts improve coping with extreme weather events, and indeed help smallholder farmers increase their agricultural investments even during years without insurance payouts. However, there is only sparse evidence of how these benefits translate to transformative impacts on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, and the evidence often focuses on microinsurance programs implemented at a small scale. And while it is important that policymakers are calling for an increase in the number of insured smallholder farmers, the risk is that this focus on scaling is shifting insurers' priorities from providing high-quality products, offering real value for their clients, to flooding the market with low-quality products that have not been adapted adequately to farmers' local context, and with poor awareness of insurance benefits."},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"In this light, it is imperative to look beyond take-up or renewal, and to document the welfare costs and benefits of different types of insurance programs as they are going to scale. This includes addressing the questions whether and how index insurance has transformed farmers' livelihood strategies and incomes; and how it contributes to adaptation, without focusing only on how it improves responding to shocks. AR4D can help define and measure indicators of success needed at scale. In addition, AR4D can help identify opportunities to strengthen product quality and value propositions, for instance by helping programs overcome challenges in data availability, targeting and distribution of insurance, bundling with complementary risk management strategies, and embedding insurance into the agricultural value chain. AR4D produces evidence, methodologies and research products that are available to the insurance industry as public goods. Use of these public goods will however lead to impacts only if programs are developed, implemented and evaluated through strong partnerships. Agricultural insurance could be viewed as an extension of both financial services and agricultural development. It therefore falls within the domain of a broad spectrum of private-and public-sector actors, including the insurance sector (insurers, re-insurers), and stakeholders primarily interested in agricultural development (input providers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer groups, policymakers and the AR4D community). Initiatives driven by one of these two sectors are likely to lack vital expertise and overlook viable solutions to the challenges."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Partnerships between these various stakeholders, including AR4D, will be critical in order to build insurance programs that truly have the capacity to improve adaptation and resilience at scale among the rural poor."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" For instance, one of the potentially valuable contributions from A4RD and the CGIAR focuses on positioning insurance in a context of a broader resilience strategy, including other complementary climate risk management tools often developed or validated through research conducted by the CGIAR. Reviewing the evidence on climate risk management and rural poverty reduction,Hansen et al. (2019)  argue that risk-reducing production technologies and practices originating from AR4Dincluding stress-adapted crop germplasm (used to make seeds more tolerant to risks such as drought, floods or disease), conservation agriculture and diversified crop and agroforestry production systems -stabilize agricultural production and incomes, and, hence, can reduce under certain circumstances the adverse impacts of climate-related risk. This is relevant to the design of index-based insurance since the latter plays a complementary role in enabling farmers to manage risk, overcoming risk-related barriers to adoption of improved technologies and practices, and protecting their assets against the impacts of extreme climatic events. Moreover, AR4D offers insights into the roles that alternative climate-risk management interventions (technologies and practices versus index-based insurance and social protection through adaptive safety nets) can play in efforts to reduce rural poverty, particularly for different types of environments and farming populations.Targeting interventions to improve farmers' wellbeing in the face of climate risk requires distinguishing between different types of farmers(Barrett et al., 2007;Hellin and Fisher, 2018; Hansen et al., 2019). First, productive safety net interventions such as index-based insurance protect the vulnerable non-poor from falling into poverty when coping with shocks. Second, productivity-enhancing technologies and practices, complemented by improved climate risk management, or 'cargo nets'(Barret, 2005), enable those farmers just below the poverty line to escape poverty, allowing them to join the ranks of the vulnerable non-poor. Third, layered safety net interventions protect the poor with fewer assets, for whom production technologies are unlikely to be adequate, from destitution after a shock. "}],"sieverID":"ce369e97-4fbb-4a1b-ac5c-efaa683766b2","abstract":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim climate change, agriculture and food security research and practices and stimulate feedback from the scientific community. The CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) is led by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and carried out with support from the CGIAR Trust Fund and through bilateral funding agreements. For more information, please visit https://ccafs.cgiar.org/donors."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"046780e5802a903f0d98e9b03faa505d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7474ffb4-c8ce-4037-9c07-de1f9aa1da1f/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"The impact of slow stomatal kinetics on photosynthesis and water use efficiency under fluctuating light","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":633,"text":"In order to survive, plants need to balance CO 2 uptake for photosynthesis (A) with water loss via transpiration. By adjusting their aperture, stomata control gaseous exchange between the leaf interior, and the external atmosphere. Stomatal aperture is adjusted by moving solutes into or out of the guard cells. These changes in osmotic potential elicit water movement in or out of the guard cells, altering turgor pressure and subsequently aperture. In general, stomatal opening in well-watered C3 and C4 species is triggered by high light intensity, low vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and low CO 2 concentrations. Opposite environmental conditions (low light, high VPD, and high CO 2 ) stimulate stomatal closure (Assmann and Shimazaki, 1999;Outlaw, 2003;Lawson and Morison, 2004). Therefore, in a dynamic field environment, stomata are continuously adjusting the aperture to achieve an appropriate balance between carbon gain and water loss (Pearcy, 1990;Lawson and Blatt, 2014). Most research has studied stomatal conductance (g s ) and A under steady-state conditions. A high g s under steady-state conditions is associated with high A and consequently improved growth (Fischer et al., 1998;Franks, 2006). However, as g s kinetics are typically a magnitude slower than those of A, the speed at which these steady-state values are reached in a fluctuating environment have a great influence on the growth and water use efficiency (WUE; Lawson and Blatt, 2014;Kaiser et al., 2016;McAusland et al., 2016;Taylor and Long, 2017;De Souza et al., 2020;Yamori et al., 2020). In a fluctuating field environment, light intensity is one of the most variable environmental conditions as it changes continuously by moving cloud covers and shading from adjacent plants (Pearcy, 1990;Slattery et al., 2018;Morales and Kaiser, 2020). In this way, stomata frequently experience alternating light intensities, inducing stomatal responses that change A, g s , and the ratio of these, the intrinsic WUE ( i WUE). The balance between CO 2 gain and H 2 O loss under changing light intensities is disturbed by delayed g s responses (Vialet-Chabrand et al., 2017;Slattery et al., 2018). Limitations of A after an increase in light intensity are the combination of diffusional and biochemical limitations. Biochemical activation has been shown to majorly limit A during short light flecks (Soleh et al., 2017;Taylor and Long, 2017;Acevedo-Siaca et al., 2020). Under longer light periods, limitations have been mainly attributed to stomatal limitations, with biochemical activation only limiting for a short time (510 min) because of rapid activation of RuBP regeneration and Rubisco (Mott and Woodrow, 2000;Kaiser et al., 2016;Deans et al., 2019a;De Souza et al., 2020). The slower g s increase to increased light intensity limits the CO 2 uptake for A, while the slower g s decrease to decreased light intensity results in unnecessary water loss. The limitation of A by the slower kinetics of g s has been shown to be significant in well-watered C3 species (Farquhar and Sharkey, 1982;Jones, 1998;Lawson and Blatt, 2014;McAusland et al., 2016;Deans et al., 2019a). Rapid g s kinetics, therefore, have been hypothesized to maximize A and i WUE, as steady-state values under the new conditions can be rapidly achieved (Lawson and Blatt, 2014;Papanatsiou et al., 2019;De Souza et al., 2020;Kimura et al., 2020). The g s kinetics are, together with the final steady-state g s the plant reaches, crucial to determine the plant performance (Franks and Farquhar, 2007;Vico et al., 2011;McAusland et al., 2016;Qu et al., 2016;Faralli et al., 2019b;Yamori et al., 2020). The importance of diversity in g s kinetics was highlighted by De Souza et al. (2020), who showed a three-fold higher variability in carbon assimilation between cassava genotypes under fluctuating light than under steady-state conditions, mainly caused by differences in stomatal limitation. However, to our knowledge, the diversity of g s kinetics across varieties has neither been investigated at whole-plant level nor under diurnally fluctuating light conditions."},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Here our research aimed to explore biodiversity in lightinduced stomatal dynamics across genotypes and evaluate for the first time the impact on whole-plant level. We studied the diversity of light-induced g s kinetics in relation to stomatal anatomy in five banana genotypes (Musa spp.) with distinct transpiration phenotypes (van Wesemael et al., 2019). We modeled the impact of diffusional and biochemical kinetics on A under single step-changes in light intensity and modeled the impact of differential g s kinetics on A and i WUE under realistic diurnal fluctuating light conditions. By comparing the g s kinetics in response to step-changes with the g s responses under fluctuating light conditions, we gain insight into the importance of stomatal kinetics on diurnal carbon gain and WUE."}]},{"head":"Results","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A and g s response to step changes","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Increasing light intensity from 100 to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 induced a strong stomatal opening response (Figure 1). The g s response followed a sigmoidal pattern. A similar sigmoidal limiting pattern was observed for A in all genotypes, indicating a strong limitation of A by g s in banana (Figure 1). Between genotypes, there were significant differences in the speed of g s increase. Steady-state A and g s under high light intensity were reached in three out of five genotypes. In contrast, the genotypes Cachaco and Leite continued to increase g s and A slowly after 90 min of 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 . The subsequent decrease in light intensity from 1,000 to 100 mmol m -2 s -1 resulted in a rapid g s decrease, which also followed a sigmoidal pattern (Figure 1). Photosynthesis, on the other hand, as expected decreased instantly because light became the limiting factor (Figure 1)."}]},{"head":"Modeling steady-state and light-induced responses of g s","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"The steady-state g s at 100 mmol m -2 s -1 (g s,100 ) and 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 (g s,1,000 ) did not differ significantly between genotypes (Figure 2A; Supplemental Table S1). g s,100 ranged from 0.023 to 0.040 mol m -2 s -1 , while g s,1,000 ranged between 0.14 and 0.16 mol m -2 s -1 (Figure 2A; Supplemental Table S1)."},{"index":2,"size":308,"text":"The speed of g s increase varied strongly between the banana genotypes and the modeled variables differed significantly (Figure 2, B and C; Supplemental Table S1). The genotype with the slowest g s increase, Cachaco, had an average time constant K i of 17 min, while the fastest genotype, Mbwazirume, had a K i of 6.4 min (Figure 2B; Supplemental Table S1). The speed of the decrease in g s (K d ) was also genotype-dependent (Figure 2C; Supplemental Table S1). K d was about two-fold higher in Cachaco (9.5 min) than in Mbwazirume (4.4 min). Across all genotypes, K i was significantly correlated with K d (R 2 = 0.41, P 5 0.001; Figure 2D; Supplemental Figure S1). However, the decrease in g s was significantly faster than the increase (P 50.001). K i was significantly correlated with the time to reach 95%, 90%, and 50% of steady-state g s under the high light intensity (R 2 = 0.27-0.57, P 5 0.001; Supplemental Figure S1). Also the maximal slope of g s increase and decrease (Sl max,i and Sl max,d ) were significantly correlated with the time constant K as the magnitude of g s change was similar across genotypes (R 2 = 0.52 and 0.49 for g s increase and decrease, respectively, P 5 0.001; Supplemental Figure S1). During lightinduced stomatal opening comparable differences across genotypes were present in Sl max,i as in K i . The lowest Sl max,i values were observed for the genotype Cachaco and the highest values for Mbwazirume (Supplemental Figure S2 and Supplemental Table S1). Sl max,d was highest for the genotype Kluai Tiparot, while Leite showed the lowest Sl max,d (Supplemental Figure S2 and Supplemental Table S1). Analogous to the opening and closing time constant, the absolute slope of closing was significantly higher than the opening slope (P 5 0.001)."}]},{"head":"Impact of stomatal opening speed on A","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":285,"text":"The speed of the increase in g s following a step-change in light intensity from 100 to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 strongly determined CO 2 uptake during this period. The speed of changes in g s in all genotypes accounted for 489% of A limitation (Supplemental Figure S3A). The time to reach 95% of steady-state A at 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 (A 1,000 ) was 430 min for almost all genotypes and differed significantly between Cachaco (51.9 min) and the genotypes Mbwazirume (30.3 min) and Banksii (29.5 min; Figure 3A; Supplemental Figure S4 and Supplemental Table S2). This timing of A limitation was significantly correlated with the time to reach 95%, 90%, and 50% of steady-state g s (P 5 0.001, R 2 = 0.42-0.48), while there was no significant relation with the time to reach 95% or 90% of the maximum carboxylation rate of Rubisco (V cmax, Supplemental Figures S1 and S3). The timing to reach 95% of steadystate V cmax was 520 min in all genotypes, while the timing to reach 95% of steady-state g s was much longer and ranged between 41 and 69 min (Supplemental Figure S3 and Table S2). The durations of A limitation were also significantly correlated with the modeled time constant for g s increase (K i ; P 5 0.001, R 2 = 0.67; Supplemental Figure S1). The percentage limitation of A was significantly higher in Cachaco (20.6%) compared to the genotypes Mbwazirume (10.2%), Leite (10.2%), and Banksii (8.5%; Figure 3B) and was significantly related to both K i and the time to reach 90% and 50% of steady-state g s , confirming the impact of stomatal limitation on A (Supplemental Figure S1)."}]},{"head":"iWUE response to step-changes in light intensity","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The step increase in light intensity induced an initial increase in A that was relatively larger than the increase in g s ."},{"index":2,"size":88,"text":"Figure 1 Response of g s (orange) and A (black) of five banana genotypes to a step increase in light intensity from 100 to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 followed by a decrease from 1,000 to 100 mmol m -2 s -1 . Grey and white areas indicate time periods of 100 mmol m -2 s -1 and 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 , respectively. Dashed lines indicate when 95% of steady-state A was reached. Points and error bars represent mean ± SE (n = 7-8)."},{"index":3,"size":208,"text":"These responsiveness differences increased i WUE, reaching the maximum i WUE during the light period in all cases within 7.5 min (Supplemental Figure S5). After reaching a maximal value, i WUE decreased as both g s and A gradually increased (Supplemental Figure S5). i WUE only stabilized when both A and g s reached steady-state. The genotype Cachaco had a significantly higher mean i WUE during the high light period compared to Mbwazirume (Supplemental Figure S6). The mean i WUE during the high light period was significantly correlated with the time constant K i and Sl max,i with slower g s responses resulting in higher i WUE (R 2 = 0.12 and 0.42, P 5 0.05; Supplemental Figure S1). The reduction in light intensity from 1,000 to 100 mmol m -2 s -1 instantaneously lowered i WUE as A immediately declined because of light limitation (Supplemental Figure S5). The mean i WUE during this low light period was significantly higher in Kluai Tiparot, than in Leite (Supplemental Figure S6). The mean i WUE was significantly correlated to the stomatal closing variables K d and Sl max,d with faster g s responses resulting in higher i WUE (R 2 = 0.36 and 0.26, P 5 0.001; Supplemental Figure S1)."}]},{"head":"Stomatal anatomy","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Banana has elliptical-shaped guard cells surrounded by four to six subsidiary cells (Rudall et al., 2017). Abaxial stomatal density, stomatal length, guard cell size, and subsidiary cell size were quantified from the leaf part enclosed in the gas exchange cuvette and significant differences between genotypes were observed (Supplemental Figure S7). Stomatal density and stomatal length were not correlated with any of the modeled light-induced g s kinetics (Figure 4; Supplemental Figure S1). However, these correlations between anatomy and g s kinetics were significant if the genotype Cachaco with the lowest g s rapidity was not considered (Figure 4). In this case, stomatal density was significantly correlated with the time constant K as well as the maximum slope of g s response Sl max during both stomatal opening and closing (P 5 0.01; R 2 = 0.25-0.46)."}]},{"head":"Whole-plant transpiration response at dawn","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":276,"text":"The significant differences in g s speed at leaf level observed between the two extreme genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume were confirmed at the whole-plant level under a step increase in light intensity from darkness (Figure 5) and under a gradually increasing light intensity (Supplemental Figure S8). After the onset of light in the morning, the transpiration rate increased significantly faster in Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco (Figure 5, A and B; Supplemental Figure S8A). After a step increase in light intensity, a significant increase in transpiration rate was observed after c. 15 min in Mbwazirume, while in Cachaco this was only after 25 min (Figure 5, A and B). Similar faster increases in transpiration rate of Mbwazirume were observed under a gradually increasing light intensity (Supplemental Figure S8A). The temporal response of wholeplant transpiration rate to a step increase in light intensity was also modeled following the sigmoidal model (Eq. 1) and the time constants Ki differed significantly between genotypes (Supplemental Figure S9). Similar to the response at leaf level, Cachaco, had an average time constant K i of 20 min, while Mbwazirume, had a K i of 8.5 min (Supplemental Figure S9). The difference in transpiration responses was also reflected in the transpiration rate before and after dawn. The whole-plant transpiration rate did not differ significantly between both genotypes pre-dawn, but after the step change in light intensity, the transpiration rate was significantly higher in Mbwazirume for 90 min, whereafter both genotypes reached similar steadystate transpiration rates (Figure 5B). Likewise, the transpiration rate under gradually increasing light intensity did not differ pre-dawn, but was significantly higher in Mbwazirume after the onset of light (Supplemental Figure S8B)."}]},{"head":"Impact of diurnal light fluctuations on g s , A, and i WUE","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"To evaluate the impact of g s kinetics on diurnal A and i WUE, plants were subjected to fluctuating light intensities  and phenotyped over an entire diurnal period. Similar to the transpiration rate measured at the whole-plant level, the morning increase in g s at leaf-level under gradually increasing light intensity was faster in Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco (Figure 6A). The time constant for the g s increase (K i ) was significantly higher in Cachaco (P 5 0.005; Figure 6B). However, the faster increase of g s in Mbwazirume, did not result in increased A (Figure 6C). Maximum potential A values at specific light intensities were determined from light response curves and compared to those measured under the diurnal conditions. Under the gradual increasing light intensities experienced in the morning, maximum A values were achieved, indicating there was no g s limitation under these light-limiting conditions (Figure 7). A similar A with lower g s during the morning, led to a significantly higher mean i WUE in Cachaco (P 5 0.05, Figure 6D)."},{"index":2,"size":168,"text":"Throughout the day, g s kinetics were in most cases significantly faster for the genotype Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco (Figure 8A), again confirming the previously observed kinetics (Figures 2 and 5). However, under fluctuating light conditions g s kinetics were dependent on the magnitude of light intensity change, g s values prior to the light intensity change, and the time of the day (Figure 8A). During the afternoon, there was a setback in kinetics: the absolute g s and the g s responses to light were damped (Figures 7 and 8). Simultaneously, A decreased greatly in the afternoon, which could be mainly attributed to a reduction in g s . The limitation of A in the afternoon was 3 times higher in Cachaco (52.6%) compared to Mbwazirume (17.5%; Figures 7 and  9D). The reduction of g s in the afternoon resulted in a significantly lower average diurnal g s (Figure 9A) which translated into a greater diurnal i WUE in Cachaco compared to Mbwazirume (Figures 8C and 9C)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Stomatal behavior greatly limits A in banana","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":206,"text":"Step changes in light intensity have been shown to induce an uncoupling of A and g s in many species (Barradas and Jones, 1996;Lawson and Blatt, 2014;McAusland et al., 2016;Faralli et al., 2019a). However, all banana genotypes maintain a tight coupling between A and g s following a step increase in light intensity (Figure 1). This indicates a strong stomatal control of A, which is demonstrated by diffusional limitations accounting for 489% of A limitation (Supplemental Figure S3A). This high stomatal limitation of A is explained by the slow g s response (Figures 1 and 2) relative to the faster biochemical activation. The time required for biochemical activation was much lower and not correlated with the time for steady-state A and g s (Supplemental Figure S3). Similar to Deans et al. (2019a) and De Souza et al. (2020), the speed of changes in g s was the predominant limitation of A. This behavior shows that banana strongly controls stomatal aperture, resulting in water conservation at the expense of potential carbon gain, which supports the early work of Aubert and Catsky (1970). This prioritizing of water conservation in banana can be explained by its intrinsic need to maintain a high leaf water potential (Turner and Thomas, 1998)."}]},{"head":"Diversity in light-induced stomatal responses","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"Stomatal responses to changes in light intensity have been shown to vary at an inter-and intra-specific level (Vico et al., 2011;Drake et al., 2012;McAusland et al., 2016;Qu et al., 2016;De Souza et al., 2020;Durand et al., 2020). A higher steady-state g s has been linked with faster lightinduced g s responses (Drake et al., 2012;Kaiser et al., 2016;McAusland et al., 2016;Wachendorf and Ku ¨ppers, 2017;Sakoda et al., 2020). Although the differences observed in steady-state g s values between banana genotypes were not significant, their g s kinetics differed strongly (Figure 2). These results suggest that other factors such as stomatal anatomy, hydraulic conductance and membrane transporters are involved in determining the rapidity of changes in g s ."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"The banana B genome is often related to drought tolerance because of its center of origin and its natural occurrence in drier habitats under full sunlight (Perrier et al., 2011;Janssens et al., 2016;Eyland et al., 2021). Within the investigated banana genotypes, we observed significant differences in the speed of increase and decrease in g s (Figure 2, B  and C). However, differences across genotypes were not explained by their genomic constitution (see \"Materials and Methods\" section), which is in agreement with the wide diversity of transpiration phenotypes observed irrespective of genomic constitution (van Wesemael et al., 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Consistent with previous works in other species (Vico et al., 2011;McAusland et al., 2016;Faralli et al., 2019a), the speed of g s increase and decrease was significantly correlated (Figure 2D). Decreases in g s were faster than opening in all banana genotypes (Figure 2D), which is not the case for all crops (McAusland et al., 2016;Qu et al., 2016). The faster g s closure again indicates that banana prioritizes water conservation over maximization of carbon uptake."},{"index":4,"size":353,"text":"The two most extreme genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume, with the slowest and fastest g s responses, respectively, also showed at the whole-plant level differences in the light-induced speed of transpiration rate increase (Figure 5; Supplemental Figures S8 and S9). This finding suggests that despite possible differences in g s control of water loss at different locations of the leaf (Matthews et al., 2017) and across leaves of different ages (Urban et al., 2008) genotype-specific responses are still maintained. Leaf-level measurements of light-induced g s kinetics are thus in line with whole-plant responses. To our knowledge, this is the first report confirming stomatal kinetics at the whole-plant level. The genotype-specific difference in whole-plant transpiration responses at dawn was validated at the leaf level with g s increasing faster in Mbwazirume under gradually increasing light intensity (Figure 6A). This faster g s increase in Mbwazirume did not result in higher A, indicating that at dawn, under gradually increasing low light intensities, g s was not limiting A and was higher than necessary for maximal A (Figures 6 and 7). These results demonstrate that the impact of g s kinetics on A and i WUE depends on the time of the day and the light conditions. The uncoupling of g s and A under increasing light conditions at dawn was not beneficial for carbon uptake. Gosa et al. (2019) called this period after dawn in tomato the golden hour because in dry climates it is the time of the day with the highest g s . Later in the day, VPDs become too high, restricting g s (Gosa et al., 2019). Breeding for an even higher g s during this golden hour was suggested to improve plant productivity. However, care must be taken to breed for an improved morning CO 2 uptake, rather than for a high g s with associated uncoupling of A and g s . Although the absolute water loss resulting from excessive morning g s might be relatively low because of low evaporative demands at dawn (Chaves et al., 2016), it may lead to a crucial decrease in overall plant water status."},{"index":5,"size":289,"text":"Despite the confirmed genotypic differences in stomatal kinetics, the impact of g s kinetics on A and i WUE before noon hardly differed between the genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume under field-mimicking light conditions (Figures 7 and 8). This could be explained by lower amplitudes of light switches compared to a single step change in light intensity and/or g s values not being at steady-state prior to changing light intensity. The genotype-specific speed of the g s response observed under a single step change in light intensity did not explain the diurnal i WUE, indicating that g s kinetics only partially affect diurnal WUE and carbon gain (Figure 9, B and C). The absolute g s and the g s responses to light decreased strongly in the afternoon, and this effect was more pronounced in the genotype Cachaco (Figures 7 and 8A). The 3 times higher afternoon limitation of A in the genotype Cachaco compared to Mbwazirume, resulted in a significantly higher diurnal i WUE (Figure 9, C and D). The genotype Cachaco with the slowest g s kinetics thus achieved the highest i WUE, showing that not only g s speed but also the g s diurnal pattern determines the overall WUE and carbon gain. Although the mechanism behind the afternoon g s reduction remains largely unknown, it is commonly hypothesized to be related to circadian regulation of ABA sensitivity and associated endogenous signals regulating the clock, such as feedback loops from photosynthate accumulation (Mencuccini et al., 2000;Haydon et al., 2013;Delorge et al., 2014;Resco de Dios and Gessler, 2018). We show that under fluctuating light conditions this intrinsic diurnal pattern of absolute g s decrease and g s light responsivity reduction is decisive for diurnal i WUE (Figure 9C)."}]},{"head":"Impact of stomatal anatomy on responses","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Stomatal density, as well as the size, have been reported to affect g s kinetics (Hetherington and Woodward, 2003; Drake We confirmed that stomatal density and size were not correlated with the g s kinetics (Figure 4; Supplemental Figure S1). Remarkably, the genotype with the slowest increase in g s , Cachaco had the second highest density and the smallest stomata. Without this genotype a significant correlation between density and the speed of g s increase and decrease was observed (Figure 4). This exception suggests that the surface-to-volumes ratios are not always directly related to stomatal speed as this assumes uniform ion transport activity per surface area (Lawson and Blatt, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"Our findings show that there is diversity in g s rapidity to light within closely related banana genotypes and that slow stomatal responses and not biochemical activation greatly limit A. The priority of banana for water saving is shown by strong stomatal control of A and faster decrease in g s than increase. The observed diversity in g s rapidity was not related to stomatal anatomy and therefore suggests that variation is rather driven by functional components. We show here for the first time that the g s rapidity observed at the leaf level can also be found at the whole-plant level. However, under fluctuating light conditions, g s rapidity is only one of the many physiological factors determining overall plant WUE and carbon gain."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Experiment 1: Leaf gas exchange response to a stepchange in light intensity Plant material and growth conditions Banana plants (Musa spp.) were obtained through the International Musa Transit Center (ITC, Bioversity International), hosted at KU Leuven, Belgium. Plants of five genotypes from different subgroups were selected: Banksii (subgroup Banksii, AA genome, ITC0623), Cachaco (Bluggoe, ABB genome, ITC0643), Kluai Tiparot (Kluai Tiparot, ABB genome, ITC0652), Leite (Rio, AAA genome, ITC0277), and Mbwazirume (Mutika-Lujugira, AAA genome, ITC1356). Plants were grown in 800 mL containers filled with peatbased compost (Levingtons F2S, UK) under 350 mmol m -2 s -1 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) in a 12-h: 12h light: dark cycle with temperature and relative humidity at 26 ± 1 C and 70± 10%, respectively. Plants were wellwatered and starting from Week 3 a Hoagland nutrient solution was added. Measurements were performed when plants were fully acclimated and 7 weeks old."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Leaf gas exchange measurements A and g s to water were measured every 30 s on the middle of the second youngest fully developed leaf using an LI-6400XT infrared gas analysis and dew-point generator model LI-610 (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA). Light was applied by an integrated LED light source. The leaf cuvette maintained a CO 2 concentration of 400 mmol mol -1 , a leaf temperature of 25 C, and a VPD of 1 kPa. All measurements were performed before 14:00 h to avoid circadian influences."}]},{"head":"Stomatal response to a step change in light intensity","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"The light intensity was kept at 100 mmol m -2 s -1 until A and g s were stable for 10 min. Once steady-state was reached, light intensity was increased to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 for 90 min. Then, light intensity was lowered back to 100 mmol m -2 s -1 for 30 min."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"The increase in g s after the increase in light intensity and the decrease in g s after the decrease in light intensity followed a sigmoidal pattern and was modeled using the nonlinear sigmoidal model described in Vialet-Chabrand et al. (2017):"},{"index":3,"size":140,"text":"With g s the g s at time t, K the time constant for rapidity of g s response (min), k the lag time of the sigmoidal curve (min), g s,100 and g s,1,000 (mol m -2 s -1 ) the steady-state g s at 100 and 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 , respectively. Parameter values were estimated for each individual plant using nonlinear model optimization in R version 3.4.3. K i indicates the g s increase time constant, K d the g s decrease time constant. The maximum slope of g s during opening and closing was calculated and defined as Sl max . i WUE was calculated as i WUE = A/g s . Outlying values (0.5% quantile; i WUE 5 0 or 4400 mmol mol -1 ) caused by low g s were discarded for plotting."}]},{"head":"Stomatal and biochemical limitation analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"A was considered to be limited until 95% of steady-state A at 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 was reached (McAusland et al., 2016). The percentage of limitation of A was calculated by comparing the measured A with the maximal steady-state A under 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 according to McAusland et al. (2016):"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"With A max the value reached at 95% of steady-state A under 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 , A measured the measured A and t the time where 95% of steady-state A is reached."},{"index":3,"size":126,"text":"The delay in obtaining maximum potential A under 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 is determined by the stomatal opening speed as well as the rate of biochemical activation. The activation rate of Rubisco is the main biochemical limiting component during step changes in light exceeding several minutes (Mott and Woodrow, 2000;Way and Pearcy, 2012). To quantify the relative contributions of biochemical and stomatal limitations a differential method was applied (Jones, 1985;Wilson et al., 2000;Grassi and Magnani, 2005;Deans et al., 2019b where V cmax is the maximum velocity of Rubisco for carboxylation and g sc the g s to CO 2 . V cmax at every time point was calculated by solving the Rubisco-limited A as described by Farquhar et al. (1980) for V cmax :"},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"where C i is the CO 2 concentration in the intercellular airspaces of the leaf. R d represents the mitochondrial respiration for which average dark respiration rates were used. C* is the photorespiratory compensation point and K m is the effective the Rubisco Michaelis-Menten constant for CO 2 under 21% O 2 . Values for C* and K m were taken as the average for C3 species at 25 C as described by Hermida-Carrera et al."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"(2016), 41.2 and 529.4 mmol mol -1 , respectively. Mesophyll conductance to CO 2 was assumed to be infinite. g sc at every time point was calculated as:"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"The relative stomatal limitation (r stom ) was then calculated as:"},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"where t represents the time where 95% of steady-state A under 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 was reached. Timings representing the g s and A increase were calculated at 95%, 90%, and 50% of steady-state values under 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 . Timings for V cmax were calculated at 95% and 90% of steady-state values."}]},{"head":"Stomatal anatomy measurements","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Stomatal impressions of the abaxial surface of the leaf were made when stomata were completely closed using impression material. Impression was made by applying dental polymer according to the protocol of Weyers and Johansen (1985), followed by covering the polymer with nail varnish and placement on a microscope slide. Impressions were only taken from the abaxial side, because stomatal densities are generally 75% higher compared to the adaxial side in banana, therefore majorly determining gas exchange as shown by Brun (1961). Stomatal anatomy was quantified using an EVOS digital inverted microscope. Stomatal density was determined in three microscopic fields of views of 1.12 mm 2 captured with a 10Â objective lens (54-117 stomata per field of view). Guard cell length (mm), guard cell size (mm 2 ), and lateral subsidiary cell size (mm 2 ) were determined in three microscopic field of views of 0.07 mm 2 captured with a 40Â magnification, respectively (four to seven stomata per field of view). Measurements were performed in ImageJ software (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij)."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Experiment 2: Whole-plant transpiration response at dawn"},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Plant material and growth conditions greenhouse experiment For the genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume, 12 plants were grown for 7 weeks in a greenhouse prior to the experiment. Plants were grown in 10 L containers filled with peatbased compost. At the start of the experiments, the six most homogenous plants per genotype were selected based on leaf area. Weight of each plant was followed by a multilysimeter setup of high precision balances, registering the weight every 60 s (1 g accuracy, Phenospex, Heerlen, Netherlands). The soil was covered by plastic to avoid evaporation and ensure only waterloss through transpiration."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"The transpiration rate was calculated by differentiating the raw weight data over time. The soil water content was determined by subtracting the plastic pot weight, the dry soil weight, and the plant weight from the total weight measurement. Dry soil weight was calculated as a function of the soil volume (bulk density = 0.2267 g cm -3 ). Leaf area was calculated by weekly top view imaging and model over time by a power-law function (Paine et al., 2012):"},{"index":5,"size":113,"text":"The daily plant weight was estimated from the projected leaf area using genotype-specific correlations (n 4 50; R 2 5 0.94). Plants were watered with a nutrient solution during the night and kept at well-watered conditions. Radiation was collected every 5 min via a sensor (Skye instruments, Llandrindod Wells, UK) inside the greenhouse. Supplemental lighting of 14 W m -2 at plant level was provided when solar radiation was 5250 W m -2 during the daytime. Temperature and relative humidity data were collected using six data loggers (Trotec, Heinsberg, Germany ) registering data every 5 min. The onset of light was defined as the moment when intensity increased 42 W m -2 ."},{"index":6,"size":146,"text":"Plant material and growth conditions controlled environment experiment For the genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume, three plants were grown in a growth chamber with relative humidity of 70% and temperature of 24 C. Plants were grown hydroponically in containers with 350 mL medium (see van Wesemael et al. (2019) for specific nutrient composition) and placed under adjustable LED panels (LuminiGrow 600R1; Lumini technology Co. Ltd., Zhejiang, China) providing 120 mmol m -2 s -1 in a 12/12-h light/dark cycle. Plants were 5 weeks old at the start of the experiment and weighted prior to the experiment to normalize for plant mass. Biomass was again measured after 8 d, at the end of the experiment. Water loss of each plant was followed by a multilysimeter setup of high precision balances (0.01 g accuracy; Kern, Balingen, Germany). Balances were connected to a computer registering the weight every 10 s."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"Experiment 3: Impact of diurnal light fluctuations on g s , A, and i WUE Plant material and growth conditions Four plants of the genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume were grown in a greenhouse. Plants were grown in 4 L containers filled with peat-based compost and maintained under well-watered conditions. After 8 weeks plants were moved to a growth chamber with relative humidity 70 ± 15% and temperature 28 ± 2 C."},{"index":8,"size":120,"text":"Leaf gas exchange measurements A and g s were measured every minute on the middle of the second youngest fully developed leaf using an LI-6800 infrared gas analyzer (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA). The leaf cuvette maintained a CO 2 concentration of 400 mmol mol -1 , a leaf temperature of 28 C and a VPD of 1 kPa. The light intensity was programmed to fluctuate throughout the day. Plants were placed under adjustable LED panels (LuminiGrow 600R1; Lumini technology Co. Ltd.,Zhejiang, China) that mimicked light fluctuations inside the LI-6800 leaf cuvette. The g s response was described using the nonlinear sigmoidal model of Vialet-Chabrand et al. (2013) where light or dark steps were sufficiently long for model optimization (Eq. 1)."},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"A light response curve with A in function of PPFD was modeled for each individual based on A values recorded during the first 6 h of the day that was not limited by g s . The nonrectangular hyperbola-based model of Prioul and Chartier (1977) was optimized as described C Lobo et al. (2013):"},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"ÀR n (Eq. 9)"},{"index":11,"size":66,"text":"With A the photosynthetic rate (mmol m -2 s -1 ), PPFD (mmol m -2 s -1 ), U 0 the quantum yield at PPFD of 0 mmol m -2 s -1 (mmol mmol -1 ), A max the absolute maximum photosynthetic rate (mmol m -2 s -1 ), h the dimensionless convexity factor and R n the dark respiration (mmol m -2 s -1 )."},{"index":12,"size":38,"text":"The percentage of limitation of A by g s during the afternoon (46 h after light onset) was calculated by estimating the maximal potential A without g s limitation and comparing it with the measured A (Eq. 2)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 2 Figure2Modeled steady-state and light-induced variables of the g s response to a step increase and decrease in light intensity between 100 and 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 for five different banana genotypes (n = 7-8). A, Steady-state g s at 100 (g s,100 faded colors) and 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 (g s,1,000 bold colors). B, Time constant of g s increase (K i ) for different genotypes. Different letters indicate significant differences between genotypes (post hoc Tukey HSD test, P 5 0.05; A 4 B 4 C). C, Time constant of g s conductance decrease (K d ) for different genotypes. Different letters indicate significant differences between genotypes (post hoc Tukey HSD test, P 5 0.05; A 4 B 4 C). D, Significant correlation between K i and K d (Pearson's correlation, R 2 = 0.41, P 5 0.001). K i was significantly higher than K d . The solid line shows the linear regression, the dashed line shows the 1:1 line. Points and error bars represent mean ± SE (n = 7-8). The bold middle line in boxplots represents the median. The box is confined by the first and third quartile and the whiskers extend to 1.5 times the interquartile distance. Points falling outside the whiskers are considered outliers and plotted as dots. "},{"text":"Figure 3 Figure 3 Limitation of A after the increase in light intensity from 100 to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 . A, Time to reach 95% of the steady-state A for five different banana genotypes. B, Percentage limitation of A after the increase in light intensity. Different letters indicate significant differences between genotypes (post hoc Tukey HSD test, P 5 0.05; n = 7-8; A 4 B). The bold middle line in boxplots represents the median. The box is confined by the first and third quartile and the whiskers extend to 1.5 times the interquartile distance. Points falling outside the whiskers are considered outliers and plotted as dots. "},{"text":"Figure 4 Figure4Relation between abaxial stomatal density and the time constant describing the speed of g s increase after the light intensity increase from 100 to 1,000 mmol m -2 s -1 . There was no significant correlation (Pearson's correlation test), caused by the outlying genotype Cachaco. Points and error bars represent mean ± SE (n = 7-8). "},{"text":"Figure 5 Figure5Gravimetric transpiration rate analysis of genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume at dawn after a step increase in light intensity from 0 to 120 mmol m -2 s -1 . A, A breakpoint was identified in whole-plant transpiration after the step increase in light intensity. The timing of the breakpoint in transpiration after dawn differed significantly between the genotype Cachaco and Mbwazirume (n = 24, P 5 0.01, linear mixed-effects model with plant-specific and date-specific random effect). B, Transpiration rate after dawn increased faster in Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco. Before dawn transpiration rates did not differ significantly. Similarly transpiration rates do not differ significantly after 90 min (24 datapoints per time range for both Cachaco and Mbwazirume, * for P 5 0.05, ** for P 5 0.01, linear mixed-effects model with plant-specific and datespecific random effect). Gray areas indicate the time before dawn. The bold middle line in boxplots represents the median The box is confined by the first and third quartile and the whiskers extend to 1.5 times the interquartile distance. "},{"text":"Figure 6 Figure 6 Morning response of g s and A of the genotypes Cachaco and Mbwazirume. A, Time course of the g s response to a gradual increase in light intensity at dawn (black line). Data are the mean ± SE (n = 4). B, The time constant of g s increase (K i ) during the first 90 min after dawn was significantly higher in Cachaco. C, The difference in g s rapidity at dawn did not result in different A between both genotypes. Data represent the mean ± SE (n = 4). D, The mean i WUE during the first 90 min after dawn was significantly higher in Cachaco compared to Mbwazirume. The gray area indicates the time before dawn. (Student's t test, *P 5 0.05, ** P 5 0.01). "},{"text":"Figure 7 Figure 7 Mean diurnal time course of measured A (A measured and maximal A (A max, black line) under fluctuating light conditions for Mbwazirume and Cachaco. The A max at each light intensity was determined by a modeled light response curve. The nonrectangular hyperbola-based model of Prioul and Chartier (1997) was optimized as described by Lobo et al. (2013). Grey areas indicate times of darkness, red areas indicate the difference between maximal A and measured A. Data are the mean ± SE (n = 4). "},{"text":"Figure 8 Figure 8 Diurnal time course of gas exchange parameters of the genotypes Mbwazirume and Cachaco under fluctuating light conditions. A, g s , (B) A, and (C) i WUE. The light intensity fluctuated throughout the day (black line). The significance of the time constant of g s increase or decrease (K) and the maximal slope of g s increase or decrease (Sl max ) is shown (Student's t test, *P 5 0.05 and **P 5 0.01 for faster g s rapidity in Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco). Throughout the day, g s kinetics were faster for the genotype Mbwazirume compared to Cachaco, but differences were dependent on the target light intensity, the magnitude of change, the g s prior to the intensity change, and the time of the day. Gray areas indicate times of darkness. Green areas indicate the analyzed time frame of the g s rapidity response. Blue areas indicate time points with significant differences in A or i WUE between both genotypes (Student's t test, P 5 0.05). Data are the mean ± SE (n = 4). "},{"text":"Figure 9 Figure 9 Average diurnal gas exchange parameters of the genotypes Mbwazirume and Cachaco under fluctuating light conditions illustrated in Figure 8. A, g s , (B) A, and (C) iWUE. D, The percentage limitation of A during the afternoon (46 h after light onset). (Student's t test, * P 5 0.05, n = 4). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ). As explained byDeans et al. (2019b), the forgone A because of biochemical and stomatal limitation was calculated as: dA biochem ¼ oA oV cmax dV cmax (Eq. 3) dA biochem ¼oA oV cmaxdV cmax(Eq. 3) and    and dA stom ¼ oA og sc dg sc (Eq. 4) dA stom ¼oA og scdg sc(Eq. 4)  "}],"sieverID":"413d58f8-2a79-4f9c-9b46-475fdc8017e5","abstract":"Senior author. S.C. and T.L. supervised the experiments. D.E. performed the leaf gas exchange experiments. J.v.W. performed the whole-plant transpiration experiment. D.E., J.v.W., and S.C. analyzed the data. D."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04c7e9aab162dc195dcc0ad543ae9c7e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7db2b9cc-cc9b-4d59-8a04-4991a7b8a7b3/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The workshop was introduced by Dirk Hoekstra, IPMS Project manager, who described gender as 'an integral part of the value chain development strategy, used by the project'. Stephen Sandiford, Senior Development Officer at CIDA gave a welcome address followed by John Mc Dermott, ILRI's Deputy Director General for research who emphasized the idea of 'multiplying the benefits and mitigating the risks faced by women accessing assets and climbing the livestock ladder' as a pathway out of poverty."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"See Dirk Hoekstra full presentation, Observations and reflections on AgriGender workshop 2011 Following the welcome, keynote speaker and workshop co-organizer Jemimah Njuki, sociologist and gender specialist at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) delivered her presentation Working with women and men in agricultural market development: The missing link, in which she states that market-oriented agriculture will succeed in helping women only if it moves beyond 'doing right for women.' To get market-oriented agriculture to work for women, Njuki suggests the following ways for creating a level playing field for women in agricultural production."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Increase women's decision-making in agricultural projects to enable them play a role in identifying markets and commodities in specific value chains. ' Work with both men and women because women are a part and parcel of households and communities that include their husbands, brothers and other men. Raise women's assertiveness and leadership skills by linking them directly with (especially urban) consumers who buy their products so that the women producers understand how markets work and what kinds of products their clients prefer."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Encourage women to organize themselves in groups, which give them better bargaining power in markets, provide access to financial and other services."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Increase women's access to technologies and inputs and services to ensure that they can continue to adopt improved production practices needed to meet new and changing market needs and demands."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"In his address, Ato Wondirad Mandefro, State Minister of Agriculture in Ethiopia, acknowledged the workshop as being the first dialogue on Gender and Market-oriented"}]},{"head":"John McDermott","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Dirk Hoekstra Agriculture in Ethiopia, \"aiming at paving the way to put science and research to practice\". He added that \"addressing gender imbalance in market oriented activities is a priority in Ethiopia.\" According to him, the lessons shared, the strategies, approaches and an understanding of what makes them effective in the Ethiopian context will be immensely helpful to the Government in designing strategies to scale them out to assist the process of agricultural transformation."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"During the workshop, presentations were structured around four themes selected to give a full picture of gender and agricultural marketing."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"Theme 1: Gender in market oriented agriculture and value chains Ann Waters-Bayer, agricultural sociologist and senior advisor with ETC EcoCulture, presented Promoting gender equality and empowering women through livestock in which she asserts that livestock can give women a chance to control more income and, reduce gender inequality. According to Waters-Bayer, women are presently still overlooked in livestock interventions and she discusses supporting women's local innovations, implementing strong gender analysis and improving women's access to training and education, among others, as ways to recognize women's roles thus changing mindsets of professionals regarding women's contribution to livestock."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"Look for 'Five lessons to integrate gender in marketoriented agriculture' by Ann Waters-Bayer on http:// ilrivideo.blip.tv/ Lemlem Aregu, IPMS Gender Specialist, discussed the constraints marginalizing women farmers in Ethiopia's 10 Pilot Learning Woredas of IPMS in her presentation The role of women in crop value chains. She compares gender characteristics in Ethiopia's rural populations related to labour, crop production, marketing, technology adoption, access to information and their implications for market-led development."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"Jemimah Njuki, ILRI Team Leader, Poverty, Gender and Impact, addresses key research questions on livestock and women's economic empowerment in Gender and livestock value chains in Kenya and Tanzania. Women's access to Day 1 Jemimah Njuki livestock production resources is inhibited by genderbased constraints and even though women are involved in and may control production, they often do not own the means of production -namely, livestock, land and water. Furthermore, gender participation in commercialised livestock markets is still inequitable."},{"index":6,"size":91,"text":"Rekha Mehra, Director of economic development at the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), in Gender reviews and strategies for cotton sector development in six countries of sub-Saharan region emphasizes the role of cotton as a major cash crop in Malawi, Zambia and Uganda. As women provide much of the labour for all aspects of cotton production but do not get returns or very little, it is important to design gender integration strategies in order to fully acknowledge women's role as farmers and give them their due share of benefits."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"Questions about these presentations were then addressed in a short discussion with the four speakers. Among others, those tackled issues of women's roles to supply input:"},{"index":8,"size":53,"text":"\"we should also consider the role of women in other segments of the value chain\" (Rekha Mehra), what livestock enterprises for women: \"we have to take into account what women want and not be restrictive\" (Ann Waters-Bayer), challenges regarding extension services: \"reaching men and women simultaneously is the key entry point\" (Lemlem Aregu)."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"Peter Ballantyne, head of ILRI Knowledge Management and Information Services (KMIS), then facilitated round table discussions in groups aiming at raising 'burning questions' not addressed in the morning session. Those were:"},{"index":10,"size":55,"text":"1. Where and why specifically have we failed to get a gender balance in market-oriented agriculture? Is it due to our traditions and cultures? Inappropriate policies? Lack of implementation of those policies? 2. Why have we seen such little movement toward gender equality at all levels of society over the past 20 to 30 years?"},{"index":11,"size":51,"text":"3. How, and how much, does national policy affect the implementation of recommendations to better link rural women farmers to markets? 4. Are there policy and investment actions that can ensure that women benefit much more, and much faster, from programs working for agricultural transformation and growth? What are these actions?"},{"index":12,"size":19,"text":"5. What are the main challenges in the practical applications of strategies to engage more women in market-oriented agriculture?"},{"index":13,"size":20,"text":"6. Should we build on existing cultures to help bring about gender equality? If so, how could we do this?"},{"index":14,"size":14,"text":"7. Is there a role for rural women as 'middle-women' in agricultural business enterprises?"},{"index":15,"size":26,"text":"8. What particular services will help women most to achieve gender equity? How should these services be provided, and measured, along the whole agricultural value chain?"},{"index":16,"size":65,"text":"Theme 2: Strategies for integrating gender and women in market oriented agriculture Muhammad N.A. Siddiquee from CARE Bangladesh talked about the most socially, politically and economically marginalized women in Strengthening the dairy value chain in Bengladesh. CARE strategic decisions are aiming at economically empowering women whose opportunities as dairy producers, collectors, processors, livestock health workers and input sellers are limited by tradition and gender roles."},{"index":17,"size":35,"text":"A market place followed by a cocktail where participants could exchange and share about their projects took place after the afternoon presentations. Posters and leaflets from various organizations were displayed. There were also some videos."},{"index":18,"size":102,"text":"Strategies for reaching women with services (Theme 3) Isabelle Baltenweck, ILRI Agricultural economist, discussed the advantages of the Hub approach in Using hubs to increase access to services by smallholder farmers: Experiences from the East Africa Dairy Development Project. The EADD project employs a 'hub' approach, which provides a flexible way to provide input and output services to small farmers, many of whom are women. A new strategy aiming to put more women on the front lines of the project should lead to more women joining extension work, including working as trainers and helping to make decisions in hub budgeting and operations."},{"index":19,"size":143,"text":"Yisehak Baredo, IPMS Research development officer from Goma district, explains in Gender focused service provision and its impact: IPMS Goma experience how households in a small village in Goma have begun doubling their income from fattening sheep. The project began in March 2008, when farmers were first offered loans to buy the sheep. The improved feed supplements they used reduced the fattening period, enabling the farmers to bring their sheep to market in three months, instead of the usual eight to ten months. In early 2008, several men resisted the inclusion of women in the project and some women dropped out. Still, women made up 38 of the 117 farmers in the program. In fact, women ranked first and second place for a 'best-practice' award organized by the district and IPMS, proving that given the chance, women can excel in innovative agricultural ventures."},{"index":20,"size":20,"text":"Read more on Improved fattening doubles incomes from sheep raising in western Ethiopia-Top two innovators are women, ILRI news blog."},{"index":21,"size":94,"text":"Gizachew Sisay, Senior value chain advisor at Oxfam GB, followed with a presentation on gender and apiculture: Women's economic leadership through honey value chain development in Ethiopia. Traditionally women have not engaged in beekeeping as hives are hung on trees and women did not climb. But modern hives are placed on the ground and do not need much labour, land or expensive agricultural inputs. After challenging the existing attitudes and stereotypes about women and allowing more women beekeepers to access new skills/knowledge, Oxfam interventions increased women's participation in coops by 45% in some places."},{"index":22,"size":224,"text":"Read a blog in French about Sisay's presentation on http:// tinyurl.com/46u8m6c Berhanu Adenew, Senior Researcher from the Ethiopian Economics Association (EEA), involved in \"Researching Women's Collective Action\", project implemented by Oxfam GB, elaborated on Characteristics of women's collective action for enabling women's participation in agricultural markets: Preliminary findings from Ethiopia. While women are often under represented or excluded from profitable agricultural markets; another challenge is that where collective action appears to provide women with clear economic benefits, they often become a target of male encroachment. After conducting research about gender roles and economics in the agricultural sector in Ethiopia, the project aims at characterizing the different forms of collective actions existing in sub sectors. Read more on What will it take for women farmers to break away from the hearth-and into the marketplace?, ILRI news blog. Jemimah Njuki, ILRI Team Leader, Poverty, Gender and Impact, addresses Impacts of commercialization of crop and livestock products on income control by women: Evidence from Malawi and Uganda in her presentation. It focuses on what influences income management by women, based on a study of a sample of 457 households in Malawi and Uganda and comparing income control by men and women. Conclusions stress that, among others, programs aimed at increasing commercialization or using a value chain approach need to take into account these gender and intra-household dynamics."},{"index":23,"size":69,"text":"Elizabeth Waithanji, ILRI Post-doctoral scientist, presents a case study from The Meru goat breeders' association (MGBA): a poor farmers' empowerment initiative highlighting where women benefit the most and the least in the value chain in terms of division of labour, access to markets, access to goats and milk and their income because of differences in decision making, access to technologies and participation in different stages of the value chain."}]},{"head":"Working groups on strategies, access to services and impacts","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"In a session facilitated by Peter Ballantyne, ILRI, six groups were established to brainstorm and come up with policy related questions related to their topic. Two of these worked on access to services, two on strategies for enhancing women's participation in value chains and two on impact of such interventions. Questions were captured both on audio and paper. This session elicited multiple ideas for moving the discussions on strategies, access and impact forward through policy issues."}]},{"head":"Ten policy issues were later identified at the six table discussions:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Ensure that policymakers demand gendered evidence 1."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"and base their decisions on that evidence. Conduct a review of current policies and monitor their 2."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"implementation."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Integrate gender into the educational curriculum, from 3."},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"first grade to last."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Provide women with access to low-risk credit and 4."},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"insurance services."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"Thoroughly document and broadly disseminate good 5."},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"gender practices."},{"index":10,"size":9,"text":"Review policies for their coherence: ensure that some 6."},{"index":11,"size":13,"text":"do not undermine others. Demand that a certain number of women are 7."},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"empowered in each local development project."},{"index":13,"size":10,"text":"Target women for capacity building and give them easy 8."},{"index":14,"size":5,"text":"access to information and finances."},{"index":15,"size":10,"text":"Ensure that women have access to suitable services and 9."},{"index":16,"size":1,"text":"technologies."},{"index":17,"size":8,"text":"Obtain quantitative data on the inter-household impacts 10."},{"index":18,"size":4,"text":"and dynamics of interventions."}]},{"head":"Policy forum","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Afterwards, a panel comprising seven professionals (representing NGO, donors, Ethiopian Government, United Nations, research) was asked to comment on the policy issues identified. This discussion was facilitated by John McDermott, ILRI Deputy Director General."}]},{"head":"Question #1: How are we going to coordinate this gender work and who should communicate it?","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The government should be in charge, but supported by 1."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"other institutions, which should find ways to work better with government. We need both top-down and bottom-up conversations 2. and should continuously be making suggestions for revising policies. Donors are trying to align themselves with government 3."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"strategies but sometimes run into roadblocks regarding some social issues."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"The coordination of work between a country's 4."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"agricultural research system and the government must be transparent."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Question #2: Do we need a policy framework to pull things together? If so, what is the one thing that must be in that policy framework?"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"Institutions that can support the policies. 1."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"Clear national and regional policies that we can 2."},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"support."},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"Mechanisms for implementing policies."}]},{"head":"3.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Participatory policymaking and people-centered policies. 4."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Ways spelled out to make policies functional. 5."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Effective ways to build capacity on the ground. 6."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"An institution responsible for linking institutions and 7."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"monitoring policy implementation."},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"Question #3: We seem to not do things very well; how can we help ministers make better decisions?"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"Mainstream gender across programs. 1."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"Make women part of the teams designing programs. 2."},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"Resource those programs appropriately. 3."}]},{"head":"Question #4: The panel doesn't seem to see a problem with policies per se, but rather with their implementation. What other ways do we have to ground policies in the realities of poor countries?","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Write the rights of women into constitutions, as Rwanda 1."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"has done. View women's issues as a societal, not gender, issues. 2."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Get local women involved higher up the value chain."}]},{"head":"3.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Build the capacity of staff to implement policies. 4."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Employ strategies that help change attitudes and 5."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"mindsets about women."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Question #5: So we see that there are things that work at local and regional levels, but ministers need to decide on national agricultural policies. What kind of leverage points are successful African countries such as Ghana and Rwanda using? How do we make a difference for women?"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"First, identify the potential 1. benefits of a project and then determine how many women would benefit. Demonstrate ways in which both men and women can 2."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"'win'. Don't rely on policies sitting in vacuums-unattached 3."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"to the budgets, participatory process, capacity building, gender-friendly attitudes needed to make them workto work. At the same time, don't attach policies too strongly 4."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"to specific things-such as a cash crop, cooperative, or particular government-because these are unsustainable and can be manipulated for gain by the few."}]},{"head":"Question #6: What pieces of friendly advice would you give to the Ethiopian State Minister?","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Look and learn from lessons on the ground. 1."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"We have the policies; use them effectively. 2."},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Monitor projects continuously."}]},{"head":"3.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Evaluate projects regularly. 4."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Give districts the support they need to translate national 5."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"aims into local actions. Support the education of all children. 6."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Focus on what farmers are efficient at. 7."},{"index":5,"size":10,"text":"Be outward looking: take in lessons from the wider 8."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"region."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"At the end of the session, John McDermott focused on the five following key points:"},{"index":8,"size":4,"text":"It's really about 1."},{"index":9,"size":9,"text":"how we work. There are good lessons out there."}]},{"head":"2.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"We need to work together."}]},{"head":"3.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Government has the lead role. 4."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"We need to find ways to work well with governments. 5."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"As the workshop drew to a close, Dirk Hoekstra, IPMS project manager, shared his observations on the workshop about the necessary holistic approach to gender, the need for flexibility, the gender sensitization and the scaling out, among others."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"On day 3, a field visit was organized to Debre Zeit where participants visited the Ada Dairy Cooperative and were introduced to Tigist Weycha, a mother of three and dairy producer."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"As Paul Karaimu, ILRI writer and editor, reports, in Rural transformation: How a dairywoman and beekeeper in the Ethiopian highlands turned their farms into profitable businesses linked to markets, Weycha is a member of the local Ada'a Dairy Cooperative that processes about 5,000 litres of milk a day obtained from farmers in the area. She owns 12 cattle, including 7 improved-breed dairy cows. She has been in the milk business for six years, though her livestock husbandry experience goes back 11 years."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"A goal of the IPMS project was to help improve livelihoods of the poor in Ethiopia by linking rural smallholder producers to markets. The project facilitated setting up a collection center by the Ada'a Cooperative near her village, which became a reliable buyer of her milk. The project trained her, along with other women, in managing her dairy farm business and animals. The benefits she has accrued as a result of this are clear to see six years on."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"Weycha is one of the successful dairy farmers in Debre Zeit. With support from her family and her husband-who is trained in animal health management and uses this expertise on the farm-she has excelled as a model dairy farmer. Weycha feeds her cows mostly on maize and teff residues and alfalfa. She supplements this with wheat bran, oil cake and molasses that she buys every two weeks from traders in Debre Zeit town."},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Participants also visited another participant in the IPMS project, Elfnesh Bermeji, a beekeeper who makes 50 birr for every kilogramme of honey she sells from her 20 modern and traditional hives. She harvests the honey twice a year and has used the income from its sale to build a home and educate her children, who are now supporting themselves after graduating from university."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Read more on IPMS approaches for innovative apiculture development in ADA."},{"index":10,"size":112,"text":"A reflective session took place after the visits where participants were asked to highlight the key message that they were going to take back from the workshop and field visit. For one participant, the message was 'all good development activity starts with research and ends with research', implying that understanding issues thoroughly at the outset to design appropriate strategies to achieve one's objectives then try to understand the impacts (what works and what does not) should help to inform future actions, activities and programs. Dirk Hoekstra also stressed that reducing the burden of women through family planning should be emphasized, since this would enable them to participate more fully in productive activities."}]},{"head":"Workshop materials and resources","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"This event was reported with a range of mainstream and social media. View the meeting outputs online:  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Lemlem Aregu, IPMS Gender Specialist, started the afternoon session with a presentation entitled Strategies for increasing women's participation in commodity value chain development: Experiences from IPMS. Aregu describes the approaches used by IPMS project in Ethiopia to increase women's participation in value chain, women's access to information, and highlights 10 do's and don'ts in initiatives attempting to mainstream gender in market oriented agriculture. Kassahun Belay, from the Ethiopia Dairy Development Project of Land O'Lakes, presented The role of women entrepreneurs in the dairy value chain activities: Ruth and Hirut Milk production and Milk processing PLC, Ethiopia region. After an overview of women's challenges in the dairy sector, he introduces the RHMPP project,a women owned and operated dairy farm which aims at integrating female dairy farmers into the formal dairy sector. Gerald Mutinda, from East Africa Dairy Development (EADD), discussed the integration of gender in Stepping out in the right direction: Integrating gender in East Africa Dairy development. After introducing EADD and the specific gender issues presenting challenges in the project, he discussed the strategies implemented in order to include and empower women at all operational levels. "},{"text":" Gendered impacts of market linkages and market integrationThe presentations under this theme discussed impacts of strategies/interventions for enhancing women's participation in value-chain development.RanjithaPuskur, ILRI Team Leader, Innovation in Livestock Systems, presented Socio-economic outcomes of women's participation in market oriented commodity development: Evidence from IPMS in which she discusses the results of a survey of 586 sample women farmers who have participated in IPMS interventions spread over 10 PLWs in Ethiopia. Their profiles, decision-making over technologies introduced, sales, income control, workload etc. are assessed and challenges highlighted. "},{"text":" Photos on FlickrShort video interviews with speakers and participants Audio interviews and podcasts The workshop wiki: http://agrigender.wikispaces.com The AgriGender blog: http://agrigender.wordpress.com Gender Mainstreaming Is Just Beginning http://ilri.blip.tv/file/4870411 Evidence Is Needed to Improve Women's Development http://ilri.blip.tv/file/4870419 Can Complex Gender Issues Be Translated Into Enabling Policies for Women? http://ilri.blip.tv/file/4870429 Training Men and Women Farmers Together Could Help Both Make More Money http://ilri.blip.tv/file/4870441 Getting Gender Issues into People's Heads and Hearts http://ilri.blip.tv/file/4870500 "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"ae0c0745-d163-40e4-94e7-e195dfcc4cf0","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"058a7ac3558a572e16e7bb17249b6083","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a235651-c527-459d-87d1-4eb486f70185/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":["P273 -[Program Management Unit] CCAFS Comms and Core Partnerships for Scaling CSA","P272 -[Program Management Unit] CCAFS Coordinating Unit at WUR (P272)","P267 -[Flagship Leader] FP3: Engagement, synthesis and support","P263 -RPL EA: Regional and national engagement, synthesis and strategic research OICR: Outcome Impact Case Report Contributing CRPs/Platforms:","CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Contributing Flagships:","FP3: Low emissions development","FP2: Climate-Smart Technologies and Practices","FP1: Priorities and Policies for CSA Contributing Regional programs:","EA: East Africa Contributing external partners:","FAO -Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations"],"chapters":[{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Through a combination of strategic research and engagement with agriculture negotiators, CCAFS was instrumental in the decision at COP23 to advance action on agriculture under the UNFCCC through the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (17). This outcome builds on previous outcomes on informing the UNFCCC process (2012 and 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"Over the past several years, CCAFS published several research products to inform the UNFCCC negotiations on agriculture and provided submissions to the technical body of the UNFCCC (SBSTA). This research built the case for including agriculture under the UNFCCC in three key ways. First, an analysis of agriculture in Parties' Intended Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement demonstrated that there was strong interest among a majority of countries for action on climate change in the agriculture sector (1,2). Second, a study on the necessary reduction in emissions from agriculture in order to limit global temperature increase to 2°C showed the importance of the agriculture sector to meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement (3). Third, a series of briefs and submissions provided negotiators with concrete, science-backed options for adapting agriculture to climate change, both in terms of technical practices and policy measures (4,5,6)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"To ensure that these research messages reached UNFCCC negotiators, CCAFS conducted media dissemination campaigns (7,8,9), held numerous side events at UNFCCC negotiations (10,11,12) and organized workshops for agriculture negotiators to share findings and allow groups of negotiators to formulate their positions (13,14,15,16,18). Support was provided to the African Group of Negotiators (AGN), the Independent Association of Latin America and the Caribbean countries, and countries within the Association of South East Asian countries."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"Several UNFCCC negotiators have attested to the importance of CCAFS research and outreach efforts in enabling them to reach a decision at COP 23. Fred Kossam, leader of the AGN agriculture team, wrote, \"Without CCAFS and other partners support we could [not] have gotten [to] this milestone decision after 6 yrs of tough negotiations\" (19). George Wamukoya, team leader of the AGN Expert Support team, thanked CCAFS for support in reaching the agriculture decision (20). And Victoria Hatton, agriculture negotiator for New Zealand, noted that \"CCAFS research and policy work on the NDCs has really contributed to the discussions in the SB negotiations, underpinning some of the key arguments that we have used to demonstrate the importance of agriculture to meeting the Paris Goal\" (21)."}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"c3f08662-95b7-4a2a-bd28-d21a53962495","abstract":"CCAFS's research and engagement were instrumental in supporting the UNFCCC COP23 decision on the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture. CCAFS provided scientific evidence on the importance of agriculture to the Paris Agreement goals, analysis of mitigation and adaptation in the NDCs, and concrete technical and policy options for addressing agriculture in UNFCCC negotiations, and convened workshops that negotiators cited as critical to enabling them to formulate their positions and come to an agreement."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0591e9090e1c04cab05c8bbfb9b5b331","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b473b454-1560-4175-bfde-3eb83f630beb/retrieve"},"pageCount":38,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"K","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"enya declared drought a national disaster and appealed for local and international help in February 2017. Drought has become more frequent in the past 10 years, affecting about 23 counties in 2017. This is not surprising given that agriculture is the most vulnerable sector to climate change and extreme weather events. Media reports indicate the rate of malnutrition is above emergency levels in some areas while other parts of the country have serious acute malnutrition levels. Furthermore, a report by Relief Web shows that the number of people that are currently acutely food insecure in Kenya has doubled to 2.7 million from 1.3 million in August 2016."},{"index":2,"size":146,"text":"The Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Strategy (KCSAS) has been developed to guide investments and implementation of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) activities guaranteeing productivity and food security, while addressing climate change adaptation and mitigation. The strategy was jointly developed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR) and other government ministries and departments with support from the World Bank through the Kenya Adaptation to Climate Change in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (KACCAL) project, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The team involved in developing the strategy comprised of experts from diverse disciplines, and included environment, crops, livestock, fisheries, meteorology, forestry, irrigation, policy formulation and climate change. The overall objective of the strategy is to build resilience and minimize emissions from agricultural farming systems for enhanced food and nutritional security and improved livelihoods."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"The strategy identifies four broad strategic areas:"},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"• Adaptation and building resilience by addressing vulnerability due to changes in rainfall and temperature, extreme weather events and unsustainable land/water management and utilization;"},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Mitigation of GHG's emissions from key and minor sources in agriculture sector;"},{"index":6,"size":16,"text":"• Establishment of an enabling policy, legal and institutional framework for effective implementation of CSA; and"},{"index":7,"size":23,"text":"• Minimizing effects of underlying cross cutting issues such as human resource capacity and finance which would potentially constrain realization of CSA objectivities."},{"index":8,"size":42,"text":"The coordination framework and implementation mechanism for the strategy will be harmonized within an inter-governmental coordination structure which is under development and will be mainly implemented by the county governments. The strategy will be reviewed periodically to address emerging challenges and issues. "}]},{"head":"Policy and engagement","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Andrew Mude of ILRI, shared about the Index-Based Livestock Insurance (IBLI) project that is helping pastoralists manage risks of drought-related livestock losses, emphasizing that the impact of risk to the communities in drylands is immense. He highlighted that rigorous impact assessments have revealed considerable socio-economic and behavioural benefits of IBLI, drawing from policy and partner support. A key outcome of IBLI, has been getting the Government of Kenya to take up the concept as part of the Kenya Livestock Insurance Program (KLIP). IBLI scientists and the World Bank in Kenya have been invited by the Government of Kenya as technical and policy advisors to the KLIP program. He concluded that going to scale will require careful research and development efforts Greenhouse gas emissions from livestock production systems are the largest source of agricultural emissions in East Africa. The livestock sector thus represents the best opportunity for mitigation in the region."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"to further unlock the barriers, and an alignment of policy and technological forces."},{"index":3,"size":133,"text":"Katie Tavenner of ILRI highlighted the need to get the gender indicators right in order to define how to measure the impact of development interventions for men and women. There is need to consider how gender power dynamics influence the participation of men and women in mitigation activities earmarked as climate-smart. In the Kenyan dairy sector, for example, four issues emerged as critical-milk marketing, labor dynamics, intersectionality and gender equity. Dairy is a male-dominated sector in Kenya, and gender dynamics influence farmers' ability to effectively participate in and benefit from low emissions dairy development. Acknowledging credible data alone is not enough, there is need to engage farmers to demonstrate why it is important to adopt strategies and technologies produced, as well as demonstrate to donors why they need to invest in such initiatives."}]},{"head":"Mitigation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Her presentation was followed by a speed-talk from David Pelster, of ILRI's Mazingira Centre. David's presentation focused on improving estimates of greenhouse gas fluxes from livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa, specifically emission factors from ruminants, manure management, and storage. Their research focuses on getting an actual depiction of the practice in the field, to obtain accurate methane conversion factors. The findings show that the current models are likely using incorrect emission factors for Africa, as they use emission factors from other regions with different climate, soils, management and livestock breed due to limited dataset for Africa. The Mazingira Center was set up to fill this void."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Charles Odhong from UNIQUE forestry and land use shared experiences and lessons from developing the Kenya dairy Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) concept for GCF funding, highlighting the development process, including establishing partnerships, stakeholder consultations and training, and in-depth studies. The dairy NAMA is expected to transform Kenya's dairy sector to a low-emission development pathway, while improving the livelihoods of male and female dairy farmers. He concluded that there is limited research on adaptation implications of mitigation strategies, and on effectiveness of delivery mechanisms."}]},{"head":"Science and partnerships for impact","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Bruce Campbell, Director of CCAFS, emphasized the need for dramatic change in how we do research now; we have to become much more effective, outcome-oriented, focused, and different from what we are. We need to embrace the \"three-thirds approach\" (engagement, evidence, outreach) for the future of research."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Drawing on this approach, Evan Girvetz of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) showed how engagement, evidence and outreach together lead to impact and outcomes. Partnerships and early engagement with key stakeholders are critical, and the process is as important as the final product. Decision-makers want evidence, and they see the CGIAR and CCAFS as key technical and knowledge partners to provide them with the evidence. Communication and capacity building are equally critical to translating high-level frameworks and guidelines into on-the-ground impact."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Edidah Ampaire of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (IITA) shared successful examples of influencing change in policies in Tanzania and Uganda through multistakeholder platforms. Their project on Policy Action for Climate Change (PACCA) supported by CCAFS, adopted the learning alliances approach to foster exchange of new climate knowledge, ensure multi-actor climate action and connect public policy formulation and implementation structures at different governance levels to enhance policy implementation."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"To bring it all together, the presentations and speedtalks were followed by a panel discussion moderated by Ravi Prabhu -Deputy Director General (Research), World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and comprised of the following panelists:"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"• Dawit Solomon -Regional Program Leader, CCAFS East Africa"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• Monica Parker -Scientist, International Potato Center (CIP)"},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"• Joanes Atela -Senior Research Fellow, African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS)"},{"index":8,"size":296,"text":"• Michael Okumu -Senior Assistant Director, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, Kenya • Fiona Percy -Regional Coordinator, CARE International Among many interesting points raised, Fiona Percy from CARE discussed the importance of innovative partnerships: Dawit Solomon was asked about where he would put investment to transform agriculture and deliver climate benefits. He said that he would primarily invest in climate services and safety nets, and put most of the money in subseasonal and seasonal analysis. He stressed that providing African farmers with weather information is crucial, and added: \"We need tools in Africa because climate-smart farming is a reality now everywhere, so I would put resource in that part.\" Livestock and crop systems for low emission \"We need to start shifting a bit the traditional thinking of roles (…) [and start] working together with the farmers collectively towards the common goal and start blurring the edges of our disciplines, so sticking to what we are good at but realizing that it is only when we put it all together that you can actually find ways for people to make decisions on the level that they want to.\" Joanes Atela shared his views on finance; as he put it: \"If we do things right, finance will follow\". He explained that we need to ask ourselves hard questions, such as what we want the finances for and how we use them in a manner that is going to achieve the sort of impacts we need. He added that the donor environment is changing, and donors want impact stories. For Africa and research organizations like CCAFS it means that in order to access finances, we need to show cases of impact stories and outcomes. And for that, he said, CCAFS and others need to reorient their research focus.  "}]},{"head":"Stories of","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Breakthrough science and innovation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"In climate change plans submitted to the United Nations in 2016, 104 countries included intentions to reduce emissions in the agriculture sector, but no global target for mitigation from agriculture had been set. To fill this gap, scientists from CCAFS, with partners from 5 CGIAR centers (CIAT, CIFOR, CIMMYT, ILRI and IRRI) and 15 organizations, calculated, for the first time, the amount of agricultural emission reductions needed to limit warming to 2°C in 2100. They found that annual emissions from agriculture must be reduced by 1 gigatonne of carbon dioxide equivalents per year (GtCO2e/yr) by 2030 to stay within the 2°C limit, and that the incremental actions we are taking will be insufficient for meeting this target. Scientists called for urgent development and implementation of transformative technical options."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Annual report stories highlight working with scientists, farmers, governments and the private sector to expand knowledge and scale up solutions."}]},{"head":"Integrating gender and youth","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Exchange visits among rural communities show farmers how others are adapting and building resilience to climate change. CCAFS uses a \"farms of the future\" approach and organizes trips for community leaders to places that have a climate that is similar to what their communities might experience in the future. Farmers are able to see what they can do now and how they can prepare for the future."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"A visit organized for leaders from Daga-Birame -a CCAFS Climate-Smart Village in Senegal -showed a path to economic opportunity from agroforestry. Women farmers from Daga-Birame were inspired to create a \"one woman, one fruit tree\" juice business to generate income and increase nutrition immediately, and they joined resources to plant fruit-bearing trees, an investment in future income and nutrition."}]},{"head":"Policy News","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"CCAFS East Africa Quarterly Newsletter 9"}]},{"head":"Way forward","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The successful initiatives highlighted in the 2016 Annual Report demonstrate that partnership is crucial to achieve outcomes. As Bruce Campbell writes:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The power of partnerships is vast, as are the increasingly urgent climate change adaptation and mitigation challenges faced by smallholder farmers. In Phase II we have to achieve even more -partnerships are central to that ambition."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"Lili Szilagyi is a Communications Consultant at the CCAFS Program Management Unit."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"Read more:"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Read the CCAFS 2016 Annual report: http://bit.ly/2wPH7pf"},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"# 4"},{"index":7,"size":11,"text":"By Catherine Mungai , Desire Kagabo, Gloriose Nsengiyumva and Maren Radeny"},{"index":8,"size":192,"text":"Providing farmers with localized, context-specific information which is easy to understand and interpret, enables them to make better farming decisions and helps build their resilience to climate risks and ensures their food security. The project builds on and aims to scale up the Participatory Integrated Climate Services (PICSA) approach -which has successfully been used in 7 countries in Sub Saharan Africa -to reach rural communities in Rwanda. PICSA is a participatory process that encourages farmers to take decisions by providing them with weather and climate information, the skills to interpret it, and a range of of livelihood, crop and livestock options that best fits their needs and the expected weather. Through the PICSA approach, agricultural extension staff, development partners and other intermediaries will be trained to integrate climate PICSA training of trainers: strengthening national and local capacity for climate services for agriculture in Rwanda services into their ongoing work with farming communities across Rwanda's 30 districts. The training, which was conducted in two languages (English and Kinyarwanda), was facilitated by experts from CIAT, RAB and Meteo Rwanda with technical support from Peter Dorward from University of Reading and Tufa Dinku from IRI."}]},{"head":"Using weather and climate information to make informed decisions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"The training module combined short presentations by experts group discussions and presentations by participants, a field practice session, and a wrap up planning session. Specific knowledge gaps as highlighted by the trainees included how to share information with farmers on climate services for agriculture, how to interpret forecasting information, how farmers obtain information on climate change, how farmers can cope with climate variability and change, how to differentiate between climate variability and change, and how to develop seasonal calendars using climate information, amongst others."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"The trainees learnt how to use local climate information from historical data to seasonal forecasts to reduce risks associated with climate variability. The trainees and stakeholders were expected to use the knowledge and skills to train farmers how to use climate information to make better decisions in areas where they work. It is anticipated that in so doing, the agricultural productivity would be increased and farmers would become more resilient to future climate change. This is the third training in Rwanda since the project began in 2016. It is expected that 150,000 farmers will have been trained directly and 750,000 farmers trained indirectly by the end of the project. This target seems ambitious, but through the Twigire Muhinzi approach, this will be achieved. Twigire Muhinzi is a farmer extension model implemented by Rwanda's Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) and Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC) to ensure that at least one farmer in a village here referred to as a \"farmer promoter\" is empowered with better skills to improve his livelihood through better use of agricultural advisory information, and neighbours will learn from him or her. Through this model, farmers can easily access basic agricultural advisory information, including weather and climate information through trainings from farmer promoters, mobilisation and demonstration plots in each village."}]},{"head":"Next steps","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Following the intense training, some of the trainees still had some lingering concerns:"},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The trainees are now expected to train farmer promoters in their work places using the existing extension model Twigire Muhinzi. Using this approach, it is anticipated that 20,000 farmers will be trained by the end of 2017. A key observation and recommendation from Peter Dorward of University of Reading is to make the PICSA content and training process as localized and context-specific as possible."}]},{"head":"T. Muchaba (CCAFS)","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Science News \"I am worried about how we shall reach the blind farmers, and those who do not know how to read and write,\" said Donatha Mukamuganga, Nyamagabe District agronomist. "}]},{"head":"Uptake of climate-smart agriculture through a gendered intersectionality lens","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The research used a gendered intersectionality lens to Examples of good practices on climate change adaptation from Nyando shared to foster learning explore how factors such as age, ethnicity, education and marital status intersect with gender to influence the uptake of CSA technologies and practices. Intersectionality is a tool for studying, understanding and responding to the ways in which gender intersects (or interacts) with other identities and how these intersections contribute to unique experiences of oppression and privilege. The application of a gendered intersectionality lens reveals fundamental factors which influence the uptake of CSA interventions introduced by CCAFS and partners."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"The study concludes that overall, farmers, regardless of gender, are willing to adopt climate-smart technologies and practices. Factors such as ethnicity, education, age and marital status determine the levels of uptake of CSA technologies and practices. These lessons can be used to inform the process of implementing CSA-related policies, programmes and projects in Kenya."}]},{"head":"Uptake of resilient crop interventions to manage risks through the CSV approach","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The study used the household survey designed by CCAFS to develop simple, comparable household level indicators, for which changes can be evaluated with time. These indicators include food security, household assets, diversity in on-farm agricultural production, adaptation, and farming practices. The study found that Nyando farmers are increasingly using the terracing technique for collecting surface runoff water thus increasing infiltration and controlling water erosion, to help transform the landscape. The Nyando farmers have been incrementally practicing intercropping. This crop intervention spreads the risk of crop failure because the crops have different patterns of growth, and are affected by different pests and diseases. The food insecurity risk is reduced, and with sufficient rainfall could be a chance of getting higher yields from the two crops grown as an intercrop."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The study also found that households are diversifying crop choices to deal with climate-related risks. Early results show a shift to use of improved agronomic practices and high diversification. Households are now adopting more than three crops, greatly expanding on-farm choices for resilient varieties. However, there is need to have climate information services to guide farmers in decision making on crop types and varieties."}]},{"head":"Strengthening farmer adaptive capacity through Farms of the Future approach","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"In order to strengthen adaptive capacity and encourage transformative changes, farmers need to understand what their future climate is likely to be. Through the Farms of the Future approach, the CCAFS Climate Analogues tool can be used to connect farmers to their possible future climates through farmer-to-farmer learning exchanges. During an 8-day learning journey to several learning sites in Nyando, farmers and stakeholders were exposed to a wide range of ongoing community adaptation and risk management strategies and innovations, both institutional (collective action to manage climate risks such as community banks and establishment of tree nurseries) and technological (such as simple farm mechanization and animal feed establishment)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"One of the lessons emerging from the learning journey is that farmers need space to explore future horizons and potential challenges and opportunities, and can effectively learn from their peers. This learning is not necessarily about technology transfer, but also about institutional change and developing localized solutions. It is critically important to engage actors from across the agricultural sector, because of the uncertainties posed by climate change, the need for more flexibility in responses (e.g. from agricultural advisors) and the potential scale of the challenges ahead."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"We are proud that these research papers are available in a book to serve the purpose of showcasing experiences from research, field projects and best practices in climate change adaptation in African countries, which may be useful or implemented in other countries in the continent. Farmers on a climate analogues journey in Nyando in the framework of the Farms of the Future approach. Experiences from the learning journey is one of the three studies described in this blog."}]},{"head":"S. Kilungu (CCAFS)","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"increasing rainfall amounts in the months of the short rainy season that starts from September through to November. One impact of this prolonged rainfall is extension of the growing season."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Average monthly temperatures in the Karamoja region are also increasing, affecting livestock forage quality and leading to negative livestock productivity. "}]},{"head":"Source: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Nearly two-thirds of respondents from the region reported that they either did not notice or were unsure of climate change. Notably, female-headed households were less likely than their male counterparts to notice weather variability. These findings contrast with studies which demonstrate that African women are more attuned to the changing climate than men, with the amount of labor and time they invest in agriculture cited as the reason (see UNDP Report). Researchers note the troubling nature of these findings as it reveals the lack of preparedness from many farmers, especially women, and the decreased likelihood that farmers will adopt climate-smart farming practices."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Climate information services (CIS), which includes weather forecasts and agro-advisory services about agriculture production and management, are often accessed by farmers through radio. CIS is also a method of informing farmers of climate and weather changes as well as adaptation strategies. Researchers found that, in the Karamoja region, overall access to CIS is low."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The noted change in rain patterns in the Karamoja region, which include the Kaabong, Abim, Kotido, Moroto, Amudat, Napak, and Nakapiripirit districts, means that farmers are less able to depend on historic weather patterns when determining when to plant and harvest crops. Other climate shocks, including droughts and floods, impacted nearly 75 percent of respondents. For many farmers, the impact of erratic weather events leaves them vulnerable to food security and livelihood disruption. In the most impacted areas, coping strategies included begging, borrowing, or selling assets to meet household needs."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Despite the frequent occurrence of extreme weather events and shifting weather patterns, the perception of climate change amongst the community remained limited.  "}]},{"head":"Figure 4: Did you have access to [information type] information in the last 12 months? Percentage of respondents who answered 'yes' according to the information types provided. Values under 10% not labeled. Source: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"These findings led the researchers to a number of recommendations that could assist with climate change adaptation and preparedness in Karamoja region. Some Mary Nyasimi is a Science officer and Kathlee Freeman is a Communications Assistant at CCAFS Gender and Social Inclusion Flagship."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Through CSA, women farmers benefit from the introduction of fruit trees which improve nutrition. The objective of the CSA strategy is to adapt to climate change, build resilience of agricultural systems and minimize emissions.  In his concluding remarks at the end of the panel discussion, Massa said, He makes a valid point, and he had earlier pointed out that these photos captured problems in his community that should be addressed locally, and supported by local policies."}]},{"head":"Table 1: Please list the main sources you received this type of information from in the last 12 months. Three most frequently cited sources shown for each information type. Results shown at regional level. Source: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Boda-bodas caught in a dust cloud behind a truck."}]},{"head":"Sam Massa","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"\"What has happened here should not be confined to these walls. Go and do something.\""},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"The stories coming from these photo arrays can thus not only be used as an educational tool, but also to influence policymaking at all levels. Research is also being carried out that aims at addressing the problems that are captured by the photos."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"After the panel discussion was finished, the exhibition stayed open for another hour, and there was a chance to ask the panelists more questions as people took the time to look at the photos on display. Elizabeth Kemigisha, Communications Officer with IITA, said, I like that \"art met science\" to make otherwise big concepts like climate change appear very real.\""},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"The exhibition stayed open for three more days before it was taken down. The research is still on-going, as interviews"}]},{"head":"Tim McDonnell","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"with the remaining farmers will take place over the coming months. The photos will also be exhibited again during the celebration of IITA's 25 years in Uganda."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Onno Giller is an Environmental Anthropologist and Scaling and Innovations Specialist at IITA, and a PhD candidate at Wageningen University. People get a chance to look at the photos and ask the panelists more questions. T aking the lead in Uganda, the Rakai district learning alliance has integrated various sectors and stakeholders at the landscape level to enhance not only synergies between the three interlinked pillars of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) but also sustainable management of ecosystem services."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In 2012, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) took action to create awareness about local climate risks to inform farming decisions, and contribute towards efforts to reduce hunger and malnutrition and improve household incomes and food security. CCAFS initiated partnerships between farmers, research organizations and policymakers to scale up and scale out the appropriate climate adaptation options."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the three interlinked pillars of productivity, adaptation, and mitigation are necessary to achieve the principal goal of CSA, which is food security and development."},{"index":5,"size":70,"text":"In developing countries, forests and trees on farms are important carbon sinks and are part of complex rural landscapes, which collectively fulfill the livelihood needs of the rural populace who rely on a variety of ecosystem services such as fuel, food, and water. Agriculture, however, remains the key driver of deforestation, and the major cause of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the forest sector. Estimates by the United States Environment"}]},{"head":"Climate-smart agricultural planning at a landscape level in Uganda","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Protection Agency (EPA) of global GHG emissions from agriculture, forestry, and other land use sectors account for 8 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) or a quarter of the 2010 global GHG emissions."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Although there is need to consider interventions at the wider landscape level that increase resilience of forest systems to maintain the flow of ecosystem services and mitigate GHG emissions, learning alliance stakeholders noted that some organizations in the district such as Flora and Fauna International and Caritas have tried to introduce alternative sources of livelihoods in order to reduce pressure on forests and wetlands."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"While speaking at the participatory land use mapping of Rakai district, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) Uganda Country Representative, Laurence Jassogne, noted that the learning alliance provides space for various actors to discuss the need to show farmers benefits of conserving forests and wetlands, adding that if farmers know their usefulness, then stakeholders in the district can have a bottom-up approach of conserving the environment."},{"index":4,"size":132,"text":"Whenever we talk about climate change it is always about practices but I want us to think about CSA and landscapes,\" Jassogne said. \"CSA starts at landscape level when we decide that this is where we will have forests and wetlands.\" The participatory land use mapping exercise builds on previous learning alliance efforts to zone Rakai district based on criteria such as vegetation cover, topography and farming systems. Three zones were identified (i.e., cattle corridor, mixed farming and forested area), and participants discussed key zone enterprises, climate change effects on The participatory land use mapping exercise has not only built the capacity of learning alliance stakeholders to engage in CSA planning at landscape level but has also encouraged synergies between conservation actors to encourage sustainable use of natural resources in the district."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"New info note presents research findings from a study on youth decision making in agriculture As part of a research project on youth decision making in agricultural climate change adaptation strategies, data was collected in three CCAFS Climate-Smart Villages: Wote, Kenya; Hoima, Uganda; and Lushoto, Tanzania. At each site, focus group discussions and case study interviews were conducted with youth between the ages of 18-35 years old. All sessions were divided by gender and included youth who were involved in agriculture as some facet of their household's livelihood. Half of all interviews were conducted with males, and half with females."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Policymakers and stakeholders were also interviewed individually in Nairobi, Kenya; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and Kampala, Uganda to understand their views on youth involvement in policymaking on issues related to climate change and agricultural adaptation, including representatives from national ministries, research institutions, finance institutions and NGOs in each country."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Who calls the shots? Youth participation in agricultural decisions and national policy"}]},{"head":"By Anne Miki and Laura Cramer","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The interviewed youth involved in agriculture have an understanding of the impacts of climate change and how to appropriately adapt their agricultural practices in part because extension services have been successful in providing appropriate training for them. Decision making power of youth in agriculture is contingent upon their education and experience and also varies depending on age, gender, and marital status."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"For example, a young unmarried woman still living with her parents has less influence on agricultural decisions for her household than a young man who is married and leads his own household. They may have similar levels of education, training, and experience, but their influence on agricultural decisions is mediated by their social standing in the household and community."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The primary agricultural concerns of youth in the three sites are lack of financial capital, lack of land ownership and lack of agricultural inputs. These deficits hinder the ability of youth to implement the adaptation strategies they have learned through various training sessions, thereby limiting their decision-making power at the household and community levels. Despite programs at the national level that offer loans, youth were quick to note that accessing this funding is not feasible, due to lack of transparency and complex bureaucratic requirements."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"At the national level, the policymakers and other stakeholders # 9 who were interviewed reported the importance of youth and adaptation to climate change. However, although policymakers and stakeholders value the opinion of youth, involvement of youth in policymaking is indirect and limited."}]},{"head":"What's next?","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The youth interviewed in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda demonstrated an understanding of climate change and its impacts on agricultural productivity, however they need to be empowered in decision making at household and community levels. Government fund disbursement procedures to the youth need to be more transparent and less bureaucratic to allow easier access to the funds. Policymakers and stakeholders need to actively include the youth in national "}]},{"head":"Climate-smart investment: step-by-step investment to sustainably increase coffee yields","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Production of coffee requires an intricate farming system, which is made up of an array of practices that all require investment. Rather than try to promote farmers to increase investment in all areas of their farming practices, the climatesmart investment pathway approach looks at increasing investment through incremental steps. At each step an increase in yield is expected, and part of the added income from implementing these practices is envisioned to be reinvested in the farm to move to the next step of practices. As such, the practices will be adopted through a piece meal approach, with the final step completing the adoption of the site-specific basket of climate-smart agricultural practices in coffee."},{"index":2,"size":115,"text":"The first step in the development of the climate-smart investment pathways is the development of general stepwise investment pathways. In Uganda, this was done for both By Onno Giller Two approaches have been developed by IITA and partners to better target coffee farming households and help meet their aspirations and capabilities Taking life step-by-step: incrementally adopting climatesmart agricultural practices Arabica and Robusta coffee at national level, through consultations with coffee experts. These general stepwise investment pathways are then adapted into climate-smart investment pathways through local level prioritisation with coffee experts and validation by farmers. As such, the climate-smart investment pathways are locally adapted to target the specific constraints the farmers are facing in the region."}]},{"head":"Farmer segmentation: better targeting of farmers through understanding their aspirations and resource endowments","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"Complementing the climate-smart investment pathways is the farmer segmentation tool. The farmer segmentation tool differentiates farmers into distinct segments, by looking at their level of entrepreneurship and their assets. A case study in Luweero highlighted six different segments of farmers: the entrepreneurs, the satisfied, the employed, the dependants, the survivors and the trapped. The entrepreneurs are those making money from coffee, and have a lot of entrepreneurship and assets, while the trapped are very poor and rely majorly on off-farm labour. The survivors are better off than the trapped, but still use a lot of diversification to survive, and investment in coffee is few and far between. The employed are those with farms growing coffee, and might be looking to invest more in coffee, yet have larger sources of off-farm income through employment. The satisfied are the older generation that have enough resources, but no incentive and or motivation to invest in coffee. The dependants, usually the younger generations, are those with high motivation to grow coffee, yet no resources (especially land) to push this drive forward."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"The above segmentation both highlights the need for differentiated approaches to help each segment and aids in better targeting of the climate-smart investment pathways. Promoting investment in coffee for both the trapped and survivors may be misplaced, as moving to other crops may actually be more suitable for them. Cross-generational learning between the dependants and the satisfied may be key in getting the dependants the start they need to becoming successful coffee farmers. Targeting the segments that do have the potential to invest in coffee through applying the climate-smart investment pathways means analysing where along the steps they already are, and which are the next recommended practices for the farmer to implement."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Read more: Download the accompanying CCAFS info note: Redesigning Delivery: Boosting Adoption of Coffee Management Practices in Uganda. The climate smart investment pathway approach and the farmer segmentation tool: http://bit.ly/2uPgEqw"},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"If you are interested to learn more about the methodology or have any further questions, please contact Laurence Jassogne ([email protected]). Onno Giller is an Environmental Anthropologist and Scaling and Innovations Specialist at IITA and a PhD candidate at Wageningen University."},{"index":5,"size":156,"text":"The two approaches can thus be applied separately, but their strength lies in combining the two in order to better target farmers and help them achieve their aspirations in coffee through increasing step-by-step their investment in their coffee gardens. In their guest editorial, Campbell and Dinesh explain how agriculture and food systems stand at the nexus of three of the greatest challenges of the 21st century: overcoming food insecurity, coping with the impact of climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For these reasons, a major movement has arisen around 'climate-smart agriculture (CSA)', which is focussed on the three pillars of productivity, adaptation and mitigation. The development of the CSA concept and its relationship with climate change and agricultural development is described in a new book entitled Climate change and agricultural development: improving resilience through climate smart agriculture, agroecology and conservation, edited by Udaya Sekhar Nagothu and reviewed in this special issue by Manyewu Mutamba."},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"In the first article, The rise in Climate-Smart Agricultural strategies, policies, partnerships and investments across the globe, Dinesh et al summarise key CSA efforts at global, regional and national levels. These include the By Paul Harding CCAFS scientists share insights on the directions for climate action in agriculture Special Issue of Agriculture for Development on Climate-Smart Agriculture growth in publications using the term 'CSA'; global and regional alliances of national governments; regional and national strategies, policies and action plans; CSA concepts, programmes and projects; and investments in, and funding for, CSA. It is clear from this overview, that CSA really is one of the key 'movements' of our times. In CSA-Plan: strategies to put CSA into practice, Girvetz et al present guidance for operational planning and implementation of CSA. CSA-Plan frames actions into four components: situation analysis, targeting and prioritisation, programme design, and monitoring and evaluation. Putting CSA into practice requires knowing what is climate-smart in different locations and what best suits the context. There are therefore often trade-offs between the three goals of CSA: productivity, adaptation/resilience, and mitigation. CSA-Plan has already been successfully applied in many countries and with various partners."},{"index":7,"size":177,"text":"The third pillar of CSA focuses on mitigation. This is a challenge, particularly for developing countries, where food security and adaptation are the main priorities. In many countries, fertiliser applications are below levels required for increased, sustainable production, and therefore need to increase. However, this usually leads to rises in GHG emissions. An article by Lini Wollenberg, entitled The mitigation pillar of CSA -targets and options, argues that agriculture in developing countries should be put on a low emissions development (LED) pathway. She justifies a mitigation target, for agriculture globally, of 1 gigatonne of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per year by 2030 to # 11 stay within a 2˚C emissions budget of 6-8 gigatonnes CO2e for agriculture generally. However, LED alone will not be sufficient to achieve this, so more 'transformative actions' will also be necessary. These include innovations such as methane inhibitors for dairy cows, and breeds of cattle and crops that reduce GHG emissions; policies such as more rigorous carbon pricing, taxes and subsidies; sequestering soil carbon; reducing deforestation; and decreasing food loss and waste."},{"index":8,"size":159,"text":"In their article Agricultural diversification as an adaptation strategy, Noriega et al explain how agricultural biodiversity plays a key role in sustaining ecosystem services and adapting to climate change. However, the full potential of agricultural biodiversity is yet to be realised because it is context-specific, and is often dependent on appropriate enabling policies. A selection of Newsflashes and News from the Field articles illustrate some of the many CSA projects currently on-going around the world, including Climate-Smart Agriculture across scales in Latin America, where Loboguerrero et al highlights how policy makers of Central America and Dominican Republic are producing a regional CSA Strategy, complemented by national efforts to promote and implement CSA, for example in the Nicaraguan coffee sector. At the local level, an approach for decision making in the context of climate change was developed in Colombia, which enables farmers to make decisions using climate forecasts, this approach is now being scaled up in Colombia's Nationally Determined Contribution. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Since 2012, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and CGIAR partners such as the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) have been working with Kenyan policymakers to develop the climate-smart agriculture framework program (CSA-FP) which catalyzed the development of the comprehensive CSA strategy. CCAFS scientists also participated in several review and validation workshops to provide technical input to the development of the strategy. Moving forward, CCAFS and partners will continue to work with the government to implement the strategy. Tabitha Muchaba, Catherine Mungai, and Maren Radeny all work for CCAFS East Africa.Read more: Blog: Kenya integrates climate-smart agriculture into its intended nationally determined contribution: http://bit.ly/2w9sZtT Blog: Linking national action to global processes: setting the agriculture agenda for Kenya http://bit.ly/2vCAfge Blog: Post-COP22 roadmap: Kenyan stakeholders explore implementation of the Paris Agreement: http://bit.ly/2qTub0C Info Note: Integrating climate change in agriculture and food security policies and strategies: Experiences and lessons from East Africa: http://bit.ly/2x3r4TX CCAFS news update: From local to global: Engaging policymakers to advance climate-smart agriculture in Africa: http://bit.ly/2qgCnsQ Through CSA, women farmers benefit from the introduction of fruit trees which improve nutrition. The objective of the CSA strategy is to adapt to climate change, build resilience of agricultural systems and minimize emissions.# 2 By Lili Szilagyi, Catherine Mungai and Dorine Odongo Experts share insights on science to deliver adaptation and mitigation in East African agriculture. the CCAFS seminar on Science to Deliver Adaptation and Mitigation in East African Agriculture. The research community faces the challenge of helping farmers and pastoralists cope with the increasing challenges of climate change, reduce vulnerability and increase resilience, and adopt a combination of new technologies, organizational arrangements and policy support, among others. Researchers also need to be aware of the impact of agriculture on climate change, through greenhouse gas emissions, and find ways to reduce emissions from agriculture. The seminar, which was hosted at ILRI on May 30, 2017, created an opportunity for about 65 of stakeholders drawn from Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), Climate Change Department of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR), Ministry of Northern Kenya and Arid Lands, Non-Governmental Organizations such World Neighbours, SNV, Pan African Climate Justice Alliance (PACJA), Arid Lands Information Network (ALIN), African Academy of Sciences (AAS), East African Farmers Federation (EAFF) and scientists from CGIAR centers to share knowledge, learn from each other and build synergies on climate change adaptation and mitigation in East Africa. The seminar covered three broad themes-Policy and engagement, Mitigation, and Science and parnerships for impact. Scientists from ILRI, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and CCAFS gave insightful presentations on adaptation and mitigation initiatives in East Africa. "},{"text":" Polly Ericksen, Program Leader at ILRI, gave an overview of ILRI's work on mitigation in East Africa. She stressed the incredible economic potential of the livestock sector, particularly for countries in Sub-Saharan Africa where six out of the 11 most profitable agricultural commodities are derived directly or indirectly from livestock. ILRI's research on mitigation complements the work of other institutions such as the Climate Change Department of Kenya's Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources in several ways: For example, ongoing work at ILRI's Mazingira Centre-an Environmental Research and Educational Centre-seeks to generate data specific to the Kenyan production systems. "},{"text":" Smallholder farmers in the developing world are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate fluctuations and weather extremes. Supporting farmers with weather and climate information services for agricultural decision-making is an essential strategy for enhancing food security in already vulnerable areas, and a key component of climate-smart agriculture. Although existing initiatives have been successful in reaching out to some smallholder farmers, the challenge of broadening the on-the-ground impact of climate services for vulnerable communities remains.In Colombia, CCAFS and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) worked closely with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to strengthen the adaptive capacity of farmers to climate variability. CIAT-CCAFS' agroclimatic prediction science has profoundly changed how agricultural sector organizations generate and share climate variability adaptation recommendations. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Decadal change in average monthly rainfall estimates for Karamoja. Error bars represent standard deviation in monthly rainfall estimates. Source: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Average monthly temperature anomalies for Karamoja from 1981 to 2015. Source: The Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja "},{"text":"Female -headed households may have less access to CIS as they are less likely to own a radio. "},{"text":" Impacts of Climate Change on Food Security and Livelihoods in Karamoja: http://bit.ly/2wfiLHA of the recommendations include water harvesting and conservation, which will reduce the dire consequences of erratic rainfall patterns. Households should also be made aware of the hazards that climate change poses. Part of this process includes improving access to CIS and working to incorporate climate information into already established information systems. Finally, as findings indicated that female headed households were less likely to be aware of climate change and had less access to information produced through both CIS and indigenous information systems, gender must be explicitly incorporated into climate change adaptation and services. "},{"text":" at the Makerere Art Gallery shows how drought has impacted farmers' livelihoods through their own eyes. Coffee, cameras and climate change: Seeing drought through the eyes of the farmer A t the end of February, during the tail end of a drought that has wreaked havoc across the Horn of Africa, coffee farmers on Mt. Elgon in Uganda were each given a disposable camera and asked to document how drought has been impacting their livelihoods. The images they captured cut across the lives of the farmers, and went far beyond just photos of the coffee plantations. Water, transportation, laboring in the coffee fields and family life were recurring themes throughout the photos taken. The photos were part of a research project, with the aim of gaining an understanding of how farmers see the impacts of climate change. The research is being carried out by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in collaboration with Tim McDonnell, a Fulbright-National Geographic Storytelling Fellow, who is working across Africa writing stories on food security and climate change. In discussing the process, McDonnell said, I was very impressed by the quality of the photos, and it captured photos that would have been nearly impossible for me to take without staying for weeks with the family to gain their trust.\" As part of McDonnell's farewell, as his three months in Uganda were coming to an end, an exhibition of the photos was produced by McDonnell and co-hosted by the US Embassy and IITA at the Makerere Art Gallery. Sam Massa (left) answers a question during the panel discussion, while Tim McDonnell (far right) and Onno Giller (centre) look on. IITA Field updates CCAFS East Africa Quarterly Newsletter 17 I went through the community to take photos, as I wanted to show my community to the outside world. I also wanted to take photos of good and bad agricultural practices to show my community so they can learn from them\". The opening of the exhibition included a panel discussion with McDonnell, Onno Giller, an environmental anthropologist with IITA, and Sam Massa, a coffee farmer who had taken some of the photos that were on display. Niles Cole, a cultural attaché at the US Embassy, facilitated the discussion. The crowd had come to the exhibition out of a variety of interests, resulting in a broad array of questions asked. Questions were posed around the climate change projections, farmers' perspectives and knowledge on climate change, the agronomic impacts of climate change on coffee, the possible adaptation techniques to the changing climate, as well as the choice of documentation method. The presence of Sam Massa gave the panel discussion an extra edge, as he could give an impression of how it was to take part in the research. In a follow up interview, Massa said, This and other follow up interviews are also part of the research, as IITA is going back to the farmers to give them a copy of all the photos they took, as well as discuss each photo with them. The interviews are a means of participatory analysis of the photos, as the farmers are given a chance to give their own impression of the photos and what they had in mind while taking it. "},{"text":" a Fulbright-National Geographic Storytelling Fellow, is working across Africa writing stories on food security and climate change. He has so far travelled to Kenya and Uganda, and is now in Nigeria. Find his stories and keep up to date with his escapades at http://www.timmcdonnell.org/. If you are interested in learning more about the methodology or have any further questions, please contact Onno Giller (O.Giller@ cgiar.org). Sam Massa (left) answers a question during the panel discussion, while Tim McDonnell (far right) and Onno Giller (centre) look on. "},{"text":" The meeting was held at Kyotera, on 19 April 2017, and organized by the Rakai district Local Government with support from the CCAFS-funded Policy Action for Climate John Francis Okiror works in the communications team at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture. He supports communications for the IITA-led PACCA project. Laurence Jassogne, IITA Uganda Country Representative, discussing climate-smart agriculture as a landscape level intervention. Change Adaptation (PACCA) project and USAID-funded project on \"Development of tools to facilitate Uganda coffee farmers' adaptation to climate change,\" implemented by IITA. Learning alliance stakeholders mapped the district based on the following land use patterns identified by Rakai district Local Government: livestock and crop production, home gardens and fallow, settlements, forests, fishing, mining, and industrial use. "},{"text":" the enterprise, constraints and policy issues. The issues prioritized by the learning alliance stakeholders were further refined and integrated by the District Technical Planning Committee (DTPC) into the five-year district development plans (DDPs). "},{"text":"Y oung people are the backbone of a nation and can change the future of the society. However, in East Africa, precarious employment opportunities and challenges to traditional agricultural practices due to climate change have prompted the need to explore the role of the youth in adaptive farming practices. By learning the extent of their decision-making power in agricultural adaptations to climate change, researchers and development practitioners can better tailor programs and messages to young people. "},{"text":"In Uganda, climate change is already threatening the coffee sector, but farmers' adoption levels of climatesmart agricultural practices are low. To try to address this discrepancy, two complementary approaches have been developed by IITA and partners. These two approaches are the climate-smart investment pathway (CSIP) approach and the farmer segmentation tool. "},{"text":" development of climate-smart investment pathways for coffee production in Uganda. JF Okiror (IITA) "},{"text":" the editors of Agriculture for Development, the journal of the Tropical Agriculture Association (TAA), invited Bruce Campbell and Dhanush Dinesh to guest edit a special issue on climate-smart agriculture. In consultation with the Coordinating Editor of the journal, they interacted with colleagues and partners at the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) to produce a broad-ranging selection of articles, news from the field, and book reviews. The special issue of the journal (Ag4Dev30) was published in May 2017. "},{"text":" Loboguerrero et al highlight important contributions from outside the agricultural community in their paper Climate services and insurance: scaling CSA. Promoting CSA 'at scale' is a key challenge, yet climate services and insurance can provide tools to scale-up CSA by providing an enabling environment and protecting against the impact of climate extremes. In this context, climate services include the production, translation, transfer and use of climate knowledge and information to support climate-informed decision-making and climate-smart policy and planning. Index-based insurance, whereby payouts are based not on farmers' actual losses, but on an objectively measured index that is correlated with losses, has overcome many obstacles associated with traditional crop insurance. This in turn has facilitated climate change adaptation and climate-resilient development goals. Differentiation and inequality within communities can provide barriers that constrain women's ability to adapt to climate change, thereby further widening the gender gap in agriculture. In their paper Closing the gender gap in agriculture under climate change, Nyasimi and Huyer demonstrate how gender-responsive climatesmart agricultural practices and technologies can provide opportunities to close the gender-gap, while at the same time adapting to climate change. Van Etten et al argue that 'big data', including emerging techniques of machine-learning and citizen science, can help CSA to achieve scale and reach millions of farmers with options for tackling climate change. In their paper How can the Data Revolution contribute to climate action in smallholder agriculture? they describe and illustrate five data-related concepts linked to agricultural climate action: lean data, crowdsourcing, big data, ubiquitous computing, Read more: Campbell BM, Dinesh D, (Eds.). 2017. Special issue on climatesmart agriculture (CSA). Agriculture for Development no. 30: http://bit.ly/2uIRwFG Paul Harding is the Coordinating Editor of the Agriculture for Development journal and former Assistant Director General of Bioversity International. and information design. "},{"text":" Other examples of the scaling up of CSA are the climatesmart village approach, the Adaptation for Smallholder Agriculture Programme (ASAP), and the VUNA project. Geoff Hawtin reports on climate change research in mountain areas; and Philip Thornton provides a salutary opinion piece on Climate change and CSA in the current political climate. Finally, the TAA's 11th Hugh Bunting Memorial Lecture, entitled Climate change and agriculture: risks and opportunities to food and farming systems in the tropics, presented by Tim Wheeler, summarises the challenge of global food production in the context of a growing population, over-and under-consumption of food, and a warming world. Impacts of climate change are presented, and some of the opportunities and responses are described. experts during the PICSA training of trainers (ToT) workshop in Butare district, Rwanda. 2. CCAFS East Africa Program Leader Dr. Dawit during the science seminar on successes and lessons learned on adaptation and mitigation in East Africa at the ILRI Campus in Nairobi, Kenya. 3. IITA gave cameras to farmers to take photos of how climate change is impacting their lives. The photos were then displayed at a gallery in Kampala, Uganda. 4. CCAFS Program Director Dr. Bruce Campbell addressing stakeholders at the science seminar on successes and lessons learned on adaptation and mitigation in East Africa at the ILRI Campus in Nairobi, Kenya "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Success: Climate-Smart Villages in East Africa  presented the new CCAFS East Africa booklet that outlines presented the new CCAFS East Africa booklet that outlines some of the emerging stories of success of climate-smart some of the emerging stories of success of climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices that are positively agriculture technologies and practices that are positively changing the lives changing the lives After wrapping up the discussions, Vivian Atakos from CIP After wrapping up the discussions, Vivian Atakos from CIP (formerly Communications specialist at CCAFS East Africa) (formerly Communications specialist at CCAFS East Africa)  "},{"text":"of smallholder farmers across East Africa, and highlights \"livestock-smart\" activities in the Climate- Smart Villages. Attendants of the seminar at ILRI Campus, Nairobi during one of the sessions  # 3 # 3 Significant progress on agriculture under climate change was made in 2016; discover Significant progress on agriculture under climate change was made in 2016; discover the most recent outcomes and innovations from CCAFS and partners in the 2016 the most recent outcomes and innovations from CCAFS and partners in the 2016 Annual Report. Annual Report. By Lili Szilagyi By Lili Szilagyi T. Muchaba (CCAFS) T. Muchaba (CCAFS)  "},{"text":"The power of partnerships -in helping foster outcomes and contributing to important scientific outputs -is the theme of our 2016 annual report and a key strategy that will continue to inform CCAFS going forward.\" Bruce Campbell, Director, CCAFS Impact through policies and partnerships  In more than 20 countries, CCAFS researchers collaborated in In more than 20 countries, CCAFS researchers collaborated in farmers' fields and in global initiatives and with farmers, civil farmers' fields and in global initiatives and with farmers, civil society, governments and researchers to help advance the society, governments and researchers to help advance the concepts and practices around climate-smart agriculture. concepts and practices around climate-smart agriculture. In South Asia, CCAFS is working with rural communities to In South Asia, CCAFS is working with rural communities to expand Climate-Smart Villages. In 2016, governments, private expand Climate-Smart Villages. In 2016, governments, private sector and development partners committed to scaling up sector and development partners committed to scaling up the climate-smart village approach and related local actions the climate-smart village approach and related local actions in more than 2,000 villages in South Asia. This involves in more than 2,000 villages in South Asia. This involves building portfolios of interventions together with farmers, building portfolios of interventions together with farmers, National Agricultural Research Systems, CGIAR centers, local National Agricultural Research Systems, CGIAR centers, local universities, universities, non- non- governmental governmental organizations, organizations, the private the private sector and sector and farmers' farmers' groups. groups.  "},{"text":" PICSA training of trainers (ToT) workshop was conducted in Huye town from 12 to 16 June 2017. Organized by CIAT, RAB and Meteo Rwanda, the workshop equipped 68 stakeholders with skills to implement PICSA in their districts. Participants were drawn from all over the country and represented different organizations such as RAB, Meteo Rwanda, the IFAD-funded Climate Resilient and Post-harvest Agribusiness Support Project (PASP), Agriculture Information and Communication Program-Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources, Radio Huguka, DEveloppement Rural du Nord (DERN), Caritas Kibuye, CARITAS Kibungo, CARITAS Butare, IRI, IGAD Climate Prediction and Applications Centre (ICPAC) and CCAFS.  "},{"text":"Rwandan stakeholders learned about how to encourage farmers to take decisions by providing them with weather and climate information.  # 5  # 5 Research in Nyando Climate-Smart Villages presented to foster exchange of Research in Nyando Climate-Smart Villages presented to foster exchange of experiences from climate change adaptation projects in Africa experiences from climate change adaptation projects in Africa  By Lili Szilagyi By Lili Szilagyi S Read more: CCAFS Blog: Coordinating climate services with key institutions in SRead more: CCAFS Blog: Coordinating climate services with key institutions in  Africa: http://bit.ly/2vDfiSg Africa: http://bit.ly/2vDfiSg  CCAFS Blog: New program in Rwanda will transform agriculture CCAFS Blog: New program in Rwanda will transform agriculture  through climate information and historic data reconstruction: through climate information and historic data reconstruction:  http://bit.ly/2wQ43V4 http://bit.ly/2wQ43V4  PICSA Manual: Participatory Integrated Climate Services for PICSA Manual: Participatory Integrated Climate Services for  Agriculture (PICSA) Manual: http://bit.ly/2wPJ8Sl Agriculture (PICSA) Manual: http://bit.ly/2wPJ8Sl  Catherine Mungai is the Partnerships and Policy Specialist at CCAFS Catherine Mungai is the Partnerships and Policy Specialist at CCAFS  East Africa. East Africa.  Desire M. Kagabo is the CCAFS Rwanda Climate Services for Desire M. Kagabo is the CCAFS Rwanda Climate Services for  Agriculture Project Coordinator based at the International Center for Agriculture Project Coordinator based at the International Center for  Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kigali, Rwanda. Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kigali, Rwanda.  Gloriose Nsengiyumva is the CCAFS Rwanda Climate Services Gloriose Nsengiyumva is the CCAFS Rwanda Climate Services  for Agriculture project -Outcome 1 coordinator based at the for Agriculture project -Outcome 1 coordinator based at the  International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kigali, Rwanda. International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT), Kigali, Rwanda.  Maren Radeny is the Science Officer at CCAFS East Africa. Maren Radeny is the Science Officer at CCAFS East Africa.  "},{"text":"ustainably increasing agricultural productivity in Nyando is central to the future of food nutrition and security, and there is need for strategies to enhance climate-smart agriculture as the first step for sustainable agriculture. To address this challenge, the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) East Africa, in collaboration with Kenyan research and development organisations, partnered with rural communities to develop Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) as models of local actions that ensure food security, promote adaptation and build resilience to climatic stresses. In February 2016, researchers from CCAFS East Africa presented emerging results from the Nyando CSVs at the Symposium on Climate Change Adaptation in Africa. The symposium was held to mobilise African and non-African scholars undertaking research on adaptation in Africa. The 3 articles focusing on gender and intersectionality, resilient crop interventions and the Farms of the Future (FoTF) approach were published recently in a book titled 'Climate Change Adaptation in Africa: Fostering Resilience and Capacity to Adapt'.  "},{"text":" Lili Szilagyi is the Communications Consultant for the CCAFS Program Management Unit (formerly known as Coordinating Unit) and CCAFS East Africa. Read more: Read more: The papers are avalable in Climate Change Adaptation in Africa: The papers are avalable in Climate Change Adaptation in Africa: Fostering Resilience and Capacity to Adapt Fostering Resilience and Capacity to Adapt Uptake of Climate-Smart Agriculture Through a Gendered Uptake of Climate-Smart Agriculture Through a Gendered Intersectionality Lens: Experiences from Western Kenya: Intersectionality Lens: Experiences from Western Kenya: http://bit.ly/2w1FlUc http://bit.ly/2w1FlUc Uptake of Resilient Crop Interventions to Manage Risks Through Uptake of Resilient Crop Interventions to Manage Risks Through Climate-Smart Villages Approach in Nyando, Western Kenya: Climate-Smart Villages Approach in Nyando, Western Kenya: http://bit.ly/2fKenKx http://bit.ly/2fKenKx Strengthening Farmer Adaptive Capacity Through Farms of the Strengthening Farmer Adaptive Capacity Through Farms of the Future Approach in Nyando, Western Kenya: http://bit.ly/2uPa8js Future Approach in Nyando, Western Kenya: http://bit.ly/2uPa8js  "}],"sieverID":"0a2690c5-9aa8-436c-95cc-e3c462337a42","abstract":"We are pleased to share with you our SmartAg Partner newsletter, highlighting policy engagement and ongoing research in the second quarter of 2017.In May, we hosted a seminar that explored the state of climate adaptation and mitigation efforts in African agriculture. The seminar created an opportunity for about 65 stakeholders and scientists from CGIAR centers to share knowledge, learn from each other and build synergies on climate change adaptation and mitigation in East Africa. We took this opportunity to launch our booklet that outlines some of the emerging success stories of climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices that are positively changing the lives of smallholder farmers across East Africa. CCAFS scientists authored and guest edited the recently published Special Issue on Climate-Smart Agriculture of the Agriculture for Development journal. The journal features an article about managing climate risks through small ruminants in the Nyando Climate-Smart Villages and our policy engagement processes that focus on integrating climate change and agriculture policies in East Africa. Additionally, three of our research papers were published recently in a book titled 'Climate Change Adaptation in Africa: Fostering Resilience and Capacity to Adapt'. The book is an output of a symposium held last year where researchers from CCAFS East Africa presented emerging results from the Nyando Climate-Smart Villages.In the latest CCAFS Annual Report, stories highlight working with scientists, farmers, governments and the private sector to expand knowledge and scale up solutions. The report features initiatives from East Africa, such as projects on climate risk management, and partnerships aiming to close the gender gap in African agriculture, among others. We have also published a number of project stories on the CCAFS blog, for instance, about a recent training of trainers workshop in Rwanda, where stakeholders learned about how to encourage farmers to take decisions by providing them with weather and climate information."}

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En él se destacan primero, algunas consideraciones desde el punto de vista de análisis económico, luego se describe la estructura del modelo, después se presenta el programa operacional de computación del modelo y finalmente se incluye una ilustración del modelo aplicado a una finCa \"peque~a\" en los Llanos de Colombia. Se incluye un Apéndice con detalles operacionales."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Este manual presupone que los usuarios tienen formación en análisis microeconómico y elementos de programación, y cuentan con la asesoria de zootecnistas con experiencia en la región en donde se aplicará. Sin embargo, se ha redactado tratando de que, además de economistas, especialistas y programadores, otras áreas puedan comprender su estructura, sus requerimientos de información y vis!lalizar el tipo de interrogantes analizables mediante su aplicación."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"El modelo ha sido a,licado recientemente en la región de los Llanos Orientales de Colombia, y ha sido adaptado a regiones de agricultura más intensiva en Ecuador y Guatemala. Decidimos preparar esta versión preliminar con la esperanza de facilitar su transferencia a usuarios tales como instituciones de crédito ganadero, centros de investigación agropecuaria y oficinas de planificación agr1cola."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"~or qué Simulación Se escogió simulación computerizada porque, siendo una técnica relativamente simple, es rica en posibilidades respecto él la manipulación de factores biológicos y económicos que no es factible manipular en la vida real. En el caso particular de las fincas en estudio en \"los Llanos, para sistemas de producción en diseño que todavfa no existen. no hay alternativa a simulación."},{"index":6,"size":89,"text":"Asimismo, el enfoque se presta para el análisis de factores dinámicos y elementos estocásticos. Entre los primeros, basta recordar la necesidad, en el caso de fincas ganaderas, de calcular una gran cantidad de interac-ciones para un horizonte de 15 a 25 años, impracticable sin un modelo computerizado. Es también muy adaptable para el tratamiento del riesgo (biológico y económico) y asimismo para el análisis de sensibilidad, a bajo costo adicional, respecto a cambios en los coeficientes técnicos, variaciones en la situación de precios, en las condiciones del crédito, etc."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"~ero su relativa simpleza conceptual no asegura el que sea de bajo costo. En gran parte esto se debe, como lo plantea en su revis'ión sobre simulación, Anderson concluye que la evidencia de su breve historia sugiere que, al construir modelos, poco es lo que se ha aprovechado de modelos existentes [(1974, p.34)J. La breve experiencia en CIAT indica que su adaptación se facilita'mediante la interacción entre los 'diseñadores' originales y los usuarios."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"El modelo por S1 mismo no hace análisis económico."},{"index":9,"size":137,"text":"Lo que hace es contribuir a facilitar el cómputo necesario para dicho análisis. ~ero no puede aplicársele mecánicamente, ya que las reglas de decisión económica no son mecánicas. Además, debido a diferencias en las modalidades del crédito, como también por diferencias en la estructura productiva entre regiones y entre fincas, la aplicación del modelo requerirá su adaptación al medio y a los interrogantes locales. De ahf que su implementación operacional exige la colaboración del administrador de empresas o del economista con el zootecnista con experiencia en la regiDn, y con el programador. Si bien los componentes de desarrollo de hato y analisis financiero son elementos necesariamente comunes en los tres modelos, ellos difieren en la agrupaciDn de las categorfas de animales. en el desglose de costos e ingresos, en algunas restricciones y en el tratamiento del riesgo."},{"index":10,"size":27,"text":"El informe de IBRO tiene la explicación mas detallada sobre modelos de esta naturaleza, y es un excelente complemento para el usuario decualquler modelo para fincas ganaderas."},{"index":11,"size":40,"text":"El modelo de BAE (Australia) fué desarrollado para regiones semiáridas con posibilidad de sequfa. El tratamiento del manejo del ganado y de las variaciones en la capacidad de carga ante diversas condiciones de clima es uno de sus aportes importantes."},{"index":12,"size":59,"text":"El modelo CIAT no pretende originalidad en su concepctan respecto a desarrollo de hato y arr~lisis financiero. Sus caractertsticas más importantes son: a) El esfuerzo por simplicidad, a través de (1) predeterminar el manejo del ganado y la capaci~ad de carga, que se incorporan como datos, (1i) agrupaciones de los diversos elementos de costos e ingresos en pocas categorfas."},{"index":13,"size":62,"text":"b) La incorporación de diversos elementos de riesgo. A través del tratamiento probabilfstico de algunos parámetros, tales como la tasa de natalidad y mortalidad y una subrutina de riesgo en el establecimiento de la pradera, se incorporan los dos elementos de riesgo biológico de mayor relevancia a nuestro juicio. También está disponible una rutina para el uso del Análisis de ~redominio Estocástico."},{"index":14,"size":17,"text":"el Incorporación y tratamiento separado de la tendencia y de los ciclos de precios, mediante An~lis1s Espectral."},{"index":15,"size":80,"text":"Como se puede apreciar en la ilustración en el Capf~ tulo IV y 10 que se refleja en su estructura, el modelo fué originalmente diseñado para el análisis del diseño y evaluación de tecnolog1a, y su interacción con los precios y1as condiciones del crédito. Pero ser~ el usuario quten determinará cu~nto énfasis dar al an~lisis de tecnologfa versus al crédito o a los precios. Creemos que el modelo es suficientemente general para examinar en conjunto o separadamente estos tres aspectos."},{"index":16,"size":44,"text":"El modelo CIAT fué diseñado para sistemas de produc-ci6n extensivo, en base a pastoreo, s1n almacenaje de forraje, en fincas en que prScticamente la única actividad comercial es la ganader'a. Tiene una rutina \"simple\" de cultivos, en que la información se incorpora como dato."},{"index":17,"size":35,"text":"En la medida en que no haya muchos insumas •conjuntos\" entre ganaderfa y el resto, el modelo también puede aplicarse en fincas con otras actividades, pero solo para analizar el rubro ganaderfa. b) Análisis Financiero."},{"index":18,"size":74,"text":"A partir de los resultados generados por el subsistema hato, y utilizando ,a.información de insumas y pre~ cios, el modelo genera anualmente el flujo de ingresos, inversiones y gastos, y el ingreso neto. A partir de la serie de ingresos netos obtenidos durante n años. el modelo calcula la tasa interna de retorno y el valor presente del flujo de beneficios netos, a una tasa dada de descuen~ too el Establecimiento de ~raderas Mejoradas."},{"index":19,"size":50,"text":"Consideranco que el establecimiento de praderas mejoradas es una de las innovaciones tecnológicas de mayor interés a considerar, se diseñó un subsistema para incorporar explícitamente la posibilidad de variación en su duración y productividad, y el efecto de variaciones en su productividad sobre la canacidad de carga de la finca."},{"index":20,"size":7,"text":"El ries~o de establecimiento es inclufdo explfcitamente."},{"index":21,"size":6,"text":"d) Análisis y ~royección de ~recios."},{"index":22,"size":118,"text":"Dada la gran influencia de la proyección de los precios sobre el resultado financiero, el subprograma de precios utiliza una técnica que proyecta los precios futuros considerando un elemento de tendencia a largo plazo, simultáneamente con la posible existencia de ciclos alrededor de esta tendencia. Esta información proviene del análisis de series de tiempo de precios para el pafs o región en cuestión, la que se procesa utilizando Análisis Espec- Aunque no corresponde siempre a la realidad de la finca, operacionalmente facilita el ana1isis el partir con el hato maximo correspondiente al de una situación inicial (t o ' en \"estado estacionario•, en donde la composición y nivel del hato es tal que por definición se cumple que:"},{"index":23,"size":1,"text":"Vacas:"},{"index":24,"size":12,"text":"Novillas: TA2 t +l = TA2 t => TA2 t _ 1"},{"index":25,"size":41,"text":"Novillos: Esta es la etapa en que se querr~ estudiar la secuencia \"6ptima u de inversión (ej. respecto al establecimiento de pradera y compra del ganado) y del financiamiento. a no ser que se decida realizarlas totalmente en el año t."},{"index":26,"size":22,"text":"Tratándose de un enfoque que no es de optimizaci5n. el efecto de variar esta secuencia puede estudiarse mediante el análisis de sensibilidad."},{"index":27,"size":25,"text":"Esta etapa termina cuando se llega a un nuevo estado estacionario. que en este manual 10 definimos en términos del tamaño y composici6n del hato."},{"index":28,"size":4,"text":"e) Etapa de post-desarrollo:"},{"index":29,"size":15,"text":"Lo fundamental en esta etapa es decidir la duraci6n de la vida útil del proyecto."},{"index":30,"size":32,"text":"Desde un punto de vista bancario, a menudo ~e proyecta la evolucidn de la finca hasta el año en que se termina de cancelar el préstamo de largo plazo (ej. al 120."},{"index":31,"size":165,"text":"año). pero no hay razdn para que necesariamente en este año ya sahaya estabilizado el desarrollo del hato. puede ser un perIodo excesivamente corto para calcular la rentabilidad del proyecto. La vida útil del proyecto de inversión es una interrogante de la evaluación económica. aspecto que se examina brevemente al discutir las reqlas de decisión. En la ilustración en el Capftulo IV se proyectó la finca por 25 años. Desde un punto de vista de liquidez de la finca como firma. y generalmente de inter@s bancario, interesa además calcular el flujo de Fuentes y Uso de Fondos. Este se define como el total de ingresos en dinero, menos gastos en efectivo incluyendo intereses y amortizaciones pagados (del crédito), excluyendo el residuo destinado a gastos familiares y a la reinversión. Los impuestos pagados se incluyen entre los gastos. No tratándose en este caso de calcular rentabilidad, los flujos de egresos podr1an incluir una reserva para reposición de inventarios; una alternativa es que provengan del ingreso residual."},{"index":32,"size":97,"text":"~ara medir la capacidad del endeudamiento, además de la rentabilidad y de los flujos de fuentes y uso de fondos, las entidades crediticias pueden inte~esarse en conocer la razón (equity ratio-inversión con capital propio a inver-* Muy importante en este contexto es diferenciar entre la decisión de iniciar una empresa, de la decisión de continuar operando y de la decisión de intensificar una empresa ya formada. Una descripción clara en Fonta1ne sión total) para determinanos años. Esta razón se define como el porcentaje del total de activos invertidos que son propiedad del ganadero, representado por la expresión:"},{"index":33,"size":35,"text":"Equity ratio(t) = Con ganado, trat5ndose de un activo tan lfquido, una opción es vender parte del ganado para mantener dicho ingreso de subsistencia. Esta opción se usa en la ilustración en el Capítulo IV."},{"index":34,"size":37,"text":"La programación de las inversiones estar~ a menudo muy condicionada por el flujo de caja. El analista puede con el modelo examinar el efecto de trasladar flujos en el tiempo, adelantando o atrasando parte de las inversiones."}]},{"head":"Criterio de Evaluación","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"En la discusión entre zootecnistas, a menudo se pone especial atención en comparar índices de productividad parcial, sea del ganado o del terreno. En forma aproximada, los 1ndices de productividad por hect5rea y por cabeza variar~n en función de la capacidad de carga de acuerdo a la relación siguiente: En el punto A el animal experimenta las máximas ganancias de peso, pero a costa de una menor productividad por unidad de superficie; lo inverso ocurre en el punto B."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"La relación anterior presupone un peso óptimo de venta o degUe110, 10 que es en si una variable del sistema de producción; pero, más importante, no se puede evaluar un método de expansión productiva sino en un contexto concreto respecto a la estructura de precios y costos, y en consecuencia estas relaciones'Isicas son Inconcluyentes respecto a la determinación de un óptimo económico. ~or ejemplo, es lógico esperar que entre más alto sea el precio relativo de la tierra, mayor será el incentivo para operar a niveles \"altos\" de productividad por unidad de superficie."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Como 10 plantea Brumby, hay dos subrutinas básicas, que son incorporar más superficie a la producción, o elevar la productividad de las praderas ya disponibles."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Tratándose de una actividad caracterizada por un largo perfodo de maduración, en que la eficiencia de respuesta a travªs del tiempo es fundamental, debemos evaluar los proyectos de acuerdo a su rentabilidad al capital, sujeto quizás a restricciones respecto a un nivel de ingreso mfnfmo disponible cuando se trate de fincas pequeñas."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"En la actualidad se Cuenta con rigurosos modelos analíticos, a nivel de la teorfa económica de la finca ga-  n. Los costos relevantes para el flujo de caja deben incluir el sueldo alternativo del ganadero, por el * Se deduce al ver la f6rmula de TIR."},{"index":6,"size":50,"text":"Dado que V¡=V o (l+r), en donde V¡ representa beneficios netos que se redltúan al final del perfodo, entonces para V: y V, tenemos que: A no ser que el analista pueda realizar su propia proyecci5n de precios de productos finales 10 que es improbable -deberá recurrir a fuentes especializadas*."},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":"En el caso de insumos, nuestra sugerencia es concentrar el esfuerzo solamente en aquellos insumas que tienen mayor ponderación en los costos. Si hubiera antecedentes para pensar que la oferta de algunos insumos \"importantes Q en * Por ejemplo, IBRD-~rice Forecasts for Majar Primary Commodities, publica anualmente proyecciones a 10-15 años de precios internacionales (en dolares) para los principales productos transados internacionalmente."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"la estructura de costos es muy elástica, en ese caso puede proyectarse a precios relativos constantes."},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"se comienza en un punto de precios bajos dentro del ciclo."},{"index":10,"size":20,"text":"En el primer caso se compra el ganado a precios altos, 10  se\") • porcentaje de ventas, definido por categorla."},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"la unidad de tiempo utilizada para el programa corresponde a un año calendario de 365 dfas, el que debe iniciarse en la época de mayores ventas."},{"index":12,"size":78,"text":"Respecto al tipo de actividad (~r'a. levante. ceba), el programa puede adaptarse a cualquier actividad; estS diseñado en la forma mfis general posible para ofrecer muchas opciones. Como ilustración, en el Grfifico 2, se presenta el flujo de un hato de crla y levante en el que el programa de desarrollo del hato utiliza la vaca como unidad base, en'base a la cual se computa el número de terneras y terneros, que van pasando de categoda en categorfa."},{"index":13,"size":35,"text":"por ailo, hasta que al final las hembras o se trasladan al hato de vacas o se venden, y los machos se venden a un peso que depende del tipo de actividad de la finca."},{"index":14,"size":68,"text":"El volumen de ventas y compras de ganado depende del grado de desarrollo en que está el hato con re1aci1in a 1 a meta que se haya fijado; En el caso mSs general, existe la posibilidad de venta en todas las categorlas en cada pedodo. La velocidad de desarrollo' del hato es función de la proporción de vacas dentro del inventario inicial y de los coeficientes tecnológicos descritos."},{"index":15,"size":41,"text":"Las ventas de vacas son función de la tasa de reemplazo de vacas, según se saquen del hato m's o menos jóvenes; las ventas de hembras jóvenes (del primer parto) depende de s1 el hato está o no estabilizado. w ...."},{"index":16,"size":37,"text":"El tamaño del hato se puede prefijar en base a diversos criterios; aquf se propone utilizar la capacidad de carga. ~ue básicamente depende del tamaño de la finca, la calidad de los pastos y del manejo predeterminado."},{"index":17,"size":1,"text":"tes:"},{"index":18,"size":35,"text":"Las categorfas de vacunos utilizadas son la siguien--Hembras de servicio (V), corresponde a las vacas del hato de reproducci5n; su edad depende de la tasa de reemplazo y de la edad cuando ingresan al hato."},{"index":19,"size":34,"text":"-Terneras y Terneros (TAl, T~l), machos y hembras respectivamente de 0-1 año dé edad; se supone nacimientos concentrados al principio del período para que al final tengan las características de un año de edad."},{"index":20,"size":8,"text":"-Novillas (TA2). hembras de 1 a 2 años."},{"index":21,"size":8,"text":"-Novillas (TA3), hembras de 2 a 3 años."},{"index":22,"size":8,"text":"-Novillas (TA4), hembras de 3 a 4 años."},{"index":23,"size":37,"text":"-Toros (R). machos utilizados para reproducci5n; se supone que son animales seleccionados fuera del hato, en caso de tomarlos de la misma finca se debe manejar el caso como una venta primero y luego como una compra."},{"index":24,"size":8,"text":"-Novillos (TI'2), machos de 1 i! 2 años."},{"index":25,"size":9,"text":"-Novillos (N~ 1). machos de 2 a 3 años."},{"index":26,"size":8,"text":"-Novillos (fl~2). machos de 3 a 4 años."},{"index":27,"size":9,"text":"-Novillos (¡UD) , machos de 4 y más años."},{"index":28,"size":4,"text":"al Cálculo del Inventario."},{"index":29,"size":33,"text":"Las ecuaciones usadas para el cálculo de los inventarios en cada categorfa aparecen más adelante. Aquf se describe la metodologfa empleada y los principales supuestos usados en la generación de inventarios, por categodas."},{"index":30,"size":1,"text":"Vacas:"},{"index":31,"size":44,"text":"El nivel y composición del hato en el ailo (t+l)* depende del estado del misMo en el ailo anterior (t) y\"en particular cada categorfa en el ailo (t+l) depende de otra (como no hay tasa de preñez en t se usa natalidad en t+l)"},{"index":32,"size":63,"text":"o sea el factor V(t) * N(t+1). donde N(t+l) es la tasa probabilística de natalidad, generada a partir de una tasa promedio dada. El neto se consigue sustrayendo las muertes (el programa tiene un coeficiente especial de mortalidad para esta categorfa) y agregando las compras en el perfodo. rara desglosar entre sexo (terneros y terneras) se pondera por la proporción respectiva al nacimiento."},{"index":33,"size":1,"text":"Novillas:"},{"index":34,"size":69,"text":"El inventario de las novillas TA2, lA3 Y TA4 es igual a las novillas de la categorfa anterior que terminaron en {tI, menos las ventas de esa categoría en el año {t+l}, menos las que de esa categoría se trasladaron directamente al hato de vacas a principios de t+l. De este resultado neto a fines del períOdo (t+l). se sustraen las muertes y se agregan las compras en t+l."},{"index":35,"size":2,"text":"NovOl os:"},{"index":36,"size":42,"text":"Los machos mayores de 1 año correspondientes a las categorfas TI')2, 111')1, NI12 Y tlI'l3 se calculan partiendo de los novillos de la categorfa anterior que terminaron en (t) disminuyéndoles las ventas en t+l y agreg~ndoles las compras durante el perfodo t+l."},{"index":37,"size":6,"text":"b) ~rogramación Subrutina Desarrollo del Hato."},{"index":38,"size":32,"text":"El objeto de esta subrutina es calcular inventarios para n aftos, por medio de una serie de igualdades basadas en los coeficientes técnicos. Consta de cuatro componentes: inventario. compras. ventas y muertes."},{"index":39,"size":1,"text":"Compras:"},{"index":40,"size":97,"text":"Compras est3 definido por categorfas para cada afto en el desarrollo del hato, pero por ahora est3n programadas anicamente en el afto 1, o sea, para el inventario inicial a excepci~n de compras de toros. Est~ en proceso el incluir, a través de datos, compras de cualquier categorfa de animales en cualquier período de tiempo. Comprende dos opciones para cargar el valor de las compras, por cabeza, o por peso. ~ara la primera. toma valores dados por categoría y por afta. y la segunda resulta de multiplicar el peso de la categoría por el precio del kilo."},{"index":41,"size":6,"text":"Este puede variarse para cada año."},{"index":42,"size":1,"text":"Ventas:"},{"index":43,"size":103,"text":"Hemos supuesto que las ventas tienen lugar al principio de cada perIodo. por 10 que se calculan directamente del inventario de lacategorfa correspondiente en el año anterior. De esta forma no se venden animales en el primer año, y si se quiere tener ventas en el segundo año se deben incluir animales en el inventario inicial para las mismas categorlas. ~ara justificar la existencia de compra y venta de una misma categorfa en un cierto perfodo se deben incluir precios de compra y venta diferentes. La cantidad vendida de cada categorfa est § expresada como un porcentaje S en t+l, fijado de antemano."},{"index":44,"size":39,"text":"Ilay tres tipos de venta: (1) ventas por categorla según el valor de 5. ( 2) ventas de toros y vacas de desecho, y (3) ventas de hembras sobrantes de 2-4 años, cuando el hato llega al ustado estacionario."},{"index":45,"size":30,"text":"Solamente en las categorfas vacas y toros se difiere de la fórmula general utilizada debido a las ventas por desecho Rl y R2 que no existen en los demás casos."},{"index":46,"size":18,"text":"NVEn(12. t+l) corresponde al residuo de hembras de 2-4 años que sobra en el hato en ese periodo."},{"index":47,"size":1,"text":"11uertes:"},{"index":48,"size":35,"text":"Se calculan al final del perIodo por una tasa aplicada sobre los animales que llegaron al principio del perlodo menos los que se vendieron. No se imputan muertes a los animales comprados durante el perIodo."},{"index":49,"size":9,"text":"MI Y H2 corresponden a la mortalidad, en porcentaje."},{"index":50,"size":9,"text":"de animales menores y mayores de 1 año respectivamente."},{"index":51,"size":36,"text":"~ueden variar a trav~s del tiempo. Tratándose de cifras pequeñas, el redondeo a cantidades enteras en algunas ocasiones generó problemas de sobre o subestimación; se solu-cion6 ajustando las muertes a una distribuci6n de probabi-1 idad uniforme."},{"index":52,"size":1,"text":"Inventario:"},{"index":53,"size":69,"text":"Se limita a copiar el programa. Se calcula al final del per1odo; después de efectuar las ventas se sustraen las muertes y se agregan las compras. ~or ejemplo, para el caso de vacas la expresión es la siguiente:   Gastos en Otras Actividades (GTC). Entran al programa como un dato en un solo grupo. Deben resumir los gastos en todas las otras actividades diferentes a la ganadería como cultivos. etc."}]},{"head":"Análisis Financiero","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"En tlrminos generales el programa evalQa el resultado financiero del negocio ganadero y sirve para evaluar diferentes tecnologías."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Usa tres criterios para evaluar: ingreso neto."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"valor presente y tasa interna de retorno."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Ingreso neto o flujo de caja (BAlN) se calcula restanda del total de ingresos la suma de los gastos para cada año. Esta medida nos da la disponibilidad de dinero del propietario en cualquier perfodo de vida del proyecto."}]},{"head":"BAlN (t+l) • BRUIN (t+l) -EGrOT (t+l)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Valor presente (VAL) se calcula a partir del flujo neto de caja trayendo a valores presentes cada una de sus cifras a una tasa de interls (r) fijada de antemano. Oe esta manera se incluyen el factor tiempo y el costo de oportunidad del capital."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"Valor presente neto (VAL):"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Tasa interna de retorno (Rt>R0X) se calcula con el f1 ujo neto de caja descontado a una tasa de interés que hace igual a cero."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Se calculan dos tasas internas de retorno, una al negocio como tal (TIR) y otra para los casos donde hay crédito y mide la rentabilidad al capital propio (TIRF)."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"lo Conscientes de que usar tasa interna de retorno presenta problemas metodológicos (múltiples ra~ces) cuando hay más de un cambio de signo en la serie de flujo de caja, se forza la venta parcial del hato cuando el flujo de caja es negativo."},{"index":6,"size":27,"text":"Este sistema ha sido diseñado para facilitar el análisis en la evaluación de diferentes sistemas de crédito, subsidios, po1'ticas de precios, y el impacto de nuevai tecnologías."}]},{"head":"B. Consideraciones de Riesgo","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"El factor riesgo es de vital importancia en la toma de decisiones del productor. Se dió especial énfasis al riesgo de establecimiento de las praderas, dado el alto costo de éstas, y a las fluctuaciones de precios, por su influencia sobre la rentabilidad, y finalmente a variaciones en natalidad y mortalidad. El riesgo se ha fnclu1do a través de variables aleatorias generadas de alguna dls-tribución de probabilidad previamente estudiada. los precios se proyectaron en base al siguiente modelo:"},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":". ¡>RECIO(T) :. ¡>RECIO( 1 El establecimiento de la pradera afecta, además de la situación del hato descrita anteriormente, el ingreso de la finca puesto que afecta en forma directa los gastos."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"finca tiene una superficie total de 250 hect~reas, 50 ~e las cuales están con pradera mejorada."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"En base a otros estudios (Spain, et.a1., 1976), se concluyó que la finca debería qenerar un ingreso disponible anual superior a US$600 aproximadamente. Esta exigencia es válida principalmente para la \"etapa de desarrollo\" de,la finca, que abarca aproximadamente los primeros 5 a a años, cuando se estabiliza el desarrollo del hato. Dado este nivel de ingreso ~ínimo, se concluyó que en pleno desarrollo, la finca debería tener un inventario de aproximadamente 36 vacas y su hato correspondiente. Esta capacidad máxima de producción, en términos del tamaño del hato, refleja un manejo determinado, que se describe en (Spain, et.a1., 1976). Dentro de este manejo, 10 principal es la decisión de qué tipo de animal usa la pradera mejorada en cada estación del año."},{"index":5,"size":477,"text":"En esta ilustración, se escogió una finca destinada a crfa y levante. La pradera se utiliza principalmente con las vacas, con el objeto de conseguir una tasa de natalidad relativamente alta. En esta finca las novillas de 2 a 3 años alcanzan un peso de 300 kilos, cuando se les Grupo 4: Imprime los pesos por categor~a al final del año, expre5ados en kilos por animal. Corresponde al peso mlximo que puede alcanzar con la tecnolo~la del trata~ miento en cuesti6n. Este no es necesariamente el peso que se utilizará en el cálculo; el peso último con que opera el programa depende de la productividad de la pradera. Los pesos de 300, 500, 150, 290, 300 Y 300 corresponden al peso máximo de vacas, toros, terneras 0-1 años, terneras 1-2 años, vaquillones de 2 a 3 años y de 3-4 años, respectivamente, al final del año. los pesos de 160, 210, 380, 380, 380* corresponden a los pesos máximos de terneros de 0-1, terneros de 1-2, novillos de 2-3, 3-4, 4 Y más respectivamente. En este caso en particular, en que la empresa es de crla y levante, se vende elIDO por ciento de los novillos de 2-3 años (rutina de ventas), luego no se utilizan los dos últimos valores. De realizarse ceba, estos valores deben reflejar ganancias de pesos reales. Obsfirvese que en el desarrollo del hato a pesar de que por datos se dice que debe venderse el 100 por ciento de los novillos entre 2-3 años, por inventario inicial hay venta de novillos de 3-1 durante t ; además y más importante, en el desarrollo del También en el Grupo 5, aparece las indicaciones acerca del sistema de compra y venta del ganado. Un valor cero significa compra o venta por peso (kilo), y un valor uno significa compra y venta por cabeza. En el primer caso, el valor por kilo es igual (~VErl) trátese de compra y/o de venta. En el segundo caso, el valor de compra (~COI1~) por cabeza es diferente al valor de venta por cabeza (SVE\"O). ~ara este ejemplo se utiliza compra ptir cabeza y venta por peso. Oado que el índice de productividad de la pradera influye directamente sobre las ganancias de peso, el precio de venta por animal debe reflejar las posibles variaciones en ganancias de peso~ Grupo 8: La primera columna de este grupo corresponde a los precios po~ kilo en cada uno de los 25 años que dura la inversi6n; stn embargo. el programa solo utiliza el precio dado para el primer año y en base a éste recalcula, mediante la técnica de Análisis Espectral, la serie de precios final. En la primera corrida, no imprime valores de precios. \"ero a partir de la segunda corrida iMprime los valores con que ha trabajado la corrida anterior. Los valores utilizados para la última corrida no los imprime."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"Si el precio inicial de venta fuª $lOO/kg. PVE~ representa la proyección de los precios a 10 largo de 25.  6) mantenimiento de pradera (cantidad de fertilizante/ha de pradera mejorada);"},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"(7) control de malezas/ha de pradera mejorada, no se aplica; (R) renaración de cercas (metros de cerca/ha de pradera Mejorada), gue en este caso se incluyó como inversión; (9) representa gastos en efectivo en Mano de obra por cabeza de aniMal, que no se aplicó; (10) representa número de jornadas en reparación de maquinaria para toda la finca, no se utilizó pues la maquinaria era arrrendada."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"El Grupo lQ representa los precios unitarios de los gastos descritos en el Grupo 9. Grupos 11 Y 12: Rerresentan unidades fisicas de inversiones y los precios unitarios de las inversiones, res-pectivaMente."},{"index":9,"size":58,"text":"En el Grupo 12 se presenta, por simplicidad operacional, el valor total de las inversiones de la finca (no los precios unitarios). excepto para pradera mejorada* y área total de la finca. En consecuencia, en el Grupo 11 se asignó un valor unitario a las unidades ffsicas de in~ versiones, menos en ~1 caso (8) de praderas mejoradas."},{"index":10,"size":28,"text":"* El programa genera automáticamente la cantidad de pradera mejorada implantada o a sembrar en cada afto, igual al número de hectáreas para el primer año (ver III-B)."},{"index":11,"size":15,"text":"esta columna (8) representa el costo de estahlecimiento de una hectárea de pradera mejorada (~I\"8)."},{"index":12,"size":35,"text":"los valores de las inversiones durante 105 25 años que aparecen en el Grupo 12 de la primera a la sexta columna, corresponden a construcciones, cercas, saladeros y bebederos, terreno. auta y aperos, corral. respectivamente."},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":"La columna (7) es una categorfa adicional de inversiones, que para este caso no fué utilizada. La columna (8) y (9) representan las hectáreas de área nejorada y el total de hectáreas de la finca, respectivanente."},{"index":14,"size":56,"text":"Grupos 13 Y 14: Corresponden a los precios/unidad y las unidades de venta de las inversiones antes descritas. En este caso, no se incurre en ninguna venta de inversión durante los años que dura la empresa. vara el último año se consideró que solo las inversiones en construcción y en cercas tenfan un valor de salvamento."},{"index":15,"size":62,"text":"Grupo 15: Comprende dos suhgrupos de datos. Los preciOS por cabeza de compra de animales por cateqorfa (vCONv) y los precios de v-nta por cabeza de acuerdo a cada categorla (SVEND). Utilizando la subrutina de Análisis Espectral, de acuerdo a la tendencia y ciclo citada, y a los Precios iniciales por categorfa, se proyectan 10$ precios del mercado para los 25 años*."},{"index":16,"size":18,"text":"Grupo 16: En este grupo se incluyen los par~metros técnicos del sistema tradicional en base a sabana nativa."},{"index":17,"size":69,"text":"Cuando una finca que establece pradera mejorada no alcanza el nivel de establecimiento, de plena capacidad de la pradera, reduce los coeficientes de natalidad, ganancia de peso y K3 Y K,. este es un factor aleatorio de productividad adicional y por encima del riesgo relativo de establecimiento de la pradera. . Como ilustración, l~ pradera anterior que se sembró en el año 1, tuvo una duración de 8 años."},{"index":18,"size":115,"text":"vender 13 terneras (2 a 3). debido a flujo de caja negativo. pero con esta venta no logró un flujo positivo, 10 que obligó a una venta adicional de 4 vacas, por encima de las 4 vacas de reemplazo que vende anualmente. Esto influirá en que el desarrollo del hato demore, porque se oDserva un valor cero en terneras de 2 a 3, algunas de las cuales deblan entrar al hato reproductivo. ~ara este caso se logra estabilizar nuevamente el hato a partir de tlO' Además se observa la inestabilidad en la venta de terneras entre 1 y 4 años, sobre todo a partir del 70. año, consecuencia de variaciones en el flujo de caja."}]},{"head":"Flujo de Caja","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"No utiliza ventas de cultivos, y venta de inversiones solo se utiliza al liquidar el hato (t 2S ) ' la finca recibió un prfistamo de largo plazo de $100.000 durante t o ' sobre 10 que debe pagar intereses a partir del priner año."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"En este caso, exceptuando el primer año, las compras corresponden a reposición de toros, exclusivamente (ver compras de 2 toros cada 4 anos en desarrollo del hato)."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Durante el primer año, COMpras incluye la compra del total del inventario inicial. Debe hacerse notar que los precios de compra (por cabeza) de los toros fluctúan de acuerdo a la proyección de precios del ganado según el Análisis Espectral. Se comrraron en t lO con un precio de $11.520, que es el mas alto en los primeros 10 años. luego repone el año 14, comprando a $12.240, un punto alto en el ciclo, y por último repone el año 19, a $12.240 por cabeza*."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Balance representa la diferencia de inqresos menos egresos. Balance sin cr~ditn representa el caso cllando el ganadero financia elIDO por ciento de la inversió~, y es el que se usa para calcular TIR (TIR balance 3). El Balance al capital propio representa el balance de la finca, con crédito, pero pagando la tasa de interés nominal (TIR Balance 1)."},{"index":5,"size":157,"text":"El valor presente se calcula a dos tasas de descuento, de 5 a 10 por ciento, para el Balance 1 y 3. Con una tasa de 10 por ciento, el Balance 3 resultó negativo. luego imprime un listado anual sobre qué representa si se estableció la pradera (SI-NO), la siguiente columna representa el año, luego se representa el fndice de productivinad de la pradera para cada año y luego se imprime las hect¡reas ne pradera mejorada que debe sembrar. ~or último, se imprime la duración de la pradera. Por ejemplo, el afio t,. se estableció (SI), con una productividad de .329, no tiene que sembrar pradera adicional y la pradera dura 15 afios, hasta el año t z3 • * En el listado de computador aparecen los verdaderos precios con que ha trabajado el programa, éstos se obtuvleron con una segunda corrida de'computador.  )\")(1=-fO\"\" 00 t 00 S YSO!)T:: t&CL S, ,,'\" J .outt 1 \"\",.  --------------------~------------------------*------------------------    "},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":", •   "},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"znoo.oo"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"30 .. 00 0.0 8000.00 7000.00 1 .. 00    '.00"},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"'o.no"},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"5.00 10.00"},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"••• 80no.oo 2000.00 . . I .IlR t.OO 1.00 l.no I~OO 1 .ll(l• l.\"\" .lnq6.00 O.,   unon.nrt ,nooO-.OO"},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"• !linn .fln i111'H'10.00 f¡M'l.nl't n,n   ,. t 7M~OO 17/1'1. no 0.0 1 't\"ít).OO 1800.n,., 7~OO .00 3$00. 'o 2 6.41<) .'¡~"},{"index":13,"size":36,"text":".,0 14St..f'ln 1'1fi4.nO 24\"4.00 0.0 • 4 ~q .~q lC\\7QQ .qq n.o 1<;60.0(\\ ;040,01} 2,,40.no 0.0 ¡\",PO.OO 21MLnn 27l:>ú.fin 4199.<)'\" .\" ¡'l<;Q .119 ~'''4 .qq n.o 13'); .\"'0 11\"FI~{jO 77Rf'.OO n.o 14\",>*1')0 tRn.M• ?3Q2.00 3b'.t.O ,ni}"},{"index":14,"size":110,"text":"• ¿.,~q ~q9 11)439.91< 0.0 l'iOR/11'\\ lq7?~OO (I~'i;;.f\"¡r¡ 0,0 ¡;,J4.f}O 2088.1\"1 .... i'1>68.00 40'5'1. ' l?Jl.\"q l'a51 \",99 4Hq~ ';¡ .. \"f. ' él .qq t .??~ .qq n.o 17&1\\.00 nll.M 1\"197.(\\(, 0,0 1 '104.00 21.4«.00 31lA.no 41S9~'t , \" 0;170.1)1 115i'0\",0, r¡ .0 I¡\"M~nn 211 ... 01 21;1\".01 0.0 11ql.OO nn4.nI , ;;lnn~no 'i ,')', .Q<j i,,!'H .• Or¡ lP1¡.,.n'l ?3\" ..... 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On 14:'6.00 1\"'l.o.O 7;<12. 1 \"' ' 1 ;lb4n.Oa 471'.3• )."},{"index":16,"size":101,"text":"• ?i<UC¡ .ff9 o:; -(fJq .. 4Q ,<:'O'l.OO l')11• 0h 2<;\";; .0('1 ~~f>\".l?q 1~14.0\" ;>llAfl.(\\o. 2!'f.,P .00 40<;c,.<l:q .41\"5.\" 1 10 1;'1\".,,0 \"'10',) .Q'I 1 ':t~4 .00 ? 171:. .ffn lA}f,.OO HP.no -\"poo.nl l r;f.() .(\\0 2(140..0/1 7t>4(\\.ClO 341111,(1!'1 11<\"0.00 ?11>f1.00 2160.0(> 4200.(1) 4 Q ?f1. n {1 12 ?f\\\"\"1).OO S\".flq .Q9 ll-\"/> .tíO 1<J04.ni) 24-\"4.00 'J}4\".flO l'>68.00 2'11 &.0/1 251\"-.0'1 '39;>0.00 4$9\\ .. )N~n ,00 <)<;-';'1 .q~ 1 '5An ,00 J040.\"\" .?f>'.n~oo 341\\t'!, 00 I MlO. 0fI 71 hll.On 216n.('\\'1 419q.qq f,Q 19. \":\\ 1 .. ••.110 . . . n\". 'N ;;'Ol&.on ;\"'1/.00 'n17,('\\0 ;1l3 4 .Q9 ;:'<'1A .<'1"},{"index":17,"size":24,"text":"'o 17nn .HO ,.,):<l4.'¡') I ~\"'4 .nn 7111, .\"tI lfl:H,.fiO HP.nl1 IHl\"nn 7ltl4.01) 'Cl44, ('1\" 447<l.99 <'o; 41.\" , >\\ O\\f. 14 .. <.¡q:"},{"index":18,"size":4,"text":"J ,t,,:!'t. Q4 )\"'j'J.q<J"},{"index":19,"size":15,"text":"31',4.no 4t.:,r.Q'¡ 71?ll .. nn 7 ¡ ~A.O(\\ ~4q\".nn \"i119 .. <t9 \"''\\1. 7 ')"},{"index":20,"size":24,"text":"\" \"<,,n,. ~nl 1;>nO .. \"'7 \\11 P .01 :>44ft ,O} ; t I,~ .f'l 4'7,<,.('), ?016~0' ¡.,Ql .. ll,! 1l1)' ,II} ~O,,(I.Ol 0.,<1<1\".1"},{"index":21,"size":30,"text":",. ,\\1\"JI1.nn ¡, 1'14 .q'J I f',¡.t .(l0 J'lJ,nn 74\"1./\\0 '<1t,I,. lq, ;tl.QI} lO, 1\" .q.<'j '2\"\". \"R 1,;>'11 .. <.\\1'1 Jol1. u4 J,.(,~ .Qq ,\\1.0 ;,\"1> ') l1Q,.Ql f.1'61,•n   "}]},{"head":"{I-ZI","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"'fFR\"l\"'Ui\\ (Z-31 10. 12 14 13 12 14 l' 11 1! 13 16 11 15 14 14 12 13 14 14 lb 14 16     ."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"• • • "},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":",."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":".. ,-"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"31)')66 .."}]},{"head":"41013Q.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"70R31."},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"') '9 nh 4J:¡1)5l."},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"<;¡ 71 /)$ • 1(\")\"'767."},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"~11'l21."},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"~1740 .."}]},{"head":"6~1t11.","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"17A59."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"'51J:¡2'7 .."}]},{"head":"91116.","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"nOHO."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"11;>471.."}]},{"head":"ROb4().","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"1\"'bOIlO."}]},{"head":"q2<J16.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"AQ4bO."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"104'111)."},{"index":3,"size":2,"text":"~4n4A .. "},{"index":4,"size":1,"text":"o."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"'''~'lo."},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":"1000011"},{"index":7,"size":1,"text":"o."},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":"• n."},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":"• • . ."},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"'\" '\" '\" '\""},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":"'\" .,"},{"index":12,"size":3,"text":"~ -~ ::::"},{"index":13,"size":2,"text":"' ::"},{"index":14,"size":11,"text":".. -N • -.. .. ., .. .. .. '\" .."},{"index":15,"size":2,"text":"'\" '\""},{"index":16,"size":3,"text":"., .. ...  "},{"index":17,"size":48,"text":"-- ....     4 1, 1•lr!.I.I,o \" \" iJ \"I .. ¡'. ' 7 \" '9' 2' 2:>E..+5,~6 72~~p3~l'.:,,:dcl~,j:;,,l;{\"': ~¡~!:'~\"'14~4 \"\" ~15( 5I5'1+~515515HB!5916( m \"\"6:\"\":. 1,.,I.~Ml~1,¡ñfr:r\",rr5?6!nrsinJ~ ! 1 1 I I I I 10 1 , 1 I ItIo'oo'OOI. (11r1' r.v\", 1.Ii:so J!-\"(rrII .LIr',vIKI + ..el\"),,, \"¡'--l )..'>4k)H¿» ,1     "},{"index":18,"size":3,"text":", \" I    "},{"index":19,"size":32,"text":"1 I 1 .5~{tJ, '91' ~\",;\"ú:l-\"\".i;;'(c)i sJ\",r(;) S-<\",~)I 5P,97\"(;) i J;;:Ú,..?!-t1_,) S.¿,/)T/'/') 'p;\"').\".\" . !,c3: 1 i )::',,/ , 1 i , 1 1 ' c.   ITT', I I I I I"},{"index":20,"size":14,"text":"Tffillllllllllllllllll un 1 I IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ! II! 1111111111 i I1111111111111 ¡ 11 i I~i J; "},{"index":21,"size":12,"text":"TAl (t) TERNERAS (0)(1) TAí' (t) TERNERAS (1)(2) TA3 (t) TERIIERJ\\S (2-3)"},{"index":22,"size":12,"text":"N~l (t) nOVILLOS (2)(3) N02       CATEGORIA \"i\" (ALt>IIA-; = 1,........ 1 1"},{"index":23,"size":13,"text":"TERIl ERAS DE (0)(1) TER/lERAS OE (1)(2) TERNERAS DE (2-3) TERNERAS DE (3-4)"},{"index":24,"size":7,"text":"TERNEROS DE (0)(1) TERNEROS DE (1-2 )"},{"index":25,"size":21,"text":"1I0V ILLOS DE (2-3) NOVILLOS DE (3-.1) tlnVI lLOS DE        Q TO 110,20.30,40,50,60,71'1.80,90,100,11      lA\"«\"\"l) \"\" r'T\"3rTj -N\\'(Nf5.T+ll1 -ITA'3tl~ ., 1t3fT.,.t _   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"11 . ESTRUCTURA DEL MODELO A. Descripción General de los Componentes del Modelo Consiste en esencia de cuatro subsistemas principales: desarrollo del hato, analisis financiero, establecimiento de praderas y proyección de precios; los otros componentes del sistema estan estrechamente relacionados a estos subsistemas básicos. Todos los valores se refieren al final de cada año. Opcionalmente, el modelo ofrece una rutina de análisis y proyección de precios. a) Desarrollo del Hato. A partir de una composición inicial del hato, y dado los coeficientes técnicos, el modelo calcula la cOMPosi~ ción del hato año por año. El programa puede adaptarse a cría, levante y ceba. Los coeficientes técnicos pueden ser constantes o evolucionar a través del tiempo. El ga~ nadara puede comprar o vender ganado. El formato (printout) es el inventario del hato a través de n años (25 años en ilustración en Capftulo IV). discriminado en 11 catego~ rías. "},{"text":" b) desarrollo, y (e) post-desarrollo. Para cada una de estas etapas existe un tamaño y fl composición dada del hato, un conjunto da coeficientes tlcnicos en los que puede variar tanto la disponibilidad de recursos f{sicos y financieros, así como los precios y la tasa de descuento o costo alternativo del capital. a) Situación inicial: "},{"text":"1 = Rt ,. Rt_l etc. e igual para todas las categorfas. Dado los coeficientes tlcnicos durante el perlodo inicial o de pre-desarrollo, la tasa de reemplazo y la edad 'óptima' de venta de los novillos, y dado la capacidad de carga de la finca para la tecno10gfa en cuestión, se calcula por aproximaciones sucesivas el tamano m~ximo del hato. Una relación operaciona1mente útil, que se utilizará m!s adelante, es Que para cada estado estacionario, dado un conjunto de coeficientes, corresponde una composición de hato determinada. ~ara estimar la demanda por capacidad de carga, se utilizó como unidad base el número de vacas; con este concepto se puede expresar el hato en términos de unidades animales totales, para un determinado número de vacas. Esto es, las vacas y su hato correspondiente en estado estacionario. Las inversiones del proyecto pueden realizarse total o parcialmente durante el ano inicial (t o )' Claro que, en t o ' una finca en particular pudiera estar muy por debajo de su plena capacidad, y lllego la finca podrfa evolucionar y expandir su hato sin variar su tecnologfa y/o sin recibir financiamiento externo. Si este es el caso, y hay antecedentes para proyectar esa evolución, debe incorporarse esa evolución, la que servir~ como base de comparación. b) Etapa de desarrollo: Durante esta etapa evolucionar~ el tamaño y probablemente también la composición del hato; asimismo pueden variar los coeficientes técnic6s y/o la disponibilidad de recursos. Esto dependerá del análisis en cuestión, si se trata de examinar el caso de introducir nueva tecnologfa, o variar el financiamiento o los precios, etc. "},{"text":" vacas (t+l) es medido a finales del perfodo. tratando de reflejar. en promedio, el número de animales que pasaron la mayor parte de tiempo en la categorfa. entre otras razones para utilizar esta información como indicador del tamaño del hato. Se supone que comienzan el perIodo todas las vacas que finalizaron en esa ca-* ~orfacilidad en la programación se escogió (t) como el periOdo anterior y (t+l) como el perrodo actual. tegorfa el período anterior. De estos animales algunas se venden por desecho (Rl) y cualesquiera otra porción (S) que se desee vender; esta actividad de venta se lleva a caoo al principio del períOdO cuando est~n llegando las hemoras jóvenes de un peso aproximado de 300 kgs *. provenientes de las categorfas TAl. TA3 Y TA4 del inventario en (t). en una proporción K2. K3 Y K4, respectivamente. fijada en (t+l). Esta última operación se ha definido como \"traslado\" de novillas al hato de reproducción.Durante un corto tiempo las vacas nuevas incorpora~ das al hato y las vacas de desecho están en el hato al mismo tiempo. las muertes hacia el final del perfodo se calculan sobre el número neto de vacas que permanece en la finca la mayor parte del año.~ara conocer el inventario final se deben agregar todas las compras de vacas efectuadas el año; como no se conoce la fecha de compra se supone que es cero la mortalidad en estos animales.Si las hemoras de las categorías TA2, TA3 Y TA4 trasladadas al hato de madres exceden a1 número requerido para reemplazar las vacas desechadas y las muertas, se procede a vender el excedente y se registra en una categorfa de ventas de hembras de 2-4 años. Este manejo implica con-centraci6n de ventas al comienzo del perfodo (t+l) de las * El criterio para \"trasladar\" novillas al hato de repro-ducci6n debe ser el peso y no la edad categortas que finalizaron en (t). Asf por ejemplo, las vaquillas de 3-4 años en (t) se vendieron de 4 años y unos d1as en (t+l). Como las ventas se hacen al peso. estos dfas de más no afectan el resultado. los ingresos por ventas se contabilizan en (t+l). toros en t+l es igual al inventario que quedó del pertodo (t) menos las ventas por reemplazo y por cualquier otro motivo. a este resultado neto se le extraen las ffluertes y se le agregan las compras; éstas iltimas deben garantizar el mantenimiento de una relación toro-vaca fija, impuesta de antemano. concentrados hacia el principio del periodo en forma de tener terneros de 1 año al final del perfodo. Si por el contrario, hay monta continua se clebe reflejar este fenómeno como una baja en el precio o peso final en todas las categorias. El nfimeio final de terneros dependerá de la cantidad de vacas preñadas en (t) "},{"text":"t+ 1 ) N~3(t+1) = N02(t) -rIVEN(10, t+1) -MUER(ll, t+1) + COM~(ll, t+1) IF N03(t+l)--IMftX(ll) 120, 120, 110 110 rI03(t+1) = IMAX(ll) 120 CONTINUE Todas las categorfas aparecen definidas en t+l.En el caso de los toros R(t+1) el inventario debe cumplir con una condición de mfnimo ~UM determinada por la relación toro-vaca de acuerdo al número de vacas que se conoce de antemano. Si sobran toros pasan a la cateqorfa ventas.Hay tres condiciones para determinar el tamaño máximo del hato, que se im~one a las categorías V(t+1), N02 y N03.La información del año 1 en el programa sirve como punto de partida para la proyección del hato. Los coeficientes en este período no se aplican ya que el inventario se toma como dado. Se supone a1qún porcentaje de vacas preñadas con el objeto de empezar a producir terneros desde el comienzo del año 2. En el año 1 se deben efectuar las inversiones necesarias para hacer posible la operación ganadera;2. Flujo de Caja Esta parte del programa sirve para conocer el estado financiero del negocio. Calcula primero todos los ingresos, luego los gastos y por último los ingresos netos. a) Ingresos. Dentro del programa están definidos como la sumatoria de los ingresos monetarios, provenientes del negocio en cuestión. recibidos por el ganadero. Existen cuatro posibilidades para clasificar los diferentes ingresos: por venta de ganado, por actividades complementarias, crldito y por realización de inversiones. (ANIN). Como se explic6 en la parte de desarrollo del hato, existe la posibilidad de vender cualquier número de cabezas anualmente de cada una de las 12 cate'}orfas (NVEN). por diferentes mecanismos. \"ay dos opciones para calcular el valor por animal: una considerando el valor por cabeza de cada animal. Estos valores entran al programa como una variable anual ex-ante por categorfa en la parte de datos (SVEN); la otra posibilidad es considerando el peso de cada animal (~ESO) y el precio por kilo (PVEN). Este 01timo precio puede entrar como un .. dato anual o puede ser generado por la. subrutina de precios (ver Subrutina de ~reclos). Ingreso vendiendo por cabeza: 12 AHI\" (t+!) • E. NVEH (J. t+l) * SVENO(t+l) J=! Ingreso vendiendo al peso: 12 ANIN (t+1) • E \"VEII (J, t+l) * ~ESO (J) * J=l ~VEN (t+l) Ingreso de Otras Actividades (CI\"G). Dentro del programa se dejó abierta la posibilidad de incluir ingresos de otras actividades relacionadas directa o indirecta-. mente con la ganader'a. Es el caso de algunos cultivos y especfficamente el caso de la lechería. Se consideran tres posibilidades que pueden variar en el tiempo en can-t1dades (QC) y precio (I~C). "},{"text":" 3 CING (t+l) • E RC (J. t+l) * I~C (J. t+l) J=1 Ingreso por Crédito (KR). El crédito entra al programa como un dato exógeno, variable en el tiempo. ~ara amortizaciones e intereses se dedicó una subrutina qUe se analiza junto con los gastos por crédito. Ingreso por Venta de Inversiones (Vlnl\"G)~ Se con-sideró la posibilidad de realizar algunos bienes de inversión en cualquier a~o del perlado considerado. Resultó muy útil para incluir el valor de salvamento de las inversiones y para conocer el capital final del ganadero. Se dejaron abiertas ocho alternativas diferentes para cantidad (VIHVER) y precio (VI~IH). "},{"text":" ) -[(TEND x T) + M!' x SEtW(H + ~) T] TE 11 O = AMfl = Tendencia estiMada (1.6% anual) Amplitud [10% sobre flRECIO(!)] El Ingulo de partida del ciclo W es seleccionado al azar. de entre cuatro posibilidades: ~. ~/2. ~/3. ~/4.que permite escoger diferentes tasas dentro del ciclo, basándose en un precio de mercado máximo, uno mlnimo. una fase ascendente o una descendente respectivamente. La s1-tuaci6n de los precios para la compra y venta del ganado de carne en el momento en que se inicia una empresa dentro de este sector puede encontrarse en cualquiera de las cuatro posibilidades descritas; esta situación influye bastante sobre el desarrollo económico de la empresa.2. rraderaDentro de las nuevas tecnologtas a evaluar con la ayuda de la simulación, es especialmente importante examinar el efecto de la introducción de praderas mejoradas basadas en leguminosas. los expertos en pastos y forrajes establecieron que el riesgo al establecimiento y al mantenimiento de ia pradera eran los factores de más importancia dentro de este proceso.La subrutina pradera establece en el año O una cantidad de pradera mejorada dada por AMEJ(l}. El tiempo de duración en condiciones óptimas de duración es una variable aleatoria generada de una distribución normal con media y varianza conocidas. Así la duración total de la pradera estará dada por:donde: FIN ~ AE + O AE ~ tiempo (en años) que demora la pradera en establecerse. D = duración de la pradera en condiciones óptimas. FIN• duraci6n máxima de la pradera (sln riesgo)., Cada año se obtiene al azar la productividad de la pradera establecida de una distribución normal con ~ •• 80 Y 0= .15. La decisión sobre si la pradera se considera establecida depende de si esta productividad aleatoria (nrl) es mayor o por lo menos igual a u~a productividad mínima dada (~HIU). BU ~ ~Mln • NOEST • O El programa asume nueva siembra en un tieMpo (t+l)~ bajo dos condiciones: l. La pradera sembrada anteriormente ha llegado a su perrodo máximo de duración (Flrl).2. El riesgo ha influido negativamente sobre ella, en tal forma que no pudo establecerse en el período anterior. Cuando la pradera se establece (nOEST • O), los parámetros técnicos natalidad, peso, venta, y las proporciones de.terneras entre 2 y 4 años para entrar al hato, Se incrementan en forma lineal sobre dichos parámetros del sistema tradicional de acuerdo a la productividad de la pradera alcanzada en ese año. Esto es: ~ARAHETRO XTECNOLOGIA = ~ARAMETRO XTRADICIONAL + ~ARAM'XiECN. -~ARAM~XTRAD.J~ROD. ~ara el caso en que no se establezca la pradera, los parámetros utilizados son los correspondientes al sistema tradicional. "},{"text":" destina a la venta. Los novillos se venden a los 380 kilos, peso que alcanzan c~ando tienen 3 a 4 años. Respecto al manejo, se suministra sales minerales y vacunas, y los gastos de operación cubren visitas de veterinario. Un resumen de las inversiones y los gastos se presentan en los Cuadros A y D, resp~ctivamente.Los par~metros técnicos se presentan en el Cuaóro C.De acuerdo a antecedentes proporcionados por los especialistas en pastos y forrajes de CIAT. se sintetiz6 el desarrollo de la pradera en tres etapas. Se inicia con un perlodo de establecimiento que demora dos años, luego sigue el perfodo de pleno desarrollo, que se estim6 para esta mezcla forrajera en aproximadamente O años, luego de la cual comienza la declinación en su productividad. La escripci6n de la rutina de establecimiento de pradera se encuentra en rrI-R.para esta ilustrac:ón, se seleccionó una situaci6n e mercado en que los precios del ganado aumentan en térinos reales y fluctdan dentro de un ciclo, ambos determiados por la rutina de An~ltsis Espectral. En base a las eries de precios del ganado en Colombia, se estimó que ntre 1945 y 1970 loS precios deflactadbs de la carne umentaron en aproximadamente 1.6 por ciento COMpuesto ~nual, y un ciclo principal de aproximadamente 4 años. Esa evolución se utilizó para proyectar los pre,cios futuos.La preparación de los datos para usar el modelo se ~resenta en la Sección A del Apéndice. Los datos que se escriben a11' corresponden a la flustraci6n.El 'print-out' de los datos se describe a continualón, para facilidad del lector.~ara efectos de facilitar la operación, el manejo de datos se ha dividido en 16 grupos; un grupo son par~metros técnicos, otro grupo son ventas, otro es compras, otro in~ ventario inicial, etc.En este caso no se predeterminó condiciones de ingreso mfnimo ni m~ximo.Grupo 1: Los valores m~ximos de inventario se fijan en t6rminos de nOmero de vacai. como unidad de base. En este caso se predeterminó un valor de 36. los valores 999 son valores ficticios. la ten~encia de precios reales (TENO) en O.DIA, que se aproxima a 0.02, con una amplitud del ciclo (Arl~) de 0.010, factor de ciclo (FC) que en ausencia de Iln sub~ciclo es igual a 1.00, ciclo (C) que representa la mitad de la duración del ciclo, en este caso 2 años, y W que representa un nOmero seleccionado al azar de entre los valores de O, w/2. n/3 y w/4. En este caso seleccionó 0.0.La metodologfa matemática empleada y descrita anteriormente en III-B, no permite que el valor del ciclo sea igual a cero. Grupo 2: Se introduce para recordar la secuencia horizontal en que se imprimen las diferentes categorfas de animales en el programa.Grupo 3: Imprime los valores (número de cabez~s) del inventario inicial. por categoria. "},{"text":"Grupo 6 : vresenta el valor de los parámetros técnicos a 10 largo de los 25 a~os del cálculo. Como un artificio operacional, para liquidar el hato el último año (t ls ' se asign6 una natalidad y valores de K! y K, igual a cero. Grupo 7: Representa el porcentaje máximo de ventas por categoría durante 25 años. Al año 25 se liqui1a el 100 por ciento del hato (1.0). "},{"text":" afios, incluyendo tendencia, ciclo de 4 afios y la escogeneia aleatoria del valor inicial dentro del ciclo. Recordando la ecuación de precios (Sección l11-B): \"recio (t) = ¡'recio inicial -[(TENO.T) + Allr'.Sen [IH~] T] que, por ejemplo para t lO es: 12.111 = [10 -(0.016.10) + .10 sen ~H~J TJ La columna siguiente (KR) representa el monto del crªdito de largo plazo recibido en too No se utilizaron las unidades ni los precios de cultivos en este caso (Qe e Ir'e), ni tampoco se estimaron gastos en efectivo en cultivos (GTc). Grupos 9 Y 10: El 9 representa el número de unidades de gastos y ellO representa los precios de esas unidades ele gastos. Por ejemplo, en 9 columna (1) representa 25 kilos de sales mineralizadas por U.A/a~o. El valor de 30 en la co-lumna (2) representa el número de vacunas por aninal dentro del hato/año; (3) representa unidades de conc~ntrados por aniMal, no se utilizó; (4) representa gastos de administración; (5) asesor'a tficnica; ( "},{"text":" r.L 1 NF A S ,COPI E S=',(;OP lAS JEfM~' SUqSTfTUllO>.J Jet -SY~OUT=fAtJll.nUTLl\"\"'''30()(),COPIF.S~1 IIOATn<;--.:_--'------------... ---------_ .. _-_ ... _----------------------. .... -------~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SENCO **. ~fSTEMA/370 flOOElO 14~, OS/VSJ ~ElEhSE 04.0 ~-~--~-_._~~- "},{"text":"-- 0 . 0 lNr.RF~O MAxlMO 100noo.oo e o ~ f N 1 A e n R _ o n NO. "},{"text":" co~O'Ctn~fS JNJC,AlES NtI\\tFRO OF GR!lpn~ ne nlTO~ .. 16 SWITCH PARA liSO OE AMEJ FIíI lOS GI\\~Tns .nE FU,TH. G 11 U Pn \". n v A l o ~ E S M A X I'~ o ~ 1 N v F N T A ~ 1 o ~3ñ qqQ qqq q9q qqq qqq qqq qqq 999 999 999 TENO O.02---AMP O.10---FC 1.00---C ?,.nn---w 0 "},{"text":",  "},{"text":"\" 4 OS N' TAL r O A O O.4R n.5R O.b4 0.73 0.8\\ o.sl 0.75 0.90 D.~4 0.80 Q.~O n.a2 0.89 0.17 0~8~ 0.80 O.SR 0.15 0.85 0.790.69 0.89 0.~7 0.90 0~65 0.0 o E S Á A A O L l n O e l H A T o "},{"text":" o o o (;) o: o o '\" ., ., o lO O O' o e o o ., ., "},{"text":"• e o O\" o o o e ~ .. \" e o o o e CI e ~ e '\" "},{"text":" EA.l1')1t::/(:W SDs.t!E ¿.~ J>() ¡:;pN&\"A./ mCAf:)i/,i ;H!]. ~t;>.:> ,(:9. i2\\'T I PROGRAMA J),(Jrs!S M.c<P le. P4liD~.A#.I\" 'IV.lJrs';H' <..::'::::.::.;-;~-;:::... PROGRAMADOR -cl'íJ~ PE F.::.r¿l¡p\" "},{"text":"' 1 1 o.l!III.IOII/'.'oll ... loIIIOI.IOII.~~II.!;olll.FJ\"n-\"\"\"b. I 1 I ~ . 1 i\"F 1 1 le Ilí'f' \"-J, 11\"\" o! ' L? \"'(\"\" <:» 1 i\"~'\" rl • 1II ' I '1 \";09.v0t~¡:; \"/f¿!\" Ú'...¡, 1, QCW H\" 1, H' .; I p ... ..etr ,.bo\"'.<!!.er¿'\" S Y\"\"'!'I ! ! 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E T o R N n ';l3 t f FO~MAl tt II QUIE8PA I 1 FOR*\"Al'Hl(,tfA,,\\A OE PfTQf!:NO aaVd2,' • ',fl5.1./1 fO~~AT f21S,F15.~1 R~TURN E~O SUBRoulTNf ff~l (Nl.N,TlNF,TSUP.PESf, RtIl.L N Z'O (Alt. ~IOFlt.(lIl H) •• 1. ,1 ,Nil rFfAsS'ZI.GT.21 GO ro lO 'f HU\\! tlprp,KCM4. lNTfGfrt VDCll. j:¡1301, Hlf3ól~ T4-2()Oh TAlt301. Ta4C30l. 1 lOlf)OI,TOZn-OltF•U\".PA¡~. MMII]l, \"ll. !-I110l. U/'d30'. tOMf'I!Z.301. NSOll1J~ IISUtH3út-. C:SUP4fZ6-1 RElll J(lI;)íH. \"',l1301. Nf.lOI. II;Zf301. 1t3t301. "},{"text":"( [;.¡t 3. H 1 , • TA) (T} • ~ I'3,T+1\\ • Q NVPII4.T.I, TU.~ T' • Sf4.TH) • n r~Vp¡t5.T.l , Tl\\3tTl • \"-'S,T+1 J • o NVHlffq ¡ t l l 'rUlfI .. ~'{6,Tql • ~ NVttH1,r+li • ToHTt • '\\f t 4 T+ll • o \"WENrS,T+ll T021 T1 • ~f8,T .. \\1 • ~ NvnH9. Y+11 • ,.101.1 T) • r..t 9. r+l) • o N'JftJ{ 10, Tt l' . Nf1l (TI • StlO,T+ll • n tf'Jfut II,Tt,1 \"\" ~Ol(T) • <;01 1 T*n • n nVENtl2,T+J 1 • Vfl+ll -tMAxtt 1 • o l ' I\"-V{'tH 11. Tt n • L T • 0.1 NVe~flt.HU e e c: ~,lIEIHE'i -;q HAl OH 4~{, -r:OMp ONENTE 11 'fll ,.. vlTl -N\\!f~tt,hl1 .. ,T&.2fn.\"lH+lJh ITA'3f'tlu3thln .. t 04 lo lnált4ll'\",UI ( ,T+1' .. ITA2f T l.:al(lfn\", + \"'!3fT'• t l(lH.ll1 .... {t~\"{'f . . l(4f•hlll -MuERthT+O t (CtU•n,T+tl +0 lFfvtT+lI -1tUYfltí 36.3l¡o,3Z 37 ~Vt~tt211+l1 ~ vn.nn'U.fU yil.ll • f~Axtt. cnNTINIIE CONTINUA .CONTl HUA SU9ROIITlNE HATO (lPPP.KCMA) "},{"text":"1 M1JfR(6 t T +ll -+ COMPt,.,r+¡) .. o TDU¡\"11 f'ltR,NE\" 81t\"U1 -MtH'JH1,T+ll .. C.tHiP{7,HlI +0 Triur+H T01fTl -tJVf';NI1,THI -I.I(¡CRf8,nH ~ GOllPU,hlt .. o Nol [1+1\\ T021T! -NVCN(8.ft.lt -~lJEJ'1f9,Hl1 .. COMPf,.TtlJ .. o ~n2Ii+ll ~:Olfll -~JVfNt9,Hlt -¡.4uER,flOtT+li .. tOMPItO,Hlh o tF (N02f~+1' -TM~~IIOll tOO, too, qO '0311+1) ,. NQ2.fTl ... NvtllflOfT+U l-1U1l:RrtltT+U. c'OMPfU,r+J 1 • o ir tN03~T+l1 -lMA~I'lll 120, IZO, 110 N03! T+ 1 J '\" !Hh 1{ rt 1 • rOllll P-JUE CnMPI]HEtlTE v .. TaMAÑO nr:t HATO f..IP+11 .. 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"},{"text":" , 4lf,n.oo ~ 'lMI .fiO o ,o t '~7 .r¡o 11<.'1. no .?? q~ .. n(l n.o 14 .... \".00 llHZ.O\" l3<J7 9 (Hl H49.0-0 .t.'lQ.QQ 9119.<N' n.o 14{}4.1111 tlt'\\t.. .no ;tH.; • .flO 0.0 t'l12.(1) t944~\"FI 1'484,.00 \"17~\" .\"11         1'iI,R.on 7016.0t\\ 7\"'71'>.00 ;(JZO,,,4 1'iI,R.on7016.0t\\ 7\"'71'>.00 ;(JZO,,,4 4 '>3 1 40.00 A,o, ~4 .\"' 1 n.Q 174-1' .Of; 1\"1?h() Jltl\".on , 0,1) r 'l¡44.nO t 77A .nr\" l?flll.f'I() HMI.f'O 4'>3 1 40.00A,o, ~4 .\"' 1n.Q174-1' .Of;1\"1?h()Jltl\".on, 0,1)r 'l¡44.nOt 77A .nr\" l?flll.f'I() HMI.f'O  "},{"text":" • • 7 • 9 In 1\\ 12 U 14 15 t6 17 U: 19 lO 21 2Z 23 24 l'S .... l(AS 1~ 3h ,~ 1h \\0 36 3~ )0 1l 3\\ ~h lb ~6 3b 36 3b 3~ 3b 1b 36 36 36 lb lb 36 ~l rnQ~~  2 , 2 2 2 l , 2 Z 2 , l 2 7 Z 2 Z 2 2 2 2 2 l 2 l Z rnQ~~2,222l,2Z2,l27Z2Z22222l2lZ T~p~~~a~ (n-ll R 10 ti 13 l~ 14 t' I~ IS 12 13 14 14 t1 I~ 14 t4 II 1. 14 14 14 14 \\5 tS O T~p~~~a~ (n-llR 10 ti 13 l~ 14 t' I~ IS 12 13 14 14 t1 I~ 14 t4 II 1. 14 14 14 14 \\5 tSO ,C~~CAA~ 11-21 • 9 10 11 13 14 14 13 15 15 ., 12 14 14 13 15 t4 14 lZ l' 14 14 14 14 14 l4 ,C~~CAA~ 11-21•9 10 11 13 14 14 13 15 15 ., 12 14 14 13 15 t4 14 lZ l' 14 14 14 14 14 l4 T=~~~~~~ '7-11 7 h 1 ID 7 11 14 14 O lO l~ 12 12 14 13 13 15 14 14 12 15 t. 14 14 14 t3 T=~~~~~~ '7-117h1 ID7 11 14 14O lO l~ 12 12 14 13 13 15 14 14 12 15 t. 14 14 14 t3 T;:R~¡(Q,.r;, ,;_4)                          T;:R~¡(Q,.r;,,;_4) 1J:Q'JI\"Qn<;. ffl-l J                          1J:Q'JI\"Qn<;. ffl-l J r::O;\";\"\"'''1Ii 11-21                          r::O;\";\"\"'''1Ii 11-21 111 1' 1 v (tlr¡~ '2-1}                          111 1' 1 v (tlr¡~ '2-1} ~('vllln<t n-41                          ~('vllln<t n-41  "},{"text":"\":1, ..  sr sr SI SI 5 6 7 R 0.79' o .6 <¡ 1 l\"oon 0 .. 809 0., o. o. sn. • • R. R. R. 71. sr sr SI SI5 6 7 R0.79' o .6 <¡ 1 l\"oon 0 .. 8090., o. o. sn.• • R. R. R. 71. SI 9 () •• '9 O. ? ~ .. SI9() •• '9O.? ~ .. SI sr SI sr SI sr sr sr sr sr SI sr SI sr SI 10 11 12 n 14 I~ 16 17 lA 1'1 20 21 22 23 24 0.895 0.817 0.911 0_7114 0.843 O.7AR 0.814 O.6l~ O. 7 7~ O .. 7'iA O.Q<¡2 0.890 1.oon O .. qhQ 0.828 O. O. o. O. O. O. O. O. . O. O. o~ O. o. 50. O. 7,3. 7'. \". ,1. \". 1\".\\. 2~. '3. 23. 7'. 23. 7'?i. 3'. 3'l. SI sr SI sr SI sr sr sr sr sr SI sr SI sr SI10 11 12 n 14 I~ 16 17 lA 1'1 20 21 22 23 240.895 0.817 0.911 0_7114 0.843 O.7AR 0.814 O.6l~ O. 7 7~ O .. 7'iA O.Q<¡2 0.890 1.oon O .. qhQ 0.828O. O. o. O. O. O. O. O. . O. O. o~ O. o. 50. O.7,3. 7'. \". ,1. \". 1\".\\. 2~. '3. 23. 7'. 23. 7'?i. 3'. 3'l.  "},{"text":" T .~J .Id; I i'11~ ¡ l• ~c .t~.o!c :t.lde . . fíe .Io,c. t¡ §. :-.Isi,..:.. ';';;~~~'.d.J~ 1\".kJ~'¿s I! i .lo~ ! . 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I I 1 I ¡ 111 1 l ' : 1 ¡ 'L  "},{"text":" 1    "},{"text":" 1(41301, 1 IU\"ERf to, lbl, ItR 12tH, Ir 1!tí 10. 261 .lN10II2:M .ItU(ll t.U. J, tNtnlfl.faJ, 2. KUf12 1 26', Ifl{)!5f Zfol. HH?6' (OllMON st 1 2. .3t'\\1. NVEN 412> 2&1 t p(Q)lP f I 2.26) .HIlEIH 1 Z. Z6' ,COMP. I 1 \"1\",«1\\. QC,I S. 26' t U•C. BAUH 5. l61 ,SVe\\lO f 1 2:, 2t.l ,1<5 tS. 2 li, VA. Ml)UtIt)Ol, vSUM. v. Ro TAl. tAl.. 1~,. fA4. U)I. fo2. 31'11011301, H02r30l. N03f3.0l. HI. tU. N~ 111.2, 1(3. 1C4, ltIl30., lti!OOl. 4 AI10l .EH JOl .Rlle :.HH. Hur (lb' ,l S.Uf'f 2M. rEST f l6t (OMMON fovlNUf:I, 'Ot. C;TCfl61. AHEJf261. 1M. I PTN8tUdt 8RtJHIfI'l, e:CfQr(Z6J. ANY~Nflb), CJHG-tUl, GSUKI2'61. 2' : SU1UVI2F.1. ~uHCpn5h fNl\"Ol. INTO;!. VATor, C$tJ~. :) AAil3l. HHx{11.1, PESO, I<lj. PI<Uf12.26.1~ lPH.&. O~ xtNlt PU,$&. NOZ{ll .. NU'\\'ll HAltl • I-un ~ !flfft!.l'vt .. CRn.•lR! +-HAlII1'-HAl) .. fTA'Htl\"' 1l1o\\21\" HA3C.,+ZTA3J n44fH'*lTl\\4l. HOLIlP•l.TOll • (rOlCU* lZTOZ' .. fNCHnU-l.NOH .. 'NO?ttu¿NOll .. U~03Cl'''lNnlH .. (1 FER;T t\"l1,N'r+lltTlNFIT+\\\"rs\"u p {l+11,P[STf T .ltl  CONTINUA CONTINUA  SUOROUTllIE HATO (lPPP.KCMA) SUOROUTllIE HATO (lPPP.KCMA)  e t ~~rlMlfNTO e t~~rlMlfNTO   CAL!. TfqNt:PE~Tlf+tl • vil' CAL!. TfqNt:PE~Tlf+tl • vil' 4 C-U01/!\" HIUALIl6R VARIABtES ATOTU6l, T, NI. N$JS. Ni CONTTHUE-IF Ir -II 15. 1. 15 e e t r~~PONFNlf !Ir -VENTA~ e \"NEflfl tUl \\ • tVlT1tJllfr+tll . , i v(Tl-1 • Q N\\fEtl t 2,T+l' fRfTJ*R2ff+l,t +! fRlT}\" 4 C-U01/!\" HIUALIl6R VARIABtES ATOTU6l, T, NI. N$JS. Ni CONTTHUE-IF Ir -II 15. 1. 15 e e t r~~PONFNlf !Ir -VENTA~ e \"NEflfl tUl \\ • tVlT1tJllfr+tll . , i v(Tl-1 • Q N\\fEtl t 2,T+l' fRfTJ*R2ff+l,t +! fRlT}\" REflQtmEfl o REflQtmEflo o < .. sol 7' ' \" o. ,R . O • fU•l 1 .1:0 lTl¡? . .75 ,\" !; .,¡ .so [\"'A4 • 'o llpt l.on Z10? .1' '!>lOl . .,\" 1NO? .30 o < .. sol 7' ' \" o. ,R . O • fU•l 1 .1:0 lTl¡? . .75 ,\" !; .,¡ .so [\"'A4 • 'o llpt l.on Z10? .1' '!>lOl . .,\" 1NO? .30 lNC3 .C' lNC3.C' ff).'t>(I,U vfll ff).'t>(I,Uvfll Cfl~r{?,H fif1, Cfl~r{?,Hfif1, cr\"p(;,l) H_lfl\\ cr\"p(;,l)H_lfl\\ UWC>(4,!1 '\" 1A2t11 UWC>(4,!1 '\" 1A2t11 (nllO(~fll U3tll (nllO(~fllU3tll cr\"rf~.ll la4(11 cr\"rf~.llla4(11 tQ~-'f'f7;ll .\" TOlO' tQ~-'f'f7;ll .\" TOlO' (11¡'Pltt,ll 102(11 (11¡'Pltt,ll102(11 ({H'IP('),l t \"'nlftl ({H'IP('),l t\"'nlftl tO~~fJn.t. ~ No2.tl tO~~fJn.t.~ No2.tl (01'(> fll • 11 -=< N!J3I tI (01'(> fll • 11 -=< N!J3I tI ('!\\U rt-qT Hll\"N(Ttd't\\lnrhlt;IlO(Tl~fn:STtnl ('!\\U rt-qT Hll\"N(Ttd't\\lnrhlt;IlO(Tl~fn:STtnl 10 CmJqt,JU€ 10 CmJqt,JU€ NVEtlf12.\" ., !) NVEtlf12.\" ., !) (SUMO I * IH 11 (SUMO I * IH 11 V';IJ~(ll \",. ('t V';IJ~(ll \",. ('t nsu!1t 11 ,., O: nsu!1t 11 ,., O: 1'5 CON11NUf 1'5 CON11NUf CCMPONEN\"fe IV -(onPfUS CCMPONEN\"fe IV -(onPfUS 00 70 I(K:dtll 00 70 I(K:dtll {O~PII(~.f'l' • o {O~PII(~.f'l' • o torCNTWHE torCNTWHE   CONTINUA CONTINUA   119 119  "},{"text":" e f\"IlE\",rj\\ttfQ TOROS e PU\", '\" RV¡'!\".ll .. vtr+ll+o IFV .. t,¡VE~l,2fT*I) 3250 HUHU2~T.l .,,-IUTl-lfVl.M2fHl'.O Pfl.~ ., It(l\\ -HV ... NvENf2.T+lIl -I'1UfR;fZ,H•n t• COMPt2,T+ll .. o rÁUH\\t 'it tTERNE • AtH1n -MUEfH31ft-tt .. COMPt3,1.n .. o lA2fHn,. HUY' -NVEIH3,T+1I -tol'UEJl.I'*.hP .. COMP,,.,,.,, +0 H3fHp 1'Jt..ltTt -~Vf,..Cftthl)t tlA2nl\" KZn.,n 1 MIJERfS,TtI! .. CCMPtS,ltll +0 (OHPf2,f.l'~~U~-?h~.MUF~fZfT+ll (OHPf2,f.l'~~U~-?h~.MUF~fZfT+ll rrftQltPL2..hJi.(;ro.OIGO TO 3251 rrftQltPL2..hJi.(;ro.OIGO TO 3251 'fV~lfV-COMPt2,l.tl 'fV~lfV-COMPt2,l.tl t,o TO lZ50  t,o TO lZ50 3ZSt r.)VFNf?«'+ll '\" tfv 3ZSt r.)VFNf?«'+ll '\" tfv Rn.n \"\" HI;fTl Rn.n \"\"HI;fTl  "},{"text":" ' ... Hn.ll-ItVtT+ll*z.VH fP'fr.;,U\"lIU. tT6.ln.H•ITAlt .. Att, * SIN ' w. (n_ p Tlt,1ln 00 ~o Jl\",ld rRfJl.Ttl1 ~ P~(Jlfll.fl.,t(~O.' • • u~t COHTltfU'E IN'Rllk~k,JJJI ,. o f°nTIHUA  f°nTIHUA SUBROUTlHE FIliAn SUBROUTlHE FIliAn e e t e t4trUtAR fOTAl OE 4~ORl. y JNTERES TOnoS PPE$'.\"OS UlOftll lit o e e t et4trUtAR fOTAl OE 4~ORl. y JNTERES TOnoS PPE$'.\"OS UlOftll lit o   TNTOlf}. tNrNH't\"J TNTOlf}.tNrNH't\"J e lIoHOlttl )(Al'orf21 uno lt l' lNHl:lHtl' • o :lO lNTNMrl.ZI .. (»111111(2,2\" elIoHOlttl )(Al'orf21 uno lt l'lNHl:lHtl' • o :lO lNTNMrl.ZI.. (»111111(2,2\"   J~l'02t2t INhl t1 ,2.) .. HHltt fZ,2l J~l'02t2tINhl t1 ,2.).. HHltt fZ,2l   KATorfT+ll ItJTQI! hU • o o KATorfT+ll ItJTQI! hU • o o   INT02fT,dl \" n INT02fT,dl \" n   DO ,0 JJJ ~ 1.26 0030 KKK = l.tO DO ,0 JJJ ~ 1.26 0030 KKK = l.tO   COHTfUUE to,,\",pn.\"'E:NTE \\1'1 -E GASTOS FINANcrfROS COHTfUUE to,,\",pn.\"'E:NTE\\1'1 -EGASTOS FINANcrfROS   PLAN DE AMORfll-aCrON -'Ni\" Es El NUMERO DE PREStA\",O PLAN DE AMORfll-aCrON-'Ni\" Es El NUMERO DE PREStA\",O   CONTl NlIE  CONTl NlIE e e e e c. < e t 220 • ,tlOlfHll • t..I02.tT+lI T • tt ~ CUOfA • TASA ne AHOATJtlR 1J¡l{T*lTf'lHl t1lIERT[S, tOMPP,III5;o VfN'fáo; 2 No3t h 11 \\)NIDhDt5 All1l1l\\tES M;S!f'o.1i T -l1 .. o DO lbn 1 v 1,11 Tn t 4t DE MUfRfES NI \"\" NI ... 1 CALCULAR CUOTAS ANOS T+4 A 1 AN-tls .. 1 Nfl = T • • NT2 = T • 10 00: l20 II . nn ,Nll UtNl,ttt .\".t':~(Tl • CU1ltA I • o PACO F1NAt 1<AfNl.Hll! .. 'tI .. 11 $: CUOlA\" .. KRfTt CAltUtAR SAl 00 A PA.GA~ Y !NltRE,sES pAR\" P~FSTA,..O 'NI' e e e e c. < e t220• ,tlOlfHll • t..I02.tT+lI T • tt ~ CUOfA • TASA ne AHOATJtlR 1J¡l{T*lTf'lHl t1lIERT[S, tOMPP,III5;o VfN'fáo; 2 No3t h 11 \\)NIDhDt5 All1l1l\\tES M;S!f'o.1i T -l1 .. o DO lbn 1 v 1,11 Tn t 4t DE MUfRfES NI \"\" NI ... 1 CALCULAR CUOTAS ANOS T+4 A 1 AN-tls .. 1 Nfl = T • • NT2 = T • 10 00: l20 II . nn ,Nll UtNl,ttt .\".t':~(Tl • CU1ltA I • o PACO F1NAt 1<AfNl.Hll! .. 'tI .. 11 $: CUOlA\" .. KRfTt CAltUtAR SAl 00 A PA.GA~ Y !NltRE,sES pAR\" P~FSTA,..O 'NI' t    t C.    SALDO A\"'Ol F'fttMtRO C.SALDOA\"'OlF'fttMtRO e e e  TOTAL OF v etnia S V5UHlr.1I lO vSWH1+\" _ NvE\"'{12thll RfTUIHl FNO UNTJ = T • ! 1I'lTHM{H:1.Tl :tKBALhHf'O .. ~INt I PTJl; SAn lHTRlCNt,t1 ~tKBAlt~J.Tt ~ f.JNT -JNTfhESes NO~fNAl .. o • o TtJTER.ESes 1\\(Al ANO T ANO r e e eTOTAL OF v etnia S V5UHlr.1I lO vSWH1+\" _ NvE\"'{12thll RfTUIHl FNO UNTJ = T • ! 1I'lTHM{H:1.Tl :tKBALhHf'O .. ~INt I PTJl; SAn lHTRlCNt,t1 ~tKBAlt~J.Tt ~ f.JNT -JNTfhESes NO~fNAl .. o • o TtJTER.ESes 1\\(AlANO T ANO r e e e e Z50 300 sus~ourr~E PRfttO fP~fTfHO;~MP.FC.C,YtW,Jl lNTIiCEA 1 D1MfNST\"JN PRtJ,?'l>' Pt='.1,41\"i9 \"lJM =-~ETURN FNO \"'N12 :o: T .. !l 00 zso ,qC ti NNT 1 ,\"\"'2 J:BJ.l ('tu ./(K1 lO K'SAlfNT ,ICK-tI J(AfNf.1(Xl ININKfNf,ICX' =oj\"&AltPlltKKl • XINTt • o IN\"\"RtNI ,ltK l *ne~l ftH ,klO • tXINT -PlASA\"\" o Co\"\" h.¡uE tONTtwUE e e e eZ50 300sus~ourr~E PRfttO fP~fTfHO;~MP.FC.C,YtW,Jl lNTIiCEA 1 D1MfNST\"JN PRtJ,?'l>' Pt='.1,41\"i9 \"lJM =-~ETURN FNO \"'N12 :o: T .. !l 00 zso ,qC ti NNT 1 ,\"\"'2 J:BJ.l ('tu ./(K1 lO K'SAlfNT ,ICK-tI J(AfNf.1(Xl ININKfNf,ICX' =oj\"&AltPlltKKl • XINTt • o IN\"\"RtNI ,ltK l *ne~l ftH ,klO • tXINT -PlASA\"\" o Co\"\" h.¡uE tONTtwUE     CONTINUA CONTINUA     128 128  "},{"text":" UlTOl(T+l)~ lNT01lhth tNfNttf Í'4IT,T+U I1H02:fTl-l1'\" INr02f r.ll.INTJZunU,Hl'    e• t  nun -11 400~ 310, 320 e• tnun -11 400~ 310, 320 e e  '20 CONT tNUf, 00 35ft Nl1 . 1, NI e e'20CONT tNUf, 00 35ft Nl1 . 1, NI e   e e   e e  HO CQNflN!ff. eHOCQNflN!ff.   '00 CONTtNuE '00CONTtNuE    R,ElURtt R,ElURtt    REAL H REAL H    otMENSJON' HMf13 1 f OORf131.ttTOPEfU' o , . . (1~501 otMENSJON' HMf13 1 f OORf131.ttTOPEfU' o , . . (1~501    A('<lllT\"'Q~ A('<lllT\"'Q~    OC 10 JK\"\"J,I( OC 10 JK\"\"J,I(    MlOi'EfJX~ =-MMfJI<l MlOi'EfJX~ =-MMfJI<l  10 ACUtT\", !.OUt T J. MMiJIO H tADU!T .I'if.. 0.'';0 ro 15 ,00 t3 J!(~J, 1( 10ACUtT\", !.OUt T J. MMiJIO H tADU!T .I'if.. 0.'';0 ro 15 ,00 t3 J!(~J, 1(   13 MMfJIO '\" O. 13MMfJIO '\" O. e e 1$ GO 10 ~o Mt5'R, AOut f • ~ .. o ,\"tO~ l bt l()AD R !?Al \"\" rtOlt tU? .. o .. e e1$GO 10 ~o Mt5'R, AOut f • ~ .. o ,\"tO~ l bt l()AD R !?Al \"\" rtOlt tU? .. o ..    00 2,0 JK=J.f( 00 2,0 JK=J.f(    MH(JKl .. PORIJK) • HOA • o MH(JKl .. PORIJK) • HOA • o  10 Mll r MT2 + M\"{J~t 10Mll r MT2 + M\"{J~t e   MORTAl ¡nAO CON INFlUENCIA OEl REDON~EQ '\" MT2 eMORTAl ¡nAO CON INFlUENCIA OEl REDON~EQ '\" MT2    UNO'\" 1 .. UNO'\" 1 ..    MAS.., MOP -MT2' MAS.., MOP -MT2'    Ir 'HAS .E.O. 01 co 'O 56 Ir 'HAS .E.O. 01 co 'O 56    MM '\" 1 A85f HJ\\S! MM '\" 1 A85f HJ\\S!    lF 'MAS .LT. (n UNO '\" -1~ lF 'MAS .LT. (n UNO '\" -1~    0030 JI< .. I.NM 0030 JI< .. I.NM    • • J • • J    & • • & • • 2S (Mt I\\.UWA n~1,A.~9,1.,!1l 2S(Mt I\\.UWA n~1,A.~9,1.,!1l    IffJ1l0p\"EtII~.EQ .. O I &0 to 2.5- IffJ1l0p\"EtII~.EQ .. O I &0 to 2.5-    Ir: ''''TOP\"Etll' ~GE. P\\MttlhUNQn CO 10;0 Ir: ''''TOP\"Etll' ~GE. P\\MttlhUNQn CO 10;0    GO TO ZS GO TO ZS e lO MM(!!':: fUH ttl • UNO elOMM(!!':: fUH ttl • UNO  "}],"sieverID":"9081d76f-e024-4553-b0d0-b0056dac0c9c","abstract":"Al examina~ rentabilidad \"promedia\" y \"marginal\" se verá si debe incluirse el valor del terreno y de otros activos.(1975).'1 \"2 ov• K2 K1 K4 01 02 • • 1 0.00:; 0.01 n.nc; o.so n.o 1.00 } .00 0.10 0.0 0.48 n.\"? 2 o.ne; 0.0' 0.05 o.~o n.o } .00 1 .00 n.lo 0.0 0.4ft n. ' j l , 0.00; 0•.01 o .os 0.70 0.0 1.00 1 .00 0.10 n.o 0.48 0.0:;7 4 0.00; 0 .• 01 0.00; O.AO n.o 1.00 1 .1')0 o., o 0.0 0.48 O.O;l S 0.00; 0.01 0.05 o.qO 0.0 1.00 1.00 n.l0 1.00 0.4R o.\"?• o.n'5 n.01 0.00; o.qO o.n 1.00 1.no n.ln 0.0 0.48• I}.'j? 1 0.00; 0.')'\\ o.no; o.qO 0.0 1.00 1.00 t} •. , o 0.0 0.48 O .. ,,\",• 0.00; 0.03 0.05 O.!JO 0.0 1.00 1 .no 0.10 o.n 0.4\" O.'j,• n .no; 0.0\"\\ 0.00:; n.ClO n.n l.no f.oo n.10 0.0 0'.4R O.'i'-10 0.00:; 0.03 O.O'} 0.90 n .n t .no 1.00 0.10 1.00 0.48 0.e;2 It o .no; 0.n1 o.ne; o .!JO n.o 1. 00 1 0 00 0.10 n.o n.48 n.s? 12 0.(1) 0.n3 o.nc; o.qO n.n } .no 1.on n.IO o.n n.48 0.'i2 n n .ne; 0.\"\"\\ 0.n5 o.qo 0.0 1.00 1.00 \" 0 In n.o 0.48 n.o::;?l ' 0.0'5 0.03 0.05 o.qO n.n 1 .. 00 1.00 0.10 n.o 0.48 0.0::;,-\" n.oc; 0.03 0.0') o .qo n.o 1.00 1.00 0.10 1.no 0.48 0.\"'-1. 0.0<) 0•.03 0.05 o.qO o.n 1 .00 1.00 o .. 1 'l 0.0 0.4R 0.\"2 11 0.0\"; 0.03 O.O~ 0.90 n.O t .no 1.00 0.10 0.0 0. 4 8 o • .;,•• o.no; 0.03 o.o'} OoCJO 0.0 1.00 1.00 n.lO 0.0 0.48 O.~2 l. n.o\" 0.03 0.0\" O.'lO n.n 1.00 1.00 n.l0 D.n. 0.48 0.'i2 20 o.n\" 0.03 0.05 OoqO n."}

data/part_5/066e5e0d98e1111bc7f6303098ca4654.json

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data/part_5/06c932465645f7ed023c5782f29d5ec6.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06c932465645f7ed023c5782f29d5ec6","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/43732031-d077-4624-a96e-3fe985ea9b3f/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"0d73595c-8b5e-4d5b-96b7-55b678afb87f","abstract":"In 2017, CCAFS' Gender and Social Inclusion unit facilitated and contributed to the text for the African Group of Negotiators' (AGN) submission to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Gender Action Plan (GAP) and, in 2019, CCAFS' support was instrumental in finalizing the GAP at COP25. The GAP sets out plans for gender-responsive climate action. It is an essential component of ensuring inclusive and meaningful participation for all in climate action. CCAFS' support included the co-production of a conceptual framework, a brief for negotiators, and ongoing collaboration and capacity development of policy makers with the facilitator of the negotiations. CCAFS research informs gender and agriculture submissions of the Africa Group of Negotiators to the UNFCCC THEME Gender and Social Inclusion, Priorities and Policies for CSA GEOGRAPHIC FOCUS"}

data/part_5/06ec4dab80a06b5909b945624490c975.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06ec4dab80a06b5909b945624490c975","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dd9d22c3-8ccf-4378-81f5-2e22eef02dbd/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Web-based map on knowledge and tools on implementation science for nutrition to support Scaling up Nutrition (SUN) countries","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Project Title: P351 -Tools and methods to strengthen capacity to assess and deliver impact Description of the innovation: This web-based map provides users with details of tools available across countries and regions within the field of implementation science for nutrition. The map is structured around nutrition programming categories allowing users to browse by category of interest. Formative research highlighted the need for country specific knowledge, so map is browsable by country and region, making scientific and contextual information more accessible to implementers and policymakers. Milestones:"}]},{"head":"New Innovation: No","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"• FP4 researchers with key partners from SUN, CAADP and others host at least one regional learning event involving participants from at least four focal countries and other CGIAR/CRP researchers • Nutrition leaders and institutions in at least one country (Ethiopia) and the African Union demonstrate improved capacity to generate and use evidence and information systems, including gender-sensitive information tools, to inform policy and program processes"}]},{"head":"Sub-IDOs:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"• 39 -Increase capacity of beneficiaries to adopt research outputs 1 This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:30 (GMT+0)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached: Available online through a web-based data visualization tool called kumu. Information on its development, recommended uses, and other related resources are described in the A4NH briefs. Co-developed by A4NH researchers from the International Food Policy Research Institute, through the Knowledge for Implementation and Impact Initiative (KI3). Name of lead organization/entity to take innovation to this stage: IFPRI -International Food Policy Research Institute Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage: • IDS -Institute of Development Studies • SISN -Society for Implementation Science in Nutrition "}],"sieverID":"47527f72-1f7c-450f-b6e0-c7bd5d7ab499","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0700b3bfebac690af8f873deddc97d0d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0700b3bfebac690af8f873deddc97d0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/Pub009/REPORT09.PDF"},"pageCount":31,"title":"","keywords":["S. Thiruvengadachari is the Group Director","National Remote Sensing Agency","Hyderabad","India. R. Sakthivadivel is a senior irrigation specialist","International Irrigation"],"chapters":[{"head":"v","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"The use of advanced technology tools such as satellite remote sensing, geographic information system (GIS) techniques, and hydrologic modeling can greatly help improve irrigation management. The International Irrigation Management Institute is planning a long-term program for developing a package of these tools to aid irrigation management at the policy, strategic, and tactical levels. This case study in the Bhadra Project in India is an attempt in this direction. It focuses on the application of satellite remote sensing and GIS techniques in a rice irrigation system. Multiyear satellite data have been analyzed to provide spatially distributed information on irrigated area, cropping pattern, and rice yield. This spatial and temporal information has helped analysts evaluate the performance of the agricultural system over several years and across the irrigation scheme. The data have confirmed that changes initiated by the National Water Management Project have resulted in significant improvements as indicated by extent of irrigation and changes in agricultural productivity. In addition, problem distributaries that have subpar irrigation intensity, rice productivity, and equity have been identified for follow-up action to improve performance."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The case study has resulted in a methodology package for use in other irrigated rice environments. The cost of satellite remote sensing application in this 100,000-hectare irrigation scheme works out to US$0.10/ha per irrigation season at 1994-95 price levels. The cost would decrease to US$0.03/ha or less for schemes larger than 250,000 hectares. Improving the methodology will require the development of a vegetation index that is optimally sensitive to rice characteristics and better spectral modeling of rice yield. Extension to irrigation schemes in which crops other than rice predominate will require modifications in the methodology."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"It is estimated that half to two-thirds of the increases in food production needed in the future will have to come from irrigated lands, which are currently contributing about 40 percent of the world's food requirement (Serageldin 1995). The global irrigation scenario, however, is characterized by poor performance, increased demand for higher agricultural productivity, decreased availability of water for agriculture, increasing soil salinity, possible effects of global climate change, and the changing public-sector role. A major challenge is to sustain or increase the yield of irrigated agriculture while reducing water consumption (Lenton 1992). Improved irrigation management and informed decision making call for the adoption of new tools such as satellite remote sensing and geographic information systems to provide the necessary spatial and temporal information on different subsystems and for different user groups (Thiruvengadachari 1996). The logistic requirements of remote-sensing applications for agricultural management have been discussed by Steven (1993)."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"Performance assessment is considered the most critical element for improving irrigation management (Abernethy and Pearce 1987). Irrigation performance indicators range from water distribution to agricultural, economic, social, and environmental aspects (Bos et al. 1994). Though remote sensing was identified as a tool for assess-ing performance more than a decade ago (Abernethy and Pearce 1987), it has been applied infrequently. Early applications focused on mapping irrigated crop lands (Huston and Titus 1975;Draeger 1976;Wall 1979;Thiruvengadachari 1981). Mapping has continued in recent years with increased capabilities for inventorying irrigated area from different irrigation sources, such as surface water, groundwater, and irrigation tanks (Thiruvengadachari 1983), for discriminating crop species and assessing crop stress (Azzali and Menenti 1989), and for monitoring temporal changes in irrigated area (Rao and Mohankumar 1994). Another application uses actual evapotranspiration and evaporative fraction maps derived from high resolution Thematic Mapper data for assessing the performance of an irrigation system at various hierarchical scales (Bastiaanssen, Van Der Wal, and Visser 1996). The same approach can also be applied with low-resolution data, offering possibilities for concurrently monitoring several irrigation schemes within a region. The availability of evaporation data and records of water flow allows computation of classical inflow-outflow efficiencies."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"This study of the Bhadra Project in India is perhaps the first to use a package of satellite remote-sensing applications to develop agricultural system performance indicators for an irrigation system. In the study, several years of satellite data for the Bhadra Project were used to develop a disaggregated inventory for irrigated area and cropping patterns and to estimate the yield of a major crop, rice."},{"index":4,"size":97,"text":"A diagnostic analysis of selected poorly performing pockets of the command area complemented the performance assessment. The study involved the application of known procedures in an operational context as well as the extension and improvement of these techniques to address field complexities. Initial development efforts were funded by the Irrigation Department of the Government of Karnataka, but subsequent analysis, which included many innovations, was supported by IIMI. IIMI has drawn up a long-term program to develop a package of tools for sustainable basin-wide water resources development, and the current study marks a substantial step in this direction."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Although the package of satellite remote sensing applications has been developed in a rice-based irrigation system, a similar approach with suitable modifications could be developed for irrigation systems involving other crops. The results warrant more widespread use of this exciting new technology in system performance assessment and diagnostic analysis."}]},{"head":"The Bhadra Project and the National Water Management Project","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The Bhadra Project was the first irrigation scheme to be taken up by the National Water Management Project (NWMP), which was established to raise agricultural productivity and farm income by providing more equitable, predictable, and reliable irrigation service. NWMP is a major initiative to improve irrigation management in selected irrigation schemes in various states of India with World Bank assistance. The project is intended to help the participating states and the Government of India to develop the institutional capacity to plan, implement, and monitor improved operational and maintenance practices that would provide low-cost infrastructural improvements designed to support an improved operational plan in selected schemes."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"Located on the Bhadra River in the State of Karnataka, the Bhadra Project comprises a dam with a gross storage capacity of 2,025 million cubic meters, a left bank canal serving 8,290 hectares, and a right bank canal serving 92,360 hectares. The NWMP activities were directed at the area served by the Right Bank Canal."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"The Bhadra dam is situated 50 kilometers upstream of the point where the Bhadra River joins the Tunga River to form the Tungabhadra, a tributary of the Krishna River, and intercepts a catchment of almost 2,000 square kilometers. The Bhadra reservoir is indicated at the bottom of map 1; the canal flows along the right-hand side of the command area while the Bhadra River flows along the left-hand side of the command area. On this map, the tail reaches extend from bottom to top and from right to left. The Bhadra basin gets rainfall during both the southwest and northwest monsoon seasons, but about 80 percent of the stream flow is generated during the southwest monsoon period. Based on a 25-year record, the average annual precipitation is 827 millimeters, and the mean annual evapotranspiration has been estimated as 1,678 millimeters. The command has 60 percent welldrained red soils and 40 percent poorly drained black soils."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Components of the Bhadra Project were constructed between 1948 and 1966. The The Bhadra Project area."},{"index":5,"size":166,"text":"project was designed to have rice occupy about 40 percent of its command area and other crops the remainder, with an overall annual cropping intensity of 200 percent. But as agricultural development progressed, rice became the predominant crop, covering about 56 percent of the area under the Right Bank Canal. The heavy plantings of rice led farmers to draw too much water, which in-terfered with irrigation managers' plans for equitable distribution of the irrigation water. Also because of the rice farmers' copious use of water, the canals flowed full, infringing on the freeboard and causing damage to the canal system. These problems not only threatened the physical collapse of the system but also provoked dissatisfaction among farmers in tail-end areas. The objec-tive of the NWMP in the Bhadra Project was to restore the physical structure of the system under the Right Bank Canal and to develop and implement an appropriate wa-ter distribution policy. The NWMP work in the scheme was carried out between 1988 and 1994."}]},{"head":"Satellite Data Collection","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"To monitor irrigated area, cropping pattern, and rice yield during the rabi (post-monsoon) seasons from 1986-87 to 1993-94, 1 high resolution data from Landsat-5 and Indian remote-sensing satellites (IRS-1A and IRS-1B) were used. Satellite data were directly received at the Indian Earth Station at Shadnagar about 60 kilometers from Hyderabad and processed at the National Remote Sensing Agency facilities in Hyderabad."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Data from the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) (80 m ground resolution), the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) (30 m resolution), and the IRS Linear Imaging Self-Scanning Sensor (LISS I) (72.5 m resolution) were analyzed (see annex for orbital and sensor characteristics of remote sensing sat-ellites). At the time of the study, India had not yet launched the satellites IRS-1C and IRS-P3. Hence, the data from Wide Field Sensor (WiFS) of 188 meters resolution and 5-days revisit capability were simulated from LISS I data and evaluated."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"To maintain consistency in the results generated through the years, MSS and LISS I data, which have a similar spatial resolutions, were selected for analysis. A preliminary analysis of a sample area with both LISS I and LISS II data showed that acceptable crop classification accuracy could be achieved even with LISS I. This finding significantly reduced the cost of acquiring satellite data and carrying out analysis because each LISS I scene covers an area equal to the area of four LISS II scenes."}]},{"head":"Overview of Data Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"The analysis of satellite data involved:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• mapping irrigated crop areas and discriminating rice from other crop areas"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"• mapping spatial variability of the rice transplanting period across the command area"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• estimating rice yield through spectral index yield models"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• measuring yields from satellite-derived data on the condition of the rice crop, using an improved design for selecting representative sample areas"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• evaluating the impact of reported waterlogging on rice productivity"},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"• radiometric normalization between satellites, sensors, and acquisition periods"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• comparative evaluation of satellite data of different spatial resolution"},{"index":9,"size":80,"text":"• integrating cadastral maps with satellite data 1 Out of the eight rabi seasons from 1986-87 to 1993-94, six seasons of satellite data were analyzed for this study: 1986-87 is the season before implementation of the National Water Management Project; 1987-88 to 1988-89 is the period of NWMP implementation; 1989-90 is the season after NWMP implementation in which only 75% of the command area was irrigated; and 1992-93 and 1993-94 are seasons in which the full command area was irrigated."},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"To evaluate the system performance and to diagnose and analyze the poorly performing distributaries, a geographic information system (GIS) was developed at two levels of the command area and for selected distributaries."}]},{"head":"Crop classification","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Approaches selected for classifying crops in earlier studies have been dependent on the context, with no single classifier having universal applicability. In Sweden, Hall-Konyves (1990) used the maximum likelihood algorithm to discriminate important agricultural crops, while in southeastern Italy, Ehrlich et al. (1994) attempted optimal crop type determination in four cropsmaize, soybean, sugar beet, and small grains-with a sequential masking procedure giving the best results. Tennakoon, Murthy, and Eiumnoh (1992) reported a classification accuracy of 94 percent using supervised classification. For land-cover mapping in an agricultural region, Kontoes et al. (1993) showed that the use of a knowledge-based system with GIS data gives 13 percent better accuracy than a parametric image classifier. Although generating an ancillary database obviously requires greater effort, it would be justified in complex situations where normal methods fail."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"In the Bhadra irrigation system the major area is under rice. Other crops are sugarcane, groundnut, sunflower, and garden crops such as coconut, betel nut, and vegetables. Rice transplanting is staggered over a period of more than a month, and other crops are sown considerably earlier than rice. Because of this heterogeneity in the crop calendar, we analyzed satellite data from two dates: (1) the time of maximum ground cover and canopy growth and (2) when rice was being transplanted and other crops had already grown to the vegetative stage. The objective was to ensure a complete estimate of the area under crops and to achieve better discriminability. Based on a review of alternative approaches, a multivariate classification approach was selected in an attempt to merge the data from the two dates into a single multichannel data set."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"Seventy-five percent of landholdings in the study area are smaller than 1 hectare. The pixel size is 0.64 hectare for sensor data from Landsat MSS, 0.09 hectare for data from Landsat TM, and 0.5 hectare for data from IRS LISS I. Major crops can be accurately classified because of the fine pixel size and because the crop area is reported at the level of distributary or the reach within a distributary. Crops that are patchy in nature-occurring in very small segmentsmay be sometimes inaccurately classified, but not rice or other major crops. Hence, Landsat MSS and IRS LISS I data were considered adequate for crop inventory."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Although the initial crop classification included all principal crops, the final classification was divided into rice and non-rice crops to maintain acceptable accuracy even at the distributary level. A post-classification check through field visits to more than 300 randomly selected points confirmed the classification to be 90 to 95 percent accurate. In future evaluations, the Kappa statistic will be adopted in preference to overall accuracy as a means of testing classification accuracy based on error matrices, particularly for evaluating inter-classification problems (Fitzgerald and Lees 1994). Statistics on crop area at the distributary level were extracted by digitally overlaying the base map of the command area on the geometrically rectified crop classification map."}]},{"head":"Spatial variability in the rice calendar","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Spatial information on the transplanting time for rice across the command area has been mapped (map 2). The seasonal NDVI 2 profile of every pixel of rice crop was analyzed to identify the peak greenness stage. The fact that this stage corresponds to the heading stage of rice was used to calculate the time of transplanting and to generate information on spatial staggering of rice transplantation, i.e., the time of transplanting in different areas. This information is useful for evaluating the compatibility between the canal delivery schedule and the rice transplanting calendar at the distributary level. This capability will be further enhanced when WiFS data from IRS-1C and IRS-P3 are operationally available. Those satellites provide individual 5-day revisit periods and a combined 2-to 3-day revisit period."}]},{"head":"Concurrent monitoring of rice growth and stress","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Satellite data of IRS and Landsat satellites are available only at certain times during the growing period, and this availability is further limited by cloud cover. Although a combination of satellites can provide frequent coverage, the process of data normalization from multiple satellites can significantly overload analysts. Hence, to concurrently monitor crop growth and crop condition through the season, satellite sensors such as IRS-1C's WiFS, with a 5-day revisit period, must be used. NOAA-11's AVHRR sensor, though providing twice-daily revisit capability, has a spatial resolution of 1.1 kilometers at nadir, which is too coarse for effective spatial monitoring within the command area."},{"index":2,"size":241,"text":"Analysis of simulated WiFS data indicated that temporal information on rice de-velopment can be effectively captured (Jonna et al. 1995). In spite of its 188-meter resolution, WiFS allows satisfactory classification of large-area crops such as rice even at the distributary level. The profiles of rice growth obtained from the NDVI of WiFS data at the distributary level were very similar to those obtained from LISS I data. NDVI provides the capability of monitoring not only the physiological development of rice over time and in its spatial variability, but also its condition, because many studies have related abnormal NDVI to crop stress. The effect of stress is to decrease the nearinfrared reflection and to increase the reflection in the red wavelengths, giving lowerthan-normal NDVI values. Based on analysis of high resolution field spectrometer measurements, Shibayama et al. (1993) showed that NDVI is a sensitive measure of stress in rice 2 weeks after drainage. The effective use of WiFS data requires radiometric correction to compensate for changing illumination geometry between successive revisits (because the WiFS paths shift by 117 kilometers every 5 days) and across the scan (in case of latitudinally oblong irrigated areas) and for atmospheric effects. WiFS data from the IRS-IC satellite have been operationally available from the Indian Earth Station since June 1996. Where direct reception is not available, the on-board tape recorder permits acquisition of data over such areas, which subsequently can be downlinked to the Indian Earth Station."}]},{"head":"Data normalization","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"To use data from multiple satellites with different sensor characteristics for close monitoring of irrigated areas, the data must be normalized geometrically and radiometrically. A technique for radiometrically rectifying multiple Landsat images of a 2 NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) is defined as NIR-R/NIR+R, where NIR and R are radiance measured by the sensor in near-infrared and red wavelengths, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"scene to a reference image was described by Hall et al. (1991). The basic approach consisted of identifying landscape elements whose reflectance changed little with time and using these control sets to radiometri-cally transform other images. The method worked well for the visible and near-infrared bands of the Landsat Thematic Mapper. A procedure for selecting appropriate bands to compare NDVI values from multiple satellites (IRS-1A and -1B LISS I and Landsat-4 and -5 MSS) has been described by Jeyaseelan and Thiruvengadachari (1994). Jonna et al. (1994) reviewed existing procedures such as histogram normalization, use of scene statistics, linear transformation, and use of spectrally invariant features, and, for this study, a simple regression between different data sets was adopted."}]},{"head":"Estimation of rice productivity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"Growing vegetation has a low red reflectance, due to absorption by chlorophyll and other plant pigments, and a high near-infrared reflectance, due to internal reflectance involving the mesophyll structure of green leaves (Knipling 1970). Vegetation indices computed from these two bands have been related to various vegetation canopy properties, such as green leaf area index (Price 1992), canopy biomass (Anderson and Hanson 1992), absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (Daughtry et al. 1992), and grain yield (Ashcroft et al. 1990). The most common of these indices is the NDVI, which has been shown to have a lag relationship to potential evapotranspiration and actual evapotranspiration, where moisture is not strongly limiting. Actual evapotranspiration for the total growing season was found to be closely related to NDVI (Deblonde and Cihlar 1993). A lag relationship between cumulative NDVI derived from the NOAA AVHRR global vegetation index data and cumulative actual evapotranspiration was demonstrated over Senegal (Kerr et al. 1989). The feasibility of retrieving data on land surface temperatures and spectral emissivity directly from radiances measured by NOAA AVHRR was established by Li and Becker (1993). Actual evapotranspiration was estimated in irrigated areas in Argentina and Egypt through the use of thermal data from the Landsat Thematic Mapper (Bastiaanssen, Van Der Wal, and Visser 1996)."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Efforts to account for background soil reflectance and atmospheric effects have led to continual improvements of the vegetation index (Heute 1988;Guyot and Baret 1990;Kaufman and Tanre 1992;Qi et al. 1994;Rondeaux, Steven, and Baret 1996). The perpendicular vegetation index (PVI) was computed for rice paddies by devising a turbid water line (Yamagata et al. 1988)."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Many of the advances are developed with limited empirical evaluation or are evaluated using tested models of vegetation bidirectional reflectance such as the SAIL model (Verhoef 1984). Before new developments are routinely used in operational applications, standardization of vegetation indices along with more comprehensive empirical evaluation in different agricultural environments is important."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"Yield models based on remote sensing have been investigated in a variety of crop and agricultural situations by many investigators (Tucker, Holben, and McMurtrey 1980;Idso et al. 1980;Gill et al. 1997;Beneditti and Rossini 1993;Dubey et al. 1994;Pestemalci et al. 1995;Carbonne, Narumalani, and King 1996). In rice, the ratio of near-infrared to red at panicle differentiation or heading could be used to forecast yield through the dry matter-grain yield relationship, but it becomes less sensitive during grain filling and grain maturation (Miller et al. 1983). Leblon, Guerif, and Baret (1991) proposed a model of biomass production for flooded rice crops based on an \"energetic\" yield approach in which photosynthetically active radiation intercep-tion efficiency is estimated through a vegetation index. Rice yield has been related to senescence rate (Rao, Rao, and Suryanarayana 1985) as well as to NDVI derived from Landsat TM bands 3 and 4 (Mohammed, Ahmed, and Abdullah 1994). Tennakoon, Murthy, and Eiumnoh (1992) estimated rice yield by developing a relationship between NDVI values and actual grain yield."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"In this study, a simple rice yield model was developed based on the relationship between peak NDVI at the heading stage to the yield of 72 plots obtained through cropcutting experiments during the 1992-93 rabi season. Although the correlation coefficient was statistically significant even as early as the panicle initiation stage, it was highest at the heading. After that, the correlation became weaker (Murthy et al. 1996)."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Because rice transplantation is staggered across the command area, satellite data from any one date do not represent the same growth stage at all locations. Consequently, an innovative approach of time composition was attempted, using co-registered multi-date satellite data derived from IRS LISS I data. The maximum NDVI value for each rice pixel was picked from among the satellite overpasses encompassing the period of rice heading across the command area. These values are called the timecomposited vegetation index (TCVI)"},{"index":7,"size":111,"text":"The rice yield model (fig. 1) is defined as yield (measured in kilograms per hectare) = 42.23 TCVI -3,439. The standard error of estimate is 507 kg/ha with the coefficient of determination statistically significant at 0.76. The yield model developed from satellite and ground data of the 1992-93 rabi season was validated during the 1993-94 rabi season, and the maximum deviation of the yields from crop-cutting experiment yields was less than 10 percent, indicating the stability of the model. The model coefficients are expected to change when data from other satellites are used without radiometric normalization or when NDVI is based on spectral reflectance instead of radiance, as in this study."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"The rice yield model is currently location-specific because the differences in rice variety, atmospheric effects, and the fertilizer-vegetative growth relationship may require modification of the model coefficients."}]},{"head":"Improved sampling design for yield assessment","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The crop-cutting experiments were based on a simple random-sampling technique in which the sample size is proportional to the cropped area. The crop-cutting experiments for any specified crop involve the selection of a plot of size specified in a sampling design and harvesting the crop to obtain yield estimates. However, analyses of the sampling design during the 1992-93 and 1993-94 rabi seasons based on satellite-derived spatial rice yield patterns showed that simple random sampling techniques could lead to biased results. Stratification of rice plots based on rice condition and subsequent selection of rice plots provide more homogenous samples and thus reduce errors in estimates. An improved design for crop-cutting experiments, with more reliable yield estimates, has been developed based on satellite-derived rice area and crop condition at the time of heading (Murthy et al. 1996). This design was discussed with the officers from the Command Area Development Authority, Agriculture Department, Department of Economics and Statistics, and the Irrigation Department in Karnataka State and was implemented in the 1994-95 rabi season."}]},{"head":"GIS development","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"A geographic information system (GIS) using PAMAP software was developed to improve evaluation of system performance (Rajagopal 1995) and to facilitate diagnostic analysis (Srinivas 1995). The digitized base of the irrigated command area map provided the geographical framework. The necessary ground and satellite data were incorporated into GIS, and temporal and spatial data of agricultural productivity from each distributary were analyzed (maps 3, 4, 5, and 6). The GIS approach was also used for diagnostic analysis of three distributaries in the Malebennur Division selected on system performance criteria. This analysis involved digitizing relevant cadastral maps and superimposing satellite imagery. Field boundaries identified in enhanced satellite images and topographic maps facilitated geometrical rectification of cadastral maps. Satellite-derived cropped area, cropping pattern, and rice yield were averaged over the head, middle, and tail reaches of each distributary to allow irrigation performance characterization with regard to yield, cropped area, cropping pattern, etc. Percentage rice area before and after NWMP, Bhadra Project. Pre-NWMP (1986-87 rabi)"},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Post-NWMP (1992-93 rabi)"},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Information from a revenue survey conducted among 103 farmers randomly chosen from the three selected distributaries and officials of the state irrigation and agriculture departments was averaged over the head-, middle, and tail-reach areas. The poor performance of distributary 15 in the third subdivision of Malebennur Division, for example, was attributed to poor water availability resulting from the closing of canals long before the crop harvesting period and the failure of water to arrive at the tail reach along the dilapidated canal. An additional cause was low fertilizer use."},{"index":4,"size":37,"text":"Linking GIS with the irrigation information system will enable project officials to manage canal delivery and scheduling more efficiently, increase their awareness of crop water requirements, and facilitate analysis of hydrometrological data and formulation of operational plans."}]},{"head":"Discussion of Results","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"System performance evaluation","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Primary data on agricultural productivity (cropping pattern and rice yield) have been generated at the distributary and reach levels as well as at division and subdivision levels from satellite data for rabi seasons (tables 1, 2, and 3), and the improvement in system performance after implementation of NWMP started in 1988 has been evaluated (table 4). Map 3 shows that irrigation intensity increased in every sector of the command area, and hardly any distributaries have less than 50 percent irrigation intensity."},{"index":2,"size":252,"text":"And not only has the cultivated area of rice expanded (map 4), but yields (map 5) and production (map 6) have increased. Although NWMP intended to limit rice growing during the rabi season and encourage irrigation of other crops, this study found that between 1986-87 and 1993-94 irrigation intensity during the rabi season rose from 76 percent to about 91 percent, rice area from 56 to 69 percent, and rice yield from 3.8 t/ha to 4.9 t/ha. Satellite data have allowed reliable and more detailed system performance evaluations. The equity of water distribution between head-and tail-reach areas of long distributaries was evaluated in terms of shortfalls in irrigation intensities (referred to as gaps in utilization) and rice yield differences. Map 7 (for 1993-94) shows a significant gap in the tail-reach areas, particularly the upper tail-reach areas, compared with 100 percent irrigation in the head-reach areas. Satellite data also provide objective rice yield information, even at reach levels within the distributary (map 8). Yield estimates hitherto were not available at the distributary level or other disaggregated levels. Conventionally, yields were estimated when needed from sample surveys of farmers in selected distributaries. Additional information can be derived from comparing maps 7 and 8, which indicates that there is no strong correlation between irrigation intensity and yield. Map 9 shows that rice production per unit of water along the Right Bank Canal is considerably lower than that in other areas of the command. Evidently other factors besides inefficient irrigation depress rice yields in these distributaries."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Other performance indicators such as depth of water application and rice production per unit of water can be derived from satellite data in conjunction with ground-reported data on rainfall and canal discharge. In this initial study, the effective rainfall was considered by the Project Office to be 80 percent of the value measured on ground. The water delivery is measured at the off-take point of the distributary. The system losses in the distributary have not been accounted for."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"The equity of the water supply is measured through Christiansen's Uniformity Coefficient (table 5). Percentage of area in rice by division and subdivision during the rabi season, selected years, based on satellite data. Unit 1986Unit -87 1988Unit -89 1989Unit -90 1992Unit -93 1993 Rough rice yield (tonnes/ha), rabi 1993-94, Bhadra Project. Gap in irrigation utilization, rabi 1993-94, Bhadra Project."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"The performance of the Bhadra Project through the years as measured by area irrigated and agricultural productivity has significantly improved. In the 1993-94 rabi, equity of water distribution was also high. Equity is one of the key objectives of NWMP. Only a few pockets of inequity remain to be improved by the management."}]},{"head":"Diagnostic analysis","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The diagnostic analysis of the Bhadra Project consisted of identifying problem distributaries and analyzing reasons for poor performance that will have to be rectified by the management. Analyses of satellite data from the 1992-93 and 1993-94 rabi seasons revealed problem distributaries as indicated by low irrigation intensity, low rice yield, and low rice production per unit of water (table 6). Low irrigation intensity is mainly observed in the tail end of the branch canal while insufficient water-both low quantity and poor timing of distribution-seems to be the major factor for low rice yield. Other indicators of poor performance used in this study were persisting low irrigation intensity and rice yield through the years and large difference in rice yield between head-reach and tailreach areas of a distributary.  a Estimated as the ratio of the weighted sum of deviations of the depth of water supply from the mean to the mean depth of water supply. a Irrigation intensity <75%."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"b Included in distributary 26 (map 1)."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"c Less than 90% of division average."}]},{"head":"Waterlogging, salinity, and crop productivity","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"A pilot study was conducted in distributary 8A of Davangere Branch Canal to evaluate the impact of waterlogging, salinity, and alkalinity on rice productivity. The revenue survey numbers 3 of plots reportedly affected in three villages (Turchagatta, Ballapur, and Kuniapalanhalli) under the 8A distributary were collected from the State Soil Conservation Department. A revenue survey map of distributary 8A was photographically scaled to 1:50,000, and then the map was geometrically rectified to match the satellite data of the 1992-93 rabi season that was already registered to topographic maps. Village boundaries and affected revenue survey numbers were located on this reduced co-registered map. Vegetation index statistics for the reportedly affected areas were extracted from the satellite data. Preliminary analyses did not indicate any adverse effects in terms of lower-than-normal NDVI values from waterlogging, salinity, or alkalinity in any of the three villages. A further intensive study of the three villages and other distributaries reported to have been affected by waterlogging is underway. "}]},{"head":"Comparison of data from remote sensing and ground methods","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Cost-effectiveness of remote sensing techniques","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":314,"text":"The cost of applying satellite remote sensing to produce a disaggregated irrigation inventory in the 100,000-hectare Bhadra Project is about US$0.10/ha for each irrigation season at 1994-95 price levels. This estimate includes the cost of satellite data, analysis, and statistics generation. The unit cost decreases to about $0.03/ha for irrigation schemes larger than 250,000 hectares, due to economies of scale. Similar unit costs for monitoring waterlogging and soil salinity status work out to $0.05/ha and $0.02/ha, respectively, when carried out along with crop inventory. The satellite remote sensing application costs are less than 1 percent of the annual operation and maintenance costs for irrigation schemes in India. In an alternative approach, the satellite remote sensing application can be assumed to have a positive cost-benefit ratio even if rice yield increases by as little as 1 kg/ha in the Bhadra command.  Major efforts are needed to develop an appropriate vegetation index that is optimally sensitive to rice characteristics (and less sensitive to the background) and better spectral modeling of rice yield. While remote sensing of irrigation schemes in the microwave spectral region has not generally yielded satisfactory results so far, the application in the rice irrigation system has been encouraging. Use of radar data on two to three dates during the season has helped in crop discrimination (Bouman and Uenk 1992) and in monitoring rice areas because of standing water conditions (Staples et al. 1994). The use of single frequency-single polarization radar data-seems to have limited potential for crop classification or condition assessment. The synergic use of optical and microwave data, however, is considered to have great potential for improved monitoring capabilities (Brisco, Brown, and Manore 1989). An ongoing study at NRSA envisages the use of data from the Radarsat, ERS, and IRS satellites for monitoring the Bhadra Project during the cloud-covered kharif (southwest monsoon) season, as well as during the relatively cloud-free rabi season."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"This case study demonstrates the potential and cost-effectiveness of satellite remote sensing techniques for inventorying irrigated area and monitoring agricultural productivity in a large rice irrigation system in India. Effective integration of GIS with satellite remote sensing techniques enhances performance evaluation and diagnostic analysis capabilities. The study indicates that enhanced operational use of such techniques calls for further development work on optimum crop classification algorithms, yield prediction models, more appropriate vegetation indices, and satellite data normalization procedures."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"IIMI is now formulating a long-term program for development of advanced technology and tools to aid irrigation management, and the Bhadra study is a beginning. The satellite remote sensing techniques used in this study are also being applied on a wheat irrigation system in northwest India to extend the application package to other food crops."}]},{"head":"Future Research and Development Focus","index":20,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Orbital characteristics of remote-sensing satellites. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"MAP 2 . Time of rice transplanting, Bhadra command, 1992-93 rabi season. "},{"text":"FIGURE 1 . FIGURE 1.Model relating NDVI and yield from crop-cutting experiments, Bhadra Project, 1992-93 rabi season. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . Irrigated crop area and irrigation intensity by division in the Bhadra Project between 1986-87 and 1993-94, based on satellite data.  Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi Total command DavangereMalebennurBhadravathiTotal command Year a Area (ha) Intensity (%) Area (ha) Intensity (%) Area(ha) Intensity (%) Area (ha) Intensity (%) Year aArea (ha) Intensity (%) Area (ha) Intensity (%) Area(ha) Intensity (%) Area (ha) Intensity (%) 1986-87 33,838 75 28,242 81 11,449 b 67 73,529 76 1986-8733,8387528,2428111,449 b6773,52976 1987-88 15,848 35 12,677 36 5,856 b 34 34,381 35 1987-8815,8483512,677365,856 b3434,38135 1988-89 31,760 70 23,260 66 13,945 b 82 68,965 71 1988-8931,7607023,2606613,945 b8268,96571 1989-90 39,038 69 23,027 66 13,311 b 78 67,366 69 1989-9039,0386923,0276613,311 b7867,36669 1992-93 39,436 87 31,738 91 17,250 101 88,424 91 1992-9339,4368731,7389117,25010188,42491 1993-94 38,107 84 30,610 87 15,695 92 84,412 87 1993-9438,1078430,6108715,6959284,41287 Planned command 45,280 - 35,030 - 17,050 - 97,360 - Planned command 45,280-35,030-17,050-97,360- Source: IIMI 1995.         Source: IIMI 1995.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 .   "},{"text":"TABLE 4 . System performance changes under NWMP, Bhadra Project, rabi season, selected years.    Depth of Area irrigated   Depth ofArea irrigated  Irrigated crop Rice water per unit of water Rice output per unit of Irrigated cropRicewaterper unit of waterRice output per unit of Year a area (ha) area (%) application (m) (ha/ha-m) land (t/ha) water (kg/m 3 ) Year aarea (ha)area (%) application (m) (ha/ha-m)land (t/ha) water (kg/m 3 ) 1986-87 73,529 56 1.06 0.94 3.8 0.3 1986-8773,529561.060.943.80.3 1989-90 67,366 51 1.04 0.96 5.4 0.4 1989-9067,366511.040.965.40.4 1992-93 88,424 69 0.80 1.25 4.7 0.5 1992-9388,424690.801.254.70.5 1993-94 84,412 69 0.86 1.16 4.9 0.5 1993-9484,412690.861.164.90.5 Source: IIMI 1995.       Source: IIMI 1995. a 1986-87: pre-NWMP and no cutoff; 1989-90: 25% of command area cut off from irrigation; 1992-93 and 1993-94: a 1986-87: pre-NWMP and no cutoff; 1989-90: 25% of command area cut off from irrigation; 1992-93 and 1993-94: without cutoff.       without cutoff.  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 . Equity in water supply as measured by Christiansen's Uniformity Coefficient, a 1993-94 rabi season.   Subdivision   Subdivision Division 1 2 3 4 Total Division1234Total Davangere 0.66 0.84 0.93 0.89 0.92 Davangere0.660.840.930.890.92 Malebennur 0.85 n.a. 0.69 n.a. 0.93 Malebennur0.85n.a.0.69n.a.0.93 Bhadravathi 0.91 0.80 0.75 - 0.75 Bhadravathi0.910.800.75-0.75  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 .  Poorly performing distributaries during rabi season, 1992-93 and Poorly performing distributaries during rabi season, 1992-93 and 1993-94.    1993-94. Division Subdivision 1992-93 1993-94 Division Subdivision1992-931993-94   Gap in irrigation utilization a Gap in irrigation utilization a Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi 1 4 3 4 2 3 HPD 12A, 12B, 13, 14 14, 15, 16 28 17 9C, HPD 12A, 12B, 13 12, 14, 15, 16 7-8, 10, 27 b , 31-40 24 17 Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi1 4 3 4 2 3HPD 12A, 12B, 13, 14 14, 15, 16 28 179C, HPD 12A, 12B, 13 12, 14, 15, 16 7-8, 10, 27 b , 31-40 24 17   Low rice yield compared with division average Low rice yield compared with division average Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi 1 3 3 4 1 2 3 HPD 3 15, 16, 17 26, 40 6, 7, 8 23, 25, 26 9 15 3 15, 16, 17 26, 40 6 23, 25, 26 Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi1 3 3 4 1 2 3HPD 3 15, 16, 17 26, 40 6, 7, 8 23, 25, 26 915 3 15, 16, 17 26, 40 6 23, 25, 26   Low rice production per unit of water c Low rice production per unit of water c Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi 1 2 3 4 1 3 1 2 3 9B, 14 CHM 3 12A, 12B HSD, 2 12, 15, 16, 17 6, 7, 8 22 17 9C, HPD, HPD1, 15 8A, CHM 3 HSD, 1, 2 11E, 12, 15 22, 25 Davangere Malebennur Bhadravathi1 2 3 4 1 3 1 2 39B, 14 CHM 3 12A, 12B HSD, 2 12, 15, 16, 17 6, 7, 8 22 179C, HPD, HPD1, 15 8A, CHM 3 HSD, 1, 2 11E, 12, 15 22, 25  "},{"text":"Table 7 compares data on rice area gathered using the satellite technique and ground coverage. The values are reasonably close, and the maximum error is only 7 percent.  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 . Satellite-derived data on rice area compared with ground coverage data. Year Satellite (ha) Ground (ha) YearSatellite (ha)Ground (ha) 1986-87 41,176 40,768 1986-8741,17640,768 1989-90 34,357 33,852 1989-9034,35733,852 1992-93 61,013 56,788 1992-9361,01356,788 Source: IIMI 1995.   Source: IIMI 1995.  "},{"text":"and Sensor Characteristics of Satellites Sensor IRS-1C, IRS-P3, ERS-2, and Radarsat satellites were launched inDecember 1995, March 1996, April 1995, and  November 1995, respectively.    characteristics of remote-sensing satellites in orbit at time of NWMP study. ANNEX TABLE 3.         ANNEX TABLE 3.   Band Band Band width Band width Ground Swath width Swath width Radiometric Radiometric Band BandBand width Band widthGroundSwath width Swath widthRadiometric Radiometric Satellite Sensor Sensor no. no. (microns)  resolution (m) resolution (m) (km) (km)  resolution (bits) SatelliteSensor Sensorno. no.(microns)resolution (m) resolution (m)(km) (km)resolution (bits) IRS-1A, IRS-1B IRS-1C LISS I LISS lil 1 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.59  72.5 23.5  148  7 7 IRS-1A, IRS-1B IRS-1CLISS I LISS lil10.45-0.52 0.52-0.5972.5 23.51487 7   2 3 0.52-0.59  72.5 23.5  148 141  7 2 30.52-0.5972.5 23.5148 1417   3 4 0.6Z-0.68 0.77-0.86  72.5  148 141  7 7 3 40.6Z-0.68 0.77-0.8672.5148 1417 7   4 0.77-0.86 1.55-1.70  72.5 70.5  148  7 7 40.77-0.86 1.55-1.7072.5 70.51487 7  LISS II PAN 1 0.45-0.52 0.50-0.75  36.25 5.8  74  7 6 LISS II PAN10.45-0.52 0.50-0.7536.25 5.8747 6 Satellite WiFS Altitude (km) 2 3 4 4 Orbital period Equatorial crossing (min) time (h) 0.52-0.59 36.25 74 0.62-0.68 36.25 74 0.62-0.68 188 0.77-0.86 36.2S 74 188 774  Revisit period (days) 7 7 7 7 SatelliteWiFSAltitude (km) 2 3 4 4Orbital period Equatorial crossing (min) time (h) 0.52-0.59 36.25 74 0.62-0.68 36.25 74 0.62-0.68 188 0.77-0.86 36.2S 74 188 774Revisit period (days) 7 7 7 7 IRS-1A, IRS-1B IRS-P2 IRS-P2 Landsat-7 a LISS II 904 817 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 In orbit at time of NWMP study 103 1000 101 1030 0.45-0.52 32 x 37 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.59 32 X 37 0.52-0.60 30 0.62-0.68 32 X 37 30 0.77-0.86 32 x 37 0.76-0.90 1.55-1.75 30 131 185 131 131 185 131 1 S5  22 24 8 7 8 7 7 8 7 8 IRS-1A, IRS-1B IRS-P2 IRS-P2 Landsat-7 aLISS II904 817 1 1 2 3 3 4 4In orbit at time of NWMP study 103 1000 101 1030 0.45-0.52 32 x 37 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.59 32 X 37 0.52-0.60 30 0.62-0.68 32 X 37 30 0.77-0.86 32 x 37 0.76-0.90 1.55-1.75 30131 185 131 131 185 131 1 S522 248 7 8 7 7 8 7 8 Landsat-5 Landsat-5 Spot-1, 2, 3 MSS 705 1 6 832 2 7 3 99 101 2.08-2.35 0.5-0.6 0.6-0.7 0.7-0.8 0.50-0.90 80 120 80 80 15 0930 1030 185 185 185 185 185  16 26 8 8 8 8 8 Landsat-5 Landsat-5 Spot-1, 2, 3MSS705 1 6 832 2 7 399 101 2.08-2.35 0.5-0.6 0.6-0.7 0.7-0.8 0.50-0.9080 120 80 80 150930 1030185 185 185 185 18516 268 8 8 8 8 NOAA-11 IRS-P3  833 4 4 102 0.755-0.768 0.8-1.1 80 1430 18S 195  0.5 16 8 NOAA-11 IRS-P3833 4 4102 0.755-0.768 0.8-1.180143018S 1950.5 16 8 ERS-1 TM 817 1 2 13 102 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.60 0.408-1.01 30 30 1030 185 185 200  3, 35, 168 8 8 16 ERS-1TM817 1 2 13102 0.45-0.52 0.52-0.60 0.408-1.0130 301030185 185 2003, 35, 168 8 8 16 IRS-1C IRS-P3  817 817 3 4 1 5 3 6 7 5 Launched after 1994 a 102 1030 101 1030 0.63-0.69 30 0.76-0.90 30 1.6 1.55-1.75 30 0.62-0.68 10.4-12.5 120 0.77-0.86 188 2.08-2.35 30 188 185 185 192 185 804 185 185 804 PAN: 5; LISS III: 24; WiFS: 5 MOS: 2; WiFS: 5 8 16 8 7 8 7 8 8 IRS-1C IRS-P3817 817 3 4 1 5 3 6 7 5Launched after 1994 a 102 1030 101 1030 0.63-0.69 30 0.76-0.90 30 1.6 1.55-1.75 30 0.62-0.68 10.4-12.5 120 0.77-0.86 188 2.08-2.35 30 188185 185 192 185 804 185 185 804PAN: 5; LISS III: 24; WiFS: 5 MOS: 2; WiFS: 5 8 16 8 7 8 7 8 8 ERS-2 Radarsat SPOT 1, 2, 3 ERS-2 MLA SAR SAR 780 798 1 2 3 1 102 101 0.50-0.59 5.3 GHz (bBand) 0 61-0 68 VV-Polarization 0.79-0.89 1030 dawn/dusk 20 25 X 22 20 20 28X 30 60 60 60 100  35 2 dB 8 8 24 8 ERS-2 Radarsat SPOT 1, 2, 3 ERS-2MLA SAR SAR780 798 1 2 3 1102 101 0.50-0.59 5.3 GHz (bBand) 0 61-0 68 VV-Polarization 0.79-0.891030 dawn/dusk 20 25 X 22 20 20 28X 3060 60 60 10035 2 dB 8 8 24 8  PLA 1 Not yet launched 10 HH-PolaHzafon 0.51-0.73 60  8 PLA1Not yet launched 10 HH-PolaHzafon 0.51-0.73608 Landsat-7 NOAA-11 AVHRR 705 1 0.55-0.68 99 1100 0930 2700  16 10 Landsat-7 NOAA-11AVHRR705 10.55-0.689911000930270016 10   2 0.73-1.10  1100  2700  10 20.73-1.101100270010   3 3.55-3.93  1100  2700  10 33.55-3.931100270010   4 10.3-11.3  1100  2700  10 410.3-11.31100270010   5 11.5-12.5  1100  2700  10 511.5-12.51100270010 ERS-1 SAR 1 5.3GHz(C; Band) 25  100  2.5(dB) ERS-1SAR15.3GHz(C; Band)251002.5(dB)  "}],"sieverID":"8d35c9f1-e2a2-4c15-86f0-ce4a855e24c3","abstract":"IIMI's mission is to improve food security and the lives of poor people by fostering sustainable increases in the productivity of water used in agriculture through better management of irrigation and water basin systems. In serving this mission, IIMI concentrates on the integration of policies, technologies, and management systems to achieve workable solutions to real problems-practical, relevant results in the field of irrigation and water resources.The publications in this series cover a wide range of subjects-from computer modeling to experience with water users associations-and vary in content from directly applicable research to more basic studies, on which applied work ultimately depends. Some research reports are narrowly focused, analytical, and detailed empirical studies; others are wide-ranging and synthetic overviews of generic problems.Although most of the reports are published by IIMI staff and their collaborators, we welcome contributions from others. Each report is reviewed internally, by IIMI's own staff, by IIMI's Fellows, and by other external reviewers. The reports are published and distributed both in hard copy and electronically. They may be copied freely and cited with due acknowledgment."}

data/part_5/08e68807ae97c3249ef9822edbcd6401.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08e68807ae97c3249ef9822edbcd6401","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ffe439e8-962d-4344-9282-bab8b17f79a0/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Coupling scientific methodologies and design thinking tools in a hybrid approach Example BMZ project: Developing climate-sensitive financial products, Philippines","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"endedness, and an iterative approximation between identifying the root(s) of the problem(s), and the best-bet solution(s). The first phases of the design thinking process therefore focus much on the problem space, before venturing into the solution space, often with unpredictable results."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"In fact, (Hoelzle and Rhinow 2019) identified three possible dilemmas in design thinking: For the unknown results, it is impossible to plan milestones or to know when to 'exit'. Further, strategic guidelines of organizations prescribe a certain direction, which makes a flexible learning process very difficult. For AR4D researchers and institutions, such open-ended approach might be even more challenging, since they have to move within the boundaries of scientific disciplines, their respective institutional mandates, and incentive systems that rewards publications over outcomes (Hall and Dijkman 2019)."}]},{"head":"Coupling design thinking and science","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"In the frame of the BMZ-funded small grant project 'Innovative Credit and Insurance Products for Scaling Climate-Resilient Agriculture in the Philippines', a team of researchers of the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) therefore experimented with a more hybrid approach, coupling design thinking tools with recognized scientific methodologies."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Aim of the project was to design and test innovative credit and insurance bundles, that would promote farmers' uptake of climate-resilient technologies and practices, which would in turn de-risk the agricultural production, and consequently also de-risk agricultural credits."},{"index":3,"size":63,"text":"In the following, this Info Note shortly introduces the aims, principles, and main phases of the design thinking methodology. It then describes the project as case study, and exemplifies the different steps undertaken in each phase of the design process. Finally, the Info Note discusses the main lessons learnt, that can be useful for future design thinking initiatives in the context of AR4D."}]},{"head":"The aims, principles and main phases of Design Thinking","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"\"If I had asked my customers what they wanted, they would have told me a faster horse.\" Henry Ford [presumably] Design thinking is a human-centered approach to innovation addressing wicked problems. Originally coined by the design agency IDEO in the early 1990s, it is nowadays 'taught' at the d.schools in Stanford (since 2005) and Potsdam (since 2007). As methodology, it draws from the designer's toolkit to integrate the needs of people, the possibilities of technology, and the requirements for business success. Key to the process are a hands-on solutions orientation, and interdisciplinary collaboration."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"The main principle of design thinking is to empathize with the intended user(s) of innovations, to understand what influences their decisions and actions taken. It parts from the hypothesis that users' needs are not necessarily the ones that are articulated, or can be captured in surveys. In design thinking, designers try to understand underlying motivations of users, and root causes of problems."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"Different to scientific methodologies, deep insights are gained from interactions with fewer, but 'extreme' users, rather than from large, systematic surveys that that ask for the 'what' and have no space to iterate on the 'why'.  Understand: Developing a shared understanding and 'language' among the interdisciplinary design team. Also drawing on existing knowledge from different sources."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":" Empathize: Interact with the intended users to understand motivations and root causes of problems. This can be e.g., through in-depths interviews, observations, or user journeys."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":" Define: Reframing the problem statement (the designers' task), based on interpreting ('making sense of') known facts with insights gained from empathic interactions."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":" Ideate: Bringing out as many (wild!) ideas (or leads or such) for possible solutions, building on previous ideas (saying 'and' instead of 'but'), then prioritizing."},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":" Prototype: Give some physical representation to the chosen idea, that users can interact with."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Since the first prototypes will probably be changed (or discarded), they need to be cheap, rapidly made, and simple."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":" Test: Users interact with the prototypes (without explanations of designers!) and give feedback."},{"index":10,"size":15,"text":"The way they interact with the prototypes can bring new insights, towards the next iteration."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"As a highly iterative process, the continuous testing (and discarding) of hypothesis, ideas and prototypes requires from designers the willingness and capability to 'kill their darlings', making space for new problem framings, understandings, and approaches towards solutions."}]},{"head":"Case Study: Developing 'CRA-inclusive' financial products, Philippines","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"The Philippines is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate impacts. Since 2015, the Department of Agriculture (DA) actively promotes climate-resilient agriculture to increase production, farmers' adaptation capacities and mitigation potential. With technical support from CIAT, DA established the system-wide national Adaptation and Mitigation in Agriculture (AMIA) program. During the program implementation, farmers' access to credit emerged as a key ingredient for farmers' uptake of CRA innovations, which in turn was often constrained by the perceived risks of the agricultural sector, even worsening in the context of climate change."},{"index":2,"size":111,"text":"Responding to this challenge, in 2017, the Agricultural Credit Policy Council (ACPC) created credit programs that were directly tailored to smallholder farmers' and fisher folks' needs and were to be channeled through local finance institutes like rural banks, micro finance institutes, or credit cooperatives. However, in the first year of their roll out, the number of availed credits had remained far below their potential scale. As possible solution, DA and ACPC reached out to the CIAT for developing credit and insurance bundles that would promote the uptake of CRA technologies and practices. The hypothesis was that CRA would reduce production risks for farmers, and consequently, as well for the lending institutions."}]},{"head":"Empathize I: The scoping mission(s).","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"As part of the project preparation, in March 2018, a member of the CIAT project team undertook a scoping study in Ivisan Municipality, Capiz Province, Philippines, facilitated by the CCAFS partner NGO International Institute for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR)."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Differently to design thinking processes that only design for the 'end-user', the project needed to consider also the needs and motivations of the lending institutes as 'nextusers', and local governments as possible facilitators or intermediaries. The scoping mission therefore interacted not only with different farmer groups andcooperatives, but also with representatives of local governments, lending -and insurance institutes, with a total of > 100 interactions."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Qualitative interviews consisted of open questions about the context, and stakeholders' roles and experiences with climate change and finance products. Main insights were from the scoping session were:"},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":" The APCP credit programs targeted at smallholder farmer and fisherfolks were already quite responsive to smallholder needs, in terms of low interest rates (6% p.a.), no collaterals, and flexible repayment duration."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":" Due to accessibility constraints, vulnerable groups (women, elderly, tenants) felt excluded from the possibility to avail for credits."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":" Most farmers preferred to use their own informal credit schemes, since they found the process of accessing financial products too complex."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":" Lending self-help groups were very popular but lacked capital. Liability as a group was an issue."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":" Lending institutes preferred to pay a fine for not lending to agriculture, albeit all ACPC's loans were automatically insured by the Philippine Crop Insurance Corporation (PCIC)."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":" Farmers had limited awareness and understanding of process and benefits of individual crop insurance."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"Textbox 2: A Hybrid Approach to Design Thinking"},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"The BMZ small-grant project 'Innovative Credit and Insurance Products for Scaling Climate Resilient Agriculture in the Philippines'"},{"index":12,"size":19,"text":"Goal: Facilitating uptake of CRA options for >25,000 smallholder clients of ACPC by designing innovative credit and insurance products."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"Problem statement: Existing agri-finance products directed to smallholder farmers do not factor in climate change risks and farmers' adaptation options (CRA)."},{"index":14,"size":38,"text":"Innovative credit and climate risk insurance products/ bundles that respond to smallholders needs when investing in CRA options, will reduce the risk for both farmers and service providers, thus facilitating wider uptake of CRA practices among beneficiary farmers."},{"index":15,"size":33,"text":"Methodology: A combination of participatory design thinking and economics valuation approaches, employed to prioritize the most relevant CRA options, responding better to farmers' investment needs, as well as fine tuning the financial products/packages."}]},{"head":"Activities:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":" Methodological workshops on Human Centered Design, e.g., for assessing farmers' needs and developing farmers' typologies;"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":" State of the art behavioral experiments to test farmers' willingness to pay using contingent valuation, e.g. choice-experiment games to assess farmers' risk aversion and intertemporal preferences methodologies."}]},{"head":"Define: Point of view statements","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"From these insights, the project team formulated a set of 'point of view statements' for the key stakeholders. These then served as new problem framing:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":" Farmers need credits that cater also for the most vulnerable (women, elderly, and very poor), that are quickly accessible with less paperwork and have repayment modalities that correspond to the rhythm of their incomes, in a world where self-help groups are much closer and more familiar."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":" Farmers also need special support during the initial phase(s) of taking up CRA innovations, because they need to develop the practical skills, and perhaps only the second or even third try is successful."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":" Farmers Credit Cooperatives and self-help groups need more capital for their members, in a context where no one wants to be liable for group loans because government money is perceived as \"grants\"."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":" Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) need clients that are likely to pay back in the sense that these are in good health condition, know the market, their climate risks and CRA options, are financially literate and have some sort of financial business or livelihood backup."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"These insights pointed to a possible change of the projects' focus, towards a broader approach, including the processes of creating awareness, building capacities and facilitating the access to credit and insurance products. To accommodate such a flexible approach, the project team decided to embrace the design thinking methodology, making it the central approach for project implementation."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"At the same time, the project provided the option for one staff member to feed her PHD research with results from the behavioral experiments (See Textbox 2)."}]},{"head":"Empathize II: Farmer Profiles","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"With support of the partner NGO IIRR, the CIAT project team applied design thinking tools with stakeholders and farmer focus groups, to build farmer profiles for rice and coconut farmers and fisherfolks. Tools included a problem tree capturing root causes, story mapping towards visualizing main commodities' supply chains, cashflow timelines, challenge prioritization, mapping farmers coping actions, and open discussions. Main insights were that few coconut farmers aspired for agricultural loans due to strong government support, fisherfolks used a mix of formal and The budget allocated for staff trainings did not allow for a continuous coaching/ reflecting on interim insights/ results, crucial to planning of next steps."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"informal sources, and rice farmers preferred non-monetary loans (seed and fertilizer inputs)."}]},{"head":"Understand: Survey / choice experiments 'In the end, we didn't use the results.'","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"A household survey then captured socio-demographic and farm-level data and perceptions of climate change of 327 farming households, including two choice experiments:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":" Risk aversion: Two scenarios were tested, for winning (lottery) and for losing money. Results indicated that farmers were more risk tolerant towards losses."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":" Stated preference analysis: A conjoint analysis on individual's preferences was aggregated to reflect the 'average farmers'. Most important traits of loan bundles were the loan delivery time (<4 days), payment scheme (well matured loans) and lenders involvement (continuous monitoring). Less important were customization of loans, and credit cooperatives."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"When 'making sense' of these results, the project team found these difficult to interpret: The survey reflected the current status, but gave little hints about underlying reasons, or future aspirations. Also, the aggregation did not allow connecting to previous insights as farmer profiles."}]},{"head":"Prototype: Interactive stakeholder workshop","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"'There is nothing we dislike about our prototype, because we made it!'"},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"Results were presented in a virtual workshop with representatives of ACPC, PCIC, micro finance institutes and credit cooperatives. However, they did not play a further role: Discussion revealed that it was not feasible to change credit conditions, since that would involve higher level institutes like the Central Bank of the Philippines."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"Rather, through applying the 'user journey' tool, stakeholders followed the process from farmers' decisions to take a loan, throughout application, implementation and payback. Together, stakeholders build a service prototype, based on the following main insights:"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":" Farmers typically get most triggered to apply for loans after a climate event that had destroyed their crops."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":" Farmers are heavily reliant on word-of-mouth for their information, while the use of text messaging and social media is limited due to limited digital infrastructure."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":" CRA interventions shall help farmers anticipate climate events, focusing on the sustainability of their farm income over profitability."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":" Documentary requirements shall be communicated early before the call for a loan in order to give farmers time to consolidate them or ask any questions."},{"index":8,"size":25,"text":" If the cooperatives are responsible for information dissemination, more farmers will receive it. Amount of info, though, has to be minimized in quick bite-sizes."},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"The developed service prototype consequently consisted of five main phases (Figure 2):"},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"1) The ABC together with the Philippine Atmospheric, Geographical and Astronomical Services Administration to build a repository of CRA-options."},{"index":11,"size":14,"text":"2) ACPC and PCIC will deliver capacity building and climate services for farmer cooperatives."},{"index":12,"size":14,"text":"3) Climate events trigger the loan chain, and cooperatives organize the initial farmer orientation."},{"index":13,"size":21,"text":"4) Between availing of loans and their payout, cooperatives give financial management and CRA training, as well as seed variety recommendations."},{"index":14,"size":37,"text":"5) During planting, cooperatives do monthly monitoring and give nutrient management recommendations. Testing: Farmers' feedback on the prototype A final semi-virtual with Ivisan farmer groups validated this prototype, and added details on the design of the bundle:"},{"index":15,"size":24,"text":"Product: Agri-loan, interest rate 6% (or less)/season, bundled with insurance, of up to PhP 50,000, transacted through cooperatives and monitored on a monthly basis."},{"index":16,"size":23,"text":"CRA inclusion: Bundled with 7-day weather forecast, with seed variety recommendations (upon receiving payment) and nutrient management recommendation (2-3 months into planting season)."},{"index":17,"size":20,"text":"Requirements: Farmers are listed with ACPC and undergo financial management and CRA seminars prior to the release of the loan."}]},{"head":"Outlook","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the project extended to January 2022. The socialization of the service prototype, however, will continue in frame of further CIAT and AMIA projects in the Philippines, the region, and the OneCGIAR."}]},{"head":"Lessons learnt: Hybrid design thinking","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"This project provided crucial learnings for applying a hybrid approach of design thinking in the context of AR4D:"},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":" Sequence of scientific/design thinking tools: Methodologies that provide 'scientific and representative' results can add to the needed information base, but require more time, staff and budget than quick, qualitative design thinking tools. Therefore, they should be considered only when the problem is already well reframed (and validated with all stakeholders), and a possible solution is prioritized."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":" Budget, time, team, and adaptive management:"},{"index":4,"size":57,"text":"Resources need to be allocated to staff training, and design thinking needs to be understood as a 'rapid and dirty' sequence of activities with many iterations, and involving all stakeholders. The core design team needs to remain continuously the same, while foci can change. Projects therefore rather need theories of change than logframes, and an adaptive management."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":" Reflection and communication: The process could have benefitted from more regular backstopping and coaching in the design thinking process. Continious syntheses of previous insights could help to tailor next steps. Without such reflections, single steps have a tendency to not connect, not builidng on each other. Communication formats that include visualizations might be more useful than conventional reporting formats (also for communicating among project staff)."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":" Embeddedness: For the iterative character, it seems unlikely that the full design thinking process can be initiated, implemented and the output scaled, within the duration of a small grant. Good practice is therefore to include such initiatives in the frame of larger projects that can then carry on."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The Iterative Design Thinking Process "},{"text":"Figure Figure 2: Problem visualization "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Prototype for CRA-inclusive credit services "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"6f863359-a2b7-417a-88fa-977610d165de","abstract":"Design thinking initiatives are open-ended and unpredictable: a challenge for AR4D institutions. A project team of the Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT (ABC) experimented with a hybrid approach, featuring both scientific methodologies and design thinking tools."}

data/part_5/09457cb6b36c75ef5606cdfbf03102ff.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09457cb6b36c75ef5606cdfbf03102ff","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H003657.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF TWO COMMUNITY-MANAGED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN CHITWAN DISTRICT, NEPAL","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Nepal's irrigation potential is estimated a t 1,050,000 hectares ( h a ) in the Tarai and 200,000 h a in the Hills (Pant and Lohani 1983). The 1981 Water Resource and Energy Commission study estimated that about 500,000 h a rec.eive some irrigation, which is 22 percent of the cultivated area and about 26 percent of the irrigation potential."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Four-fifths of the existing irrigation hiis been developed by farmers and government schemes account for only one fifth (Pant and L,ohani 1983). T h i s brings out the significance of farmer-managed irrigat,ion s y s t e m s in Nepal. This paper is a comparative case study between a traditional single community-managed irrigation system and a new multicommunitymanaged irrigation system."}]},{"head":"STUDY OBJECTIVES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The objectives of the study were to:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"Compare the roles of irrigation water u s e r s and irrigation water authorities in the traditional single community and new multicommunity-managed irrigation systems. A traditional single community w a s defined a s a group of people of the same origin and caste living together in the same area. The multicommunity w a s defined as a group of people of different castes and religions who have fairly recently migrated from different parts of the kingdom and w h o now live together in the same area."}]},{"head":"2.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Examine differences in the level of conflict in the two systems."}]},{"head":"3.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Compare the effectiveness of the two systems for mobilizing labor resources for system maintenance."}]},{"head":".","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Determine the viability for continued operation of the two systems."}]},{"head":"DESCRIPTIONS OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEMS STUDIED","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The Surtana irrigation system was selected for the study to represent a traditional single community-managed irrigation system, and the Lothar irrigation system was selected to represent a new multicommunity-managed irrigation system."}]},{"head":"Surtaria Irrigation System","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Tho S u r t a n a s y s t e m is a single communiLy-manag?d irrigation system in Chitwan d i s t r i c t about 17 kilometers ( k m ) east of n h a r a a i r and 2.0 Itm south of Parsa on t h e Bharatpur-Hetauda highway. This system w6ich i r r i g a t e s ward number five of Khaireni Village Panchayat. w a s construct,rd ,-bout 150 y e a r s a g o by + h e T h a r u s ( a n ethnic g r o u p of Nepal), and i s fiiU.pmpletely domii.atf4 by them. T h e command a r e a of this system is about &XI h%:)"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"\"\"___\".,"},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"The organizational s t r u c t u r e of this system consists of a farmers' committke, with a chairman and six members. .Annually, before t h e pre-monsoon activities, t h e f a r m e r s meet End elect t h e chairman and committee m e m b e r s . The assembly makes decisions concerning t h e maintenance of t h e main canal and canal network."}]},{"head":"Lothar Irrigation System","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"L s h a r is a multicommunity-managed irrigation system in C -\" district a b o u t 30 km eastof Bharatpur -.. a n d 1.0 k m south of P r a t a p u r on t h e Bharatpur-Hetduda highway. The new Lothar irrigation system was built by f a r m e r s in 1971. The system irrigated ward numbers 1, 2, 3, a n d 8 of Piple Panchayat. The total command a r e a of the system was about 800 ha."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"-A majority of t h e farmers u n d e r this s y s t e m were Brahmins a n d Chhetris (of t h e higher castes) who had migrated to Chitwan from t h e hills in t h e p a s t 20 to 30 years. I n t h i s system t h e farmers meet d u r i n g t h e postharvest period in J a n u a r y -F e b r u a r y ."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"The general assembly elects a chairman a n d vice-chairman."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"T h e chairman appoints t h e members of t h e seven b r a n c h canals. The chairman practically holds a mandate from t h e general assembly to implement all t h e asfiem bly decisions."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY Sample Design","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"T h e r e w e r e 121 households in t h e S u r t a n a system and 300 i n t h e Lothar system. Every second household from S u r t a n a a n d e v e r y third household from L o t h a r w a s chosen for t h e s t u d y , forming a sample of 62 households in S u r t a n a and 100 in Lothar."}]},{"head":"D a t a Collection Procedure","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"T h r e e different methods were followed f o r t h e collection of t h e information r e g a r d i n g t h e systems' organization."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"1. Interview. Data on t h e socio-economic condition of t h e people of t h e command area was collected b y interviewing h e a d s of households."}]},{"head":"2.","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Survey /observation. The investigator used a checklist to systematically collect data on t h e physical a s p e c t s of t h e irrigation s y s t e m s ."}]},{"head":"3.","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Participants' checklists."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Data r e g a r d i n g t h e operation a n d A four-point maintenance of t h e s y s t e m w a s collected using v a r i o u s formats. rat.ing scale was u w d to collect t h e opinion of water u s e r s ahotct th<,ir r.oics and the role of t h e water authority. Key informants w e r e interviehted Ilsing 3 list, of questions pertaining to t h e development. and operation of t h e syst.ems. Ariothrr rhecklist rrlatinq to t h e views of t h e water u s e r s as irela!ed to water allcli-ation. distributinn, maintenance, and conflict resolut.ion lias adajinisrered 1.0 wiiter users."}]},{"head":"Comparative Inferential Analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"This w a s t h e major p a r t of t h e s t u d y , w h e r e each of t h e oh,iecti\\-es w a s analyzed separately and a n inference was drawn on each."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Role comparison. Since t h i s s t u d y focused on t h e job performance of the w a t e r a u t h o r i t y and water u s e r s , t h e authority's a s well a s u s e r s ' work-roles had been chosen for analysis in terms of t h e various activities in t h e irrigation organization. In t h a t context, the d e g r e e of responsibility borne b y t h e authority a n d u s e r s as expected or perceived by t h e incumhent,s of t h e position, viz water u s e r s was worked out."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"The roles were analyzed at two levels: 1) consensus among members of t h e same system, or intra-system consensus, and 2) 'consensus between the two systems, or inter-system consensus. Level of conflict. Three a s p e c t s were considered while examining the level of conflict. Conflict in t h e role of water u s e r s and t h e water aiithorit:; k'as esamined b y analyzing t h e variation between t h e role expertation and perception with t h e help of F-statistics."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The level of conflict o v e r water allocation a n d distribution w a s analyzed by s t u d y i n g t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' replies to questions related to t h e s e issues."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"The level of conflict r e g a r d i n g system maintenance was identified in t h e same manner. Continuity a. A critical analysis of both irrigation systems r e r s r d i n g t h e physical a n d organizational s t r u c t u r e w a s performed to determine t h e continuity s t a t u s of both systems. The continuity s t a t u s w a s f u r t h e r identified b y s t u d y i n g t h e level of conflict between t h e two organizations."}]},{"head":"RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF THE DATA","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"1.","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The intra-system variation regarding work roles between t h e two systems was not similar. Among t h e items on which r e s p o n d e n t s a g r e e d within one system, 50 percent were t h e same in t h e o t h e r system r e g a r d i n g role perception."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Sixty-two p e r c e n t of t h e items o n which r e s p o n d e n t s agreed r e g a r d i n g role expectation w e r e t h e s a m e in both systems."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"2. The responsibility score of t h e water u s e r s of Lothar w a s h i g h e r than in S u r t a n a , hence it can be concluded t h a t t h e water uflers of i.hr I,ot,har irrigation system participate more fully in t h e operation and maintenance of t h e i r system."}]},{"head":"The responsibility score of t h e water a u t h o r i t y 7f S i i r t ~n s was higher t h a n that, of Lot,har, indicating t h a t t h e w a k r a u t h o r i t y i n t h e S u r t a n a system performed more of t h e operation a n d maintenance d u t i e s than i s t h e case of","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"L o t h a r ."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"4. Among those items t h a t showed high responsibility in t h e w o r k role of t h e water u s e r s a s t h e y performed their jobs in both irrigation s y s t e m s were: "}]},{"head":"Both systems agreed on more than 70 p e r c e n t of t h e items as t o t h e","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"of t h e u s e r s in operation a n d maintenancr of their system."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Rut t h e two systems disagreed on more t h a n half of t h e items r e g a r d i n g t h e roles and performance of t h e w a t e r authorit.y. The following a r e t h e i t e m s on which t h e respondents i n t h e two systems disagreed: Distribution and allocation of water among water u s e r s ."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Checking whether t h e distribution is proper a t t h e sub-system level. In S u r t a n a t h k was t h o water authority's job."}]},{"head":"d ) in t h e system; i n Lothar t h i s was performed by t h e users. e ) set b y t h e water u s e r s in Lothar, h u t by t h e a u t h o r i t y in S u r t a n a . f )","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"t h e users."}]},{"head":"6.","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"T h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n both systems s h a r e d similar a t t i t u d e s about"}]},{"head":"S u r t a n a considered i t t h e job of t h e a u t h o r i t y to d e t e c t a n y problems","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"The fixation of t a x e s or o t h e r donations for irrigation activities was Lothar water u s e r s resolved water-related conflicts t h a t a r o s e among In S u r t a n a t h i s w a s performed b y t h e water a u t h o r i t y . perception a n d expectation."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"7. The level (if ronflict in t h e work role w a s a hit h i g h c r i n I , n t h ~, r R S compared to Surtana. The farmers in Lothar were more intcracl.ivc with t h e water a u t h o r i t y and conscious of their responsihilit,ic?s."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"In Siirt.rina t,hp traditional leaders and customs of t h e Tharu community dictatsd how t h e s y s t e m was operated."},{"index":4,"size":216,"text":"8. There w a s no conflict r e g a r d i n g :cater distribution and allocation i n e i t h e r s y s t e m as t h e r e is a n a b u n d a n t water supply available. However, in S u r t a n a t h e level of ethnic conflict was higher because of a high level of d i x r i m i n a t i o n of t h e T h a r u s a g a i n s t the minority g r o u p of newly-avrived hill people. In t h e f u t u r e this level of conflict may lead to a n increase i n conflirts between t h e large Tharu farmer and smaller farmer r e g a r d i n g w a t e r allocation. 9. Regarding labor mobilization, t h e r e was more conflict. in Surtana. The smaller f a r m e r s in S u r t a n a were not satisfied with t h e p r e s e n t system of mobilizing labor."},{"index":5,"size":82,"text":"I n this system all t h e members of t h e household (except household head, women, school children, and s h e p h e r d s ) who use irrigation water a r e r e q u i r e d to contribute labor throughout t h e period of maintenance. Sixty percent of t h e farmers p r e f e r r e d that labor contributions be assessed according to size of landholdings."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"I n Lothar a household u s i n g irrigation water has to c0ntribut.e o n l y one laborer t h r o u g h o u t t h e period of maintenance."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"Fifty-eight p e r c e n t of t h e farmers in Lothar were satisfied with t h i s system. 10. The Lothar irrigation system had a more effective way of mobilizing labor. During t h e early paddy season t h e farmers are not allowed to cultivate more t h a n one hectare of land."},{"index":8,"size":108,"text":"They s h a r e t h e i r land with o t h e r landless farmers, providing them with 50 p e r c e n t of t h e s e e d s a n d fertilizer needed. In r e t u r n t h e e a r l y paddy cultivator provides t h e landlord b:ith half cf t h e produce. A s t h i s cultivator u s e s irrigation water, h e i s required to contr;biite one laborer p e r maintenance activity, thereby enlarging t h e labor resmirce."},{"index":9,"size":63,"text":"11. The physical system was s t r o n g e r in S u r t a n a as compared to 1.ot.har. The S u r t a n a w a t e r source is a non-perennial one and its i n t a k e s t r u c t u r e i s permanent."},{"index":10,"size":142,"text":"Lothar t a k e s water from t h e Lothar Khola a s well as t,he Rapt.; river. Its intake is built on t h e flood plains of t h e Rapti r i v e r , and is washed away e v e r y year b y t h e Rapti floods. However, t h e organizational s t r u c t u r e w a s s t r o n g e r in Lothar because t h e level of conflict in Lothar w a s much lower, and also because t h e labor mobilization p a t t e r n is seen a s more effective. Lothar holds more promise i n terms of t h e ability of i t s organization to continue to function effectively."}]},{"head":"SUMMARY","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"The f i n d i n g s of t h i s s t u d y may help policy makers get a general vie&of t h e managerial situations found in different community-owned irrigation systems. On t h e basis of t h e findings, t h e following recommendations a r e made f o r consideration in similar situations."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"1. The agencies dealing with t h e development of irrigation in Nepal should focus o n t h e ethnological composition of t h e water u s e r s in a given irrigation area."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"This is important because t h e homogeneous/heterogeneo~~s ethnological composition affects t h e management of a n irrigation system, particularly as related to conflict resolution, resource mobilization, leadership, and the extent of equity in irrigation resource distribution and user participation."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Contrary to the generally-held belief that in ethnically homngeneous irrigat,ion systems better management is more easily achievable, t h i s study showed t.hat i n the ethnically heterogeneous Lothar irrigation svstem, management in terms of those factors mentioned above was bet;.er i n comparison to Surtana, t h e ethnically homogeneous system."}]},{"head":"2.","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Policy makers and implementing agencies should give priority to intervention in heterogeneous migrant irrigation communities (especially in the Tarai) in o r d e r to bolster its modern organizational and management capacity."}]},{"head":"3.","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Single community-managed irrigation systems require a more subtle approach when designing intervention. The homogeneous community felt that outsiders were t h r e a t s to established traditions. Therefore, it is very important. that the leaders of these communities first. he taken into confidence before any irrigation development program is launched. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Role perception was defined as work actually p e r f w m e d h y either water u s e r s o r water authority. To measure t h e role perception, t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were a s k e d what t h e water u s e r s a n d t h e water a u t h o r i t y had done in a given situation. Role expectation was defined a s work t h a t should have been perfornwd by Respondents were a s k e d what they t . h o u g h t either t h e u s e r s or t h e authority. t h e water u s e r s and water a u t h o r i t y should d o in a given situati?.n. "},{"text":" kha r e s o u r c e mobilization. A comparative-descriptive analysis was carried o u t to s t u d y t h e labor r e s o u r c e mobilization techniques employed. "},{"text":" of water to t h e farm. e ) Preparation of t h e sc,hedrile and norms for regular maintenanre w o r k . f ) Resolving emergency situations a t t h e main a n d sub-system levels. g ) Resolving conflicts between u s e r s . "},{"text":" Fixing t y p e and d e g r e e of punishment to those who violate t h e i-ules. a ) Lothar farmers felt it was t h e water authority's responsibility to t a k e act.ion on a violation of rules. S u r t a n a g a v e t h e responsibility to t h e k-ater users. b ) Lothar gave t h e t a s k of estimation of r e s o u r c e s a n d materials f o r regular maintenance to t h e water authority. c ) Lothar water u s e r s had t h e responsibility of checkivg a t t e n d a n c e of t h e l a b o r e r s in maintenance work. "},{"text":" REFERENCE Pant, Thakur Nath and Jyoti Lohani 1983. Some observations on irrigation development in Nepal. Paper presented a t the Seminar on Water Management Issues. 31 July to 2 August 1983. Jointly organized by Ministry of Agriculture, HMGN/APROSC and SECTION rV: CONCEPT P A P E R S ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR RESOURCE MOBILIZATION IN H I L L IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Edward D. Martin and Robert Yoder 85 RESOURCE MOBILIZATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL S U P P O R T IN IRRIGATION SYSTEM MANAGEMENT: EXPERIENCES FROM KULARIYA, JAMARA, AND RANI KULOS O F KAILALI DISTRICT P r a c h a n d a Pradhan, Khadka G i r i , and Dirgha Nidhi Tiwari 102 PROPERTY PERSPECTIVE IN T H E EVOLUTION O F A HILL IRRIGATION SYSTEM: A CASE FROM WESTERN NEPAL Ujjwal Pradhan I16 "}],"sieverID":"66041ee7-258d-46c8-891e-166de9403f6e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"099959a375550d82a4d35ecd5c0f094b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/561f307e-9fa4-4368-92f2-d4844dee786c/retrieve"},"pageCount":27,"title":"Community typology framed by normative climate for agricultural innovation, empowerment, and poverty reduction","keywords":["qualitative comparative research","gender norms","empowerment","agricultural innovation","community development"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"On a figurative five-step ladder, Sonam (pseudonym) estimates that she has moved from step 1 to step 5 over the past decade."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Step 5 characterizes the women of her village with great power and freedom to make consequential decisions in their lives-such as about whether and where they will work for pay, or whether to begin or end a relationship with a man. By way of explaining her significant climb up the ladder, Sonam stresses a decision she made five years ago to take a risk and try sharecropping for herself. She'd never endeavored to work for pay before."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Sonam, 40 years old and from a village of India's Uttar Pradesh, lives with her five sons, ages 14 to 22, two daughters-in-law, and a granddaughter. Sonam reports that she never attended school, married a cousin at age 14, and endured great hardships that included domestic violence and raising her boys in a dilapidated hut. \"When [my husband] lived here, he abused me physically and mentally,\" confides Sonam. \"I lived like a servant. There was no question of giving my opinion on any matter.\" Yet, Sonam says she turned her life around in 2010 when she first began to sharecrop:"},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"It was my decision to start working since the financial condition of my family was far from good. We could barely manage to eat three meals a day. No one asked me to work. It was my decision. . . . That changed our lives completely for the better."},{"index":5,"size":274,"text":"\" [W]ith the money I earned by sharecropping\" and support from her family, Sonam replaced their hut with a concrete house in 2011. The following year, a portion of the land received from Sonam's in-laws at marriage was used as collateral to finance her husband's transportation to work in Saudi Arabia. Over time, remittances from her husband combined with her own earnings enabled Sonam to \"return all the money we had to borrow from people during difficult times.\" Sonam also purchased land, and shared, \"Now my sons are also working. So we are in a comfortable situation now. There are no problems.\" Sonam's testimony is part of a dataset of village case studies from Asia, Africa, and Latin America. As we will show, Sonam's village is a context where many women experience a strong sense of empowerment from assuming a greater decision-making role in their household and in the village's agricultural economy. Some of the village women with resources are managing commercial farms and using the latest seed technologies and equipment in consultation with their husbands, or independently if widowed or their husbands are in distant jobs. In other villages sampled in Uttar Pradesh, as well as elsewhere in India and beyond, women's roles are also changing; however, their ratings of shifts in their decision-making capacity typically moves from steps 2 to 3 (out of 5). Most women in our study do not perceive their experiences in their family and community over the last decade to be nearly so empowering as Sonam's. Most continue to face local gender norms that discourage women from voicing their opinions and that only recognize men as agricultural innovators."},{"index":6,"size":100,"text":"Gender norms comprise the \"differential rules of conduct for women and men\" (Pearse and Connell 2016, p. 35). The influence of these social rules on women's roles and decision-making has been a longstanding concern in the gender and agriculture literature (e.g. Boserup, 1970;Doss, 1999;Quisumbing, 1996;Kandyoti, 1998;Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, 2010). Gender norms are challenging to measure, however, due to their contextual and fluid properties: women and men alike uphold, negotiate, withdraw from, and sometimes alter these social rules as they interact with others, manage risks, and pursue goals for bettering their lives (Petesch et al., 2018a;Pearse and Connell, 2016;Sewell, 1999;Jackson, 1999)."},{"index":7,"size":104,"text":"Informed by the concepts of agency and gender norms, this paper explores women's and men's own assessments of the conditions and trends in their community for taking important decisions and for reducing poverty, and the role of agricultural innovation in these processes. In addition, we draw on these local assessments to build a community typology that expresses three distinct trajectories of local socioeconomic change. The analysis builds on the GENNOVATE (Enabling Gender Equality in Agricultural and Environmental Innovation) conceptual approach, qualitative comparative field methodology, and dataset of 79 village cases spanning 17 countries of the Global South (Badstue et al. 2018;Petesch et al., 2018)."},{"index":8,"size":246,"text":"The objective of this paper is to mobilize GENNOVATE's conceptual approach and unique qualitative comparative dataset in ways that enhance understanding of the local normative conditions associated with inclusive agricultural innovation processes. We begin the paper by discussing the literatures on agency and gender norms that informed our conceptual approach, and then review the study's protocols for sampling, data collection, and analysis. In the section on results, we discuss how we constructed and interpreted our three-part community typology. Each of the three sets of villages in the typology depicts a different trend in how local women and men assessed 10-year changes in their decision-making capacity and local poverty levels. The first set of villages, labeled \"transforming\" cases, presents local observations of rapid and inclusive social and economic development. The second type, \"climbing\" cases, presents more moderate processes of favorable change, and the third, \"churning\" cases, are characterized as stagnating or deteriorating. Transforming cases are distinguished by a highly inclusive and fluid normative climate that encourages both women and men to be effective decision-makers and to innovate in their rural livelihoods. In addition to the comparative findings that informed the typology, three village case studies are presented to illuminate important commonalities as well as contextual differences among the transforming set of cases. Before concluding the paper, we reflect on the normative regularities and differences uncovered by our approach, and the contribution of growing gender equality to agricultural innovation and wider processes of institutional transformation and rural development."}]},{"head":"Literature review","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"GENNOVATE is a large qualitative study that explores and compares, across diverse cultural contexts, how gender norms both shape and are shaped by women's and men's capacities to participate in and benefit from the agricultural innovation processes of their local economy. The study's conceptual framework conceives of the interaction between gender norms and women's and men's engagement with agricultural innovation as dynamics that have the potential to contribute to empowerment and poverty reduction in a village (see Badstue et al., 2018, for further discussion). Here we highlight the literature that informed our understanding of agency, empowerment, and gender norms, and their interactions."}]},{"head":"Agency and empowerment","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"While agency is often conceived of as the capacity to act and take decisions, empowerment refers both to processes and outcomes that result in \"the expansion of choice and strengthening of voice through the transformation of power relations, so that women and girls have more control over their lives and futures\" (van Eerdewijk et al., 2017, p. 13). Feminist conceptualizations of empowerment have long emphasized the contested character of gender power relations (e.g. Batliwala, 1993;Jackson, 1998;Kabeer, 1999). Batliwala, for example, defines women's empowerment as \"the process of challenging existing power relations, and of gaining greater control over the sources of power\" (1993, p. 130). Kabeer's (1999) conceptual framework that specifies three dimensions that effect empowerment and transform power relations: resources, agency, and achievements. Razavi (1999, p. 423) usefully summarizes the main attributes of Kabeer's framework, which remains relevant (e.g. review by Donald et al., 2017): . . . \"resources\" (not only access, but also future claims, to both material and human and social resources), \"agency\" (including processes of decisionmaking as well as manifestations of agency, such as negotiation, deception and manipulation), and \"achievements\" (or outcomes in wellbeing)."}]},{"head":"GENNOVATE's approach builds on","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"The measurement of agency and empowerment across cultures, however, is a continuing challenge (e.g. Donald et al., 2017;Narayan, 2005). The Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) has advanced measures that are comparable and multidimensional (Alkire et al., 2013;Malapit et al., 2014). The comparative measures we use are similar to quantitative approaches in that they draw from women's and men's observations about their decision-making capacity, as well as other measures of wellbeing. Nevertheless, as discussed in Badstue et al. (2018), the GENNOVATE methodology differs in that it is guided by theoretical approaches that stress the social embeddedness of agency and the historical and contextual specificities of the factors and processes that enable or hinder empowerment on the ground. This concern for contextual influences on agency and processes that drive more equitable gender power relations calls attention to the role of gender norms (Kabeer, 1999)."}]},{"head":"Gender norms","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Gender norms, such as expectations of women's deference to men, are learned behaviors from a very young age. Many experts on norms emphasize how they are held in place because we believe that others conform to and value these social expectations and perceive that our own social approval hinges on compliance (Bichieri, 2006;Cislaghi, Manji, and Heise, 2018;Mackie et al., 2015). Feminist literature on gender norms draws attention to how these social dictates contribute to reproducing the \"gender order\" and \"distinctions between women and men\" (Pearse and Connell, 2016, p. 31). However, these same dictates often become subjects of negotiation and resistance when they constrain or no longer hold much relevance for women's and men's day-to-day lives (e.g. Jackson 1998Jackson , 1999))."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"The notion of local normative climate, elaborated further in the empirical section of the paper, focuses attention on the set of norms prevailing in a local context and their fluid qualities-with some gender norms in a community remaining restrictive or perhaps tightening further, while others may be relaxing or disappearing altogether (Petesch et al., 2018a). The relaxation of norms describes local processes, for instance, whereby a few village women successfully negotiate a rule that only men should be present at community meetings and women begin attending the meetings. A gender norm may relax enough to disappear, such as when many women along with men attend community meetings and this becomes widely accepted and normal. While these processes of normative relaxation and change are vital for increasing gender equality, they remain uneven on the ground: in diverse cultural contexts a woman may still face ostracism or perhaps physical punishment if she interacts independently with a man who is not a relative of her family (Muñoz Boudet, Petesch, and Turk, 2013). Normative fluidity speaks to the uneven and sometimes risky social processes whereby some, or perhaps many, women are finding space to negotiate and contest different normative constraints in their lives, while others in the community continue to uphold and conform to restrictive dictates."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"In fact across many sample GENNOVATE villages, women often convey that compared to a decade ago they are encountering more relaxed gender norms and finding it easier, for instance, to express their opinions in family matters, to move in the public spaces of their village, and to earn some income from their own agricultural activities (e.g. Badstue et al., 2017;Petesch et al., 2017;Luis et al., 2018)."},{"index":4,"size":167,"text":"Importantly, groups of men also contest and resist norms of masculinity (e.g. Connell, 2003;Pearse and Connell, 2016;Kimmel, 2000). Some local contexts may provide limited pathways for men to achieve or maintain adequate financial independence, a condition widely seen to define manhood in varied cultures around the world. (e.g. Barker and Ricardo, 2015;Amuyunzu-Nyamongo and Francis, 2006). For example, in a GENNOVATE case study of a peri-urban community in western Kenya, where land and jobs are scarce, men perceive themselves to be \"squatters\" in their own community, and many struggle with heavy drinking and other antisocial vices (Petesch et al., 2018a;Bullock and Tegbaru, under review). The burdens for men who rely on arduous and insecure farm labor are a type of gendered vulnerability, which some men resist (Jackson, 1999). In sum, as women and men go about their daily lives, the relative fluidity of local gender norms set the context for their capacity to take important decisions and engage with agricultural innovation and other opportunities for bettering their lives."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Discussion of GENNOVATE's rationale, objectives, and conceptual approach can be found in Badstue et al. (2018);and Petesch et al. (2018) present a fuller treatment than is possible here of the study's qualitative comparative field methodology (both papers in this issue). Below we review the main protocols that guided the sampling, data collection, and analysis of the cases and evidence used for this paper."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Our sample includes 79 GENNOVATE village-level case studies:"},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":" 24 cases from Africa: Burundi (2 cases), Democratic Republic of the Congo (1), Ethiopia (8), Kenya (2), Nigeria (4), Rwanda (1), Tanzania (4), Uganda (2);"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":" 49 cases from Asia and Central Europe: Afghanistan (4), Bangladesh (6), India (15), Nepal (6), Pakistan (7), Philippines (3), Uzbekistan (4), Vietnam (4); and"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":" 6 cases from Latin America: Mexico (6). i"},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"Case selection was based on GENNOVATE's global sampling framework, which applied principles of maximum diversity sampling to introduce variance on levels of economic dynamism and of gender gaps in assets and capacities in the individual village cases chosen for the sample."},{"index":7,"size":162,"text":"In each research village, the field team conducted a total of 15 data collection activities with a methodology package of six instruments with semi-structured interview guides (Petesch, Badstue, and Prain, 2018). There were three focus group instruments: the first was conducted separately with poor women and men, the second with middle-class women and men, and the third with young women and men (six groups in each case and 471 in total). The fieldwork also includes nine semi-structured interviews in each case (711 in total) guided by three instruments: i) a community profile to gather background demographic, social, economic, agricultural, and political information about the case (requires key informants of both genders); ii) innovation pathway interviews with local people who are known for trying new things in agriculture (two men, two women); and iii) life story interviews (two men, two women). With strong advance coordination and support from a hired community organizer, most teams completed the fieldwork for a case within one week."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"All six focus groups in a village case conduct a variation of a ladder activity ii that captures perceptions of trends at the community level on agency or on wellbeing; and it is this data that we use to construct the community typology. Here we describe the different ladder activities in some detail as this is needed to understand the study methods and results to follow."},{"index":9,"size":304,"text":"In each case study, four sex-specific focus groups-two with adult members (ages 25 to 55) drawn from the middle class and two with youth (ages 15 to 24)-conduct a Ladder of Power and Freedom activity as the opening exercise. Rather than refer to the technical terms of agency or empowerment, facilitators use the more commonly known terms of power and freedom (also see Sen, 1999). Indicating the village to be the frame of reference, the facilitator shows a visual of a simple five-step ladder and asks the women's focus group members to consider the ladder step that best exemplifies the power and freedom of most village women (and the men's focus group considers their local men). The facilitator also explains that step 5 of the ladder indicates a significant capacity (and step 1 very limited capacity) to make independent decisions about important affairs in their life, such as \"where they will work or whether they will start or end a relationship with the opposite sex.\" Each focus group participant is then asked to write privately, on a small slip of paper, the step on the ladder where they believe most individuals of their own gender in the village are located. The facilitator collects and summarizes the ratings, and then guides a discussion on reasons for the steps identified. This is the end of the ladder activity for the two youth focus groups. The two middle-class focus groups engage in a further step of rating and discussing levels of agency 10 years ago. A summary statistic (change in agency = mean step nowmean step 10 years ago) is generated for comparing perceptions of change among the focus groups. A positive summary statistic indicates movements up the ladder and potentially a significant sense of empowerment if climbing a good distance to reach step 3 or higher."},{"index":10,"size":139,"text":"The Ladder of Wellbeing activity, conducted with the two focus groups of poor women and men (ages 30 to 55) in each study village, explores local perceptions of wellbeing and experiences with moving in and out of poverty. The facilitator begins the activity by asking focus group members to reflect on the characteristics of the \"best-off\" households in their village. Next, focus group members are directed to the bottom step of the ladder to describe the \"worstoff\" households. Then the focus group is free to add however many steps to the ladder as needed to capture the different wellbeing groups-and their corresponding traits-that are present in the village. During these testimonies, the facilitator records key traits of each ladder step on a flipchart for the group. Most ladders have three or four steps, although a few have more steps."},{"index":11,"size":165,"text":"Once agreement is reached on the ladder steps and traits, the focus group identifies the step at which local households are no longer considered poor, or their \"community poverty line.\" Next, the group works together to sort a pile of 20 seeds (provided by the facilitator) across the different steps which are representative of all the households in their community. The sorting exercise is then repeated to indicate the distribution 10 years ago. Following this, the activity turns to discussions about the assets and capacities of farmers at the different steps and the experiences of women and men in their communities with moving up, getting stuck, or falling on their ladder. The findings from sorting the seeds provide the basis for generating a summary statistic [moving out of poverty = (share poor 10 years agoshare poor now) ÷ (share poor 10 years ago)] to enable comparing perceptions of poverty dynamics across the focus groups and case studies. A positive summary statistic indicates perceived poverty reduction."},{"index":12,"size":258,"text":"As explained in the results section, the focus groups' ladder statistics on agency and wellbeing conditions and trends of their village provide the skeleton for the three-part community typologywith the most favorable statistics depicting the set of transforming cases and the least favorable statistics conveying the churning cases. Yet, the typology's construction and our interpretation of the different social processes that it registers are informed by GENNOVATE's conceptual framework, which expresses innovation processes as socially embedded in a local opportunity structure that is comprised of gender norms and other influences on local actors. In addition to the comparative statistics, the ladder method generates narrative data that contributes to a contextual analysis of mobility processes. As focus group members assess and explain the levels of and trends in perceived agency for their own gender, or the perceived change in poverty levels of their village (depending on the ladder), their narratives reveal some of the expressions of agency and wellbeing that are normative for the women and men in their local context. Alternatively, focus groups may also attest to perceptions of disempowerment or deepening poverty, depending on the ladder activity and their views. Our analysis of normative influences on local innovation processes and perceptions of wellbeing is also informed by evidence gathered from other modules of the data collections instruments. One module, for instance, engages focus groups in reflecting on and assessing local women's and men's experiences with and benefits from new cropping or livestock practices, ways of managing natural resources, and formal and informal agricultural networks and learning opportunities."},{"index":13,"size":125,"text":"Our findings are informed by qualitative comparative analysis that broadly involves working iteratively with two analytic procedures. The first employs \"variable-oriented\" measures that engaged the research team in identifying patterns in the numerical and narrative data generated from the ladder modules and other evidence gathered on agency, norms, and agricultural innovation. The second is the contextual \"case-oriented\" analysis that focuses on a specific village and is linked to analysis and comparison of normative influences on dimensions such as agricultural roles and decision-making (or agency) among the different social groups sampled in the case. We present three case studies that display case-oriented work. Petesch et al. (2018) provide additional discussion of sampling, recall, courtesy bias, translation, data triangulation, research ethics, and other common field research concerns."},{"index":14,"size":92,"text":"We agree with feminist critiques that the variability of gender norms and ingenuity of human agency to overcome constraints on behavior call for significant caution with comparisons or predictions from our evidence (e.g. Kabeer, 1999). Yet, it is possible to compare broad types of change that community members perceive on the Ladder of Power and Freedom, as well as on the Ladder of Wellbeing, and to do this within and across the diverse gender and social groups. However, our interpretations of narratives or ratings remain anchored to their focus group and locality."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"This paper employs GENNOVATE's conceptual approach and qualitative comparative data to build understanding of the normative conditions associated with inclusive agricultural innovation processes. This objective drew us to the ladder data on trends in local perceptions of agency and wellbeing to identify and learn from cases where focus groups consistently registered significant upward mobility on their ladders. How are these cases similar? And how do they differ-when compared with one another as well as with the wider set of cases? In addressing these questions, we uncovered patterns in our evidence that we present through the analytic framework of a threepart community typology."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"In most cases, focus groups from the same village observe differences in the agency and poverty trends of their community. To better account for the diversity of views among the different gender and social groups, we offer a community typology that is constituted by the complex and discordant ways that norms and agency typically interact on the ground. As discussed in Petesch et al. (2018a), the narratives generated by the ladder exercises are laced with strong normative dimensions, and when triangulated with other data gathered, enable assessments of the prevailing normative climate and the socially embedded ways by which gender norms interact with other circumstances in the lives of community members to accommodate and, most often, perpetuate existing asymmetries in power and access to opportunities."}]},{"head":"Most climbing their ladders","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Across the 79 case studies , a large majority of the village women and men who joined the middle-class focus groups report movement up their Ladder of Power and Freedom when compared to a decade ago; they now experience greater decision-making capacity over important affairs in their life. Additionally, a large majority of the poor focus groups observed households in their villages moving up and over the community poverty line on the Ladder of Wellbeing. Men's and women's upward movements on the Ladder of Power and Freedom is expected in part due to built-in structural dimensions in the ways in which gender norms and life cycle processes interact with agency (Petesch et al., 2018a). The favorable poverty trends observed by poor focus groups, moreover, parallel the wider positive trend in rural poverty for the Global South."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"iii"},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"Women indicate greater upward mobility on their Ladders of Power and Freedom than men, but they also often start from a much lower position. On average, across the 79 cases, women place themselves at a median of step 1.88 a decade ago while men rate themselves at step 3. The gender difference in ladder positions in the current period narrows greatly, however, with women rising to step 3 and men 3.6. The more limited climbing by men on their ladders is likely associated with the fact that adult men have been accustomed to making important decisions for generations; reinforcing their perceptions, moreover, is the relative stability of the gender norms that govern men's (agentic and dominant) roles in their household and village. Meanwhile, women's greater climbing on their ladders is seemingly reflective of their growing roles as decision-makers in their households and local economies, and mirrors evidence in the data that indicate an evolution toward more relaxed norms for women's roles than in the past. The youth focus groups do not assess trends, but their Power and Freedom Ladders showed limited variability with all medians at or very near step 3 for the current period across regions."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"The focus groups with poor women and men report substantial progress on poverty reduction in their communities. The median poverty level observed across the villages differ little by gender, ranging from 60 to 70 percent poor a decade ago and falling to 45 percent in the current period."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Overall, estimates of local poverty reduction of 20 percent or more can be found in 62 percent of the men's groups and 56 percent of the women's groups."},{"index":6,"size":495,"text":"The median statistics, nevertheless, mask significant variability in local perceptions of changes in agency and poverty. To provide a flavor of this variability, Tables 1 and 2 divide our cases into two sets. Table 1 presents the maximum, median, and minimum values for the set of ladder statistics from the cases where all six focus groups consistently observe favorable trends; while Table 2 presents this same range of values but from the cases with mixed ladder trends, or where the ratings from one or more of the six focus groups' summary statistics indicate a static or falling ladder trend (or a ladder position below step 2 if youth focus groups). When comparing the same focus groups in Tables 1 and 2, the maximum values are quite similar while the median and minimum values are in most every instance much lower in the set of villages with mixed trends compared to the set of villages with favorable trends. To ensure meaningful classification into the two sets, we applied fuzzy set logic (Ragin, 2000). With fuzzy sets, researchers apply both theoretical and substantive knowledge about their cases to calibrate the membership of a set and there is scope for ambiguity (or fuzziness) in \"whether a case is more in our out of a set\" (Ragin, 2008, p. 30). A case from the Morogoro region of Tanzania (Petesch et al., 2017, pp. 13-14), for instance, is included with the favorable set, although members from the men's middle-class group indicate, on average, a decline of -.40 on their Ladder of Power and Freedom (e.g. the minimum value for the first men's column in Table 1). Their average ratings indicate a decline from step 4.2 to 3.8 in the decision-making capacity of the village men. By way of explaining their fall on the ladder, some in the focus group express concerns for how local men's decision-making is being affected by the village women's growing agency and changing norms that are encouraging women to be more assertive and outspoken in their families. As is common in contexts with fluid norms, however, testimonies from other men in the focus group contest these changes, with one countering, \"The whole household waits for me to decide.\" Nevertheless, a rating of 3.8 is still quite near step 4 indicating a relatively high level of agency, and most of the other evidence from this case also argued for moving it out of the set with mixed trends. For instance, the middle-class women corroborate reports about their agency trends (from step 1 to step 3) and testify that when local women marry, now \"you can plan with your husband.\" Poor men and women also observe upward ladder climbs and poverty reduction in this case. In this way, the use of fuzzy sets better enabled us to sort the cases into the set that best represented the prevalence of ladder and other data that we had about the local normative climate and the overall trajectory of a case."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"The two tables, in fact, provide hints of how we exploited the variability in the ladder statistics to build and learn from the community typology. Table 2 conveys the stymied trajectories observed by the set of villages in our typology that we refer to as churning cases. A notion of churning comes from the poverty dynamics field, where it is used to convey findings that some households struggle with frequent movements in and out poverty (e.g. Hulme, Moore, and Shepherd, 2001)."},{"index":8,"size":32,"text":"As elaborated further below, we often find churning cases to be characterized by innovation and development processes that are excluding or providing very limited opportunities for a substantial segment of the community."},{"index":9,"size":115,"text":"Before completing the ladder specifications for the remaining two types of cases in the typology, we turn first to a case study from one of the eight transforming cases. This village offers valuable insights into the fluid and discordant gender norms that we often find on the ground and their relevance for who can access and benefit from promising local agricultural opportunities. On the one hand, the village's middle-class women speak to the relaxing and disappearing gender norms commonly seen in transforming cases; and yet, on the other, poor women's observations about their lives in this village depict the restrictive and excluding normative climate observed by one or more focus groups in a churning case."},{"index":10,"size":108,"text":"Case study: A ladder for some women, but not others The centuries-old village of Cheeda in Uttar Pradesh holds a population of 2,500 spread across three hamlets, with farmers cultivating paddy, wheat, and vegetables and tending buffalo and goat. More than half of Cheeda's population comprises smallholder farmers who belong to different castes, such as Kurmi (30 percent) and Baniya (30 percent). They enjoy relatively prosperous lifestyles compared to other social groups in the community who work mainly as agricultural laborers or other casual labor. Key informants report a new preschool and lower secondary school, government business subsidies, and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)."},{"index":11,"size":121,"text":"Sonam, whose story opens this paper, is from Cheeda. When explaining how she reached the top step on the Ladder of Power and Freedom, her testimony reveals how some gender norms relax while others remain restrictive. Sonam boasts about her initiatives with sharecropping, but also reports drawing strength from her five sons-who are now growing up, marrying, and helping to maintain the household, as gender norms prescribe in the village. Similarly, testimonies from the middle-class women's focus group show how their capacity to take decisions in their family has grown. In stark contrast, poor women observe the persistence of numerous vulnerabilities, closely echoing Sonam's reports about her past life and the constraints on her voice and abusive relationship with her husband."},{"index":12,"size":133,"text":"Women of Cheeda's middle-class focus group observe that on average they have climbed up nearly two steps on their Ladder of Power and Freedom to reach step 3.4. Among the 10 women who joined this group, all identify themselves as farmers, four report they are widows and six are married. By way of explaining the change on their ladders, the women refer to how they are now more educated and knowledgeable about their rights, and more assertive in their households. They describe a loosening of household hierarchies as in-laws \"don't try to control their daughters-in-law. Earlier this control was very rigid.\" Changes in women's roles in the village are also influenced by high rates of men's labor migration: \"When there are no men in the house then their wives can take certain decisions.\""},{"index":13,"size":142,"text":"Several women farmers of Cheeda are recognized as active and skilled wheat and paddy farmers who apply the latest seed technologies and hire labor when needed. Key informants estimate 80 percent of the local women farmers use tube wells to irrigate their land, and a quarter of sharecropping and rental transactions to involve women. Young women report great freedom for both unmarried and married women to move about their village independently and engage in small-scale trade. The women in their youth focus group ranged in ages from 16 to 22, all unmarried, and all but two had completed secondary school or higher. They position themselves on step 3.2 of their Power and Freedom Ladder, explaining, \"When our parents decide to send us to school they decided to empower us,\" and, \"[e]ducation has brought about a revolutionary change-we are wiser and more capable.\""},{"index":14,"size":101,"text":"Although they reside in the same village, poor women's testimonies reveal no such empowering processes in their lives. None of the 10 women in this group had attended school and all identify themselves as farm laborers. In discussions of gender equality, poor women explain that \"daughters have freedom, but daughters-in-law don't.\" Conceptions of power and freedom are often conditioned by the ways that an individual's household, life cycle, and socioeconomic positions intersect and evolve. When considering their role in moving their families out of poverty, a woman in this group reports their lives to be in the hands of their husbands:"},{"index":15,"size":37,"text":"Women's fate is decided when they get married. They live the way their husbands want them to. They don't have much in their control. They can fight and fight hard but that is all they can do."},{"index":16,"size":117,"text":"By fights, the woman is referring to previous testimonies of the drinking and gambling problems among the village's poor men-and the deep stress and vulnerability to abuse that this causes for the local women. Yet, somehow amidst family conflict and \"back-breaking\" farm work or brickmaking, some women in this focus group still report their lives to be improving: \"Today every family is able to afford at least one square meal a day,\" and, \"Now people have all become very hardworking.\" They want their daughters to be as educated as their boys, and speak of new lenders extending credit, self-help groups they belong to, and the limited opportunities offered by the 10 days of work annually with MGNREGA."}]},{"head":"A community typology framed by village trajectories","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"The discordant narratives from Cheeda about their normative climate open a window on the differentiated social processes that give rise to and sustain gender and social group inequalities. These same social processes also contribute to the variability in local perceptions of agency and norms. Although poor women's narratives from Cheeda express many challenges, they still estimate village poverty reduction at 20 percent; and the village's five other focus groups convey favorable conditions on balance and argue for classifying this case among the transforming communities. By comparison, poor women in the seven other transforming cases observe much better livelihood opportunities for themselves as well as local poverty to be disappearing far more quickly. Thus, while cases like Cheeda, or the one from Tanzania highlighted earlier, indicate the boundaries of the community typology to be fuzzy, the focus groups in each of the transforming cases nevertheless present evidence of a normative climate that is interacting with local opportunities in ways that are enabling a significant share of their village to make progress up their ladders."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"To select the set of transforming cases, we set challenging benchmarks that required all six focus groups conducted in a village to observe quite favorable trends (or status if youth). The criteria include:"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"i. both middle-class focus groups observe a climb of at least one full step up their Ladder of Power and Freedom;"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"ii. both focus groups with poor villagers observe poverty reduction of at least 20 percent, and;"},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"iii. both youth focus groups position themselves on at least step 3 of their Power and Freedom Ladder. iv Eight of our 79 cases met these criteria for the transforming set. The other two sets of villages in our typology comprise 39 climbing cases with ladders that all register at least some degree of upward movement (e.g. Table 1 above minus the eight transforming cases), and 32 churning cases with mixed ladder trends (Table 2)."},{"index":6,"size":178,"text":"Figure 1 provides an overview of the ladder statistics sorted by the three community types. The 10-year observation period captured in our evidence shows rapid change in the lives of women residing in the transforming set. Middle-class women in the eight transforming cases overall observe striking gains in power and freedom of nearly two full steps up their ladder and closing in on step 4; and poor women assess close to 60 percent of their village households moving from below to above the community poverty line on their Wellbeing Ladder. Middle-class men and poor men from transforming cases also consistently report stronger ascents on their ladders relative to the men from climbing and churning cases. At step 3.2, young women from transforming contexts observe a slightly higher median ranking on their Power and Freedom Ladders than all other youth groups. We did not find much variation in the youth ladder statistics, with median rankings of the 155 young men's and women's focus group, respectively, at 3.0 and 3.2 (transforming cases); 3.0 and 2.9 (climbing); 3.0 and 2.7 (churning)."},{"index":7,"size":385,"text":"More important than the numerical findings for each type of case, however, are the regularities in the normative conditions that the typology broadly registers. Some Uzbekistan and Vietnam climbing cases very nearly reached the transforming set, for instance. In climbing and churning cases alike, however, the narrative data make evident that different middle-class, poor, and young women are innovating in their rural livelihoods, but varied gender norms, depending on the context and social group, still limit their visibility, decision-making, physical mobility, resource control, and access to information, networks, extension services, and other opportunities. Alternatively, these cases may have men's ladders displaying only limited climbing, or stagnation and descent if a churning case, and this is usually related to economic difficulties or other circumstances affecting many men's perceptions of their authority position, decision-making or provisioning for their families. Gender norms for men have remained relatively stable and weigh heavily on men's sense of agency across the cases. Again, the numerical cut offs are not clear-cut; what is more revealing are the regularities in the normative conditions that the typology broadly registers. In Ilu Titun, a climbing village from Nigeria's Oyo State, women are the main vendors of their local weekly market, but they say they can only reach step 2 of their Ladder of Power and Freedom. They report their local market to be hampered by the bad feeder road to the village, and husbands who control their earnings and require them to work on their plots before the women tend to their own plots (Petesch et al., 2018a). Yet, Gbodomu, another research village in Oyo State, presents a transforming case where women's narratives still speak to some confining norms, but poor and middle-class women alike there perceive significant benefits from an expanding village market, and say \"everybody is into business now\" (poor women's focus group). Additionally, middle-class women report controlling farmland and now making enough money \"to allow us to enjoy the freedom to make major decisions.\" In short, in the climbing cases, women and men are generally perceiving enough normative latitude to exercise agency and take some risks to improve their livelihood activities-and ascend their ladders. In transforming cases, they widely observe numerous normative barriers relaxing and disappearing, leaps in their capacity to take important decisions and risks, and many village families escaping poverty."}]},{"head":"Churning contexts","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Villagers from churning communities speak to the saying that a chain is as strong as its weakest link. Even though it is frequently just one or two focus groups in a churning case that register falling or no change on their ladders, the remaining ladders from these cases often display more limited gains. These are the contexts where local gender norms and innovation and development processes are interacting in ways that are greatly constraining or disadvantaging a large segment of the village, and this is registering on one or more of the ladders as a descent or stagnation."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Perceptions of stagnant or impoverishing village contexts on the Ladder of Wellbeing should always be cause for concern; however, discouraging trends on the Power and Freedom Ladders also raise red flags because it is much more common for adult focus groups to perceive increased agency over the course of a decade as discussed above. In some cases, villages may be coping with processes of urbanization and agricultural change. A case from Chiapas, Mexico, for example, features a large town and commercial maize farms, and while women report favorable ladder trends and new opportunities for their entrepreneurship, middle-class men perceive they are stuck at step 3 and poor men observe rising poverty and a decline in job opportunities."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Women's ladder statistics more rarely sorted their communities into the churning set. One case of women expressing hardships, nevertheless, resides in Ethiopia's Oromia region (also see Petesch et al., 2017, p. 27). Poor women in this case display detailed knowledge of new seed technologies, chemical inputs, and cropping practices; however, they also report increased agricultural labor burdens with the new practices, continued domestic violence, failing crops, and rising poverty. Similarly, middle-class women's narratives speak to difficult lives and prevalence of restrictive norms:"},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"In my case when my husband leaves for the field I need to go with him. I have no one to do the household chores. When we return on the way back I need to collect firewood to make the fire and prepare food. If the food is not ready on time he will beat me. He never thinks I was with him the whole day. I also need to fetch water."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Men's narratives from churning cases, moreover, may also be laced with perceptions of powerlessness and despair. According to a 50-year-old farmer and father of eight who joined the Oromia village's poor men's group:"},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"Hopelessness is the most damaging effect that traps people below the poverty line. The community considers them poor, and they are discouraged about changing their life."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"Every community has its own culture of inequality, and our sample captured quite a few with bottom steps that crush agency."},{"index":8,"size":89,"text":"To better understand the conditions that enable women and men to escape from the bottom steps of their ladders, this paper casts a spotlight on the transforming cases, where many women and men indicate they are making empowering movements up their ladders and leaving poverty behind. Toward this end, we next present another case study of a transforming context. This time we broaden the spotlight to include narratives from the village men and their vital contributions to agricultural innovation processes that benefit from normative relaxation and greater gender equality."},{"index":9,"size":173,"text":"Case study: A minority village in the throes of good change Situated in the Vietnamese highlands and home to Thai ethnic minorities, Hom village has been experiencing rapid economic development. In explaining their movements on the ladders, men and women alike express appreciation for improved infrastructure that now better connects the village to the nearest town, electricity, and availability of running water. Work for pay, market activities, and mobility (using motorbikes) also increased for both women and men. Agricultural innovations that mainly include hybrid varieties of maize, but also of rice, longan (a tropical fruit), mango, and other crops, as well as modern equipment and chemical fertilizer, have considerably increased productivity and profits. Formal education is now the norm for both girls and boys. These changes reflect the Vietnamese government's economic reforms and other policy initiatives since 1986 to promote rural as well as urban development, referred to as Đổi Mới (Renovation), which seeks to create a socialist-oriented market economy and open the country to the outside world (Thinh, 2009;Knoedel et al., 2004)."},{"index":10,"size":111,"text":"Middle-class men say they have climbed from step 2 to 3.6 on the Power and Freedom Ladder and speak to recent economic developments that include the knowledge gained through agricultural demonstration sites, training, and workshops led by extension agents and agricultural input companies. These resources, and motorbikes that aid their mobility, enable them to increase their productivity, income, and confidence. Poor men perceive nearly half the village still in poverty but falling from 70 percent a decade ago. They consider that women and men should cooperate to lift their households out of poverty because when the \"husband and wife are not united, not working together\" households may remain trapped in poverty."},{"index":11,"size":143,"text":"Likewise, middle-class women attribute their quite similar climb from step 1.9 to step 3.6 to their ability to move around with the establishment of the new road, as earlier \"women could not ride a motorbike, did not know where to sell products, and depended on their husbands for everything. They could only stay home to do farm work and bring up children.\" Hom's women also attribute their increased power and freedom to how they are more educated and aware of their rights, and more assertive in their households. According to poor men and women, domestic violence has decreased in the village due to lower poverty levels, but also to the better implementation of legislation against domestic violence by a local security team and police officers, and to women's greater knowledge of their rights due to television, radio, and newspapers (poor women's group). v"},{"index":12,"size":100,"text":"Middle-class and youth focus groups in Hom village consistently present testimonies that convey men to be good husbands when they \"help their wife\" with household work and childrearing, and the poor and youth focus groups reflect directly on questions of gender equality and all consider that to be desirable in this case. Their statements resonate with the Vietnamese government's official discourse on gender equality, wherein women's and men's equal participation is central to socialist state development, and their shared responsibilities within the family-including household chores and childcare-are affirmed in the Constitution and in family law (Que 1996;Schuler et al., 2006)."},{"index":13,"size":128,"text":"Yet, community members temper their statements about gender equality. All focus groups consider men the \"pillar\" of the family, head of household, and main decision-makers. It is still \"strange for a wife to make more money than her husband\" (middle-class women), and women recognize that they have fewer opportunities than men to learn of and take a risk on a new agricultural practice. Nonetheless, despite these expectations, their narratives reveal a normative climate that is fluidly enabling some relaxation and change in women's and men's roles, decision-making, and opportunities within Hom's patriarchal context. In response to a hypothetical scenario about a man's ability to spend his inheritance on a motorbike against his wife's will, a middle-class man acknowledges his wife's agency and the value of cooperative gender relations:"},{"index":14,"size":49,"text":"It's . . . difficult to [spend my inheritance] without my wife's agreement because we are supposed to agree with each other. A motorbike is only worth it when she is on it with me. If I buy it [against her will], she might not ride it with me."}]},{"head":"Patterns of resource distribution","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"In this section, we compare community attributes that are common in each of the community types-transforming, climbing, and churning. Our evidence, from key informants and focus groups, reveals the importance for transforming contexts of public services, expanded markets, and men's labor migration. Central to processes, however, is a normative climate that is catalyzing greater gender equality and both women's and men's participation in and benefits from their village's agricultural innovation process, as this is the life blood of their economy. Embedded in this macro environment is the evidence we have garnered on community members' perceived power and freedom to be decision-makers and to move their households out of poverty. The transforming communities include two each in India (Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh) and Uzbekistan, and one each in Mexico, Nigeria, Nepal, and Vietnam. To be sure, India and Uzbekistan are countries that have been experiencing extremely rapid economic growth for more than a decade, while the other four countries have witnessed more moderate growth. Between 2004 and 2014, which is roughly the observation window for the study's recall data on trends, Uzbekistan's Gross National Income (GNI) grew by a median of 8.81 percent, India's by 7.98 percent, Vietnam's 5.72 percent, Nigeria's 5.71 percent, Nepal's 4.42 percent, and Mexico's 3.30 percent (World Development Indicators, 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":259,"text":"As shown in Figure 2, compared to the climbing and churning sets, transforming cases are more favorably endowed with various economic, social, and natural resources, such as electricity, daily markets, producer groups, and teenagers in school. Yet, it is important to indicate that in four of the six countries with at least one transforming case, there are also one or more churning cases. For instance, in the previous section we highlighted a case from Chiapas, Mexico that is prosperous compared to most cases but nevertheless sorted into the churning set. While agricultural and other development opportunities may be growing in countries with prospering macroeconomies, our data make evident that these favorable conditions are not necessarily widely shared in their countryside. One way we took stock of local gender norms affecting economic opportunities was to systematically ask poor men's and women's focus groups whether remunerated labor is \"common or not common\" among four types of women in their village: young unmarried women, young married women, older married women, and widows. Across the transforming cases, focus groups of both men and women largely observe paid work to be common for all classes of women. Among the men and women in the climbing and churning cases, an interesting pattern emerges where it becomes increasingly common for women to work for pay as they move through different life stages. Young married women are indicated to be the least likely to work for pay overall, with men in two-thirds of the churning contexts indicating that this type of woman does not work for pay."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"We also saw similar patterns of fluidity in norms shaping women's mobility. In a rating exercise, youth focus groups of both sexes from all but one transforming case assess that it is very common for women of their village to move about independently in public (e.g. at least six or more in every 10 local women). Young people report this in about half the climbing and churning villages. Likewise, compared to the other cases, in transforming communities, young people more often report that it is rare to marry before age 18."},{"index":4,"size":172,"text":"Key informant responses to gender-differentiated questions gathered to build community profiles largely corroborate the focus group observations (Figure 2). Key informants from transforming contexts observe that it is common for women of their village (i.e. ≥30 percent of local women) to take jobs as agricultural workers. In comparison this is common in only half the cases in climbing communities and less than 40 percent of churning ones. Similarly, in 75 percent of the transforming communities, key informants estimate that at least half of traders in the local market are women; while this is the case in roughly 40 and 50 percent, respectively, in the climbing and churning cases. Men's and women's temporary labor migration is also higher in the transforming communities compared to the others. Further, heavy male migration creates the need and resources for married women to access commercial farming opportunities, but the impacts of these processes remain variable. vi This links with reports that local women are more likely to have access to irrigation in transforming communities than women elsewhere."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Transforming cases are also more likely to have elected women as village leaders."},{"index":6,"size":262,"text":"To better understand how macro-structural changes, such as new government policy initiatives, and new codes of women's behavior operate, we systematically reviewed narrative data from an illustrative sample of focus groups in 22 of the 79 cases, including all eight transforming cases, eight climbing cases, and six churning cases. We selected cases that would provide strong contrasts in regional, country, and local contexts. Women across the transforming communities testify to greater freedoms as well as more diverse outlets to innovate in their rural livelihood activities and describe gaining more authority in the household. Although the historical and current circumstances in the transforming contexts vary, a normative climate which is becoming more inclusive for women and men alike to exercise agency ties them together, as well as greater livelihood innovation, improved public services, growing markets, and men's migration. But for one focus group with poor women in the transforming set, every focus group with middle-class and poor women in the eight cases describe local women engaged in new or increased agricultural and marketing activities and note that this work was both desirable and normatively acceptable. Among climbing and churning cases, these types of testimonies appear but with much less frequency. Even though different types of local women in climbing and churning cases are actively farming and vending, their narratives often associate agricultural innovation and breadwinning with men, and, if they mention women's experience with innovation, often it is accompanied with explanations of their normative role in provisioning food for the family or of different normative constraints that they face with their livelihood activities."},{"index":7,"size":94,"text":"Before moving to a discussion of the findings, we present one more transforming case where especially rapid social and economic change has taken hold. Middle-class women and men from this village position themselves on steps 4.3 and 4.4, respectively, on their Ladders of Power and Freedom-the combined highest levels among our cases. Moreover, poor women and men alike observe very rapid poverty reduction, at 57 and 67 percent, respectively, with poverty now seen to affect perhaps 10 to 15 percent of their village rather than one in three families, as in a decade ago."},{"index":8,"size":80,"text":"Case study: Where new thinking and resources spread widely Nodira sits in Uzbekistan's Andijan Province. Major market reforms, significant agricultural innovation, infrastructure improvements, and men's migration emerge as important factors in testimonies. The local women's contributions to transforming their village may also reflect the specific history of this region, where, during the Soviet era large numbers of rural women were employed in the public sector, and since then quotas and other measures have supported women's economic participation (e.g. Jayal, 2006)."},{"index":9,"size":123,"text":"When describing Nodira's strong and growing farm production and businesses, men and women both highly praise their government's new and simpler business registration procedures, tax incentives for rural businesses, loans for young people, and investments in women's enterprise development and skills. \"Simultaneously our thinking has changed,\" declares a member of Nodira's poor women's focus group. \"We understand that success in business depends on us, our skills and experience, and education and access to modern information about new technologies.\" Middle-class women relate how they sell more farm produce due to new roads and market infrastructure; and a young woman in her focus group declares, \"Mostly young girls are busy in our local markets and some girls are working in private bakeries and private mills.\""},{"index":10,"size":42,"text":"Our key informant, a woman community social worker with the mahalla (lowest level of government), estimates that approximately half of the local men continue to take advantage of lucrative temporary work beyond the village, often in Russia or Kazakhstan. As she explains:"},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"We [women] need to work and take matters into our own hands and head our households. This has had a very strong impact on the economic activity of women."},{"index":12,"size":63,"text":"With so many men abroad, the women say they are the ones managing the community's farms, going to their local mahalla to \"ask about new wheat technologies.\" They are active in the farming association and securing bank loans, as these help them to \"diversify their activities, such as by combining wheat, cotton, livestock, and dairy production,\" explain members of the middle-class focus group."},{"index":13,"size":45,"text":"These women, much like the women in the other transforming cases, are deeply engaged in their community's innovation processes. Especially insightful testimony about these catalytic processes and the benefits of gender equality for farming communities comes from a poor man in this village of Uzbekistan:"},{"index":14,"size":129,"text":"[Women] enjoy the same rights as men do. There is nothing bad about this. It's good. And the longer couples live together, they start to take decisions together related to household. It is also important to diversify household incomes and introduce new practices in crop production, innovations like [new] seedlings which will . . . [mature] much earlier and sell for a higher price; or the combined cropping of legumes with wheat which will increase soil fertility. All in all joint decision-making is good in cushioning some negative effects during unfavorable seasons. This helps the family to better manage available resources and control spending together, which is important in generating savings and creating some assets for buying a cow, building a barn, or even buying a home on mortgage."},{"index":15,"size":68,"text":"These types of close and cooperative gender relations likely have strong roots in many farming households around the world, but we rarely hear men reflect on them in our focus groups with their peers. Such expressions run counter to restrictive normative expectations that entitle men to control over women. In many cases we see members of men's focus groups aggressively holding one another to account for these norms."},{"index":16,"size":93,"text":"Meanwhile, testimonies from poor women in Nodira suggest that they, like middle-class women of their village, enjoy greater latitude than in most of the research contexts to withdraw from some of the normative expectations constraining their daily lives. They speak of exhaustion and repeat a local saying that they need \"40 lives\" to manage their responsibilities. But in the transforming communities, men openly acknowledge the importance of women's contributions, and a poor woman can confide in her focus group that in the rare times when her husband is cooking, \"It turns out tasty.\""}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Knight and Ensminger (1998, p. 105) offer a definition of social norms that calls attention to how they \"structure social interactions\" and \"determine in significant ways the distribution of the benefits of social life.\" The ladder data from each case study provide a window into these distributional workings of norms and how they differentially color perceptions of opportunities for exercising agency among the different gender, socio-economic and age groups that joined our focus groups. In Nodira, our evidence illuminates a highly beneficial transformation that may arise when an effective program of state decentralization interacts with a local normative climate that is becoming more inclusive and enabling diverse community members to contribute to and benefit from the agricultural innovation process underway in their rural economy."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In climbing villages our evidence reveals an excluding normative climate for some populations in the village where, depending on the social group, norms fluidly remain restrictive or relax to accommodate local women's and men's varying day-to-day interests and capacity to take decisions and mobilize resources. Gendered power relations, nevertheless, mean that these complex interactions between norms and agency most often benefit men and operate in ways that slow down or impede local transitions to more equitable gender norms. As discussed earlier, churning contexts typically present evidence of a significant share of a village perceiving exclusion from or being disadvantaged by their local development processes. These difficult circumstances may drive a relaxation of some gender norms, such as those shaping women's agricultural roles, while others remain restrictive."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"In transforming contexts, by contrast, we find extensive evidence pointing to a normative climate that is becoming more inclusive, enabling both women and men to seek out resources, take risks, try new things, and scale their ladders. Our comparative and contextual work with the transforming cases reveals the relaxation and change of diverse norms governing women's lives."},{"index":4,"size":146,"text":"Compared to climbing and churning cases, women and men alike in transforming contexts attest to greater freedoms for women to express their opinions, be mobile in their villages, manage commercial crops, and innovate with agri-processing and other entrepreneurial initiatives. Significantly, in addition to an inclusive normative climate, the agentic capacity of women is simultaneously being buttressed by infrastructure investments, growing markets, and men on the move to better jobs-a challenging mix that helps to explain why these catalytic processes are not found more widely in our data. Thus, what we can conclude is that the confluence of these favorable conditions appears to unleash broader mechanisms of social change that make local level institutions not only more inclusive but more effective, thereby fueling the accelerated trajectory of increased agency and poverty reduction. These are the transformative local-level social processes expressed at the heart of GENNOVATE's conceptual framework."},{"index":5,"size":180,"text":"Nevertheless, norms do not consistently move together even in our most thriving villages. We often find, for example, women's middle-class focus groups perceiving more scope for negotiating norms and accessing opportunities than poor and young women. In Nodira and Hom, testimonies portray men contributing to housework and care, while this was less apparent in Cheeda. Young people who joined our focus groups are more educated than their parents, and most aspired to professional jobs rather than agricultural futures (Elias et al., 2018;Muñoz Boudet, Petesch, and Turk, 2013). Still, two of the women in Cheeda's youth focus group display a more open mind: \"Traditionally men and women have performed different roles in agriculture but that is gradually changing,\" and, \"The younger generation is very keen on adopting new methods and machines.\" Indeed, our evidence shows that women along with men in the transforming contexts are perceiving significant opportunities in the technological and other changes underway in their village. In Hom, women speak of how new roads and use of motorbikes now enable them to access markets in other villages and towns."},{"index":6,"size":73,"text":"While women and men of climbing and churning cases also testify to using improved seeds that mature quickly, irrigation, chemicals, tractors, motorbikes and mobiles, these technologies have yet to fuel the accelerated development trajectories of the transforming contexts. Across the cases, the fluidity of gender norms poses opportunities as well as barriers to innovation, but our evidence makes clear that the spaces for negotiating and changing norms are greater in the transforming cases."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Before concluding, we reflect briefly on our ladder measures and research collaboration."},{"index":8,"size":126,"text":"Instruments that enable local people to assess and reflect together about the trajectory of change in their community provide powerful collaborative learning tools, both for study participants and researchers. To build the wellbeing ladders, focus groups of poor women and of men meaningfully detail and reveal their own gendered understandings of the culture of inequality. They describe processes of upward (or downward) mobility on their ladders that are grounded in \"concrete flows of people among clusters, especially clusters that differ significantly in dominance\" (Tilly, 2007, p. 55). The ladder tools are also useful because they enable some comparison, while narrative data provides a starting point from which to assess the normative climate that is shaping and being shaped by these flows in women's and men's agency."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Technological and institutional change is vital for agricultural villages to contribute to and benefit sustainably from opportunities in the wider economy (IFAD, 2016). GENNOVATE's concern for normative influences on agency, qualitative comparative methodology, and community typology contribute new approaches to conceptualizing agricultural innovation. By reaching out to learn from women and men, as well as from different socioeconomic and age groups in a community, we obtained a fresh and valuable perspective on the conditions that enable an accelerated trajectory of inclusive agricultural innovation. In the eight transforming cases, where all six focus groups observed significant empowerment and poverty reduction, we also found evidence of increasing gender equality and agricultural innovation combined with infrastructure improvements, expanded markets, and male migration. Yet, our findings across the wider set of cases align with studies indicating that gender equality does not necessarily improve with economic growth and poverty reduction (Kabeer, 2016;Kabeer and Natali, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"Some experts have long maintained that \"poverty is as much a cultural as a material phenomenon in even the poorest societies\" (Jackson, 1998, p. 80). However, prevalent conceptualizations of agricultural innovation, as well as of empowerment and poverty dynamics, continue to conceive of the challenge of gender equality as largely one of increasing individual or household assets or meeting basic needs. Our findings support Jackson's claim that draws attention to the cultural context and suggest that other analytic frameworks, such as GENNOVATE's, also have much to contribute to better understanding today's agricultural innovation challenges, as well as other critical development needs."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Perceptions of change in power and freedom and poverty reduction, focus group assessments by type of cases (316 focus groups, 79 cases) "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Selected community infrastructure, by type of cases (Key informants, 79 cases) "},{"text":"Table 1 . Range of ladder statistics from cases with consistently favorable trends   Ladder of Power & Freedom  Wellbeing Ladder Ladder of Power & FreedomWellbeing Ladder  (Change in agency, 94 middle-class focus groups) (Change in poverty, 94 poor focus groups (Change in agency, 94 middle-class focus groups)(Change in poverty, 94 poor focus groups  Men Women Men Women MenWomenMenWomen Maximum value 2.10 3.00 .83 .87 Maximum value2.103.00.83.87 Median 1.00 1.40 .38 .36 Median1.001.40.38.36 Minimum value -.40 .10 .05 .06 Minimum value-.40.10.05.06  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Range of ladder statistics from cases with mixed trends  (Maximum, median, and (Maximum, median, and  "}],"sieverID":"8a14dd5f-d17e-4880-94ef-028d2388de49","abstract":"This paper employs the concepts of gender norms and agency to advance understanding of inclusive agricultural innovation processes and their contributions to empowerment and poverty reduction at the village level. We present a community typology informed by normative influences on how people assess conditions and trends for village women and men to make important decisions (or to exercise agency) and for local households to escape poverty. The typology is comprised of three village typestransforming, climbing and churning with each type depicting a different normative climate and trajectory of change in agency and poverty levels. Across \"transforming\" villages with significant increases in people's agency and poverty reduction, we found a highly inclusive normative climate that is fueling gender equality and agricultural innovation, as well as infrastructural improvements, expanded markets, and male labor migration. The research, part of the GENNOVATE initiative, includes a qualitative comparative methodology and dataset of 79 village cases from 17 countries."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09d7f3dfb5564371fa62779fddf4d759","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/503f9518-10d1-465b-a9d8-ab290873532b/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":".~ CO~TROL IN CASSAVA SCREEflHlG OF NEII CHEPICALS USED AS PRE-EtlERGENT HERBlrIDES FOR CASSAVA AND EFFICIPKY OF \\yEED CO'HRrL \\","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"important for f1.rst per1.od uf growth l.n many crops, as to stop or reduce the competition between weeds and des~red crups However, there are some new chem~cal products from various compan1.es used as pre-emergent herbicides for var1.0US crops and even l.n cassava the correct ways and rates of appl1.cat1.on have not yet worked out for the latter crops For this reason, the present study was done to ident~fy some of these chemical products for pre-emergence w~th potential use as selective     "},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"-----------x .o o 0--.0 X .. )( ó.Jj ,,-O \" )'-0-0-0-0,<.-_____ fIQL~,,-,,\"_b\"J'\\~ ___ _ _ __ --;>( -x x x. x )(-l< )'1 Y. '\" ,<: x x ¡< x X )()( _ ... __ ]-lo. Y\"e~. ,,'{~r\"_\"-._I¡...2' 3_ \", -----.. -------x x >< y y >< '\" '\" ><--'< -x-x l( '\" \" '\" y. x-"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"The experiment has been done in Centro Internacional de Agricultura  Goal"},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"1 3"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"The control application of Karmex + Lazo wae made using the recommended doses only Goal     "},{"index":6,"size":3,"text":", , ,"},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"I \" , . ' , \""},{"index":8,"size":2,"text":", I"},{"index":9,"size":4,"text":", ' 1 ':-1"},{"index":10,"size":1,"text":","},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":",-,. ,,\""},{"index":12,"size":28,"text":"•1 ' \", j 11/ [ ' 1 1 I -, 1-1 __ 1,,1_, -T \",,,., -, --\" -¡ j! I \"-1-' -1 <l 'I',.,]r;¡ -, -t :"},{"index":13,"size":15,"text":":: _ I \" ' . ' -1 ' ¡1' 1 _ I::J 1_: 1:"}]},{"head":"¡_,IJ/I","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"'lrl' II,¡\"LI¡I-,,,, -\"'1'-:"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"'\""},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"1 ---., -\"-\"T--._~ -\" -1\"'~' -,•J¡-.j.T~',1 -,-\"- ji' I I / l '"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"• \"'1''' ,\":;:,,\\ ,,---\"..,.'-r r-"},{"index":5,"size":27,"text":"-\"'~\\t...   2 None of the new pre-emergent nerb1c1des showed such a considerable weed control percentage, when they were compared to a standard check even short1y after app11cation"},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"3 All the new pre-emergent herbicides at commercial recommended doses were less effic1ent in weed control, when they were compared to the standard check"},{"index":7,"size":135,"text":"In TabIe 1 and Flgure 11, weed control of twice the commerc1ally recommended doses of each new pre-emergent herbicide lS shown and compared to the standard check (Karmex + Lazo) Even though twice the commercially recommended doses was used, all new pre-emergent herblc1des showed lower weed control than the standard check at the normal rate during 49 days after application This trend was similar to that of commercially recommended doses, but the weed control percentage of each new pre-emergent were higher than with the cornmercial1y recommended doses At 14 days after app1ication new pre-emergent herbicides showed at least 51 6% and up to 88 3Y we~d control while the standard check  A final assessment of the products' weed control effect1veness and select~vity for cassava will be poss1ble when final root harvest is being carried out."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" herbic1.des and to test the eff1C1.ency of weed rontrol ~n cassava OllJECTIVES -Identify new chemicals for pre-emergence with potential use as selective herbic1.des in cassava -Test the weed control effic1ency and selectlvity for cassava relative design wlth main treatment = Doses snd sub-treatment herbicides ~ -:::\"\"'_.\"\"--' -100-10 kg/ha of N, P z ' 05' K 2 0 and Zn were appl:ted at plant:tng No application of fungic1de or insecticide THE FOLJOWING OBSERVATIONS WERE HADE 1-Damage iodex at 14-21-28-35-42-49 days after planting -seaIe 0-10 (O = no damage, 10 = death of pInnt) 2-Weed control percentage at 14-21-28-35-42-49 days after plantiog Scnle 0-100 (O = no control, 100 ~ complete control) Count of weeds separateIy for species (gramineae -broad leaf) "},{"text":" e o ,o o \" \" o o o é) \" )( o o o \" x --e ~.~l~ ~4 ~ e e ~ o ~ x o v V o \" ~ 6 o o o K )( \" o o o \" ~ o o o o ~ ~ o o o o x ~ '\" K K '\" x t y x \" \" y ~ x y x x )( _ _ ~-\"--._----~ -')l.-)I.. )<. x_)(. x ~ -J{ Jf. 7f. ¡r Y. )(.. x.. )(. )< x ) ( ------------~--~---: ~ ~¡j~ ~ : ; ~ :H~~ ~ : ; ~ C3 : ~ : ---~----_._--[ í __ ~-=-~~-__ --_-_ _ _ ~)<~; ~::: ~::: "},{"text":" '\"-¡ --~ ---/~~-'--\"'-1 _. L _ _ ~_ ..... ~ --,. , __ -c_' '>\"J -........... ~.--r-I I ,1 "},{"text":" T\"\"\"~'-l'---t-t -' --~.-'\"'t_ i __ l_ -....--,\"-__ 1 ... -, J _.;::..-r: -' ( '+í '1 I J ' I I I1 r ' r ,\"-' ~ -\"-\" ' j ---1 T, -' 1-+-' 1-\"' , 'Ii '1-: 1 ,--t. \"1 __ 1,,,_ ' , ' -\" • )~, 1 l ' ~ I _ I I I ' ,1 I I I 1 1 \"\" 1 I I I I I I ' , __ , _ _ , : ' =: _.!<~., 1 I 1 , ,,~ l ' ,\"',' 1 ('-, i ¡-: I i I I 1 1 I I I ! é , _ <' 1, I ¡J i .l. ~' I rt~, I L I ' íl I 11 I ~\\ ' ! ' ¡f I I ' l' 1 ' j ) , ~ ¡ -v r---\".J-'-,,~~L,;. 1_1 __ 1 _1 :1 1 +,-+~_I-L I\"'U~ tl\"J,~; 11 I I-L H1\" 1 "},{"text":"cassava 4 Higher doses of Goal, NC 20484 (Schering Ag) and MC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) showed higher damage ~ndex 3 AMOUMT OF BROAD ANO NARROW LEAF WEEDS/O 25 m 2 In Table 11 and TabIe IV, the average amount of broad and narrow leaf weeds 1n O 25 m 2 are shown No cIear resules were obta1ned from count1ng broad and narrow leaf weeds in the O 25 m 2 frame because of sampIing technique errors --Ne1ther new weeds germ1nat1on nor weed control could be clearly established by these data Nevertheless, a general impression of the existing weed population was derived from the counting shown in "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . Quantities in g or ce per plot of 30 m 2 P20S (TSP, 42% P20S) P20S (TSP, 42% P20S) K 2 0 (KCL, 50% K 2 0) K 2 0 (KCL, 50% K 2 0) Zn (ZnS0 4 , 20% Zn) Zn (ZnS0 4, 20% Zn)  "},{"text":"TABLE r . Weed control percentage of pre-emergent herbicide, in each applicated doses end time after epplicetion      , , , ,   I   I   (Reted %, by visual observation)   (Reted %, by visual observation)  Tropical, CIAT Cassava stakes were planted vertically on Ridges with 1   Tropical, CIATCassava stakes were planted vertically on Ridges with 1  1 :K 1 ID spacing on Hay 16, 1983 and 50-50-100-10 kg/ha of N. P20S'   1 :K 1 ID spacing on Hay 16, 1983 and 50-50-100-10 kg/ha of N. P20S' K 2 0 and Zn were applied at planting t~me Name of Commercial recommended doses were applied according to treatments after 2 days with the following Pre-emergent herblc~des Two times recommended doses Pre-emergent Days after application Days after applicat~on soil conditions sOll moisture was at field capacity, soíl temperature ranged from 29 to 32C at the time of applicatlon on Hay 19, 1983 The herbicide 14 21 28 35 42 49 14 21 28 35 42 49 14 Four times recornmended doses Days after appplication 21 28 35 42 49 K 2 0 and Zn were applied at planting t~me Name of Commercial recommended doses were applied according to treatments after 2 days with the following Pre-emergent herblc~des Two times recommended doses Pre-emergent Days after application Days after applicat~on soil conditions sOll moisture was at field capacity, soíl temperature ranged from 29 to 32C at the time of applicatlon on Hay 19, 1983 The herbicide 14 21 28 35 42 49 14 21 28 35 424914Four times recornmended doses Days after appplication 21 28 35 4249  evaluation was done as follows   evaluation was done as follows Goal -Weed control percentage was taken at 14-21-28-35-42 and 49 days aftar ~~ applicatlon by uSlng a scale 0-100 (O = no control, 100 = complete 50 O 50 O 48 3 48 3 43 3 43 3 85 O 81 6 75 O 71 6 71 6 68 3 95 O 95 O 95 O 93 3 93 3 3 Goal-Weed control percentage was taken at 14-21-28-35-42 and 49 days aftar ~~ applicatlon by uSlng a scale 0-100 (O = no control, 100 = complete 50 O 50 O 48 3 48 3 43 3 43 3 85 O 81 6 75 O 71 6 71 6 68 3 95 O 95 O 95 O 93 3 93 3 3 control) based an visual campan.son to the weedy cheek MBR 23709 2-S 56 6 53 3 50 O 45 O 40 O 36 6 56 6 55 O 48 3 45 O 36 6 31 6 78 3 76 6 71 6 68 3 60 O 6 control) based an visual campan.son to the weedy cheek MBR 23709 2-S 56 6 53 3 50 O 45 O 40 O 36 6 56 6 55 O 48 3 45 O 36 6 31 6 78 3 76 6 71 6 68 3 60 O 6 -Damage Index was rated at 21-28-35-42 and 49 days after application by MBR 20457 2-S 58 3 56 6 55 O 48 3 45 O 41 6 51 6 50 O 48 3 46 6 45 O 43 3 88 3 85 O 80 O 75 O 70 O 3 -Damage Index was rated at 21-28-35-42 and 49 days after application by MBR 20457 2-S 58 3 56 6 55 O 48 3 45 O 41 6 51 6 50 O 48 3 46 6 45 O 43 3 88 3 85 O 80 O 75 O 70 O 3 uSlng a seale 0-10 (O = no damage, 10 = death of pIant ) -Count oí weeds and non-controlled spec~es was done separately (Schering Ag) NC 20484 63 3 63 3 60 O 56 6 53 3 53 3 716 66 6 65 O 61 6 60 O 58 3 90 O 88 3 85 O 85 O 85 O O 2 (narrow-broad leaf) Jn a O 25 m frame placed at random on the NC 20484 plots (Fbc Ltd ,) 68.3 65 O 61 6 61 6 60 O 56 6 88 3 86 6 81 6 76 6 73 3 70 O 91 6 90 O 88 3 88 3 88 3 3 uSlng a seale 0-10 (O = no damage, 10 = death of pIant ) -Count oí weeds and non-controlled spec~es was done separately (Schering Ag) NC 20484 63 3 63 3 60 O 56 6 53 3 53 3 716 66 6 65 O 61 6 60 O 58 3 90 O 88 3 85 O 85 O 85 O O 2 (narrow-broad leaf) Jn a O 25 m frame placed at random on the NC 20484 plots (Fbc Ltd ,) 68.3 65 O 61 6 61 6 60 O 56 6 88 3 86 6 81 6 76 6 73 3 70 O 91 6 90 O 88 3 88 3 88 3 3 -Plant he1ght (CH) after planting was taken at 21, 28, 35, 42 and 49 days AIso, plant development was observed (to detaet poss1ble delay Mefluidide 2-S 46 6 41 6 36 6 33 3 25 O 21 6 65 O 61 6 53 3 45 O 41 6 33 3 83 3 81 6 76 6 75 O 73 3 3 -Plant he1ght (CH) after planting was taken at 21, 28, 35, 42 and 49 days AIso, plant development was observed (to detaet poss1ble delay Mefluidide 2-S 46 6 41 6 36 6 33 3 25 O 21 6 65 O 61 6 53 3 45 O 41 6 33 3 83 3 81 6 76 6 75 O 73 3 3 days to first ful1y expanded leaf) and plant perishablllty was Kermel< + Lazo 90 O 90 O 88 3 85 O 83 3 81 6 93 3 91.6 88 3 85 O 85 O 83 3 88 3 88 3 86 6 86 6 86 6 6 e days to first ful1y expanded leaf) and plant perishablllty was Kermel< + Lazo 90 O 90 O 88 3 85 O 83 3 81 6 93 3 91.6 88 3 85 O 85 O 83 3 88 3 88 3 86 6 86 6 86 6 6 e  assessed after one month by counting plant death in each plot   assessed after one month by counting plant death in each plot Remark !he control application of Karmex + Lazo was mede using the recornmended doses only  Remark !he control application of Karmex + Lazo was mede using the recornmended doses only  "},{"text":"TABLE 11  Name oí  Commercial recommended doses  Two time recommencled doses  Four time recoremended doses Name oíCommercial recommended dosesTwo time recommencled dosesFour time recoremended doses Pre-emergent herbicide 14 Days after aEEElication 21 28 35 42 49 14 Dals after aEElication 21 28 35 42 49 14 Days after aEl'l1cation 21 18 3S 42 Pre-emergent herbicide14Days after aEEElication 21 28 35 4249 14Dals after aEElication 21 28 35 4249 14Days after aEl'l1cation 21 18 3S 42  "},{"text":"TABLE 111 Amount  Name of  Commercial recommended doses   Two time recommended doses   Four time recommended doses  Name ofCommercial recommended dosesTwo time recommended dosesFour time recommended doses Pre-emergent herbicide 14 Dals after aEE lica tion 21 28 35 42 49 14 Dals after aEElication 21 28 35 42 49 14 Dals after al1Elication 21 28 35 42 49 Pre-emergent herbicide14Dals after aEE lica tion 21 28 35 424914Dals after aEElication 21 28 35 424914Dals after al1Elication 21 28 35 4249  "},{"text":" Remark The control application of Karmex + Lazo WaS made using the recommended doses only 5 17 O 20 3 19 6 21 6 130 14 O 4 3 4 3 7 O 4 6 4 3 5 6 9 O 7 3 12 O 13 O 9 3 9 3 517 O 20 3 19 621 6 130 14 O 4 3 4 37 O 4 6 4 3 5 6 9 O 7 3 12 O 13 O 9 3 9 3 MBR 20457 2-S 22 3 29 6 24 6 22 6 16 O 18 O 16 3 14 6 15 O 9 6 10 O 8 3 4 O 6 3 8 O 6 3 4 3 5.3 MBR 20457 2-S22 3 29 6 24 6 22 6 16 O 18 O 16 3 14 6 15 O 9 6 10 O 8 3 4 O 6 3 8 O 6 3 4 3 5.3           • \\      • \\ NC 20484                NC 20484 (Schering Ag) 8 6 8 3 9 3 8 O 7 O 8 6 4 O 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 O 2 O 1 3 3 6 1 6 2 3 2 3 1.6 (Schering Ag)8 68 39 38 O 7 O 8 6 4 O 2 6 2 6 2 6 2 O 2 O 1 3 3 6 1 6 2 3 2 31.6 NC 20484                NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) 7 O 8 6 4 O 7 O 5 O 6 3 2 6 1.3 1 3 2 6 2 3 2 3 O 3 O 3 O 3 l 6 O O (Fbc Ltd)7 O8 64 O7 O 5 O 6 3 2 6 1.31 3 2 62 3 2 3O 3O 3 O 3 l 6OO Mefluidide 2-5 15 6 9 6 16 3 7 3 9 3 6 3 2 3 5 O 7 6 2.6 4 6 4 3 6 3 2 6 3 6 8 O 1 O O 3 Mefluidide 2-5 15 69 616 37 3 9 3 6 32 3 5 O 7 6 2.64 6 4 3 6 3 2 6 3 6 8 O 1 O O 3 Karmex + Lazo O 3 O 3 O O O O O O O 3 O 6 O 3 O 3 O O O 1 3 O O Karmex + LazoO 3O 3OOOOOOO 3 O 6 O 3 O 3OOO1 3OO Weedy check 136 17 O 18 6 15 O 11 6 11 6 110 8 3 9 O 4 O 5 O 5 6 27 6 21 3 31 3 18 6 18.0 15 O Weedy check13617 O 18 6 15 O 11 6 11 6 110 8 3 9 O 4 O 5 O 5 6 27 6 21 3 31 3 18 6 18.0 15 O  "},{"text":"TABLE IV . of pre-emergent herbicide and weedy check (by counting weeds plants/O 2S m ) Name of  Commercial recomrnended doses  Two time recommended doses  Four time recommended doses Name ofCommercial recomrnended dosesTwo time recommended dosesFour time recommended doses Pre-emergent herbicide 14 Da~s after aEel~cation 21 28 3S 42 49 14 Da;¡rs after 8EElication 21 28 35 42 49 14 Dazs after aEElieation 21 28 35 42 49 Pre-emergent herbicide14Da~s after aEel~cation 21 28 3S 424914Da;¡rs after 8EElication 21 28 35 424914Dazs after aEElieation 21 28 35 4249 Goal 5 3 3 6 4 O 4 6 4 6 4 6 6 6   Goal5 33 64 O4 64 64 66 6  "},{"text":"TABLE VI Height  Name of Commereia1 recommended doses Two time reeommended doses  Four time recommended doses Name ofCommereia1 recommended dosesTwo time reeommended dosesFour time recommended doses Pre-emergent  Da~s after Elanting  Da~s after Elanting  Da~s after Elant1ng Pre-emergentDa~s after ElantingDa~s after ElantingDa~s after Elant1ng herbicide 14 21 28 35 42 49 14 21 28 35 42 49 14 21 28 35 42 49 herbicide142128354249 142128354249 142128354249 Goal   18 6 27 8 32 6 42 3 57 2 -18 1 26 7 36 2 48 9 56 4 -21 9 26 4 31 5 4S 6 54 4 Goal18 627 8 32 6 42 3 57 2 -18 1 26 7 36 2 48 9 56 4 -21 9 26 4 31 5 4S 6 54 4 MBR 23709 2-8  22 S 28 5 36 6 44 9 55 1 -21 3 25 4 35 4 45 6 54 9 -20 8 27 9 3S O 45 6 58 4 MBR 23709 2-822 S 28 5 36 6 44 9 55 1 -21 3 25 4 35 4 45 6 54 9 -20 8 27 9 3S O 45 6 58 4 HBR 20457 2-8 NC 20484 (She ring Ag)  20 8 18 4 28 5 35 5 47 8 55 8 -20 O 25 7 34 4 45.1 54 7 -19 3 26 3 33 4 43 4 59 2 24 8 33 O 43 9 55 6 -17 4 23 6 30 2 39 7 49 O -21 O 26 6 34 4 44 O 56 3 HBR 20457 2-8 NC 20484 (She ring Ag)20 8 18 428 5 35 5 47 8 55 8 -20 O 25 7 34 4 45.1 54 7 -19 3 26 3 33 4 43 4 59 2 24 8 33 O 43 9 55 6 -17 4 23 6 30 2 39 7 49 O -21 O 26 6 34 4 44 O 56 3 NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd)  18 6 25 8 35 5 43 2 53 2 -19 5 25 7 30 O 45 5 53 3 -20 7 27 3 32 6 48 5 56 2 NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd)18 625 8 35 5 43 2 53 2 -19 5 25 7 30 O 45 5 53 3 -20 7 27 3 32 6 48 5 56 2 Mefluidide 2-S  20 7 25 6 35 8 43 6 54 8 -19 2 23 9 33 1 41 1 50 8 -18 O 24 6 34 1 44 7 56 3 Mefluidide 2-S20 725 6 35 8 43 6 54 8 -19 2 23 9 33 1 41 1 50 8 -18 O 24 6 34 1 44 7 56 3 Karmex + Lazo Manual weed control  19 8 20 4 25 5 32 5 45 3 57 6 -20 5 24 9 31 9 47 3 55 5 -18 5 25.7 33 2 48 4 60 3 26 O 31 2 l¡8 5 58 2 -18 6 28 4 34 2 46 3 54 O -20 O 26 O 33 9 48 5 57 6 Karmex + Lazo Manual weed control19 8 20 425 5 32 5 45 3 57 6 -20 5 24 9 31 9 47 3 55 5 -18 5 25.7 33 2 48 4 60 3 26 O 31 2 l¡8 5 58 2 -18 6 28 4 34 2 46 3 54 O -20 O 26 O 33 9 48 5 57 6 Weedy check  19 3 26 7 35 7 44 3 49 6 -21 6 26 3 35 4 44 2 52 9 -22 3 26 6 33 5 44 1 53 9 Weedy check19 326 7 35 7 44 3 49 6 -21 6 26 3 35 4 44 2 52 9 -22 3 26 6 33 5 44 1 53 9 Remark 1 Karmex + Lazo, recornmended doses as a standard check          Remark 1Karmex + Lazo, recornmendeddoses as a standard check 2 At 14 dyas after p1anting, cassava's height was unable to measure, a11 stakes just started germination and 2At 14 dyas after p1anting,cassava's height was unable to measure, a11 stakes just started germination and  expanding 1eaves               expanding 1eaves  "},{"text":"TABLE VII Weed control for Cyperus spp by observarion and rating scale in sorne area of experiment with more pressure of Cyperus spp (between Replicat10n 11 and 111, in case of D which twice reco~~ended doses were applicated)  Name of   Da:;[s after aEElication  Name ofDa:;[s after aEElication Pre-emergent  14 21 28 35 42 49 Pre-emergent142128354249 Goal   2S O 15 O 15 O 10 O O O Goal2S O15 O15 O10 OOO MBR 23709 2-5 ~,' 20 O 10 O 10 O 5 O O O MBR 23709 2-5~,'20 O10 O10 O5 OOO MBR 20457 2-5  30 O 225 22 5 15 O 10 O 10 O MBR 20457 2-530 O22522 515 O10 O10 O NC 20484 (Schering Ag) O O O O O O NC 20484 (Schering Ag)OOOOOO NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd)  O O O O O O NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd)OOOOOO Mefluidl.de 2-5  O O O O O O Mefluidl.de 2-5OOOOOO Karmex + Lazo  O O O O O O Karmex + LazoOOOOOO The observation was mada under special cond1tion Wh1Ch high pressure of The observation was mada under special cond1tion Wh1Ch high pressure of Cyperus spp between Rep11cation 11 and 111 where twice commerc1al Cyperus spp between Rep11cation 11 and 111 where twice commerc1al recommended doses were appl1ed Weed control for Cyperus spp showed recommended doses were appl1edWeed control for Cyperus spp showed that 3 of the new pre-emergent herb1cides prov1ded sorne effects against that 3 of the new pre-emergent herb1cides prov1ded sorne effects against Cyperus spp which Were Goal wl.th 1 O kg Al/ha MBR 23709 2-5 and MBR Cyperus spp which Were Goal wl.th 1 O kg Al/haMBR 23709 2-5 and MBR 20457 2-5, both wl.th 2 O kg Al/ha Espec1ally MBR 20457 2-5 w1th 2 O kg 20457 2-5, both wl.th 2 O kg Al/haEspec1ally MBR 20457 2-5 w1th 2 O kg Al/ha showed more reduction of ~~ spp • when 1t was campa red to a Al/ha showed more reduction of ~~ spp • when 1t was campa red to a near-by weedy check      near-byweedy check       \\  \\  "},{"text":"Table 1 and Figure1show the control of the commercially recommended doses of pre-emergent herb1c~des as compared to a standard check (Karmex + Lazo) All new pre-emergent herbic1des showed lower check (Karmex + Lazo) All new pre-emergent herbic1des showed lower weed control percentage (21 6 -S6 6%) than the standard check (Karmex + weed control percentage (21 6 -S6 6%) than the standard check (Karmex + Lazo w1th 1 2 + 1 2 kg Al/ha) with an average control percentage of 81 6 Lazo w1th 1 2 + 1 2 kg Al/ha) with an average control percentage of 81 6 during the 49 days after app11cat~on After 21-49 days, weed control during the 49 days after app11cat~onAfter 21-49 days, weed control percentage of al1 pre-emergent herb1cides was dec11n1ng and lower than percentage of al1 pre-emergent herb1cides was dec11n1ng and lower than at 14 days after app11cation and products ranged from 46 6 to 68 3f weed at 14 days after app11cation and products ranged from 46 6 to 68 3f weed control compared to the standard check w1th 907 of weed control control compared to the standard check w1th 907 of weed control NC 20484 (Schering Ag) w1th 2 O kg Al/ha and Ne 20484 (Fbc Ltd) with 2 O NC 20484 (Schering Ag) w1th 2 O kg Al/ha and Ne 20484 (Fbc Ltd) with 2 O kg Al/ha showed h1gher percentage of weed control (63 3 -68 3f) than kg Al/ha showed h1gher percentage of weed control (63 3 -68 3f) than any other new pre-emergent herb1cide and kept levels of weed control any other new pre-emergent herb1cide and kept levels of weed control above 50% during the whole observation per1od, but not h1gher than the above 50% during the whole observation per1od, but not h1gher than the standard check (Karmex + Lazo) These results show that standard check (Karmex + Lazo)These results show that 1 In case of commercial recommended doses, NC 20484 (Schering Ag) and 1 In case of commercial recommended doses, NC 20484 (Schering Ag) and NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) both w1th 2 O kg Al/ha showed efflciencies for NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) both w1th 2 O kg Al/ha showed efflciencies for weed control h1gher than 50% and kept levels of weed control dur1ng weed control h1gher than 50% and kept levels of weed control dur1ng 49 days after app11catl0n  49 days after app11catl0n  "},{"text":" Table V, and the global effect of each herbicide in controll1ng e~ther hroad or narrow leaf weeds was realLzed no applicat~on oí herb~cides, weeds gerrnlnated and grew freely !bus, the weed population represents the naturally occur~ng In Table VI, plant height of cassava in each doses of pre-emergent herbicide, a standard check, manual weed control and weedy check ls shown for comparison No d~fference~ in plant height were observed according to the appl~ed doses and herb~cides at any of the observatíon dates Growth appeared normal ln all plots and height increased from 17 4 -22 5 cm at 14 days after appl1cation to 49 O -60 3 cm at 49 days after appl~catlon By general observation, the only difference that was found, was ~n g~rth of ~assava ~n the weedy check because of compet~t~on between cassava aud weeds Wlth longer per10da of competlt~on, sorne reduction oi growth and yield is to be expected 5 PLANT DEVELOPMENT (To detect poss~ble delay ~n daya to f~rst fu1ly expanded leaf) By observatlon ~t was found that there were no d~fferences in days to first fu11y expanded leaf in any of the doses or herblcides After 15 days from p1~nting, all treatments showed the f~rst ful1y expanded leave at the same day (Date of plant~ng May 16, 1983 -Day of fÁrst fully expanded leaf of al1 plots May 31, 1983) 6 PLAN! PERISHABILITY (After one month by counting plant death) All stakes were completely sprouted and aurv1ved Án all plots untl1 the end of the observation per10d of broad leaf weeds Goal showed more effectiveness against broad leaf weeds. -At twice the cornmercially recommended dose, some of the new herbicides prov~ded opposite results to the commercially recommended doses, but at four times the commercially recomrnended doses al1 of them showed a strong control of both broad and narrow leaf weeds MBR 2Q457 2-5 w~th 4 kg Al/ha aud Mefluid~de 2-5 w~th 2 kg Al/ha appeared to be interesting as select~ve herbic~des 1n cassava wh1ch provided considerable levela of weed control rang1ng from 68 3 to 73 3% during 49 days after appl1cation, but they were not better than the standard check (Karmex + Lazo w1th 1 2 + 1 2 kg Al/ha) Sorne observatLona on weed control showed efficienc1es of 3 new herbicides, Goal w1th 1 O kg Al/ha, MBR 23709 ?-S and MBR 20457 2-5 both with 2 kg Al/ha w1th regard to control of Cyperus spp Especially MBR 20457 2-S with 2 kg Al/ha showed more r weed coqtrol of Cyperus spp than the other chem1cals 34 29 30 33 -32 35 27 3429 30 33 -32 3527 At the commercLally recommended doses, 3 new pre-emergent herbicides were more effective against narrow leaf than broad leaf weeds MBR 23709 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha MBR 20457 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Schering Ag) or Fbc (Ltd) 2 O kg Al/ha and 2 new pre-emergent herb1c1des more effective on broad leaf whLch are Goal w1th O 5 kg Al/ha Mefluidide 2-S with O S kg Al/ha At twice the commerc1al rate, 2 new pre-emergent herh1c1des were MBR 20457 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd or Scher1ng Ag) with 4 O kg Al/ha and 3 new pre-emergent herh1cides were more effect1ve against broad leaf weeds ~rreria laevis Barreria laevls At four times the commercially recommended doses 5 new Mimosa pudica Cyperus ferax Mimosa pudlca Mefluidide 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha Euphorb~a hypericlfo11a Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia hypericifolia MBR 23709 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia h1rta Caperonia palustris Digitaria sanguina lis Euphorbia hirta Goal with 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fll1lformls Cyperus rotundus Digitaria sangu~nalis Ipomoea hederifolia EuphorbJ.a hirU Eleusina indica lpomoea congesta Cyperus ferax Eleusine indica Ipomoea congesta Sida acuta Leptochloa fl.lll.form1s Phyllanthus amarus Borreria laevis Leptochloa filll.formis Phyllanthus ama rus Cyperus ferax Amaranthus dub1US -~--Caperonia palustr~s -four tl.mes the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Phyllanthus ~~ -four t1mes the recommended doses 4 O kg Al/ha Cyperus rotundus Borreria laevl.s Amaranthus dub~us Compuesta sp -four times the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fill1farmis Phyllanthus ~~ Sida acuta Caperonia palustris more effect1ve against narrOW leaf weeds MBR 20457 2-S with 4 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Schering ag or Fbc Ltd) with 8 O kg Al/ha Mefluidide 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha The standard check (Karmex + Lazo with 1 2 + 1 2 kg AI/ha) showed a low amount of broad and O -14 O plants/O 25 m 2 narrow leaf weeds which were kept at O -1 3 and respectively The weedy check showed h1gh pressure of braad and narrow leaf weeds with numbers of broad leaf weeds 2 ranging from 4 O -31 3 plants/O 25 m and narrow leaf weeds from 5 6 -45 6 plants/O 25 m 2 _In conclusion, i t can be sa~d that 1 MBR 20457 2-5 and NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd or Schering Ag) have a clearly pronounced effect against narrow leave weeds although in sorne occasions, He 20484 showed a1so a remarkably good effectiveness against broad leave weeds 2 Some new preemergent herb1c~des gave opposite results at the h1gher applicat~on rates compared to the commercially recommended rate llowever, at the highest rate, both broad and narrow leaí weeds were strongly suppressed and a clear d~stinctlon between suppression of narrow and braad leaf weeds could not be made 4 WEEDS NOT CONTROLIED SPECIES BY INDIVIDUAL HERBICIDES IN DIFFERENT 2 MBR 23709 2-S -Commercially recommended doses 1 O kg Al/ha 3 MBR 20457 2-S -Commercially recomrnended doses 1 O kg Al/ha 4 NC 20484 (Schering Ag) -Commercially recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha 5 NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) -Commercially recommended dos es 2 O kg Al/ha 7 KA&~EX + LAZO (Standard check) with recommended doses 8. WEEDY CHECK* -(no control) 6 MEFLUIDlDE 2-$ -Commercially recommended doses O S kg Al/ha DOSES 1 Goal -Coromereially recommended doses O 5 kg AT/ha Narro\", leaf Leptochloa filliformis Echinochloa colonum -,--EleuSlne indica Dlgitaria sangulnalis Cyperus rotundus Cyperus fera\" Broad leaf lpomoea congesta lpomoea hederlfolia Euphorbia la rta Euphorbia hyperlclfolia Mimosa pudlca Borrerla laevis Caperonla ~alustris Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Phyllanthus ama rus -tWlce the recommended doses 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa filllformis lpomoea con gesta Digltaria sangulnalls Phyllanthus ama rus Cyperus rotundus Sida acuta Cyperus tera\" Portulaca oler~ Euphorbla hHta Euphorbia hyperlcifolla Solanum n1grum -four times the recommended dases 4 O kg Al/ha Cyperus ferax Borrería laevls Amaranthus dubl.uS Borreria laevls Narro\" leaf Leptochloa fil11formis Eleusine indica Cyperus rotundus Cyperus .fe~ax Digitana sanguina lis Sorgnum halepense -twice the recommended doses Leptochloa f111iformis Eleusine :md1ca Cyperus rotundus eyperus feral< Cynodon dactylon Digitaria sanguinalis Sorghuro halepense Broad leaf Phyllanthus ama rus Euphorbta E.irta Lupborbia hyperic1folia Borrer].a laevis Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Ipom~ con gesta 2 O kg Al/ha Phyl1anthus ~~!~ rporooea congesta rpornoea hederifol1a Euphorb1a h1rta Euphorbia hypericifo11a hírnosa pudl.ca Comrnelina d1ffusa Borrer!a laev1s Compuesta sp Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Caperonia palustris Narrow leaf Leptochloa fill'formis Eleusine indica Cyperus rotundus Cyperus ferax Cynodon dactylon D1gitaria sangu1nalis Broad leaf Phyllanthus ~~ Ipomoea heder~folia Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia hyper~cifolia Borreria laevis ----Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Compuesta sp Solanum sp -twice the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fillitorm~s Phyllanthus ama rus Eleus1ne indica Ipomoea congesta Cynodon dactylon ~uphorb~a h~rta Digitaria sangu~nalis Euphorb~a hyper~c1fo11a Cyperus rotundus Borreria laev~s Cyperus fera~ Portulaca ole~ S~da acuta Melopod1UID divaricatum Narrow leaf Leptochloa fill~formis Digitaria sangu~nalis Cyperus rotundus Cyperus fe~ Broad leaf Phyllanthus arnarus ¡pornoea congesta lpom~~ hederifol1a Emells ~enchlfolla Narrow leaf Leptochloa fLlliformis Eleusine indica Cynodon dactylon Digitaria sanguina11s Sorghum halepcnse Cyperus ferax 1 2 + 1 2 kg Al/ha Broad leaf Narro\", leaf Broad leaf Narrow leaf Broad leaf Phyllanthus ama rus Leptochloa filliformis Euphorbia hirta Narrow leaf Broad leaf Leptochloa f~lliformis PhylJanthus ama rus Portulaca oleracea --~.~-Eleu~ine indica Euphorb1a hypericifolia Leptochloa fill1formis lpomoea congesta Eleusine indica rpomoe\" congesta Solanum nJ.grum Cyperus rotundus Phyllanthus ama rus Eleusine !ndica Ipomoea hederifo11a Digitar~a sanguinalls rpomoea pederifolia Compuesta sp Cyperus ferax Ipomoea congasta Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia huta Cynodon da~lon Emel!a sonchlfolia rpomoe\" hederLfol~ Coromeli\"a dl.ffusa Borrer1a laev1s ~~ fe-,\"~ Euphorb1a hypennfolia Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia hlrta Berrería laevis Sida acuta -twice the recommended doses Leptochloa fl111formis Eleusíne indH::a Cyperus rotundus Phyl1anthus ama rus Cyperus ferax EuphorbJ.a hypericlfoha Euphorbla hirta -twice the recommended doses 4 O kg Al/ha llon:eria laevls Sorgbum halepense Borreria laevis Mimosa pudlca Leptochloa fil11formis Phyllanthus ama rus Mlmosa pudlca Portulaca oleracea Borr~ lae~ Amaranthus dub1US Eleusine indica Ipomoea congesta S1da acuta Sida acuta 4 O kg Al/ha \" Cyperus rotundus Cyperus ferax -four times the recommended doses Leptochloa filllformis Cyperus rotundus Phyllanthus ~~ Euphorbia huta Euphorbía ~~c~folia Dig1tar1a sangu1nal1s ¡pomoea heder1fol1a Caperonia palustris Mimosa pudlca Tiaridium indl.cum Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia h1rta ~aranthus dublUS Sida acuta Cyperus ferax Borrer1a laev:ls Caperonia palustris -twlce the reco~ended doses 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa filliformls PhyIlanthus ama rus Portulsca oleracea Compuesta sp rpomoea congesta Borrer~a laevis Caperon~a palustrls 8 O kg Al/ha Phyllanthus ~~ Euphorbia huta Cyperus ferax Portulaca oleracea ¡pornoes con gesta Borrerla laevl.s Melampodium d1var1catum Mlmosa pudiea cyperus ferax Borrer1a laev1s Euphorbia hirta Cyperus rotundus Euphorb1a h1rta Mimosa l!Edica EIeuslne indica Commellna diffusa lpomoea 20ngesta Digitarla sangulnalis Cyperus rotu\"dus EmeIia sonchlfolia Leptochloa fill1form1s Phyllanthus ama rus rpomoea hederlfolia -four times the recommended doses 8 O kg Al/ha Melampodlum divarlcatum At the commercLally recommended doses, 3 new pre-emergent herbicides were more effective against narrow leaf than broad leaf weeds MBR 23709 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha MBR 20457 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Schering Ag) or Fbc (Ltd) 2 O kg Al/ha and 2 new pre-emergent herb1c1des more effective on broad leaf whLch are Goal w1th O 5 kg Al/ha Mefluidide 2-S with O S kg Al/ha At twice the commerc1al rate, 2 new pre-emergent herh1c1des were MBR 20457 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd or Scher1ng Ag) with 4 O kg Al/ha and 3 new pre-emergent herh1cides were more effect1ve against broad leaf weeds ~rreria laevis Barreria laevls At four times the commercially recommended doses 5 new Mimosa pudica Cyperus ferax Mimosa pudlca Mefluidide 2-S with 1 O kg Al/ha Euphorb~a hypericlfo11a Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia hypericifolia MBR 23709 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia h1rta Caperonia palustris Digitaria sanguina lis Euphorbia hirta Goal with 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fll1lformls Cyperus rotundus Digitaria sangu~nalis Ipomoea hederifolia EuphorbJ.a hirU Eleusina indica lpomoea congesta Cyperus ferax Eleusine indica Ipomoea congesta Sida acuta Leptochloa fl.lll.form1s Phyllanthus amarus Borreria laevis Leptochloa filll.formis Phyllanthus ama rus Cyperus ferax Amaranthus dub1US -~--Caperonia palustr~s -four tl.mes the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Phyllanthus ~~ -four t1mes the recommended doses 4 O kg Al/ha Cyperus rotundus Borreria laevl.s Amaranthus dub~us Compuesta sp -four times the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fill1farmis Phyllanthus ~~ Sida acuta Caperonia palustris more effect1ve against narrOW leaf weeds MBR 20457 2-S with 4 O kg Al/ha NC 20484 (Schering ag or Fbc Ltd) with 8 O kg Al/ha Mefluidide 2-S with 2 O kg Al/ha The standard check (Karmex + Lazo with 1 2 + 1 2 kg AI/ha) showed a low amount of broad and O -14 O plants/O 25 m 2 narrow leaf weeds which were kept at O -1 3 and respectively The weedy check showed h1gh pressure of braad and narrow leaf weeds with numbers of broad leaf weeds 2 ranging from 4 O -31 3 plants/O 25 m and narrow leaf weeds from 5 6 -45 6 plants/O 25 m 2 _In conclusion, i t can be sa~d that 1 MBR 20457 2-5 and NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd or Schering Ag) have a clearly pronounced effect against narrow leave weeds although in sorne occasions, He 20484 showed a1so a remarkably good effectiveness against broad leave weeds 2 Some new preemergent herb1c~des gave opposite results at the h1gher applicat~on rates compared to the commercially recommended rate llowever, at the highest rate, both broad and narrow leaí weeds were strongly suppressed and a clear d~stinctlon between suppression of narrow and braad leaf weeds could not be made 4 WEEDS NOT CONTROLIED SPECIES BY INDIVIDUAL HERBICIDES IN DIFFERENT 2 MBR 23709 2-S -Commercially recommended doses 1 O kg Al/ha 3 MBR 20457 2-S -Commercially recomrnended doses 1 O kg Al/ha 4 NC 20484 (Schering Ag) -Commercially recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha 5 NC 20484 (Fbc Ltd) -Commercially recommended dos es 2 O kg Al/ha 7 KA&~EX + LAZO (Standard check) with recommended doses 8. WEEDY CHECK* -(no control) 6 MEFLUIDlDE 2-$ -Commercially recommended doses O S kg Al/ha DOSES 1 Goal -Coromereially recommended doses O 5 kg AT/ha Narro\", leaf Leptochloa filliformis Echinochloa colonum -,--EleuSlne indica Dlgitaria sangulnalis Cyperus rotundus Cyperus fera\" Broad leaf lpomoea congesta lpomoea hederlfolia Euphorbia la rta Euphorbia hyperlclfolia Mimosa pudlca Borrerla laevis Caperonla ~alustris Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Phyllanthus ama rus -tWlce the recommended doses 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa filllformis lpomoea con gesta Digltaria sangulnalls Phyllanthus ama rus Cyperus rotundus Sida acuta Cyperus tera\" Portulaca oler~ Euphorbla hHta Euphorbia hyperlcifolla Solanum n1grum -four times the recommended dases 4 O kg Al/ha Cyperus ferax Borrería laevls Amaranthus dubl.uS Borreria laevls Narro\" leaf Leptochloa fil11formis Eleusine indica Cyperus rotundus Cyperus .fe~ax Digitana sanguina lis Sorgnum halepense -twice the recommended doses Leptochloa f111iformis Eleusine :md1ca Cyperus rotundus eyperus feral< Cynodon dactylon Digitaria sanguinalis Sorghuro halepense Broad leaf Phyllanthus ama rus Euphorbta E.irta Lupborbia hyperic1folia Borrer].a laevis Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Ipom~ con gesta 2 O kg Al/ha Phyl1anthus ~~!~ rporooea congesta rpornoea hederifol1a Euphorb1a h1rta Euphorbia hypericifo11a hírnosa pudl.ca Comrnelina d1ffusa Borrer!a laev1s Compuesta sp Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Caperonia palustris Narrow leaf Leptochloa fill'formis Eleusine indica Cyperus rotundus Cyperus ferax Cynodon dactylon D1gitaria sangu1nalis Broad leaf Phyllanthus ~~ Ipomoea heder~folia Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia hyper~cifolia Borreria laevis ----Portulaca oleracea Sida acuta Compuesta sp Solanum sp -twice the recommended doses 2 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa fillitorm~s Phyllanthus ama rus Eleus1ne indica Ipomoea congesta Cynodon dactylon ~uphorb~a h~rta Digitaria sangu~nalis Euphorb~a hyper~c1fo11a Cyperus rotundus Borreria laev~s Cyperus fera~ Portulaca ole~ S~da acuta Melopod1UID divaricatum Narrow leaf Leptochloa fill~formis Digitaria sangu~nalis Cyperus rotundus Cyperus fe~ Broad leaf Phyllanthus arnarus ¡pornoea congesta lpom~~ hederifol1a Emells ~enchlfolla Narrow leaf Leptochloa fLlliformis Eleusine indica Cynodon dactylon Digitaria sanguina11s Sorghum halepcnse Cyperus ferax 1 2 + 1 2 kg Al/ha Broad leaf Narro\", leaf Broad leaf Narrow leaf Broad leaf Phyllanthus ama rus Leptochloa filliformis Euphorbia hirta Narrow leaf Broad leaf Leptochloa f~lliformis PhylJanthus ama rus Portulaca oleracea --~.~-Eleu~ine indica Euphorb1a hypericifolia Leptochloa fill1formis lpomoea congesta Eleusine indica rpomoe\" congesta Solanum nJ.grum Cyperus rotundus Phyllanthus ama rus Eleusine !ndica Ipomoea hederifo11a Digitar~a sanguinalls rpomoea pederifolia Compuesta sp Cyperus ferax Ipomoea congasta Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia huta Cynodon da~lon Emel!a sonchlfolia rpomoe\" hederLfol~ Coromeli\"a dl.ffusa Borrer1a laev1s ~~ fe-,\"~ Euphorb1a hypennfolia Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia hlrta Berrería laevis Sida acuta -twice the recommended doses Leptochloa fl111formis Eleusíne indH::a Cyperus rotundus Phyl1anthus ama rus Cyperus ferax EuphorbJ.a hypericlfoha Euphorbla hirta -twice the recommended doses 4 O kg Al/ha llon:eria laevls Sorgbum halepense Borreria laevis Mimosa pudlca Leptochloa fil11formis Phyllanthus ama rus Mlmosa pudlca Portulaca oleracea Borr~ lae~ Amaranthus dub1US Eleusine indica Ipomoea congesta S1da acuta Sida acuta 4 O kg Al/ha \" Cyperus rotundus Cyperus ferax -four times the recommended doses Leptochloa filllformis Cyperus rotundus Phyllanthus ~~ Euphorbia huta Euphorbía ~~c~folia Dig1tar1a sangu1nal1s ¡pomoea heder1fol1a Caperonia palustris Mimosa pudlca Tiaridium indl.cum Cyperus rotundus Euphorbia h1rta ~aranthus dublUS Sida acuta Cyperus ferax Borrer1a laev:ls Caperonia palustris -twlce the reco~ended doses 1 O kg Al/ha Leptochloa filliformls PhyIlanthus ama rus Portulsca oleracea Compuesta sp rpomoea congesta Borrer~a laevis Caperon~a palustrls 8 O kg Al/ha Phyllanthus ~~ Euphorbia huta Cyperus ferax Portulaca oleracea ¡pornoes con gesta Borrerla laevl.s Melampodium d1var1catum Mlmosa pudiea cyperus ferax Borrer1a laev1s Euphorbia hirta Cyperus rotundus Euphorb1a h1rta Mimosa l!Edica EIeuslne indica Commellna diffusa lpomoea 20ngesta Digitarla sangulnalis Cyperus rotu\"dus EmeIia sonchlfolia Leptochloa fill1form1s Phyllanthus ama rus rpomoea hederlfolia -four times the recommended doses 8 O kg Al/ha Melampodlum divarlcatum   Portulaca oleracea Portulaca oleracea ----Sida acuta Sida acuta Portulaca oleracea Portulaca oleracea ----Sida acuta Sida acuta   Caperonia palustris Caperonia palustris Caperonia palustris Caperonia palustris  "}],"sieverID":"231123fe-8f3c-4c5f-8740-7d0064a50674","abstract":"A Tongglum -D E Leihner Chemical weed control is well-known as the way to manage plant production for replacing manpower ~n a large produc~ng area and even ~n small fanns Pre-emergent herb1.c~de i5 luoked up to be use fuI and HERBICIDES 2,430 + 20% 2,916 stakes \" 12 1S KgN \" 26 41 Kg Urea"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a99378fb320a212f72e3370da4efaef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ca79a75-459f-415d-a6e3-5299d02cdb88/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Traduction: cApStAn/BLS Photo de couverture : Shutterstock.com Merci à la FAO qui diffuse ICT Update via le site internet e-Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table des matières et colophon","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Le pouvoir des communautés en ligne L e CTA vous souhaite la bienvenue dans ce numéro d'ICT Update consacré aux communautés en ligne."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Les communautés en ligne sont utilisées par un grand nombre d'organisations d'aide au développement et promeuvent un processus d'apprentissage collectif. Utilisées à l'origine par le secteur privé comme outil de gestion des connaissances, les communautés de pratiques (CoP) en ligne suscitent l'intérêt croissant du secteur du développement international. Le service Dgroups est actuellement l'une des communautés les plus actives avec plus de 700 groupes et 150 000 utilisateurs."}]},{"head":"Qu'est-ce qu'une communauté de pratiques ?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Elle se définit principalement par le fait qu'elle offre un forum de dialogue ouvert sur de nouvelles problématiques, ainsi qu'une plateforme favorisant le débat et l'échange de bonnes pratiques, de ressources, d'idées et d'informations entre des individus du monde entier se rassemblant librement, en personne ou virtuellement."},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Une CoP se caractérise par un apprentissage informel et mutuel, un espace de réflexion, des pratiques et ressources partagées, tout en préconisant une approche collective de résolution de problèmes par rapport à un sujet spécifique. Les CoP, initialement pensées comme des groupes fermés et limités à une région géographique bien définie, se sont transformées en un puissant outil de partage des savoirs et de collaboration entre des individus oeuvrant au sein d'une même organisation ou d'organisations différentes. Elles sont une source d'apprentissage et d'innovation, y compris dans le secteur agricole."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"La communauté Gestion des connaissances pour le développement (KM4Dev) a été créée en 2000. En octobre 2015, elle comptait déjà 4 226 membres dans le monde entier."}]},{"head":"La communauté de pratiques comme instrument d'apprentissage","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Créer des CoP efficaces et actives implique de respecter différents facteurs : l'empressement à participer à ce type de projet et la confiance régnant au sein de la communauté."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"En plus de faciliter les interactions entre les membres de la communauté, un facilitateur encourage la participation équitable de tous et fournit des informations utiles. Il s'efforce de comprendre les besoins et capacités de chaque membre pour déterminer les stratégies de soutien adéquates à mettre en place. Les informations sont donc filtrées et partagées dans le format le plus approprié, de manière à répondre aux besoins des participants."}]},{"head":"Le CTA et les communautés de pratiques","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Le CTA s'est engagé à renforcer les capacités de ses partenaires et réseaux pour qu'ils puissent mieux utiliser les CoP et faire progresser la sécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle dans la région ACP. Les Dgroups et le Web 2.0 participatif pour le développement (Web2forDev) sont deux exemples de communautés de pratiques utilisées par le CTA."}]},{"head":"Le pouvoir des communautés en ligne","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Les petits exploitants agricoles doivent absorber beaucoup d'informations qui impactent directement leur travail. Les communautés de pratiques renforcent leur capacité à influencer la recherche et l'élaboration de politiques, et améliorent leurs pratiques agricoles."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Dans le même ordre d'idées, le CTA collabore avec l'Organisation Panafricaine des Agriculteurs (PAFO) pour élaborer une plateforme en ligne afin de soutenir les discussions et l'échange d'information sur l'élaboration de politiques entre ses 250 membres. Les consultations par voie électronique ont aidé la PAFO à formuler des idées quant aux politiques à mener en rapport avec plusieurs thématiques générales avant leur présentation lors de la Conférence de l'Union Africaine. À l'issue de l'atelier « Renforcer la résilience au changement climatique » en 2012, le CTA a soutenu le développement d'une plateforme de connaissances en ligne pour la croissance verte du Groupe du fer de lance mélanésien (MSG)."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Le Réseau caribéen des productrices rurales (CANROP) a observé que les outils en ligne étaient un de leurs piliers."},{"index":4,"size":178,"text":"Les articles de ce numéro d'ICT Update illustrent l'effet de levier potentiel énorme que repr��sentent les communautés de pratiques. ◀ Isaura Lopes Ramos ([email protected]) travaille actuellement sur le projet de la révolution des données pour l'agriculture et la sécurité nutritionnelle dans le cadre du programme de gestion des connaissances et de la communication du CTA. Auparavant, elle gérait des projets de gestion des connaissances axés sur les communications pour les Nations unies, au Cap-Vert. Dans le cadre de la formation à distance de l'UNITAR, la participation à des forums de discussion limités dans le temps est obligatoire. En complément à d'autres activités et tâches obligatoires, elle favorise un niveau de participation acceptable car elle fait partie d'un mécanisme intégré au système de notation de l'UNITAR pour que les participants puissent bénéficier de l'Option de récupération de notes. Ce système permet essentiellement à un participant de réussir un module, même s›il ne dispose pas des points suffisants, dans la mesure où le facilitateur juge que ses contributions au forum de discussion sont assez substantielles pour récupérer les points perdus."}]},{"head":"Le pouvoir des communautés en ligne","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Animer des communautés en ligne -expérience d'un facilitateur","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Johnson Opigo décrit son expérience d'animateur de la Communauté de pratiques des Formateurs Web2forDev du CTA."}]},{"head":"Groupe de discussion Web2forDev","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"WEB2FORDEV DISCUSSION GROUP Le niveau d'activité est également déterminé par le temps de disponibilité et la charge de travail du module."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"Les participants sont souvent présents sur les forums de discussion quand ils suivent des modules faciles. Ils le sont moins lorsque les modules sont difficiles. Ce que je trouve positif dans le forum UNITAR, c'est que les discussions peuvent être très poussées. Les participants sont parfois véhéments lorsqu'il s'agit de remettre en question des hypothèses ou des conclusions et de donner leur opinion. Quand je pose une question hypothétique pour étendre le périmètre des conversations ou chercher à identifier les questions les plus importantes, et ainsi parvenir à une synthèse d'idées, les réactions pleuvent."}]},{"head":"Inciter à participer efficacement","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Tout cela ne signifie pas qu'il n'y a jamais eu de moments de calme. Quand cela arrive, j'utilise des émoticônes comiques, ou je fais une annonce séparée assaisonnée de l'humour approprié pour encourager la participation. Je lance parfois un concours d'écriture et décerne de magnifiques plaques commémoratives virtuelles aux gagnants. J'ai le plaisir de vous informer que ces stratégies se sont révélées magiques pour obtenir le niveau souhaité de participation."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Il existe une différence conceptuelle entre les échanges de la liste de discussion de la Communauté des formateurs Web2forDev et ceux des forums de discussion de l'UNITAR, ce qui a déterminé dans une large mesure le type d'enjeu auquel j'ai été confronté plusieurs mois durant. La Communauté de pratiques (CoP) des formateurs, comme son nom l'indique, est un moyen permettant aux formateurs d'atteindre les objectifs mentionnés plus haut. Malgré ces objectifs ambitieux, un membre peut décider de ne pas participer aux discussions, sans aucune répercussion le concernant. En tant qu'animateur attaché à la résolution des problèmes, le seul moyen dont je dispose pour gérer cette situation est la persuasion morale."}]},{"head":"Enseignements tirés","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Animer le forum des formateurs Web2forDev m'a donné l'opportunité Le pouvoir des communautés en ligne d'apprendre des choses utiles que je peux appliquer lorsque j'anime d'autres ateliers. Voici quelques-uns des enseignements que j'ai pu tirer :  "}]},{"head":"Des fondations prometteuses","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"La PAFO a été créée au Malawi, à la suite d'efforts communs de cinq associations régionales d'exploitants agricoles du continent africain. Ce processus de consultation continentale a mis en lumière le besoin d'organiser exploitants et producteurs agricoles, d'impliquer efficacement les membres dans cette action de sensibilisation, et de promouvoir leur participation dans l'élaboration et la mise en oeuvre de politiques continentales dans le domaine du développement agricole et rural. Depuis sa création, la PAFO a reconnu la valeur de la gestion des connaissances (GC) dans ses activités."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Depuis 2012, le CTA a collaboré avec la PAFO afin de créer une plateforme de connaissances et faciliter discussions et échanges d'informations stratégiques entre membres, en améliorant son site Web et développant un forum de discussion."},{"index":3,"size":64,"text":"Des débats en ligne ont aidé la PAFO à élaborer et formuler des analyses stratégiques sur différents thèmes généraux tels que l'acquisition de terres, l'incidence du changement climatique sur l'agriculture, ainsi que les liens entre les jeunes des milieux ruraux et l'agriculture. Ces idées ont finalement été présentées au cours du premier Briefing Continental Africain qui s'est déroulé à Yaoundé (Cameroun), en décembre 2013."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"À la suite de cette première expérience positive, un second débat en ligne a débuté en juin 2014, à l'occasion du 2 ème Briefing Continental de la PAFO, sur le thème « Révolutionner le financement des chaînes de valeur agricoles », lequel s'est déroulé en juillet 2014 à Nairobi, au Kenya."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Au total, 55 débats en ligne ont été générés sur des sujets tels que les principaux défis et opportunités des ORP concernant l'accès aux services financiers, et les actions que les exploitants peuvent entreprendre pour impliquer les acteurs du financement. Comme pour le 1 er Briefing stratégique Continental, les principaux résultats ont été présentés lors de la conférence, et les responsables de la GC ont pu présenter leur travail lors d'une réunion sur la gestion des connaissances."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"Dans le cadre du développement de la plateforme de connaissances de la PAFO, les associations régionales d'exploitants ont été aidées dans le développement de leur site Web et se sont assurées que leurs contenus soient disponibles dans la totalité du réseau. Le Roppa, par exemple, a remporté le prix du meilleur site Web d'une ONG au Burkina Faso. La PROPAC a connu la plus grande transformation avec la création d'une nouvelle plateforme Web, comme de nouveaux sites de médias sociaux, grâce au soutien du projet et à une formation dans le cadre du projet Web 2forDev du CTA."},{"index":7,"size":47,"text":"Tout récemment, l'équipe GC de la PAFO a été à l'origine d'une campagne massive sur Twitter nommée #includeagriCOP21, à l'occasion du 3 ème Briefing Continental de la PAFO, dans le contexte de l'édition africaine du Forum mondial pour l'innovation agricole (Global Forum for Innovations in Agriculture, GFIA)."}]},{"head":"Et pour l'avenir ?","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Renforcer les compétences de gestion des connaissances des associations d'exploitants, grâce à des initiatives telles que la création de la plateforme de connaissances de la PAFO, représente un moyen efficace de diffuser des informations pertinentes, de créer des espaces de dialogue et d'échanges, mais également de contribuer à créer un réseau de personnes et de développer les compétences nécessaires pour collecter les informations et favoriser la communication. ◀"}]},{"head":"Développer une plateforme en ligne pour les organisations d'exploitants agricoles en Afrique","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"L'Organisation Panafricaine des Agriculteurs (PAFO) a été établie en 2010 dans l'objectif d'organiser les exploitants et de défendre leurs intérêts, tout en promouvant des outils efficaces de gestion des connaissances. "}]},{"head":"Les femmes à l'avant-garde du partage des connaissances","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Gia Gaspard Taylor ([email protected]) est la présidente du Groupe de productrices rurales au Trinidad et Tobago Isaura Lopes Ramos ([email protected]) travaille actuellement sur le projet de « Révolution des données pour l'agriculture et la sécurité nutritionnelle » dans le cadre du programme du CTA sur la gestion des connaissances et la communication. Auparavant, elle gérait des projets de gestion des connaissances pour l'ONU au Cap-Vert, avec une spécialisation en communication. "}]},{"head":"Outils pour assurer le bon fonctionnement des Communautés de pratiques","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"C omment faisions-nous pour gérer les communautés en ligne avant l'avènement des réseaux sociaux ? À peu de choses près, comme de nombreux acteurs du développement agricole et rural s'y prennent encore aujourd'hui : au moyen de forums de discussion en ligne, via le courrier électronique."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Aujourd'hui, Dgroups.org est l'une des plateformes d'interaction en ligne par courriel la plus couramment utilisée. À l'origine, elle était exempte de publicités et offrait un forum aux organismes d'aide au développement pour faciliter les interactions entre leurs différentes communautés de pratique."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"Cette plateforme regroupe à présent plus de 700 communautés actives et quelques 150 000 utilisateurs oeuvrant pour des organisations internationales et intergouvernementales, des organismes gouvernementaux, des ONG nationales et internationales, ou encore des instituts axés sur les TIC et les connaissances. Chaque jour, plus Krishan Bheenick passe en revue différentes plateformes d'interaction en ligne pour l'échange d'information, depuis les plateformes de messagerie et les Dgroups jusqu'aux blogs de gestion des connaissances."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"de 400 000 courriels sont envoyés via les serveurs du service Dgroups, et plus de la moitié d'entre eux sont échangés avec des pays africains ou sur le continent africain."}]},{"head":"Comment fonctionne la plateforme Dgroups ?","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"La plateforme Dgroups se définit par le fait qu'elle associe les caractéristiques d'un forum de discussion à celles d'une liste de diffusion dans un même outil, avec l'avantage de permettre la création de sous-communautés au sein d'une même communauté. Dans la plupart des pays des régions ACP, le courrier électronique demeure le moyen de communication le plus répandu et le plus efficace."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"La plateforme Dgroups a été spécialement conçue pour des configurations à faible bande passante et des utilisateurs n'ayant pas un accès permanent au Web : elle convertit en liens les fichiers joints volumineux pour éviter l'obstruction des boîtes aux lettres électroniques personnelles. En outre, les documents partagés sont placés dans une « bibliothèque » accessible en tout temps à tous les membres de la communauté. Les nouveaux membres peuvent ainsi prendre connaissance des discussions précédemment menées au sein du groupe. Les médias sociaux contribuent clairement à renforcer la qualité des échanges et le service Dgroups s'y est adapté en proposant une interface Web. Le service est géré par un consortium de partenaires de développement (cf l'encadré dgroups. info), l'objectif étant que les différents projets utilisent Dgroups comme plateforme de communication, en plus des réseaux sociaux."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Quand il s'agit de communiquer des informations, le CTA et ses partenaires régionaux préconisent d'associer "}]},{"head":"Le blog KM4ARD (gestion des connaissances pour le développement agricole et rural)","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Dans la perspective de la gestion des connaissances (GC), les communautés de pratiques constituent des réservoirs de savoirs tacites et d'expérience dans un domaine particulier ou sur un sujet donné. Étienne Wenger, qui a formalisé le concept des « communautés de pratiques », présente un aperçu de la manière dont ce type de communautés partagent leurs connaissances (cf. http://bit.ly/1i5eIm1)."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Le CTA est également en train de mettre en place une communauté de pratiques relative à la gestion des connaissances pour le développement agricole et rural pour les acteurs ACP oeuvrant dans ce domaine (KM4ARD). L a KM4Dev est une communauté de pratiques réunissant des professionnels du développement, des décideurs politiques, et des chercheurs dans le domaine de la gestion et du partage des connaissances. La communauté possède une liste de diffusion principale sur le KM4Dev-l Dgroup, mais également 55 sous-groupes. Elle compte ainsi plus de 4 000 membres. Les sous-groupes se concentrent sur des thèmes spécifiques tels que les médias sociaux, les radios communautaires, et sur des villes ou pays spécifiques comme une communauté KM4Dev pour le Nigéria, Addis Ababa/l'Éthiopie et Nairobi."}]},{"head":"Bref historique des origines de la communauté","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"La communauté est née de deux ateliers en face à face organisés en 2000. Les participants souhaitaient poursuivre leurs échanges après l'atelier et ont demandé à la Bellanet Alliance (un réseau international d'organisations qui s'efforce de favoriser la collaboration internationale et régionale grâce à un meilleur usage des TIC) ainsi qu'au Centre de recherches pour le développement international de créer un forum électronique à cet effet."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"La liste de diffusion et le site Internet KM4Dev sont apparus à l'été 2000. Un groupe de volontaires a été lancé quatre ans plus tard afin d'apporter un soutien supplémentaire à la communauté et contribuer à répondre à ses besoins. Le groupe de travail comprend actuellement 15 membres de la communauté. Au fil du temps, la communauté KM4Dev a été soutenue et menée sur la base du volontariat, bénéficiant de l'appui financier ponctuel de plusieurs organisations de développement telles que la Direction du développement et de la coopération suisse (DDC) et le FIDA. Parmi les groupes de travail et les projets actuels figurent :"}]},{"head":"L'évolution de la communauté","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Le groupe de travail « renouvellement de la FAQ » : Ce projet vise à mettre à jour l'actuelle section FAQ du site Internet. Le projet vise à revoir les débats et les contributions des cinq dernières années sur le forum, puis à synthétiser ces informations sous la forme de connaissances enrichies qui serviront de base pour convaincre les spécialistes, les membres du personnel participant au projet, les chercheurs, et les décideurs politiques du bien-fondé de l'approche KM4Dev."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Projet « boîte à outils » : Le projet « boîte à outils » vise à concevoir, mettre en oeuvre, évaluer et favoriser une initiative collaborative. Son but est de créer un espace de partage au sein de la communauté KM4Dev qui encourage les professionnels à faire part de leurs expériences quant à l'utilisation des outils et des méthodes de partage de connaissances, à en apprendre plus sur les nouveaux outils, et à utiliser des ressources et du matériel à des fins de formation."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"Proposition pour la création de Stories4dev : L'objectif final est de créer une ressource ou « plateforme » interactive en ligne destinée aux professionnels du développement, offrant des outils téléchargeables, des espaces de discussion, des témoignages et d'autres ressources d'apprentissage."},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"La communauté KM4Dev organise, entre autres, des ateliers en face à face réguliers (au moins une fois par an) depuis 2000. Leur but est de réunir des professionnels du développement dans le but de débattre et partager leurs idées et expériences relatives à la gestion des connaissances."},{"index":5,"size":76,"text":"Le Journal de la gestion des connaissances pour le développement sert de relais à la communauté. Lancé en 2005, il en est aujourd'hui à sa 11 ème année de parution. Publié trois fois par an, il aborde des cas pratiques ainsi que des analyses et des recherches relatives au rôle des connaissances dans les processus de développement. Il constitue un lieu de débats et d'échanges d'idées entre professionnels, décideurs politiques, universitaires et activistes du monde entier."}]},{"head":"Comment fonctionne cette plateforme ?","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Trois types de communications sont généralement postées sur le site de la communauté."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Un document ou une question spécifique peuvent faire l'objet du débat. Le récent document de la Banque mondiale sur le faible taux de consultation de ses rapports en PDF sur son site Internet constitue un exemple intéressant. Il a suscité de vifs débats sur la valeur des rapports conventionnels comme modèles efficaces de partage des connaissances. Les conclusions des débats ont été résumées sur le wiki par un des participants."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Le deuxième type de communication est normalement constitué par l'annonce d'un événement, une offre d'emploi, ou la recherche d'un consultant."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Le troisième type est constitué par une demande d'information contextuelle sur un outil ou une approche spécifique de la gestion des connaissance."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Si vous souhaitez participer aux discussions, veuillez envoyer un email sans texte à : [email protected]. ◀ "}]},{"head":"Témoignages","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Les communautés de pratiques au XXIe siècle","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Comment les communautés de pratiques ont-elles évolué au fil des années, notamment avec l'avènement d'Internet et des médias sociaux ? B : Les communautés de pratiques en elles-mêmes n'ont pas changé, mais les moyens dont elles disposent pour se rencontrer se sont multipliés. Il y a donc davantage d'espaces de rencontre."}]},{"head":"E :","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Internet et les médias sociaux permettent de faire abstraction du temps et de l'espace. Les communautés de pratiques peuvent désormais réunir des personnes issues du monde entier, quel que soit le fuseau horaire concerné. C'est là la grande différence par rapport au passé."}]},{"head":"B :","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Les communautés de pratiques sont donc de plus en plus diversifiées. Selon moi, c'est de cette manière qu'elles ont évolué."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"E : Je pense que les communautés de pratiques ont aussi évolué autrement. Internet a également permis à de nombreux individus de participer à certaines communautés de manière plutôt passive. Ainsi, les membres, même s'ils ne sont pas particulièrement actifs, bénéficient toutefois de l'apprentissage."}]},{"head":"Il est par conséquent devenu plus simple d'établir une communauté de pratiques ?","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"B : C'est devenu plus compliqué. La mise au point de la technologie adéquate ne suffit pas à établir une communauté de pratiques, laquelle repose sur ses membres et l'apprentissage."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"E : Certaines personnes ouvrent une communauté de pratiques sans aucun membre. Si personne ne participe, ce n'en est pas une. Ceux qui initient les communautés de pratiques négligent donc parfois cette tâche sociale essentielle consistant à réunir des participants."}]},{"head":"Pourriez-vous décrire le rôle joué par les communautés de pratiques dans la gestion des connaissances ?","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":219,"text":"E : Historiquement, les communautés de pratiques préservaient le domaine de la gestion des connaissances. Puis ce domaine est devenu fortement axé sur les technologies, avec notamment la création de bases de connaissances. Le concept de communauté de pratiques a permis de repenser les connaissances en tant que propriété des communautés, résultat des échanges entre les individus. À la fin des années 1990, ce nouveau mode de pensée a réellement transformé le domaine de la gestion des connaissances en offrant une nouvelle manière de conceptualiser l'existence des connaissances au sein d'une organisation. Il a également transformé les communautés de pratiques dans le sens où les individus se sont rendus compte qu'ils pouvaient eux-mêmes créer et développer leur propre communauté. Elles sont devenues beaucoup plus actives qu'au départ. Désormais, les participants deviennent de plus en plus des acteurs. E : En fin de compte, la création de valeur est la solution. L'important est de rassembler des personnes ayant besoin les unes des autres pour apprendre. De plus, cela génère de la valeur pour l'organisation qui nécessite également des capacités pour atteindre ses objectifs. Les technologies peuvent également représenter un danger. Elles permettent de rassembler les individus plus facilement, mais ceux-ci font moins attention aux raisons pour lesquelles ils devraient rejoindre les communautés de pratiques, et à ce qui est créé. "}]},{"head":"Vous souhaitez lancer une CdP ?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Le Programme des Nations Unies pour le développement (PNUD) a élaboré un Guide des communautés de pratiques qui explicite la conception, la promotion, la facilitation et le suivi des CdP. En tant que part intégrante de la stratégie institutionnelle sur les échanges de connaissances, il explique comment lancer une CdP : Une étape de conception : il s'agit de définir le thème traité, la stratégie, la raison de l›existence de la CdP et son cadre opérationnel. À cette étape, on détermine les types de participants ainsi que les moyens de communication et le plan d'action."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Une étape de motivation : l'objectif consiste à recruter des participants, promouvoir l'échange des connaissances, et établir des canaux de communication et de collaboration. On cherche à ce moment-là à parvenir à un consensus sur le thème et le plan d'action, et à élaborer des activités pratiques en vue d'inciter les membres de la CdP à agir."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Une étape de développement : on encourage ici l'utilisation, la génération et la diffusion des connaissances."},{"index":4,"size":33,"text":"Une étape d›évolution : la CdP est reconnue et devient un point de référence dans le thème traité. Ici, les stratégies sont réexaminées, de nouveaux objectifs fixés, et un nouveau plan d'action élaboré."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Source : UNDP Knowledge Management Unit (KMU) from the Regional Centre for Latin America and the Caribbean"}]},{"head":"CdP Ag2Nut","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"La Communauté de pratiques « Agriculture-Nutrition » (CdP Ag2Nut) a été créée en 2010 pour faciliter la communication et les discussions sur le lien entre agriculture et nutrition. La CdP est conçue comme un espace virtuel de partage des ressources afin de communiquer avec la communauté du développement au sens large. Le groupe a participé à l'organisation de réunions en face à face à divers événements et conférences, organisé des débats thématiques périodiques par téléconférence, et diffusé les résultats des études, des outils et du matériel d'orientation."},{"index":2,"size":43,"text":"La CdP regroupe plus de 1 000 membres d'ONG nationales et internationales, d'organisations des Nations unies, d'universités, d'institutions bilatérales et d'organisations de bailleurs de fonds, ainsi que des professionnels indépendants de 73 pays. Vous pouvez rejoindre cette communauté en vous inscrivant sur https://knowledge-gateway.org/ag2nut  "}]},{"head":"CdP sur la réduction des pertes alimentaires","index":29,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"« Communities of practice: a brief introduction », d'Étienne Wenger ➜ http://goo.gl/ySvQ6S « Communities of practice: linking knowledge, policy and practice », de Simon Hearn et Nancy White ➜ http://goo.gl/h3Uesl « Using a dgroup with third party online applications for a cause », de Giacomo Rambaldi ➜ http://goo.gl/3KijyC « Communities of practice: questions and answers » -Banque mondiale ➜ http://goo.gl/32dx1J « Dgroups: development through dialogue » ➜ www.dgroups.info Gestion des connaissances pour le développement (Knowledge management for development) ➜ www.km4dev.org Comment mettre en place une communauté de pratiques ? Conseils pour créer une CoP dynamique : • Identifier les communautés motivées et les domaines présentant un potentiel. Interroger quelques membres potentiels pour cerner les problématiques, identifier un facilitateur, et établir les canaux de communication et de collaboration adéquats. • Déterminer la proposition de valeur stratégique de la CoP et lister les attentes en matière de résultats. Réunir un noyau de participants et amorcer le processus de lancement. • Motiver régulièrement les membres de la CoP en les faisant échanger leurs connaissances. Le facilitateur joue un rôle essentiel : il doit gagner la confiance des membres de la CoP et chercher à élever le niveau des discussions. • La valeur réelle d'une CoP est fonction du sentiment d'appartenance, d'engagement et de responsabilité de ses membres. • Une fois une certaine pertinence acquise, la CoP doit définir de nouveaux objectifs. Seule la création d'un nouveau cycle de production de connaissances et d'un nouveau plan d'action fondé sur l'évaluation des résultats, enseignements tirés, et évaluation des besoins des membres activera leur intérêt. Source : les manuels « Cultivating communities of practice. A quick start-up guide » d'Étienne Wenger et « Communities of Practice Guide » du PNUD. Chris Addison ([email protected]) est Coordinateur du programme Sénior pour la gestion des connaissances au Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (à Wageningen, aux Pays-Bas) où il dirige les travaux relatifs aux données ouvertes pour un projet sur l'agriculture et la sécurité nutritionnelle. Il gère également le portefeuille de projets pour la région du Pacifique. "},{"text":" faisant l'avocat du diable, • Poser des questions simples : c'est magique, • Maintenir la communication dans le groupe pour éviter les silences et, • Fournir des résumés de sujets longuement débattus. Malgré les difficultés décrites plus haut, entretenir et animer une liste de discussion pour la Communauté de formateurs est très bénéfique. Pour les entrepreneurs, l'impact positif de Google Maps for Business sur leurs activités a parfaitement été mis en avant lors de l'une de nos discussions. Certains participants, moi y compris, ont eu pour la première fois l'opportunité de placer leurs entreprises sur la carte mondiale, à la vue de tous. Le partage d'information et d'expériences est donc l'un des points clés du forum des formateurs. Les membres échangent librement des informations et donnent des conseils importants pour gérer des situations difficiles en formation, améliorer des méthodes de formation, découvrir des approches différentes en vue d'enseigner le contenu du cours, et favoriser l'entente entre les formateurs. À mon sens, le forum des formateurs a largement atteint ses objectifs. ◀ Johnson Opigo ([email protected]) est consultant TIC, formateur, concepteur et développeur Web et cadre dans la construction civile. En tant que consultant, l'Institut des Nations unies pour la formation et la recherche et le Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale comptent parmi ses clients. M. Opigo est installé à Abuja, au Nigeria. "},{"text":" sur cette terre était de devenir un agent du changement dans la région du monde où je vis, en influençant une personne à la fois ».Au cours de la Semaine caribéenne de l'agriculture 2014, le CANROP a fait la promotion active du réseau grâce à des présentations aux ministères et aux médias, et des démonstrations de ses produits sur son stand d'exposition. Cette semaine a également donné l'occasion de rencontrer des décideurs et bailleurs de fonds, lesquels ont aidé le CANROP à s'étendre sur de nouveaux marchés.En 2015, à l'occasion de la Journée internationale de la femme, avec pour thème l'autonomisation des femmes, le CANROP a présenté une série de « messages visuels » destinés à faire reconnaître le travail des productrices agricoles caribéennes vivant en milieu rural. Depuis, le travail du CANROP a davantage mis l'accent sur le rôle important joué par la gestion des connaissances comme outil favorisant l'information et le partage d'expériences entre ses membres.Obtenez plus d'informations sur les femmes du CANROP sur la page Facebook du CANROP, et suivezles sur Twitter grâce au hashtag #weareCANROP. ◀ "},{"text":" messagerie électronique et réseaux sociaux. Le Forum pour la recherche agricole en Afrique utilise Dgroups à grande échelle pour coordonner les multiples communautés et leurs sousgroupes, dont des sous-communautés subrégionales, nationales, thématiques et institutionnelles. Des discussions sont en cours avec la Division des ressources terrestres du Secrétariat de la Communauté du Pacifique visant à faire une communauté Dgroup de son Réseau de politique forestière et agricole du Pacifique, qui serait alors subdivisée en plusieurs sous-communautés (pour de multiples discussions en ligne). De même, les nouvelles communautés en réseau regroupant les services de vulgarisation et de consultation en milieu rural coordonnés par le Forum mondial pour le conseil rural pourraient également utiliser Dgroups comme plateforme de partage d'informations. "},{"text":" Dans le cadre de son programme de Gestion des Connaissances et Communication (GCC), le CTA a mis Partenaires de la Fondation Dgroups en place un blog qui rapporte les histoires et expériences associées à la mise en oeuvre de la KM4ARD dans la région ACP. #KNOWvember a été lancé fin 2014, au mois de novembre (le mois où on analyse et on sensibilise aux initiatives prises en gestion des connaissances). Ce blog est mis à jour régulièrement avec des nouvelles et ressources en ligne sur la gestion des connaissances pour le développement agricole et rural (KM4ARD). Plus de 50 récits relatifs à des expériences en gestion des connaissances dans les pays ACP figurent actuellement sur le blog KM4ARD. Les différentes ressources élaborées par le CTA au cours des dernières années sont également détaillées sur le portail, la dernière en date étant l'adaptation de l'instrument d'analyse de la gestion des connaissances permettant aux individus d'auto-évaluer leurs compétences en GC. Cet outil permet également à l'utilisateur de recevoir un retour d'informations quant aux résultats et ressources qu'il pourrait utiliser pour combler les lacunes. Il suffit de s'inscrire sur le blog KM4ARD pour avoir accès à l'analyse de la gestion des connaissances. Outils d'apprentissage en ligne Le CTA a également élaboré un ensemble d'outils de formation Lien connexe Knowledge Management and Organisational Learning: An International Development Perspective. An Annotated Bibliography par Ingie Hovland Annotated Bibliography par Ingie Hovland ➜ http://goo.gl/ijuOJ8 Krishan Bheenick ([email protected]) est Coordinateur de programme Sénior pour la gestion des connaissances au Centre technique de coopération agricole et rurale (à Wageningen, aux Pays-Bas). pour sensibiliser à la Gestion des connaissances en matière de développement agricole et rural. Ces outils seront proposés lors des ateliers régionaux de formation prévus en 2016. Les participants aux ateliers de GC seront regroupés au sein d'une communauté Dgroups pour pouvoir continuer à partager leurs expériences dans les différentes régions ACP. La communauté de pratiques observera également d'autres communautés existantes afin de comparer les différents points de vue et faire part de ses interactions aux autres communautés. Le CTA fait également partie des 13 institutions qui élaborent un ensemble d'instruments d'apprentissage en ligne sur la gestion de l'information et des connaissances, le « Kit de ressources pour la gestion de l'information » (IMARK). Le principal objectif de cette initiative partenariale d'apprentissage en ligne est de développer les capacités des particuliers et de soutenir les institutions du monde entier à gérer efficacement l'information. Ce consortium d'institutions propose un éventail gratuit de modules d'apprentissage en ligne disponibles sur CD-ROM en français, anglais et espagnol, et à télécharger. Chaque module IMARK se concentre sur un domaine spécifique de la gestion de l'information. Les modules ont été conçus par des experts, en faisant appel aux méthodes d'apprentissage en ligne les plus récentes, et offrent un environnement interactif permettant d'avancer à son propre rythme. ◀ "},{"text":" Cummings ([email protected]) -Fondatrice éditrice et actuellement éditrice en chef du Journal de la gestion des connaissances pour le développement -a plus de 20 ans d'expérience dans le domaine de la gestion de l'information et des connaissances, en particulier dans le secteur du développement international. "},{"text":" Le plus important est que les membres aient une préoccupation particulière et reconnaissent qu'ils la partagent avec les autres personnes assises autour de la table. "},{"text":"B: Et si les individus ne voient pas l'intérêt de se réunir, alors aucune confiance ne sera jamais portée aux interactions, et il n'y aura aucun attachement au dialogue. Quel est le lien entre l'apprentissage et l'identité humaine ? E : Il est certain que l'appartenance à une communauté au sein de laquelle on peut prétendre être un membre compétent permet de contribuer à la construction d'une identité liée à ce domaine. B : Aujourd'hui, les individus ont une identité liée à la communauté de pratiques, mais vivent dans des régions où il existe de nombreuses communautés de pratiques rivales. Ils doivent alors choisir celles auxquelles ils appartiennent, et déterminer les efforts à déployer pour chacune d'entre elles. Les individus construisent donc leur identité en fonction de ces différentes communautés de pratiques. E : L'un des aspects principaux qui caractérisent la vie au XXI e siècle est la rupture du parallélisme entre identité et communauté. Je pense que cette rupture fait désormais porter une certaine partie du fardeau de l'identité à l'individu. C'est comme vivre dans un petit village, il y a 300 ou 400 ans. Imaginez que vous passez toute votre vie dans ce village à exercer une seule pratique et que la communauté effectue une grande part de votre travail. La communauté définit ce que signifie être quelqu'un de bien, le sens de la possession de connaissances. Tout ce que vous avez à faire, c'est appartenir à cette communauté, et vous héritez alors de tout le travail qu'elle a accompli. Mais si vous ne cessez de voyager d'une communauté à l'autre, la signification du savoir et des connaissances devient alors beaucoup plus personnelle. Je pense que toute la notion d'identité a été négligée dans le domaine de la gestion des connaissances. La gestion des connaissances doit impliquer tout notre être car comprendre l'importance de posséder des connaissances nécessite beaucoup de travail de la part des individus qui doivent apprendre à déterminer les éléments auxquels ils doivent faire attention. Il s'agit d'un aspect particulièrement intéressant du XXI e siècle. Si personne ne participe, ce n'est pas une communauté de pratiques. Bev et Etienne Wenger-Trayner ([email protected]) sont théoriciens et consultants dans le domaine de l'apprentissage social. Les compétences de Bev englobent à la fois la conception des structures d'apprentissage, la facilitation des processus et des activités, ainsi que l'utilisation des nouvelles technologies. Etienne fait figure de chef de file dans le domaine de l'apprentissage social et des communautés de pratiques. Il a participé à la rédaction de L'apprentissage contextualité, l'ouvrage qui a forgé le terme « communauté de pratiques ». plateforme réunissant différentes parties prenantes du secteur agricole actives sur le continent africain. Elle leur permet d'apprendre et de partager de manière collective, notamment sur les questions relatives aux meilleures pratiques agricoles qui utilisent le contenu local. La plateforme partage nouvelles et informations sur des connaissances locales et globales. L'ajout de contenu se fait en cliquant sur les liens « cultures » ou « bétail ». Les pages existantes peuvent être modifiées en cliquant sur le lien « Edit with form » (Modifier avec formulaire), en haut de chaque page. Une équipe peut aider les contributeurs potentiels à télécharger du contenu, voire s'en charger à leur place. ➜ http://goo.gl/2EmvTQ Le cas d'Ayuda Urbana Ayuda Urbana désigne une constellation de communautés de pratiques axées sur les questions et défis urbains en Amérique centrale, au Mexique, et dans la région des Caraïbes. Cette initiative représente un exemple clair des efforts consacrés au soutien de 10 mégalopoles de l'Amérique centrale pour améliorer l'expertise technique et l'efficacité des municipalités dans la formation de communautés de pratiques. Parmi les membres du réseau figurent des maires et leur personnel, ainsi que des spécialistes dans divers domaines de la gestion et du développement urbains. Huit sujets ont été sélectionnés par les participants, et sept communautés de pratiques (CoP) ont été lancées, réunissant 128 membres issus de 10 villes. Plusieurs d'entre elles se sont portées volontaires pour coordonner une ou deux communautés de pratiques. Elles ont chacune été lancées à l'occasion d'un atelier de deux jours, organisé par une équipe de la Banque mondiale. Un outil basé sur le Web a été mis à disposition pour poursuivre les conversations en ligne et rester en contact. Un site Internet a de plus servi de répertoire. ➜ http://ayudaurbana.org Dispatches PAFPNet Le Réseau de réflexion sur les politiques agricoles et forestières du Pacifique (PAFPNet) est un réseau régional qui contribue à relier les peuples du Pacifique en facilitant le partage d'expériences. Le PAFPNet renforce la communication et l'engagement des parties prenantes et encourage les débats ouverts et constructifs. Ces derniers permettent de partager les informations aux niveaux local, national, régional et international, et d'améliorer la coordination des activités. Chaque pays et territoire du Pacifique a un Point focal national qui facilite et coordonne le réseautage national. Les membres du réseau ont accès à différents types d'information sur des questions relatives aux politiques agricoles et forestières, telles que des communications sur la recherche et le développement ou des événements régionaux et internationaux, des mises à jour sur des activités nationales et régionales et sur l'évolution des politiques agricoles et forestières, des documents politiques nationaux et régionaux, ou encore des informations sur les membres et experts du réseau et des informations sur des réseaux, organisations et groupes liés à tous les niveaux, ainsi que leurs coordonnées. Le PAFPNet favorise également les initiatives de renforcement des capacités concernant les processus politiques agricoles et forestiers. ➜ http://www.spc.int/pafpnet Liens connexes ➜ http://goo.gl/3Y3WkD ➜ http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu ➜ https://dgroups.org ➜ http://web2fordev.net ➜ http://cap-net.org "},{"text":"La Communauté de pratiques (CdP) sur la réduction des pertes alimentaires joue le rôle d'organisateur global et d'intégrateur des connaissances relatives à la réduction des pertes post-récoltes. Elle offre une plateforme facilitant les liens et les échanges d'information entre parties prenantes et réseaux, ainsi qu'entre projets et programmes pertinents. Mise en oeuvre par la FAO, le FIDA et le PAM, cette plateforme comprend des informations contextuelles, des nouvelles pertinentes, des événements, des forums de discussion en ligne, des ressources (bibliothèques, bases de données…) et des liens vers des partenaires. Un certain nombre de formations et modules d'apprentissage en ligne sur la gestion post-récolte sont également disponibles sur la plateforme. Si vous souhaitez rejoindre la CdP sur la réduction des pertes alimentaires, veuillez suivre le lien suivant http://www.fao.org/food-loss-reduction/register/en/ et cliquer sur « register ». ➜ http://goo.gl/VOOAdP UNDP KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT UNIT (KMU) FROM THE REGIONAL CENTRE FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN Mon nom est Marthe MONTCHO. J'ai 26 ans. Je suis titulaire d'un Diplôme d'Études Approfondies (DEA) en Sciences Agronomiques option Management des Ressources Animales. J'ai aussi une Maîtrise Professionnelle en Sociologie-Anthropologie. En Octobre 2013, lorsque je m'engageais dans le partage d'information des activités des femmes agricultrices du Bénin à travers mon blog, je n'avais pas une grande maîtrise de l'usage des réseaux sociaux. Aujourd'hui, ma communauté en ligne m'offre un réseau de professionnels de l'agriculture qu'un réseau de partage de connaissances soutenu par le Web 2.0 ou qu'un réseau de partage des compétences (avec des individus ou institutions indépendants) ne pourraient pas obtenir. Mon rôle de modératrice de groupe de discussions en ligne m'a permis d'obtenir beaucoup d'informations et d'en savoir plus sur divers thématiques et spéculations agricoles.Marthe Montcho nous raconte comment elle a créé son blog au Bénin pour mettre en valeur les innovations agricoles et accroître la visibilité des femmes dans le secteur de l'agriculture. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"jamais être présomptueux avec des collègues formateurs : ils savent ce qu'ils font, • S'attendre à l'inattendu : un sujet dont je ne pensais même pas qu'il ferait une étincelle a généré une véritable tempête de réactions ! • Féliciter les contributeurs, même si   communauté. Le défi consistant à communauté. Le défi consistant à  tenter des techniques de conversion tenter des techniques de conversion  pour qu'ils deviennent également pour qu'ils deviennent également  des commentateurs, des commentateurs, l'implication est faible ou timide,  l'implication est faible ou timide, • Apprendre à laisser les autres  • Apprendre à laisser les autres prendre les rênes dès que possible,  prendre les rênes dès que possible, • Demander l'aide de collègues  • Demander l'aide de collègues formateurs dès que vous êtes Stratégies pour stimuler la formateurs dès que vous êtesStratégies pour stimuler la à court d'idées, participation de groupe à court d'idées,participation de groupe • Ne jamais être découragé par une Il existe des stratégies que j'ai apprises • Ne jamais être découragé par uneIl existe des stratégies que j'ai apprises faible participation : des membres avec le temps en animant et facilitant faible participation : des membresavec le temps en animant et facilitant silencieux peuvent être d'excellents des conversations. Ayant découvert de silencieux peuvent être d'excellentsdes conversations. Ayant découvert de lecteurs de posts, et donc constituer première main que l'un des principaux lecteurs de posts, et donc constituerpremière main que l'un des principaux une part importante de la défis des discussions en ligne est une part importante de ladéfis des discussions en ligne est  l'absence d'implication de membres l'absence d'implication de membres  dans des conversations approfondies dans des conversations approfondies  visant à susciter des résultats visant à susciter des résultats  productifs, ces stratégies ont été productifs, ces stratégies ont été  efficaces pour moi. efficaces pour moi.  "},{"text":" Je suis au coeur de l'actualité agricole aux niveaux national, régional et mondial. Je vais à la rencontre de l'information et des innovations agricoles, j'actualise mes connaissances pour mieux faciliter et intervenir sur les groupes de discussion. Cette expérience m'a permis de perfectionner ma connaissance des outils et stratégies de réseautage (technologies numériques et sociales adaptées), et d'acquérir une solide expérience dans le partage de connaissances via Internet et les réseaux sociaux. 'objectif de mon blog est de mettre en lumière toutes ces innovations, et de donner une visibilité aux femmes du secteur de l'agriculture et de l'agroalimentaire. Elles boostent le développement agricole, assurent la sécurité alimentaire, réalisent un excellent travail. Elles méritent d'être promues. Je pense enfin que les femmes et les TIC soutiennent le développement agricole. D'où mon blog l'agriculture au féminin. Il existe aussi des groupes de femmes productrices artisanales d'huile rouge de palme qui ont bénéficié de dons de motopresse de noix de palme. Ceci a réduit leur travail manuel et amélioré leur production. De même, de par mon métier de blogueuse, ma présence dans certaines communautés rurales du Bénin m'a permis de comprendre que des femmes subissent quotidiennement le poids négatif de la tradition. Par exemple, nombreuses sont celles qui n'ont même pas connaissance des droits de la femme, le droit à la terre, l'accès au crédit agricole, y compris de l'existence de la journée internationale de la femme, le 8 Mars. J'ai pu l'organiser et la célébrer en 2015 avec cette communauté rurale situé à Toffo, dans la commune de l'Atlantique au Bénin. C'était une grande joie, un moment de partage d'expérience, et d'innovations agricoles. ◀  Selon vous, quel impact Selon vous, quel impact  a votre blog sur les a votre blog sur les  habitudes des femmes habitudes des femmes  rurales béninoises ? rurales béninoises ?  Premièrement, en sachant désormais Premièrement, en sachant désormais  qu'elles font un excellent travail, qu'elles font un excellent travail, Qu'est-ce qui vous a elles ont davantage confiance en elle. Qu'est-ce qui vous aelles ont davantage confiance en elle. inspiré pour créer votre Elles ont envie de mieux faire, et d'aller inspiré pour créer votreElles ont envie de mieux faire, et d'aller blog l'agriculture au féminin ? loin. Beaucoup d'entre elles sont blog l'agriculture au féminin ?loin. Beaucoup d'entre elles sont Brièvement, ce qui m'a inspiré et arrivées à bien conditionner leur Brièvement, ce qui m'a inspiré etarrivées à bien conditionner leur motivé à créer mon blog l'agriculture production et exportent leurs motivé à créer mon blog l'agricultureproduction et exportent leurs au féminin, c'est l'envie de combler un produits agroalimentaires dans au féminin, c'est l'envie de combler unproduits agroalimentaires dans vide d'information, l'envie de partager la sous-région. vide d'information, l'envie de partagerla sous-région. avec le reste du monde via Internet  avec le reste du monde via Internet (le blog) une réalité et une puissance  (le blog) une réalité et une puissance agricole dont les gens n'ont  agricole dont les gens n'ont pas forcément encore conscience :  pas forcément encore conscience : la grande contribution des femmes  la grande contribution des femmes au développement agricole. Il existe  au développement agricole. Il existe de nombreuses innovations longtemps  de nombreuses innovations longtemps restées cachées dans nos pays, des  restées cachées dans nos pays, des innovations méritant d'être diffusées :  innovations méritant d'être diffusées : par exemple, la transformation des  par exemple, la transformation des noix de néré en produit fin, la  noix de néré en produit fin, la moutarde locale, ingéniosité des  moutarde locale, ingéniosité des femmes béninoises ; les technologies  femmes béninoises ; les technologies de la fabrication des noix de palme  de la fabrication des noix de palme en purée de noix de palme bien  en purée de noix de palme bien conditionnée, consommable et  conditionnée, consommable et commercialisable ; la transformation  commercialisable ; la transformation du fonio en couscous très appréciable ;  du fonio en couscous très appréciable ; la production agroalimentaire du  la production agroalimentaire du sorgho en yaourt végétal béninois, etc.  sorgho en yaourt végétal béninois, etc.  "}],"sieverID":"9ad3aaad-963e-4e75-bbed-1b0a77a2ebd4","abstract":"Les communautés de pratiques peuvent renforcer la capacité des petits exploitants agricoles à influencer l'élaboration de politiques et améliorer leurs pratiques agricoles."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ab8fab827a9117c6c4bcfe4d9d38c3e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ef56e566-87b9-439a-9a02-c1c457d69f8b/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"េក រដី ែ សឱ ន បេស ី ល និ ងឆូ ត ចង ូ រេ យរក គ តពី ២,៥ េ ៥ ែម៉ ត េដី ម ី យ ស ល គប់ គងទឹ ក ក់ ជី និ ង បមូ ល ខ ងពណ ៌ ស ម ចង ូ រ េពល បង ូ រ ទឹ ក េចញ ពី ែ ស។ បមូ ល ខ ងពណ ៌ ស ម ចង ូ រ េពល បង ូ រ ទឹ ក េចញ ពី ែ សយកេ កំ ទិ ចេ ល ឬេធ ី ចំ ណ ី តី ។ េដី ម ី ទប់ ត់ ខ ងពណ ៌ ស ស់ ទី បំ ញ ប់ ពូ ជេទី បេ ះក ុ ង លសំ ប េលី ែ សពេ ះ ឬ ែ សសន ូ ងខ ី ៗ។ េ តែមកេឈី ឬបន ះឫស ី ម ជ ង ែ ស េដី ម ី យ ស ល បមូ ល ពងខ ងពណ ៌ ស េចញ ពី ក ុ ង ែ ស ។ ក់ ក ន ងសំ ញ់ ឬរ ំ ង ឫស ី ម ផ ូ វបង ូ រទឹ ក ប ូ ល ែ ស េដី ម ី ទប់ ត់ ខ ងពណ ៌ សកុ ំ ឱ ចូ ល ក ុ ងែ ស។ េ បី ជី សូ ត ប់ ត និ ងបំ ប៉ ន េលី ក ទី ១ (ែ ស នទឹ ក តិ ច) េដី ម ី ជំ រ ុញឱ ស វដុ ះលូ ត ស់ ល និ ងេល ន។ ខ ងពណ ៌ ស បំ ញ ំ ង េពល ស វ ន យុ េ ម ៣០ ៃថ េ យេ ះ ឬេ យស ូ ង។ ចេ បី ំ ស ប់ ខ ងពណ ៌ ស ២ ដង ក ុ ងមួ យរដូ វ េ េពលមុ នេពលេ ះ ឬស ូ ង និ ង ១ េ ២ ស ហ៍ ប ប់ ពី េ ះ ឬ ស ូ ង រ ួច (ែ ស ន ទឹ ក តិ ច)។ ចេ បី ំ ស ប់ ខ ងែដល ន តុ សកម ដូ ច េមតុ លេដៃហ (Metaldehyde) ក មិ តេ បី ២៤០ េ ៣៦០ ម/ ហិ ក ឬ នី ក ូ ៃម៉ (Niclosamide) ក មិ តេ បី ១៧៥ េ ២១០ ម/ហិ ក ឬ ប៉ ូ នី ន (Saponin) ក មិ តេ បី ៧៥០ េ ១២០០ ម/ហិ ក ។ បេភទ ំ ស ប់ ខ ងែដល នលក់ េ េលី ទី ផ របច ុ ប ន ន ដូ ច ំ ម៉ ូ លូ យ (Molucide 6GB) ឬ តុ កែបត (Toxbait 120AB) ែដល ន តុ សកម េមតុ លេដៃហ (Metaldehyde) និ ង ំ នី ល (Nill 70WP) ឬ ែស លី យ (Snailicide 700WP) ន តុ សកម នី ក ូ ៃម៉ (Niclosamide)។ ចំ េ ះក មិ តេ បី ស់ ំ ំ ងេនះ សូ ម ន រ ែណ ំ េលី ក ស មុ នេ បី ស់ ំ ស ប់ ខ ង ំ ងេនះ។ រេ បី ំ កសិ កម េ យ ន រែណ ំ បេច កេទស ឬ រ បឹ ក េ បល់ ពី អ កបេច កេទស ច បង នី ភ័ យដល់ សុ ខ ពមនុ ស បរ ន និ ង តបង់ េសដ កិ ច ពិ េសស ំ កសិ កម ន រ តុ ពុ ល ំ ង ប លឱ ប៉ ះ ល់ ំ ងដល់ សុ ខ ពមនុ ស និ ង សត រស់ េ ក ុ ងទឹ ក។ រ គប់ គងខ ងពណ ៌ ស Golden Apple Snail Management","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND DISEASES","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Rodent Management","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MANAGEMENT OF PESTS AND DISEASES","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Disease Management","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" ក់ នុ យ ឬ ំ ស ប់ កណ ុ រពី រដង ក ុ ង មួ យ រដូ វ (េពល ំ ដុ ះ និ ង ស វ ែបក គុ ម ) េដី ម ី គប់ គង ឬ បន យចំ នួ ន ប ករ កណ ុ រ មុ នេពល បង កំ េណ ី ត។ បព័ ន អ ក់ រ ំ ង ស ិ ក ន បសិ ទ ពខ ស់ ក ុ ង រ គប់ គងកណ ុ រែ ស និ ងបន យ រ ត់ បង់ ទិ ន ផល។ បព័ ន អ ក់ េនះ មិ ន បង េ ះ ក់ ដល់ ជី វ តមនុ ស និ ង សត ចិ ឹ ម េផ ងៗ េទ តេទ និ ង ចបេង ី ន ក់ ចំ ណ ូ លបែន មពី រលក់ កណ ុ រផងែដរ។ រ គប់ គងកណ ុ រ ប ក់ ៖ ម ប់ កណ ុ រ េធ ី ម ូ ប ប ប់ ពី ក់ នុ យ បំ ពុ ល ក ុ ងរយៈេពល ២ ស ហ៍ែដល ចបង េ ះ ក់ ដល់ យុ ជី វ តរបស់ អ ក បរ េ គ។ មេ បី េភ ី ងអគ ិ សនី ឆក់ កណ ុ រ ែដល ចបង េ ះ ក់ ដល់ ជី វ ត មនុ ស ��ិ ងសត ន បេ ជន៍ ដ៍ ៃទ េទ ត។ [email protected] CONTACT US: International Rice Research Institute -Cambodia Office, Phnom Penh, Cambodia +855236203838 Dr. Rica Joy Flor ករ្រគប់ ្រគងសត� ល� ិ ត និ ងជំ ងឺ "},{"text":" [email protected] CONTACT US: International Rice Research Institute -Cambodia Office, Phnom Penh, Cambodia +855236203838 Dr. Rica Joy Flor អនុ វត មវ ន រច ម ះ គប់ គងស ស ពៃ្រចង (IPM) ។ េ បី ំ ជី វ ស ប៉ ូ វ េរ មក មិ តែណ ំ ងេ្រកាម ( បសិ នេបី ចរក នេលី ទី ផ រ)ែឌ ៉ គប់ គង ជំ ងឺ ម ដំ ក់ ល ស វ៖ ស វ យុ ២០ និ ង ៣០ៃថ េ យេ ះ ដំ ក់ លកេកី តកួ រ ឬេផី ម និ ងដំ ក់ ល ក់ ទឹ កេ ះ។ វ ធី េ បី ស់ ំ ជី វ ស ទី កូ ែឌ ៉ ៖ អនុ វត មវ ន រច ម ះ គប់ គងស ស ពៃច ង (IPM)។ េ បី ំ ជី វ ស ទី កូ ែឌ ៉ ស ប់ គប់ គងជំ ងឺ បង េឡី ងេ យផ ិ ត មក មិ ត ែណ ំ ដូ ច ងេ ម៖ រ គប់ គងជំ ងឺ យកេម ទី កូ ែឌ ៉ ទម ន់ ២០ ឬ ២៥ ម យ មួ យទឹ កចំ ណ ុ ះ ២០ លី ត ។ ញ់ ១០ ធុ ង ក ុ ង ១ ហិ ក ឬេ បី មក មិ ត ែណ ំ េលី ក "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"95b561e3-185c-4f78-8596-8383e79cea52","abstract":""}

data/part_5/0af147324d1c474073c699ad508dd4a4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af147324d1c474073c699ad508dd4a4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bdb62717-13a9-46fa-ad8c-038719dda247/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"Transforming Agrifood Systems in West and Central Africa Initiative","keywords":["alternate wetting and drying","integrated rice-fish","barriers","incentives","adoption"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Approximately 3 billion people globally primarily rely on rice as a staple in their diets (Woolston, 2014;Hu, L. et al., 2016). Additionally, rice holds a significant position in the diet of sub-Saharan African populations, contributing to food security in the region for the past 50 years (Rodenburg and Saito, 2022). However, nearly half of the rice consumed in this area is imported, constituting 44% in 2021 at a total cost of 7.2 billion USD, as per FAOSTAT (2022). The high import rate is attributed to low local yields, underscoring the need to promote technologies aimed at improving cropping systems (van Oort et al., 2015). Addressing the current challenges in rice production involves tackling both biotic and abiotic constraints faced by farmers. Abiotic constraints, including drought, flooding, soil salinity, alkalinity, and iron toxicity, account for a substantial 27 -32% yield decrease (Diagne et al., 2013). Biotic constraints involve the increased occurrence and severity of pests and diseases (Zougmore et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":118,"text":"Given that these challenges are exacerbated by climate change (Connolly-Boutin and Smit, 2016), meeting the rising demand for rice while minimizing environmental costs necessitates the promotion of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies. These technologies enhance farmers' resilience to adverse impacts and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (Andrieu et al., 2017). For instance, adopting the alternate wetting and drying (AWD) practice as a water management technology has been shown to save 15 to 30% of irrigation water without compromising rice yield, leading to significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (Kim et al., 2013;Dossou-Yovo et al., 2016;Kim et al., 2016;Rosenstock et al., 2016;Jiang et al., 2019), particularly in irrigated lowland ecosystems, which are major sources of methane emissions (Liang et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"In addition to the highlighted AWD technology, this study also focuses on the rice and fish co-cultivation system, proposed as a means to optimize water and rice-field productivity, nutrient use efficiency, and increase farmer income (Hu et al., 2016;Ahmed et al., 2014;Ahmed and Garnett, 2011). Rice-fish co-cultivation has been practiced for several decades, demonstrating its ability to reduce chemical application (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers) and the incidence of biotic agents (insects, pathogens, weeds, etc.) (Fernando, 1993;Little et al., 1996). Similarly, AWD research was initiated by IRRI in the 1980s (Personal communication of R. Lampayan, IRRI). However, despite these innovations, there is currently a low level of adoption of CSA practices in general (Makate, 2019)."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Therefore, this study, conducted under the TAFS WCA project, aims to assess the adoption level, barriers, and incentive mechanisms for scaling the rice-fish co-farming system and alternate wetting and drying in Nigeria and Ivory Coast."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study areas","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"The study was conducted in nine regions including five in Cote d'Ivoire and four in Nigeria (Fig 1). The climatic characteristics of the different regions are presented in table 1 below."}]},{"head":"Data collection and analysis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"In both countries, four of the most representative sites within the rice-growing system were identified through close collaboration with the country's National Agricultural Research Systems, based on the following criteria (i) areas with high rice production potential and (ii) land suitability for technology adoption. Subsequently, farmers were selected randomly from the proposed sites by NARIs. The sample sizes for the AWD adoption survey were 144 farmers in Cote d'Ivoire and 121 farmers in Nigeria, while for the RFS survey, they were 56 farmers and 288 farmers, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Data, encompassing both qualitative and quantitative information, were collected using individual questionnaires digitalized in Kobotoolbox."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The questionnaire featured openended questions as well as closed questions with one or more options. Respondents were requested to assess, using a 0-100 scale, their perceived percentage of technology adoption among farmers in their communities. Additionally, a 0-5 Likert scale was employed for respondents to weigh the importance of barriers for women, youth, and men for adopting the technology (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Descriptive statistics, including median and standard deviation, were employed to analyze the scores provided by the farmers and were use for ranking barriers and incentives. The nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test was utilized to determine if there were significant differences between the various scores. "}]},{"head":"Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Women, youth and men involvement in rice, fish and value chain activities in the integrated rice-fish system","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"This section examines the proportion of farmers who acknowledge the involvement of women, youth, and men in various activities related to the integrated rice-fish system. The majority of activities within the rice-fish system (RFS), such as catching wild fishes, transporting fingerlings, feeding fishes in ponds, packaging, and transporting fishes conducted in fish farming, as well as land preparation, nursery establishment, seeding/transplanting, weed management, fertilizer, herbicide, and pesticide application, harvesting, dehusking, and packaging conducted in rice cultivation, are predominantly carried out by youth. Post-harvest activities, particularly processing, marketing, and selling related to fish production, as well as parboiling, marketing, and selling of rice, are primarily undertaken by women. Men are primarily responsible for tasks such as fish harvesting and the transportation of rice (Table 3). "}]},{"head":"Farmers management activities and cropping systems in alternate wetting and drying implementation","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The primary rice cultivation environment in this study is the irrigated lowland (Table 4)."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"In terms of cropping systems, the farmers surveyed predominantly engaged in fallow, crop rotation, and primarily crop association. The dominant method for establishing crops in the surveyed areas is transplanting. Chemical fertilization emerges as the most commonly adopted fertility management practice. The proportion of farmers employing organic fertilizer and incorporating crop residues into their fields was less than 40%. Herbicide application was predominant over manual weeding as the preferred weed management practice among the surveyed farmers. "}]},{"head":"Perceived adoption level of alternate wetting and drying and integrated rice-fish system by farmers","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Farmers in both countries evaluated the current adoption levels of alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and integrated rice-fish (RFS) technologies in each of the rice growing environments. In Cote d'Ivoire, the average adoption rates for the Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) technologies were 17% and 14% in rainfed and irrigated lowland, respectively. In Nigeria, the corresponding averages were 13% and 13%. When considering the averages per country, the adoption rates were 16% for Cote d'Ivoire and 13% for Nigeria. Looking at the averages per technology, the adoption rates were 18% for AWD and 11% for RFS."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis chi-square test revealed significant differences between the adoption rates of the two technologies in both countries, regardless of the rice growing environment. Notably, AWD emerged as the most widely adopted technology (Table 5). "}]},{"head":"Barriers and incentives to the adoption of alternate wetting and drying","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":329,"text":"Table 6 outlines the obstacles and incentives influencing the adoption of alternate wetting and drying in Cote d'Ivoire and Nigeria. In Cote d'Ivoire, farmers in both rainfed and irrigated lowlands identified lack of information on the technology, absence of a permanent water source, and the unsuitability of the rice environment as the most significant barriers. In Nigeria, particularly in rainfed lowland areas, the major barriers include lack of information on the technology, unavailability of drought-tolerant varieties, and unsuitability of the rice environment. In irrigated lowlands of Nigeria, the highestbarriers were lack of information on the technology and unsuitability of the rice environment. Overall, the primary barriers to AWD adoption in both countries are lack of information on the technology and unsuitability of the rice environment. In both countries, across the two ecological conditions, farmers highlighted access to agricultural extension services and AWD potential to increase rice yield as key incentives driving its widespread adoption. Lack of access to climate information 1 ± 0.5 1 ± 0.6 1 ± 0.4 1 ± 0.5 Lack of finance 2 ± 0.8 2 ± 0.9 2 ± 0.9 2 ± 0.8 Lack of information on the technology 3 ± 0.8 3 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.9 Lack of permanent water source 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.4 2 ± 0.5 2 ± 0.5 Unavailability of drought tolerant varieties 2 ± 0.7 2 ± 0.6 3 ± 0.7 2 ± 0.6 Unsuitability of rice environment 3 ± 0.8 3 ± 0.9 3 ± 0. Gender-inclusion 3 ± 0.6 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.6 Higher water productivity 3 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.8 2.5 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.8 Increase in rice yield 4 ± 1 4 ± 0.7 4 ± 0.8 4 ± 0.9 Low cost of the technology 2 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.6 3 ± 0.7 Reduction of production cost 2 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.9 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0. "}]},{"head":"Barriers and incentives to the adoption of integrated rice-fish system","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"Across rice growing environments and countries, the major barriers for the adoption of integrated rice-fish system were limited access to fish market, high price of fish feed and the low quality of fish feed. The major incentives for the adoption of integrated rice-fish were access to credit and finance, water resource availability enabling ecosystem suitability and landownership. 3 ± 0 3 ± 1.5 5 ± 0.9 5 ± 0.8 Access to fish markets 3 ± 0 4.5 ± 1.4 5 ± 0.7 5 ± 1 Negative testimonials from the technology users 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.9 5 ± 1.6 5 ± 1.5 Doubt 3 ± 1.3 2.5 ± 1.2 5 ± 1.5 5 ± 1.7 Lack of capacity building and technical supports 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.9 5 ± 1.2 5 ± 0.8 Lack of information on the technology 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.9 5 ± 1.2 5 ± 0.8 Unsuitability of rice environment to the technology 2.5 ± 1 3 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.6 5 ± 1.4"},{"index":2,"size":299,"text":"Lack or water scarcity 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.9 5 ± 0.7 5 ± 0.4 Land ownership 3 ± 0 2.5 ± 0.7 5 ± 1.4 5 ± 1.1 Price of fish feeds 3 ± 1 3.5 ± 0.9 5 ± 1 5 ± 0.9 Quality of fingerlings 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 1 5 ± 1.3 5 ± 1.2 Quality of fish feeds 3 ± 1 3.5 ± 1.1 5 ± 0.9 5 ± 0.8 Selling price of fish in the market 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 1.2 5 ± 0.8 5 ± 0.8 Inaccessibility to credit and finance 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 1.2 5 ± 1. Access to credits and finance 4 ± 0.5 3.5 ± 0.5 4 ± 0.6 4 ± 0.6 Market demand 2 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.6 2 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.6 Ecosystem suitability 4.5 ± 1 4 ± 0.7 4 ± 0.8 4 ± 0.5 Existence of quality input suppliers 4 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.6 Labour availability 2 ± 0.5 2.5 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.7 2 ± 0.6 Land ownership 4 ± 0.5 4.5 ± 0.8 4 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.5 Selling market availability 3 ± 0 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.4 2 ± 0.7 Suitability to social and cultural norms 1 ± 0.5 1.5 ± 0.5 1 ± 0.5 2 ± 0.5 Access to the information on the technology 3 ± 0.5 2 ± 0.4 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.6 Technical supports from agricultural extensionists 3 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.4 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.6 Training on the technology 4 ± 0.5 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.7 3 ± 0.6 Availability of permanent water source 3.5 ± 0.6 4.5 ± 0.5 4 ± 0. "}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"This study used a participatory approach to evaluate the perceived adoption level, barriers and incentives mechanisms for wide-spread adoption of the alternate wetting and drying irrigation method and integrated rice-fish system. The results showed that the current perceived level of both technologies adoption was low ranging from 10 to 15%. Across countries and rice growing environments, the major barriers for the widespread adoption of alternate wetting and drying were lack of information, lack of permanent water source and unsuitability of the environment. The major incentives for the widespread adoption of AWD were access to agricultural extension agent services, access to quality and appropriate seeds and higher rice yield. The major barriers for the adoption of integrated rice-fish system were limited access to fish market, high price of fish feed and the low quality of fish feed. The major incentives for the adoption of integrated rice-fish were access to credit and finance, water resource availability enabling ecosystem suitability and landownership. The framework employed in this study can be used by governments, development organizations, and the private sector for investment decision-making in scaling locally relevant CSA innovations."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Climatic characteristics of sites of the study where surveys were conducted on alternate wetting and drying (AWD) and rice-fish co-culture (RFS) Sites Climate SitesClimate  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Framework for assessing the barriers and incentives to the adoption of Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) and Integrated Rice-Fish System by farmers. Indicators Variables Likert scales IndicatorsVariablesLikert scales Barriers to the • Cost of the technology 0=not a barrier, 1= Barriers to the• Cost of the technology0=not a barrier, 1= adoption of AWD • Lack of access to climate information Very minor barrier, adoption of AWD• Lack of access to climate informationVery minor barrier,  • Lack of finance 2= Minor barrier, • Lack of finance2= Minor barrier,  • Lack of information on the technology 3= Moderate • Lack of information on the technology3= Moderate  • Lack of permanent water source barrier, 4= • Lack of permanent water sourcebarrier, 4=  • Unavailability of drought tolerant Important barrier, • Unavailability of drought tolerantImportant barrier,  varieties and 5= Very varietiesand 5= Very  • Unsuitability of rice environment important barrier • Unsuitability of rice environmentimportant barrier Incentives to the • Access to agricultural extension agent 0= Not important, Incentives to the• Access to agricultural extension agent0= Not important, adoption of AWD services 1= Very minor, 2= adoption of AWDservices1= Very minor, 2=  • Access to quality and appropriate seeds Minor, 3= • Access to quality and appropriate seedsMinor, 3=  • Gender-inclusion Moderate, 4= • Gender-inclusionModerate, 4=  • Higher water productivity Important, and 5= • Higher water productivityImportant, and 5=  • Increase in rice yield Very important • Increase in rice yieldVery important  • Low cost of the technology  • Low cost of the technology  • Reduction of production cost  • Reduction of production cost Barriers to • Lack of finance 0=not a barrier, 1= Barriers to• Lack of finance0=not a barrier, 1= women, youth • Lack of time Very minor barrier, women, youth• Lack of timeVery minor barrier, and men • Lack of training 2= Minor barrier, and men• Lack of training2= Minor barrier, involvement in • Unsuitability with social norms 3= Moderate involvement in• Unsuitability with social norms3= Moderate rice-fish activities  barrier, 4= rice-fish activitiesbarrier, 4=   Important barrier, Important barrier,   and 5= Very and 5= Very   important barrier important barrier Incentives to • Physical power 0= Not important, Incentives to• Physical power0= Not important, women, youth • Suitability with social norms 1= Very minor, 2= women, youth• Suitability with social norms1= Very minor, 2= and men • Supportive network Minor, 3= and men• Supportive networkMinor, 3= involvement in • Training Moderate, 4= involvement in• TrainingModerate, 4= rice-fish activities  Important, and 5= rice-fish activitiesImportant, and 5=   Very important Very important Barriers to the • Access to fingerlings 0=not a barrier, 1= Barriers to the• Access to fingerlings0=not a barrier, 1= adoption of RFS • Access to fish feeds Very minor barrier, adoption of RFS• Access to fish feedsVery minor barrier,  • Access to fish markets 2= Minor barrier, • Access to fish markets2= Minor barrier,  • Negative testimonials from the 3= Moderate • Negative testimonials from the3= Moderate  technology users barrier, 4= technology usersbarrier, 4=  • Doubt Important barrier, • DoubtImportant barrier,  • Lack of capacity building and technical and 5= Very • Lack of capacity building and technicaland 5= Very  supports important barrier supportsimportant barrier  • Lack of information on the technology  • Lack of information on the technology  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Frequency of women, youth and men involvement in rice, fish and value chains activities within an Integrated Rice-Fish System  "},{"text":"Women (%) Youth (%) Men (%) Fish production and fish value chain activities   Women (%) Youth (%) Men (%) Women (%) Youth (%)Men (%) Dehusking rice 71 73 65 Dehusking rice717365 Parboiling 90 65 33 Parboiling906533 Packaging 76 92 86 Packaging769286 Marketing and selling rice 97 92 90 Marketing and selling rice979290 Catching wild fishes 49 93 92 Catching wild fishes499392 Feeding fishes in the pond 60 72 65 Feeding fishes in the pond607265 Transporting fingerlings 35 69 67 Transporting fingerlings356967 Harvesting fish 52 74 76 Harvesting fish527476 Transporting fishes 48 95 93 Transporting fishes489593 Processing fishes 90 81 63 Processing fishes908163 Packaging 79 84 79 Packaging798479 Marketing and selling fishes 99 92 92 Marketing and selling fishes999292 Rice production and rice value chain activities   Rice production and rice value chain activities Land preparation 37 99 98 Land preparation379998 Nursery establishment 48 87 84 Nursery establishment488784 Seeding/transplanting 73 94 92 Seeding/transplanting739492 Weed management 88 95 87 Weed management889587 Fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide application 58 94 88 Fertilizer, herbicide and pesticide application589488 Harvesting rice 62 98 90 Harvesting rice629890 Transporting rice 41 94 95 Transporting rice419495  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Management practices and cropping systems on the AWD survey areas Ivory Coast Nigeria  Ivory CoastNigeria IL RL IL RL ILRLILRL  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Percentage of perceived adoption of Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) and Integrated rice-fish system by farmers  Cote d'Ivoire Nigeria  Cote d'IvoireNigeria  RL IL RL IL RLILRLIL N 87 113 234 175 N87113234175   Median ± Standard deviation  Median ± Standard deviation AWD + 15 ± 9.2 15 ± 8.8 15 ± 8.1 15 ± 7.6 AWD +15 ± 9.215 ± 8.815 ± 8.115 ± 7.6 RFS ++ 10 ± 4.1 10 ± 5.3 10 ± 5.3 10 ± 4.4 RFS ++10 ± 4.110 ± 5.310 ± 5.310 ± 4.4 Chi-square 12.6 10.95 37.57 44.73 Chi-square12.610.9537.5744.73 Df 1 1 1 1 Df1111 P-value <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 P-value<0.001<0.001<0.001<0.001 + Alternate Wetting and Drying; ++ Integrated Rice-Fish System; IL: Irrigated lowland; + Alternate Wetting and Drying; ++ Integrated Rice-Fish System; IL: Irrigated lowland; RL: Rainfed lowland     RL: Rainfed lowland  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Likert scores for barriers and incentives to the adoption of alternate wetting and drying Cote d'Ivoire Nigeria  Cote d'IvoireNigeria RL IL RL IL RLILRLIL 497 511 378 469 497511378469  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Likert scores for barriers and incentives to the adoption of rice-fish farming system Cote d'Ivoire Nigeria  Cote d'IvoireNigeria RL IL RL IL RLILRLIL  "},{"text":" Irrigated lowland; RL: Rainfed lowland. Median ± standard deviation is presented. The number of farmers interviewed was 60 and 150 in rainfed lowland (RL) and irrigated lowland (IL) in Cote d'Ivoire and 675 and 405 in in rainfed lowland (RL) and irrigated lowland (IL) in Nigeria     7 5 ± 0.6 7 5 ± 0.6 Chi-square 37.26 79.9 289.53 204.29 Chi-square37.2679.9289.53 204.29 Df 11 11 11 11 Df11111111 P-value <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 P-value<0.001<0.001<0.001 <0.001 IL:     IL:  "}],"sieverID":"b80de72d-9e16-4d49-a9ab-090320f81a12","abstract":"This work was carried out by the Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) as part of the CGIAR initiative, Transforming Agri-Food Systems in West and Central Africa (TAFS-WCA), and has not been independently peer-reviewed. Responsibility for editing, proofreading and layout; of the opinions expressed and all responsibility for editing, proofreading, formatting, and any errors lies with the authors and not with the institutions involved."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0af9433536d646c2b38e007a0add34e4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/7b93096e-231c-4d22-b32e-4f003f72b94f/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Genetic adaptation to climatic risks: crowdsourcing farmers' preferences for crop varieties","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Objectives","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• To implement a participatory crop variety selection approach for climate risk management at the local level."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• To involve farmers in crowdsourcing crop improvement by identifying different crop varieties and traits best suited to their local conditions."}]},{"head":"Locations","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Vaishali district (Bihar, India) and Rupandehi district (Nepal)"}]},{"head":"Partners","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), Biodiversity International"}]},{"head":"Approach","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"• A team of scientists select crop varieties suitable to a particular location through geospatial analysis."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Farmers are encouraged to grow a few pre-selected seed varieties on their own farms to test and evaluate their performance."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Farmers observe and rank the performance of the varieties in terms of yield, disease and pest resistance, nutrient requirement and grain quality. Scientists facilitate farmers in monitoring and evaluating the crop varieties."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• The information is shared with researchers and seed producers through village agents or by phone."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"• This knowledge is used by researchers and seed producers in crop improvement programs and for technology targeting and seed multiplication."}]},{"head":"Initial Results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"• In Bihar (India), 800 farmers are now testing wheat varieties as 'citizen scientists'."},{"index":2,"size":22,"text":"• In Rupandehi (Nepal), more than 15 wheat varieties are being tested on farmers' fi elds with the participation of NARC scientists."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"• Farmers and researchers have ranked the varieties based on various characteristics, such as early vigour, yield, and grain quality, and share the results with other farmers in the village."},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• From this participatory approach to testing and evaluation, farmers are now more aware of the best wheat varieties for their local conditions."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"• Video testimonials from the project have been shared widely with other farmers."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"• The project has built strong collaborations among CGIAR centres, national agriculture research institutes, and NGOs working on climate risk management in agriculture."}]},{"head":"ABOUT CCAFS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"8d995ce2-f80a-4863-bf77-e151b27da3ef","abstract":"Farmers are often not able to quickly access and adopt new crop varieties that are developed and tested by scientists. Biodiversity International, supported by CCAFS, is working with farmers to evaluate crop varieties as part of the 'Seeds for Needs' project.This project aims to expose local farmers to diverse crop varieties and increase their knowledge and familiarity about different traits and options. This participatory approach allows farmers to grow a range of crop varieties on their fi elds and rank them according to performance.The project also aims to crowdsource farmers' knowledge and preferences and integrate this into crop management programs. In CCAFS' Climate-Smart Villages in Vaishali (Bihar, India) and Rupandehi (Nepal), farmers and researchers are testing various wheat varieties through this innovative crowdsourcing approach to crop selection."}

data/part_5/0b10e55325a9017dfb40dfa3f4531477.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b10e55325a9017dfb40dfa3f4531477","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/93e879e5-0028-4219-97f7-335aab49f4fc/retrieve"},"pageCount":72,"title":"QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF CATTLE MILK IN ADEA BERGA AND EJERIE DISTRICTS OF WEST SHOA ZONE, ETHIOPIA","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Milk is the most popular food for human consumption and contains numerous nutrients such as water, fat, protein, lactose, minerals and vitamins (Walstra et al., 2006). It is the major source of regular income for Smallholder milk producers because it is produced and sold daily (Dugdill et al, 2013). Besides its benefit, it is serves as an excellent growth medium for a wide range of microorganisms (Walstra et al., 2006). Bacterial contamination of raw milk can be originated from three main sources; within the udder, exterior to the udder and from the surface of milking materials, milk handling and storage equipments. Similarly, the surrounding air, feed, soil, feces and grass are also possible sources of contamination (Parek and Subhash, 2008;Torkar and Teger, 2008). If the hygienic handling of milk is not secured, milk could be turn to unsafe for direct consumption or unfit for further processing to more stable products (O 'Connor, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Quality milk implies the milk which is free from pathogenic bacteria and harmful toxic substances, free from sediment and extraneous substances, of good flavor, with normal composition, adequate in keeping quality and low in bacterial counts (Khan et al., 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Consumers need clean, wholesome and nutritious food that is produced and processed in a sound sanitary manner and free from pathogens. Hence, quality milk production is necessary for fulfilling consumers' demand (Khan et al., 2008). To sell raw milk directly to consumers or to a processing factory, it must be handled hygienically and remains fresh and capable of being heated without curdling. Hygienic milk handling includes; using clean equipment, maintaining a clean milking environment, observing good personal hygiene and preserving the quality of milk during storage and transportation to the consumer or processing plant (Kurwijila, 2006). Milk quality should not be ignored at all stages of the dairy value chain from farm to table. As the bacterial quality of raw milk is important to product shelf-life, flavor and product yield, it is important that dairy enterprises should strive to obtain the highest quality raw material possible from their own farm as well as their suppliers. It is therefore essential to produce best quality raw milk in the dairy farm in order to manufacture milk products of acceptable quality (Zelalem, 2012)."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"In Ethiopia milk produced at smallholder farm is marketed without quality control measures."},{"index":5,"size":83,"text":"Hygienic control of milk and milk products is not usually conducted on routine bases. Apart from this, door-to-door raw milk delivery in the urban and peri-urban areas is commonly practiced with virtually no quality control at all levels (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Although, properly operational formal marketing and grading system targeted towards relating quality of products to market price is not well established, provision of milk and milk products of good hygienic quality is desirable from consumer's health point of view (Zelalem, 2012)."},{"index":6,"size":87,"text":"On the other hand, the Chemical composition, particularly milk fat content is used as quality test (Zelalem, 2010). The nutritional as well as the economic value of milk is directly associated with its solids content. The higher the solids content better its nutritional value and more of a milk product can be made (Pandy and Voskull, 2011). Protein content being one of main quality determining criteria applied to milk payment to producers in many countries where others are priced according to fat and solids-non-fat composition (FAO, 2004)."},{"index":7,"size":84,"text":"Information on the microbial and chemical composition of milk was essential to understand the quality of marketed milk supply. Previous research works mainly focused on microbial quality of fluid milk and very few studies were reported in both microbial and chemical composition at smallholder milk producer and dairy cooperatives. Therefore, the purpose of this research study was conducted to assess the quality of fluid milk in terms of its microbial and chemical compositions from smallholder producer up to consumer level in the study areas."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":" To assess the hygienic handling practices, microbial properties and chemical composition of marketed milk supplied from Adea Berga and Ejerie districts of West Shoa zone."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":" To identify major whole milk quality constraints in the study areas."}]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Milk Production in Ethiopia","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":130,"text":"Ethiopia possesses the largest livestock population in Africa. Recent estimates indicated that the country have about 50.9 million heads of cattle, 24.06 million goats, 25.5 million sheep and 2.3 million camels (CSA, 2010). Milk production system can be categorized based on agro-ecology, socio-economic structures of the population and type of breed and species used for milk production can be classified into two major systems, namely rural dairy system (pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, and mixed crop-livestock producers) and urban and peri-urban dairy systems (Getachew and Gashaw, 2001). Milk production depends on mainly indigenous livestock genetic resources dominated by small holder farmers specifically on cattle, goats and camels. The indigenous breeds accounted for 99.19 percent, while the hybrids and pure exotic breeds were represented by 0.72 and 0.09 percent, respectively (Zelalem et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Milking cows in the traditional sector have an average lactation length of 190 days and an average milk yield 1.9 liters per day excluding the calf has suckled (MOA, 2005). The total annual national milk production in Ethiopia received from 9.6 million dairy cows and the product is estimated to be 2.9 billion liters which is, 1.69 liters yield per cow per day on average (FAO, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Sources of Microbial Contamination of Milk","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The common predisposing factors of milk contamination by microorganisms are milking environment, cows, milking personnel, milking equipments, and water (Mbabazi, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Milking environment","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Maintaining the sanitary condition of the milking area is important for the production of good quality milk (Zelalem, 2010). Dirty milking places tend to breed flies, which may fall in milk causing contamination and thus spoilage may occur (Mbabazi, 2005). When a cow urinates or defecates in the course of milking some of its urine or dung particles may drop into the milk (Mbabazi, 2005)."}]},{"head":"Cow (Udder)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Cleaning the udder of cows before milking is one of the most important hygienic practices required to ensure clean milk production (Zelalem, 2010). This is important since the udder of the milking cows could have direct contact with the ground, urine, dung and feed refusals."},{"index":2,"size":171,"text":"Cleaning and removal of soil particles, bedding material and manure from the udder and flanks is necessary to prevent the entry of many types of bacteria into the milk (O 'Connor, 1995). Udder washing with clean water and drying using hand towels reduces milk contamination by transient bacteria located on the udder (Robert, 1996). Special care must be given to the cloths used for cleaning the udder. The re-use of cloths for cleaning and sanitizing may result in re-contamination of the udder. It is therefore recommended that separate cloths be used for cleaning and sanitizing and, if possible, each cloth should be used for one cow only (O 'Connor, 1995). Not washing the udder before milking can impart possible contaminants into the milk. A maximum reduction of teat contamination of 90 % can be achieved with good udder preparation before milking. This depends on the initial level of contamination and the way of udder preparation. So with high initial contamination levels this 90 % reduction might not be reached (Murphy, 1996)."}]},{"head":"Milker","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Milk handling personnel (milker) may contribute various organisms including pathogens especially when they are careless, uninformed, or willfully negligent, directly to milk (Ashenafi, 1994). Organisms may drop from hands, clothing, nose, and mouth and from sneezing and coughing. It is important for milk men to be in good health so that they can be a source of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis (Kurwijila, 1998)."}]},{"head":"Milking equipments","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":143,"text":"Poorly cleaned and sanitized milking utensils may be the source of many microorganisms (Banwart, 1989). Milk drops left on the surface of milking equipments act as excellent media for the growth of a variety of bacteria (Bramley and McKinnon, 1990). Milk equipment is not properly cleaned and sanitized after use. Milk residues left on equipment and utensil surfaces provide nutrients to support the growth of many microorganisms, including pathogens (Bryan, 1983). In case cracked milking equipments large number of bacteria enter and grow in the cracks, are difficult to clean (Thomas et al., 1966). The bacterial load of milk increases during transportation and if the transportation equipment is not appropriate the bacterial counts increase causing spoilage before milk reaches its destination (Grillet et al., 2007). Milking equipment should be easy to clean. Aluminum and stainless steel equipment are mostly preferred ( Zelalem, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Water","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Water serves as primary sources of microorganism's contamination (Mbabazi, 2005). If Water is obtained from an open water supply care should be taken to prevent drainage that may contain human feces and other contaminants gaining entry into the source (Jay, 1992)."}]},{"head":"Control Measures of Microbial Contamination in Raw Milk","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Cooling: To prevent or retard growth of bacteria in milk and to maintain its quality for domestic consumption or during transport to the processing plant, it is essential to cool the fresh milk as quickly as possible (O 'Connor, 1995). Prompt cooling or chilling of milk at a temperature of 5°C or below is necessary to minimize microbial growth and prevent milk quality deterioration during handling, storing and transporting before the raw milk being processed. In order to facilitate bulking of raw milk supply and transport the incoming milk, refrigeration facilities are provided at points of collection and transport means to maintain the temperature as much as possible (Getachew et al., 2008). In the tropical countries of Africa with high ambient temperatures, lack of refrigeration facilities at the farm and household level imply that raw milk will acidify very fast (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Therefore the collection systems must be designed to move the milk to the cooling and/or processing center in shortest possible time. In addition every effort should be made to use available systems such as water cooling, air circulation or shaded areas to reduce milk temperature (Dello Castillo, 1990)."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Boiling: It is the easiest and most practicable method of making milk safe in every home. As soon as raw milk is produced or delivered, it should be boiled. Boiling involves raising the temperature to the boiling point and maintaining at this temperature for a few minutes. Then the milk should be cooled immediately. The temperature should be maintained below 10ºc."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Since this may be impracticable at home, preferably the milk must be consumed as soon as possible after cooling and not an extended period of time after it has been boiled and cooled (Gebra-Emanuel, 1997, Linton, 1982)."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Pasteurization: it is the main safeguard against pathogenic organisms in milk. The combination of pasteurization, care in production and processing, and improved storage has resulted in relatively safe milk supply. Milk borne diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, and scarlet fever have been practically eradicated. Also, the shelf-life of milk has been increased from a few days to a few weeks (Vasavaoa and Smith, 1987)."}]},{"head":"Microbial Tests of Raw Milk","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Clot on boiling test: This is one of the oldest tests for abnormal acidity levels in milk, which is brought about by too much acid in milk (pH<5.8). The test is performed by boiling a small amount of milk in a spoon, test tube or any other suitable container. If there is coagulation or precipitation, the milk fails the test. The test is not sensitive to slightly sour milk (O 'Connor, 1995;Draaiyer et al, 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":99,"text":"Alcohol test:-The test is quick, simple and is used as a screening test. It is based on instability of the proteins when the levels of acid and/or rennet are increased and acted upon by the alcohol. Also increased levels of albumen (colostrum milk) and salt concentrates (mastitis) results in a positive test. The test is done by mixing equal amounts of milk and 68% ethanol (usually 2ml) in a small bottle or test tube. If the tested milk is of good quality, there will be no coagulation, clotting or precipitation upon shaking (O 'Connor, 1995, Draaiyer et al, 2009)."},{"index":3,"size":153,"text":"The alcohol test can detect milk whose pH is 6.4 or lower and is more sensitive than the cloton-boiling test, which only detects milk pH levels of 5.8 and below. Colostrums and mastitis milk may give a positive alcohol test (Kurwijila, 2006) Standard plate count: The standard plate count is generally accepted as the most accurate and informative method of testing bacteriological quality of milk (Kurwijilla et al., 1992;Godefay and Molla, 2000). The total plate count of microbes in milk provides useful general information on the microbiological quality of milk. Total or aerobic plate count shows only the mesophillic aerobic organisms as incubation is done under normal atmospheric conditions at 35°C for 48 hours (Jay, 1992). The number of bacteria in aseptically drawn milk varies from animal to animal and even from different breasts of the same animal. On average, aseptically drawn milk from healthy udders contains between 500 and 1000 bacteria ml/l."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"High initial counts (more than 10 5 bacteria ml/1) are evidence of poor production hygiene (O 'Connor, 1994)."},{"index":5,"size":248,"text":"Coli form bacteria: Coli forms are aerobic or facultative anaerobic, Gram-negative, nonspore forming rods that ferment lactose to produce gas when incubated on agar for 48 hours at 35°C (FAO, 1986). Coli forms are important mastitis pathogens (Hogan and Smith, 2003) and are widely distributed in the farm environment (Hogan et al., 1989;McKinnon et al., 1990;Sanderson et al., 2005). Coliform count (CC) is a non regulated test that has been used historically to assess milk production practices such as milk refrigeration, milking machine sanitation, and pre milking udder hygiene (Guterbock and Blackmer, 1984;Davidson et al., 2004). Coli form organisms contaminate raw milk from unclean milker's hands, improperly cleaned and unsanitized or faulty sterilization of raw milk utensils especially churns, milking machines, improper preparation of the cow's flecks or dirt, manure, hair dropping in to milk during milking, udder washed with unclean water, dirty towels and udder not dried before milking ( Ombui et al., 1995). The presence of coli form organisms in milk indicates unsanitary conditions of production, processing or storage. Hence their presence in large number in dairy products is an indication that the products are potentially hazardous to the consumers' health (Godefay and Molla, 2000). Coliform count provides an indication of unsanitary production practices and/or mastitis infection. A count less than 100 Colony Forming Units (CFU)/ml are considered acceptable for milk intended to be pasteurized before consumption. Counts of 10 CFU/ml or less are achievable and desirable if raw milk will be consumed directly (Ruegg, 2003)."}]},{"head":"Microbial Properties of Raw Whole Milk in Ethiopia.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"Earlier researches conducted in different parts of the country revealed that the microbial counts of milk and milk products produced and marketed are generally much higher than the acceptable limits (Zelalem, 2010). Other research findings also reported similar values of aerobic mesophilic counts milk sampled from udder, milking bucket, collection center, milk vending shops and cafeteria is range between 7.28 and 10.28 logcfu/ml (Godefaye and Molla, 2000;Haile et al., 2012). In all cases increasing trend of counts as the milk passed through udder, milking bucket, collection centers and upon arrival at the processing plant. This could be due to improper handling, storage and transport time after the milk leaves the dairy farms. Milk produced under hygienic conditions from healthy cows should not contain more than 4.69 log cfu/ml (O ' Connor, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"However, raw milk samples from different part of the country TBC counts greater than the counts which is given by international standard set for minimum acceptable level of bacterial count (10 5 cfu/ml) in milk (IFCN, 2006). In other words, the above indicated count of milk samples collected from the country were considered to be below the standard set for good quality milk. This implies that the sanitary conditions in which milk has been produced and handled are substandard subjecting the product to microbial contamination and multiplication."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"As indicated by Chambers (2002) total bacterial count is a good indicator for monitoring the sanitary conditions practiced during production, collection, and handling of raw milk. Hence training of milk handlers about hygiene can significantly reduce the bacterial load in milk. A good example worth mentioning is a reduced total bacterial count observed in milk sampled from farmers who received training on hygienic milk production and handling, and who used recommended milk containers as compared to that produced by the traditional milk producers (Rahel, 2008)."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Coliform count, on the other hand, is especially associated with the level of hygiene during production and subsequent handling since they are mainly of fecal origin (Omore et al., 2001). Previous workers reported similar values of coliform counts in raw cow milk sampled from different part of the country that range between 4.03 log cfu/ml to 6.57 log cfu/ml (Fekadu, 1994;Alganesh, 2002;Zelalem and Faye, 2006;Asaminew and Eyassu, 2010)."},{"index":5,"size":80,"text":"Even if, it is not practical to produce milk that is always free of coliforms. Their presence in raw milk may therefore be tolerated. However, if present in large numbers, say over 100 coliform organisms per milliliter of raw milk, it means that the milk was produced under improper procedures (Walstra et al., 2006). Hence their presence in large number in dairy products is an indication that the products are potentially hazardous to the consumers' health (Godefay and Molla, 2000)."}]},{"head":"Chemical Composition of Milk","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Chemical composition, particularly milk fat content is used as quality test. The solid constituents of milk make an important food item from both nutritional as well as processing point of view. Milk fat and protein are most important components of different varieties of most shelf stable milk products. It is therefore very important to determine the major chemical compositions of milk as it is the basis of further processing into more shelf stable products."},{"index":2,"size":107,"text":"Moreover, knowledge of the total solids and solids-not-fat (SNF) content of milk is necessary when it is sold for liquid consumption. In most countries, milk offered for sale for liquid consumption must conform to certain legal standards with regard to its total solids content, for example the minimum 3% fat and 8.5% solids-not-fat. The yield of dairy products obtained from milk will depend on the amount of constituents (total solids) present. The greater the amount of fat and protein in milk the greater the yield of cheese and milk with a high fat content gives more butter than milk with a lower fat content (O 'Connor, 1994)."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Normal cow's milk contains approximately 87.4% water and 12.6% milk solids (Goff, 2010)."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The solids consists of comprises 3.9% fat, 3.2% protein, 4.6% lactose and 0.9% others like minerals and vitamins (FAO, 1986). The composition of milk is affected by a number of factors including genetic and environmental factors (O 'Connor, 1994). The factors responsible for variations in milk composition include breed and individuality of the cow, interval between milking, stage of lactation, age and health status of the cow, feeding regime and completeness of milking (O 'Connor, 1994)."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"The The Normal whole milk specific gravity ranges 1.026 to 1.032 milk collection centers and processors routinely determine the specific gravity of raw milk and reject milk suspected of having been adulterated (Kurwijila, 2006). "}]},{"head":"Milk Marketing System in Ethiopia","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"A marketing system includes all activities involved in the flow of goods from the point of initial production to the ultimate consumer. It involves processing raw materials into final products and then distributing them to the consumer (Winrock, 1989).As is common in other African countries (e.g., Kenya and Uganda), dairy products in Ethiopia are channeled to consumers through both formal and informal dairy marketing systems (Mohammed et al., 2004).According to CSA (2010), only 6.8 percent of the total milk produced is marketed and milk and milk products are distributed both informally and formally. The formal milk market appears to be expanding during the last decade with the private sector leading the dairy processing industry in Addis Ababa and other major regional towns. However, the share of milk sold in the formal market in Ethiopia (two percent) is much less than that sold in neighboring countries: 15 percent in Kenya and five percent in Uganda (Muriuki and Thorpe, 2001).Formal marketing system milk is collected at the cooperative or private milk collection centers and transported to processing plants. In this system, milk quality tests (principally acidity using alcohol and clot-on-boiling test, and density) are performed on delivery, thereby assuring the quality of milk. This has encouraged the producers to improve the hygiene conditions, storage and transportation of the milk in order to avoid rejection of the product on delivery to the collection centre (Zelalem, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Informal marketing which involves direct delivery of fresh milk by producers to consumer in the immediate neighborhood and sale to itinerant traders or individuals in nearby towns. In the informal market, milk may pass from producers to consumers directly or it may pass through two or more market agents. About 95 percent of the marketed milk at national level is channeled through the informal system. In this marketing system, milk and milk products may pass from producers to consumers directly or through one or more market agents. Producers sell the surplus milk produced to their neighbors and/or in the local markets (O 'Connor, 1994).This system is characterized by no license to operate, low cost of operation, high producer prices as compared with formal market and no regulation of operation (SNV, 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"The hygienic condition of milk and milk products channeled through this system is also poor. This is mainly due to the prevailing situation where producers have limited knowledge of dairy product handling coupled with the inadequacy of dairy infrastructure such as cooling facilities and unavailability of clean water in the production areas (Zelalem, 2010)."}]},{"head":"Description of the Study Areas","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The study was conducted in Adea Berga and Ejerie districts of west Shoa zone which were the intervention areas of 'LIVES' project (Figure 1). Topographically the study areas were mainly characterized with leveled fields that make an ideal place for Agricultural activities. There are three main drainage basins in the areas; Abay, Ghibe and Awash. In addition there was high potential for ground water and smaller rivers like Berga Abay river basin. Adea Berga and Ejerie districts altitude the range of 1166 -3238 and 1872-2631 meters above sea level, rain fall condition ranges 887-1107mm and 991-1194mm and temperature ranges 11-21 0 C and 14-18 0 C, respectively."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Agriculture provides the largest share to the livelihood of the zonal population in the region."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Although, the study areas were ideal place for market oriented crop and livestock commodity development as it endowed with resources necessary for production and have good access to urban markets."}]},{"head":"Sampling Techniques and Data Collection","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sampling techniques","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Livestock and Irrigation Value Chains for Ethiopian Small holders (LIVES) project selected in among 18 non Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) districts three of them ranked and selected in different commodities such as honey and bee wax, milk and butter, small ruminant and irrigated Agriculture. The districts were selected based on their potential, suitability for market oriented Agriculture development, clusters and infrastructure accessibility to move from one district to another (LIVES, 2012). For this study two districts were selected based on their milk production potential then, two kebeles were selected from each district based on availability of dairy cooperatives and existence of milk producing farmers through purposive sampling techniques. Local and cross breed dairy cow owners and consumers were selected by simple random sampling techniques. Dairy cooperatives and processors were selected purposively based on active milk producer members and high volume of milk collection capacity. Only one union was found the study area and selected without any criteria. Finally a total of 180 household milk producers, two primary dairy cooperatives, one dairy cooperative union, two milk processing industries, and ten consumers were interviewed. "}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Two survey tools were employed in order to collect the required information i.e. individual interview and group discussion. Semi-structured questionnaire format was used to collect data from smallholder produces focused on the hygienic handling practices during milk production (barn type and cleaning practices, source of water used for cleaning purpose i.e."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"udder, milker and milk utensils), type of storage container and transportation, marketing systems, quality testing methods and other related data were collected (Annex I). Independent questionnaires also used for data were collected from dairy cooperatives, union, individual collectors and processors (Annex II). Secondary data were collected from different sources, such as LIVES zonal report; district livestock agency, dairy cooperatives and dairy cooperative union."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Following individual interview, focus group discussions was employed to validate the information gathered and to get in-depth information on milk production, hygienic practices, and marketing and milk quality constraints in each of the study sites. A focused group discussion was carried out with a group of seven smallholder dairy farmers, one dairy cooperative management staff, two districts and kebele livestock Agency experts from each district, a total of ten individuals (7 males and 3 females) were involved."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Milk samples were collected from individual smallholder farmer's storage container at farm gate and primary dairy cooperatives before added to pool milk and from the bulked milk of primary dairy cooperatives; dairy cooperative union; dairy processor and consumer's storage containers. All milk samples were collected in pre sterilized bottle, properly labeled, stoppered and transported to the laboratory in an ice packed cooler box. Microbial analysis was performed within 24 hours after sampling (HPA, 2003)."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Chemical composition: Physico-chemical properties of milk samples fat content, total solid (TS), protein, and density were determined with calibrated milk analyzer (lactoscan)."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"Coliform Counts (CC): 1 ml of milk sample was added into sterile test tube having 9 ml peptone water. Appropriate decimal dilutions of milk samples were pour-plated on 15-20 ml Violet Red Bile Agar solution (VRBA). After thoroughly mixing, the plated sample was allowed to solidify. Then Petri dishes were incubated at 30°C for 24 hours and counts were made on typical dark red colonies normally measuring at least 0.5 mm in diameter on uncrowned plates (Marth, 1978)."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Total Bacteria Count (TBC): 1 ml of milk sample was added into sterile test tube having 9 ml peptone water. Appropriate decimal dilution of milk samples were pour-plated on 15-20 ml SPCA (standard plate count agar) solution and mixed thoroughly. The plated sample was allowed to solidify and then incubated at30°C for 48 h. Colony counts were made using colony counter (Marth, 1978)."},{"index":8,"size":52,"text":"Alcohol Test: Five ml of milk and 5 ml of 68 percent alcohol (ethanol) were placed in a test tube. The test tube was inverted several times with the thumb held tightly over the open end of the tube. Then the tube examined for formation of curd particles (O ' Connor, 1994)."},{"index":9,"size":51,"text":"Clot-On-Boiling Test: Clot-on-boiling test was carried out by placing about five ml of milk in a test tube and then it was placed in a boiling water bath for five minutes. Finally; the test tube was carefully removed from the water bath and examined for the presence of floccules (O'Connor 1994)."}]},{"head":"Method of Data Analysis","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The quantitative and qualitative data were summarized on Microsoft excel sheet and analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean and percentage) by using SPSS (statistical package for social science, version 20). The total bacteria and coli form count data was transformed to log values before subjected to statistical analysis. The log transformed values were analyzed using the General Linear Model (GLM) for least square mean in Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) version 9.0 (2004). Duncan multiple Range test mean (DMRT) comparisons were used to see the mean difference between sampling sources."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Household Characteristics","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"The overall mean male and female headed households were 97% and 3% , respectively (Table 4).The highest proportion of the respondents age were ranged16-60 years which accounts about 78.3% while the rest of the respondents were above 60 years which holds 21.7 in the study sites (Table 4). The respondents in the study area had different educational status."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"Nearly half of the respondents (42.2%) were able to read and write, whereas about 20% received elementary education. The remaining (36.7%) of the respondents have never been in school (Table 4). Substantial proportions of respondents in the study area were not educated;"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"and could be identified as challenge for adoption of new technology for in the development of dairy sector in the study area. "}]},{"head":"The Hygienic Handling Practices during Milking","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Type of housing and cleaning practices","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"All of the farmers in the study areas were used housed type barn for their cows and milking in the house (Table 6). Zelalem (2010) reported similar result 80.4% of the respondents were used house type barn in central highland of Ethiopia. Godferey (2013) farmers milking in open air exposure to contaminants enter from the environment. Mbabazi (2005) also who reported farmers milked their animals from undesignated poorly maintained milking shades/parlors predisposing milk to contamination and spoilage."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Maintaining the sanitary condition of milking area is important prerequisite for clean milk production (Zelalem, 2010). Most of the respondents 65% removed manure daily While 35%"},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"were removed three times a week (Table 6). Abebe et al. (2012) who reported similar results about 47% of the respondents clean their barn three times a week in Gurage Zone, Ezha district. "}]},{"head":"Hygienic condition of cows and milker","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"The milker can be an important source of milk contamination. Therefore, keeping good personal hygiene and milkers should be in good health during milking operation (Zelalem, 2010). Most of the interviewed dairy producers (69.4%) washed their hands before milking while the rest 30.6% did not wash their hands (Table 7). Milk producers and milk collectors in the study areas did not cover their hair and dressing gown during milk collection."},{"index":2,"size":229,"text":"Cleaning of the udder of cows before milking is one of the most important hygienic practices required to ensure clean milk production. This is important since the udder of the milking cows could have direct contact with the ground, urine, dung and feed refusals (Zelalem, 2010). As observed in this study, 62.2% of the dairy producers washed their cow's udder before milking and 37.8% were not washing (Table 7) and simply allowed their calves to suckle before milking. Calf suckles and milking follows without cleaning the teats, Saliva from the calf mouth and unwashed teats increase bacterial counts (Kurwijila, 1989) The use of individual towel and following essential cleaning practices during milking is important for the production of quality milk (Zelalem, 2010). However, about 46.7% of the smallholder households did not use towels for udder drying, 15.6% used common towel and 37.7 % reported they did not practice udder drying (Table7). Milking in dry condition significantly reduces bacterial count. It is because no surplus water remains in the surface of the udder to drip into the milk and due to less chance of leaching dirt and bacteria from udder, teats and hands into milk (Islam et al., 2009) . Wallace (2009) reported that thorough cleaning of the udder followed by drying with a clean cloth was effective in reducing the number of bacteria in milk contributed from soiled teats."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"before and after usage. About 77% of the respondent washed their milk container with cold water and soap while 23% used hot water and soap (Table 8). The current finding contradicts with the finding of Haile et al. (2012) who reported about 85.6% of the producers used warm water together with detergents to wash milk handling equipment while 12.1% of them cleaned with cold water. All milk processing industries and dairy cooperative union were cleaned their milking equipments with warm water and liquid detergents. All primary dairy cooperatives and 70 % of consumers were washed their milk container with cold water and soap. Only 30% of the interviewed consumers were washed their milk utensils with warm water and soap. "}]},{"head":"Source of water used for cleaning","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"For production of quality milk a good supply of clean water is essential. Water used for washing and rinsing milk equipments and containers during milk handling must be the same safety and purity as drinking water (Younan et al., 2007).Smallholder producers in Ejerie and Adea Berga districts used different water sources for cleaning purpose i,e tap water (67%, 43%), river (19%, 37%) and Hand dug well (14%, 20%), respectively. Water from non tap sources used for different purposes can definitely contribute to poor quality milk and milk products. Therefore, it is important that producers should at least filter and heat treat it before use (Zelalem, 2010). Jay (1992) also reported high colony counts recorded on farms using wells as a water source. In Ejerie district better tap water accessibility than Adea Berga. Dairy cooperatives, union, processors and consumers were used tap water for cleaning. Adea Berga"}]},{"head":"Cooling System and Transportation","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"After milking proper milk cooling method is essential to maintain the quality of milk. All producers used traditional cooling method (put raw milk in cold water bath) and transported their milk on foot. Dairy cooperatives and unions did not have cooling facilities for raw milk during collection, storage and transportation to processing plant. Dairy cooperative union used refrigerators to preserve milk products (cheese and butter). Milk processor and dairy cooperative union used vehicles for milk collection and transportation. The vehicles were not appropriate for raw milk transportation because its lacks cooling facilities."}]},{"head":"Preliminary Quality Tests","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Alcohol and clot-on-boiling tests","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"The total collected milk samples 32.2% were positive with alcohol and 18.8 % were positive with clot-on-boiling testes (Table 9). These observations support the view that the alcohol test is more sensitive than the clot-on-boiling test as reported by O' Connor (1994)  The overall all average total bacteria count (TBC) and coliform count (CC) of raw whole milk were 6.98 and 4.84 log cfu/ml, respectively (Table 10). The total bacteria and coliform counts were significantly different (P<0.05) among different milk sources (Table 10). The overall mean total bacterial count of raw milk produced in the study area was 6.98 log cfu/ ml. This value is much higher than the acceptable value of 1 x 10 5 bacteria per ml of raw milk (O 'Connor, 1994). This high level of contamination of milk might be due to initial contamination originating from the udder surface, quality of cleaning water, milking utensils."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"Therefore, total bacterial count is a good indicator for monitoring the sanitary conditions practiced during production and handling of raw milk (Chambers, 2002). A good instance worth mentioning was reduced total bacterial count observed in milk sampled from farmers who received training on hygienic milk production and handling, and who used recommended milk containers as compared to that produced by the traditional milk producers (Rahel, 2008;Sintayehu et al., 2008)."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"The present result is also comparable with the finding of Fikrineh et al. (2012)  in Southern Ethiopia (9.82 log cfu/ml). However, there was a significant microbial count difference among sampling sources of milk (Table 10). In Ejerie districts the average total bacteria count in farm gate is significantly lower than bulked milk sample at cooperatives."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Moreover, milk samples collected from dairy cooperative on arrival was significantly different with bulked milk at cooperatives. Generally the trend of total bacteria count in the two districts revealed that there was increment from farm gate to milk processing plants (Table 10). This could be due to improper handling, storage and transport facilities after the milk leaves the farm. In case of Adea Berga district the average total bacteria counts of sampled milk in farm gate is significantly lower than both on arrival dairy cooperative and bulked milk at cooperatives. Bulking milk from different farmers were leads to an increased chance of milk contamination."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The overall mean coliform count (CC) of raw milk produced in the study areas were 4.84 log cfu/ml (Table 10). The coliform count obtained in the present study is higher than that reported by Asamnew (2010) who found coliform count of 4.49 logcfu/ml in Bahr dar Zuria and mecha districts. Others also reported lower values Abebe (2012) 4.03 log cfu/ml in Southern Ethiopia and Zelalem (2010) 4.58 log cfu/ml in the central Highland Ethiopia .The higher coliform count observed in the current study it might be attributed to the initial contamination of the milk through the milkers, milk containers and milking environment."},{"index":6,"size":49,"text":"Since it is not practical to produce milk that is always free of coliforms, even at high level of hygienic condition; their presence in raw milk to a certain extent may be tolerated. However, the present result was larger than the acceptable limit. Coliform (CC) count less than 100"},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"Colony Forming Units (CFU)/ml is considered acceptable for milk intended to be pasteurized before consumption. Counts of 10 cfu/ml or less are achievable and desirable if raw milk will be consumed directly (Jones and Sumner, 1999;Ruegg, 2003). The average coliform counts of milk collected from farmer gate and upon arrival at the dairy cooperatives are significantly lower than bulked milk at cooperatives. These findings agree with Omore et al. (2005) who reported that bacterial counts increase and subsequently, milk quality decreases as milk passes through increasing numbers of intermediaries. "}]},{"head":"Major chemical composition","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":209,"text":"The overall average contents of fat, protein and total Solid contents of raw whole milk were 3.5,3.09 and 12.19,respectively (Table 11). There was a significant difference (P<0.05) in the average fat content of raw whole milk between the two districts. The highest milk fat content value was recorded at Adea Berga district 3.9% (Table 11). The average fat content of raw whole milk observed in the current study is much less than values reported earlier. Rahel ( 2008), for instance, reported 5.35% fat for zebu cows in Delbo area of Wollayta zone and Alganesh (2002) indicated the value to 6.1% for Horro breed in Eastern Wollega. This might be due to the variation in milk fat content among genetically different breeds of cows and also for the different stages of lactation. The average protein and SNF content of milk as observed in the current study was 3.09 and 12.19 %, respectively (Table 11). The values obtained in the present study are consistent with that reported by Zelalem (2010) and Rahel (2008) for milk samples collected from smallholder farmers in Delbo area of Wollayta zone and central highlands of Ethiopia, respectively. Similarly, Alganesh (2002) also reported similar 3.31% protein content for milk samples collected from smallholder producers in East Wollega. "}]},{"head":"N= number of samples Coop=Cooperative","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"Specific gravity: The value of specific gravity of milk sample from small holder producers at cooperative before added to pool milk the values were in the range of 1.024 to 1.032 (Ejerie) and 1.022 to 1.031 (Adea Berga) districts respectively (Table 12). The normal specific gravity of milk ranges from 1.026 to 1.032 (Kurwijila, 2006). However the milk collection centers accepted 1.027 as normal parameters for specific gravity of milk. The current result indicate that about 85% of Ejerie and 65% of Adea Berga milk samples were within the acceptable range of unadulterated milk while the rest 15 % and 35 % of the samples falls below the standard and this result shows that milk was mostly adulterated with water in Adea berga district compared to Ejerie district. Milk at normal state, have unique physico-chemical properties, which are used as quality indicators. The density of milk was commonly used for quality test mainly to check for the addition of water to milk or removal of cream. Addition of water to milk reduces milk density, while removal of cream increases it (O 'Connor, 1994)."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Similar to current study Alehegne ( 2004) reported specific gravity ranging from 1.025 to 1.029 for Small holder dairy Farms in Debre Zeit. Zelalem (2010) reported that majority raw whole milk sample collected from Holetta and Selale area their specific gravity were fall within the range between 1.028 and 1.032. Milk buying and selling price per liter varies between milk value chain actors. Dairy cooperatives and union bought milk from the producers by credits and pay their money every 15 days. Some farmers preferred to sell with cash to Shola milk processing industry. In general the annual buying and selling price of milk ranges 9.25 -11Birr/ liter. The milk price did not decline at fasting season."},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Figure 3 buying and selling price of milk "}]},{"head":"Major Milk Quality Related Constraints","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Milk quality related constraints in the study areas prioritized by the respondents during group discussions were limited awareness on hygienic handling of milk, lack of cooling facility, shortage of clean water , Lack of effective quality control system and absence of quality based payment system. In each study district constraints were ranked in Table (14). Absence of quality based payment system 5 th -"}]},{"head":"SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"The study was carried out in Ejerie and Adea Berga districts of west Shoa zone, Oromia district at farm level (3.94). Overall Mean total bacterial counts and Coliform counts were 6.98±0.17cfu/ml, 4.84±0.10 log cfu/ml and significantly different (P<0.05) among different sampling sources. The highest coliforms (6.04cfu/ml) and total bacterial count (10.69cfu/ml).were observed at consumer level."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The major milk quality constraints in the study areas were limited awareness on hygienic handling of milk during milk production, shortage of clean water for sanitation purpose, lack of cooling facilities during storage and transportation, lack of effective quality control system and absence of quality based payment system."},{"index":3,"size":112,"text":"The present study showed that the Total bacterial count (TBC), Coliform cunt (CC) and lactic acid percents were increases milk flows from producer to consumers. Microbial counts were not meet the international acceptable limit. This indicates that milk production and handling practices under poor hygienic condition due to inappropriate utensils used for milking, shortage of clean water for sanitation purpose, lack of cooling facilities during storage and transportation. Additionally the survey and laboratory results were show that in the two districts same small holder milk producing farmers were adulterated raw milk with water and removed the cream. This illegal practice was contribute to milk quality deterioration and reduced the standard milk composition."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"The following recommendations were forwarded to improve milk Quality  Trainings should be given for small holder dairy farmers in milk handling and hygienic practices."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":" Awareness creations needed for among primary dairy cooperatives, dairy cooperative union, milk processors and individual collectors about the hygienic production, handling and processing of milk and milk products and the importance of raw milk quality control and safety."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":" If water source is not potable, it should be heat treated for washing udder and milking equipments  Efficient milk cooling system is required at producer and milk collectors' level."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"During milk transportation vehicles used to transport should be equipped with cooling facilities."},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":" All milk collectors should be regularly control the quality of milk and Quality based payments introduced for improvement of the quality of milk."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 . 3 . 3 . 4 . 1 . 4 . 2 . 4 . 3 . 4 . 5 . Figure pages "},{"text":" natural composition and Physico-chemical properties of raw milk may change by Adulteration of milk by intentional addition of water or other substances are a common problem in many developing countries. Adulteration is illegal because it alters the natural composition of milk and can introduce harmful bacteria and other dangerous substances into milk. Water adulteration lowers the specific gravity and increases the freezing point of milk. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure 2 Ejerie and Adea Berga Water sources "},{"text":"3 . Milk quality test method during marketingPrimary dairy cooperatives, dairy cooperative union and milk processors tested the quality of milk by using of lactometer and lactoscan. Chemical composition (fat and water) content were the major milk quality criteria to accepted or rejected the milk, If the density and fat content of milk as found below the standard, raw milk was rejected because of some illegal farmer's were added water. "},{"text":"Region State of Ethiopia to assess cattle milk quality. The survey works were involved interviews of smallholder milk producers, primary dairy cooperatives, dairy cooperative union, milk processors and consumers in the survey parts which includes: barn type and cleaning practices, hygienic condition of the milker and cows during milk production, source of water used for cleaning purpose fluid milk quality test methods, marketing system and milk quality constraints.The other parts of the study involved microbial properties and chemical composition of raw milk and milk samples collected from along fluid milk value chain. Alcohol and clot on boiling tests were conducted to determine the freshness and acidity level of raw milk from farm gate up to consumer level. About 32.2% of milk samples were clotted by alcohol test; while 18.8% of the samples were positive to clot-on-boiling test. The density of milk was checked, if milk has been adulterated with added water or solids. The density of normal whole milk range 1.024 to 1.032. In Ejerie 85% and Adea Berga 65% milk samples fall within the acceptable range while the rests fall in below the standards.The overall mean value of fat, protein and solid-not-fat percents were3.51±0.38, 3.09±0.10 and12.19±0.10, respectively. Fat mean value percentage were significantly different (P<0.05) among fluid milk value chain actors. The highest fat mean value recorded in Adea Berga "},{"text":"Table . 1 . Average milk chemical composition (%) of different cattle breeds Breed Fat Protein Lactose Ash BreedFatProteinLactoseAsh Zebu 5.6 3.1 4.6 0.71 Zebu5.63.14.60.71 Ayrshire 3.8 3.4 4.8 0.70 Ayrshire3.83.44.80.70 Friesian 3.4 3.2 4.6 0.74 Friesian3.43.24.60.74 Guernsey 4.9 3.8 4.8 0.75 Guernsey4.93.84.80.75 Jersey 5.1 3.8 4.9 0.75 Jersey5.13.84.90.75 Shorthorn 3.6 3.4 4.8 0.75 Shorthorn3.63.44.80.75 Source (O' Connor , 1995)    Source (O' Connor , 1995)  "},{"text":" Figure 1.Map of study site Adea Berga and Ejerie Districts are located in West Shoa zone of Oromia Regional State. Adea Berga district Borderd With; Walmera in the South, Ejerie in the South West, Meta Robi in West and Muger River in the North and East. The town of Adea berga is Enchini. Ejerie district is bordered with, South Wes Shoa Zone in South, Dendi in the West, Jeldu in North West, Meta Robi in the North, Adea berga in the North East and Walmera in East. The town of Ejerie is Addis Alem  "},{"text":"Table .  Laboratory work and preliminary quality tests: Milk samples were collected for alcohol Laboratory work and preliminary quality tests: Milk samples were collected for alcohol test, clot-on-boiling test; chemical composition and microbial analysis to determine the test, clot-on-boiling test; chemical composition and microbial analysis to determine the quality of raw milk. A Total of 90 milk samples were collected from small holder farmers and quality of raw milk. A Total of 90 milk samples were collected from small holder farmers and value chain actors.     value chain actors. Table 3 Sampling Layout laboratory work and preliminary quality tests  Table 3 Sampling Layout laboratory work and preliminary quality tests 2. Sampling layout survey work    Number of 2. Sampling layout survey workNumber of Fluid milk chains Fluid milk Location Chains Location kebeles/cooperatives/ Name of kebeles/cooperatives/union/ Processors Milk sample sources Number union/processor of samples Bishan Dimo at farm gate samples 10 Fluid milk chains Fluid milk Location ChainsLocation kebeles/cooperatives/ Name of kebeles/cooperatives/union/ Processors Milk sample sources Number union/processor of samples Bishan Dimo at farm gatesamples 10 Small holder farmers Adea Berga Adea Beraga Maru Chebot Bishan Dimo Maru Chebot Smallholder Chiri Ejerie Chiri farmers Ejerie Iluwaga Iluwaga Cooperatives Adea Berga Maru Chebot (Telila Berga) at farm and coop gate 45 at farm and coop gate 45 At farm gate 45 45 Bulked 20 20 10 6 Small holder farmers Adea Berga Adea Beraga Maru Chebot Bishan Dimo Maru Chebot Smallholder Chiri Ejerie Chiri farmers Ejerie Iluwaga Iluwaga Cooperatives Adea Berga Maru Chebot (Telila Berga)at farm and coop gate 45 at farm and coop gate 45 At farm gate 45 45 Bulked20 20 10 6 Cooperatives Ejerie Adea Berga Chiri ( Bruh Tesfa) Maru Chebot (Telila Berga) Bulked 1 6 CooperativesEjerieAdea Berga Chiri ( Bruh Tesfa) Maru Chebot (Telila Berga) Bulked16 Union Holleta Ejerie Biftu Berga union Chiri (Bruh Tesfa) Bulked 1 6 UnionHolletaEjerie Biftu Berga union Chiri (Bruh Tesfa)Bulked16 Union Milk Holleta Addis Ababa Berta milk processor Biftu Berga dairy cooperative union 1 Bulked 6 Union MilkHolleta Addis Ababa Berta milk processor Biftu Berga dairy cooperative union 1 Bulked6 Milk Processors Processor  Addis Ababa Shola and Berta milk processors 2 Milk Processors ProcessorAddis AbabaShola and Berta milk processors2 Consumers Consumers Holleta Holleta Holleta  Bulked 10 6 Consumers ConsumersHolletaHolleta HolletaBulked106 Total Total     195 90 Total Total19590 Coop= cooperatives     Coop= cooperatives  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Sex, Age and Educational Status of respondentsThe overall average amount of milk produced by local breed cows was 1.4 litter /day for 180 days of lactation. The improved cows produced 11 litter /day for 263 days of lactation length (Table5). The current result similar with Getu et al (2009) who reported crossbred cows 11.9 litter/day for 270 days lactation length and in terms of milk yield this result was much lower than milk produced from local cows 2.5 litter/day for 180 days lactation length in Wolmera district. These results were also lower than the overall average lactation lengths of local and crossbred cows were 9.8 and 10.1months, respectively in Burie district (Adebabay, 2009)Table.5. Milk yield and lactation length of local and improved breed cows HHH=house hold head HHH=house hold head  "},{"text":"Table .  6. Types of housing and barn cleaning frequency     6. Types of housing and barn cleaning frequency  Ejerie (N=90) Adea Berga (N=90) Total  Ejerie (N=90)Adea Berga (N=90) Total Variables     (N=180)  Variables(N=180)  N % N % N % N%N%N% Type of housing       Type of housing Housed 90 100 90 100 180 100 Housed9010090100180100 Barn cleaning Frequency       Barn cleaning Frequency Daily 63 70 54 60 117 65 Daily6370546011765 Three times a week 27 30 36 40 63 35 Three times a week273036406335  "},{"text":"Table 8 Milking container and sanitary practices  Ejerie (n=90) Adea Berga (n=90) Total (n=180) Ejerie (n=90) Adea Berga (n=90) Total (n=180) Variables N % N % N % VariablesN%N%N% Milk utensils used for milking       Milk utensils used for milking Plastic 90 100 90 100 150 100 Plastic9010090100150 100 Cleaning frequency of milk utensils       Cleaning frequency of milk utensils Before and after every use 3 3.3 - - 3 2 Before and after every use33.3--32 after every use 87 96.7 90 100 177 98 after every use8796.790100177 98 Washing of milk Equipments       Washing of milk Equipments Cold water and soap 64 71 74 82 138 77 Cold water and soap64717482138 77 Warm water and soap 26 29 16 18 42 23 Warm water and soap262916184223  "},{"text":" . Similarly, Milk samples collected from dairy cooperatives, unions, processors and consumers had high value on both tests as compared to milk samples collected from individual farmers at farm and cooperative gate. Ejerie and Adea Berg districts were at farm gate negative in clot-on-boiling test and very minimum numbers of samples were clotted on alcohol test. Zelalem (2010) reported 21% milk samples checked with alcohol test were positive, while Zelalem (2010) reported 21% milk samples checked with alcohol test were positive, while only 14% of the samples were positive for clot-on-boiling test in the central highland of only 14% of the samples were positive for clot-on-boiling test in the central highland of Ethiopia. Asamnew (2010) also reported 51% of smallholder and dairy cooperatives milk Ethiopia. Asamnew (2010) also reported 51% of smallholder and dairy cooperatives milk sample clot by alcohol test and 23% clot on boiling test in Bahirdar zuria and Mecha district. sample clot by alcohol test and 23% clot on boiling test in Bahirdar zuria and Mecha district.  "},{"text":"Table 9 Alcohol and Clot -On-Boiling Tests in the Study Areas    Positive Results in percents (%) Positive Results in percents (%) Location Milk sources N Alcohol Clot-on-Boiling Test LocationMilk sourcesNAlcoholClot-on-Boiling Test  At farm gate 20 10 - At farm gate2010- Ejerie At coop gate 10 20 10 EjerieAt coop gate102010  Bulked milk at coop 6 33.3 16.7 Bulked milk at coop633.316.7  At farm gate 20 15 - At farm gate2015- Adea Berga At coop gate 10 30 30 Adea BergaAt coop gate103030  Bulked milk at coop 6 50 33.7 Bulked milk at coop65033.7 Holleta Dairy coop union 6 66.7 50 HolletaDairy coop union666.750 Addis Ababa Processors 6 83.3 50 Addis Ababa Processors683.350 Holleta Consumers 6 83.3 66.7 HolletaConsumers683.366.7 Overall mean  90 32.2 18.8 Overall mean9032.218.8 N= number of milk samples    N= number of milk samples 4.6     4.6  "},{"text":". Microbial Quality and Chemical Composition 4.6.1. Microbial quality of raw whole milk   "},{"text":" who reported 7.08 log cfu/ml of TBC in mid Rift valley Ethiopia and lower than the report of Asaminew and Eyassu (2011) who reported 7.58 log cfu/ml of TBC in cow milk sampled from around Bahir Dar and Mecha district. This value is lower than total bacteria count reported byZelalem (2010) in the central highlands of Ethiopia (9.10 log cfu/ml) andAbebe et al. (2012)   "},{"text":"Table 10 . Microbial counts of raw milk (LSM ± SE)   Microbial quality of milk (log cfu/ml) Microbial quality of milk (log cfu/ml) Sources of milk Number   Sources of milkNumber  of   of  samples TBC CC samplesTBCCC Ejerie    Ejerie Farm gate 20 5.47±0.16 e 3.84±0.10 f Farm gate205.47±0.16 e3.84±0.10 f Coop gate 10 6.73±0.12 d 4.46±0.13 de Coop gate106.73±0.12 d4.46±0.13 de Bulked milk at cooperative 6 7.25±0.27 cd 4.86±0.13 d Bulked milk at cooperative67.25±0.27 cd4.86±0.13 d Adea Berga    Adea Berga Farm gate 20 6.04±0.15 e 4.20±0.93 ef Farm gate206.04±0.15 e4.20±0.93 ef Coop gate 10 7.08±0.12 d 5.47±0.17 c Coop gate107.08±0.12 d5.47±0.17 c Bulked milk at coop 6 7.26±0.27 cd 5.90±0.17 b Bulked milk at coop67.26±0.27 cd5.90±0.17 b Bulked milk at unions 6 7.80±0.27 c 5.96±0.17 b Bulked milk at unions67.80±0.27 c5.96±0.17 b Bulked milk at processor 6 9.75±0.27 b 6.02±0.17 b Bulked milk at processor69.75±0.27 b6.02±0.17 b Consumers 10 10.69±0.27 a 6.64±0.17 a Consumers1010.69±0.27 a6.64±0.17 a Overall Mean 90 6.98±0.17 4.84±0.10 Overall Mean906.98±0.174.84±0.10 Means with different superscripts letters are significantly different (P<0.05) Means with different superscripts letters are significantly different (P<0.05)  "},{"text":"Table 11 Chemical composition of raw milk (LSM ± SE)    Variables  Variables Milk sampling sources N Fat Protein Total solid Milk sampling sourcesNFatProteinTotal solid Ejerie     Ejerie Farm gate 20 3.59±0.06 b 3.10±0.03 12.41±0.32 Farm gate203.59±0.06 b3.10±0.03 12.41±0.32 Coop gate 10 3.42±0.09 bc 3.09±0.04 12.26±0.25 Coop gate103.42±0.09 bc3.09±0.04 12.26±0.25 Bulked milk at coop 6 3.37±0.11 bc 3.09±0.03 12.08±0.43 Bulked milk at coop63.37±0.11 bc3.09±0.03 12.08±0.43 Adea Berga     Adea Berga Farm gate 20 3.94±0.07 a 3.14±0.02 12.47±0.24 Farm gate203.94±0.07 a3.14±0.02 12.47±0.24 Cooperative gate 10 3.40±0.08 bc 3.09±0.04 12.22±0.32 Cooperative gate103.40±0.08 bc3.09±0.04 12.22±0.32 Bulked milk at coop 6 3.33±0.11 bc 3.08±0.03 11.86±0.43 Bulked milk at coop63.33±0.11 bc3.08±0.03 11.86±0.43 Bulked milk at unions 6 3.30±0.11 bc 3.08±0.02 11.99±0.43 Bulked milk at unions63.30±0.11 bc3.08±0.02 11.99±0.43 Bulked milk at processor 6 3.30±0.11 bc 3.07±0.04 11.75±0.45 Bulked milk at processor63.30±0.11 bc3.07±0.04 11.75±0.45 Consumers 10 3.20±0.11 c 3..07±0.04 11.75±0.45 Consumers103.20±0.11 c3..07±0.04 11.75±0.45 Over all mean 90 3.52±0.38 3.09±0.10 12.19±0.10 Over all mean903.52±0.383.09±0.10 12.19±0.10 Means with different superscripts letters are significantly different (P<0.05)  Means with different superscripts letters are significantly different (P<0.05)  "},{"text":"Table 12  Specific gravity test in the Study Areas   Specific gravity test in the Study Areas     Specific gravity (g/ml) Specific gravity (g/ml) Location Milk sources N Minimum Maximum LocationMilk sourcesNMinimumMaximum  At farm gate 20 1.028 1.032 At farm gate201.0281.032 Ejerie At coop gate 10 1.024 1.032 EjerieAt coop gate101.0241.032  Bulked milk at coop 6 1.024 1.030 Bulked milk at coop61.0241.030  At farm gate 20 1.027 1.031 At farm gate201.0271.031 Adea Berga At coop gate 10 1.022 1.031 Adea BergaAt coop gate101.0221.031  Bulked milk at coop 6 1.021 1.028 Bulked milk at coop61.0211.028 Holleta Dairy coop union 6 1.020 1.028 HolletaDairy coop union61.0201.028 Addis Ababa Processor 6 1.025 1.027 Addis Ababa Processor61.0251.027 Holleta Consumers 10 1.020 1.027 HolletaConsumers101.0201.027 N= number of milk samples Coop= Cooperative  N= number of milk samples Coop= Cooperative  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Small holder producers sell raw milk for different beneficiaries  Ejerie (n=90) Adea Berga (n=90) Total (n=180) Ejerie (n=90) Adea Berga (n=90) Total (n=180) Variables N % N % N % VariablesN%N%N% Formal market       Formal market Dairy cooperative and union 68 75.6 42 46.7 110 61 Dairy cooperative and union6875.64246.7110 61 Processors and cooperative 17 19 - - 17 9.5 Processors and cooperative1719--179.5 Informal market       Informal market Café, restaurant, hotel and retailers 5 5.5 48 53.3 53 29.5 Café, restaurant, hotel and retailers55.54853.35329.5 consumers       consumers 4.7.2. Milk marketing prices       4.7.2. Milk marketing prices  "},{"text":"Table 14 Milk quality constraints in the study areas   Ranked Ranked Variables Ejerie Adea Berga VariablesEjerieAdea Berga Limited awareness the hygienic quality of milk 1 st 1 st Limited awareness the hygienic quality of milk1 st1 st Shortage of clean water 3 rd 2 nd Shortage of clean water3 rd2 nd Lack of cooling facility 2 nd 3 rd Lack of cooling facility2 nd3 rd Lack of effective quality control system 4 th 4 th Lack of effective quality control system4 th4 th  "}],"sieverID":"5f471271-a870-4454-8f32-853f438c235c","abstract":"By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I have followed all ethical and technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis and compilation of this thesis. Any scholarly matter that is included in the Thesis has been given recognition through citation. This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an Animal Production degree at the Haramaya University. The Thesis is deposited in the Haramaya University Library and is made available to borrowers under the rules of the library. I solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.Brief quotations from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate and complete acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotations from or reproduction of this Thesis in whole or in part may be granted by the Head of the School or Department when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author of the Thesis."}

data/part_5/0b2c73a26555606be6fbbb45a5ea904d.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b2c73a26555606be6fbbb45a5ea904d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2212848c-3b0e-4699-9b8a-a2a7348daeaa/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Evolution of small reservoirs in Burkina Faso","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":208,"text":"Small reservoirs (SRs) are important infrastructures for providing water for a wide range of activities in Burkina Faso and other semiarid environments. In recent years, SRs have become even more important, considering the effects of climate change and variability such as erratic rainfall patterns, recurrent droughts and floods, delays in the onset of the rains (Laux et al. 2008), increased incidence of in-season dry spells (Lacombe et al. 2012), and high evapotranspiration rates. SRs provide vulnerable rural communities with water for multiple purposes, including domestic and agricultural uses (McCartney et al. 2012;Venot et al. 2012). However, a number of external factors are negatively influencing the sustainable uses of SRs. Rapid population growth (Zuberi and Thomas 2012) and its attendant human-induced activities are a threat to the quality of water in SRs, as are agricultural extensification and intensification around SRs, including the increased use of inorganic fertilizers As part of the objectives of WLE in Africa project, the geographical diversity and historical evolution of SRs in Burkina Faso have been analyzed, as well as the resilience of their socio-ecological systems. The purpose of this brief is to report on the distribution and historical evolution of SRs between 2002 and 2014 in relation to other land use and land cover."}]},{"head":"Research data and method","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Landsat satellite images were analyze to determine the location and distribution of SRs in Burkina Faso and map associated land use and land cover (LULC). Fifteen Landsat tiles, covering Burkina Faso, were downloaded free of charge from the global visualization viewer (GLOVIS) of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) for 2002 and 2014. The Landsat data were processed and images classified with an accuracy range of approximately 81% to 90% for the LULC classification."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The catchment area around forty-one SRs selected for in-depth study with the W4F project were delineated using a Digital Elevation Data (DEM). LULC changes were analyzed for the SRs by determining an index factor that indicates the level of anthropogenic influence on and around them."}]},{"head":"Distribution of small reservoirs in Burkina Faso","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Analysis of the Landsat images revealed that there are 1,033 small reservoirs with a surface area of 1 ha or more in Burkina Faso. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the reservoirs, indicating that the Nakambe sub-basin has the most SRs (603), while Comoe has the fewest (15). The Mouhoun and Nakambe sub-basins jointly have the smallest percentage of reservoirs in low-impact zones (~8%), whereas Niger has the highest percentage (33%) Forkuor et al (forthcoming)."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"In assessing the number of SRs that fall within the period of 2002 to 2014, a total of 620 SRs were found in 2002, which is short of the overall total in 2014. Available data for 1992 indicate a total of 541 small reservoirs, which is closer to the number recorded in 2002.   The results reveal that majority of reservoirs witnessed an increase in anthropogenic index between 2002 and 2014. The highest change was recorded in the 5-km buffer around Yamtenga, due to an exponential increment in artificial surfaces (bare areas, laterite and tarred roads, settlements, houses, etc.) as a result of high urbanization. However, for a sizeable proportion (24-30%), anthropogenic index reduced in the 5and 10-km buffer zones as well as in the watershed regions, which did differ from one spatial unit to the other. Results at the 50-km buffer were markedly different from those of the relatively smaller spatial scales; large overlaps between the geographical units around the reservoirs occurred at this scale, and may therefore not reflect the situation in the immediate surroundings of the reservoirs."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"In terms of the influences of LULC types, change in cropland area was found to be the main factor influencing the direction of anthropogenic index between 2002 and 2014. For instance, expansion in cropland area at the watershed scale during this period accounted for ~90% of SRs that experienced an increase in anthropogenic index. Figure 3 shows how cropland expansion during the period resulted in a corresponding increase in anthropogenic index for the watershed of the Sapouy Reservoir. "}]},{"head":"Lessons learned and implications","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":" Analysis of SRs in Burkina Faso has shown that their numbers have increased over the years up until December 2014, which signify that they are meeting an increasing demand for multiple purposes in Burkina Faso."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":" The study has shown that the most influential factor impacting the AI is changes in cropland. This can be considered congruent with the current practice in Burkina Faso of using SRs mostly for cropping. The implication is that uncontrolled expansion of croplands in the region could affect the water quality of SRs, thus requiring stakeholders to plan and properly monitor the use of SRs for cropping."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":" Increasing area of artificial surfaces (e.g., settlements, houses), especially in the 5 km buffer area around SRs, also led to high changes in anthropogenic index between 2002 and 2014. This situation highlights the practice of people settling within close proximity to water sources and the potential impact of urbanization on SRs."},{"index":4,"size":4,"text":"Recommendations for future work"},{"index":5,"size":91,"text":" The Landsat images were not useful for detecting SRs with a surface area of less than 1 ha due to its spatial resolution of 30 m. This limitation could imply that the total number of small reservoirs is greater than what was observed in this study. New open access satellite data with high spatial resolution (e.g. 10 -20 m Sentinel-1 and 2) can be explored to improve the number of detectable SRs. Ultimately, a rigorous validation of the database, e.g. using very high resolution data of selected areas, is required."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":" The temporal availability of satellite data affected the accuracy with which the LULC were derived. For example, the use of images acquired during or after harvest resulted in confusion between artificial surfaces and cropland and between different vegetation types. This limitation may have affected the outcome of this study, including the reported changes in anthropogenic index. Improved information on LULC in Burkina Faso is recommended for future work, as is fieldwork to validate the classes that have been used in this study."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Distribution of small reservoirs in Burkina Faso as of December 2014. "},{"text":"Figure 2 Figure2shows trends in anthropogenic influence for the different spatial units over time, with the blue bars depicting the number of SRs that experienced an increase in anthropogenic index between 2002 and 2014. The brown bars represent reservoirs that experienced reduced anthropogenic influences between 2002 and 2014. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Trends in anthropogenic index (AI) across different spatial units between 2002 and 2014. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Changes in 2002 and 2014 LULC maps for the Sapouy watershed. "}],"sieverID":"8f37a599-5ef5-4634-9c81-0de65c44c3a9","abstract":" This study has revealed a significant increase in the number of small reservoirs (SRs) in Burkina Faso from 2002 to 2014, with a current total of 1,033 SRs (of 1 hectare [ha] or more).  Most SRs are located in the Nakambe sub-basin (603), with the fewest in the Comoe (15).  The areas (catchment of buffer zone) around most SRs experienced increased anthropogenic influence between 2002 and 2014.  The highest increase in anthropogenic influence occurred within a 5-kilometer (km) buffer zone around the reservoir, with the main contributing influences being changes in cropland area.  The observed anthropogenic influences on SRs substantiate calls for improving the sustainability of SRs in Burkina Faso."}

data/part_5/0b5395dcc95fa14be2b87b7613fe198a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b5395dcc95fa14be2b87b7613fe198a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9e3ba4a0-8604-4d6c-b6c3-4394219d83c0/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"The opportunity: Underpinned by carbon insetting schemes, this Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA) strategy will provide the cocoa sector with a unique opportunity to support the Government of Indonesia in extending the NAMA concept to the Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) sector, to reduce GHG emissions by twenty percent by 2020, in line with the national climate change mitigation action plan (RAN-GRK). A major contributor to LULUCF emissions, and often rebuked for its role in driving deforestation and land degradation, the cocoa sector will benefit in many ways from engagement in carbon insetting -an innovative climate change adaptation and mitigation strategy and payments for ecosystem services (PES) mechanism."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"By establishing carbon insetting schemes, the world's leading cocoa and chocolate companies sourcing cocoa beans in Indonesia will be able to reduce GHG emissions and sequester carbon through an activity linked to their own supply chain, or through an activity within their direct sphere of influence. In addition to reducing their carbon footprint, and improving their corporate social and environmental responsibility profiles, the private sector can gain insight into and strengthen their value chains to anticipate and manage risks posed by climate change through carbon insetting."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"The strategy By establishing a NAMA underpinned by carbon insetting schemes and providing a payment to smallholder farmers in return for the provision of the ecosystem service of carbon sequestration, private sector actors can implement a strategy of sustainable intensification for the cocoa sector. Incentivized adoption of climate-smart production practices will lead to reduced GHG emissions and carbon sequestration. It will also lead to improved land management and conservation of natural resources, ensuring greater productivity and a stable supply of the raw material -cocoa beans."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Paving the way for 'green branding' of products as low carbon or carbon neutral, carbon insetting will enable the private sector to access new market niches. It also is also expected to lead to improved incomes, and increased livelihood sustainability and security for smallholder farmers -strengthening the resilience of the cocoa sector to the impacts of climate change. To establish a NAMA underpinned by carbon insetting schemes, the private and public sectors in Indonesia will require baseline and mitigation scenario information. This will facilitate the calculation of the potential reduction in GHG emissions associated with a strategy of sustainable intensification and adoption of climate-smart practices. CIAT will work with the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and the Sustainable Cocoa Production Program (SCPP) and its network of 60,000 smallholder farmers to:"},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"1."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"Develop a methodology to quantify current carbon stocks and GHG emissions associated with cocoa production, taking into account practices/input use;"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"2. Develop marginal abatement cost curves to identify most cost-efficient practices with GHG emissions reduction potential;"},{"index":8,"size":24,"text":"3. Develop models to spatially assess the impact of progressive climate change on cocoa production and the future climatic suitability of current production areas;"},{"index":9,"size":1,"text":"4."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Estimate the potential to reduce pressure exerted by extensive cocoa production systems on natural resources, in particular, forestlands; "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" and adaptive capacity of smallholder farmer and supply chain actors to cope with climate change impacts along the cocoa value chain; 6.Determine willingness to pay and accept payment for carbon sequestration.Contact: Peter Läderach, CIAT Climate Change Theme Leader: [email protected] Lisette Phelan, Carbon-insetting Specialist: [email protected] International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) -a member of the CGIAR Consortium and leader of the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) -develops technologies, innovative methods, and new knowledge that better enable farmers, especially smallholders, to enhance eco-efficiency in agriculture. www.ciat.cgiar.org "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"7b24c80d-1faa-4c87-bcaf-9e108d572d1c","abstract":"Cocoa is highly vulnerable to climate change, specifically temperature and precipitation pattern changes, and increased occurrence of extreme climate events, in particular, drought. Smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, which threatens to undermine the efficiency and productivity of the Indonesian cocoa sector as a whole. The important role which smallholder farmers can play in mitigating the impacts of climate change and in strengthening the resilience of the value chain is increasingly being recognized by public and private sector actors."}

data/part_5/0b7bd54a8a64ad5a135cef95fd0ac3b7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b7bd54a8a64ad5a135cef95fd0ac3b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/851c8ed2-4d02-4bd5-a6cd-dcef5c668162/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Variation in physico-chemical properties of seed of selected improved varieties of Cowpea as it relates to industrial utilization of the crop","keywords":["Industrial crop","seed physicochemical content","Vigna unduiculata"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.], is the most important source of vegetable protein in rural and urban diets across West and Central Africa and in parts of East and Southern Africa (Bressani, 1985;Singh et al., 1997). It is consumed in many forms. Young leaves, green pods, and seeds are eaten as vegetables and dry seeds are used in various food preparations (Nielsen et al., 1997). Varieties are selected based on yield potential, pest resistance, seed quality, maturity period, suitability for use as grain for food and fodder for livestock, taste and cooking properties (Singh and Ntare, 1985;Singh, 2001). *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]."},{"index":2,"size":245,"text":"Varietal differences from region to region depend on the seed characteristics (IITA, 1983). The crude protein content ranges from 22 to 30% in the grain and leaves on a dry weight basis (Omueti and Singh, 1987;Nielsen et al, 1997). As the bulk of the diet of rural and urban poor especially in Africa, consists of starchy food made from cassava, yam, plantain and banana, millet, sorghum and maize, the addition of even a small amount of cowpea ensures nutritional balance. It enhances the quality by the synergistic effect of high protein and high lysine from cowpea and high methionine and high energy from the starchy food (Singh et al., 2003). Because of its high protein, vitamins and minerals contents, it impacts positively on the health of women and children. A study was conducted to evaluate the contributions of cowpea and other legumes to the food intake of pre-school children and pregnant women in the rural areas of northern Anambra State, Nigeria, during the wet and dry seasons (King et al., 1986). This showed that for children 2 -5 year old, in the wet season, cowpea and other legumes together contributed 35% of thiamine intake, 31% of protein, 24% of iron, 21% of niacin, 16% of energy and riboflavin and 13% of calcium. Among the pregnant women, cowpea and other legumes together contributed 27% of thiamin intake, 25% of protein, 20% of iron, 16% of niacin, 14% of riboflavin, 13% of energy and 10% of calcium."},{"index":3,"size":243,"text":"The high protein content with hardly any anti-nutritive factor represents a major advantage in the use of cowpea in nutritional products for infant and children's food and cowpea could be a good source of protein for industrial product manufacturing. The major constraints to the industrial use by food companies in Africa include the lack of reliable statistics on production, strong price fluctuations during the year and the problem of the availability of raw material of acceptable quality and quantity (Lambot, 2002). Only limited studies have been done to draw the relationship between seed type and it physical properties and their effect on other attributes (Fery, 1985;Fery and Singh, 1997) and relation ship between different seed types and their physical properties (Singh, 2001). However, there are no known reports on the relationship between the seed types, physical properties and their chemical properties. The determination of the nutritive quality would benefit the producers and consumers of cowpea products. There is a need to evaluate varieties for their physico-chemical properties and the relationship among these properties. This would help breeders, other researchers and processors to note which varieties are suitable for what purposes, in terms of their innate characteristics for various needs: general purpose use, processing into flour, and other industrial uses for infant formula and diabetic patients. The present study was conducted to evaluate selected improved and popular cowpea varieties for characteristics which will help to promote selected varieties for commercial production and industrial use."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Physical properties","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Nine improved cowpea varieties were used for the assessment (Table 1). The cowpea varieties included three varieties (IT90K-76, IT90K-277-2 and IT93K-452-1 ) that have been released in Nigeria, two that have been recommended for release (IT97K-499-35 and IT89KD-288) and four (IT89KD-391, IT97K-569-18, IT97K-1101-1 and IT98K-131-2) that are in advance stages of evaluation and are likely to be released. They were also selected to reflect the wide range of seed types accepted in the country. Physical properties were estimated for each of the nine varieties using the following methods."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Seed size: One hundred seeds for each variety were randomly picked and weighed."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Dry seed density: 20 g of seed of each variety were placed in a 100 ml measuring cylinder filled with 50 ml water. The rise in water level after through shaking to remove air bubble was recorded as dry seed volume. Dry seed density was estimated by dividing 20 g with the dry seed volume."}]},{"head":"Wet seed volume:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The 20 g seeds of each variety were allowed o stay overnight in the measuring cylinder with 50 ml of water. The water level in the cylinder was noted in the morning as total volume of the wet seeds and unabsorbed water. The excess water was then saved in another measuring cylinder. The difference between the total volume and excess water was recorded as the wet seed volume."}]},{"head":"Swelling ratio:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The wet seed volume was divided by the dry seed volume to obtain swelling ratio. Water absorbed: The excess water removed after overnight soaking was subtracted from 50 ml and the difference was recorded as water absorbed."}]},{"head":"Seed hardness:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"The crushing strength of individual seed was measured in using a Hardness Tester Model No. 174886 made by M/S KIYA SEISAKUSHO Ltd, Tokyo, Japan."}]},{"head":"Chemical properties","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The seed were manually de-hulled and dried using a cabinet drier at 60°C for 24 h. The dried de-hulled samples were milled, using a hammer mill (model A1, Nigeria Tech. Co, Lagos). The milled flour was sieved through a 250 micro-mesh sieve. The flour obtained from the each variety was then divided into three parts to give three replications for each variety for subsequent analysis. Chemical determinations were made of flour samples from each variety: Moisture content, crude protein, ash, carbohydrate and crude fibre using AACC (1981) and AOAC (1975) methods. The flour hydration capacities were measured using the method of Yasunaga et al. (1968). The hydration capacity was calculated using the following formula:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Hydration capacity (%) = [Uptake of water (g) / Flour dry matter content] × 100"},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"The viscosity and pasting properties of the flour were determined using the rapid visco-analyzer (RVA) at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan. The design was a completely randomise design with four replication for the physical properties and two replication for the chemical properties. The data were then subjected to statistical analysis using computer package GenStat Discovery Edition2 7 (2005). Least Significant Difference (LSD) among means was calculated at 5% significant level. Correlation co-efficient was used to determine the degree of association between different parameters. Broad sense heritability was estimated from the ANOVA table as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Variety MS = 2 v = 2 e + r 2 g"},{"index":5,"size":18,"text":"Error MS = 2 e Genotype variance = 2 g = ( 2 v-2 e)/r Replication = r"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"Broad sense heritability = 2 g/( 2 e + 2 g)"}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"The physical characteristics of the 9 selected cowpea varieties are given in Table 1. Seed coat colours were white (4), brown (4) and black (1). Eight varieties had a rough seed coat and one was smooth seeded. Significant differences (5%) were observed among the cowpea varieties for all the physical properties. The 100 seed weight ranged from 13.1 g in IT90K-76 to 24.2 g in IT97K-1101-5. Dry seed volume was lowest for IT93K-452-1 (15.25) and highest for IT97K-1101-5 (19.0), while IT90K-277-2 (42.75) had the lowest wet volume and IT97K-1101-5 (51.75) had the highest wet volume. IT97K-1101-5, which had the highest volume (wet and dry), however had the lowest density (1.05) and IT93K-452-1 (1.31) had the highest density. Swelling ratio ranged from 2.51 in IT90K-277-2 to 3.00 in IT90K-76. IT90K-277-2 (6.6 kg) had the highest hardness and IT98K-131-2 had the lowest hardness. Broad sense heritability was above 75% for all the physical characteristics evaluated except hardness which was 35%."},{"index":2,"size":372,"text":"The chemical constituents of the seed of the selected cowpea varieties are given in Table 2. There were significant differences among the varieties for percentage crude protein content that ranged from 21.3% in IT90K-76 to 26.5% in IT97K-1101-5. The highest protein content was found in IT97K-1101-5 (black seeded) and IT89KD-288 (white seeded) and the lowest of 21.3% in IT93K-452-1 (white seeded) and IT90K-76 (brown seeded) va-  riety. Broad sense heritability of protein content was 86%. The results from the analysis showed that, apart from IT97K-1101-5 with ash content of 4.59% which was significantly higher than ash content of 6 other varieties, the ash contents of the remaining cowpea varieties did not vary significantly among themselves and had broad sense heritability of 56%. The varieties can be grouped into two on the basis of carbohydrate content of seed. The first group (7 varieties) had a carbohydrate content of 67 to 69.56 %; in the second group, carbohydrate content was 63.37% for IT97K-1101-5, and 64.86% for IT89KD-288. These two varieties with the lowest carbohydrate however had the highest crude protein content. Significant differences were recorded for fat con-tent as IT90K-277-2 had the highest amount of fat (1.7%), IT97-K-1101-5 had the least (1.20%). Significant differences were also observed among the selected varieties for crude fibre content that ranged from 0.43% in IT98K-131-2 to 1.03% in IT90K-277-2. Significant differences were also observed for tannin content that ranged from 0.87 mg g -1 in IT93K-452-1 to 1.51 mg g -1 in IT89KD-288. IT93K 452-1 (91.77%) had the least water binding capacity, while IT97K-1101-5 (108.35%), had the highest. The potential for cowpea to go into slurry/become viscous quickly vary significantly among the varieties. IT90K-76 attained a maximum peak viscosity of 250.18, which significantly varied from the others; IT97K-1101-5 attained the least peak viscosity of 154.09. The integrity of starch molecules in cowpea varieties differs significantly. From the results, the gelatinization temperature, i.e. the temperature at which starch molecules rupture was highest with IT98K-131-2 (84.82 o C), and lowest in IT97K-452-1 (79.13 o C). Broad sense heritability was 73, 86, 92, 96 and 98% for fat content, carbohydrate and crude protein, water binding capa-city, crude fibre, and tannin content, respectively, and 99% for final viscosity and pasting time temperature."},{"index":3,"size":197,"text":"The correlation coefficients among the various physico-chemical properties of cowpea seed are given in Table 3. The following properties had positive and significant correlation coefficient: one hundred seed weight vs dry and wet seed volume (r = 0.77 and 0.49 respectively), one hundred seed weight vs crude protein and % ash content (0.73). Dry seed volume vs wet seed volume (0.60), crude protein and ash content (0.71) and water binding capacity (0.59), wet seed volume vs water uptake (0.94), crude protein (0.61), ash content (0.84), water binding capacity (0.61) and tannin content (0.58). Dry seed density vs swelling ratio (0.53), carbohydrate content (0.67), fat content (0.64) and final viscosity (0.71). Swelling ratio vs water uptake (0.47) and final viscosity (0.42), while water uptake had positive and significant correlation coefficient with crude protein (0.45) and ash content (0.65), and with water binding capacity (0.57). Seed hardness was also positively correlated with fat content (0.69) and crude fibre (0.68). Crude protein was positively correlated with ash content (0.78) and tannin content (0.54), and ash with tannin content (0.61), carbohydrate with fat (0.54), and 0.76 with final viscosity, while fat content was also positively correlated with crude fibre content (0.86)."},{"index":4,"size":139,"text":"The following properties had negative and significant correlation coefficient: Seed weight with dry seed density (r = -0.75), % carbohydrate (-0.78) and final viscosity (-0.84); dry seed volume with dry seed density (-1), swelling ratio (-0.52), seed hardness (-0.48), carbohydrate (-0.68), fat (-0.63) and final viscosity (-0.73); wet seed volume with dry seed density (-0.59), seed hardness (-0.64), % carbohydrate (-0.67) and % fat content (-0.73); dry seed density with crude protein (-0.71), ash content (-0.70), and water binding capacity (-0.60); water uptake with hardness (-0.68), carbohydrate (-0.52), fat (-0.61) contents; seed hardness with ash (-0.46), and water binding capacity (-0.48); crude protein content with carbohydrate (-0.98), fat (-0.56), and final viscosity (-0.76); ash content with carbohydrate (-0.84), fat (-0.78), final viscosity (-0.55) and crude fibre (-0.48); carbohydrate with tannin content (-0.55) and fat with water binding capacity (-0.72)."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":518,"text":"Whereas the highest protein content was found in IT97K-1101-5 (black seeded) and IT 89KD 288 (white seeded) and the lowest in IT93K-452-1 (white seeded) and IT 90K-76 (brown seeded) with 21.36 and 21.30%, respectively. Seed coat does not appear to play a significant role in determining the protein content, as the white and brown seeded varieties were distributed evenly in the protein range. Significant genetic differences were observed for all the physical and chemical properties evaluated in this trial. Heritability for the physical properties recorded in this trial were high, ranging from 78 to 93% and are similar to that recorded by Singh, (2001), except for seed hardness which was low (35%), Singh (2001) observed 92% for seed hardness. Varieties with high protein content (IT97K-1101-5 and IT 89KD 288) would be suitable in formulating infant feeds, while Ajeigbe et al. 3643 those with the lower protein content would be suitable for general purposes and adult consumption. The range of protein content recorded was similar to that obtained by other authors (Bliss, 1975;Omueti and Singh 1987;Nielsen et al., 1993). Cowpea is rich in lysine, but deficient in sulfurous amino acids (Lambot 2002), and to a lesser extent isoleucine, however levels of essential amino acids are at least as high as those in soybean (Lambot 2002). Cowpea contains a higher level of flatulent sugars than that found in soybean but its raffinose content (most flatulent sugar) is lower than that in soybean (Lambot, 2002). These characteristics present a major advantage in the use of cowpea in nutritional products, for infant's and children's food. Ash content of cowpea seed was comparatively stable among the selected varieties compared to other chemical characters studied; however variations existed for carbohydrate content. The carbohydrate content (63.37 to 69.56%) found in this study was similar to that (59.7 -71.6%) reported by Nielsen et al. (1993). As with other studies (Nielsen et al., 1993), protein content was positively correlated with ash and negatively correlated with fat and carbohydrate content indicating that selection for high protein will decrease carbohydrate content and increase ash content which will make the improved line nutritional superior. In formulating cowpea diets for diabetic patients, varieties with low carbohydrate could be selected since diabetic patients may need a reduced consumption of carbohydrate rich foods. Varieties with less fat may be most suited for formulating food/meals for diabetic patients. Carbohydrate was positively correlated with fat content making these varieties excellent for this purpose. In using cowpea flour in products, the water binding capacity would be important. Here again, significant differences were observed. The variety with highest water binding capacity (IT97K-1101-5) would absorb more water in formulating any product. Varieties with high peak viscosities flow better when re-constituted in water, and thus make a better paste. Usually, varieties with a high gelatinization temperature take longer to cook, because of the hard and strong chemical bonding binding the nutrients in the grain structure of starch composition in the grain. A high positive correlation observed between ash and protein implies varieties with these characters would be suitable for infant formulae that can be fortified with high energy cereals."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The present study has shown that significant variations exist among cowpea lines for most of the physicochemical constituents of cowpea grain with high heritability. Suitable parents could therefore be selected for further improvement of any of the characters. Varieties also exist that can be used for specialized industrial pro-ducts like infants formula etc. Cowpea varieties (IT97K-1101-5 and IT89KD-288) with high protein content could be selected for formulating infant feeds, varieties with lower carbohydrate, low fat and high crude fibre (IT90K-277-2) would be desirable in making meals for diabetic patients."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" wt, V2 = dry seed vol., V3 = wet seedvol., V4 = dry seed density, V5 = swelling ratio, V6 = water uptake, V7 = seed hardness, V8 = crude protein, V9 = %ash, V10 = % carbohydrate, V11 = %Fat, V12 = water binding capacity, V13 = Viscosity, V14 = pasting time temperatureGel, V15 = %crude fibre and V16 = Tanin. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Physical characteristics of selected cowpea varieties. Seed vol. (ml) Seed vol. (ml)  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Chemical properties of seed of selected cowpea varieties. Variety %Protein %Ash %CHO %Fat % WBC Viscosity Gel temp % CF Tannin Variety%Protein%Ash%CHO%Fat% WBCViscosityGel temp% CFTannin IT 97K 1101 -5 26.85 4.59 63.37 1.2 108.35 154.09 79.88 0.61 1.45 IT 97K 1101 -526.854.5963.371.2108.35154.0979.880.611.45 IT 89KD 288 26.06 3.79 64.86 1.72 91.82 188.78 83.18 0.89 1.51 IT 89KD 28826.063.7964.861.7291.82188.7883.180.891.51 IT 97K 569 -18 23.64 4 67.51 1.32 103.67 231.43 83.88 0.49 1.48 IT 97K 569 -1823.64467.511.32103.67231.4383.880.491.48 IT 98K 131 -2 23.05 3.47 68.67 1.4 103.67 194.84 84.83 0.43 0.96 IT 98K 131 -223.053.4768.671.4103.67194.8484.830.430.96 IT 89 KD 391 22.57 3.93 68.31 1.57 95.61 208.66 82.33 0.64 1.28 IT 89 KD 39122.573.9368.311.5795.61208.6682.330.641.28 IT 97K 499 -35 22.49 3.43 68.83 1.73 96.11 214.82 82.48 0.89 1.11 IT 97K 499 -3522.493.4368.831.7396.11214.8282.480.891.11 IT 90K 277 -2 21.84 3.37 69.42 1.8 99.47 201.29 82.33 1.03 1.12 IT 90K 277 -221.843.3769.421.899.47201.2982.331.031.12 IT 93K 452 -1 21.36 3.45 68.98 1.73 91.77 215.16 79.13 0.84 0.87 IT 93K 452 -121.363.4568.981.7391.77215.1679.130.840.87 IT 90K 76 21.29 3.53 69.56 1.66 105.46 250.18 82.43 0.91 1.49 IT 90K 7621.293.5369.561.66105.46250.1882.430.911.49 Mean 23.24 3.727 67.72 1.57 99.55 206.582 82.2694 0.748 1.2512 Mean23.243.72767.721.5799.55206.58282.26940.7481.2512 LSD (5%) 1.761 0.6838 1.962 0.2759 4.073 0.6262 0.08153 0.1037 0.07372 LSD (5%)1.7610.68381.9620.27594.0730.62620.081530.1037 0.07372 Heritability 0.86 0.56 0.86 0.73 0.92 0.99 0.99 0.96 0.98 Heritability0.860.560.860.730.920.990.990.960.98  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Correlation coefficient among different physico-chemical* properties of cowpea seed. Variable V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 V9 V10 V11 V12 V13 V14 V15 VariableV1V2V3V4V5V6V7V8V9V10V11V12V13V14V15 V1 1.00               V11.00 V2 0.77 1.00              V20.771.00 V3 0.49 0.60 1.00             V30.490.601.00 V4 -0.75 -1.00 -0.59 1.00            V4-0.75-1.00-0.591.00 V5 -0.37 -0.52 0.37 0.53 1.00           V5-0.37-0.520.370.531.00 V6 0.31 0.46 0.94 -0.43 0.47 1.00          V60.310.460.94-0.430.471.00 V7 0.02 -0.48 -0.64 0.49 -0.14 -0.68 1.00         V70.02-0.48-0.640.49-0.14-0.681.00 V8 0.73 0.71 0.61 -0.71 -0.18 0.45 -0.38 1.00        V80.730.710.61-0.71-0.180.45-0.381.00 V9 0.73 0.71 0.84 -0.70 0.07 0.65 -0.46 0.78 1.00       V90.730.710.84-0.700.070.65-0.460.781.00 V10 -0.78 -0.68 -0.67 0.67 0.07 -0.52 0.32 -0.98 -0.84 1.00      V10-0.78-0.68-0.670.670.07-0.520.32-0.98-0.841.00 V11 -0.36 -0.63 -0.73 0.64 -0.05 -0.61 0.69 -0.56 -0.78 0.54 1.00     V11-0.36-0.63-0.730.64-0.05-0.610.69-0.56-0.780.541.00 V12 0.21 0.59 0.61 -0.60 -0.04 0.57 -0.48 0.20 0.44 -0.17 -0.72 1.00    V120.210.590.61-0.60-0.040.57-0.480.200.44-0.17-0.721.00 V13 -0.84 -0.73 -0.39 0.71 0.42 -0.30 0.21 -0.76 -0.55 0.76 0.39 -0.09 1.00   V13-0.84-0.73-0.390.710.42-0.300.21-0.76-0.550.760.39-0.091.00 V14 -0.42 -0.07 -0.23 -0.02 -0.17 -0.32 -0.22 -0.02 -0.26 0.21 -0.08 0.16 0.26 1.00  V14-0.42-0.07-0.23-0.02-0.17-0.32-0.22-0.02-0.260.21-0.080.160.261.00 V15 0.00 -0.28 -0.43 0.31 -0.14 -0.35 0.68 -0.32 -0.48 0.26 0.86 -0.44 0.20 -0.33 1.00 V150.00-0.28-0.430.31-0.14-0.350.68-0.32-0.480.260.86-0.440.20-0.331.00 V16 0.33 0.35 0.58 -0.37 0.21 0.39 -0.17 0.54 0.61 -0.55 -0.32 0.36 0.01 0.17  V160.330.350.58-0.370.210.39-0.170.540.61-0.55-0.320.360.010.17  "}],"sieverID":"7d324676-9977-419d-b22d-9040938ac268","abstract":"Cowpea is an important food, cash and fodder crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and has potential of becoming an industrial crop. A trial was conducted to evaluate selected improved and popular varieties of cowpea for physicochemical characteristics that can help to promote commercial production and industrial use. Variations in content were found among varieties for protein (21.3 -26.9%), carbohydrate (63.37 -69.56%), fat (1.2 to 1.80%), crude fibre (0.43 to 1.03%), and tannin (0.87 -1.51 mg/g), also in water binding capacity (91.77 -108.35%) and gelatinization temperature (79.13 -84.83 o C). High positive correlations (0.86) were observed between the content of fat and crude fibre, ash and protein (0.78), carbohydrate and viscosity of cowpea flour (0.76), and between ash and tannin (0.61) content of cowpea seed, negative correlations were observed between the content of crude protein and carbohydrate (-0.98), ash and fat (-0.78), crude protein and viscosity (-0.76) of cowpea flour, fat and water binding capacity of cowpea flour (-0.72) and carbohydrate and tannin (-0.54) in cowpea seed. Seed coat colour plays no significant role in the chemical content of the seed. The physicochemical properties evaluated generally had high broad sense heritability (56 -99%). Cowpea varieties (IT97K-1101-5 and IT89KD-288) with high protein content could be selected for formulating infant feeds, varieties with lower carbohydrate, low fat and high crude fibre (IT90K-277-2) would be desirable in making meals for diabetic patients."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c2b4ce1ea49c3f5a647787f877360f4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://apps.worldagroforestry.org/downloads/Publications/PDFS/PB21027.pdf"},"pageCount":5,"title":"AGROFORESTERÍA PARA CONSERVAR Y RESTAURAR la biodiversidad en Perú","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"• Cerca de 3,5 millones de hectáreas es el territorio manejado por los productores familiares en la Amazonía peruana, el cual -debido a la naturaleza de la agricultura familiar-ha sido convertido en un mosaico de pastos, cultivos permanentes y transitorios, y bosques secundarios (barbechos) intercalados con bosques residuales. Todos estos sistemas de mosaico corresponden a árboles en las tierras agrícolas 1 que incluyen a todos los árboles: árboles individuales, forestales y frutales, y árboles de sombra en los pastos, bosques residuales, bosques secundarios, huertas y linderos. Árboles integrados con los cultivos y la ganadería en sistemas agroforestales, y los árboles de regeneración natural que se encuentran en barbechos y en sistemas de manejo agroforestal tradicional."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"• Las prácticas de agricultura familiar devienen en procesos de deforestación que han resultado en la pérdida de más de 100 mil hectáreas de bosques amazónicos cada año; lo que equivale a 2 millones de hectáreas en los últimos 20 años, aproximadamente. Por tanto, la conversión de bosques en tierras de uso agrícola es la principal amenaza a la conservación de la biodiversidad y de los servicios ecosistémicos."}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"En paralelo al proceso de deforestación, se produce degradación y simplificación de los territorios rurales lo que genera la pérdida de bosques y la reducción de la duración de los ciclos de manejo de los bosques secundarios."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Es esencial reforzar el vínculo entre la conservación de bosques y el manejo de la biodiversidad en las tierras agrícolas, a fin de sostener y mantener la producción agrícola. El Plan Estratégico de Diversidad Biológica del Perú contempla la Meta 7 de AICHI 2 mediante la cual se busca incrementar las áreas agrícolas bajo manejo sostenible. Aun así, no se hace hincapié en estos árboles que pertenecen a la matriz agrícola ni en sus aportes a la biodiversidad. Por ello, es importante alinear las políticas y las acciones de las instituciones para lograr el control y reducción de la deforestación, mediante procesos que permitan la conservación y restauración de los servicios ecosistémicos en los territorios rurales con soluciones basadas en la naturaleza, y en la conservación y manejo de los árboles. Se espera que el actual proceso de actualización del Plan Estratégico de Diversidad Biológica del Perú permita reconocer la importancia y los aportes de estos árboles a la biodiversidad, en el contexto del marco global para la biodiversidad post-2020."}]},{"head":"LA RESPUESTA rees on Farms for Biodiversity","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"La agroforestería es MULTIESCALA. El manejo de los árboles en una parcela se refleja a nivel de toda la finca y de la cuenca o territorio, dependiendo de los servicios ecosistémicos que proveen los árboles y de la escala en la cual estos servicios se expresan."}]},{"head":"ASOCIAR ÁRBOLES A LAS TIERRAS AGRÍCOLAS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"La conservación e integración de árboles y bosques remanentes en asociación con cultivos agrícolas e intercalados en los mosaicos productivos de los territorios rurales permite mitigar el impacto de la conversión de bosques en cultivos y frenar o revertir los procesos de degradación de las tierras agrícolas. Es lo que se llama agroforestería, que incluye todos los usos de la tierra que combinan producción agrícola y/o pecuaria, y los usos y funciones ecosistémicas proveídas por los árboles asociados. La agroforestería permite mejorar la capacidad de las tierras agrícolas de contribuir a la conservación de la biodiversidad en el paisaje. En ese sentido, contribuye a la Meta 7 de AICHI, y a las estrategias de conservación de la biodiversidad del marco post-2020, pues tiene la capacidad de beneficiar la conservación de los bosques y de los hábitats naturales, y apoyar la producción agrícola."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Entre otros beneficios:"}]},{"head":"•","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Reduce la pérdida de hábitats naturales."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"• Favorece el establecimiento de hábitats secundarios."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"• Favorece la conectividad a nivel de paisaje generando condiciones para que las tierras agrícolas que se hagan más permeables a los taxa de plantas y animales asociados a los bosques y a los servicios que estos llevan."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• Favorece la conservación de las especies in situ."},{"index":5,"size":75,"text":"• La diversidad de los árboles en las tierras agrícolas protege las funciones productivas: favorece procesos de polinización y de lucha integrada contra plagas y enfermedades. Al mismo tiempo, el Plan Estratégico de Diversidad Biológica del Perú contempla la Meta 7 de AICHI mediante la cual se quiso incrementar las áreas agrícolas bajo manejo sostenible, pero sin hacer hincapié en estos árboles que pertenecen a la matriz agrícola ni en sus aportes a la biodiversidad."},{"index":6,"size":37,"text":"La implementación de la agroforestería es transversal y necesita una gobernanza multisectorial por parte de los sectores que apoyan la producción agrícola y que manejan la producción forestal y promueven la conservación y restauración de servicios ecosistémicos."},{"index":7,"size":83,"text":"No obstante esta transversalidad, a la fecha la definición legal de agroforestería solo se encuentra en el Reglamento de la Ley Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre (Ley Nº 27308), y se aplica explícitamente a las especies forestales: \"una clase de uso de la tierra que consiste en el manejo asociado de especies forestales y agropecuarias en una misma parcela en el espacio y en el tiempo. Incluye prácticas de integración, preservación y manejo de especies leñosas en sistemas productivos agrícolas anuales o perenes\"."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"Asimismo, a pesar de que diferentes sectores hacen referencia a la agroforestería en sus agendas, no existen estrategias de apoyo técnico ni financiero para la adopción de la agroforestería, para el manejo de los árboles en las chacras y para la conservación de bosques en territorios rurales."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"Fortalecer la interconexión de las políticas sectoriales para poder lograr la construcción de un marco habilitante que apoye a los productores en el manejo de los árboles en sus tierras agrícolas."},{"index":10,"size":25,"text":"Generar y compartir conocimiento sobre las prácticas más adecuadas para que la agroforestería pueda responder de manera integral generando sinergias entre las diferentes agendas sectoriales."}]},{"head":"POR ELLO, ES CLAVE","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"El Centro Internacional de Investigación Agroforestal (ICRAF) es una organización de excelencia científica y de desarrollo que canaliza los beneficios de los árboles para las personas y el medioambiente. Es la única institución que realiza investigaciones agroforestales de relevancia mundial en y para todos los Trópicos en vías de desarrollo. El conocimiento producido por ICRAF permite a los gobiernos, las agencias de desarrollo y los agricultores utilizar el poder de los árboles para hacer que la agricultura y los medios de vida sean más ambiental, social y económicamente sostenibles en múltiples escalas."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"En el marco del proyecto Árboles en las Chacras (TonF)-que se implementa en Perú, Honduras, Indonesia, Ruanda y Uganda-generamos investigación, compartimos resultados y realizamos incidencia en torno a la agroforestería y la conservación de la biodiversidad. El proyecto es una contribución directa a la Meta 7 de Aichi del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biológica, al promover el conocimiento de la importancia de los árboles en las tierras agrícolas para la biodiversidad y el bienestar humano."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"En Perú, el proyecto apunta a promover un esfuerzo multisectorial para alinear las políticas y definiciones en materia de agrofo-  • En el 2021 (junio) el MIDAGRI ha iniciado un proceso de ronda de comentarios para la propuesta de definición legal de agroforestería, para facilitar el alineamiento institucional en favor del diseño de intervenciones y políticas que fomenten la adopción de la agroforestería en el Perú."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Regulación del ciclo del agua • Protección del suelo Conservación de la biodiversidad Reduce la pérdida de hábitat naturales Favorece el establecimiento de hábitats secundarios Favorece la conectividad a nivel de paisaje Favorece la conservación de las especies in situ Favorece procesos de polinización y de lucha integrada contra Barreras de protección en el interior de la parcela para regular la circulación del viento Árboles plantados al cuadrado: Los árboles se encuentran a distancia regular de los vértices de un cuadrado Cultivos en callejones: Los árboles se encuentran en líneas o surcos con separaciones entre cada línea. En los callejones se cultiva el café "},{"text":"• La diversidad funcional permite manejar sistemas más resilientes y hacer frente al impacto del cambio climático. la agroforestería y, en general, de la integración de los árboles en las tierras agrícolas forma parte prioritaria de múltiples agendas nacionales del sector agrícola, forestal, ambiental y de cambio climático, por ejemplo: el compromiso de restaurar 3,2 millones de hectáreas de tierras degradadas.• Acuerdo de París y Contribuciones Nacionalmente Determinadas (NDC) del Perú con la reducción de sus emisiones al 2030 en un 30%. Para lograrlo ha incluido tres medidas relativas a agroforestería: sistemas agroforestales, manejo sostenible de cultivos perennes y manejo de pasturas a través de sistemas silvopastoriles. "},{"text":" Contacto del proyecto Árboles en las Chacras en PerúValentina Robiglio, Coordinadora Científica para el Perú, ICRAF [email protected] DE INTERVENCIÓN: EL PROYECTO ÁRBOLES EN LAS CHACRASEl proyecto viene trabajando con los actores políticos peruanos para integrar en las estrategias y programas nacionales y locales, los objetivos relativos a árboles en las parcelas agrícolas. Algunas contribuciones concretas son:• En el 2019, la Dirección General de Diversidad Biológica (DGDB) del Ministerio del Ambiente (MINAM) insertó a los árboles de las parcelas agrícolas en la agenda de la Comisión Nacional de Diversidad Biológica (CO-NADIB), abriendo oportunidades para integrar la contribución de estos árboles a la biodiversidad y a la meta 7 en la Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad post-2020. • En el 2020, el Servicio Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre (SERFOR) institucionalizó un nuevo grupo de trabajo de agroforestería y silvicultura a pequeña escala. Este grupo de trabajo busca armonizar las normas y reglamentos para los agricultores familiares, y los procesos de intercambio de datos en toda la institución y entre las unidades de las regiones. • En el 2020, la Dirección General de Asuntos Ambientales Agrarios (DGAAA) y la Dirección de Evaluación de Recursos Naturales (DERN) del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego (MIDAGRI) convocó a reuniones técnicas con direcciones y entidades públicas para empezar a construir una definición sectorial de agroforestería. • En el 2020, el Subcomité Técnico de Normalización de Gestión de Ecosistemas y Recursos Naturales, del Instituto Nacional de Calidad (INACAL), preaprobó las normas integradas de conservación de árboles en las parcelas agrícolas para el café, y se prevé replicarlas para el cacao. • En el 2020, el MINAM-DGDB avanzó en el marco global para la biodiversidad post-2020 tras un innovador proceso de diseño de políticas basado en la prospectiva y liderado por el Centro Nacional de Planeamiento Estratégico (CE-PLAN). Se priorizaron 5 temas clave, entre ellos, la agrobiodiversidad y el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. En la próxima fase participarán la sociedad civil y los socios asesores, incluido el equipo de TonF, para definir los indicadores con los cuales medir el impacto de las nuevas políticas. "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"501b724e-9136-4488-a1d4-5de45a6f471d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c3a42859ec64119a423a217d4628964","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0a869314-27cf-46ef-9b72-2862f0d5b7ec/retrieve"},"pageCount":22,"title":"The nexus between INRM and IWRM","keywords":["INRM","IWRM","Green water","Blue Water"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"Increasing water productivity is a growing concern within the international research and development community (CAWMA, 2007). This objective is encapsulated in the UN Secretary General's recent statement, 'we need a blue revolution in agriculture that focuses on increasing productivity per unit of water -more crop per drop'. This increased productivity is a necessary condition for agricultural producers to use better, and protect the quality of, available water, while enhancing food production and income in a sustainable manner, especially in water limited communities. This focus is particularly pressing in the Semi Arid Tropics (SAT) of southern Africa (Love et al., 2006a;Twomlow et al., 2006). Despite the rising levels of adoption of improved maize (Zea mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), per capita grain production continues to decline (Ryan and Spencer, 2001). Smallholder crop yields remain in the range of 500 to 1000 kg of grain per hectare, with seasonal yield variation a function of seasonal rainfall (Figure 1, Mugabe pers comm.) (ICRISAT survey data for southern Africa). Concomitant with poor rainfall, a major constraint to crop production is poor soil fertility, caused by inherently poor soil quality and inappropriate soil management practices (Mapfumo and Giller, 2001;Sanchez,2002;Vanlauwe, 2003). Throughout Africa, negative nutrient balances for nitrogen and phosphorus have been found consistently in smallholder farming systems (Roy et al., 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"A good understanding of the farming systems is required in order to develop appropriate technological interventions to manage water and fertility (Twomlow et al., 2006;Mupangwa et al., 2006;Pretty et al., 2006). Some studies have been conducted to assess the dynamics (including nutrient management and resource allocation) of smallholder farming systems (Defoer et al., 1998;Briggs and Twomlow, 2002;Tittonell et al., 2005b;Zingore et al., 2006). Most previous studies were however conducted in medium to high rainfall areas. The few studies that have been conducted in the semi-arid regions of Africa were carried out in West Africa (Harris and Mortimore, 2005) close to a large urban population with strong market drivers and focused on nutrient flows. Data on resource allocation and use patterns in the semi-arid regions of southern Africa is limited to a few case studies (Scoones, 1997;Scoones, 2001;CAWMA, 2007;Ncube et al, 2008). This lack of development, particularly in southern Africa, is of growing concern from both an agricultural and environmental perspective. To address this lack of progress, two development paradigms from different scientific constituencies have evolved, somewhat independently, to improve land and water productivity. One championed by the International Agricultural Research constituency is Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM), whilst the second championed predominantly by Environmental and Civil Engineering constituencies is Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Despite similar objectives of working towards the millennium development goals of improved food security and environmental sustainability there exists a nexus between the constituencies of the two paradigms, particularly in terms of appreciating the lessons learned by each. In this paper lessons are drawn from past INRM research that may have particular relevance to IWRM scientists as they re-direct their focus from blue water issues to green water issues, and vice-versa."}]},{"head":"THE NEED FOR NEW CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL PRINCIPLES","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"Good management of natural resources is the key to good agriculture and rural development (Greenland et al., 1998;Ryan and Spencer, 1991;Pender et al., 2006;Pretty et al., 2006). This is true everywhere -and particularly in the semi-arid tropics (SAT), where over-exploitation of fragile or inherently vulnerable agroecosystems is leading to the degradation of land, soil and water resources. This degradation results in productivity decline, and increasing hunger and poverty. Modern crop varieties offer high yields -but the larger share of this potential yield can only be realized with good crop management (Twomlow et al., 2008). A plethora of NRM and IWRM technologies have been developed over the years -but adoption has been poor for various reasons, technical, environmental, socio-economic and institutional. Table 1 summarises what is currently known about the adoption of NRM/IWRM technologies, whilst Table 2 summarises some of the institutional and organizational constraints. Low adoption leads to low impact and failure to reach the goals of agricultural research investments (Ryan and Spencer, 2001;Freeman et al., 2002;Love et al., 2006;Pretty et al., 2006) and the MDGs (UN Millennium Project, 2005 )."}]},{"head":"Tables 1 and 2 here","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"There are several reasons for low impact of R&D investments and why smallholder farmers often do not invest in new technologies. First is the relative profitability and associated risk of the new technology under moisture limited and variable climatic conditions. Second, the need for site specific innovations that address farmer and market preferences and the diversity in the policy and institutional constraints, all which affect adoption (Pender et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Alternative conceptual frameworks and models of integration","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Both biophysical and socioeconomic factors are crucial in shaping research strategies and priorities (Harwood et al., 2006;Kassam, 2006;CAWMA, 2007). Research in developing countries has evolved in different phases. Agronomists and breeders have long been aware of genotype-environment interactions and the need to tailor technologies for specific eco-regions and the impacts of climate (see Table 3). There is now a growing realization that R&D efforts should be demand-driven and respond to the needs and priorities of smallholder farmers, their support agents as well as consumers and markets (Pender et al., 2006). Developing widely adaptable, acceptable products requires participatory approaches that involve end-users, stakeholders and target groups at all stages of technology development. It also requires proper monitoring and evaluation (M&E) that will help draw lessons from experience -reflective learning in project cycle parlance (Figure 2). A coalition of strategic partners, with complementary skills, is also needed for scaling out desirable innovations. A brief review of the different integrating models and their evolution is provided below. The five key elements of the INRM paradigm are summarized in Table 4 and the principles summarized in Figure 3."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Table 4 and Figure 3 here"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"In essence INRM tries to harmonize the complementary but often conflicting goals of production and environmental protection."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"There is a vast literature on NRM and on technology evaluation and adoption. Some recent publications include Barrett et al., 2002, Campbell and Sayer 2003, CIMMYT 2003, Douthwaite et al., 2003, Harwood and Kassam 2003, Perez and Tschinkel 2003, Pound et al., 2003, Shiferaw and Freeman 2003, 2005, Agricultural Systems vol 78, Campbell et al., 2006. The focus of much of this literature is on the integration of socioeconomic and biophysical issues, with little focus on the integration of the genetic dimension (Twomlow et a., 2008). Omission of the genetic component (both crop and livestock) in improved management of agroecosystems is contrary to the wider consensus to link natural resource management with livelihood strategies of smallholder farmers and other resource users."}]},{"head":"The Integrated water resources management paradigm (IWRM)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is a systems approach to water management, recognising the need to manage the entire water cycle and its interconnectivity (Figure 4). It stands on four fundamental principles: (i) water is a vulnerable and finite resource and must be managed sustainably, (ii) water is a (special) economic good, (iii) participatory management of water resource and (iv) the promotion of gender equity in water resource management (ICWE, 1992;Murenga, 2003;Savenije, 2003)."},{"index":2,"size":3,"text":"Figure 4 here"},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Both INRM and IWRM recognise their subjects of research as complex systems, that is systems consisting of a large number of components that are richly and non-linearly interconnected. The emergent properties of the system are not primarily a result of the nature of the components, but of the nature of interconnections (Cilliers, 1998). Such complexity requires research that is transdisciplinary and often transinstitutional (Bawa, 1997;Carnoy, 1998;Love et al., 2004). This is what is known as mode 2 knowledge production (Gibbons et al., 1994;Jansen, 2000)."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"One key difference that has arisen between purely INRM and purely IWRM studies is the issue of the scale or boundary for analyses and interventions. It is a fundamental IWRM principle that the basic unit is the catchment (hence the term \"integrated catchment management\"), while many INRM studies use a unit with social boundaries (e.g. village) as the scale for analysis (Lovell et al., 2002). Table 5 summarizes the biophysical and institutional boundaries that might be considered when addressing issues of scale."},{"index":5,"size":60,"text":"Boundaries are central to INRM because they specify the area over which jurisdictions apply, as well as the roles to which particular actors are assigned. Within this context there is also a need not only to understand the management and technical differences between irrigated and rainfed agriculture, and, the differences between formal and informal irrigation in semi-arid regions (Table 6)."},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"Table 5 and 6 Need for water resources assessments prior to food security interventions."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Many rural development initiatives, notably the Millennium Project, target the smallholder farming sector and emphasise irrigation (UN Millennium Project, 2005). However, water resource availability is limited in southern Africa and imposes a constraint on some food security interventions (Love et al., 2006b). Promoting irrigation technologies in the absence of an assessment of access to the required water can result in partial failure of the intervention (Moyo et al., 2006)."}]},{"head":"Water Quality Management for Irrigation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"Salinity is a major challenge to irrigation and is a common problem in alluvial aquifers of the Limpopo Basin. Many alluvial aquifers, especially smaller aquifers and those on river bank flood plains are characterised by high levels of sodium and chloride. This is an ambient condition, related to the geology of the aquifers, and threatens irrigated agriculture with equipment or crop failure. It necessitates the characterisation of boreholes and other water points as suitable or unsuitable for irrigation, prior to interventions such as drip kit distribution (Love et al., 2006a). The Lower Mzingwane alluvial aquifer is one such system, where agricultural production is constrained by salinity which has been found to increase significantly in the end of the dry season."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"During drought years, recharge is expected to be less and if the drought is extended water levels in the aquifers may drop substantially, increasing salinity problems (Love et al., in press). Catchment level management of the water quality problems is required, to develop a balance between low salinity surface water released for recharge, high salinity water in the flood plains aquifer and high salinity return flows from irrigation on the flood plains."}]},{"head":"Green water productivity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":224,"text":"Much of the current thinking about Green Water Productivity has been developed by Rockstrom et al (2006), with a strong emphasis on actual green water flows (evapotranspiration) and how we might improve productivity via different management interventions. Figure 5, adapted from Rockstrom et al (2006) indicates that when doubling yields from 1 to 2 t/ha in semi-arid tropical agro-ecosystems, green water productivity may improve from approximately 3500 m 3 /ton to less than 2000 m 3 /ton. This, as is correctly argued, is a result of the dynamic nature of water productivity improvements when moving from very low yields to higher yields. At low yields, crop water uptake is low and evaporative losses high, as the leaf area coverage of the soil is low, which together results in high losses of rainwater as evaporation from soil. However, little of this work was undertaken on farm, and none of it takes cognizance of the resource endowment of households and how this might influence crop management decisions and the inherent fertility of a households fields (e.g. Tittonell et al., 2005ab;Zingore et al., 2006;Ncube et al., 2008). Future work must take account of this heterogeneity, as crop responses to similar management interventions can differ markedly by resource group, as is shown in Figure 6 (Ncube et al.2007), and then imposed on the data presented in Figure 5."}]},{"head":"INRM/IWRM Convergence in the Management of Gold Panning","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"Gold panning is an intractable socio-environmental problem common in many developing countries (MMSD, 2002) where the co-occurrence of poverty and easily extractable alluvial gold leads to this livelihood strategy as an inevitable outcome. It is associated with a wide variety of negative impacts, including social problems such as violence and prostitution, erosion and chemical pollution (Maponga and Ngorima, 2003), especially the release of toxic mercury into the water, soils and air (Spiegel et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":243,"text":"A variety of studies in Zimbabwe have approached the problem. Shoko and Love (2005) adapt the INRM paradigm \"CAMPFIRE model\" to the management of gold panning and emphasise social structures, such as the village, as the locus of management. Zwane et al. (2006) apply the IWRM paradigm catchment planning model and focus on the hydrological catchment as the locus of management. There are important lessons to be learned from the application of both approaches to this type of problem. Both approaches converge in emphasising (i) community participation in management activities and decisions: the community-based natural resource management approach, (ii) functional decentralisation and (iii) transdisciplinary intra-governmental collaboration. The first emphasis encourages local ownership of the legal framework and saves monitoring costs (Shoko and Love, 2005;Tunhuma et al., in press). The second leads to decision making at the lowest appropriate level, where more context-specific details of the issue under consideration are available -or even obvious (Jaspers, 2003;Nare et al., 2006). The third allows for more informed decision-making and for harmonisation of different polices that may have different origins but address the same problem (Zwane et al., 2006). Furthermore, the case of gold panning shows that valid analysis of socio-environmental problems can (and should) be made at different spatial and disciplinary scales, and lessons drawn at each of these scales. Failing to recognise this level of complexity fails to do justice to the problem (Cilliers, 1998), which can result in an intervention being incomplete or misdirected."}]},{"head":"Concluding comment","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Production systems in the SAT are very complex and have evolved over generations in order to adapt to high variability and diverse biotic and abiotic stresses. In a risk-prone environment of southern Africa's smallholder sector, the nexus between rural poverty, population pressure and agro-ecosystem degradation (Templeton and Scherr 1999, Scherr 2000) further complicates research. The relative importance of land, labor and water as factors of production will also vary according to the population densities in a given production system. Also, the R&D strategy will have to vary according to the relative importance and scarcity of land, labor, water and capital. Where land is scarce (e.g. Malawi) and labor is relatively abundant, research should focus on technologies that improve land/waterproductivity and use labor to generate employment. Labor-saving options that also improve land/water productivity may be needed in areas of low population density where labor markets are poor and HIV/AIDS is a major issue (e.g. Zambia and Zimbabwe)."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"Social and economic diversity and failure to capture farmer/consumer preferences and market requirements are key factors constraining the adoption of innovations. Individual farmers and government ministries may have non-complementary (and sometimes conflicting) economic, social and environmental objectives. Farmers' economic and environmental objectives might depend on their comparative advantages and vulnerabilities to shocks; in turn determined by natural resource endowments, market access, government polices and social entitlements. For example, with unreliable or imperfect markets, farmers may not be in a position to adopt profitable and marketable varieties. The opportunities for intensification, diversification and commercialization of production will vary accordingly (Pender et al., 2006). In remote SAT areas that are poorly integrated to markets, perishables and high-value input-intensive crops may not be appropriate; whereas farmers closer to urban centers, processing plants and marketing points may benefit from such technologies. Also, comparative advantages are relatively dynamic, varying over time depending on changing infrastructure and market conditions. This will necessitate different R&D strategies for the short, medium and long-term; and periodic evaluation and refinement of growth opportunities and research priorities."},{"index":3,"size":242,"text":"In addition to markets, property rights, pricing policies and institutional arrangements can also influence the profitability and uptake of new innovations. Vulnerability to drought and other risks will differ across farm households depending on wealth, access to resources and ability to smooth consumption over time. Accordingly different groups of rural households may have differing capacities for buffering and managing risk and may require different types of technological and policy interventions. When the benefits from resource investments are unequally distributed or externalities affect the flow of benefits captured by farmers, it can hamper adoption and investment on such technologies. For example, households in the upper and downstream reaches of a watershed may have different incentives for land and water management investments. Yet it is essential each understands the needs of the other, and the off-site implications of future management decisions, particularly those taken in the upper catchments that influence flows to the lower reaches (CAWMA,2007). Likewise, developing integrated pest management (IPM) options requires collective, coordinated action amongst a group of farmers to combine occasional use of pesticides with crop rotation or intercropping of different crops or varieties and reduce pest resistance (Singh and Trivedi, 2005). Similarly, men and women farmers may have different constraints and priorities and preferences. Labordeficient households or those affected by AIDS may require special attention and targeting (Yamano and Jayne, 2004). Technology development needs to be fully cognizant of client needs and growing conditions in a given target region."},{"index":4,"size":441,"text":"Even when technologies are profitable under a given biophysical environment, uptake may be limited by policies and institutional factors including production and market risk (especially among risk-averse farmers). While developing new technologies, it is important to diagnose needs and limiting factors -biophysical and socioeconomic constraints, biotic and abiotic stress factors, resource conditions and market, policy and institutional factors. Experience has shown that a narrow disciplinary or commodity approach that fails to integrate all these dimensions will not succeed. • Farmers have different needs/constraints according to the external conditions they face and their internal characteristics. Therefore, the identification of a large number of NRM/WRM technologies or a basket of NRM/WRM technological options is critical for reaching a large number of farmers and communities. • There is an inherent dilemma between deliberate targeting of technologies to areas and social groups most likely to adopt and benefit from those technologies and the desire to make technology dissemination more demand driven. • The adoption of innovation processes by individual farmers and groups of farmers is often more important than the adoption of individual technologies. • NRM practices that improve soil fertility, raise production and prove profitable do exist • Farmers who recognize natural resource problems are not always induced to invest in improved NRM/WRM practices • Working-capital constraints or high opportunity costs of capital commonly limit investment in improved NRM/WRM practices. The linking of high value cash crops to cash investment therefore helps make such investments attractive. • Farmers will find ways to adopt/adapt new NRM/WRM technologies into their farming system when incentives are sufficiently high from their perspective. • Improved NRM/WRM technologies generally fail to be adopted by women farmers and poor farmers at the same rate as male farmers who enjoy greater wealth, education and socio-economic power. Where adoption by disadvantaged groups does take place concerted efforts have been made to reach these groups. • Few studies on the social cost and benefits of resource degradation or improvement. • Feedback mechanisms, such as monitoring and evaluation of the research process are not in place so that learning about how to improve the process is minimal or slow.  INRM must be based on a continuous dialog among stakeholders. Natural resource management is like jazz-it needs constant improvisation, each band member knows the weaknesses and strengths of the others, and they all learn how to play together. Researchers cannot remain exclusive: they need to engage in action research to develop appropriate solutions together with resource users. In this process researchers and resource users: (a) define subsystems, (b) reflect and negotiate on future scenarios, (c) take action, (d) evaluate and adapt attitudes, processes, technologies and practices."}]},{"head":"Multiple scales of analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"INRM attempts to integrate research efforts across spatial and temporal scales. This is because ecological and social processes take place over different time scales ranging from minutes to decades. Slow changing variables restrict the dynamics of more rapidly-cycling processes, and vice versa. As the system evolves, the dynamics of the different variables may experience sudden changes that reorganize the system. Usually these changes arise when the system reaches specific thresholds. In these reorganization points, it is impossible to predict how the system will self-organize. Understanding a system, rather than just describing it, usually requires studying that system plus other systems with which it interacts. Systems modeling is a practical approach to deal with variables that change more slowly than the length of a project. Modeling can also help farmers and other natural resource managers explore different scenarios, identify preferred ones, and then negotiate how to achieve them."}]},{"head":"Plausible promises","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"INRM needs a practical problem solving approach that delivers tangible outputs. There must be motivation for farmers to work together with researchers. This motivation comes from ideas and technologies that make a 'plausible promise' of being beneficial to farmers. Working together builds trust and leads to further learning, from which other possibilities flow. Monitoring and evaluation and impact assessment can help identify and improve what is working."}]},{"head":"Scaling out and up","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"INRM runs the risk of being criticized for only producing local solutions. However, if natural resource systems are characterized adequately (eg according to exogenous drivers as in the IITA Benchmark Area Approach - Douthwaite et al., 2005) then INRM can yield results that have application across broad ecoregional domains. While most INRM technologies cannot be scaled-out, some can be, together with the learning processes that allow rural people to identify and adapt new opportunities to their environments. INRM recognizes a difference between scaling-out (where an innovation spreads from farmer to farmer, community to community, within the same stakeholder groups) and scaling-up, which is an institutional expansion from grassroots organizations to policy makers, donors, development institutions, and other stakeholders key to building an enabling environment for change. The two are linked: scaling-out occurs faster if INRM projects plan and invest in engaging with stakeholders who can help promote project outputs and create an enabling environment for them. Iterative learning cycles that take place in participatory technology development processes can also help create an enabling environment through interaction, negotiation and co-learning among different stakeholders."}]},{"head":"Evaluation","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Evaluation is key to adaptive management because it provides the real-time feedback necessary for constant improvisation, learning and improving performance. Evaluation also provides data for further negotiation between stakeholders, and for resource allocation decisions. Stakeholders should agree on plausible strategies on how research will contribute to developmental change and then regularly monitor implementation of these strategies to feed into the learning cycle. Success criteria and indicators, agreed early on in a project, are the basis for impact assessment and negotiation amongst stakeholders for resource allocation decisions.  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 Figure 1 Variation in average rainfed maize grain yields with annual rainfall as affected by resource status of the farming system. ▲ Average Maize yields from Zimbabwe's Commercial Farms. ■ Average Maize yields from Zimbabwe's Communal Farms, ♦ Average Maize Yields from Chivi Communal area (source Mugabe pers comm.). "},{"text":"Figure 2 :Figure 5 :Figure 6 . Figure 2: An idealised learning cycle in R&D for natural resource management (Campbell et al., 2006) "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 3 and Figure 2 here The Integrated Natural Resource Management paradigm within International Agricultural Research (Adapted from   Twomlow et al., 2008) Twomlow et al., 2008) Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) is an attempt to build a new Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) is an attempt to build a new agricultural research and development paradigm to meet the challenges and opportunities agricultural research and development paradigm to meet the challenges and opportunities outlined above. Campbell et al., (2001) define INRM as 'a conscious process of outlined above. Campbell et al., (2001) define INRM as 'a conscious process of incorporating the multiple aspects of natural resource use (be they biophysical, incorporating the multiple aspects of natural resource use (be they biophysical, sociopolitical or economic) into a system of sustainable management to meet the sociopolitical or economic) into a system of sustainable management to meet the production goals of farmers and other direct users (e.g. food security, profitability, risk production goals of farmers and other direct users (e.g. food security, profitability, risk aversion) as well as the goals of the wider community (e.g. poverty alleviation, welfare of aversion) as well as the goals of the wider community (e.g. poverty alleviation, welfare of future generations, environmental conservation).' This new paradigm attempts to future generations, environmental conservation).' This new paradigm attempts to integrate various, but not necessarily multi-disciplinary, participatory R&D paradigms integrate various, but not necessarily multi-disciplinary, participatory R&D paradigms that include:  that include: -Participatory plant breeding -Participatory action research -Participatory plant breeding-Participatory action research -Farming systems research -Farmer led on-farm trials -Farming systems research-Farmer led on-farm trials -Farmer field schools -Integrated pest and disease management -Farmer field schools-Integrated pest and disease management -Community based NRM  -Community based NRM  "},{"text":"Table 1 : What we know about the adoption of Natutal Resource Management (NRM) and Water Resource Management (WRM) practices (adapted from Barrett et al., 2003)     "},{"text":"Table 2 . Common organizational problems in Natural Resource Management Research that also apply to Water Resource Management Research ( adapted from Ashby, 2003) • Lack of representation of key stakeholders in research process • Participation is not developed around clearly specified rights, roles and responsibilities • Mechanisms of accountability among participants are lacking, especially the accountability of researchers • Process too often corrupted by hidden agendas • Conflicts of interest are not made explicit or negotiated • Transaction costs of participation exceed the benefits to the participants, particularly households with low resource endowment  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Effect of climate variability on pearl millet crop performances and Integrated Genetic Natural Resource Management (IGNRM) options in Mali (adapted from ICRISAT 2006). Climate parameters Effects on crops and natural resources IGNRM Options  Late onset of rains Shorter rainy season, risk Early-maturing varieties, Late onset of rainsShorter rainy season, riskEarly-maturing varieties,  that long-cycle crops will exploitation of photoperiodism,P that long-cycle crops willexploitation of photoperiodism,P  run out of growing time fertilizer at planting run out of growing timefertilizer at planting Early drought Difficult crop P fertilizer at planting, water Early droughtDifficult cropP fertilizer at planting, water  establishment and need for harvesting and runoff control, delay establishment and need forharvesting and runoff control, delay  partial or total re-sowing sowing (but poor growth due to N partial or total re-sowingsowing (but poor growth due to N   flush), exploit seedling heat and flush), exploit seedling heat and   drought tolerance drought tolerance Mid-season drought Poor seed setting and Use of pearl millet variability: Mid-season drought Poor seed setting andUse of pearl millet variability:  panicle development, fewer differing cycles, high tillering panicle development, fewerdiffering cycles, high tillering  productive tillers, reduced cultivars, optimal root traits, etc; productive tillers, reducedcultivars, optimal root traits, etc;  grain yield per water harvesting and runoff control grain yield perwater harvesting and runoff control  panicle/plant  panicle/plant Terminal drought Poor grain filling, fewer Early-maturing varieties, optimal Terminal droughtPoor grain filling, fewerEarly-maturing varieties, optimal  productive tillers root traits, fertilizer at planting, productive tillersroot traits, fertilizer at planting,   water harvesting and runoff control water harvesting and runoff control Excessive rainfall Downy mildew and other Resistant varieties, pesticides, N Excessive rainfallDowny mildew and otherResistant varieties, pesticides, N  pests, nutrient leaching fertilizer at tillering pests, nutrient leachingfertilizer at tillering Increased Poor crop establishment Heat tolerance traits, crop residue IncreasedPoor crop establishmentHeat tolerance traits, crop residue temperature (dessication of seedlings), management, P fertilizer at planting temperature(dessication of seedlings),management, P fertilizer at planting  increased transpiration, (to increase plant vigor), large increased transpiration,(to increase plant vigor), large  faster growth number of seedlings per planting faster growthnumber of seedlings per planting   hill hill Unpredictability of See above Phenotypic variability, genetically Unpredictability ofSee abovePhenotypic variability, genetically drought stress  diverse cultivars drought stressdiverse cultivars Increased CO 2 2 levels Faster plant growth through increased photosynthesis, higher transpiration Promote positive effect of higher levels through better soil fertility management Increased CO 2 2 levelsFaster plant growth through increased photosynthesis, higher transpirationPromote positive effect of higher levels through better soil fertility management Increased occurrence Seedlings buried and Increase number of seedlings per Increased occurrenceSeedlings buried andIncrease number of seedlings per of dust storms at damaged by sand particles planting hill, mulching, ridging of dust storms atdamaged by sand particlesplanting hill, mulching, ridging onset of rains  (primary tillage) onset of rains(primary tillage) Increased dust in the Lower radiation, reduced Increase nutrient inputs (i.e. K) Increased dust in theLower radiation, reducedIncrease nutrient inputs (i.e. K) atmosphere photosynthesis  atmospherephotosynthesis  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Five key elements of Integrated Natural Resource Management (adapted from Douthwaite et al 2004) 1. Learning together for change   "}],"sieverID":"c0ed7d0c-2487-42a2-8e64-511e7eef5081","abstract":"The low productivity of smallholder farming systems and enterprises in the drier areas of the developing world is attributed mainly to the limited resources of farming households, and the application of inappropriate skills and practices that can lead to the degradation of the natural resource base. This lack of development, particularly in southern Africa, is of growing concern from both an agricultural and environmental perspective. To address this lack of progress, two development paradigms from different scientific constituencies have evolved, somewhat independently, to improve land and water productivity. One championed by the International Agricultural Research constituency is Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM), whilst the second championed predominantly by Environmental and Civil Engineering constituencies is Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Despite similar objectives of working towards the millennium development goals of improved food security and environmental sustainability there exists a nexus between the constituencies of the two paradigms, particularly in terms of appreciating the lessons learned. In this paper lessons are drawn from past INRM research that may have particular relevance to IWRM scientists as they re-direct their focus from blue water issues to green water issues, and vice-versa. One point that is abundantly clear from both constituencies is that 'one-size-fits-all' or silver bullet solutions that are generally applicable for the enhancement of blue water management/formal irrigation simply do not exist for the smallholder rainfed systems."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0c90d9d768c08200837191338875eb6b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2828e167-8f85-413b-9b94-264118ad88bb/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"More than seed: Multiple functions of community seed banks","keywords":["Cover photo: Farmers exchange seed at the seed fair in Nawalparasi","Nepal","May 2019. Credit: Bioversity International/R.Vernooy"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"\"The people had forgotten about many local varieties but thanks to our community seed banks, these seeds are available once again. People have learned the importance of cultivating these varieties. Knowledge and skills of seed production and seed handling have been increased and practices such as vermicompost and farmyard manure improvement technologies, which use less chemicals, have been promoted, leading to producing healthier food. The income of women and marginal farm families has increased and employment for youth has also been generated.\""},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Naramaya Karki, a member of the Shivagunj Community Seed Bank."},{"index":3,"size":262,"text":"Despite several challenges, such as securing sustainability of the community seed banks, the journey continues with much optimism. 23 functional community seed banks have recently come together and formed a national association to become stronger and more effective in their work through learning, sharing and supporting each other beyond the community level. CSBAN has developed a strategy for the coming five years based on their vision to maintain and harness Nepal's rich agricultural biodiversity for human health and well-being, representing, promoting and defending the interests of all community seed banks in the country. While the Association is taking shape institutionally, it has already initiated many activities and raised awareness among the general public. Key functions include: i) promoting and supporting the production and marketing of farmers' varieties and ii) facilitating access to seed technologies, equipment and tools. CSBAN has also established a seed database and maintains an on-line catalogue of varieties available from community seed banks. This is probably the first such association anywhere in the world. In 2019, the Association also organized a trip to community seed banks in Bangladesh. Inspired by the efforts of UBINIG (Policy Research for Development Alternative, Bangladesh; see UBINIG 2018, for more information), a member representing Purkot community seed bank has taken the lead to start a 'Kosheli Ghar', literally a gift shop of popular local food items produced using local varieties, in collaboration with the municipality and agricultural extension agency. The community seed bank aims to eventually produce branded food items. CSBAN will promote and support this initiative to add value to local crop diversity."}]},{"head":"The Association: A first of its kind","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"\"The Association has a big role to play and a long way to go to achieve its goal. We need to work hard to strengthen the capacity of community seed banks, scale up, register local varieties in the name of community seed banks, and ensure farmers' rights to seeds.\" Sitaram Bajgain, Association member. "}]},{"head":"'Our Seed': A novel seed app","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":181,"text":"In 2019, the Association developed a novel mobile app 'Hamro Biu', literally 'Our Seed' in Nepali. The app is an online seed catalogue or digital inventory of the local crop varieties and related information conserved and promoted by the Association members. As at the end of 2019, the member community seed banks have conserved 1,620 varieties of 75 species. The app lists all member community seed banks, their crops, local varieties conserved and promoted and a short description of the variety with a photograph and member contact details. This allows interested farmers, gardeners, custodians and other community seed banks, who have access to the internet, to communicate with the relevant contact and request seeds and planting materials instantly. As of February 2020, the app contains information and photographs of 704 local varieties collected from 12 community seed banks ranging from 24 to 129 varieties per community seed bank. The app can be downloaded from the 'Google Play Store' (Android system). This is a unique tool in terms of promoting conservation, use and dissemination of knowledge and information about the local varieties. "}]},{"head":"Popularizing local seed: Facilitating seed exchange","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Assessing community seed banks: Star rating system","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"With support from LI-BIRD, CSBAN has developed and piloted a novel method to categorize community seed banks using a five-star classification system, which aims to value, reward and encourage community seed banks to develop their capacities. Standard rating criteria has been developed including: i) the number of local varieties conserved, ii) the quantity of seed produced annually, iii) governance structure and iv) the number of farmers accessing seed. Of 23 community seed banks that were assessed, five did not get any star as most of them had recently started, six community seed banks got one star, seven got two stars and three got three stars. The latter community seed banks are Shivaguj Community Seed Bank, Jhapa; Kachorwa Community Seed Bank, Bara and Agyauli Community Seed Bank, Nawalparasi. Based on the decision of the board of CSBAN, these three community seed banks have been awarded with 100,000 Nepalese rupees each (approximately US$1,000). CSBAN plans to assess and reward community seed banks on an annual basis."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"\"This [star classification] is a great initiative. All community seed banks are not at the same stage of development. This needs to be understood by all and plans developed to progress following the path of the pioneering seed banks. The classification and award system have helped us to plan and move further as we just got three stars and we can aim to get four or five stars.\""},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Dilli Paudel, chairperson of the Shivagunj Community Seed Bank."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The award money has been used for digital devices such as a computer, printer and photocopy machine to make day-to-day work more efficient, to digitalize the data and information of local varieties conserved and for keeping of accounts. This classification method shows members the path to progress to a better-managed community seed bank to deliver quality services and encourages them to move ahead."}]},{"head":"Recognition from the formal system","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"With a growing realization among local and provincial governments of the importance of community seed banks, CSBAN is receiving national recognition and increased resources are being allocated to strengthen community seed banks to promote conservation and use of agricultural biodiversity. This is based on the complementary functionality of community seed banks, which, together with the national genebank, could constitute a national crop conservation system.  "}]},{"head":"The road ahead","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The Association wishes to further expand its activities to promote on-farm management of agricultural biodiversity. There are very few organizations in Nepal working on, and none specializing in or dedicated to, onfarm conservation. So far, related research and development work is largely funded with support from external agencies. This presents an opportunity for CSBAN, with initial support from these external agencies, to investigate the market potential of food items produced using local varieties. Setting aside some of the profit generated from the business would further promote the conservation and use of local varieties and provide an opportunity to develop a sustainable selffinancing mechanism. Joining forces has raised these Nepali community seed banks to a new level and it is hoped that their experience will inspire other community seed banks to create national networks that contribute to the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture around the world."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Photo 1 : Photo 1: Part of the seed collection of the Kachorwa Community Seed Bank in Bara, Nepal. Credit: LI-BIRD/P.Shrestha "},{"text":" Photo 2: Representatives of community seed banks at the first national gathering in Nepal, March 2013. Credit: LI-BIRD/P.Shrestha "},{"text":"Photo 4 : Photo 4: Purkot seed exchange festival, February 2020, Tanahun, Nepal. Credit: LI-BIRD/P.Shrestha "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4813ddc8-cb87-4cd4-a7d3-1be5a2ee8d7b","abstract":"Community seed banks in Nepal have a long and rich history spanning more than 25 years. There are over 40 community seed banks in the country, whose core function is to maintain seeds for local use, but many have other functions. A community seed bank cannot be registered as an independent legal entity in the country, but organized farmers can set up a civil society organization or a cooperative under which the community seed bank can be \"housed.\" This gives the farmers a certain degree of organizational power. The community seed banks can function as a nodal institution at the community level. They provide multiple services including: i) involvement in community development activities; ii) supply to a large number of farmers quality seeds and planting materials of traditional varieties and farmer-preferred improved varieties; iii) credit facility to implement income-generating activities; iv) management of source seed for seed production; v) bridging of local government and extension agencies to farmers; and vi) technical support. With technical and facilitation support from various organizations, participatory plant breeding, in which farmers and plant breeders work together, is becoming an integral part of the community seed banks in Nepal. Women play key roles in the management and activities of the community seed banks. They raise awareness, mobilize farmers and organize meetings and fairs."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d45260e7d6435780e6956f6202c0e98","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/8c805e7e-bc3b-4175-9762-a6bf1668b4f1/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Activities of Safe Food, Fair Food 2 project in the East African Community, 2014","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"67b13d4c-e864-4f79-b583-e74c7ee3b158","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d6b05c78456393a6c036cacfcecc2b7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aafb5297-f2f7-466b-9948-0494d340acaf/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"Nutrition-and Gender-Sensitive Agrifood Systems in the Mekong Delta, Cambodia: A case study of three interventions","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Executive summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Nutrition and food systems transformation have been prioritised as essential opportunities to support continuing social and economic development for the nation and the well-being of the Cambodian population. Apart from policies, the government has demonstrated commitment to the transformation of food systems. While achieving rapid development, structural changes have happened to the agricultural sector, posing challenges to promoting food and nutrition security. In the Mekong Delta, food insecurity among local people remains high. To address these challenges to produce a healthy population, the enhancement of nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems is critical in this context. The interventions and projects have been undertaken with support from the government, development partners and civil society organisations. This case study assessed three nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food systems interventions in the Mekong Delta to understand how the interventions support equitable and sustainable consumption and production of nutritious foods; and identify opportunities and gaps to increase equitable and sustainable consumption and production and consumption of nutritious foods in the Mekong Delta region of Cambodia."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"In this study, three projects in the Mekong Delta were studied: (i) the project implemented by WorldFish Cambodia, (ii) Helen Keller International's project, and (iii) the project of Heifer International Cambodia. Each project had different characteristics targeting nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems. The project, implemented by WorldFish Cambodia, has both specific nutrition and nutrition-sensitive activities to cope with malnutrition among children under five and food production. Helen Keller International's project aims to promote food and nutrition security among vulnerable people through access to diverse nutrient rich foods at a committed price. Heifer International Cambodia is working to increase farmers' income by enhancing backyard chicken production and value chains."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"The case studies find that nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food system interventions focused largely on the capacity building of farmers to improve productivity. Capacity building uses various approaches to increase production and reduce the use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture. While also providing input distribution, such as seeds, compost fertilisers, and financial contribution. Producer groups were created and put under the management of ACs. Contract farming received attention from the project while focusing on the capacity building of ACs to be the agri-enterprise on the ground. All projects also deal with crossing issues in the Mekong Delta region including women inclusion and empowerment, youth inclusion, natural resource management and climate change."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Based on the study, some of the gaps identified were related to clear monitoring and evaluation of food and nutrition security indicators beyond production and income, as well as more comprehensive nutrition and behaviour change activities. It is important that interventions in the Mekong are connected and complementary to each other and ensure that farmers and consumers benefit from those interventions directly or indirectly in terms of food availability, access, and consumption of diverse and quality foods. The recommendations to enhance nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems were related to: (i)"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Development in Cambodia has made significant progress over the last ten years. The Kingdom graduated from low to middle-income status in 2015. The government continues making conscious efforts to build a more robust economic foundation, promote a healthy workforce, and enhance the investment climate in the country. As of 2018, the GDP per capita rose significantly to US$1,561, projected to rise to $1,754 in 2022 (NIS, 2023). The poverty rate has declined considerably from 36.7% in 2014 to 16.6% in 2022 (Alkire, Kanagaratnam, & Suppa, 2023). The government set an ambitious goal to become an upper-middle-income country by 2030 and a high-income nation by 2050. In the process of healthy workforce enhancement, the government has reformed its institutions and has been working closely with development partners, civil society organisations, and other societal actors. The collaboration has yielded policies and regulations that promote food and nutrition security nationwide. As of 12 December 2023, 386 projects have been implemented with the support of development partners (CDC, 2023)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"Nutrition and food systems transformation have been prioritised as essential opportunities to support continuing social and economic development for the nation and the well-being of the Cambodian population. Apart from policies, the government has demonstrated commitment to the transformation of food systems through leadership in the National Food Systems Dialogues in 2021 and the development of Cambodia's Roadmap for Food Systems for Sustainable Development 2030. Moreover, the government put them in the Seventh Legislature of the RGC's Pentagonal Strategy-Phase 1 for Growth, Employment, Equity, Efficiency, and Sustainability, emphasising human capital development as the first Pentagon and includes priorities around promoting a healthy diet for all and strengthening food systems so that they are robust, intelligent, resilient, and inclusive. Cambodia actively participated in the UN Food Systems Summit +2 Stocktaking Moment in Rome in 2023. Currently, the government is developing a strategic plan for food security and nutrition for 2024 -2028."},{"index":3,"size":289,"text":"In the face of this rapid development, the country, especially the Mekong Delta is extremely vulnerable to sea-level rise, other agricultural production challenges such as soil infertility, pest and diseases and inadequate access to inputs and infrastructure. This is further aggravated by structural changes in the agricultural sector (Chuon, 2021), posing challenges in ensuring food and nutrition security. The rural population that is either making a living from or engaging in agriculture, has declined dramatically from 80% in 2008 (NIS & MoP, 2009) to 61% in 2019 (NIS & MoP, 2020). Households with agricultural land decreased from 75% in 2013 (NIS & MoP, 2015) to 57% in 2020 (NIS, MoP, & MoAFF, 2020). On average, the number of parcels per holding was estimated at 1.8 in 2020 and 2.5 in 2013 (NIS et al., 2020). As of 2020, only 14% of households in the household agricultural holdings have only home lots, and 86% have both parcels and home lots (NIS et al., 2020). Interestingly, 61% of households produce agricultural products mainly for home consumption and 39% for sale. For crop production, 47% of farming households had less than one hectare in 2013; however, this figure increased to 51% in 2020 (NIS et al., 2020). The proportion of employed labour in the sector declined from 71.3% in 2008 to 53.4% in 2019 (NIS & MoP, 2020). According to (NIS et al., 2020), only 13% of holdings reported that income from agriculture was higher than the previous year, while 31% reported a decline in income or similar income compared to the previous year (NIS et al., 2020). These changes could further encourage more rural people to migrate for work in other sectors, either within the country or abroad for higher incomes."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Food insecurity among local people remains a challenge for stakeholders, particularly the government. Due to economic vulnerability, 25% of Cambodian households were vulnerable to food insecurity in 2019/2020. Since 2017, 23% of its population did not have the economic capacity to respond to their essential needs in the same period. Approximately 3% of households could not meet food needs (NIS & WFP, 2022). Also, food consumption in female-headed households in 2019/2020 was even worse than in households that are IDPoor 1 . Forty-eight per cent of household expenditures were spent on food and non-alcoholic beverages (NIS & MoP, 2022). In 2019/2020, 29% of those in the rural areas were marginally food secure, while 1% faced moderate food insecurity (NIS & WFP, 2022)."},{"index":5,"size":349,"text":"In addition to this, with increasing incomes, food consumption practices are also shifting significantly, contributing to all forms of malnutrition, and increasing the risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Compared to previous years, the consumption of fats and sugars increased considerably in 2019/2020 (NIS & WFP, 2022). Approximately 80% of calories consumed in Cambodia come from rice and sugar, with inadequate consumption of nutrient-dense foods (World Food Programme, UNICEF, Development, & (CARD), 2023). In 2019/2020, consumption of vegetables mainly green leafy vegetables and foods rich in vitamin A and heme-iron decreased, especially in urban areas (NIS & WFP, 2022). Currently, Cambodian people are confronting four major NCDs, including cardiovascular disease, cancer, chronic respiratory disease, and diabetes (MoH, 2018). As of 2021, 7.3% of the population ages 20-79 have diabetes (World Bank, 2023). In 2014, NCDs caused 52% of deaths nationwide, and this is projected to increase (MoH, 2018). More significantly, micronutrient deficiencies impact women as they have higher needs during childbearing. A lack of sufficient nutrients in women leads to lower birth weights and higher child mortality (NIS & WFP, 2022). Good nutrition is the bedrock of child survival, growth, and development. In 2019/2020, almost one in five households did not regularly consume food rich in heme-iron (including fish, meat, and poultry), and more than one in four households did not regularly eat foods rich in vitamin A (such as orange fruits and vegetables), which poses a risk for the normal functioning of the immune system, body growth and development, as well as reproduction. Regarding the nutritional status of women, 4% of women aged 20-49 and 14% of young women aged 15-19 years are stunted. In addition, 7% of women aged 20-49 and 29% aged 15-19 years are underweight. Women's dietary practices showed that 57% consumed food from at least five of the 10 recommended food groups (minimum dietary diversity) the previous day, 63% consumed sweet beverages, and 33% consumed unhealthy foods. Around 22% of children under five years of age are stunted, 10% are wasted, 16% are underweight, and 4% are overweight (NIS, MoH, & The DHS Program, 2023)."},{"index":6,"size":153,"text":"A recent study found that food insecurity among local people remains high in the Mekong Delta (WorldFish, 2023). Prey Veng and Svay Rieng have 10%-20% of the population that cannot afford a nutritious food basket (World Food Programme et al., 2023). Landlessness among locals remains a challenge while addressing other related matters. In the Mekong plain, 59% of household agricultural holdings have only a home lot (higher than national figure, 14%), and 30% have both home lots and parcels (lower than national figure, 86%). The average number of parcels in the region per holding is estimated at 2.2. Approximately 90% of households grow crops, followed by livestock, poultry and/or insect raising (72%) and aquaculture and capture fish activities (14%) (NIS & MoP, 2020). However, only 39% of the agricultural households in the zone could produce agricultural products mainly for sale. Only 11% earned a higher income than last year (NIS & MoP, 2020)."},{"index":7,"size":63,"text":"Moreover, food consumption behaviours have changed significantly. Around 20% of the current dietary consumption is unhealthy food (9% alcohol, 6% energy drinks, and 4% spices and oil) (WorldFish, 2023). The same study also found that 35% of the food budget was spent on foods prepared outside the home, alcohol, and energy drinks, mainly accessed from the markets within the village and mobile vendors."},{"index":8,"size":61,"text":"To address these challenges to produce a healthy population, the enhancement of nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems is critical, especially in the Mekong Delta context. Several interventions and projects have been undertaken with support from the government, development partners and civil society organisations. However, understanding these interventions in with a nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food systems lens remains limited, especially those in the Mekong Delta."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"This case study assessed three nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food systems interventions in the Mekong Delta to:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"1. Identify interventions supporting equitable and sustainable consumption and production of nutritious foods in deltas in the face of rapid change."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"2. Understand how the interventions support equitable and sustainable production and consumption of nutritious foods 3. Identify opportunities and gaps to increase equitable and sustainable production and consumption of nutritious foods in the Mekong Delta region of Cambodia."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Projects for the case study were identified from a previously conducted scoping study of nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food systems interventions in the Mekong Delta in 2023. The scoping study included projects that may have recently ended (102 years), nearing completion or in the middle of implementation. The projects were required to clearly include at least 1 of the agricultural components such as food production, processing, or supply, and at least 1 of the food environment components such as food availability, accessibility, affordability, consumption, and nutrition status."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The scoping study included 12 projects (published separately), from which three projects were selected to further understand the nutrition-and gender-sensitive approaches. To ensure representation, the selection sought projects conducted by the following: (i) research and development organisations (CGIAR, other research organisations); (ii) nongovernmental organisations (NGOs); and (iii) government."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"The interventions in the Mekong Delta were assessed to understand the key components of nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-systems. The interviews with respective organisations were conducted, and some information relied on secondary data such as reports produced by that organisation and related documents. The interviews looked at the following aspects of the projects:"},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Scope of the interventions: objectives; target beneficiaries; location; timeframe; partners and their roles; and multi-sectoral approaches"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"• Areas of the food system (themes and subthemes) and corresponding activities 2 : sustainable food production and supply chains; equal and equitable access to healthy diets; and transparent, democratic, and accountable governance"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• Nutrition-sensitive agri-food system-related actions: food groups, availability, accessibility, utilisation, and consumption of diverse and nutrient dense foods"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"• Gender-sensitive actions: gender, youth, and social inclusion"},{"index":8,"size":13,"text":"• Monitoring and evaluation of indicators related to food production, nutrition, and gender"},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"• Progress or impact of the project on food production, access, consumption, and nutrition outcomes"},{"index":10,"size":17,"text":"• Best practices for designing and implementing interventions with impact on nutrition and gender and policy recommendations"},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"• Opportunities and gaps to increase a) the availability, access, and consumption of nutritious foods, b) impact of the interventions on food and nutrition security of people in the Mekong delta and c) impact on gender and social inclusion and benefits (."},{"index":12,"size":84,"text":"In addition to this analysis, after the case study was drafted and shared with each organisation for feedback and comments. In this regard, the country director of each organisation provided further comments to improve the case study. Furthermore, a consultation workshop with stakeholders was organized to present the findings of the case studies and obtain feedback. All feedback was used the insights of the study. The following descriptions illustrate each case study guided by nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems principles and critical dimensions of food systems."}]},{"head":"Case study 1: Community Fish Refuge in Cambodia","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Background and scope"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"The fishing industry in Cambodia plays an essential role in the country's economy, accounting for 8-12% and 25-30% of the total national and agricultural GDP (Un, Chheng, Tress, Baran, & Simpson, 2014). The industry engages an estimated 4.5 million individuals in fishing and related activities (Un et al., 2014). Consequently, around 60-70% of the country's total animal protein consumption is provided by fish and other aquatic creatures, crucial to food security and nutrition. Out of the total fish production in 2013, 550,000 metric tons were caught in freshwater environments, with rice field fisheries and small-scale family fisheries contributing roughly 20% (Brooks & Sieu, 2016). In addition, rice field fisheries in Cambodia serve as a source of income. They are vital to securing food and nutrition security, especially at the household level in rural areas of the country."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"In the Tonle Sap region, rice field fisheries supply 62% of the fish families consume (Shieh, Eam, Kim, et al., 2021)."},{"index":4,"size":168,"text":"The establishment and management of Community Fish Refuge (CFR) represents a valuable method for boosting fish productivity and biodiversity in this essential fisheries system and as a permanent aquatic habitat integrated into the rice field landscape (Figure 1). By carefully managing the refuge through habitat enhancements and safeguarding it from fishing activities, it has the potential to increase fish populations in rice field fishing zones, ultimately enhancing local households' access to fish resources (Shieh, Eam, Sok, et al., 2021) Figure 1: World Fish' representation of how rice field fisheries work (Kim et al., 2019) Recognising the importance of CFRs, WorldFish, a CGIAR research for development international organisation, has worked with the Fisheries Administration (FiA) (since 2012 to pilot and scale out strategies and best practices in CFR areas designed by FiA, World Vegetable Center, and the Feed the Future Cambodia NOURISH project (Save the Children), that included five (5) local NGOs and three (3) universities. CFRs in the Mekong Delta are managed by the Department of Fisheries Administration."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The Feed the Future Cambodia Rice Field Fisheries II project was conducted to implement CFR activities on nutrition and gender. This project focused on replicating and scaling out best practices on CFR management, including efficient water use integration of homestead food production and promoting consumption of nutrient-rich small fish from CFRs."},{"index":6,"size":158,"text":"The CFR project of WorldFish was conducted in four (4) provinces around Tonle Sap -Kampong Thom, Siem Reap, Battambang and Pursat. This project generally aimed to improve the food and nutrition security of poor and vulnerable rural households in the country by improving the productivity and availability of rice field fisheries. Specifically, it aimed to establish the impacts of incorporating nutrition and gender activities into CFR management on households and communities, improve the consumption of aquatic foods, grains and vegetables for human consumption and improve the productivity of rice field fisheries in the area (Shieh, Eam, Kim, et al., 2021) The project was implemented from 2016 to 2021, with a total budget of 7 million USD, including 1 million USD for health and nutrition from the USAID. The project targeted approximately 200,000+ beneficiaries composed of smallholder fish farmers, poor households with pregnant women, children under five years old and youth (including schoolchildren) (Shieh, Eam, Kim, et al., 2021)."}]},{"head":"Main commodities and activities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The project focused on three (3) main food commodities-vegetables, grains, and aquatic foods (natural and wild brood fish). It included capacity-building activities such as training on food processing, home vegetable production, CFR development and management and awareness raising, particularly on proper food handling and production for improved consumption and nutrition of children in the first 1000 days"},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"The project activities included nutrition-specific topics covering exclusive breastfeeding, infant and young child feeding practices, and nutrition-sensitive activities focusing on nutrition, water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), targeting women/caregivers and youth. There were also mentoring activities on homestead food production to improve household consumption of vegetables."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"In addition, quantitative and qualitative surveys and site visits were conducted to document the experiences of the communities before, during and after the implementation of CFR management interventions in the four provinces around Tonle Sap."}]},{"head":"Nutrition-sensitive agri-food system actions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Nutrition-sensitive agriculture is a strategy of integrating nutrition into agricultural activities by prioritising the production and consumption of nutritionally rich and diverse foods to overcome all forms of malnutrition-wasting, stunting, overweight and obesity, and micronutrient deficiencies. In this project, the production, consumption and processing of nutrient-dense and diverse vegetables, grains and aquatic foods were highlighted and used as a strategy to fight all forms of malnutrition at the communityand household-level affecting women and children under five. To attain the objectives, activities were conducted targeting women/caregivers and youth."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Mentoring activities on homestead food production and nutrition education activities were conducted to improve household production and consumption of vegetables."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Training of women/caregivers was conducted to improve knowledge, attitude, and practices related to the consumption of fish and its nutritional benefits at the household level. The project also provided beneficiaries with financial resources such as, start-up kits for small fish processing, grinder and plastic jars, and training on CFR management best practices. As well as integrated nutrition education and homestead gardening to increase households' access to available aquatic food rich in vitamins and minerals."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"Other nutrition-sensitive activities around water, sanitation and hygiene, or WASH, were also implemented to improve health, hygiene and nutrition knowledge and practices among household members in the target communities."}]},{"head":"Gender and youth inclusion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Women are pivotal in small-scale fisheries, yet their contributions are often undervalued and overlooked. Despite the significant involvement of women in various fisheriesrelated activities, encompassing both pre-and post-harvest tasks, the field of fisheries management remains predominantly male-dominated."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"This persistent gender disparity prevails, even though many women aspire to hold leadership and decision-making positions within management committees. These positions are critical for enhancing livelihoods, building capacity, and ensuring the sustainable management of fisheries resources for future generations. To address this issue, the project undertook steps to engage and empower women (Figure 2). They actively involved women in household visioning processes and integrated them into CFR committees. As part of this effort, targeted women were equipped with knowledge and skills in various areas, including the consumption and processing of small fish, gardening, and WASH practices (Shieh J, Eam D, Kim M. et al, 2021). A total of 2,640 women were trained on Rice Field Fisheries Enhancement and Food Nutrition topics."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Aside from women, more than 5,000 youth (including schoolchildren) were also engaged in awareness-raising activities focusing on consuming nutrient-rich and diverse foods, including fish from CFR and vegetables from homestead gardening. This activity provided the youth with information and background on healthy and diverse dietary practices to support the knowledge and skills imparted to their households through the caregivers."}]},{"head":"Figure 2: WorldFish's Theory of Change for nutrition and gender activities in rice field fisheries","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monitoring and evaluation","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"To monitor and evaluate the project, assessment activities were undertaken at different stages, including baseline, midline, and endline activities to determine the impact on food production, access, availability, and consumption at the community and household levels. These assessments encompassed a range of methods, such as surveys, in-person and virtual interviews, focus group discussions, and CFR capacity assessments (self-reported)."},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"These activities were essential for gauging the progress and impact of the CFR initiative on food production-assessed by examining the increase in fish catchment within the ponds, as recorded by the CFR committee and observed through surveys conducted by field officers. Moreover, the assessments were aimed to ascertain the project's impact on food access and availability. The project's influence on food consumption and nutritional outcomes was assessed, focusing on the practices of caregivers in nearby households and the beneficiaries. This evaluation delved into the consumption of small fish and other produce (Shieh, Eam, Kim, et al., 2021)."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Quantitative and qualitative activities were conducted to assess the impact of the CFR as a nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems intervention. Quantitative tools such as dietary diversity tool, 7-day recall of the household's fishing activities, and Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) survey (covering topics on (1) the global food insecurity experience scale, (2) nutrition among adults and children, (3) sources of food, preparation, cooking and storage, (4) water source, and (5) defecation practices) were translated to Khmer and used for the project."}]},{"head":"Project progress and best practices","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The project generated evidence highlighting the substantial impact of establishing CFRs on the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of women, men, and other household members concerning household food production and consumption of nutrient dense foods, food safety, and related activities that contribute to the achievement of the project's nutritional outcomes."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Notable improvements were observed among the respondents after receiving comprehensive training on homestead garden and CFR management, WASH practices, and other community-awareness activities. Beneficiaries and other implementers reported an increased availability and access to fish in rice fields for consumption and income. The project also improved households' access to small indigenous fish species, a good source of nutrients, including protein and micronutrients. This was because they were able to catch fish near their households. More than 90% of the participants showed enhanced awareness and knowledge regarding food safety, with the majority learning essential practices such as covering food, avoiding contact with animals near food, and storing cooked dishes in a hygienic environment."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Furthermore, the results highlighted the promising potential of CFRs. These communitybased resources demonstrated their ability to sustain and enhance fish production in rice fields, with potential positive impacts on the livelihoods of landless individuals with limited resources."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"The implementation of the WorldFish CFR project yielded several notable best practices, demonstrating its positive impact on the community:"},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"1. Value Addition: The project went beyond simply establishing CFRs. It also provided materials and trainings on processing small fish, encouraging the consumption of nutrient-rich small fish powder by children under five in the community. Furthermore, some households/families leveraged these new skills as a source of income through selling dry powder to their neighbours, contributing to the alleviation of micronutrient deficiencies in children across the country."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"2. Nutrition Education: Community Awareness Raising initiatives conducted as part of the project have significantly influenced community members' knowledge and skills in terms of proper nutrition. This extended to the production and consumption of nutrient-dense and diverse foods sourced from rice fields and home gardens. Through Social and Behaviour Change Communication activities, a total of 213,138 people (51.5% women) improved their consumption of small indigenous fish at home (WorldFish, 2021). Additionally, the project improved the community's understanding of the importance of effective CFR management, fostering a higher level of compliance with the new regulations set by the CFR committee."}]},{"head":"Gender and Nutrition:","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The project recognised the pivotal role of women in its successful implementation. The inclusion of women in capacity-building activities and in CFR management empowered them to participate more actively in decision-making processes and committee activities. This not only enhanced women's knowledge and skills but also led to improved attitudes and practices related to small fish consumption at the household level, which would later result in the improved nutritional status of members of the household."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The project demonstrated the potential of fish conservation in improving food security and nutrition at both community and household levels by increasing the accessibility and availability of aquatic foods. When scaled up, this approach could significantly enhance the country's food security and nutritional situation, with a reduced reliance on imported food items with lower nutrient content."}]},{"head":"Project challenges","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"With the CFR as a nutrition-sensitive agricultural intervention, several challenges impeded the project's ability to have a more significant nutrition impact. These were identified as climate-related, knowledge-based and linked to migration."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"First, an extended period of drought in the CFR areas from 2019 to 2020 led to the drying up of some ponds, causing a decline in fish productivity. Consequently, the consumption of nutrient-rich small fish by project beneficiaries decreased. However, the project seized this opportunity to introduce innovative strategies, including deepening the ponds to ensure water availability even in the absence of rainfall and planting trees to enhance the fish habitat, ultimately resulting in increased fish survival rates."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Second, knowledge gaps among some beneficiaries regarding CFR management and homestead production posed a challenge. Some households were uncertain about the project's objectives and activities, which affected their willingness to participate. To address this, community awareness-raising activities, such as household visioning sessions related to homestead food production, were initiated."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"Furthermore, the issue of migration emerged as a challenge, particularly concerning activities that required the involvement of both husbands and wives as beneficiaries. Migration, often involving men relocating to cities or neighbouring provinces, affected the effective dissemination of crucial knowledge and skills related to food production and consumption, essential for improving food security and nutrition within households. It is worth noting that the migration of men to work in cities is also associated with the different drivers of the food environment and barriers to food security and nutrition."},{"index":5,"size":39,"text":"Acknowledging these challenges, the project developed activities to support the effective implementation of established CFRs. Nevertheless, it's essential to recognise that these challenges likely continue to impact the effectiveness of nutrition-and gender-sensitive agricultural interventions and need to further exploration."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"Case study 2: Promoting Food Security, Nutrition, and Livelihood of Poor Farming Families in the Face of Inflation Crisis and Food System Changes"}]},{"head":"Background and scope","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"In the context of the inflation crisis and food system changes, smallholder farmers and impoverished farming families face challenges and difficulties in securing their livelihood and food. Hellen Keller International (HKI) started a pilot project titled \"Improving household food security and livelihood among the Cambodian rural poor by strengthened food production systems\" in three provinces across the country, including Kampong Thom, Takeo, and Kampot, from November 2022 to December 2024. Among these provinces, Takeo is the only province in the Mekong Delta of Cambodia, the focus of the case study."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The project set out a broad objective to help smallholder farmers access diverse and nutritious foods, promote nutrition security, and strengthen local livelihood in the selected communes. Specifically, it aims to enhance food security and nutrition at the community level, where members of agricultural cooperatives can work together and sell their commodities at lower prices among the members before selling to the market. The project also seeks to promote the diversification of vegetable home gardens of target beneficiaries through vegetable seed distribution, training, and regular technical assistance."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"The project targets 100 agriculture cooperatives (ACs) and over 4,000 producers in the three provinces. In Takeo, the project works with 1,603 smallholder farmers from 40 ACs "}]},{"head":"Main commodities and activities","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":140,"text":"The project focuses on various grains and vegetables, which include rice, cauliflower, potato, choy sum, tomato, water convolvulus, amaranth, long bean, pumpkin, watermelon, turnip, luffa gourd, cucumber, okra, edamame, eggplant -as key commodities (Table 1). The project is divided into three phases. The first phase was the preparatory phase lasting approximately four weeks. During this phase, the main activities consisted of clearly defining the respective roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders during project implementation and ensuring that there is full buy-in to the project's strategic vision. This was achieved through meetings with key stakeholders, including CARD, MAFF, Ministry of Health (MOH), PWG-FSN, and UNI4COOP. The expected outcome of these meetings was project activity harmonisation with any ongoing government and NGO-run initiatives in the same project areas so that conflicting approaches to issues of food and nutrition security can be avoided."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The second phase, which lasts 18 months, will focus on direct project implementation in the field. This includes capacity-building activities targeting the 40 ACs to enhance their skills and knowledge so they can work independently in the future. From the project's perspective, all ACs are solid and capable of working with respective partners in their area. HKI, in collaboration with their partner organisations, provided training of trainers (ToT) to 121 lead farmers (35 women) on rice growing techniques, vegetable growing techniques, utilisation of compost fertiliser, botanical pesticide preparation, nutritious crop selection and production plans so they can train other members of their cooperatives. After the training, three (3) participants will be the focal trainers in one AC."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Those focal trainers will have to perform the following responsibilities:"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"-Work with the project staff to provide further training to farmers who are AC members."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"-Follow up with members about growing rice and vegetables."},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"-Provide technical assistance to farmers."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"-Collect data on rice and vegetable yields from farmers."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"-Keep records of growing statistics with forms provided by the project."},{"index":9,"size":62,"text":"The project also distributed four (4) mechanised direct seedling tools to ACs for rice growing. This activity is a collaboration between IRRI and AgriSmart. The use of transplanters is to pilot growing techniques (i.e. growing rice in lines), which aim to provide higher yields than traditional approaches. Moreover, the project has planned to pilot net greenhouses (size 10*25m 2 ) with ACs."},{"index":10,"size":45,"text":"Furthermore, the project builds the capacity of the ACs on bookkeeping by deploying their staff to work with ACs in the province. This is to manage agricultural statistics at the AC level. More specifically, the paperwork will help ACs manage the quantity their members produce."},{"index":11,"size":82,"text":"More importantly, smallholder farmers will also receive a series of trainings to improve their capacity to grow rice and vegetables. The training focuses on growing techniques, natural fertiliser processing techniques and uses, and pesticide management. The project conducted pre-and post-harvest demonstrations to educate beneficiaries (farmers) in the ACs on how to grade and set prices for agricultural commodities that appear to be working well. When they harvested their produce, the project provided technical assistance coaching for them to understand the grading process."},{"index":12,"size":47,"text":"The last phase, which will last two months, involves handing over the critical project components to local authorities. During the handover phase, a phase-out workshop will be conducted to ensure that the different aspects of the project, including monitoring and linkages with service providers, will be maintained."},{"index":13,"size":55,"text":"In other words, while strengthening the capacity of ACs, the project attempts to secure access to food among smallholder farmers who are members of the selected agricultural cooperatives and diversify vegetable growing at the homestead. Currently, HKI is putting conscious efforts into the food production of rice and vegetables, as indicated in Figure 3 below."}]},{"head":"Nutrition-sensitive actions","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The project is promoting production of a variety of vegetable thus increasing access to diverse and nutritious local foods, which are vital aspects of nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems. Figure 3 shows the critical activities of the project in the nutrition-sensitive agrifood systems. Apart from a training series and the distribution of rice seeds and fertilisers to farmers, the project also distributed seeds of 14 different vegetables to beneficiaries to grow at home (Table 1). One smallholder farmer (representing a household) can receive seeds of 14 vegetables that they need to grow based on the plan developed by HKI."},{"index":2,"size":285,"text":"ACs signed conditional contracts with the project, guaranteeing accountability, defining the transparency of roles and responsibilities, and specifying agriculture inputs and equipment. The contract was jointly signed by representatives from GIZ-MUSEFO, HKI, and ACs. In return for the project providing inputs, equipment, and technical assistance, ACs agreed to sell nutrient-dense foods (i.e. vegetables and rice) to consumers at a subsidised rate. A critical condition for target ACs is that they sell diverse and nutritious foods to families designated as IDPoor 1 and 2 or who have pregnant women, lactating mothers, or children under two years old, at a price discounted by 30%. The producers who received a net house or mechanised direct seedling tool will be required to discount 40% of the prices of food sold to families described above. The project also aims to improve food consumption practices among the farmers in the target districts by building their skills and knowledge on (i) the importance of dietary diversity and nutritious foods among all members of the household, (ii) what proper nutrition and good dietary diversity looks like; (iii) how what you eat contributes to your nutrition and overall health, and (iv) which crops contribute to specific food security, nutrition, and development needs. These are expected to contribute to behaviour changes in food consumption practices. HKI also includes youth in the project. In this regard, 26 high school students were invited and trained as focal agents at the school level to disseminate information on the importance of healthy and diverse diets for families. This is intended to promote nutrition at the local level, including at the household level, and the dissemination through youth campaigns aims to reach another 5,000 students in the target high schools."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"The project also engages the Provincial/Municipal Working Groups for Coordinating Food Security and Nutrition (PWG-FSN). HKI supports capacity building of the working group related to food security and nutrition issues, including policy framework and report writing for higher level (i.e. CARD), as the working group has recently been created. The project also distributes national policies, strategies, guidelines, and agricultural and nutrition-related documents to the working group. Plus, the project supports their quarterly meetings to strengthen the reporting system in the circle of food security and nutrition with the higher level. The working group is an essential coordinating body on food security and nutrition at the sub-national level. The project also connects the working group with targeted ACs and producers through field visits."},{"index":4,"size":32,"text":"• Capacity building of ACs to improve rice and vegetable production for food and income security • Promote homestead production of diverse vegetables through seed distribution and production capacity building Food availability"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• Encourage ACs to sell rice and vegetables to vulnerable members at subsidsed price (30%-40% lower price)."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"• Promote homestead production of diverse vegetables Food accessiblity"},{"index":7,"size":32,"text":"• Promote household consumption of diverse vegetables • Educate farmers and families on four re-enforcing topics • Conduct youth campaigns at high schools on importance of diverse and nutritious diets Food consumption"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• Support the PWG-FSN: national policy, strategies, guidelines, agricutlure and nutrition documents, meetings, and reporting"}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition governance","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender and youth inclusion","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"In terms of gender, women and women-headed families are engaged in the project. The women participated in a series of training sessions related to vegetable production and nutrition and received vegetable seeds to grow at home. The youth are targeted explicitly by training high school focal agents at the school level who will, in turn, participate and lead through youth campaigns to disseminate nutrition information. The project also has a specific target to reach a total of 1,603 vulnerable households, smallholder farmers and poor farmers."}]},{"head":"Cross cutting strategies","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The project addresses other cross-cutting issues such as climate change and natural resources management. In order to respond to climate change, the project encourages farmers to grow seeds that are climate-resilient and produce diverse vegetables. Equally important, the project educates farmers to keep updated with climate information, such as information disseminated by the Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MoWRAM) and rain statistics in their location. The beneficiaries also received training on Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and agricultural land improvement. Moreover, the use of compost fertilisers was demonstrated so that farmers could use them properly with crops."}]},{"head":"Figure 3: Key different cross-cutting issues the project contributes to addressing","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Monitoring and evaluation","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The project set out some administrative channels in the monitoring and evaluation process. At the implementation level, a baseline study was undertaken at the beginning of the project to assess and learn the current situation of the target provinces. The project deployed three staff to work with the target ACs in the province. To effectively monitor implementation of project activities, forms developed by HKI were utilized. A data collection form is employed through the three lead farms in each AC to collect information from their members, including types of crops, quantities, land size, and input use. The purpose is to follow up with farmers on whether they utilise the input provided. Additionally, the monitoring and evaluation team conducts random checks with farmers to verify the resources distributed to them and their commitment to those resources. Technical assistance form is also used to collect information on training provided to beneficiaries. In addition to this, there is a monitoring which is conducted every three months. The quarterly report is prepared for the project implementation."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Regarding nutrition-related issues, the project focuses on mainstreaming and has no official form to record that information yet. Nutrition issues are raised during the meeting with beneficiaries. In the meeting, the beneficiaries can also raise what they have followed with the agreement. Moreover, the minutes prepared by the target ACs for the project are the sources for learning nutrition on the ground. The minute the recorded information on selling rice and vegetables at the committed rates."}]},{"head":"Project progress and best practices","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The project has only been implemented for around ten months. As such, a formal monitoring and evaluation exercise has not yet been conducted. However, some key achievements from the implementation at the time of writing were noted, and these were related to capacity building and material distribution. These include:"},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"-Built capacity of 121 lead farmers (35 women) to be farmer promoters in their agricultural cooperatives."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"-Distributed four rice seedling machines to ACs for piloting rice growing."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"-Provided a series of training (as mentioned above, depending on ACs) to 1,344 farmers (722 women) of the target agricultural cooperatives."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"-Provided four net greenhouses (size 10*25) to the target agricultural cooperatives."},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"-Distributed vegetable seeds to 493 households (14 vegetables/household)."},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"-Distributed rice seed Phka Rumduol and Sen Kraob 01 to 1,110 households (50kg/household)."},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"-Conducted awareness raising of nutrition issues through lead youth at high school."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"-Trained ACs on how to use the transplanters distributed (two representatives from each AC received training from IRRI and Agrismart)."},{"index":10,"size":101,"text":"HKI identified some opportunities to expand and improve the project's impacts in the next phase. HKI deployed a staff at the province to support the target agricultural cooperatives in relation to paperwork and data management. However, the data collection has not been undertaken yet. When the data on the agricultural production of AC members is appropriately collected, and quantities produced are recorded well, the project will be able to begin market linkages in the next phase. Chicken production has been seen as a good livelihood opportunity and source of nutrient-dense food, which the project is considering adding in the next phase."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"In terms of bezt practices, several activities can be considered. One is the youth campaigns can be another good practice in promoting an understanding of nutrition issues. The project notices that local nutrition issues have received more attention among smallholder farmers and local families. The final evaluation will need to document the extent to which the youth campaigns contributed to nutrition awareness so that youth engagement in the project can be replicated for other NGOs in similar fields."},{"index":12,"size":115,"text":"Another is helping farmers understand how to grade and set prices of agricultural commodities after harvest, as indicated in Figure 5 below. The project educates farmers to classify their commodities before selling. Taking cucumbers as an example, farmers collected and graded them based on sizes and shapes for selling to consumers and sellers. The cucumbers were graded into three types: number 1, number 2, and number 3. With the grading, the project educated farmers that if grading has not been carried out, farmers lose to buyers (i.e., market vendors). In the meanwhile, they need to have a proper record of information, such as quantities and prices sold, in order to report back to the project."}]},{"head":"Figure 4: Good practice of cucumbers collected from their cultivated land","index":24,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Project challenges","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"During the project some main challenges were noted. One of the challenges is that households that were registered for the project rotate the members that participate in the project events, including training and input distribution. That is, family members would participate in any given training or project event. This might be because of their availability, knowledge, and skills. Consequently, training and input distribution can be ineffective when the production activities start, as there are inconsistencies in knowledge transfer."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Migration also continues to attract more labour from farming. Some farmers, especially young people, migrated to work elsewhere to strengthen their livelihood and incomes. This can affect the engagement of farmers in vegetable supply chains to strengthen nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems in the future if this trend continues. On the production side, there will be a lack of young people engaging in agricultural work (Nguyen & Sean, 2021), and between 5% to 10% of the hours worked by members left behind were reduced due to migration (Roth & Tiberti, 2017). On the food consumption side, migration reduces the demand for food consumption in the household. The economic returns of farmers' migration not only improve the transformation of "}]},{"head":"Market","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"household food consumption from a staple food-dominated dietary structure to one that includes more meat and dairy products but also reduces nutrient intake among leftbehind family members (Shi, HOU, Hermann, HUANG, & Mu, 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Case study 3: Poultry Project of National Pride in Cambodia (PPNP)"}]},{"head":"Background and scope","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"Heifer International-Cambodia (HIC) works to strengthen self-help groups and agricultural cooperatives as agri-enterprise-oriented entities, transferring skills and knowledge to smallholder farmers to increase the production and productivity of agricultural commodities and improve market linkages. It continues strengthening smallholder native chicken, vegetable, and fish chains while exploring opportunities in other agricultural value chains, including beef cattle. Native chicken (i.e. local chicken) has been one of HIC's focus commodities since 2014. In 2019, the average annual household income from selling native chicken was $4,900 (Heifer International Cambodia, 2022a). Heifer Cambodia aims to increase the annual household income to $7,700 by 2030 (Heifer International Cambodia, 2022a)."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"HIC has been implementing the \"Poultry Project of National Pride in Cambodia (PPNP)\" from 2021 to 2026 with a 6.4 million USD investment in 11 provinces in Cambodia. Three provinces in the Mekong Delta include Takeo, Prey Veng, and Svay Rieng. All eleven provinces were selected based on the following criteria: poverty rate, large number of agricultural cooperatives, community forestry, community fisheries, and the status of migration to neighbouring countries for lower-skilled paid work (Heifer International Cambodia, 2022b)."},{"index":3,"size":146,"text":"PPNP equips farmers with the tools they need to produce chickens to meet domestic demand and fetch fair market prices. HIC reinforces the poultry value chain through the project and closes the living income gap for 88,300 smallholder farmers and their communities. PPNP aims to scale up the development of the Cambodia backyard chicken sector. This will be achieved through empowering cooperatives, social entrepreneurs union of agricultural cooperatives (SEUAC) institutional capacity development, investing in native poultry processing plants, modern chick hatchery enterprises, establishing collection centres, investing in transport vehicles and working with farmers eager to set up small-and-medium-sized enterprises. PPNP will also look at household economic improvements for the target smallholder producers-social impacts for their communities and macroeconomic benefits for the country's poultry sector. Farmers will receive inputs, specialised training, and assistance and access to capital to create inclusive and profitable agri-enterprises connected to the market."},{"index":4,"size":161,"text":"The impact development goal is to accelerate the transformation from a traditional backyard chicken production system into poultry entrepreneurship led by smallholder farmers for an inclusive development that would become one of the national prides of Cambodia agriculture. The project prepared five chains to achieve the objectives above (Heifer International Cambodia, 2022a), as shown in Figure 6 below. This case study focused on how the project contributed to nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems in Prey Veng, as project activities are the same in the other two provinces. The project has been implemented in 5 agricultural cooperatives with 2,000 smallholder farmers in five communes (including Theay, Boeng Preah, Roung Damrei, Reaks Chey, and Prey Poun), located in two districts of Baphnum and Kampong Trabaek. This project has been implemented in collaboration with agricultural cooperatives, producer groups, and the private sector, such as GREENNAT Store, CSDS Co., ltd, Kenko Shuko, Co., ltd, Tropocam Fruit and Vegetable Co., ltd and focused on enhancing backyard chicken production."}]},{"head":"Main commodities and activities","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"HIC has made conscious efforts to work with agricultural cooperatives, farmers, implementing partners, banks, the private sector, development partners, and the government to address the constraints and challenges local smallholder chicken producers face and support farmers in scaling the backyard poultry sector in Cambodia."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The project intervened across a range of aspects of food systems -food production, value addition, and supply chain -and promoted collaboration with other projects."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Under the food production component, HIC attempts to build and strengthen the foundations of local chicken production. The project supports and upscales the development of hatcheries and their agricultural cooperatives (chain 1). It developed hatchery enterprises owned by agricultural cooperatives (chain 2) and invested in agribusiness models for micro-small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) and farmers fattening chicken (chain 3). Under these components, HIC established producer groups of smallholder farmers under the targeted ACs to meet market demand. All producer groups received capacity building on chicken production techniques. They received support in the development of business plans. The project strengthened the capacity of village livestock agents so that they could provide further training to smallholder farmers. Figure72 shows actions to support food systems."},{"index":4,"size":103,"text":"Apart from the capacity building of smallholder farmers and Collaborative Learning and Adaptation for Community Agro-Vet Entrepreneurs (CAVE), the project supported ACs in promoting collective business which can provide business services, enhance the collecting and purchasing of chickens from members, and mobilise resources from various sources, including from local government. ACs received capacity building in financial management to ensure transparency and trust with members. The project worked alongside ACs to help them increase their capital investment and perform as agricultural enterprises. Following this, ACs will have their own capital and a revolving fund for their members to start and/or expand their chicken production."}]},{"head":"Figure 6: Actions targeting food systems","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The project also supported value addition and food processing with a plan to build a processing plant for backyard chickens. It was managed through the 4P model (chain 4). Heifer Cambodia supported market infrastructure such as a chicken slaughterhouse and processing facility building for ACs to process chickens purchased from smallholder farmers. Chickens are slaughtered into pieces, including wings, thighs, sausage, nuggets, and patties. The project built the capacity of ACs in grading chickens for sale to markets."},{"index":2,"size":122,"text":"The project supported training and technical inputs to enhance the chicken supply chain. Under chain 5, the intervention supported other market infrastructures for linking smallholder poultry producers to markets. ACs received cold chain trucks and motorcycles, non-cold chain trucks, collection centres, and cold-storage warehouse. These help ACs purchase, collect, and transport chicken products to the connected markets in the province and Phnom Penh. The project uses a contribution approach (60% from the project and 40% from the AC) with ACs with their transport. The project also supports breeders, chick producers, and broiler producers, where one village, 3-5 hatching chick producers, can supply 10-12 families. HIC deploys staff to map resources and markets while following up with farmers to connect farmers to markets."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"To help strengthen livelihoods and increase farmers' incomes, HIC connected the poultry project to another project focusing on vegetable supply chains. The project built the capacity of smallholder farmers on compost fertiliser processing techniques using chicken waste. This can help them widen the scope of their livelihoods besides chicken production. Smart agricultural practices are taught to farmers in the selected provinces."}]},{"head":"Nutrition-sensitive actions","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"The project has promoted nutritional outcomes in the selected province by improving livelihoods through increased income and food consumption of animal-source foods, particularly poultry in households. Incomes earned from chicken sales help improve the living standards of smallholder farmers and ultimately contribute to addressing malnutrition-related issues in households. That is, they can access a variety of foods, including animal protein, with the result that children are much healthier, as noticed in the project implementation."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Under the project, there is a theme, \"nutrition-health-income' that helps families reflect on their food consumption practices. Through participatory review and planning, HIC conducted a meeting with households to reflect on their child development, share and learn experiences pertaining to food consumption practices. The project also educates and encourages beneficiaries to consume chicken raised, not just focus on sales and income. In order to increase consumption of animal protein and the accompanying micronutrients."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"In addition, the project supported scaling out amongst poor farmers by practising the \"passing on the gift\" approach. That is, farmers who have raised chickens successfully distribute chickens to other farmers. "}]},{"head":"Food and nutrition governance","index":31,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gender and youth inclusion","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"The project builds the capacity of women and poor households around native chicken production techniques and provides chickens through the principle of passing on the gift. This helped improve their livelihoods and engage them in the implementation process. "}]},{"head":"Monitoring and evaluation","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":196,"text":"For the monitoring and evaluation process, the project employed different tools for measuring and tracking project implementation to ensure that objectives are achieved. At the stage of project design, HIC set a formulation guideline, including result framework, pathways of change, and clear targets, as shown in table 2 below. Different tools have been developed and used to track project results. A baseline study was undertaken. The project used an integrated project management system. HIC developed a self-capacity assessment tool to measure the capacity of two main actors -ACs and farmers. The collection and purchasing of agricultural commodities from members, market and financial management, and market linkages with other stakeholders are examined to assess the capacity of ACs. Farmers are assessed on production capacity and sales. The assessment is carried out on a yearly basis. The global impact monitoring is conducted annually to measure changes or progress of ACs and the communities. This tool has clear, measurable indicators. The project also has different tracking reports for his donor, including monthly plans and reports, quarterly reports, Semi-annual reports, and annual reports. Case studies on the story of the change of farmers who raise chickens successfully have been documented."}]},{"head":"Project progress and best practices","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":154,"text":"The project has significantly strengthened chicken supply chains on the ground. On the farmer side, the project noted that farmers can work and help each other in raising chickens in the community. They also have adopted the standard of raising and selling chicken for income. More importantly, the recent evaluation found that families have increased their income; one family could earn income up to $5,500 per year.3 The farmers connected with potential buyers and wet markets for selling chickens. Market infrastructures and transportation means (ten trucks and one motorcycle) are essential for chicken producers. To promote added value, chicken slaughterhouses play significant roles in processing and packaging. One agricultural market was constructed in the province (ALiSEA, 2022). \"Passing on the Gift\" is the cornerstone of the project that contributed to scaling out sustainably. Reflection meetings with farmers are also vital and need to be conducted annually to learn about food consumption practices in families."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Figure 10 below shows the results that the project has made across the eleven provinces (Heifer International Cambodia, 2022a). In the project implementation, HIC determined a number of best practices that improve the production and availability of chicken and income from poultry as elaborated below:"},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"-Chicken distribution: Through passing on the gift, chickens are distributed from farmers who raise chickens successfully to those who are interested but have no resources. The rationale for this approach is to ensure that other farmers benefit as well."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"-Social capital strengthening. The project helps build the capacity of farmers to work collectively and promote sharing resources with those with fewer resources. This helps low-income families start their own businesses."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"-Contract farming. Farmers have assured markets for their produce as the project connected them with buyers and suppliers through contract farming arrangements. Those buyers or suppliers who agreed to purchase those products provide training to farmers to ensure quality standards."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"-Capacity building of ACs. The project builds the capacity of ACs to deal with different stakeholders, including local authorities, the provincial department of agriculture, collectors, and private companies, to mobilise resources for enterprise development independently."}]},{"head":"Project challenges","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The project has encountered challenges in promoting nutrition-sensitive agri-food system in the target province as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"1. Climate change. With hotter weather, farmers find it difficult to raise chickens 2. Fluctuation of market price. The price of chicken is uncertain and fluctuates. It can range from $4.25 per 1kg, and a few days later, the price can decrease to $3.5 per 1kg."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"3. A lack of trust between the private sector and ACs/farmers. Some private sectors (vendors) do not want to engage in contract farming. They are willing to buy when they need produce."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"4. A lack of capital. Farmers want to expand their businesses but face a lack of capital."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Accessing credit requires procedures and high-interest rates that can be challenging for local farmers."}]},{"head":"Synthesis","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Lessons and best practices for nutrition-sensitive agri-food system projects in the Mekong Delta"},{"index":2,"size":97,"text":"All projects built the capacity of vulnerable farming households and ACs to strengthen food production and improve nutrition at the local level. Apart from this, each project has different characteristics targeting nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems. The project, implemented by WorldFish, has both nutrition specific activities and nutrition-sensitive activities to cope with forms of malnutrition among children under five and food production. HKI project aims to promote food and nutrition security among vulnerable people through access to diverse nutrient rich foods at a committed price. HIC attempted to increase farmers' income by enhancing backyard chicken production and value chains."},{"index":3,"size":62,"text":"Learning from the implementation of the projects, best practices were identified and shared. Best practices shared by WorldFish focused on improving the management of fish raising and food consumption behaviours of mothers to address forms of malnutrition at the community level. In this process, gender engagement and empowerment were conducted to enhance knowledge and skills related to fish consumption and fish-raising management."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The roles of youth in the development process have been promoted through the project of HKI. HKI has worked with youth to raise awareness about nutrition-related issues among other young adults in high school. This is expected to improve food consumption behaviours among young adolescents. At the same time, the project contributed to helping farmers gain more income through product grading (i.e. farmers classify their commodities before selling)."},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":"Enhancement of the local chicken supply chain is the key focus of the project of HIC to improve farmers' incomes. Activities, such as social capital strengthening and contract farming, have contributed to enhancing the livelihood of farmers/producers. Still, best practices in response to nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems have received less attention. The project only recently had a reflection meeting with a group of mothers to learn about their child's development (i.e., children under 5)."}]},{"head":"Gaps and opportunities for nutrition-sensitive agri-food system projects in the Mekong","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Although the projects contributed to food production, availability, access, and consumption, there remained low incentives for producers to engage in agriculture, especially diversified agriculture. Market linkages are limited, and few products have been connected to the markets. Farmers in the case studies encounter similar constraints, especially market uncertainty and price fluctuation, to improve their livelihood and enhance food and nutrition security, labour limitations, production challenges, poverty, and climate change notwithstanding. Consequently, migration further weakens food production. None of the projects have the capacity to address migration-related matters. This likely requires a more integrated approach with other projects to understand and jointly reduce issues between migration and agriculture."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"In addition, monitoring and evaluation of nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems interventions remains low among the projects reviewed in this study. Even though the projects contribute to enhancing nutrition outcomes, tools were used to monitor, evaluate, and track the project activities particularly focused on monitoring the number of trainings attended by participants and input distribution, and production and income indicators and less on food consumption and nutrition indicators. Only one project employed specific tools for tracking nutrition outcomes. One intervention aimed to increase farmers' incomes but did not have a tool to track whether better income contributes to strengthening nutrition outcomes. In addition, while ensuring nutrition security, the projects rely on ACs. It is noted that the capacity of ACs needs more improvement, including reporting."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and recommendations Conclusion","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Nutrition-sensitive agri-food system interventions in this study focused largely on the capacity building of farmers to improve productivity which aims to increase food accessibility and consumption of diverse foods for improved nutritional status of target beneficiaries. The projects included capacity building on production, value addition, nutrition, as well as input distribution, such as seeds, compost fertilisers, and financial contribution, was undertaken for farmers to participate in the farm. The interventions also contributed to enhancing food production at scale. Producer groups were created and put under the management of ACs. Contract farming received attention from the projects while focusing on the capacity building of ACs to be the agri-enterprise on the ground."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Additionally, the projects deal with cross-cutting issues-women empowerment, youth inclusion, climate change adaptation and natural resource management-in the Mekong Delta region. Women, including the poor, were empowered through capacity building to improve livelihood, ensure food security, and tackle their children's development. Youth were effectively engaged in the project of HKI. More youth were reached, and their understanding of nutrition-related issues was improved. In addition, natural resource management and climate change adaptation were integrated into the capacity building of farmers and ACs."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Even though progress has been made, monitoring and evaluation of the impact of these projects on the nutritional status of the beneficiaries remains a significant gap. Capacity building of those designing and implementing the projects on food and nutrition security indicators and further study on context-specific indicators is needed."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Nutrition enhancement cannot be achieved when the food systems receive less or inconsistent stakeholder attention. Promoting nutrition-and gender-sensitive agri-food systems must begin from food production through to food consumption, appropriately targeting the supporting or hindering behaviours and practices. In this respect, all interventions must be connected and complementarily to each other and ensure that farmers and consumers benefit from those interventions directly or indirectly. The following are proposed recommendations to enhance nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"1. Strengthening food production: Profitable engagement in food production is key to improving the livelihoods of households in the Mekong, ensuring food availability and access, and supporting further participation in the food system. Therefore, interventions should consider the following actions."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"• Create producer groups under ACs to produce at a large scale to increase capacity and leverage. Where Acs producing different food groups can also be linked to enhance access to diverse foods."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"• Integrate good agricultural practices and climate adaptation into capacity building of farmers, and actors along the value chain. This requires technologies that are land, labour, cost and time-sensitive to address the existing challenges."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Engage the private sector across the food system in the design and development. Such that activities and farmer capacity and activities respond to and also inform quality, access, information, etc."}]},{"head":"Enhancing supply chains to incentivise farmers or producers:","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Producers face market uncertainty and price fluctuation after harvesting. Improving the link between farmers and markets (input and outputs) can contribute to sustainable incomes and enhance accessibility of foods. The interventions can be considered the following:"},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Conduct mapping nutrient dense foods and indigenous foods and their market demand, and work to enhance the availability and demand."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Connect farmers with market vendors, including those in the same location as producers, to also ensure that there are diverse food available within these communities."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"• Promote the implementation of contract farming with producer groups/Acs and their capacity to grade and market produce accordingly."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"• Work with to private sector and government to ensure food price and accessibility."}]},{"head":"Improving nutrition knowledge in response to food consumption behaviours:","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Activities directly targeting food consumption practices were limited. One project improved producers' income, and one educated youth on the importance of a good diet. However, these have not yet clearly shown positive changes in food consumption behaviours. In this regard, awareness raising around nutrition should consider the following actions."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Implement behaviour change approaches to tackle unhealthy dietary patterns and bridge income and consumption for all community member categories, children, women, men, elderly, leaders, etc."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"• Engage various influential actors in the communities including village health support groups (or village health volunteers) in awareness-raising activities about food, nutrition, hygiene, and health."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"• Use various channels for awareness creation and nutrition education such as social media such as Facebook or TikTok in the dissemination."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"4. Enhancing monitoring and evaluation. All people have a right to food. However, food consumption practices are changing significantly in the face of rapid development. Proper tracking of food sourcing and consumption practices, and nutrition outcomes would nutritional surveillance activities and intervention contextualisation and targeting. The following actions should be considered."},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"• Organize a plan with food system actors and beneficiaries or target groups to respond to the project's objectives."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"• Develop tool(s) that can serve at least two purposes: (i) tracking the project activities and (ii) follow up food consumption practices."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"• Conduct reflection meetings with beneficiaries on food access and consumption."},{"index":9,"size":36,"text":"5. Enhancing multisectoral collaboration to enhance nutrition outcomes. Knowledge and skills are needed to equip food system actors including farming households to improve production, processing, and food consumption practices. Therefore, the following actions should be considered:"},{"index":10,"size":34,"text":"• Incorporate or join partnerships with other organisations in the target locations to address more factors of the food system. For example, income and consumption, food markets in the communities, labour, and migration, etc."},{"index":11,"size":36,"text":"• Mainstream or integrate critical activities of successful projects into the authority of the Provincial/Municipal Working Groups for Coordinating Food Security and Nutrition to build their ownership in addressing food and nutrition security under their mandate."},{"index":12,"size":21,"text":"• Incorporate the strengthening of local and diverse food production into other projects/programs, such as school feeding program, through multisectoral collaborations."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" from 28 communes of Tram Kak, Samraong, Treang, and Koh Andaet districts. HKI worked with the Provincial Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (PDAFF) to select the ACs that were registered and recognised by the PDAFF. The project is funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the Germany Development Agency Deutsche Gesellschafts für International Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) under the Multisectoral Food and Nutrition Security (MUSEFO) project. To translate the objectives into reality, HKI collaborated with other organisations, including the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), AgriSmart, Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), and Uni4Coop, and other governmental institutions -such as Council for Agricultural and Rural Development (CARD), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), General Directorate of Agriculture (GDA), PDAFF, and the Provincial/Municipal Working Groups for Coordinating Food Security and Nutrition (PWG-FSN) -in the implementation of the project. "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Key activities of the project targeting nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems ACs: Agriculture Cooperatives Vulnerable members: households that are IDPoor 1 and 2 or who have pregnant women, lactating mothers, or children under two years old PWG-FSN: Provincial/Municipal Working Groups for Coordinating Food Security and Nutrition "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Chains of the project contributing to strengthen chicken supply chains "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Key activities of the project targeting nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Cross-cutting issues in the projectIn addition to women inclusion, the project addresses other cross-cutting issues such as climate change, and natural resources management. By linking up with another project, farmers received training related to climate agricultural practices, including the use of net houses for vegetable growing and compost fertiliser processing techniques. Equally important, the project educated farmers not to encroach on forest land and to appropriately use chemical fertilisers to avoid ruining soil quality. It also provided them with an alternative livelihood through chicken production or vegetable farming. "},{"text":"Figure 9 : Figure 9: Results made by the project across the eleven provinces "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Food classification by group Grains Rice GrainsRice Dark green leafy vegetables Water convolvulus, choy sum, amaranth, cauliflower. Dark green leafy vegetablesWater convolvulus, choy sum, amaranth, cauliflower. Orange-fleshed vegetables Tomato, pumpkin, okra. Orange-fleshed vegetablesTomato, pumpkin, okra. Other vegetables Turnip, long bean, watermelon, cucumber, eggplant, French Other vegetablesTurnip, long bean, watermelon, cucumber, eggplant, French  bean, luffa gourd. bean, luffa gourd.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Result framework of the project(Heifer International Cambodia, 2022a)     Result 1: Improved 1. Strengthened leadership and governance systems of agricultural Result 1: Improved1. Strengthened leadership and governance systems of agricultural institutional capacity cooperatives, Union of Agriculture Cooperative institutional capacitycooperatives, Union of Agriculture Cooperative of agricultural 2. Enhanced capacity of agricultural cooperatives on agribusiness and of agricultural2. Enhanced capacity of agricultural cooperatives on agribusiness and cooperatives, Union accounting system cooperatives, Unionaccounting system of Agricultural 3. Strengthened sustainable functioning of Community Agro-Vet of Agricultural3. Strengthened sustainable functioning of Community Agro-Vet  Entrepreneurs (CAVE) Entrepreneurs (CAVE)  4. Increased agricultural cooperatives capital for scaling up agribusiness 4. Increased agricultural cooperatives capital for scaling up agribusiness  through savings and shareholder mobilization through savings and shareholder mobilization  5. Increased the sustainable participation of youth and women in decision- 5. Increased the sustainable participation of youth and women in decision-  making in agricultural cooperatives and agricultural value chains making in agricultural cooperatives and agricultural value chains Result 2: Increased 1. Mobilized resources and funds from Governments and funding agencies Result 2: Increased1. Mobilized resources and funds from Governments and funding agencies access to impact 2. Deployed impact capital for scaling business on hatching eggs, chicks, access to impact2. Deployed impact capital for scaling business on hatching eggs, chicks, capital to scale and fattening production capital to scaleand fattening production agribusiness of  agribusiness of smallholder farmers  smallholder farmers Result 3: Increased 1. Built poultry hatchery enterprises and processing plants to fulfil the Result 3: Increased1. Built poultry hatchery enterprises and processing plants to fulfil the production and market demand production andmarket demand supply of high-quality 2. Ensured hatching egg producers to supply sufficient quality eggs to supply of high-quality2. Ensured hatching egg producers to supply sufficient quality eggs to chicken meat in the hatching enterprises through adoption of technologies and biosecurity chicken meat in thehatching enterprises through adoption of technologies and biosecurity market 3. 3Ensured fattening producers to supply sufficient quality ready birds to market3. 3Ensured fattening producers to supply sufficient quality ready birds to  native chicken processing plants through the adoption of technologies native chicken processing plants through the adoption of technologies  and biosecurity and biosecurity Result 4: Enhanced 1. Improved market infrastructure and logistics for better distribution of Result 4: Enhanced1. Improved market infrastructure and logistics for better distribution of large market system agriproducts large market systemagriproducts and distribution 2. Mobilized value-based private sector partnership to promote and and distribution2. Mobilized value-based private sector partnership to promote and  develop large market system for chicken meat develop large market system for chicken meat  3. Promoted native chicken branding and license 3. Promoted native chicken branding and license  4. Created and strengthened online sales platform, franchise systems and 4. Created and strengthened online sales platform, franchise systems and  AC-owned profitable outlets AC-owned profitable outlets  "}],"sieverID":"9a2d349a-4510-4762-a865-7a5d098eda40","abstract":"In addition, the authors acknowledge WorldFish Cambodia, Helen Keller International, and Heifer International Cambodia for excellent collaboration and invaluable support rendered by sharing related information and experiences in the project implementation of these case studies. Particularly Mrs. Phichong Ou (WorldFish Cambodia), Dr. Sareth Nhem, Mr. Rithy Chum, and Mr. Vatola Sok (Heifer International), and Mr. Mr. Kroeun Hou and Mr. Sokha Sours (Helen Keller International) who provided thoughtful feedback and documents to improve the case studies and shared lessons learnt for further interventions to enhance the nutrition-sensitive agri-food systems in the Mekong Delta of Cambodia."}

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Aggregation of smallholder farmers' needs may provide the solution, says Norbert Tuyishime of the Eastern Africa Farmers Federation (EAFF)."}]},{"head":"I","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"n East Africa, the agriculture sector is dominated by smallholder farming (averaging 0.2-3 ha), with 60% of farmers making less than 1.5 Euro per day. Fertilizer use among these farmers is low; about 1.7 kg/acre against 60 kg/acre globally. The agricultural sector is mainly rain-fed and entirely dependent on bimodal rainfall, making it vulnerable for frequent drought-related crop failure. Under pressure to deliver even more food for rapidly growing and urbanised populations, generate and sustain employment, incomes and livelihoods, smallholder farmers who do not aggregate around input and output markets or other agricultural services, such as extension, credit, transport, mechanisation or warehousing, fall short of realising their potential for agricultural commercialisation."}]},{"head":"Aggregation for collective access","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"EAFF recognises that smallholder farmers are highly dispersed and often lack collective action to strengthen their position in agricultural markets. Agriculture is a high-risk sector which makes working with individual farmers difficult for many value chain actors. Aggregation of smallholder farmers through farmers' organisations is needed to create an enabling environment for farmers to thrive. Aggregation can support efficient agro-service and extension delivery, technology adaptation and mechanisation in agriculture, input procurement at favourable prices and competitiveness in output markets. In addition, data on farming is needed to inform decisionmaking on investment and innovation with regard to technology, financing, value addition, policy and advisory services. Apart from farmer profiles providing general bio data, EAFF recognises an overall lack of historic data on farm activities, which would allow banks to credit score farmers and advance loans."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Since 2013, EAFF has shifted its focus from lobbying and advocacy to strengthening the role of farmers in profitable value chains enabled by strong entrepreneurship. EAFF thereby focusses on knowledge, institutional development, policy, partnerships and youth. With the digital revolution taking place in the agriculture sector, where big data applications are (re-)shaping power relations among value chain actors, EAFF embraces use of technology as the transformational tool to help achieve the objectives of this new strategy. In this framework, EAFF launched the e-Granary project in Kenya in 2016 in partnership with PAFO, AgriCord and CTA."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"e-Granary is a mobile-based platform aimed at increasing access to markets and e-extension services."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"The platform provides 4-in-1 services; it aggregates farmers for input and output markets and financial and extension services, in the maize, rice, beans, green gram, black-eyed bean and soya value chains. To access the platform, farmers need to be members of a farmers' organisation and register their bio data, crop and harvesting data. The platform is gradually evolving in an ecosystem that serves stakeholders through various connected services."},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"• For farmers, it enables sales at best prices, access to certified inputs, affordable tailor-made financial solutions, and access to timely e-extension on agronomic advice, post-harvest management and financial literacy. • For financial institutions, it allows access to bankable and de-risked smallholders to market various financial products, such as insurance as a bundled product with a loan. • For buyers, it allows access to better quality traceable produce in a large marketplace at competitive price without the exorbitant premium The core services provided through e-Granary are; group purchase of agriculture inputs, learning groups, micro-finance and micro-insurance, policy and advocacy, coordination of contract farming with millers and buyers, coordination of postharvest services, coordination of farm equipment leasing and crop management e-extension and tools."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"By end 2018, 103,000 farmers had registered in the platform, a significant increase compared to the 39,000 and 5,000 registered farmers in 2017 and 2016 respectively. The platform has already trained over 3,000 trainers of trainers on structured trade, agronomy, financial literacy and extension, and targets to reach 20,000 smallholder farmers by 2018 through voice and text messages at different stages of crop season. In 2017, e-Granary assisted 3,627 farmers to access loans in the form of certified inputs (seeds and fertilizers) worth 136,036 Euro. Collectively, e-Granary farmers have sold 316 MT of maize and soybean worth 77,141 Euro."}]},{"head":"Taking aggregated farmer services to scale","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Aggregation of farmer needs and data are key enabling factors to strengthen the position of smallholder farmers in agricultural markets. For farmers to enhance their position, they need access to finance for inputs. Where financing is not easily accessible, farmers recycle seeds, use less fertilizer and rarely use necessary chemicals to protect their crops, and increase production. The most effective business model for smallholder farming financing is non-cash input loans, such as seeds, fertilizers and insurance. The e-Granary experience has shown that uptake of insurance increases when bundled with input loans. E-extension provides farmers with timely information so that they are able to anticipate risks and minimise losses."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"Farmers across the region are eager to participate in the e-Granary due to their concerns for climate change e-Granary is a mobile-based platform aimed at increasing access to markets and e-extension services."},{"index":3,"size":71,"text":"vulnerability and access to markets and certified inputs. In 2019, the platform intends to register 340,000 farmers, of which 150,000 will receive e-extension services. Objective is to turn 10% of e-Granary member farmers into active users of loans worth 879,000 Euro with the volume and value of sales reaching 1,000 MT and over 1,3 million Euro respectively. EAFF will launch e-Granary in Uganda, Rwanda and in Tanzania in the near future."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"A strong concern for upscaling is, however, limited technical capacities of smallholder farmers in structured trade and use of agricultural digital solutions. A lot of capacity building is needed on collective marketing, contractual farming, finance management and use of digital solutions in agriculture to enable smallholder farmers to truly benefit from the digital transformation in agriculture in Africa. •"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" at EAFF as Program officer in charge of Agribusiness and Trade with a broad rural development experience of plus 5 years in East Africa. [email protected] "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"6acc3308-43fe-4ad5-a2e0-a41e66b428e7","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0ed87ae57ad781613fa45ddb389641ec","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/57072dcf-daf4-45bb-a56b-99222e0d3a4f/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Advancing Human Nutrition without Degrading Land Resources through Modeling Cropping Systems in Ethiopian Highlands 1","keywords":["Cropping systems","Human nutrition","Modeling","Land allocation","C-factor"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The food situation in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is continuing to deteriorate as a consequence of multiple calamities such as drought, occasional flooding, decline in soil fertility, increasing pests and diseases, land scarcity and poor market access, coupled with discouraging policy environments. The effect is pronounced as recurring food shortage, malnutrition and poverty. Food shortage in SSA is predominantly taken as a function of limited access to food, with out considering nutritional quality [1]. Malnutrition of the vulnerable groups (children and women) could happen even in good crop harvest years because of non-balanced food intake. Studies in Ethiopia showed that about 45 % of the children are stunted while about 42% are underweight, associated with zinc, iron and Vit A deficiency [2]. The most important documented forms of malnutrition country-wide were protein-energy malnutrition and vitamin A, iodine and zinc deficiencies [2,3]. A recent survey showed that 53% of males and 26% of females aged 6-72 months had night blindness and Bitot's spots, with the highest rates in those 36 to 72 months [2]."},{"index":2,"size":138,"text":"Analyzing households' production of nutrients on farm across farming systems could be valuable in guiding intensification of those systems, particularly in situations where markets are less important than securing subsistence. For instance, in Papaua New Guinea, communities farming in flat wetland area had significantly higher energy and protein intake than those residing in the drier hills [4]. In Uganda, both banana-based and cereal-based system failed to satisfy a range of nutritional needs with calcium and zinc being the most lacking [5]. However, there is scant information on the interaction of Enset/root crop-based and cereal-based systems of Ethiopian Highlands with household nutrition and human health. Enset (Enset ventricosum, known also as false banana) is a carbohydrate-rich perennial crop, with a strong pseudostem and edible bulbs and corms [6], which is a staple of millions of households in Ethiopian Highlands."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Food nutritional quality could be improved through different practices such as application of fertilizers and soil amendments, selection of varieties with high micronutrient content, use of indigenous high nutrient value crops and genetic modification of plants to improve micronutrient supplies [1,7]. However the application of these methods to address malnutrition depends upon the availability of technological and policy interventions, that are commonly beyond the accessibility of small-scale farmers. It could have been also possible to supplement with animal products where livestock is an integral part of the system. However, animal products are rarely consumed by rural households as they are scarce sources of cash [3]. Dietary supplements are also rarely available to the rural poor."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"One option to minimize the risk of malnutrition is through reallocation of cropland in favor of crops with high content of the nutrient in deficit. Once the nutrient budget of these systems is quantified and the type of the nutrient in deficit or excess is identified, the nutritional balance could be improved by reallocation of cropland, and increasing the land area allocated to crops rich in requisite nutrients [5]. Modeling the cropping system, by considering the adaptability of the crop to the environment in question, could offer a better and faster opportunity to reverse malnutrition. However, the possible acceptance or rejection of the model largely depends on the compatibility of the new crop adjustment with cultural values, food habit, labor, input demands and soil fertility management options."},{"index":5,"size":182,"text":"Ethiopia is one of the most severely affected countries in SSA in terms of land degradation, lost about 17% of the countries potential GDP because of physical and biological soil degradation [8,9]. Land degradation could be the major cause of recurrent crop failure, i.e. food insecurity. Hence any attempt to efficiently exploit the potentials of land resources to produce more food should be integrated with strategies to rehabilitate depleted land resources. Altering cropland allocation may have a significant implication on soil and water management [10], as the change in crop type and area would affect interception of rain by the vegetative cover (the erosivity power), which is named as the crop factor (C-factor) in the USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) [11]. The relationship between relative erosion and cover is strongly parabolic; a 25% cover would give a 50% reduction in erosion [12]. A shift from cereal-dominated system to a perennial-dominated system may improve the Cfactor, while the reverse may cause more erosion and land degradation. Therefore, altering crop allotment to improve human nutrition should take soil fertility, conservation and management into account."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"The objective of this work was therefore to, a) estimate the type and amount of nutrients that Enset/root crop based or cereal-based systems furnished, in terms of protein, energy, zinc, calcium, iron, thiamine, Vit A and Vit C, b) model cropping strategies that may improve the nutritional quality of the household using the existing resources, and c) estimate the effect of reallocation of crops on land management and soil erosion."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"SITE DESCRIPTION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":296,"text":"The research was conducted in two contrasting farming systems of the Ethiopian highlands, Areka and Ginchi. Areka (37 o 39' E and 6 o 56 N), is characterised by a multiple cropping system, with strong perennial components of Enset and Coffee, accompanied by sweet potato, taro, maize, wheat and many others (Table 1). The population pressure is high (>400 people/Km 2 ), with average land holdings of less than 0.5 ha. At between 1880 and 1960 meters above sea level, this area has mean annual rainfall of about 1300 mm, and an average temperature of 19.5 o C. Rainfall is bimodal, with a short rainy season (belg) from March to June, and the main rainy season extends from July to October. The dominant soils are eutric nitisols, which are characterised by high water holding capacity, moderately acidic pH, low levels of nitrogen and high phosphorus-fixation. Ginchi (38 o 11' E and 9 o 02' N), represents Ethiopian mountainous plateaus at altitude between 2700 and 3000 mas. The area has a weak bi-modal rainfall of 1200mm per annum and an average temperature of 15 o C. The farming system is dominated by barley-fallow-barely and livestock, which are grazed using a communal management system. Crop diversity is restricted by low mean temperature. Population pressure on the land combines human (100 people per km 2 ) and livestock, with an average farm size of 3.0 ha. About 24% of the farmers own more than 4 ha. In the upper side of the watershed the system is predominantly barley-fallowbarley accompanied by wheat, potato, and Enset. The soils in Ginchi plateau are Litisols, which are acidic, low in organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. Soil fertility status is so low to the degree that it does not support continuous cropping any more."}]},{"head":"DATA COLLECTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":233,"text":"A household survey was conducted over two years (2000 -2001) in the two communities of the Enset/root crop-based and cereal-based systems. Twenty-four and 31 farmers of two wealth categories (relatively rich and poor) were considered for the study in Areka and Ginchi, respectively. A participatory wealth ranking exercise undertaken by the African highlands Initiative program, which grouped the households into three wealth categories based on the size of land holding, number of livestock, perennial crops grown and sources of income was considered [8]. During the household surveys the researchers were able to quantify and observe over the period of two years. The major parameters considered for the analysis were, farm size /household, household family composition by age and sex, crop land allocation, household food item over seasons, household food allocation/ distribution among family members, crop yield on farm and crop purchase or sell over seasons. Household food consumption was monitored in each household on weekly basis, by interviewing the women. The consumption unit (CU) of each household was calculated using FAO designations [13], by adding the consumption unit of each household member. Secondary data was also collected on average crop yield in the district [14] nutritional composition of each crop [15] (Table 1), and other relevant data was assembled. For crops where reliable data was not available, measurement of yield, moisture content and estimation of edible components was done on farm at harvest."},{"index":2,"size":258,"text":"Since the bimodal rainfall is supporting at least two crops per year at Areka, land size per household was considered as a sum of land used for growing crops in both seasons per year. Hence, the farm size presented here is larger than the actual land size. In the process, intercropping and relay cropping practices complicated establishment of land area and yield per individual crops. However, for the purpose of this exercise, we followed a similar procedure used by McIntyre et al [5], whereby the dominant crop is assumed to occupy the entire area if the companion crops were sparsely populated, and the area occupied by the companion crop was calculated from the current plant population density and optimal population density. If none of the crops were dominating in the mixture, crop area was calculated based on the proportional areas occupied and their ratio within the crop mixture. Nutrient yield of annuals was determined by measuring edible yield per area, and analyzing nutrient contents of their products and by converting it to household nutrient supply as the sum of all consumable crop products of the household in the respective systems. Besides the annuals, the system comprises perennial crops (e.g Enset ventricosum) of various age. Nutrient yield of perennial crops in situ was determined by estimating crop yield per plant through measuring corm height and circumference of plant of various ages as described earlier [16] supplemented by sample weighing and multiplied by the nutrient content of the product [15] and the number of plants to be harvested per year."},{"index":3,"size":162,"text":"Alteration in crop area and crop species may affect erosion effects through a change in vegetative cover. Therefore, relative farm erosivity index (FEI) was calculated by considering the crop factor, in terms of cover effect on soil erosion (C-factor of the Universal Soil Loss Equation) [12] and by considering the crop land size allocated for each crop at present and after optimisation of the cropping system for optimum human nutrition was done as follows: Farm land size and daily nutritional requirements for protein, zinc, calcium, iron, thiamine, Vit A and Vit C were used as constraints in the model (see specification). The constraints differ between the locations since the farming systems were different. The constraints were set in such a way that it ensures that the households still will continue to cultivate at least partly their current stable crops. The staple crops for Areka are enset, sweet potato and maize whereas the staple crops for Ginchi are barley, faba beans and kale. "}]},{"head":"Constraints for","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Results","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Although the average family size is equal, land size per consumption unit is much higher in the cereal-based system (Ginchi) than in root-crop based system (Areka) (Table 2), the difference in land size would be even higher if the fallow land in Ginchi is considered as an arena of expansion. Both systems are considered as food deficit, especially in drought years, although the Ginchi farmers have better copying capacity through selling small ruminants. On the other hand, the areka system has very few animals in the system. "}]},{"head":"ENSET / ROOT CROP-BASED SYSTEMS","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The population density in Areka is relatively high (>400 people/m 2 ), and the land holding is relatively small, which is about 816. 8 m 2 /CU. More than 50% of the land is allocated for root/corm crops, namely sweet potato, Irish potato, Enset and Taro, with land area of 25.8, 16.2, 10.1 and 2.75%, respectively (Fig 1&2). Most of these crops are grown in the homestead or the mid-field. Another 45% of the land is allocated for cereals, maize being the dominant grain crop in the system. The total land allocated for legumes and vegetable crops in system is less than 5%."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The current Enset-based system was found to be in deficit of most of the nutritional components, regardless of wealth status of the household. Except for iron, the system failed to cover the demand of macro and micronutrients (Table 3). The daily energy supply of resource-poor households was only 75% of what is recommended. Extremely high deficiency was found in zinc, calcium, Vit A and Vit C, which is only 26.5, 34, 1.78 and 12 % of the required, respectively (Table 3). The scenario was not different even for relatively resource-rich farmers except for energy.  "}]},{"head":"CEREAL-BASED SYSTEMS","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Average land holding is much bigger in the cereal-based system than in the root crop system, with an average land size of 4 ha/hh. However, farmers leave about 40% of their land for fallowing, due to decline in soil fertility and lack of grazing land for livestock keeping. Crop diversification at Ginchi is very low, with only 6 crop species. The largest proportion of land is allocated for barley (63.5%) followed by wheat and potato (Fig 3). Similar to the Areka, the amount of land allocated for legumes and vegetables is relatively small. Hence it is predominantly a barley-fallow-barley system. In average, the current production system was also not in a position to satisfy human nutrition in almost all nutrients. However, the resource rich farmers were in a position to cover their energy, protein, zinc, and thiamine demand, while their system is in deficit of calcium, Vit A and Vit C (Table 3). The critical deficit of the system was in calcium, Vit A, and Vit C, which was as low as 30, 2.5 and 2% of the recommended daily allowance (Table 3). However, the system was able to deliver relatively higher amount of iron and thiamine."}]},{"head":"MODELING RESULTS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"The modeling was run by considering system constraints into account, including the food habit of the households, the adaptability of the crop, and pests and diseases. In Areka, Enset and sweet potato are major components of the household nutrition, while in Ginchi, barley is currently the major crop used to cook the local staple. Thus, we ran a simulation model that forced the inclusion of barley in Ginchi and enset and sweet potato in Areka."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"At Areka, the major constraint affecting the model was extremely low land holding of the majority of the community members, regarded as resource-poor in the analysis. When the whole system was considered in the modeling process, it was not possible to improve the system, except for energy. But when the simulation was run separately for relatively resource rich households, the energy supply became much more than the recommended, while the demand for all other nutrient was fully covered (Table 3). This finding recommends a significant shift from the cereals and root crops to enset-bean dominating system, and the shift was significantly high from about 10% to 36% and from 0.1% to 40 % for enset and common bean, respectively (Fig 1&2)."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"At Ginchi, there was better possibility for the model to improve the nutritional quality of the household by increasing land area, if it was not constrained by decline in soil fertility and shortage of livestock feed. The existing cropland, 2237 m 2 /CU is enough to furnish balanced nutrition with a moderate change of the cropping system. The suggested shift was to reduce the barley field by about 50% and expand the land area of enset, Ethiopian kale, and faba bean to 25.3,17.7 and 15.6%,respectively (Fig 3). By doing so, all the need for the considered nutrients was fully and considerably satisfied, except for Vit C. In this case, some Vit C supplement could be needed, or a new vegetable crop should be introduced into the system."}]},{"head":"IMPLICATION OF CROP REALLOCATION ON SOIL EROSION","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"A shift from one cropping system to another may have a considerable effect on soil loss and nutrient management [10]. In the Enset-based system, a shift from the Enset-root crop mix to more Enset/beans system improved the crop factor at farm level (farm erosivity index) by 42 %, indicating that soil erosion could be significantly minimized. The same applies for the cereal-based system where by farm erosivity index was improved by 45 % (Table 4). This also has a very strong implication for soil fertility management, as the enset system is traditionally privileged to attract more organic matter into the system [6,8,18]. "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTEGRATING HUMAN NUTRITION WITH SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"An attempt to address food security cannot be complete with out a thorough consideration of the relationship between land degradation and nutritional availability. Initiatives and policies towards food security should integrate strategies to turn the negative chain reactions between productivity and land use in to positive balances."},{"index":2,"size":228,"text":"Crop reallocation, considering human nutrition as sole criteria, could affect land management at least in two different ways. Firstly, the system may demand an intensified soil fertility management because of the expansion of perennials. Traditionally, farmers divide their farm into three major categories, namely homestead, mid field and outfield based on the fertility status, type of soil fertility management and type of crops grown. In the homestead, where enset is traditionally grown, about 80% of the whole organic fertilizer is applied [6,8]. Hence, it is the most fertile corner of the farm because of addition of manure, crop residues and household wastes [6,8]. Farmers even export crop residues from the outfield to the enset field as the local wisdom considers it as a mulch-loving crop. The expansion of enset at the expense of cereals may, therefore, improve the nutrient budget of the system by encouraging farmers to intensify soil fertility management options, such as composting, better manure management and fair distribution of resources across soil fertility gradients. It may have a strong effect on labor and availability of organic resources to fertilize the expanding enset fields. In this case farmers would be encouraged to practice better organic resource production and management. Secondly, a shift from cereal dominating system to an enset-dominating system may minimize erosion effects through improved vegetative cover, by reducing the erosivity power by about 45%."}]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS FOR HUMAN NUTRITION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"Malnutrition is a common phenomenon in the farming communities of Ethiopian highlands [2,3]. This work suggested that one affordable remedy could be reallocation of cropland in favor of perennial crops with high content of the nutrient in deficit, by considering the food habit of the community, adaptability of the crop to the respective environment and its potential effect on agro-ecosystem health."},{"index":2,"size":239,"text":"The conventional wisdom was that enset/root-crop based systems may have sufficient amount of carbohydrate and vitamins suffice to cover the RDA of the household, but may be in deficit of protein and micronutrients. The results, however, showed that the system was deficit in most of the required micronutrients nutrients, especially malnourished in VitA, Vit C, Zinc and Calcium (Table 3). Even the available energy and protein for the resource-poor families was only 75% of the recommended amount. This was confirmed by the fact that the system heavily relied on food aid at least for three months in a year for the last decade. It was partly the consequence of small land size, 817 m 2 /CU cropland, and very low crop yield caused by low soil fertility status, use of low yielding varieties and occasional drought. Malnutrition was severe in the resource poor households (Table 3) as resource-poor farmers concentrate on annual crops while the resource-rich farmers allocate large plot for enset [6,8] in agreement with our findings. It would be important for resource-poor farmers to allocate about 38% of their land, an increase by 20% to the current system, and increase crop yield by about 20% to cover the nutritional demand of the household (Fig 2). As it stands now unless external supplement is considered, the resource-poor household would remain in deficit of the most of the micronutrients even after optimization and crop allocation is practiced (Table 3)."},{"index":3,"size":155,"text":"The constraints of the cereal-based systems were similar to the Enset-root crop systems except for the severe deficiency of vitamins. Malnutrition in Ginchi could be even severe than presented for the resource-poor families as the crop yield is much lower in Ginchi than in Areka because of low temperature in the mountains. And yet, there is more opportunity to expand cropland and increase productivity by intensifying the existing fallow-barley system through integration of soil fertility management options and high yielding forages. Malnutrition was aggravated by limited diversification of crops, and even reallocation of the existing crops was not enough to fulfill the demand for Vit C. Introduction of frost resistant vegetable crops to be grown under the story of the would-be expanded enset field may satisfy the vitamin demand (Fig 3). To date, the household used to buy green papers and fruits (high Vit C crops) from the nearby market in the valley bottoms occasionally."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Earlier reports also showed that the lowest Vit A deficience rates in Ethiopia were documented in predominantly Enset systems [3]."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"Nutrient deficiencies (e.g. protein and calcium) in the two systems could have been satisfied by livestock products. However, 93% of the interviewed households in both systems sold their produces to cover the household cash demand. Hence there was limited direct contribution to household nutrition."},{"index":6,"size":185,"text":"The results indicated that if food security and environmental health is to be achieved in Ethiopian highlands in the short term, there is an alarming need to shift from cereal-dominated to an Enset/legume dominated system. Land area expansion of beans in Areka and faba bean in Ginchi is vital to alleviate protein malnutrition. Enset is already supporting 7-10 million people as a staple, or co-staple with cereals and root crops [8,18], and increasing its land area is expected to be an acceptable proposal. The shift would have a positive implication on food security not only because of its high-energy yield, but also because of its land protective functions, its availability for food at any time of the year and its drought resistance potential. This approach differs from biofortification in that it does not demand to introduce nutrient-loving crops/varieties with possibly higher nutrient concentration that could be expresses by new colour, new test, and/or cooking quality. Biofortified varieties could also be aggressive nutrient users because of their specific demand for micronutrients, and may lead towards unsustainable production unless the system is continuously supplemented by external inputs."}]},{"head":"IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The current policy of the Ethiopian Government is giving utmost attention to food security, with limited emphasis on natural resource management. On the other hand, the continual quest for food, pasture and fuel for mere survival and meet basic community needs forced the increased cultivation of marginal lands regardless of ecological soundness. The current model favours the expansion of perennial crops to address household food security and environmental degradation while the current land tenure, in situation where the government owns land, may not encourage farmers to expand their perennial crops from their homesteads to the middle and outfields, and to practice sustainable land use systems."},{"index":2,"size":212,"text":"Integration of the suggested cropping system may need a strong policy support in many ways. Firstly, an expansion of enset field would have strong implications on labor use, mainly for women, who are commonly responsible for managing Enset fields. The most labor demanding operation is processing Enset to Kocho and Bulla, which is currently estimated to take about seven hours per plant. Hence, integration of more Enset into the system should be accompanied by integration of processing implements at affordable prices so as to minimize pressure on household labor. Secondly, the expansion of perennials calls for an urgent policy decision on land tenure and guarantee. Thirdly, initial policy support, in terms of credit, would be needed as expansion of enset may demand more organic and mineral fertilizer inputs to into the system to establish and grow in the less fertile outfields. However, farmers' choice of livelihood strategies substantially influences cropping choice decisions and welfare and resource outcomes. Hence, any policy suggestion for change in cropland allocation should be done through bottom-up negotiations at individual farmer, community and district levels. Increasing awareness of the communities on nutritional disorders of the current system and its implication on health, and the would-be benefits of modifying the current production system may lead to an early adoption."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ∑CF*Optimised crop land area FEI = ∑CF* Current crop land area Whereby: FEI = Cumulative Farm Erosivity Index CF = Crop factor of respective crop speciesTHE MODELAn optimization model was developed using the Solver in Microsoft Excel and employed to analyze the scenario of human nutrition and cropland allocation. After assembling the land size allocated per crop, yield data, % edible yield, moisture content and the nutrient composition of each crop, a nutrient budget of the year, the household and consumption unit was calculated. Recommended daily nutritional allowance as per world health organization[17]  was used to establish nutrient balances.The objective function used in the model was energy availability per consumption unit and day. allocated for crop i EY = Edible yield of crop i DM = Dry matter yield of crop i NC = Nutrient content of crop i CU = Consumption unit in the house hold (unit of people eating in the house) "},{"text":" Areka communities: Total farm land ≤ 1659 m 2 /CU Land size of Enset ≥ 100 m 2 /Cu Land size of sweet potato ≥ 100 m 2 /CU Land size of maize ≥ 100 m 2 /CU Protein ≥ 35 g/day/cu Vit C ≥ 25 mg/day/cu Zinc ≥ 15 mg/day/cu Constraints for Ginchi communities: Total farm land ≤ 4081 m 2 /CU Land size of barley ≥ 1000 m 2 /Cu Land size of fababean ≥ 80 m 2 /CU Land size of kale ≥ 50 m 2 /CU Protein ≥ 35 g/day/cu Calcium ≥ 500 mg/day/cu Vit A ≥ 25 µg/day/cu Zinc ≥ 15 mg/day/cu The decision variables in the model are land allocation to different crops and the model optimises energy availability per consumption unit and day subjected to the constraints given above. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. land allocation by resource-rich farmers in the Enset/root crop based systems to various food crops, currently (a) and after optimisation for an improved human nutrition (b). "},{"text":"Figure 2 .Figure 3 Figure 2. Land allocation by resource-poor farmers in the Enset/root crop based systems to various food crops, currently (a) and after optimisation for an improved human nutrition (b). "},{"text":"Table 1 . Crop yield and nutrient composition of major crops grown at Areka and Ginchi.  "},{"text":"Nutrient Content per kg Edible Yield Crop Yield Energy Protein Zn Fe Ca Thiamine Vit A           Ascorbic Ascorbic          Acid Acid  (qt DM/ha) (K Cal) (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) mg/kg mg/kg ug/Kg (mg/kg) (qt DM/ha) (K Cal) (g/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) mg/kg mg/kgug/Kg (mg/kg) Enset (kocho)* 119.08 2111 6 6 37 320 0.3 0.2 0 Enset (kocho)*119.08211166373200.30.20 Taro 29.66 1038 13 1.4 20 550 0.4 0 90 Taro29.661038131.4205500.4090 Pumpkin 6.78 249 11 1.9 9 400 0.3 0 40 Pumpkin6.78249111.994000.3040 Kale* 18.75 401 25 8.6 22 50 0.4 112.5 13.2 Kale*18.75401258.622500.4112.513.2 Sweet potato 39.35 1370 0.7 2 7 130 0.2 0 14.2 Sweet potato39.3513700.7271300.2014.2 Irish Potato* 14.46 840 15 4 36 184 0.1 0.4 2.83 Irish Potato*14.46840154361840.10.42.83 Maize 14.84 2234 41 13.3 20 80 0.2 0 0 Maize14.8422344113.320800.200 Teff 4.09 1620 41 11 115 690 0.3 0.03 0 Teff4.09162041111156900.30.030 Wheat* 8.93 2220 68 2 27 270 2.1 0.8 0 Wheat*8.932220682272702.10.80 Barley* 5.81 2020 44 15.8 35 160 2.1 0 0 Barley*5.8120204415.8351602.100 Pea 6.97 2071 109 24.6 31 450 2.4 10.5 0 Pea6.97207110924.6314502.410.50 Fababean* 6.77 2759 164 13.8 43 870 1.9 1 0 Fababean*6.77275916413.8438701.910 Common Bean 6.52 1700 91 3 33 560 2.6 0.6 0 Common Bean6.521700913335602.60.60 Sorghum 8.31 2360 50 4.9 49 150 2.2 1.1 0 Sorghum8.312360504.9491502.21.10 * Indicates crops grown in Ginchi.        * Indicates crops grown in Ginchi.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Characteristics of an average household in Enset/root crop-based (Areka) and cereal-based (Ginchi) systems in Ethiopia (Areka) and cereal-based (Ginchi) systems in Ethiopia Parameter Areka Ginchi ParameterArekaGinchi Household size Male 3.2 3.1 Household size Male3.23.1 Female 3.1 3.3 Female3.13.3 Total 6.3 6.4 Total6.36.4 Consumption unit, mean 4.59 4.65 Consumption unit, mean4.594.65 Actual crop land (m2)/HH 3749.7 (511) 17499.7 (1149) Actual crop land (m2)/HH3749.7 (511)17499.7 (1149) Used crop land (m2)/HH 5218.7 (679) 10402 (709) Used crop land (m2)/HH5218.7 (679)10402 (709) Actual crop land/CU 817 3764 Actual crop land/CU8173764 Used crop land/CU 1137 2237 Used crop land/CU11372237 Land for cash crop (%) 6 0 Land for cash crop (%)60  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Nutrient budget of households in an Enset/root crop based or cereal-based systems of Areka and Ginchi under current cropping systems and after the system was optimised for an improved human nutrition    Areka   Ginchi  ArekaGinchi Nutrients RDA Resource-Poor Resource-Rich Resource-Poor Resource-Rich NutrientsRDAResource-PoorResource-RichResource-PoorResource-Rich   Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Current Optimised Energy (kcalorie) 2000.00 1293.66 2000.00 2284.18 4758.4 1397.5 3329.00 2081.50 3695.60 Energy (kcalorie)2000.00 1293.66 2000.00 2284.184758.41397.53329.00 2081.50 3695.60 Protein (g) 37.53 7.82 9.31 17.39 35.98 32.39 40.00 42.40 42.75 Protein (g)37.537.829.3117.3935.9832.3940.0042.4042.75 Zinc (mg) 15.00 3.98 6.09 7.38 15.00 7.39 15.33 19.75 20.80 Zinc (mg) 15.003.986.097.3815.007.3915.3319.7520.80 Iron (mg) 7.61 21.48 36.63 35.68 81.664 26.41 78.00 33.55 68.56 Iron (mg)7.6121.4836.6335.6881.66426.4178.0033.5568.56 Calcium (mg) 528.00 178.76 362.42 310.00 758.70 163.25 694.00 194.50 547.04 Calcium (mg)528.00 178.76362.42310.00758.70163.25694.00194.50547.04 Thiamine (m) 0.92 0.21 0.35 0.41 0.89 1.17 1.08 1.52 1.30 Thiamine (m)0.920.210.350.410.891.171.081.521.30 Vit A (ug) 10.00 0.18 10.00 2.54 10.00 0.25 12.51 1.45 20.80 Vit A (ug)10.000.1810.002.5410.000.2512.511.4520.80 Vit C (mg) 25.42 2.98 14.95 9.08 2.41 0.54 1.62 0.01 2.61 Vit C (mg)25.422.9814.959.082.410.541.620.012.61  "},{"text":"Table 4 . The effect of crop reallocation on soil erosion at Areka and Ginchi. Data shows effects of current and suggested (optimised) cropping on C-factor as a component of USLE.    Cumulative C-factors  Cumulative C-factors Crops C-factor  Areka Ginchi CropsC-factorArekaGinchi   Current Optimized Current Optimized CurrentOptimizedCurrentOptimized Enset 0.04 6.48 24.20 0.88 24.56 Enset0.046.4824.200.8824.56 Taro 0.35 16.17 np* np np Taro0.3516.17np*npnp Kale 0.26 11.17 48.47 0.73 80.32 Kale0.2611.1748.470.7380.32 Sweet potato 0.23 99.45 23.00 Np np Sweet potato0.2399.4523.00Npnp Potato 0.22 59.73 np 59.21 159.98 Potato0.2259.73np59.21159.98 Maize 0.35 127.67 35.00 np np Maize0.35127.6735.00npnp Sorghum 0.4 0.94 np np np Sorghum0.40.94npnpnp Teff 0.4 58.84 np np np Teff0.458.84npnpnp Wheat 0.42 43.39 np 228.89 np Wheat0.4243.39np228.89np Barley 0.42 Np np 648.48 167.96 Barley0.42Npnp648.48167.96 Faba beans 0.24 4.16 np 11.61 91.00 Faba beans0.244.16np11.6191.00 Common beans 0.19 2.132 126.83 np np Common beans0.192.132126.83npnp Pea 0.15 11.21 np np np Pea0.1511.21npnpnp Erosivity Index (%)  100 58.3 100 55.1 Erosivity Index (%)10058.310055.1 * np = not planted.      * np = not planted.  "}],"sieverID":"902bc8ca-2f2c-4820-a9b9-4eaa037c1e82","abstract":"Food shortage in Sub-Saharan Africa is predominantly taken as a function of limited access to food, with out considering nutritional quality. Analyzing households' production of nutrients on farm across farming systems could be valuable in guiding intensification of those systems. An optimization model was employed to analyze the scenario of human nutrition and cropland allocation in Enset (Enset ventricosum)/root cropbased (Areka) or cereal-based (Ginchi) systems of Ethiopian highlands. The type and amount of nutrients produced in each system was analyzed and an optimization model was used to analyse, which cropping strategies may improve the nutritional quality of the household using the existing resources.Both production systems were in food deficit, in terms of quantity and quality, except for iron. Energy supply of resource-poor households in the enset/root crop-based system was only 75% of Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA), while resource-rich farmers covered their energy, protein, zinc, and thiamine demand. Extremely high deficiency was found in zinc, calcium, Vit A and Vit C, which was only 26.5, 34, 1.78 and 12 % of the RDA, respectively. The RDA could be satisfied if they expand the land area of enset, kale and beans by about 20, 10 and 40 %, respectively, at the expense of maize and sweet potato. The critical deficit of the cereal-based system was also calcium, Vit A, and Vit C, which was only 30, 2.5 and 2% of the RDA. In the cereal system, the RDA could be fully satisfied by reducing crop land allocated for barley by about 50% and expand the land area of faba beans, kale and enset. However, Ginchi farmers have better copying options than Areka farmers as they own more land and higher number of livestock that could be used as buffering assets.A shift from the cereal/root crop dominated system to a perennial-enset dominated system would decrease soil erosion by improving the crop factor by about 45 %. It also has a very strong positive implication for soil fertility management. However, any policy suggestion for change in cropland allocation should be done through bottom-up negotiations with households, communities and district stakeholders."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0f6af125a2ed98010f3a32ac9962a5e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1765abb7-9b91-4676-82c8-7fea6def8abd/retrieve"},"pageCount":39,"title":"Estimate App for Yam Anthracnose Disease Phenotyping: User Guide","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Preface","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Yam anthracnose disease (YAD), caused by the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, is an important disease of yam (Dioscorea spp.). The water yam, Dioscorea alata, is known to be more susceptible to this soil-borne pathogen of ubiquitous occurrence. Severe YAD at the early stage of crop growth can cause up to 70% tuber yield loss. The use of resistant cultivars is the most cost-effective method for preventing economic losses due to YAD. Breeding programs screen yam genotypes for YAD resistance under natural field conditions or artificial sick plots. Genotype screening can also be performed under screen house conditions or artificial inoculation on the whole plant or detached leaves under laboratory conditions."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"The response of genotypes to YAD is assessed by measuring symptom severity using a 1 to 5 severity rating scale."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Conventional scoring for the severity of the infection are liable to errors and bias because they depend on the rater's experience. We developed the \"Estimate\" mobile app to improve the accuracy of data collection and reduce rater bias. Estimate app enhances the accuracy of YAD severity assessment and digitalizes data for further analysis."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"This manual provides step-by-step instructions for using the Estimate app to assess YAD severity on whole plants or detached leaf assays. Symptom-based phenotyping is an important procedure for assessing the yam plant response to YAD under natural field conditions or artificial inoculation in the field or screen house or using DLA as a proxy to the whole plant assay under laboratory conditions. The assessment of plant response to fungal infection is based on the symptom severity (percent leaf or plant area damaged relative to the total area) assessed using a symptom severity rater scale of "}]},{"head":"''Estimate'': An image analysis App","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"The Estimate is an easy-to-use smartphone application (usable on iMac and Android operating systems) to assist with the YAD disease severity assessment using a repository of standard area diagrams designed for specific plant diseases (Pethybridge and Nelson, 2017; Kolade and Kumar, 2019). The App provides a range of images of defined diseased severities enabling comparisons between estimated disease severity on a yam leaf (sampling unit) and selecting the most representative in the standard area diagram (SAD). Each image represents a particular severity rating scale or a range for percent damage area. Users score by comparing and matching diseased leaves on the field, screen house, or laboratory with SADs on the App to estimate the disease severity easily."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"The Estimate app improves the accuracy of data collection and reduces rater bias (Bock et al., 2008;2009). It also offers additional advantages of digital data collection and data sharing in CSV format, which can be converted to XLS format for further analysis. The disease severity assessment can be made by referring to a linear or logarithmic scale and data recorded as ordinal or continuous. The App allows users to save data on the device or share spreadsheets in the CSV format by e-mail. Users can enter data as single samples or in groups according to the layout of the field experiment."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"The Estimate app includes a semi-automatic program that guides users on using the App for phenotyping YAD symptom severity in the field or DLA application in the laboratory."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"Two versions of SADs are available on the Estimate app for yam anthracnose disease to support (i) evaluation in the laboratory using DLA (Fig. 2) and (ii) evaluation under field (Fig. 3). This handbook details how to use the Estimate App for the assessment of the yam anthracnose disease."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"Start Screen: Provides instructions to set the App for YAD scoring."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Begin Assessment Screen: Provides instructions to select the standard area diagrams (reference images) of the select pathosystem Sampling Unit Screen: This screen enables the user to collect the required metadata associated with the assessment:"},{"index":7,"size":3,"text":"1 Date (pre-populated)"},{"index":8,"size":3,"text":"2 Time (pre-populated)"},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"3 Location of disease assessment (can be pre-populated via geospatial position, when the device is activated to collect location)"},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"4 Experimental treatments (if applicable) 5 Number of plots, subplots, and sampling units Information on the disease and pathogen is pre-populated following the specific standard area diagram selection on the previous screen."}]},{"head":"Estimate Disease","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Screen. This provides instructions and examples of disease severities for the selected pathosystems. The user compares the disease severity on a specific sampling unit to the standard area diagram (reference image) and selects the closest match. Once the assessments have been completed, the data can be saved as a CSV file within the device and shared using e-mail or other file-sharing applications."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"This manual provides step-by-step details to use Estimate app for YAD phenotyping.  Step-by-step details for using the Estimate app 1 Download the App from the Apple play store https:// itunes. apple.com/in/app/estimate-disease-severityassessment/ id1193605571?mt=8 or the Google play store for the android version (Note that the android version is not activated yet, but a link can be obtained from authors)."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":"The workflow for the operation of the App is shown in Figure 4. Choice of pathosystem and scale of measurement Sending / exporting a data file "}]},{"head":"Swipe left and click to delete unwanted file","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"3 Laboratory assessment Score at least 3 replicates of yam leaves directly or score pictures of detached leaf assay using the photographic standard area diagrams (SADs) (shown in Fig. 2). Figure 17 shows the typical leaves symptoms obtainable from a detached leaf assay with respective scores from the Estimate app.    5 Correction of wrong entry and missing data Select the entry to correct, choose the right SAD, then end process, (''Back'' may wipe off previous data, especially in the Android version). For missing plant, or when leaves are not up to 15, click severally on the ''missing'' button to indicate the number of leaves or plants missing from a particular plot based on the user's discretion."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"6 Data collation and data formatting Data is usually obtained in a comma separated value (CSV) format. Data are obtained as mid-point values of the ranges shown on the ''estimate disease'' interface of the App (Table1)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"The percentage data obtained can be transformed to values representing a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = no symptoms or 0%, 2 = 0.1-25%, 3 = 25.1-50%, 4 = 50.1-75%, and 5 = >75% (75.1-100%) (Table 2) or can be used directly as percentage values."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"7 Working with CSV data file generated by Estimate app and data analysis:"},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"1. Download CSV file generated by Estimate app and save it as a Microsoft Excel file. If the data obtained from the App have ''%'' suffix (see Figure 20A), convert data to remove \"%\" (as illustrated in Figure 20B) using the formula, =(LEFT(X1,5)) *100, where LEFT is an MS Excel function for specifying the number of characters in a cell, X1 represents the value in the cell to be converted (for example C2 in Figure 20), and 5 is the number of characters needed."},{"index":6,"size":40,"text":"2. Write out the formula (example in G1) in ''I1'' with the first X1 value and paste as formula for all the remaining cells for data conversion. All the data will be converted to plain text (without %) (Figure 20)."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Skip this conversion step for data without % symbol. 3. Analyze data as per the pre-established method of your choice."},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"4. In Section 8, methods used for the classification of yam accessions based on YAD severity scores as resistant or susceptible are described."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"(a) For field data, if the assessment was done as Top (T), Middle (M) and Bottom (B), estimate mean severities for each portion as well as whole plant mean by taking the mean of the T, M, B values."},{"index":10,"size":11,"text":"(b) For DLA, estimate means of the replicates of an accession"},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"As an option, the mean severity data can be converted into 1 to 5 rating scale, and the same can be used for categorizing accessions ( "}]},{"head":"Estimation of area under the disease progression curve (AUDPC):","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"It is recommended to estimate AUDPC scores for accessions classification."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Use mean severity scores of each observation to estimate AUDPC values as per the method described below:"},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Where X 1 is the disease severity at time 1(t 1 ), X 2 is the disease severity at time 2 (t 2 ) and (t 2 -t 1 ) = time interval between the two readings."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"To calculate AUDPC using MS Excel: i. Create an MS Excel template for data analysis. This is further explained using an example data set of DLA-based assessment of 10 yam accessions (see Figure 21). The data set includes percent YAD severity scores at observation 1 at day 3 (column B), observation 2 at day 9 (column C), and observation 3 at day 15 (column D) for 10 accessions (rows 2 to 11), a resistant check (R-check; row 12) and a susceptible check (S-check; row 13)."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"ii The maximum potential AUDPC (MPA) for the most susceptible check in the example data was 1200."},{"index":6,"size":30,"text":"ii. To estimate the rAUDPC of the test lines (rows 2 to 11) using the formula, For example, rAUDPC for Accn1 = 135/1200 = 0.1 as shown in Figure 21."}]},{"head":"Interpretation based on rAUDPC values","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"A low rAUDPC score is an indication that a genotype is resistant or the disease progressed slowly (less susceptible)."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"It is also possible to convert AUDPC or rAUDPC into mean severity comparable to a conventional 1 to 5 severity scoring scale, used for YAD (see Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"Estimate App for Yam Anthracnose Disease Phenotyping: User Guide 30 5. To estimate mean severity score (Sx) of an accession from AUDPC or rAUDPC, use the formula"},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"Where Sx is the mean severity scale, Sy is the maximum YAD severity score of the susceptible check (S-check, row-13 in Fig. 21) as determined by the Estimate (100% in the example given in Fig. 21)."}]},{"head":"Dx is the AUDPC or rAUDPC of the test accession","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Dy is the AUDPC or rAUDPC of the susceptible check"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"As an example, to convert AUDPC of Acc1, 100 × (135/1200) = 11.25 11.25 is within the classification range of 0.1 to 25 (see Table 2) and hence Acc1 can be classified as \"Resistant\" Sx values can be calculated using a spreadsheet program like MS Excel (Forbes et al., 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"6. Classify the resistance status of the accessions according to the criteria given in Table 2."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"7. In conclusion, validate screening for disease resistance by going through the entire process at least twice."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figures v 14 . Figures "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Healthy and infected Dioscorea alata plants in the field (a and b) and in the laboratory (DLA) (c and d). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . 6 Figure 3 . Figure 2. Standard area diagrams for YAD assessment in the laboratory. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . 2 Figure 6 . Figure 4. Workflow of the use of the Estimate app for YAD screening. "},{"text":"Figure 13 . Figure 13. Data list page indicating how to transfer a file. "},{"text":"Figure 17 . Figure 17. YAD symptoms of DLA of yam and their mid-point values based on the Estimate app. "},{"text":"4 Field assessmentUsers are advised to follow a standard pattern for scoring leaf sections on the plant. At IITA, 15 leaves per plant consisting of 5 leaves (with most common YAD symptoms) each from the top, middle and bottom portions of the plant. Figure18aand 18b show the typical leaves assessed for both staked and unstaked plants. Calculate the mean severity, to have an overall assessment of the plant using the SADs for the field. Figure19shows typical YAD severity scores obtainable by visual rating. "},{"text":"Figure 18 .Figure 19 . Figure 18. Pattern for scoring leaves of staked plants (a) and non-staked plants (b). "},{"text":"Figure 20 . Figure 20. Example data set to demonstrate conversion of values with % (A) into normal values (B) using the formula detailed in Section 7. (Acc1 to 10 are accession numbers of the test genotypes; R=Resistant Check and S=Susceptible Check. Data in columns C, D and E are raw values and values in I, J and K are converted values). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ..... 20. Example data set to demonstrate conversion of values with % (A) into normal values (B) using the formula detailed in Section 7 ..................................................................... 21. Example data set for estimating AUDPC and rAUDPC using MS Excel .............................................................................  "},{"text":" It is a valuable tool for technicians and researchers working on yam for an accurate and reliable rating of infection, and it also simplifies data collection, storage, and sharing. This user guide provides step-by-step details of the mode of operation of the App.Yam anthracnose disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is an economically important disease capable of lowering tuber yields and sometimes cause premature death of the plant. YAD symptoms include dark brown necrotic lesions with yellow margins (Fig1d). The necrotic areas coalesce to form blight in susceptible genotypes (Fig1). Breeding programs are ongoing to develop yam varieties with durable YAD resistance. Yam plants are evaluated for YAD response under field, screen house conditions, or laboratory using the Detached Leaf Assay (DLA)(Kolade et al., 2018). DLA method is fast (it takes 3 weeks to complete) and offers a high-throughput evaluation of breeding population or landraces under laboratory conditions.  "},{"text":"setting page. Figure 8b. Further details of sampling unit's setting page. Date Auto field. App extract this information from your mobile device   Filling in sample units Filling in sample units Time Auto field. App extract this TimeAuto field. App extract this  information from your mobile information from your mobile  device device Location Auto field. App extract GPS LocationAuto field. App extract GPS  information from your mobile information from your mobile  device (make sure to turn on device (make sure to turn on  \"location\". Otherwise, GPS \"location\". Otherwise, GPS  information do not appear information do not appear Treatment Indicate treatment information TreatmentIndicate treatment information  if applicable, otherwise leave it if applicable, otherwise leave it  blank blank Disease name Auto field Disease nameAuto field Pathogen Auto field PathogenAuto field name Select Yam Anthracnose Host name Auto field name Select Yam Anthracnose Host nameAuto field Variety name Specify Variety nameSpecify Other Specify any details important OtherSpecify any details important information for this assessment. Keep it informationfor this assessment. Keep it Supply short (8 words or less) Supplyshort (8 words or less) relevant  relevant information Number of (some details plots are auto populated) Specify (if applicable, otherwise leave it zero; you can type or slide the bar) information Number of (some details plots are auto populated)Specify (if applicable, otherwise leave it zero; you can type or slide the bar) Sub-plots Specify (if applicable, otherwise Sub-plotsSpecify (if applicable, otherwise  leave it zero; you can type or leave it zero; you can type or  slide the bar) slide the bar) Select Number of Logarithmic plants ordinal scale) (preferred Specify (indicate number of plants to be scored; you can type or slide the bar) Select Number of Logarithmic plants ordinal scale) (preferredSpecify (indicate number of plants to be scored; you can type or slide the bar) Number of Specify (indicate number of Number ofSpecify (indicate number of leaves leaves to be scored; you can leavesleaves to be scored; you can  type or slide the bar) type or slide the bar)  Click to go back to home screen Click to proceed to next step Click to go back to home screenClick to proceed to next step  "},{"text":"Date Auto field. App extract this information from your mobile device Click on appropriate icons to navigate back, indicate missing data, and end the data collection Time Auto field. App extract this TimeAuto field. App extract this  information from your mobile information from your mobile  device device Location Auto field. App extract GPS LocationAuto field. App extract GPS  information from your mobile information from your mobile  device (make sure to turn on device (make sure to turn on  \"location\". Otherwise, GPS \"location\". Otherwise, GPS  information do not appear information do not appear Treatment Indicate treatment information TreatmentIndicate treatment information  if applicable, otherwise leave it if applicable, otherwise leave it  blank blank Disease name Auto field Disease nameAuto field Pathogen name Host name Select an image based on closest symptom match to the leaf assessed for symptom severity Auto field Auto field Pathogen name Host name Select an image based on closest symptom match to the leaf assessed for symptom severityAuto field Auto field Variety name Other information Number of plots assessed Select an image based on closest symptom match to the leaf for symptom severity Specify Specify any details important for this assessment. Keep it short (8 words or less) Specify (if applicable, otherwise leave it zero; you can type or Variety name Other information Number of plots assessed Select an image based on closest symptom match to the leaf for symptom severitySpecify Specify any details important for this assessment. Keep it short (8 words or less) Specify (if applicable, otherwise leave it zero; you can type or  slide the bar) slide the bar) Sub-plots Specify (if applicable, otherwise Sub-plotsSpecify (if applicable, otherwise  leave it zero; you can type or leave it zero; you can type or  slide the bar) slide the bar) Number of Specify (indicate number of Number ofSpecify (indicate number of plants plants to be scored; you can plantsplants to be scored; you can  type or slide the bar) type or slide the bar) Number of  Number of leaves  leaves  "},{"text":"Table 1 . The midpoint values for the logarithmic ordinal scale.  Estimate value range (%) Midpoint values (%) Estimate value range (%)Midpoint values (%) 0 0 00 1-2 1.5 1-21.5 3-5 4.5 3-54.5 6-11 9 6-119 12-24 18 12-2418 25-49 37.5 25-4937.5 50-74 62.5 50-7462.5 75-87 81.5 75-8781.5 88-93 91.0 88-9391.0 94-96 96.5 94-9696.5 97-99 98.5 97-9998.5 100 100 100100  "},{"text":"Table 2 ).  Equivalent  Equivalent Estimate severity range (%) conventional rating scale Status Description Estimate severity range (%)conventional rating scaleStatus Description 0 1 Immune 01Immune 0.1 to 25 2 Resistant 0.1 to 252Resistant 25.1 to 50 3 Moderately Resistant 25.1 to 503Moderately Resistant 50.1 to 75 4 Susceptible 50.1 to 754Susceptible 75.1 to 100 5 Highly Susceptible 75.1 to 1005Highly Susceptible  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Rating scale of YAD severity.   "},{"text":" . Calculate the mean of the first two YAD severity scores as shown in Column F, and the time interval between the two observations as shown in Column G. Multiply the two values to obtain AUDPC1 as shown in Column H. Repeat the same process to estimate AUDPC2 values (Column K). Add AUDPC1 and AUDPC2 to get the total AUDPC score (Column L). The AUDPC scores can be used for the classification of genotypes. First, determine AUDPC as explained earlier for the susceptible check (row 13). Calculate the mean of the first two YAD severity scores of the susceptible statement as shown in Column F, and the time interval between the two observations as shown in Column G. Multiply the two values to obtain AUDPC1 as shown in Column H. Repeat the same process to estimate AUDPC2 values (Column K). Add AUDPC1 and AUDPC2 to get the total AUDPC score (Column L). i. Calculate Maximum Potential AUDPC (MPA) by multiplying i. Calculate Maximum Potential AUDPC (MPA) by multiplying the total number of days between the first (T1) and next the total number of days between the first (T1) and next reading (T2) up till the last reading by 100: reading (T2) up till the last reading by 100: Interpretation based on AUDPC values: Interpretation based on AUDPC values: A low AUDPC score is an indication that a genotype is A low AUDPC score is an indication that a genotype is resistant or the disease progressed slowly (less susceptible). resistant or the disease progressed slowly (less susceptible). In contrast, a high AUDPC score indicates rapid progression In contrast, a high AUDPC score indicates rapid progression of the disease and implies high susceptibility. Use known of the disease and implies high susceptibility. Use known resistant and susceptible checks to set thresholds for resistant and susceptible checks to set thresholds for selection. selection. 3. Estimation of rAUDPC 3. Estimation of rAUDPC Relative AUDCP (rAUDPC) is preferred, especially to compare Relative AUDCP (rAUDPC) is preferred, especially to compare data generated from multiple seasons or experiments data generated from multiple seasons or experiments performed at different time intervals. The rAUDPC involves performed at different time intervals. The rAUDPC involves the use of the \"Maximum Potential AUDPC (MPA),\" which is the use of the \"Maximum Potential AUDPC (MPA),\" which is the AUDPC of a genotype can have if it has a 100% severity the AUDPC of a genotype can have if it has a 100% severity score (see row 13); that is the worst-case scenario. score (see row 13); that is the worst-case scenario.  "}],"sieverID":"e429fd16-4786-4e01-a17a-a3065ca53440","abstract":""}